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Questions and Answers 
ON 
PHYSIOLOGY 
AND 
HYGIENE. 
BY 
B. A. HATHAWAY, 
Author of “ and Answers on U. S. History,” 
. / i / 1 
“ loo r QtfektlokS I Answers on Geography,” “ 1001 
on Grammar,” Etc. 
OHIO: 
Published by the Author. 
1887. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, 
By B. A. HATHAWAY, 
In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D C. PREFATORY NOTE 
This "work, like the others of this series, is designed for use 
in preparing for Examinations, reviewing Pupils in School, 
and to be used for Reference. It will be found that Anatomy, 
Physiology, and Hygiene are elaborately treated of in this 
volume, and it is believed that the great number and variety of 
the questions and the succinct answers will render this book 
very popular. The Author has consulted a score of standard 
writers on Physiology, whose names will be found appended to 
many of the answers. The laws of many States require in- 
struction to be given in the Public Schools on the Physiological 
effects of Alcoholic and Narcotic Drugs. This fact has in- 
duced the writer to make a separate division of this important 
subject, and to give as much space to its treatment as any other. 
February. 1887. B. A. H. CONTENTS. 
Page 
Preface, 3 
Introductory, 
The Osseous System, 8 
The Muscular System, . . . 16 
The Skin, 24 
The Digestive System, 33 
The Circulatory System, 45 
Respiration and the Voice, 54 
The Nervous System, 63 
The Special Senses, 72 
Physiological Effects of Alcohol and Narcotics. . 84 INTRODUCTORY. 
1. Name the three Kingdoms of Nattire. 
The Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms. 
2. What are Organic Bodies? 
Those having organs by which they grow; as, plants and 
animals. 
3. What are Inorganic Bodies? 
Those that are naturally destitute of life; such as air, water, 
minerals, soils, etc. 
4. What does the Mineral Kingdom include? 
All inorganic bodies. 
5. What does the Vegetable Kingdom include? 
All those organic bodies that have no power to feel. 
6 What does the Animal Kingdom include? 
It includes all the organic bodies that have the power to feel 
and of voluntary motion. 
7 Give another distinction between Organic and Inorganic 
Bodies 
Organic bodies grow, require food, reproduce after their 
kind, and are subject to death; Inorganic bodies only 
grow by addition to the outside. 
8. What are Organs? 
They are parts of an organized body. 
9. Name some of the organs of an Animal. 
The mouth, the heart, the eye, etc. 
to. Name some of the organs of a Plant. 
The roots, the leaves, etc. 
11. Define the term Function. 
The work of a particular organ is called its Function. 6 
INTRODUCTORY. 
12. How does the nourishment of animals and of plants differ? 
Animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbonic acid gas; 
Plants absorb carbonic acid gas and throw off oxj'gen. 
Animals depend upon the products of the Animal and 
Vegetable Kingdoms for food; Plants depend upon those 
of the Mineral Kingdom. 
13. What is placed at the head of the Animal Kingdom? 
Man; because “Man is the end toward which all the Ani- 
mal Kingdom has tended from the first appearance of the 
Palaeozoic fishes.”—Agassiz and Gould. 
14. Define Anatomy. 
It is the science that treats of the structure, form, number, 
and position of the different organs. 
15. Define Physiology. 
It is the science that treats of the functions or uses of the 
different organs. 
16. What is Human Anatomy, or Physiology? 
If the science the organs of man only, it is called 
Human Anatomy, or Human Physiology. 
17. What is Comparative Anatomy, or Physiology? 
If the science embraces a description of the lower animals, 
it is called Comparative Anatomy, or Comparative Physi- 
ology. 
18. What is Vegetable Anatomy, or Physiology? 
It is the science that treats of the different organs of plants. 
19. Define Hygiene. 
It is the science that treats of the Laws of Health. 
20. Of what are Organs composed? 
A variety of structures called tissues, which are also com- 
posed of cells. 
2i Define Histology. 
It is the science which treats of the minute structure of the 
tissues and cells of animals and plants. 
22. What is a Cell? 
It is a minute sac filled with a fluid called protoplasm, in 
which is located another sac called the nucleus, which 
also contains a sac—the nucleolus. 
23. What is a Tissue? 
It is the texture of which any part of the body is composed. 
Tissue is formed by the growth and reproduction of the 
cells. INTRODUCTORY. 
7 
24. What is the shape and size of the Cells f 
They vary both in shape and size; they are spheroidal, flat- 
tened, and sometimes elongated; they vary in size from 
one one-hundred-and-twentieth to the one six-thousandth 
of an inch in diameter. 
25. What is a Fiber? 
It is a thread-like portion, which, in part, forms the tissues. 
26. Name the parts of a Cell. 
Cell-wall, protoplasm, nucleus, and nucleolus. 
27. What is the color of the fluid of Cells? 
It is transparent, except in those of the blood. 
28. Name the various Tissues. 
Osseous tissue, Muscular, Connective, Cartilaginous, Adi- 
pose, and Nervous tissue. 
29 Define Chemistry. 
It is the science which treats of the ultimate elements of 
substances. 
30. What Chemical Elements are found in the Human Body? 
Hitchcock says: “Of the sixty-five chemical elements 01- 
simple bodies known to exist, only fifteen have been found 
as normal constituents of the human body.” They are I he 
following: 
1. Oxygen. 
2. Hydrogen. 
3. Carbon. 
4. Nitrogen. 
5. Sulphur. 
6. Phosphorus. 
7. Calcium. 
8. Magnesium. 
9. Sodium, 
to. Potassium. 
ir. Chlorine 
12. Fluorine 
13. Silicon. 
14. Iron. 
15. Manganese. 
31. What elements should our food contain? 
All the fifteen ingredients. 
32. Is there any one kind of food that contains all these? 
Milk and eggs only; hence the necessity of a variety of 
food. 
33. Name the solids of the body. 
The bones, teeth, muscles, ligaments, cartilages, nerves, 
hair, nails, skin, membranes, viscera, and vessels 
34. Define Hygrology. 
It is that part of the science of Anatomy which treats of 
the fluids of the body. 8 
THE OSSEOUS ST STEM. 
35. Name some of the fluids of the body. 
Blood, chyle, lymph, saliva, gastric juice, pancreatic juice, 
synovia, mucous, and serum. 
36. For what purposes are the fluids in the body? 
They contain the materials from which the body is formed, 
and also serve as a medium for carrying off the waste and 
decayed matter from the system. 
THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM 
1. What is a System ? 
It is several organs of similar structure taken together. 
2. Name the systems of organs in the Human Body. 
The Osseous System, the Muscular System, the Digestive 
System, the Circulatory System, the Respiratory System, 
and the Nervous System. 
3. What is Osteology t 
It is that part of Anatomy which treats of the bones. 
4. What constitutes the Skeleton? 
The bones of the body united by the ligaments. 
5. What is a Natural Skeleton? 
It is when the bones are connected by the natural ligaments 
6. What is an Artificial Skeleton? 
It is when the bones are connected by wires or other foreign 
substance. 
7. What is the weight of a Human Skeleton? 
About one-tenth of the weight of the body. 
8. State the number of bones in the Human Skeleton. 
They number 208, besides the teeth. 
9. Describe the fotir uses of the Skeleton. 
1. It gives shape to the body. 2. It supports the body. 3. 
It enables us to move and extend the limbs. 4. It protects 
the delicate organs. THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM 
9 
10. Give the composition of bones. 
They are composed of both animal and mineral matter 
The animal matter consists of cartilage and blood vessels, 
and the mineral matter consists of phosphate of lime and 
carbonate of lime. 
11. How does the amount of animal matter vary at different 
ages? 
The animal matter is much in excess in youth, while in old 
age the amount of mineral matter is the greatest. 
12. Name the Microscopic Elements of bones. 
Haversian Canals, Lacunae or Bone Corpuscles, Canaliculi 
or Bone Pores, and Ultimate Granules. 
13 What are the Haversian Canals? 
They are minute tubes or canals traversing the bones in all 
directions, carrying the nutritive and watery portions of 
the blood 
14 Define Periosteum. 
It is the tough membraneous covering of all the bones ex- 
cepting the teeth and articular extremities. 
15. What are the uses of the Periosteum? 
It furnishes nutriment for and protects the bone; it also 
serves as places of attachment for the ligaments and 
tendons 
16 What diseases find their seat in the Periosteum? 
Felon and Fever Sore. 
17. What is the distinction betzveen the Periosteum and Endos- 
teum? 
The former refers to the exterior covering of the bones, 
while there seems to be a continuation of this membrane 
into the cavities and openings of the bones, which is 
termed Etidostemn. 
18 ]I hat classes of bones are there as to shape and solidity? 
Long, short, round, flat, irregular, solid, and hollow. 
19. What is Marrow? 
Hollow bones are filled with a yellowish fat called Medulla 
or Marrozv. 
20. Why are some bones hollow? 
By being round and hollow, bones are lighter and at the 
same time strong. 10 
THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 
2 i. Why is a burned bone zvhite and porous f 
Because the animal matter is extracted. 
22. What is “Bone Black?” 
If the animal matter be only charred, the bone will be black 
and brittle. From this “bone black” is manufactured. 
23 Define Cartilage. 
It is a firm yet soft and elastic substance that lacks only the 
mineral ingredients to become bone. 
24. Why are not the bones of children as easily broken as those 
of aged persons? 
Because the bones of children are cartilaginous, and their 
elasticity will break the shock of a fall, which, in old age, 
would fracture the bone. 
25. Hozv may a bone be tied into a knot? 
By putting a bone into muriatic acid the mineral matter 
will be removed, and the remaining cartilage will be so 
flexible that it can be tied into a knot. 
26 What is Ossification? 
The bone in earty youth is entire cartilage, which gradually 
ossifies, or turns to bone. 
27 What is the only bone -which is completely ossified at birth? 
It is th& petrous bone, which contains the organs of hearing. 
28. What is the connection between any two bones called? 
A joint or articulation. 
29. What are the Rickets? 
The disease affects children, and is characterized by a 
weakness of the bones, bulky head, crooked spine and 
limbs, depressed ribs, etc. The cause appears to be a 
lack of mineral matter in the bones. 
30. What are the Fontanelles? 
They are spaces occupied by cartilage, and situated at the 
union of the bones of the cranium of a new-born child 
31. Into what groups may the bones of the body be divided? 
Bones of the Head, the Trunk, and the Extremities. 
32. Hozv are the bones of the head divided? 
Into those of the Skull, the Face, and the Ear. 
33. Name the bones of the Skull. 
There are eight: One Frontal (the forehead), two Tempo- 
ral (the part known as the temples), two Parietal (the top THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 
11 
part of the head), one Occipital (the posterior part of the 
skull), one Sphenoid, and one Ethmoid. 
34. Name the bones of the Face. 
There are fourteen: Two Nasal (forming the bridge of the 
nose), two Molar (cheek-bones), two Palate, two Lach- 
rymal, two Turbinated (in the nostrils), two Superior 
Maxillary (upper jaw), one Inferior Maxillary (lower 
jaw), and one Vomer (that which separates the nostrils 
from each other). 
35. Name the bones of the Ear. 
In each ear are three small bones, which aid in hearing: 
The Malleus (Mallet), the Incus (Anvil), and the Stapes 
(Stirrup). These are so named because they resemble 
those instruments. 
36. What is that portion of the face called commonly known as 
the Ear? 
It is called the Pinna. 
37 Where is the Petrous bone? 
It is that portion of the Temporal bone in which the internal 
organs of hearing are located. 
38. Describe the construction of the Skull-bones. 
They are composed of two plates with a spongy bone- 
substance between. The external plate is fibrous and 
tough; the internal plate is dense and hard. 
39. What is a Suture? 
The bones of the skull are joined by notched edges, called 
sutures. 
40. What is the object of the Skull? 
To form a covering for the protection of the brain and the 
four organs of sense: Sight, Smell, Taste, and Hearing. 
41. Which one of the bones of the Head is movable? 
The Inferior Maxillary, or Lower Jaw. 
42. What are the bones of the Trunk? 
There are fifty-four: Twenty-four ribs, twenty-four bones 
in the Spinal Column, four in the Pelvis, the Sternum 
(breast-bone), and the Os Hyoides (at the base of the 
tongue). 
43. What cavities does the Trunk contain? 
The Thorax (chest), and the Abdomen (belly). 12 
THE OSSEOUS STSTEM. 
44- Hoxv ai c llie Ribs classified? 
As True ribs and False ribs. Of the first class, there are 
seven on each side, connected with the sternum or breast- 
bone by means of cartilage; of the second class, there 
are five on each side, three of which are connected with 
each other in front by cartilage, and the remaining two 
are not united in front at all, and are therefore called 
Floating ribs. 
45. Of ivhat is the Spinal Column composed? 
Of twenty-four bones called Vertebrce. They are so ar- 
ranged that a tube or canal is formed through the whole 
column for the Medulla Spinalis (.spinal cord). 
46. Into •what classes are the Vertebrce divided? 
Three classes: Cervical (the seven vertebrae of the neck), 
Dorsal (the twelve of the back), and Lumbar Vertebrae 
(the five vertebrae of the loins). 
47. Describe the Sternum. 
It forms the front of the Thorax or chest. In infancy the 
sternum consists of several pieces, but in later years it 
becomes one bone. 
48. How is the Thorax formed? 
By the sternum in front, the ribs at the sides, and the dorsal 
vertebrae at the back. 
49. What organs does the Thorax contain? 
The heart, the lungs, and the large blood-vessels. 
50. What organs does the Abdomen contain? 
The stomach, liver, kidneys, and the intestines. 
51. What is the Atlas? 
It is the first vertebra of the neck, articulating with the 
occipital bone. 
52. Hoxv many and what are the bones of the Pelvis? 
There are four: Sacrum, Coccyx, and two Innominata 
(nameless bones). 
S3 What is the Sacrum? 
It is a large bone, having the appearance of five vertebrae 
grown together, upon which the lowest Lumbar vertebra 
rests. It is so called because the Ancients offered it in 
sacrifice. 
54. Describe the Coccyx. 
It is the bone just below the Sacrum. In middle life it is 
composed of four pieces or vertebrae, which unite in one THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 
bone in after life. The Sacrum and Coccyx (so called 
because of its resemblance to the cuckoo’s bill) are con- 
tinuations of the Spinal Column, and are sometimes 
called “ false vertebrae.” 
55. Describe the Innominata. 
The two Innominata (nameless bones) are the hip-bones. 
In each one of them is a deep socket for the head of the 
thigh-bone. 
56. What two sets of limbs branch fro7n the Trunk? 
The upper limbs or Upper Extremities, and the lower 
limbs or Eorver Extremities. 
57. State the number and give the names of the bones of the 
Upper Extremities. 
There are sixty-four bones: The Scapula, Clavicle, Hu- 
merus, Radius, Ulna, Carpus, Metacarpus, and Pha- 
langes. 
58. Name the bones of the Shoulder. 
The Scapula (shoulder-blade), and the Clavicle (collar- 
bone). 
59. Describe the Scaptila. 
It is a thin, flat, triangular bone placed on the back part. 
60. Describe the Clavicle. 
It iff a long, slender bone attached at one end to the 
Sternum, and at the other to the Scapula 
61. What are the bones of the Arm and Forearm? 
The Humerus of the arm, and the Radius and Ulna of the 
forearm. 
62. Describe the Ulna. 
It is the small bone of the forearm, and occupies the inner 
side. It articulates with the Humerus at the elbow 
63. Describe the Carpus. 
The Carpus, or “wrist bones,” consists of two rows of ir- 
regular bones; one row articulating with the forearm, and 
the other with the hand. There are eight bones. 
64. Describe the Metacarpus? 
Meta means beyond, therefore Metacarpus signifies the 
bones beyond the Carpus. They are five in number, and 
form the palm of the hand. They articulate at one end 
with the wrist-bones, and at the other with the thumb 
and finger-bones. THE OSSEOUS ST ST EM. 
65. What are the Phalanges? 
The Phalanges, or “finger-bones,” are fourteen in number, 
each finger having three bones, and the thumb two. They 
are named in order: The Thumb, the Index, the Middle, 
the Ring, and the Little finger. 
66. Name the bones of the Lozver Extremities. 
There are sixty bones: The Femur, the Patella, the Tibia, 
the Fibula, the Tarsus, the Metatarsus, and the Phalanges. 
67. Describe the Femur. 
The Femur, or “thigh-bone,” is the largest and strongest 
bone in the skeleton. It articulates at one end with the 
hip-bone, and at the other with the Tibia at the knee. 
68. Describe the Patella. 
The Patella, or “knee-pan,” is a small chestnut-shaped 
bone firmly placed over the joint. 
69. Describe the Tibia 
The Tibia, or “ shin-bone,” is situated at the front part of the 
leg, and articulates both with the Femur and the foot. It 
is triangular in shape. 
70. Describe the Fibula 
It is smaller than the Tibia, though similar in shape, and is 
situated on the under side of the leg. It is bound to the 
Tibia at both ends. 
71. Describe the Tarsus. 
The Tarsus consists of seven irregular bones, and is that 
part of the foot to which the leg is articulated. The 
Tarsus of the foot corresponds to the Carpus of the hand. 
72. What is the Os Calcis? 
It is the name of the heel-bone, the largest bone of the 
Tarsus. 
73. What is said of the Metatarsus? 
These are five in number, and they correspond to the Meta- 
carpus of the hand. 
74. What is said of the Phalanges? 
The Phalanges of the toes are also like those of the hand. 
These are fourteen in number. 
75. What is the longest bone in the bodyt 
The Femur 
76. What is a Joint ? 
It is the union of two or more bon»*. THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 
77- What three groups of Joints were proposed by Galen, and 
is still generally adopted ? 
(ij Immovable (Synarthrosis); 
(2) Mixed (Amphiarthrosis); 
(3) Movable (Diarthrosis). 
78. Give examples of Immovable Joints. 
The articulations or unions of the plates of the skull by 
sutures or ragged edges; between the two upper max- 
illaries; between the vomer and sphenoid, and between 
the teeth and the jaws. 
79 What are Mixed Joints? 
Those in which the surfaces of the bones are united by an 
intermediate soft substance; as, two vertebrae. 
80 Describe Movable Joints. 
They are those which are freely movable, and for that pur- 
pose are provided with cartilage, synovial membranes, 
and connecting ligaments. 
81. What three kinds of Movable Joints? 
Planiform, Hinge, and Ball and Socket. 
82. What kind of motion in Planiform Joints? 
The movement is more or less gliding, as in the collar-bone. 
83. What kind of motion in the Hinge Joint? 
Backward and forward only, as at the knee, elbow, and 
wrist. 
84. What kind of motion in the Ball and Socket or Rotary 
Joint? 
A free movement in all directions, as found in the hip and 
shoulder joints. 
85 Define Synovia. 
The fluid secreted into the cavities of joints for the purpose 
of lubrication. 
86. What is the Synovium Membrane? 
A thin membrane covering the ends of the bones, and 
secreting the lubricating fluid. 
87. What is a Sprain 1 
A straining, twisting, or tearing of the ligaments of a joint. 
88 What is a dislocation of a Bone? 
A rupture of the tissues of a joint so that the head of the 
bone is driven out of its socket into some other place. 16 
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
89. What is a Simple Fracture? 
A fracture by which the bone only is divided. 
90. What is a Compound Fracture? 
A breaking of the bone with a wound of the integuments— 
the bone generally protruding. 
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 
1. Define Muscle. 
Animal tissue, generally known as flesh or lean meat. 
2. Whnt is the structure of Musclest 
They consist of parallel or nearly parallel fleshy bundles, 
enclosed in coverings of cellular tissue capable of being 
indefinitely divided. 
3. Give the Microscopic Structure of Muscles. 
The bundles are called Fasciculi, and are made up of still 
smaller fibers, called Ultimate Fibers, and these are made 
up of still smaller fibers, called Fibrils. 
4. Describe the Ultimate Fibers 
They seem to be polygonal in form, and have an average 
diameter of about one four-hundredth of an inch. 
5. Describe the Fibrils. 
They are only about one ten-thousandth of an inch in 
diameter, and are composed of rows of small cells ar- 
ranged like a string of beads. 
6. What is found in the cells of the Fibrils? 
A fluid or semi-fluid mass of living matter called proto- 
plasmic matter. 
7. Hotv many Fibrils in an Ultimate Fiber? 
About 650 on the average. 
8. What is the characteristic property of Muscles? 
Contractibility. 
9. What is the la-w of their contraction? 
That they shall contract towards the center. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
17 
10. Give the different forms of Muscles. 
(i) Spindle-shaped, (2) radiate, (3) penniform, (4) bi-pen 
niform, and (5) sphincter or orbicular. 
11. What is the Sp indie - shaped Muscle? 
One terminating at each extremity in a tendon, and is 
smaller at the ends than in the middle. 
12. What is a Radiate Muscle? 
One with the fibers arranged like the rays of a fan 
13. What is a Penniform Muscle? 
One with the fibers disposed on one side of a tendon. 
14. What is a Bi-pen7iiform Muscle? 
One with the fibers disposed on both sides of a tendon like 
a feather. 
15. What is a Sphincter Musclel 
One running in a circular or orbicular direction. 
16. What is the Origin of a Muscle? 
Its fixed point or commencement. 
17. What is the Insertion of a Muscle? 
Its attachment to the part which it moves. 
18. Hovj many Muscles in man? 
More than 500, being more than double the number of bones. 
19. Ho tv are they usually arranged? 
In pairs; that is, both sides of the body have similar muscles 
20. Hotv many single or unmated Muscles? 
Some authors say twelve, others thirteen. 
21. What purpose is served by arranging the muscles in pairs? 
Motion in opposite directions. When one muscle contracts 
its antagonist relaxes. 
22. What are Extensors? 
Muscles passing over the back of a joint. 
23 What are Flexors? 
Muscles lying in front of a joint. 
24. Define Perimysium. 
The membranous covering investing each muscle 
25. Define Myolemma. 
The thin, transparent sheath enclosing each fiber of a muscle. 18 
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
26. What two classes of Muscles? 
Striated and Non-striated. The former are also called 
Voluntary, and the latter Involuntary. 
27. What is a Voluntary Muscle? 
One that in its normal action is controlled by the will, as 
the flexors and extensors of the arm. 
28. What is an Involuntary Muscle? 
One acting independently of the will, as the heart. 
29. Name a muscle both Voluntary and Involuntary. 
The eye-lid. 
30 Define Vis Musculosa. 
It is muscular power, or the contractibility of the muscle. 
31. Name four kinds of Stimulus exciting muscles to action. 
(1) Mechanical, as the touch of a sharp instrument. (2) 
Chemical, as acids and alldlies. (3) Electrical, as in 
shocks. (4) Vital, originating in or acting through the 
nervous system. 
32 What is a Tendon? 
A hard and strong cord by which a muscle is attached to a 
bone. 
33 Name some of the characteristics of Tendons. 
They are strong, compact, insensible, flexible, but inelastic . 
34. What purpose do Tendons serve? 
They convey the contractile power of muscles to the bones 
and are found where great strength in a small compass is 
desired. 
35. Ho tv are the Muscular Fibers attached to the Tendons? 
To the sides of the tendon, so that more of them can act 
upon the bone. 
36. Why is a Tendon better suited to pass over a joint than a 
muscle? 
It is small, and is more easily lodged in some groove, and is 
not sensitive to pain. 
37. How far do the Tendons of the muscles of the arm reach 
towards the hand? 
Only to the wrist, whence finer cords pass to the fingers 
38. When is a horse hamstrung? 
When the tendon of the heel is cut. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
39' What is the tendon of the heel called? 
The Tendon of Achilles. 
40. What is the origin of this name? 
The fable runs that the mother of Achilles, while he was an 
infant, held him by the heel when she dipped him into the 
River Styx to render him invulnerable. His heel, not 
being wet, was his only vulnerable point. 
41; Why are the bones enlarged at the joints? 
To afford greater surface for the attachment of the muscles. 
42 What is the Muscular Sense? 
The power we possess of judging of the weight of anything 
bv lifting it or balancing it in the hand. 
43. When is the Muscular Sense called into action unconsciously ? 
In walking, standing, skating, dancing, etc., we regulate by 
it without conscious volition the force employed. 
44. Ho tv are the Voluntary Muscles controlled and guided? 
They are subject to the control of the Will and the guidance 
of the Muscular Sense. The Will determines an act; the 
Muscular Sense the effort necessary to its performance. 
45. Hoiv do the Involuntary Muscles act? 
Wholly independent of the will, although some of them 
may be temporarily controlled when occasion requires it. 
46. Give an example of the vohmtary control of an operation 
usually entrusted to involuntary muscles. 
Respiration may be temporarily controlled. 
47. Is it possible to suspend the action of the heart? 
In rare cases it has been done for a short time at will. 
48. What peculiarity is there in the structure of the heart? 
Involuntary muscles are non-striated, yet the heart is com- 
posed of striated muscle. 
49. What can you say of the 'iveight of muscles in man? 
They weigh more than all the rest of the body. 
50. What is found in the muscles in greatest abundance? 
Water; in four pounds of lean meat or flesh, three pounds 
are water. 
51. What is the general shape of the muscles on the head? 
Broad and flat. 
52. Give the shape of the muscles of the extremities. 
Usually long and tapering. 20 
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
53- Give examples of hollow muscles. 
The heart and stomach. 
54. What muscle becomes hard and strong in the blacksmith's 
arm? 
The biceps. 
55. What is the Biceps of the arm? 
The muscle which flexes or bends the arm towards the 
body. 
56. Why is it so called? 
Because it has two heads or origins. 
57. Where are its origins attached? 
At the shoulder joint. 
58. To zvhat is the lozver tendon of the Biceps attached? 
To the humerus. 
59. What is the antagonist of the Biceps called? 
Triceps (three heads). 
60. What is the purpose of the Triceps? 
It extends the forearm. 
61. Describe the action of the Pronator. 
It turns the forearm inward 
62. What muscle turns the forearm outzvard? 
The Supinator. 
63. What muscle is employed in bending the zvrist forward? 
The Flexor Carpi Radialis. 
64. What one in betiding the zvrist tozvards the ulna? 
The Flexor Carpi Ulnaris. 
65. What muscles are employed in extending the hand? 
Extensor Carpi Radialis and Extensor Carpi Ulnaris. 
66. What muscles open and close the fingers? 
Flexor Digitorum and Extensor Digitorum 
67. Is the Biceps Muscle in the leg a Flexor or Extensor? 
Flexor. 
68. Name tzvo Flexor Muscles of the leg. 
Biceps and Gracilis. 
69. Name tzvo Extensor Muscles of the leg. 
Rectus and Vastus. THE MUSCULAR ST STEM 
21 
70. What can you say of the number of muscles in the foots' 
They are few in number compared with those in the hand. 
They bend or extend the toes. 
71. What short muscle in the sole of the foot has a long name? 
The massa carnea Jacobi Sylvii (the fleshy mass of James 
Sylvius), named from the anatomist who first pointed out 
its office. 
72. What is the purpose of this muscles1 
It sends out four tendons to join other tendons coming from 
the calf of the leg to assist in bending tbe toes. 
73. What is the name of the large muscle known in animals as 
the Tender Loin? 
Psoas Magnus, or. the great loin muscle 
74. What is the office of this muscle? 
To draw the thigh forward. 
75. What is the antagonist of the Psoas Magnus? 
The Gluteus. 
76. What is the office of the Gluteus? 
To move the thigh backward. 
77. What is characteristic of the Fibers of the Gluteus? 
They are the coarsest in the whole body, showing that they 
are designed for strength and not celerity of motion. 
78. Name four muscles in the neck. 
Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid, Digastricus, Scaleni, and Con- 
strictor. 
79. What is the office of the Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid ? 
Draws the head forward. 
80. What is the office of the Digastricus? 
Draws the jaw down. 
81 What is the office of the Scaleni ? 
Bends the neck from side to side. 
82. What is the office of the Constrictor? 
Moves the pharynx in swalloAving. 
83. What muscles elevate the ribs? 
Intercostal and Serratus Magnus. THE MUSCULAR STSTEM. 
84. What muscle raises the arm? 
The Deltoid. 
85. What muscle lowers the arm ? 
The Teres Major. 
86. What muscle draws the arm forward f 
The Pectoral muscle. 
87 What is the office of the Diaphragm? 
Separates the chest from the abdomen, and enlarges the 
chest in breathing. 
88 What muscles form the walls of the Abdomen? 
The Oblique muscles. 
89. What is the office of the Erector Spince? 
To hold the spinal column erect. 
90. What are the causes of the great flexibility of the Spinal 
Column in snakes? 
First, there are a great number of vertebras so as to divide 
up the motion, the rattlesnake having over 200 and the 
boa constrictor 304 vertebrae. Secondly, there is a ball 
and-socket joint between all the vertebrae. 
91. What muscle opens and what closes the eyes? 
Levator Palpebrae opens, and Orbicularis Oculi closes them. 
92 What muscles move the eyeball? 
Recti (four in number). 
93. Define Annular Ligaments. 
Bundles of ligaments passing around the wrist and ankle, 
like bracelets, to keep the tendons in place. 
94. Describe the process of contraction in a muscle. 
The fibers all shorten themselves, and the muscle swells 
out or becomes thicker, as does a piece of india-rubber 
95. What two kinds of contraction in muscles? 
(1) From their own elasticity; (2) from stimulation through 
the nerves. 
96 Give an illustration of the first kind of co7itraction. 
When a muscle is cut in two by accident, the two cut ends 
separate because they are drawn apart by the contraction 
of the fibers. THE MUSCULAR STSTEM. 
23 
97 What is the cause of Squinting? 
Permanent contraction of a muscle on one side of the eye, 
causing it to pull more strongly than the one on the oppo- 
site side. 
98. What kind of muscle is employed -when the horse shakes its 
skin to remove dust or flies? 
Tegumentary muscle, which is a thin layer of fibers lying 
just beneath the skin. It is only rudimentary in man. 
99. What is St. Vitus's Dance? 
A disease of the voluntary muscles, in which they are in 
spasmodic or irregular motions which can not be con- 
trolled by the will. 
100. What are Convulsions? 
Involuntary contractions of the muscles. 
101. What is Locked-faro? 
It is a disease characterized by spasms and contractions of 
the voluntary muscles, and usually begins with the stiff- 
ening of the lower jaw—hence the name. 
102. What parts are mainly affected in Rheumatism? 
The connective, white, fibrous tissues of the larger joints. 
103. What is Lumbago? 
A rheumatic pain in the muscles of the small of the back. 
104 What is the effect of exercise upon a muscle? 
It receives more blood, and becomes larger, harder, and 
darker colored. 
105. Where is the “ -white meat" in a fowl found? 
In that part where the muscles are least used in flying 
or running. 
106. Is it correct to say that exercise zvill lead to the proper de- 
velopment and health of the muscles? 
No; exercise and rest are both necessary. Violent and 
long-continued exercise is more hurtful than inaction. 
107. State some of the Rules for Exercise. 
The muscles need use; their use should be followed by rest; 
feats of strength and endurance are harmful; exercise 
should be regular, and is better in the open air; heavy 
gymnastics should be avoided by students and persons of 
sedentary habits. Isocrates said: “ Exercise for health, 
not for strength.” 24 
THE SKIN. 
THE SKIN 
1. Of what is the Skin composed? 
Of two layers, the epidermis or cuticle, and the derma or 
cutis. 
2. Describe the Cuticle. 
It is the outer skin, and is only the covering of the true skin. 
It neither bleeds when cut, nor is sensible to pain, heat, or 
cold 
3. Give the different names for the Outer Skin. 
Cuticle (cuticula, little skin); Epidermis {epi, upon, and 
derma, skin); Scarf-skin. 
4. Describe the Derma. 
It is the lower layer, and is the true skin It is composed of 
fibrous tissue, and is abundantly supplied with blood ves- 
sels, nerves, and lymphatics. 
5. Give the different names for the Inner Skin. 
Cutis, Cutis Vera (true skin), and Derma. 
6. Where is the Cuticle thickest? 
On the soles, palms, and other places needing a strong pro- 
tection. 
7. Give illustrations of the insensibility to pain of the Cuticle. 
In shaving the skin may be cut without blood or pain unless 
the razor goes below the cuticle. Pins may be run through 
the thick mass of skin near the thumb-nail without pain. 
Strong brine will not cause smarting unless there is a 
scratch in the skin. 
8. What is Scurf or Dandruff ? 
The cuticle is composed of small scales, which are thrown 
off as scurf, dandruff, etc. 
9. What purpose does the Cuticle serve? 
It serves as a protection to the parts it envelops, being thick 
where pressure and hard usage have to be provided for. THE SKIN. 
25 
10. Where is the Cuticle thinnest? 
Where there is a necessity for rapid motion, as in the eye- 
lids. 
xi The difference of hue between the blonde and the brunette, 
the American and African, is due to -what? 
The difference in the pigment or coloring-matter in the 
freshly-made cells on the lower side of the cuticle. 
12. Why are scars often zvhite? 
Because the pigment cells ai'e not restored. 
13. Hozv large are the grains of the Pigment? 
They are very small; only about two-thousandth part of an 
inch in diameter. 
14. Hozv large are the scales of which the Cuticle is composed? 
“ In one square inch of the cuticle, counting only those in a 
single layer, there are over a billion horny scales, each 
complete in itself.” 
15. What are Freckles? 
The pigmentary matter of the cuticle gathered into spots 
16. What is the effect of sunlight 011 the coloring-matter in the 
skin? 
Sunlight and a high temperature combined seem to increase 
the pigmentary matter, and to darken the skin. 
17. How is the Cuticle changed in man and in the snake? 
The snake throws off the cuticle entire at regular intervals; 
in man the change is constantly going on by the shedding 
of little scales from the surface. 
18 What change takes place in the shape of the Epidermoid 
Scales? 
When first formed they are spherical cells; as they pass to 
the outer surface they become flattened. 
19 Hozv is the Derma, or True Skin, sometimes divided? 
Tnto two layers, called the Papillary or basement layer, 
and the Corium. The latter is the lower one. 
20. Name the three Membranes of the Skin. 
Epidermis, Basement membrane, and Corium. 
21. What are the Papillce? 
They are protuberances which roughen the skin, and are 
supplied with one or more loops of nerves. 26 
THE SKIN. 
22. Where are the Papillce most abundantf 
Upon the palms and soles. 
23. What is the Corium? 
It is the innermost layer, and possesses vitality and sensi- 
bility, and contains all the vessels of the skin. 
24. What is a Gland? 
It is a secreting organ made up of small bodies of minute 
proportions, each of which contains an artery, a vein, 
and a duct. 
25. What do Glands secrete? 
They secrete in their cells some liquid from the blood. 
26 What is the Physiological name of the Sweat Glands? 
Sudoriparous Glands. 
27. What are the Pores of the Skin? 
The outlets of the ducts or tubes of the sweat glands. 
28. What is the size of the Sweat Glands and their Ducts? 
The glands are about one-seventieth of an inch in diameter; 
their tubes or ducts about one four-hundredth of an inch 
in diameter, and when straightened out about one-tenth 
of an inch in length. 
29 What can you say as to the number of Sweat Glands? 
By actual count there are at least 2,800 in every square inch 
of the skin, which would make 7,000,000 in the whole 
body. The combined length of these tubes would amount 
to about ten miles. 
30 Define Perspiration. 
A transparent liquid poured out by the sudoriparous glands, 
and is of an acid reaction and salty taste. 
31 What proportion of the Perspiration is solid matter? 
About one per cent. 
32. What two kinds of Perspiration? 
Sensible and Insensible. 
33. What is the average amount of Perspiration in an adult? 
About two pounds per day. 
34. What would be the effect of stopping all Perspiration? 
Death in a short time. 
35. What are the Sebaceous Glands? 
Oil glands or little sacs which secrete an oil that flows THE SKIN. 
27 
through their ducts to the roots of the hair, and thence 
oozes out on the cuticle. 
36. IVhat is the office of the Oil Glands? 
To lubricate the hair, and keep the skin in a flexible condi- 
tion. 
37. What are the Ear Glands? 
Sebaceous or oil glands, but they secrete a waxy matter. 
38. Give illustrations of the poxver of Absorbtion in the skin. 
Contagious diseases are contracted by touching; painters’ 
colic is caused by the absorbing of lead through the skin; 
the lizard, after being deprived of water, will increase in 
weight if any part of its body is placed in water. 
39. In xvhat zvay do the Sweat Glands possess the advantages 
of Valves? 
They open in an oblique direction, and thus act as valvular 
openings, preventing the ingress of dust and injurious 
solid substances. 
40. Why do Physiologists usually treat of the Hair under the 
head of “The Skin?” 
Because the hair is properly an appendage of the skin, the 
roots of the hair not extending below the skin. In ani- 
mals covered with short hair it is evident that their hairy 
coat and skin should be treated together. 
4.1. In what system may the Skin, Hair, and some other sub- 
stances in man and the lower animals be placed ? 
The Tegumentary System, which includes the skin, hair, 
nails, claws, scales, and horns, as all these are modified 
forms of the cuticle. 
42. What can you say of the so-called Horn of the Rhinoceros? 
It is nothing but a thickening of the epidermis until it as- 
sumes the form of a hollow cone. 
43. What fur-coated animals have Epidermic Scales on their 
Tails? 
The beaver and some others. 
44. What are the Follicles of the Hair? 
Little sacs of flask shape in the scalp in which the hairs 
originate. 
4;. Of xvhat two parts does a hair consist? 
The outer or cortical, and the inner or medullary. 
46. Hoxv does the Hair groxv? 
By constant prolongation from the follicle, and not by addi- 
tion to the ends. 28 
THE SKIN. 
47- If « notch or permanent mark be made on a hair one inch 
from its outer end, will it remain the same distance from 
the end as the hair groivs in length? 
It will; and hair artificially colored will show its natural 
color as it grows, next to the scalp. 
48. How many hairs on a human head, with a thick growth of 
hair? 
About 100,000. Between 700 and 800 have been counted on 
a square inch. 
49. What is said of the strength and elasticity of the Hairt 
It is very strong and elastic. A single hair has supported a 
weight of two ounces, but this strength is exceptional. A 
hair may sometimes be stretched nearly one-third its 
length without breaking. 
50. When a hair is pulled out by the roots will it grow again? 
It may, unless its follicle or papilla is destroyed. If this is 
done it will never grow again. 
51. What is the cause of hair turning gray? 
It is entirely unknown, and no remedy for it has yet been 
discovered. 
52. What is to be said of hair dyes? 
They almost always depend for their action, on lead or lunar 
caustic, and are injurious to the scalp and the whole sys 
tern 
53 What is the cause of Hair standing on end ? 
There are tiny muscles found among the fibers of the scalp 
which contract through the influence of fear, cold, or 
electricity. 
54 What causes the unpleasant odor arising from burning 
Hair? 
The hair contains more sulphur than most other parts of 
the body, viz.: about ten per cent. Sulphur and nitrogen 
give rise to the unpleasant odor in burning. 
Are the tissues of the Hair easily destroyed? 
No; next to the bones and teeth, hair is the least destructible 
part of the body. 
56. What is said of the sudden whitening of the Hair? 
There are undoubted cases of the hair turning white in a 
single night from fright, grief, or nervous excitement. THE SKIN. 
29 
57- What useful purpose does the Hair serve? 
It is a protection from heat and cold, and shields the head 
from blows. 
58. What useful purposes do the Nails serve? 
They protect the ends of the fingers and toes, and enable us 
more easily to pick up and firmly grasp objects. 
59. What is the Matrix of the Nail? 
The groove or bed in which it is set. 
60. How do Nails grow? 
From their roots, just as hairs do. 
61. If a notch he made in the outer end of a Nail, will it grow 
over? 
No; the nail grows from the other end, and the notch will 
only be carried out further from the end of the finger. 
62. What is said of the rate of growth of Nails? 
“ The thumb nail is said to occupy about twenty weeks in 
growing from the root to the extremity; that of the great 
toe about two years—an estimate which is probably too 
long.”—J. W. Draper. 
63. How rapidly does the Hair grow? 
In one set of experiments the hair was found to grow one- 
half an inch per month It grows faster by day than by 
night, and in summer than in winter. 
64. To what is the color of the Hair due? 
It is thought by some to be owing to the iron it contains, 
and it is said that there is most of this metal in black 
hair. 
65. What is the Pigmentum Nigrum? 
It is the coloring matter of the eye, and means black paint 
66. Has the Cuticle any vitality? 
No; it is merely a layer of Albumen. 
67. What is the Mucous Membrane? 
A thin tissue or skin covering the open cavities of the body. 
68. What is Mucus? 
A fluid secreted by a membrane, and serving to lubricate it. 
69. What is the distinction between the Mucous and the Serous 
Membrane? 
The Serous Membrane lines the cavities of the body not 
open to the external air. 30 
THE SKIN. 
70. What is Serum? 
The thin part of the blood. 
71 What is the red covering of the lips? 
It does not seem to be either skin or mufcous membrane, but 
a texture intermediate between them. 
72. Where is the Mucous Membrane found? 
It begins in the mouth and nose, and lines all the passages 
to the lungs, the stomach, and other organs. 
73. Where is the Serous Membrane found? 
It lines the inside walls of the great cavities of the body, as 
of the chest and abdomen. It also lines the outside of the 
great internal organs of the body, such as the lungs and 
intestines. 
74. What is Connective Tissue? 
It is the tissue or fibers of which the lower layer of the skin 
(the cutis) and the corresponding layer of the mucous and 
serous membranes are composed. 
75. Why is it so called? 
Because it spreads from the cutis into the mucous mem- 
brane, and invests muscles, bones, and cartilages. Thus 
it connects all parts of the body. 
76. When butchers blow air into veal to make it appear plump, 
what tissue is distended? 
Connective tissue. 
■7. What branch of medicine treats of the Skin and its dis- 
eases? 
Dermatology. 
78. Name some common disorders of the Skin and its append- 
ages. 
Erysipelas, chilblain, wens, dropsy, corns, warts, and in- 
growing nails. 
79. What is Erysipelas? 
An inflammation of the skin, attended with fever and red- 
ness; sometimes called St. Anthony’s fire. 
80. How does it often begin? 
With a little red spot on the forehead, and spreads rapidly. 
81. What is its cause? 
The real cause is as yet unknown. THE SKIN 
31 
82. Is it contagiousi 
The disease appears most certainly to be transmissible by 
contagion, also through the air; there seem also to be 
cases where the disease starts without connection with 
any previous case.—Bulkley. 
83. What is Dropsy ? 
A morbid collection of water into any of the cavities, and 
follows many chronic diseases. 
84. Where are Corns sometimes found besides on the feet ? 
On the shoemaker’s knee and the soldier’s shoulder. 
85. What is a Corn f 
A thickening of the cuticle, caused by friction or pressure. 
86. How may Corns be removed ? 
Soaking with hot water or a poultice over night will soften 
the part, and admit of its being dug or picked out with 
little pain. First, however, secure a properly fitting shoe. 
87 What is a Wart ? 
An overgrown papillae, with more or less epidermal accu- 
mulation. 
88 What capricious characteristics have Warts? 
They often appear suddenly and disappear spontaneously; 
but they are never charmed away. 
89. What is a Wen? 
An indolent tumor without inflammation; sometimes a hard 
excrescence of the skin. 
90. What is the effect of bathing? 
It removes effete matter, and opens the pores of the skin; it 
stimulates the skin, and quickens its healthy action. 
91. What is meant by the reaction after bathing? 
After the surface is slightly chilled by a cold bath the blood 
is excited to more vigorous action upon the skin, and red- 
dens, warms, and stimulates it, causing a pleasant glow of 
warmth 
92. Give the temperature of three kinds of baths? 
In the tepid bath the water ranges from 85 to 92 degrees; in 
the warm bath from 92 to 98; in the hot bath from 98 to 
xi2. THE SKIN. 
93- Is a shower bath of cold water to be recommended? 
It may be beneficial to the strong and healthy, but is too 
severe a shock for the delicate. 
94. What is the effect of friction on the shin? 
Frequent and thorough dry friction applied to the skin 
greatly promotes its health. A daily rubbing of the body 
is recommended. 
95. How is the temperature of the body kept down when the 
atmosphere is warmer than blood heat? 
Chiefly by the evaporation from the skin, carrying oft' large 
quantities of heat. 
96. Why do savages in cold climates cover their bodies with 
oil? 
The oil, by diminishing the evaporation, assists in keeping 
them warm. 
97. Why should clothing worn next to the skin be frequently 
changed? 
To allow it to dry, so as to absorb the perspiration, and to 
keep it from being filled with the effete matter from the 
body. Clean underclothing, by its friction against the 
skin, gives it a stimulus and healthy action. 
98. When the skin is accidentally burned, so as to raise the cuticle 
in a blister, what is the great secret of preventing pain? 
To relieve the burning pain, it is necessary to exclude the 
burned part from the air by some simple dressing, such as 
a sticking plaster. Keep the injury clean and quiet, to 
enable the skin to renew itself. 
99. What is the effect of sunlight on the skin? 
The strong light of the sun in the fresh air gives a strength, 
vigor, and healthy color to the skin that can be acquired 
in no other way. Sleeping rooms should receive the direct 
light of the sun during a portion of the day. 
100. What is a Cold? 
It is usually a congestion and inflammation of some internal 
membrane. The cause affects the skin so that the blood 
current through it is chilled, and the blood is sent in 
undue quantities to the delicate surfaces within. THE DIGESTIVE ST STEM. 
33 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
1. Name the Digestive Organs. 
The mouth, teeth, salivary glands, palate, pharjmx, oesopha- 
gus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, and spleen. 
2. Describe the Palate. 
The palate is the roof of the mouth, and consists of two 
parts, the soft palate in the back part of the mouth, and 
the hard palate, which lies between the upper teeth. 
3. What is the lozver part of the Mouth called ? 
The floor of the mouth, and is included within the lower 
teeth. 
4. What digestive organs does the Mouth contain? 
The teeth, salivary glands, and other small glands and folli- 
cles situated upon the floor and back parts. 
5. What are the Tonsils? 
They are simply aggregations of follicles, situated in the 
upper part of the throat. Their use is not clearly under- 
stood. 
6. Hozv many Teeth are there? 
Thirty-two in all, or eight in each half-jaw, similarly shaped 
and arranged. 
7. What is the marked characteristic of the Teeth? 
Their hardness; the teeth are the hardest substance in the 
body. 
8. What is the enamel of the Teeth? 
A thick coat covering the body of the tooth down to the 
gum, and giving it its hardness. 
9. Is the enamel chiefly animal or mineral matter? 
It is nearly all mineral; only two and one-half per cent, is 
animal matter. 34 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 
10. Describe the interior of the Tooth. 
It consists chiefly of a substance resembling bone, and 
called dentine. In the center is the nerve cavity. 
11. What is the crown of a Tooth ? the root? the neck? 
The crown is the part protruding above the gum, and cov- 
ered with enamel; the root or fang is the part contained 
in the socket of the jaw; the neck is the slightly con- 
tracted ring grasped by the gum. 
12. Is any part of a Tooth true bone? 
Yes; the covering of the fang is true bone. 
13. Does the fang of a tooth touch any fart of the jaw-bone? 
No; the fang is lined with a membrane which when in a 
healthy state deadens the force of any shock, but when 
inflamed becomes the seat of excruciating pain. 
14. What two kinds of toothache are there? 
One kind is caused by the irritation of the substance filling 
the cavity of a tooth; the other by the inflammation or 
ulceration of the membrane lining the root. 
15. Describe the substance found in the cavity of the teeth. 
It is a pulpy substance of a reddish white color, and full 
of nerves and blood-vessels; it is exceedingly sensitive. 
16. What are the Milk Teeth? 
They are our first teeth, and are only twenty in number. 
17. At what age do the Permanent Teeth appear? 
The central incisors at about the age of seven years; the 
first bicuspids at nine, the second at ten; the canines 
at eleven or twelve; the second molars at thirteen, and the 
last or wisdom teeth at twenty-two or later. 
18. Give the number of each kind of teeth. 
There are four incisors, two canines, four bicuspids, and 
six molars (sixteen in all) in each jaw 
(9. What is the great difference in the arrangement of the 
teeth of carnivorous and herbivorous animals? 
In flesh-eating animals the front teeth are tearing ones, and 
the back teeth have sharp edges for cutting. In herbiv- 
orous animals there are no tearing teeth, but cutting ones 
in front, and grinding ones back. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
35 
20. What may be said of the teeth of man -with reference to 
cutting, tearing, and grinding? 
Man has all three kinds of teeth; the incisors are cutting 
teeth, the molors grinding, and the canines tearing. It is 
to be observed, however, that his molors are not as thor- 
ough grinders as those of the horse or cow, and his 
canines are not such long and powerful tearing teeth 
as those of the dog. 
21 What is the Alveolar Process? 
Process, in anatomy, is an eminence or projection; the alveo- 
lar process is the bony structure by means of which the 
teeth are attached to the jaw. The attachment is strength- 
ened by the fibrous, fleshy structure of the gums. 
22. What becomes of the bony process after the extraction of 
a permanent tooth? 
It is absorbed, leaving the jaw-bone covered only by the 
lining membrane of the gum 
23. Hoiv many roots or fangs have the teeth? 
The molars of the upper jaw have three each, the molars of 
the lower jaw two, and the incisors, cuspids, and bicuspids 
one each 
24. Describe the Salivary Glands. 
They are three pair of glands with ducts opening into the 
mouth for the purpose of secreting a fluid to keep the 
mouth moist, and to moisten food as it is chewed. They 
are called the Parotid, the Submaxillary, and the Sub- 
lingual gland. 
25. Describe the Parotid Gland. 
It is the largest of the salivary glands, and is situated just 
under the ear, and behind the angle of the jaw; a duct 
called Steno’s from this gland opens into the mouth 
opposite the second molar tooth of the upper jaw. 
26. Where is the Submaxillary Gland? 
It is situated within the lower jaw, and its duct opens into 
the mouth at the side of the tongue. 
27. Where is the Sublingual Gland? 
It is in the floor of the mouth, and has seven or eight small 
ducts opening into the mouth. 
28. What gland is swollen in the “Mumps?” 
* The Parotid. 36 
THE DIGESTIVE STSTEM. 
29. What amount of Saliva is secreted daily? 
From three to six pounds by an adult in good health. 
30. What is Ptyalin? 
A peculiar organic substance contained in the saliva which 
changes the starch of masticated food into glucose, or 
grape sugar. 
31. What is the (Esophagus? 
A large membranous tube extending from the throat to the 
stomach. It is a part of the alimentary canal. 
32. What is the Pharynx? 
It is the part of the alimentary canal in the throat, and is a 
funnel-shaped cavity about four inches long, extending 
from the mouth to a point behind the Adam’s apple. 
33. Hoiv many passages has the Pharynx? 
Four; one leading upward and forward to the nose; the 
second, forward to the mouth; the third, downward to the 
lungs; and the fourth, downward and backward to the 
stomach. 
34. Describe the muscular fibers of the Pharynx. 
The pharynx is made up of muscular fibers, which run in 
two directions, and cross each other at a large angle, so as 
to give great compression upon the food as it is swal- 
lowed. 
35. Describe the size and shape of the Stomach. 
It has been called pear-shaped, and has also been compared 
to a bag-pipe. It is about twelve inches long and four 
inches in diameter, and holds about three pints. 
36. What two membranes line the Stomach? 
The inner lining is the mucuous membrane, which secretes 
digestive fluids; the outer lining is the serous membrane, 
which is well lubricated. Between these two membranes 
is a stout muscular coat. 
37. Describe accurately the location of the Stomach. 
It is situated in the upper portion of the left side of the ab- 
domen, immediately beneath the diaphragm, and inclines 
obliquely downward from left to right. 
38. What is said of the dilation or distention of the Stomach? 
Long-continued gormandizing or excessive drinking of 
vinous and malt liquors will distend the stomach to three 
or four times its normal size. The normal stomach will THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
37 
hold something less than a quart; the stomachs of enor- 
mous eaters have been found after their death to hold a 
gallon. 
39. How many openings has the Stomach? 
Two: the cardiac, which is connected with the oesophagus, 
and the pyloric, which is connected with the intestines. 
40. What is the structure of the Intestines? 
Similar to that of the stomach; they are formed of the mu- 
cous and the serous membranes, with a muscular coat 
between. 
41. What two divisions are there of the Intestines? 
The small intestines and the large intestines; the former 
open into the stomach. 
42. Give the physiological names of the different parts of the 
Intestines. 
(1) Duodenum, (2) Jejunum, (3) Ilium, (4) Caecum, (5) 
Vermiform Appendage, (6) Colon, (7) Rectum. 
43. What part of the Intestines is sometimes called the Second 
Stomach? 
The Duodenum. 
44. Describe the Duodenum. 
It is the first division of the intestines, and is called the 
duodenum (twelve) because its length is of the breadth of 
twelve fingers, or about ten inches. It commences with 
the pyloric orifice on the right extremity of the stomach, 
and runs slightly backwards and upwards until it termi- 
nates in the Jejunum. 
45. Describe the Jejunum. 
It is the intestine next below the duodenum. Its name 
means “ empty,” and it is so called because it is always 
found in this condition after death. 
46. Describe the Ilium. 
It is the third division of the intestines; it is the smallest of 
the intestines, and is about fifteen feet in length It is 
named from a Greek word meaning “ to twist,” and is so 
called on account of its tortuous course. 
47. Describe the Ccecum. 
It is the fourth division of the intestines, and is a short sac 
not exceeding four inches in length, but of a larger diame- 
ter than the small intestines. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
48 Describe the Vermiform Appendage. 
} It is a small part of the intestines attached to the caecum, 
and is so named because it is shaped like a worm. It is 
not known that it serves any useful purpose in man, but 
it is largely developed and of great service in some of the 
lower animals. 
49. Describe the Colon. 
It is that division of the intestines which on the right side 
of the body passes upward, then crosses horizontally to 
the left side of the body, and then passes downward. It 
is from five to eight feet long 
50. What is to be said of the length of the Intestines? 
The aggregate length of the intestines in man is about thirty 
feet; in herbivorous animals it is much greater, amount- 
ing in a full grown ox to 150 feet. 
51. Name the large and the small Intestines. 
The large intestines are the Csecum, the Colon, and the 
Rectum; the small intestines are the Duodenum, the Jeju- 
num, and the Ilium. 
52. What is the Liver? 
The liver is a gland; it is the largest of the glands; it is 
of a reddish-yellow color, and its chief purpose is to 
secrete bile. 
53. Where is the Liver situated? 
On the right side of the abdomen, below the diaphragm. 
Its situation is on the right side of the body, correspond- 
ing to that of the stomach on the left side. 
54. How large is the Liver? 
Excepting the brain, it is the largest organ in the body. It 
measures about a foot in its longest diameter, and weighs 
on the average four pounds. 
55. How is the Liver divided? 
Into five lobes or great divisions, and each of these is com- 
posed of minute divisions or lobules about the size of a 
millet seed. Each of these lobules contains an artery, 
a vein, and a network of ducts. 
56. What is the Bile? 
It is a fluid of a dark green color and bitter taste, secreted 
by the liver. It acts upon the food in some way not fully 
understood. When not needed in digestion, the bile is THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
39 
stored away in the gall bladder, which is under the right 
side of the liver. 
57 What is the Pancreas? 
The Pancreas is a gland about six inches in length, situated 
behind the stomach. 
58. What is the Pancreatic Fluid? 
A liquid secreted by the pancreas at the rate of from five to 
seven ounces per day. It closely resembles saliva, and in 
the process of digestion produces important chemical 
changes in the food. 
59. What is the Alimentary Canal? 
It is the canal or passage for the food in the process of 
digestion; it commences with the mouth, and includes the 
pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and the whole length of 
the intestines. 
60. Give the principal steps in the process of digestion. 
(1) Mastication and Insalivation in the mouth. (2) Deglu- 
tition or swallowing. (3) Passage of the food through 
the oesophagus into the stomach. (4) Gastric digestion 
in the stomach. (5) Intestinal digestion. (6) Absorbtion 
into the blood. 
61. What change takes place in the lining of the stomach on the 
admission of food? 
As soon as food enters the stomach the blood-vessels of the 
membranous inner lining are filled, the membrane becomes 
of a bright red color, and the gastric juice is rapidly 
secreted. 
62. How much Gastric Juice is secreted in a day? 
It is variously estimated to be from five to thirty-seven 
pounds per day. 
63. Hoxv is the food moved about in the stomach? 
The stomach carries the food from right to left, and then in 
the reverse direction, a revolution being completed in 
about three minutes. 
64. What is Pepsin? 
A peculiar organic substance found in the gastric juice, and 
is one of the most important aids to digestion. It consti- 
tutes about two-thirds of the gastric fluid, and acts as a 
ferment on the food. 40 
THE DIGESTIVE ST STEM. 
65. How is Pepsin as an article of commerce obtained? 
From the stomachs of animals. Pigs or calves are excited 
by savory food, which they are not allowed to eat, and 
then at once killed. 
66. Is Digestion a chemical action? 
It is believed to be mainly so, since it has been found possi- 
ble to have meat digested in a- bottle, though much more 
slowly than in the stomach. 
67. What is meant by the expression,“ The Chemico- Vital Pro- 
cess of Digestion?" 
It means that digestion is partly a chemical and partly a 
vital process. In so far as digestion depends upon vital 
power it is beyond our comprehension. 
68. What is Chyme? 
It is the name given to that state of food after it is thor- 
oughly dissolved and acted upon by the stomach. 
69. What is Chyle? 
It is a milky fluid formed from chyme in the duodenum by 
the action of the pancreatic juice and the bile. 
70. How does the food pass from the Stomach? 
When all the food is dissolved into the liquid condition 
called chyme, it passes through the pyloric orifice into 
the duodenum. 
71. What change does the food u?idergo in the. Dnodenum? 
Intestinal digestion is there commenced by the secretions of 
the liver and pancreas, and the chyme becomes chyle. 
72. What is Trypsin? 
A ferment found in the pancreatic fluid which performs an 
important work in changing chyme into chyle. 
73. Where does the Chyle pass? 
From the large intestines into the small intestines. 
74. Does the Chyle pass directly from the small intestines to 
the heart ? 
No; it is first carried to the liver, where some important 
change not fully understood is again made, when it is 
poured as blood into the heart. 
75. What is the Portal Vein? 
It is the vein which carries to the liver the food absorbed 
by the veins of the stomach and intestines, THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
41 
76. What are the Lacteals? 
Small tubes or vessels for carrying chyle from the intestines 
to the thoracic duct. 
77. Define Digestion. 
It is the process by which food is prepared to become the 
nutrient part of the blood 
78. Why should food be thoroughly masticated ? 
The more thoroughly it is ground up the more readily it is 
acted upon by the digestive fluids. 
79. Why do grains of wheat after being chewed become of a 
sweetish taste? 
They become mixed with saliva, which changes the starch 
of the wheat into sugar. 
80. Why does much water or other liquid taken at meals retard 
digestion ? 
Because it dilutes the saliva and other digestive fluids, and 
weakens their chemical action. 
81. How long a time is requisite for the digestion of a full 
meal? 
It varies with the kind of food and the condition of the sys- 
tem from one to four hours. 
82. How much daily food does a man in health need? 
About two and one-quarter pounds of food and three pints 
of drink. 
83. What three purposes does food serve? 
(1) To supply the material for the growth of the body. 
(2) To maintain its warmth. (3) To repair the waste of 
the tissues. 
84. What two common articles of man's sustenance are wholly 
inorganic? 
Water and common salt. Other inorganic matter, such as 
iron, sulphur, magnesia, lime, phosphorus, and potash, are 
found in water and animal and vegetable foods. 
85. What purpose does salt serve in the animal economy? 
It is necessary to the secretion of some of the digestive 
fluids, and to aid in working off from the system its waste 
products. 
86. How much of the body is water? 
About two-thirds; in a man weighing 154 pounds there are 
100 pounds of water, or about 12 gallons. 42 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
87. Where are iron, lime, phosphorus, and sulphur found in the 
body? 
Iron in the discs of the blood; lime in the bones and teeth; 
phosphorus in the brain, and sulphur in the hair. Most 
of these minerals are also found in various other parts 
of the body in small quantities. 
88. What trvo kinds of organic food are there? 
(1) Nitrogenous, (2) Carbonaceous. The latter is subdi- 
vided into Sugars and Fats. 
89. What foods contain most Nitrogen? 
The whites of eggs, cheese, lean meat, and wheat bread. 
These substances contain much albumen, which is chiefly 
nitrogenous. 
90. What is meant by Carbonaceous food? 
Foods which contain much carbon, such as sugars and fats; 
they are the chief heat-producing foods. 
91. From what substances may the Fats be obtained? 
Fat meat, butter, oily grains and seeds, and the kernels of 
seeds. Lard, olive oil, and cotton-seed oil are extensively 
used in cooking, and are fats. 
92. Where is a large quantity of the Fats necessary? 
In the long winters of the Arctic regions fatty food is abso- 
lutely necessary to sustain life. 
93. What foods contain the Sugars in largest proportions? 
Corn, rice, potatoes, and ripe fruits. The sugars include glu- 
cose, gum, and starch. 
94. What kind of food should predominate in each of the Zones? 
“Fatty foods serve best for a frigid climate, grains for the 
temperate, and ripe fruits for torrid latitudes.”—Eclectic 
Physiology. 
95. What truth is there in the popular saying that the body 
changes every seven years? 
It is generally admitted by physiologists that the whole 
body is renewed in the course of a few years, although 
the precise number can not be stated, since many circum- 
stances modify the change, such as exercise and climate. 
A period of from seven to ten years is probably sufficient 
to complete the change. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
96 What organs are constantly at zvork removing the waste 
■particles? 
The lymphatics, which are found in every part of the body 
in great numbers. 
97. What is the effect of cooking? 
It is intended to serve one or more of three purposes: (1) 
To render food more digestible; (2) to make it more pal- 
atable; (3) to destroy any germs of disease that may be 
in the food. 
98. Why is thorough cooking of pork especially important? 
Pork sometimes contains a parasite called trichina, which, 
in the human system, often produces a fatal disease 
Thorough cooking is the only sure method of destroying 
this parasite 
99. What is Caffeine? 
It is the peculiar principle found in coffee to which the stim- 
ulating effects of the drink are due. 
IOO. What is to be said of the use of Coffee? 
“ Taken in moderation, it clears the intellect, tranquilizes 
the nerves, and usually leaves no unpleasant reaction.” 
In youth, however, it is not so needful as in later years, 
iox. Is Coffee a true food? 
It is probably not a true food, but retards the waste of the 
tissues, and is thus a kind of negative food. 
102. What is Theine? 
It is the active principle of tea When used moderately 
its effects are similar to those of coffee. 
103 What is the active principle of Chocolate called? 
Theobromine; it has some of the properties of caffeine 
and theine. 
104. What arrangement for grinding food in place of teeth 
have grain and seed-eating Birds? 
A gizzard in the stomach, which has two hard surfaces, 
which, when rubbed and pressed together, grind and 
break up the food. Flesh-eating birds have no gizzard. 
105. State the great distinction betzveen the stomachs of Car- 
nivorous and Herbivorous Animals. 
Flesh-eating animals, such as the lion, have only a single 
stomach; herb-eating animals, such as the cow, have 
four stomachs. 
43 44 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
106. What is the reason of this difference? 
Vegetable food is more unlike the body of the animal eat- 
ing it than flesh, and it requires a more complicated ap- 
paratus to change it into nutrient blood. 
107. Why does not the stomach digest itself ? 
The gastric juice does not digest living matter. After 
death the stomach is acted upon by the digestive fluids, 
and its walls are sometimes eaten through. 
108. Define Hunger. 
It is the sensation of a want of nutriment manifested by 
impressions on the nerves of the stomach. 
109. Define Thirst. 
It is the sensation of a want of liquids in the system, and 
is manifested in the fauces or throat. 
no. What is the origin of the name of the Spleen? 
It is so named because the ancients supposed it to be the 
seat of melancholy. Spleen is a Greek word, meaning 
ill-temper or peevishness. 
in. What is the Spleen? 
It is an oblong, flattened organ of a dark-bluish color, sit- 
uated on the left side, in contact with the diaphragm, 
stomach, and pancreas. It has no outlet. 
112. What is the office of the Spleen? 
It is not certainly known what function it performs. 
113. Give the seven different processes through 1which food 
passes to form living matter. 
Mastication, insalivation, deglutition, chymification, chylifi- 
cation, absorption, and assimilation 
114. Why is it that actors, night editors, and others whose brains 
are worked late at night, can sleep best after eating mod- 
erately before going to bed? 
The food in the stomach for its digestion draws the blood 
from the excited brain to the stomach, and thus prevents 
wakefulness. THE CIRCULATORT STSTEM. 
45 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
1. Name the organs of the Circulatory System. 
The heart, the arteries, the veins, and the capillaries, all of 
which, except the heart, are tubes of various dimensions. 
2. Where is the Heart situated? 
In the thorax, or chest, somewhat to the left of the middle 
line of the body, and has its lower surface resting on the 
diaphragm. 
3. What is the Heart ? 
It is the central organ, or engine, of the circulation, and 
forces the blood through long tubes to every part of the 
body; it is of conical form, and made of muscular fiber. 
4. What is said of the arrangement of the fibers of the Heart? 
They cross each other in at least three directions, and many 
of them “anastomose”—that is, join each other in several 
different places. 
5. What are the Arteries? 
They are tough cylindrical tubes, which convey the blood 
from the heart to the different parts of the body. 
6. What are the Veins? 
They are the tubes which carry the blood from the different 
parts of the body to the heart. 
7. What is the Blood? 
It is the circulating fluid of the body, and contains all the 
materials for the support of every part of the animal fabric. 
8. Of ■what does the Blood consist? 
When examined with a microscope it is found to consist of 
a transparent liquid and minute circular bodies called cor- 
puscles floating in the liquid. 
9. What different names are given to the liquid portion of the 
Blood? 
Plasma, Serum, and Liquor Sanguinis. 46 
THE CIRCULA TORT SYSTEM. 
10. Describe the Blood Corpuscles. 
They are exceedingly minute, flattened discs, with both 
surfaces slightly concave. 
11. What two kinds of Blood Corpuscles are there? 
The red and the white; the former give the blood its color. 
The white corpuscles are few in number compared with 
the red. 
12. What is meant by the Coagulation of the Blood? 
It is the formation of the thickened mass called the “ clot ” 
when the blood is exposed to the air. The thickened 
part of the blood is composed of its corpuscles and fibrin. 
13. What useful purpose does the Clotting of the Blood servet 
It checks and stops ordinary cases of bleeding; the thick- 
ened mass forms a plug to the wound, and thus often pre- 
serves life. 
14. What is the Pericardium? 
It is a loose sac of serous membrane enclosing the heart. 
15. What movements Has the Heart? 
Two: Alternate contraction and expansion; the former is 
called the systole, and expels the blood; the latter the 
diastole, and receives the blood. 
16. Is the Heart attached to any part of the body ? 
It is everywhere free or unattached, except at its base, 
which, by the means of large blood vessels, is attached to 
the vertebral column. 
17. In what sense is the Heart a double organ? 
One side is called the arterial and the other venous, or left 
and right hearts; the former receives and propels pure or 
arterial blood, and the latter circulates venous blood. 
18. How many chambers in the Heart? 
Four: Two auricles, and two ventricles. 
19. What are the Auricles? 
Reservoirs for receiving the blood. The left auricle re- 
ceives bright and pure blood from the lungs; the right 
one receives the dark and foul blood after it has made the 
tour of the body. 
20. What are the Ventricles? 
They are the cavities or chambers from which the blood is 
forced outward. THE CIRCULATORY ST STEM. 
47 
21. Where does the blood go from the Left Ventricle? 
Into the large tube called the aorta, which leads to all parts 
of the body. 
22. Where does the blood go from the Right Ventricle? 
Into a large tube called the pulmonary artery, leading to 
the lungs. 
23. Is there any vein or artery between the left and right di- 
visions of the heart? 
No; they are separated by an impassable wall, so that there 
is no communication between them. 
24. What names are sometimes given to the right and left 
divisions of the Heart ? 
The right division is sometimes called the pulmonic heart, 
and the left the systemic heart. 
25. What is the fluid capacity of the Heart ? 
It ordinarily contains about one pint of blood. 
26. Hovj much Blood is there usually in the system? 
The average quantity in a healthy man is about eight quarts, 
or something less than twenty pounds. Foster places it 
at about one-thirteenth of the weight of the body. 
27. What are the Valves of the Heart ? 
They are peculiar forms of muscular and tendonous fibers, 
making a kind of a curtain, which will allow the blood to 
flow in one direction, but not in the opposite direction. 
28. What different kinds of Valves in the Heart? 
Three: The tricuspid, the bicuspid, and the semi-lunar. 
29. Where is the Tricuspid Valve? 
At the opening of the right ventricle. It consists of three 
folds or flaps of membrane. 
30. Where is the Bicuspid Valve? 
In the left ventricle. 
31. What are the Semi-lunar Valves? 
They are three valves of a half-moon shape in the passages 
outward from the ventricles. 
32. When and by whom was the circulation of the blood dis- 
covered ? 
The discovery is usually attributed to Dr. William Harvey, 
an English physician, who first published his discovery to 
the world in 1628. 48 
THE CIR C ULATORT S TS TEM. 
33’ What is the Pulse? , 
It is the expansion of the radial artery in the wrist by each 
wave of blood set in motion by the contraction of the 
heart. 
34. Ho tv rapidly does the Pulse beat in health? 
On the average about seventy-two times per minute; it 
varies even in healthy persons from forty to one hundred. 
35. Hoiv rapidly does the blood circulate? 
It is estimated that some of the blood makes the tour of the 
whole body in about twenty-three seconds, and that the 
entire mass passes through the heart in from one to two 
minutes. 
36. What forces propel the blood through the system? 
(1) The contraction of the heart. (2) Elasticity of the ar- 
teries. (3) Capillary force. (4) Muscular pressure. (5) 
Act of inspiration. (6) Arterialization of the blood. 
37. What is the difference in the kind of blood conveyed by 
arteries and veins? 
The arteries convey pure blood, called also arterial; the 
veins convey dark or impure blood, called also venous. 
38. What arteries convey venous blood, and what veins convey 
arterial blood? 
The pulmonary arteries carry venous blood to the lungs, 
and the pulmonary veins convey arterial blood from the 
lungs. 
39. What is the Pulmonic Circulation? 
It is the circulation from the right ventricle through the pul- 
monic artery to the lungs, and back to the left auricle 
through the pulmonic veins. 
40. What is the Systemic Circulation? 
It is the circulation through the system by means of the 
aorta and the arteries and their returning veins. 
41. What other names are given to these two circulations? 
The pulmonic is called the Lesser Circulation, and the sys- 
temic is called the Greater Circulation. 
42. What is the Aorta? 
The largest artery in the systemic circulation; it passes up- 
ward from the heart at first, describes a curve, and goes 
downward along the spinal column The curved portion THE C/P C UL ATORT SYSTEM. 
49 
is called the arch of the aorta; between the arch and the 
diaphragm it is called the thoracic aorta; below the dia- 
phragm, the abdominal aorta. 
43. What are the Carotids? 
Arteries carrying the blood upward along the neck. 
44. What are the Subclavians? 
Arteries carrying blood to the arms. 
45. What is the difference between the imbedding of the arteries 
and the veins? 
The veins lie near the surface of the body; the arteries in 
which the blood is forced with greater power are deeply 
imbedded in the flesh for their better protection. 
46. Name the principal arteries of the upper extremities. 
The subclavian, the axillary, the brachial, the radial, and 
the ulnar. 
47- Name the principal arteries of the lower extremities. 
The external and internal illiac, the femoral, popliteal, 
anterior and posterior tibial. 
48. Name the arteries of (1) the stomach, {3) liver, (3) spleen, 
and (4) kidneys 
(1) The gastric, (2) hepatic, (3) splenic, (4) renal. 
49 What are the Vence Cavce? 
They are the two large trunk veins that connect with the 
right auricle of the heart; one is called vena cava as- 
cendens, and the other vena cava descendens. 
50. Give the course of the blood in the Pulmonic Circulation. 
The dark blood collects in the right auricle, thence passes 
into the right ventricle, thence into the pulmonary artery, 
thence to the lungs, returning through the four pulmo- 
nary veins to the left auricle. 
51. Give the Systemic or Greater Circulation. 
From the left auricle to the left ventricle, thence into the 
great aorta, thence into the arteries, capillaries, and veins; 
it returns through the venae cavae, ascending and descend- 
ing, into the right auricle. 
52. Give the entire Circulation of the Blood. 
Left ventricle, aorta, arteries, capillaries, veins, vena cava, 
right auricle, right ventricle, pulmonary arteries, lungs, 
pulmonary veins, left auricle, to the left ventricle or place 
of beginning. 50 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
53 What is the Portal Circulation? 
It is the passing of the blood that returns from the alimen- 
tary canal to and through the liver before reaching the 
heart. The veins from the stomach and intestines lead 
into one large vein called the portal vein. 
54 What is the difference in the color and Jiotv of the blood in 
the arteries and in the veins? 
The blood from the arteries is a bright red, that from the 
veins a dark purple; the blood from the arteries spurts at 
each pulsation, that of the veins flows in a steady stream. 
55 What becomes of the blood in the Capillaries? 
Much of it is converted into living muscle or other tissues 
of the body. 
56. Where is most blood sent? 
Into the brain, which receives many times as much blood as 
any other organ. 
57. When headache results from too much blood flowing to the 
brain, how may it be relieved? 
Moderate exercise will relieve it by causing the blood to 
flow to the muscles. 
58. What effect have the lungs upon the blood? 
They purify the venous blood; the oxygen of the air is 
united with the carbon, and is exhaled as carbonic acid gas. 
59. How does the position of the body a feet the circulation? 
It is faster when we are walking than standing, faster when 
standing than when sitting, and faster when sitting than 
when lying down. The heart beats faster in the morning 
than in the evening. 
60. How does the mind a feet the circulation? 
When the mind is aroused the blood flows more freely, and 
we are capable of greater exertions. 
61. How are the waste particles of the body disposed of ? 
They are thrown out of the system by the lungs, skin, kid- 
neys, and liver. 
62. What are the two great purposes of the circulation of the 
blood? 
To carry nutrition to all parts of the body, and to carry oif 
the waste particles. 
63. What is the cause of Fainting ? 
Want of blood in the brain. Placing the person who faints THE CIRCULA TORT ST STEM. 
51 
in a horizontal position, with head low, will relieve the 
fainting, by causing more blood to flow to the brain. 
64. When blood flows freely from a -wound, ho-w can rue tell 
whether a vein or artery is severed f 
The blood from an artery is of a bright red color, and flows 
in jets; that from a vein is dark red, and flows regularly. 
65. Where should pressure be applied to stop bleeding ? 
In an artery between the wound and the heart; in a vein 
beyond the wound. 
66. What arteries are found near the surface? 
One in the wrist, where the pulse can be felt; the other on 
the temple. 
67. What is the effect of cold on the blood vessels? 
They are contracted by cold; hence a chill in any part of 
the body drives the blood to other parts. 
68. What is the effect of a chill on the surface of the body? 
It drives the blood to the internal organs; hence the neces- 
sity of warm clothing. 
69. What effect does breathing vitiated air have on the circula- 
tion ? 
The heart beats more feebly, and the pulse becomes weak. 
70. What is the normal temperature of the blood ? 
Ninety-eight degrees, Fahrenheit. 
71. What is the relative temperature of the blood in quadru- 
peds, birds, fishes, and reptiles? 
It is highest in birds, and lowest in fishes. In reptiles the 
blood is cooler than in quadrupeds. 
72. What is Congestion? 
An unnatural accumulation of blood in any part of the body. 
73. What is Blushing ? 
A temporary congestion of the cheeks; the small arteries of 
the face suddenly dilate, and the vessels contain an in- 
creased quantity of blood. 
74. What is Inflammation? 
It is an irritation or injury at any spot to which an increased 
supply of blood is sent, resulting in heat, redness, pain, 
and swelling. 
75. What is Scrofula? 
It may be considered a blood disease, and is one affecting THE CIR C UL AT OR T STS TEM. 
52 
the lymphatic glands, most commonly those of the neck; 
it is liable, however, to attack any organ 
76. Where do the two circulations begin and end ? 
The systemic or greater circulation is considered as begin- 
ning at the left ventricle, and ending at the right auricle; 
the pulmonary or lesser circulation begins at the right 
ventricle, and ends at the left auricle 
77. How does the figure 8 illustrate the two circulations f 
The double course of the blood is sometimes likened to the 
figure 8, the upper loop representing the pulmonary, and 
the lower loop the systemic circulation, the heart being 
placed at the crossing of the lines. 
78. What is the size of the human Heart ? 
Nearly as large as the closed hand. 
79. Where does the Heart strike against the walls of the Chestt 
Usually between the fifth and sixth ribs, and one or two 
inches to the left of the sternum. 
80 What fart of the heart strikes against the chest walls ? 
Its point or apex, which is its lowest part, as the heart hangs 
with the apex downward. 
81. What sounds are made at each beat of the Heart ? 
Two sounds, followed by a silence; the first is dull, the sec- 
ond is quicker and sharper. 
82. What circulations in living beings are accomplished without 
hearts ? 
The majority of circulations in organic forms are accom- 
plished without hearts; plants have none; fishes have no 
systemic heart; in man the portal circulation has none. 
—J. W. Draper. 
83. Where are the Kidneys f 
They lie on each side of the spinal column, in a line with 
the lumbar vertebrae. 
84. Describe the Kidneys. 
They are excretory organs, two in number, between four 
and five inches long, and two and a half inches broad and 
one in thickness. They are of bean shape, and of a red- 
dish color. 
85. How is blood brought to the Kidneys? 
By the renal or emulgent artery from the aorta, and is car- 
ried back into the vena cava. THE CIR CULATORT SI S 7 'EM. 
53 
86. Wliat is Lymph ? 
A thin, colorless liquid which circulates tnrough the lym- 
phatics. It is much like the serum of the blood, and is 
thought to be an overflow from the blood-vessels. 
87. What are the Lymphatics ? 
They are minute vessels like capillaries, which proceed from 
various parts of the body, and unite into larger trunks, 
which empty into the veins in the lower part of the neck 
88. What are the Lymphatic Glands? 
They are hard bodies of various sizes through which the 
lymphatics pass. They are often enlarged by disease so 
that they can be felt. 
89. What is the object of the Lymphatic Circulation? 
It is known to be connected in some way with the circula- 
tion of the blood, but its purpose is not clearly under- 
stood. 
90. What is the specific gravity of the blood ? 
It is nearly exactly 1—that is, its weight is about the same 
as water. 
91. Has the Heart sensibility? 
It is nearly destitute of the sensation of touch, yet it is in- 
stantly affected by every painful bodily excitement. 
92. Why are students liable to cold feet ? 
The intense employment of the brain draws the blood to 
that organ, leaving the extremities without a sufficient 
supply. 
93. Why does a hot foot-bath often relieve the headache? 
The hot bath congests the surface of the feet, and thus 
draws the excess of blood from the head 
94. What vein begins and ends in capillaries? 
The portal vein; it begins in the capillaries of the digestive 
organs, and ends in those of the liver. 
95 Why can the Pulse be best felt in the wrist ? 
Because an important artery (the radial) there comes near 
the surface. 
96. Which side of the Heart is the stronger, and why? 
The left, because the left ventricle forces the blood further 
than the right. RESPIRA TION AND THE VOICE. 
54 
9 7. How does the Heart receive blood for its own nourishment? 
The corona artery passes from the aorta near its origin, 
and supplies the muscular walls of the heart with blood. 
98. What is the position of the Heart with reference to the 
Lungs? 
The heart is almost wholly surrounded by the lungs. 
99. Explain how the Heart acts both as a force pump and suc- 
tion pump. 
It forces out the blood through the arteries as a force pump 
does water, and by suction it draws the blood back again 
through the veins. 
100. What fact led to Harvey's discovery of the circulation of 
the blood ? 
The fact that there are valves in the veins permitting the 
blood to pass only in one way led Harvey to infer that the 
blood moves only in one direction through the veing, and 
consequently in the opposite direction in the arteries. 
RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE. 
1. Name the Respiratory and Vocal Organs. 
The Larynx, the Trachea, the Bronchi, and the Lungs, all 
being acted upon by a complicated series of muscles. 
2. What is the Larynx? 
It is the organ of the voice, and is a short, triangular, and 
cartilaginous cavity, extending from the root of the tongue 
to the trachea; it is separated from the spinal column by 
the pharynx. 
3. What is the “Adam's apple?" 
11 is the front part of the larynx, and is a prominence in the 
neck which can be seen or felt. 
4. How are Vocal Sounds produced ? 
By the vibration of cords located in the larynx. RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE 
55 
5. Describe the Vocal Cords. 
They are not strings, but simply folds of the mucous mem- 
brane that lines the larynx; two of these folds are above 
and two below. 
6. What is the Glottis? 
The opening from the throat into the larynx. 
7. What is the Epiglottis? 
It is the cover of the larynx, or a spoon-shaped lid, which 
opens freely for the passage of air, but closes when we 
swallow food. 
8. Name the Cartilages of the Larynx. 
They are seven in number; two Arytenoid, two Cuneiform, 
one Cricoid, one Thyroid, and the Epiglottis. 
q. I11 -what condition are the Vocal Cords in ordinary breath- 
ing? 
They are relaxed so that the air passes through the larynx 
freely to and from the lungs. 
10. How are vocal sounds produced ? 
The cords are drawn tightly, so as to nearly close the air 
passage; the air is forced between them, and they are 
made to vibrate rapidly, and thus produce sound. 
11. Upon what does loudness of voice depend? 
Upon the force with which the cords are made to vibrate, 
and this depends largely upon the power with which the 
breath is forced out of the lungs. 
12. Upon what does the pitch of the voice depend? 
Chiefly on the tension of the cords, but partly on the eleva- 
tion of the whole larynx. 
£3. What is the effect of the size of the Larynx 011 the voice? 
A large larynx usually gives a deep-toned voice; a smaller 
one a comparatively higher pitch. The cavity of the 
larynx is greater in the male than in the female. 
14. What is the Trachea? 
A vertical tube about an inch in diameter and four inches in 
length, extending from the larynx to the bronchi. 
15. What are the Bronchi? 
Two branches of the trachea which carry the air to the 
lungs; as soon as they enter the lungs they divide and sub- 
divide into smaller branches called bronchia;. 56 
RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE. 
16. Describe the Lungs. 
They are two large lobes that fill the chest, and are formed 
of the bronchial tubes and air-cells, and blood-vessels of 
the pulmonic circulation. 
17. What two great sets of passages in the Lungs? 
One for the air, and one for the blood; the)’ are brought as 
closely together as possible, so as to expose the blood to 
the action of the air. 
18. What is the Pleura? 
A thin, delicate membrane lining the outside of the lungs, 
and also the inner surface of the chest. 
19 What is the Diaphragm? 
A thin, broad, circular partition across the body, separating 
the abdomen from the chest. 
io. What are the Intercostal Muscles? 
The muscles whose fibers fill the spaces between the ribs; 
they are employed in breathing. 
21. When air is inhaled what motion takes place in the ribs 
and diaphragm? 
The ribs are elevated, and the diaphragm lowered, and thus 
the chest is enlarged. 
22. Why do these motions enlarge the chest ? 
The ribs pass obliquely downward to the front; when they 
are elevated in front, the diameter of the chest is enlarged. 
The diaphragm is convex on its upper side; when it 
descends it presses the walls of the abdomen outward. 
23. Describe the act of Expiration or Exhalation. 
The walls of the abdomen are drawn in, and the diaphragm 
pressed upward, while the ribs are pulled downward— 
thus diminishing the size of the chest, and forcing the air 
outward. 
24. How is ordinary breathing performed ? 
“Ordinar)', quiet breathing is performed mainly by the 
diaphragm—one breath to every four beats of the heart, 
or eighteen per minute.”—Steele. 
25. What force is excited in drawing a full breath? 
It is said that in drawing a full breath the muscles exert a 
force equal to raising a weight of 750 pounds. RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE. 
57 
26. What is Sighing? 
It is merely a prolonged inspiration, followed by an audible 
expiration. 
27. What is Coughing? 
A violent expiration, in which the air is driven through the 
mouth. 
28. What is the Hiccough? 
A violent inspiration, caused by the contraction of the dia- 
phragm; the sound is produced by the air striking the 
closed glottis. 
29 How are the sounds in laughing and crying produced ? 
They are produced in both cases by short and rapid con- 
tractions of the diaphragm. 
30 What causes Snoring? 
In snoring the air passes through both the nose and the 
mouth, and the peculiar sound is produced by the rapid 
vibration of the palate in the divided current. 
31. What purpose does Respiration serve? 
Its immediate object is the purification of the blood, and its 
ultimate objects are the production of heat, motion, and 
nervous energy. 
32. How much air can he taken in at one Inhalation? 
In a full inspiration a man of medium size will inhale about 
230 cubic inches. 
33. How much air do we i7ihale in ordinary breathing? 
Only about twenty-five cubic inches at a time, or less than 
a pint. 
34. Is it possible to expel all the air from the Lungs? 
No; it is found that about 100 cubic inches always remain 
in the lungs after the most forcible expiration we can 
make. 
35. What is the capacity of the Lungs? 
The full capacity of the lungs is found by adding the amount 
of air we can inhale at one time to the amount remaining 
in the lungs after a forcible expiration; it is, on the aver- 
age, about 330 cubic inches, or about eleven pints. 
36. What is the difference in the air inhaled and exhaled ? 
The air when exhaled contains more carbonic acid, mois- 
ture, and organic impurities, and is almost always of a 
higher temperature. 58 
RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE. 
37- Describe the action of the air in the Lungs. 
The air gives up its oxygen to the blood, and receives car- 
bonic acid gas, water, and waste matter from the system. 
38. How much oxygen does the air lose in the Lungs? 
About one-fourth part, and gains an equal weight of car- 
bonic acid and other substances. 
39. What is the composition of pure Air? 
It is composed of oxygen and nitrogen in about the propor- 
tion of 21 to 79. There is also always some carbonic acid 
gas in the atmosphere, and traces of other gaseous sub- 
stances. 
40. What purposes does the Oxygen of the atmosphere serve? 
It is the life-giving principle of the air for all forms of ani- 
mated nature; it is also the supporter of combustion. 
41. Of what service to man is Nitrogen? 
It dilutes the oxygen, which is too active and rich to be 
breathed in its undiluted state. 
42. What are some of the characteristics of Carbonic Acid ? 
It destroys life by suffocation, and extinguishes flame. It is, 
however, an essential food of plants. 
43. Describe the manner in which the Air and the Blood are 
brought together. 
The impure blood is carried to the pulmonary capillaries 
which surround the air-cells of the lungs; through the 
thin walls of the capillaries the carbonic acid passes from 
the blood into the air-cells, and the oxygen passes from 
the air-cells into the blood. 
44 What is the source of Animal Heat? 
The chemical changes in every part of the body caused by 
the union of oxygen with carbon, hydrogen, and other 
elements of the blood and tissues. 
45 Why do lamps burn dimly in a crowded lecture-room toward 
the closing hour? 
They are bedimmed by carbonic acid gas and other impuri- 
ties in foul air. 
46. How much Carbonic Acid is exhaled from the Lungs in 
twenty-f our hours? 
It varies from one to three pounds per day. 
47. How much watery vapor is exhaled ? 
The quantity ranges from sixteen to twenty ounces in 
twenty-four hours. RESPIRA TION AND THE VOICE. 
59 
48. Ho iv does Respiration vary -with the Stature? 
After 5,000 observations Dr. Hutchinson deduced the fol- 
lowing principle: “For every inch of stature from five 
to six feet, eight additional cubic inches of air are given 
out after a full inspiration.” 
49. Is Animal Heat generated only in the Lungs? 
No; it is generated in every part of the body, and is incess- 
antly being produced. 
50. What is the Chemical Theory of Animal Heat? 
It is the theory that the heat of the body is maintained 
solely by chemical combinations, as in ordinary combus- 
tion. 
51. What is the Chemico- V ital Theory of Animal Heat? 
It is the theory that animal heat is generated by a chemico- 
vital process; that is, a process partly chemical and partly 
vital, and, so far as it is vital, is beyond comprehension. 
52. What malformation of the Lungs is produced by tight 
clothing? 
Constriction of the lungs caused by forcing the ribs inward, 
and thus diminishing the size of the chest and lungs. 
53. What tivo-fold injury is done by continued pressure of the 
Chest ? 
It does harm to the whole body by preventing a sufficient 
aeration of the blood, and it does special injury to the 
lungs themselves. 
54. What is Bronchitis ? 
An inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial 
tubes. 
55. What is Pleurisy? 
An inflammation of the pleura, or the outer lining of the 
lungs, and the inner lining of the chest. 
56. What is Pneumonia? 
An inflammation of the lungs, chiefly affecting the air-cells. 
57. What is Croup? 
An inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx 
and trachea; it often attacks young children. 
58 What is Diphtheria? 
A form of sore throat in which offensive matter exudes 
from the mucous membrane of the throat. RESPIRA TION AND THE VOICE. 
59- What is Asphyxia? 
It is a state induced by an interruption of respiration, as in 
di'owning or strangling; it is suspended animation from 
the non-aeration of the blood 
60. What is Consumption? 
It is the most common and fatal of pulmonary diseases, and 
consists of the actual disorganization of the substance of 
which the lungs are composed. 
61. What diseases are believed to be brought on or aggravated 
by breathing foul air? 
Consumption, catarrh, scrofula, and some forms of fever. 
62. What similarity is there in the functions of the Lungs, the 
Skin, and the Kidneys? 
They are called the scavengers of the body; they all carry 
off water and impurities from the system, and when any 
one fails to perform its office, the others are called on to 
do increased work 
63. What is said of the relative frequency of Respiration in 
different persons? 
It is more frequent in women and children than in men, 
and in persons of small stature than in taller people.— 
Cutter. 
64. What cotidiiiotis increase the number of respirations? 
The number of respirations is increased by exercise, food, 
stimulants, and moderate cold; it is diminished by mental 
depression. 
65. How is the blood of a fish aerated ? 
The gills of a fish are its lungs; water always contains some 
air, and as the water passes into the gills the air contained 
in it acts upon the blood-vessels of the fish. 
66. What kind of Lungs do insects have? 
Merely air-cells in different parts of the body, with holes 
opening into them on the sides of the insect. The grass- 
hopper has twenty-four of these holes, in four rows. 
67 How does the breathing apparatus of birds assist them in 
flying? 
Birds have sacs, or bags, in different parts of the body, 
which they inflate with air when they fly. RESPIRA TION AND THE VOICE. 
61 
68. Hotv does Drowning produce death ? 
By preventing the 0x3’gen from reaching the blood; the 
water does not directly cause death, but indirectly by 
stopping the arterialization of the blood. 
69. What should be done in a case of suspended animation from 
Drowning ? 
The lungs and air vessels should be emptied of water; the 
arms of the patient should be drawn forward and back- 
ward in order to draw air into the lungs; pressure upon 
the chest should alternate with blowing air into the 
mouth 
70. Ho tv long has suspended animation continued without re- 
sulting in death? • 
In cases of asphyxia life has been restored after five hours 
* of suspended animation. 
71. What different kinds of suspended animation require sim- 
ilar treatment? 
Asphyxia, or apparent death, whether produced by drown- 
ing, suffocation, bad air, or coal gas, requires very similar 
treatment —Steele. 
72. Why does burning charcoal in an open pan cause death? 
The combustion of the coal produces carbonic acid gas, 
which produces asphyxia, or suffocation. Illuminating 
gas produces the same effect. 
73. What two kinds of Respiration are there? 
Abdominal, which is performed chiefly by the diaphragm, 
and pectoral, which is performed chiefly by the ribs. 
74. How is the hiss of the serpent produced ? 
Serpents are capable of inhaling a large quantity of air, 
and their peculiar hiss is simply a prolonged expiration 
of air. 
75. Do Reptiles have larynges? 
They have an imperfect kind of larynx, but the only sounds 
they can produce are the croak of the frog and the hiss 
of the turtle, serpent, and lizard. 
76 What peculiarity is there i?i the larynges of Birds? 
Birds have a larynx at each end of the trachea; their vocal 
sounds are made by the lower one. 62 
RESPIRA 77ON AND THE VOICE. 
77- Do Insects produce vocal sounds? 
No; insects have no larynx or vocal organs; the sounds 
they make are not vocal. 
78. How do the Grasshopper and Locust produce soundst 
By rubbing together the anterior pair of wings upon the 
nervures or framework of the wings, on which are found 
file-like edges. 
79. Hoiv is the sound called ‘Hie death watch ” produced ? 
A species of beetle which bores in old timber produces this 
sound by striking its mandible against the hard woods. 
Some ants make similar sounds. 
80. Is a zvliisper a vocal sound ? 
No; whispering is produced by modifications of the breath 
in the mouth without vocalization; that is, without the 
action of the larynx. 
81. What is the Sinus f 
It is the cavity in the frontal bone which communicates 
with the pharynx. 
82 What is the effect of the Sinus on the voice f 
It imparts a resonance to the voice in the same manner that 
the hollow portion of the violin gives a proper tone to 
that instrument. 
83. IIozv does a Cold affect the voice f 
The cold closes up the passage to the frontal sinus, and by 
a thickening of the lining membrane prevents a reso- 
nance of the tones. 
84 What is a Vozvel, and what is a Consonant ? 
A vowel is a pure vocal sound produced by the action of 
the larynx; a consonant is a mouth sound produced by 
the breath, and modified by the lips, tongue, teeth, and 
palate. 
85. What different kinds of Consonants are theref 
Those made by the lips are called labials; by the tongue, 
linguals; by the tongue pressing against the teeth, den- 
tals; by the palate, palatals. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
63 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
i. What is the Nervous System ? 
It is that part of the animal organism by which the differ- 
ent parts of the body are controlled and caused to work 
together, and through which mind and body are connected. 
i. Name the organs of the Nervous System. 
The brain, the spinal cord, the nerves, and the ganglia of 
the nerves. 
3. What tzvo kinds of matter in the Nervous System? 
The white and the gray. 
4. Describe Nervous White Matter. 
It consists of milk-white, glistening fibers, sometimes less 
than one twenty-five thousandth part of an inch in diame- 
ter; these fibers are the conductors of nervous power. 
5. Describe Nervous Gray Matter. 
It is made up of small ashen-colored cells, forming a pulp- 
like substance, which is the generator of nervous power. 
6. What is meant by Nervous Force? 
We do not know what it really is; it is like electricity in 
some respects, and in others it is very different. 
7. What are the Ganglia? 
They are masses of gray nervous matter, sometimes called 
nerve centers; they correspond to the telegraph stations, 
and the nerve fibers to the wires. 
8. What is the Brain? 
It is the great center of the nervous system, and the seat: of 
the mind. 
9. What is the shape and size of the Brain? 
It is egg-shaped, with the smaller portion in front; it weighs 
something more than three pounds on the average, or 
about one-fortieth of the body. 64 
THE NERVOUS ST STEM. 
10. Give the weight of some remarkable Brains 
Cuvier’s, ounces; Webster’s, James Fisk’s, 58; 
an idiot’s is about 20. The average in man is 50; in 
woman, 45 ounces. 
11. Hovj is the Brain protected ? 
It is securely lodged in a strong bony case, and is covered 
with three membranes, and is surrounded by fluids. 
12. Name the three membranes covering the Brain 
The outer one is the Dura Mater, which also covers the 
spinal cord; the middle one is the Arachnoid membrane, 
and the one on the surface of the brain is the Pia Mater, 
13. What is the Cerebrum? 
It is the fi'ont and upper part of the brain; it is sometimes 
called the Great Brain, and in man comprises about 
seven-eighths of the entire weight of the brain. 
14. What is the Cerebellum? 
It is the back and lower part of the brain, and is sometimes 
called the Lesser Brain. 
15. In what sense do we have ttvo Brains? 
The cerebrum, which is the center of thought, is divided 
into two parts by a deep fissure or cleft running from the 
front to the rear; these are called right and left hemi- 
spheres. 
16. How is each hemisphere of the Cerebrum divided ? 
Into three lobes, called the frontal, middle, and posterior 
lobes, the frontal being the largest. There is also a small 
offshoot from the frontal lobe called the Olfactory. 
17. What are the Convolutions of the Brain? 
Each lobe of the cerebrum has on its surface many tortu- 
ous and complicated elevations, called convolutions; 
these give the surface a curiously wrinkled and folded 
appearance. 
18. What are the Sulci? 
They are the winding fissures or depressions between the 
convolutions. 
19. How do the Convolutions indicate mental power? 
It is found that the higher the mental development the more 
complicated and unsymmetrical are the convolutions, and 
the deeper the depressions between them. This is seen 
in comparing the brains of the lower animals and of dif- 
ferent races of men. THE NERVOUS ST STEM. 
20. Do the Convolutions correspond ivith the "bumps'’ or ele- 
vations of the skull ? 
They do not; the convolutions are much more numerous 
and intricate than the elevations on the skull. 
21. YVhat kind of nerve matter is found in the Braint 
Both the gray and the white; the gray matter covers the 
entire surface to the depth of one-fourth of an inch; the 
white matter is within. 
22. What are the supposed uses of the different parts of the 
Brain? 
The cerebrum is thought to be the organ of thought and 
intelligence; the cerebellum, the controller of muscular 
movements 
23. What is the effect of removing the cerebrum in living 
animals? 
The animal may continue to live, and can stand, walk, and 
breathe, but it seems to lose all power of judgment and 
mental activity. 
24 What is the effect of removing the Cerebellum? 
If the cerebellum only be removed the animal appears to 
maintain its mental faculties, but loses all control over its 
voluntary muscles. 
25. What is the Spinal Cord ? 
It is the nervous matter in the cavity of the back-bone. 
26. Describe the structure of the Spinal Cord. 
It is composed of white nervous matter on the outside, and 
gray matter within; it is nearly cylindrical, and is divided 
by a fissure into two parts, one for each side of the body. 
27. What is the Medulla Oblongata? 
It is the enlargement of the spinal cord as it enters the 
skull 
28. Describe the Nerves 
They are glistening, silvery threads, composed, like the 
spinal cord, of white matter without and gray matter 
within; they are the conductors of nervous influence. 
29. What two kinds of Nerves are there? 
Motory and sensory; those which carry the dictations of 
the mind to the different organs are called motory; those 
which carry impressions from the different parts of the 
body lo the brain are called sensory. 66 
THE NERVOUS ST STEM. 
30 If the hand be burned, lioiv do the two kinds of nerves 
operate? 
The sensory nerves carry the impression of pain to the 
brain, the motor nerves carry the order of the mind to the 
muscles, and they contract, and withdraw the hand. 
31. Does the same fiber ever act both as a nerve of sensation 
and of motion? 
No; the two kinds of fibers are always separate in their 
office, although both kinds of fibers may be bound up 
together in the same nerve. 
32. Where are the sensory and motor nerves bound up together? 
In the body and limbs. 
33. Where are the two kinds separated ? 
In the face the sensory and motor fibers are in two sep- 
arate sets of nerves; everywhere else they are bound up 
together.—Hooker. 
34. What three classes of Nerves are there? 
The spinal, the cranial, and the sympathetic. 
35. What are the Spinal Nerves? 
They are thirty-one pairs of nerves which issue from the 
spinal cord through apertures in the back-bone 
36. What are the Cranial Nerves? 
They are twelve pairs of nerves springing from the lower 
part of the brain and the medulla oblongata. 
37. What are the Sympathetic Nerves? 
They are the nerves of organic life; they run from the 
ganglia, on each side of the back bone, to the heart, lungs, 
stomach, etc., and also to the spinal and cranial nerves. 
38 What is the Sympathetic System? 
It consists of a double chain of ganglia on each side of the 
spinal column and the sympathetic nerves leading from 
it. It binds the whole system together with cords of 
sympathy. 
39. Describe the roots of the Spinal Nerves. 
Each spinal nerve has two roots, by which it is attached to 
the spinal cord; the one attached to the front part of the 
cord is the motor root, and the one attached to the back 
part is the sensory root. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
67 
40 What is the effect of the destruction of either of the roots? 
When the anterior root is cut or destroyed, the animal loses 
the power of motion; when the posterior is destroyed, that 
of feeling. 
41. What orgaii of the body has the most nerves? 
The eye; each eye has two different nerves of sensation, 
and four of motion.—Hooker. 
42 Why does the sawing of the bone of a limb cause little or no 
pain? 
Because there are few nerves in the bones. 
43. In amputating a limb, what occasions most suffering? 
The cutting through the skin, which has a full supply of 
the nerves of sensation. 
44 Are there many nerves in the Muscles? 
They are well supplied with nerves of motion, but few of 
sensation; there is, therefore, not much feeling in the 
muscles. 
45. Describe "the crossing of the cords." 
The nerves of motion from the right side of the body pass 
to the left side of the brain, and vice versa. The nerves 
from the two hemispheres of the brain cross each other 
in the medulla oblongata. 
46 Why in paralysis are the limbs sometimes motionless on one 
side and the face on the other? 
Because the nerves of the face do not cross, while those of 
the muscles of the limbs do. 
(.7 Why may an injury to the spinal cord cause a loss of motion 
in one leg and a loss of feeling in the other? 
Because the sensory fibers of the spinal nerves cross over 
to the opposite side of the spinal cord, while those of 
motion do not cross until they reach the base of the skull. 
48. In xvhat sense is the white part of the brain like the nerves? 
It is composed, like the nerves, of very fine fibers. “It is, 
indeed, a great central collection of the beginnings of 
nerves that branch out all over the body.” 
49. What is the Reflex Action of the Nervous System? 
Tt is the action of nerve centers without the conscious ac- 
tion of the mind. 68 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
50. Give examples of Nervous Reflex Action. 
Winking involuntarily at a blow aimed in sport at the eye; 
starting at a sudden sound; the instantaneous catching 
of our balance when we are about to fall. 
51. What is ''''Unconscious Cerebration?" 
It is a term employed by Dr. Carpenter to express the re- 
flex action of the brain, or the unconscious working of 
the mind on one subject when we are directing our atten- 
tion to another matter. 
52. Give an illustration of Unconscious Cerebration. 
In conversation, when we forget a name, and, after painful 
and fruitless efforts to recall it, we dismiss the matter from 
Our minds, and converse on another subject, the name 
suddenly and unexpectedly recurs to us. 
53. What is the supposed explanation of the sudden solution of 
a difficult question after it has been dismissed from the 
mind f 
The action of the brain in such cases is supposed to he 
reflex, or automatic; having received an impulse in a cer- 
tain direction, when left to itself, it works out the desired 
result. 
54. Why can zve play a familiar tune and carry on a conversa- 
tion at the same time f 
A n act which at first demands all our attention requires less 
by constant practice, until it becomes mechanical; the 
mind is supposed to act reflexively in directing the mus- 
cles in playing a familiar tune. 
55. Give Dr. Draper's theory zvith reference to the mind act- 
ing on tzvo matters at the same time. 
Dr. J. W. Draper says that the two hemispheres of the 
brain may act separately or conjointly; and the insane 
man may indulge in two synchronomous trains of 
thought; he never indulges in three, for the reason that 
he has not three hemispheres, and the same remark ap- 
plies to the sane man in the accidental wanderings of his 
mind. 
56. What useful purpose is served by the division of the Brain 
into hemispheres? 
It is a well-known fact that one of the hemispheres may be 
diseased or injured so as to perform its function imper- 
fectly, yet the other be in its healthy state; and it seems THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
69 
probable that the mind may remain active with only one 
hemisphere performing its functions. 
57. Is the whole Brain absolutely essential to life and mental 
operationst 
No; for there are instances of a considerable portion of the 
brain being removed by accidents, and the mind remain- 
ing sound during many years of life afterward. 
58. Is the Brain a sensitive organ? 
No; it may be cut, burned, or electrified without producing 
pain. 
59 What parts of the Nervous System are sensitive? 
All parts except the brain; every nerve and every part of 
the spinal column are keenly alive to the slightest touch. 
60. Of what substances does the Brain consist? 
“ Eight per cent, of water, seven of albumen, some fat, and 
a few minor substances constitute the instrument which 
rules the world.”—Steele. 
61. What reasons are there for the belief that the. Cerebrum is 
the instrument of the Intellect? 
A severe injury inflicted upon it results in a total loss of 
intellectual power; any lesion by disease is attended with 
a lowering of mental power; and great intellects have 
large cerebrums. 
62. What is Sleep? 
A state of the body in which there is more or less perfect 
suspension of the activity of the brain. 
63. What vita/ functions proceed during Sleep? 
Digestion, secretion, and respiration are carried on during 
the soundest sleep, but with less activity than when we 
are awake. 
64. Why do infants and aged persons need most sleep? 
Infants need much sleep in order that the constructive pro- 
cess may go on uninterruptedly; old persons, because the 
vital energies are feeble. 
65. What rules for sleeping hours can be given? 
Sleep should be taken regularly as often as once a day; the 
more rapid the nervous exhaustion the more sleep is re- 
quired; in general, one should sleep until he naturally 
wakes; brain-workers need more sleep than those engaged 
in manual labor; most persons need not less than eight 
hours of sleep. 70 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
66. What is the Arbor Vi toe of the Brain? 
It is a name given the ridges in the cerebellum which let 
the gray matter in the white matter, and give it a tree- 
like appearance. 
67 How large is the Cerebellum? 
Somewhat smaller than the closed hand. 
68. What proportion of the blood of the body does the Brain 
receive? 
About One-sixth of all the blood is sent to the brain, al- 
though its weight is only about one-fortieth of the body. 
69. What are the Ventricles of the Brain? 
There are several cavities in the brain, called ventricles; 
their use is not fully understood 
70. What is the effect of Impure Blood on the Nervous System? 
The nervous system is dependent on the blood for the repair 
of its waste matter; hence, faulty nutrition and impure 
blood result in nervous weakness. 
71. Name some hygienic necessities of a clear and healthy 
Brain. 
A healthy brain needs nutritious food, pure air, a good 
digestion, and a proper alternation of exercise and rest. 
72. In what sense is Insanity hereditary? 
Insanity is the result of weakness or disease of the nervous 
system; the children of the insane inherit from their pa- 
rents nervous weakness rather than mental unsoundness. 
73 Name some of the most common causes of Insanity. 
Lack of proper nourishment, prolonged exhaustion by dis- 
ease, excessive grief, great excitement, overwoik, and 
financial embarrassment. 
74. In what three ways may the tired Brain be recuperated ? 
By sleep, by a change from one kind of mental work to 
another, and by reefeation and amusement. Of these, 
sleep is absolutely necessary; the others give partial rest. 
75. What part of the Nervous System rvould be pierced by a 
ball passing from the opening of one ear to the other? 
The medulla oblongata. 
76. What is said of the sensitiveness of this organ? 
The medulla oblongata is the most exquisitely sensitive 
portion of the whole nervous system. THE NERVOUS S PS 1'EAI. 
77 What is the most fatal spot of the Nervous System? 
The origin of the pneumogastric nerve in the medulla 
oblongata; the least injury at this point causes instant 
death. 
78. What is the Pneumogastric Nerve? 
It is the nerve which passes from the medulla oblongata to 
the stomach, liver, and lungs, and controls the process of 
breathing. 
79. What is a Plexus? 
It is a network or group of nervous fibers; most of the 
nerves are grouped together into plexuses after leaving 
the spinal column. 
80. How do the large nerves generally run? 
The largest and most important nerves follow the same 
general direction as the larger blood vessels, and are gen- 
erally in close proximity to them. 
81. What are the Pacinian Corpuscles? 
They are the minute oval terminations of the nerve fibers 
in the skin of the hands and feet, so called from their dis- 
coverer, Pacini. 
82. What is the cause of the foot being “asleep?" 
Compression prevents the nervous force from passing, and 
the tingling sensation is felt where the nerve starts. 
83. Why do persons with amputated legs often feel sensations 
in the toes? 
The irritation of the nerves at the stump of the amputated 
limb is referred to the points to which the nerves form- 
erly led. 
84. Ho iv rapidly does the nervous force travel? 
Over one hundred feet per second. 
85. Explain the peculiar feeling resulting from striking the 
“funny bone" behind the clboxv. 
The nerve here irritated is the ulnar nerve, and gives sensa- 
tion to the third and fourth fingers, and the pain is re- 
ferred to these fingers by the mind. 
86 What nerves carry the sensation of toothache and neuralgia? 
The trifacial pair of cranial nerves; they divide into three 
branches, and pass to the face and the upper and lower 
jaw. 72 
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
87. What nerve extends farthest from the Head? 
The pneumogastric; branches of this pair of nerves extend 
to the heart, lungs, liver, stomach, and intestines. 
88. What give expression to the Face? 
The portio dura, or facial nerves. 
89. What is the Tentorium? 
It is a tough membrane separating the cerebrum from the 
cerebellum. 
90 What inorganic substance is found in the brain in larger 
proportions than in any other organ of the body? 
Phosphorus; it is found in the brain, spinal cord, and 
nerves, chiefly in the form of phosphates. 
91. What food contains a large proportion of phosphorus? 
Fish contain more phosphorus than any other kind of food. 
92 What is the peculiarity of the nervous system of Fishes? 
Fishes have the lowest development of the nervous system 
of vertebrates. 
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
1. What is meant by the Special Senses? 
They are the outlets of the soul, or the means by which the' 
mind is made acquainted with external objects. 
2. What are the organs of the Special Senses? 
The tongue, the nose, the ear, the eye, and the tactile por- 
tions of the nervous system. 
3. Hoxv many and tvhat are the Special Senses? 
They are usually reckoned as five in number, viz.: Seeing, 
Hearing, Tasting, Smelling, and Feeling. 
4. What is the comparative development of the Senses in Man 
and the Lozver Animals? 
They are much more acute and more fully developed in 
many of the lower animals than in man. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
5. What is the peculiarity of the nerves of the Senses? 
They are incapable of performing any function except the 
one for which they were designed; for instance, the opti 
nerve can not perform the function of feeling. 
6. Does the Olfactory Nerve carry the sensation of pain from 
a wound in the nostrils? 
No; one set of nerves carry the sensation of smell, and an- 
other that of feeling in the nostrils. 
7. Describe the Eye. 
The human eye is nearly globular in form, and about an inch 
in diameter; it is lodged in a bony cavity, protected by the 
overhanging brow. 
8. Of xvhat is the Eye composed ? 
It is made up of three membranes and three humors or 
transparent media, and is covered on the surface exposed 
to the air by mucous membrane. 
9. What is the Sclerotica? 
It is the membrane which covers the ball of the eye; it is 
commonly called the white of the eye. 
io. What is the Cornea? 
It is the convex, transparent part in front forming the win- 
dow of the eye. 
11 Is the Cornea a part of the Sclerotica? 
Some anatomists consider that the cornea is continuous 
with the sclerotic coat; others regard the cornea as a sep- 
arate organ, and set into the sclerotic coat like a watch- 
glass. 
12. What is the Choroid Coat? 
A black or dark lining of the posterior part of the eye to 
absorb the superfluous light; so called because of its re- 
semblance to a chorion 
13 What is the Iris? 
It is the colored curtain surrounding the pupil; the color of 
the iris gives name to the color of the eye. 
14. What is the Pupil ? 
It is the circular opening in the iris through which light 
passes into the eye. 
15. What is the Retina? 
A soft, pulpy, grayish, semi-transparent, and inner mem- 
brane of the eve, and is formed by the expansion of I he THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
optic nerve. It embraces the vitreous humor, and lines 
the choroid, without adhering to either of them 
16. With what is the hollow o f the Eye filled t 
Three fluid or semi-fluid substances—the Aqueous Humor, 
the Crystalline Lens, and the Vitreous Humor. 
17. What is the Aqueous Hun.orl 
It is a fluid, like water, in the front part of the eye; it is just 
behind the cornea. 
18. Describe the Lens 
The crystalline lens is a humor situated immediately behind 
the pupil; it is a double convex lens. 
19 Describe the Vitreous Humor. 
It is a fluid forming the greater part of the interior of the 
eye; it is enclosed in a transparent membrane. 
20. What is the Hyaloid l 
It is a membrane enclosing the vitreous humor; it also 
extends into the interior of the eve, and forms cells in 
which the vitreous humor is held. 
21. Name the Protecting Organs of the Eye. 
The orbits, the eyebrows, the eyelids, and lachrymal appa- 
ratus. 
22. Describe the Orbits. 
They are deep, bony sockets in which the globes of the eye 
are placed. 
23 Describe the Evebrozvs. 
They are projecting arches of fat and skin, covered with 
short, thick hair. 
24. Describe the Eyelids. 
They are movable coverings for the eye, consisting of mem- 
branous and muscular tissue. 
25. What are the Tarsal Cartilagest 
They are the edges of the eyelids. 
26. What are the Meibomian Glands? 
They are minute glands in the cartilage of the eyelids. 
27. What is the Conjunctiva? 
A smooth mucous membrane lining the eyelids. 
28. What difference is there in the movement of the Eyelids? 
The upper eyelid has a much greater latitude of movement 
than the lower. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
29 If 7at purposes do the Eyelids serve? 
They shield the eye from mechanical violence and too pow- 
erful light, and keep the eye moist and free from dust 
by winking. 
30. Of %vhat does the Lachrymal Apparatus consist f 
The lachrymal gland and its duct, the lachrymal canals, 
i and the nasal ducts. 
31. Describe the Lachrymal Gland. 
It is situated at the outer angle of each eye, and is about 
three-fourths of an inch in length 
32 What are the Lachrymal Ducts? 
They are ten or twelve small ducts which pass from the 
lachrymal gland and open upon the inner side of the eye- 
lids, and carry tears to the eyes. 
33 What are the Lachrymal Canals? 
They are two canals provided for each eye which carry the 
excess of tears into the nasal duct 
34. What is the Nasal Duct ? 
It is a short canal about three-fourths of an inch in length, 
leading from the internal angle of the eye backward and 
downward. 
35 Why is the image on the Retina inverted ? 
Because the crystalline lens causes the rays of light to cross 
each other. 
36 What is the cause of Long- and Short-sightedness? 
When the crystalline lens is too much flattened, long-sight- 
edness results; when the lens has too much convexity, 
short-sightedness results. 
37 What is the effect of advancing age on the shape of the lens 
of the Eye? 
The lens generally is flattened with those advanced in life, 
and artificial convex lenses are needed to correct the 
defect. 
38. What is the primary purpose of the Retina and Optic 
Nerve? 
To receive and transmit to the brain the color and form 
of external objects. 
39 Why is the Sclerotic Coat hard and firm? 
To give firm attachment to the muscles which move the 
eye, and to protect the delicate parts within. 76 
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
40. Hozv does the Eye receive blood t 
Bj" means of the choroid coat, which is made up almost en- 
tirely of blood-vessels. 
41. Hozv is the Pupil contracted f 
There are circular muscular fibers around the pupil which 
contract under the stimulus of strong light, and lessen 
the pupil. . 
42. Hozv is the Pupil dilated ? 
There are radiated muscular fibers running from the pupil 
through the iris, which contract when the light is feeble, 
and enlarge the pupil. 
43. What humor of the Eye will nature replace zvhen it is 
removed ? 
The aqueous humor; this is not true of either of the other 
humors. 
44. Why are there three humors of the Eye? 
To prevent the separation of the rays of light into different 
colors; without the different media we would see the pris- 
matic colors. 
45. What is meant by an Achromatic Lens? 
It is a lens made of two kinds of glass or other transparent 
substances. In a telescope it remedies the defect <>f pris- 
matic colors seen on the edges of heavenly bodies when 
a lens made of only one kind of glass is used. The dif- 
ferent humors of the eye serve the same purpose as dif- 
ferent kinds of glass in the telescope. 
46. Hozv is the Eye adjusted to see different distances? 
The healthy eye has the power of changing the convexity 
of the crystalline lens so as to adapt itself to near and 
distant objects. 
47. What is the usual cause of Squinting? 
Long-sightedness; the muscles are strained in order to 
obtain distinct vision of near objects 
48. Hozv does the surgeon cure Squinting? 
By cutting the muscle that draws the eye out of place. 
49. What is the effect of reading type so small as to strain the 
E ves ? 
It is believed to cause near-sightedness, which is alarm- 
ingly on the increase in our schools. Reading by insuffi- 
cient light has the same effect THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
50. When should glasses begin to be worn? 
Whenever it is found that they will materially improve the 
sight; any delay will injure the eyes. Spectacles are 
often more necessary at the age of six than sixty. 
51. What is Color-Blindness? 
It is inability to distinguish between certain colors, and re- 
sults from the retina being insensible to one of three ele- 
mentary color sensations. 
52 What is said of the eyes of the common house fly? 
The fly has 4,000 eyes on each side of the head; that is, its 
eyes are made up of an aggregation of single lenses, each 
of which is a complete visual instrument, receiving rays 
coming only in one direction. 
53. What is remarkable about the eye of a fish ? 
The great size and spherical form of the lens, which is nec- 
essary to give sufficient refraction to the rays coming 
through so dense a medium as water. 
54. Hoxv is the Ear divided ? 
(1) The external ear; (2) the middle ear; (3) the internal 
ear. 
55. What is the Pinna? 
It is the external ear, and consists of a sheet of cartilage 
curiously folded. 
56. What Muscles has the Ear? 
The external ear has five muscles, which in most quadru- 
peds enable them to readily move the ears; ihese mus- 
cles exist in man in a rudimentary state; a few, however, 
have the power of moving the ears. 
57. Describe the Auditory Canal. 
It is an irregular tube, about one-half an inch in diameter, 
leading from the external to the middle ear. 
58. What is the Tympanum? 
It is the middle ear, and consists of a cavity about half an 
inch in its longest diameter. 
59. Describe “the Little Bones of Hearing." 
They are three little bones hanging across the cavity of the 
middle ear, named, from their shape, the maleus (a ham- 
mer), the incus (an anvil), and the stapes (a stirrup). All 
together they only weigh a few grains. THE SPECIAL SENSES 
60. What is the Labyrinth ? 
It is the internal ear, and is called the labyrinth because 
of its very complicated character. It consists of a series 
of cavities and canals, some of which are bony, and others 
cartilaginous. 
61. What is the Eustachian Tube? 
It is a tubular passage about two inches long, and connects 
the tympanum with the pharynx. 
62. Hozv many openings are there in the walls of the Tym- 
panum l1 
Ten, the most important of which are the Eustachian tube, 
the opening into the labyrinth, and the opening to the 
external ear. 
63. With vj/iat is the Internal Ear filled t 
With a watery fluid. 
64. What are the Otoliths? 
Two ear stones in a little sac floating in the fluid contained 
in the internal ear; the sac also contains hair-like bristles 
and fine sand 
65. What portions of the Ear contain air and what fluid? 
The external and middle ear are full of air, but the internal 
ear is filled with a fluid. 
66. Is there any internal connection between our two Ears? 
No; and for this reason one may be injured or diseased, 
while the other remains sound. 
67. What is the purpose of the Pinna? 
To collect sounds from as large a sphere as possible, and 
convey them to the auditory canal; for this reason it 
is funnel-shaped. 
68. What is the purpose of the Auditory Canal? 
To give greater intensity to the sounds collected by the 
external ear 
69 What is the Membrana Tympani? 
It is a very thin and elastic membrane, less than half an 
inch in diameter, stretched across the auditory canal, and 
so arranged that its tension may be regulated by muscles. 
70. What is the purpose of this Membrane? 
It is the drum of the ear; it is designed to receive all the 
vibrations of the sound-waves falling upon it, and to 
transmit them to the auditory nerve. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
79 
71. What is the -purpose of the Eustachian Tube? 
It communicates with the pharynx so as to allow an equal 
pressure of air on both sides of the ear drum. 
72. Why does a cold sometimes cause a difficulty in hearing ? 
A cold, and especially a sore throat, by inflaming the 
mucous membrane lining the Eustachian tube, may pre- 
vent the air from freely reaching the inner side of the 
ear drum 
73. What -would be the effect of a larger External Ear in man ? 
He could hear better, as is shown by assisting the ear in 
collecting sound by putting the hand up behind it, and by 
the use of an ear trumpet. 
74 How is sound carried from one place, to another? 
By vibrations either in the air or some other matter. 
75. Ho tv many kinds of vibrations in Ike Ear before the sensa- 
tion of sound is perceived ? 
Five; (t) vibrations of the air in the tube of the ear; (2) 
of the drum; (3) of the chain of little bones; (4) of the 
cochlea; (5) of the fluid in the ear passages. 
76. What is the hardest bone in the Body? 
The temporal bone, which protects the internal ear; it is so 
hard that it is called the petrous, or rock-like bone. 
77. What is the object of the wax of the Ear? 
It is a bitter wax, and is designed to protect the ear from 
insects. 
78. Why should not the Ear be. struck with the hand or a book? 
The tympanum may be thus seriously injured, and the hear- 
ing impaired. 
79. Is it possible for the sensation of sound to reach the. Ear 
without being communicated by air-waves? 
Yes; for example, the watch may be heard to tick when 
placed between the teeth. 
80 How is the ticking of a watch communicated through the 
teeth to the Auditory Nerve? 
The vibrations are communicated to the teeth; thence to 
the bones between the teeth and the winding passages of 
the ear and to the fluids in the ear passages. 
81. What are the Ossicles of the Ear? 
The little bones of the ear. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
82. What is meant by straining the Ear to hear low sounds? 
By the aid of muscle we cause the chain of little bones or 
ossicles to press more firmly against the membranes. 
83. What three physical properties of sound are distinguished 
by the Ear? 
(1) The intensity or loudness; (2) pitch; (3) quality. 
84. Upon what does the Pitch depend ? 
Upon the length of the waves of sound. 
85. What is meant by the Quality of Sound ? 
It is that property by which we are enabled to determine 
the character of the substance from which it proceeds; 
for example, whether the sound is metallic or otherwise, 
from a stringed or reed instrument, etc. 
86. What theory has been advanced concerning the discrimina- 
tion of the three properties of sound? 
That the membrana tympani enables us to determine the 
intensity, the cochlea the pitch, and the canals the quality 
of sound. 
87. Describe the structure of the Nose. 
It is principally made up of bone, cartilage, and integu- 
ments, with a thin plate of bone and cartilage in the 
middle running in a vertical direction. 
88 What are the Nasal Bones? 
They are two bones at the base of the nose, and they give it 
firmness and maintain its form 
89. Describe the Nostrils. 
They are the two openings in the nose; they run back into 
the pharynx, and are lim'd with a continuation of the 
mucous membrane of the throat. 
yo. Why are black specks more likely to appear on the nose than 
other parts of the body? 
The skin covering the nose is quite thick, and contains 
small glands, which secrete an oily fluid. Unless the 
glands are kept open, and the skin clean, dust and other 
impurities remain in their orifices. 
91 Describe the Olfactory Nerves. 
They are the first of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves; 
they enter the olfactory chambers through little openings 
in the bony plate at the roof of the nose. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
9i. Where is the sense of Smell located ? 
In the delicate mucous membrane lining the nasal passages. 
93. Why do toe draw air forcibly into the nostrils when we de- 
sire to detect a faint odorf 
Because the olfactory nerves are distributed only over the 
mucous membrane of the upper part of the nose, and 
the sense of smelling is restricted to this part of the nasal 
cavities. 
94. What usef ul purpose does the sense of Smell serve? 
It enables us to discriminate in the quality of food, and to 
avoid the injurious effects of many foul vapors. 
95. Why is Smell said to be a sense of inferior importance? 
As one of the windows to the soul, it furnishes the mind 
with but few ideas, and these are only subservient to our 
physical well being. 
96. Where is this sense most highly developed ? 
It is generally better developed in the lower animals than 
in man, and in carnivorous animals than in herbivorous. 
97 Why can we smell but one odor at a time? 
Because the olfactory nerves are slow in their operation, 
and the impression made upon them remains for some 
time 
98. Does any nerve besides the Olfactory enter the. lining 
membrane of the nostrils? 
Yes; a branch of the fifth pair of cranial nerves also sends 
branches to this membrane. The odor of a substance, 
such as snuff', is perceived by the olfactory nerve; its pun- 
gency or tickling sensation by the branch of the fifth pair 
of nerves. 
99 Where is the sense o f Taste located ? 
It is confined in all animals to the tongue and inner surface 
of the mouth; the tongue in man is pre-eminently the 
organ of taste. 
100. What difference is there in the tasting power of the differ- 
ent parts of the Tongue? 
The back of the tongue is most sensitive to salt and bitter 
substances; the edges of the torlgue to sweet and sour 
substances.-—Steele. 
101 What are the chief uses of the sense of Taste? 
To direct us in the choice of food, and to excite the flow 
of saliva and mucus to aid in digestion. 82 
THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
102. Describe the coat of the Tongue. 
The tongue is covered with a thick mucous membrane, 
which contains a large number of papillae similar to 
those of the skin. 
103. Describe the action of the Papillce in tasting. 
They start up in tasting, as can be seen by placing a drop 
of vinegar on the tongue before a mirror. 
104. Why is a substance with an unpleasant taste more likely 
to produce vomiting when placed on the back part of 
the tongue than 011 the forward part ? 
Because the back part of the tongue only is supplied with 
nerves which are in sympathy with the stomach; these 
nerves are branches of the “fifth pair.” 
105. What three kinds of Papillce on the Tongue? 
The Circumvallate, the Fungiform, and the Conical. 
106. Describe the Circumvallate Papillce. 
They are shaped like the letter V, with the point down- 
ward, and are surrounded by an annular wall, from 
which they derive their name. 
107. How many and where are they? 
They are about a dozen in number, and are found on the 
back part of the tongue. 
108. Describe the Fungiform Papillce. 
They are something like a mushroom in shape; they are 
more numerous than the circumvallate, and are most 
numerous at and near the tip. 
109. Describe the Conical Papillce. 
They are of conical shape, and more numerous lhan the 
others, and are arranged in rows diverging from the 
median line of the tongue. 
1x0. What gives the velvety appearance of the Tongue? 
Hair-like pi'ojections upon some of the papillae. 
111. Why is a wholly insoluble substance tasteless? 
Because the substance tasted must be absorbed by the pa- 
pillae, and this can only be done in a liquid condition. 
112. What nerves are in the Tongue? 
Three; the Gustatory, the Hypoglossal, and the Glosso- 
pharyngeal. THE SPECIAL SENSES. 
83 
113 Why is Touch sometimes called “the common sense?" 
Because its nerves are spread over the whole body. 
114. What are the organs of Touch? 
The papillae of the skin. 
115. What kind of nerve fibers are found in the papillae of the 
Skin? 
Nerves of sensation, which always terminate in loops, and 
never with free extremities. 
116. What are the characteristics of the skin ■which is peculiarly 
susceptible to Touch ? 
It has a deep layer of fibrous tissue; it has a delicate net- 
work of nerves running through the deeper layers, and 
it has an outer, insensible layer to shield the sensitive 
parts from injury 
1x7. What fact illustrating the power of habit in the location 
of sensations has been shown by the Taliacotian Oper- 
ation ? 
“After the Taliacotian operation—which consists in mak- 
ing a new nose from the skin of the forehead—if the 
nose itches, the patient scratches the forehead as the 
seat of the sensation.”—Hitchcock. 
118. Is the Bye or the Ear most liable to disease? 
“The ear is more liable to disease than the eye.”—Eclectic 
Physiology. 
119. How may a disease of the throat affect the Ear? 
The inflammation of the mucous membrane of the throat 
may extend to the ear through the Eustachian tube. 
120. What are some of the most common causes of “ringing 
in the ears?" 
Congestion of the brain, nervous debility, and quiniza- 
tion (the effect of large doses of quinine). 
121. In xvhat form of deafness is a patient unable to hear the 
ticking of a xvatch placed between the teeth? 
Only when it results from paralysis of the auditory nerve. 
122 Hozv can the surgeon see the interior of a patient's Eye? 
By means of an instrument called the ophthalmascope; 
light is thrown into the eye, and its interior is examined 
with a lens. 84 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
123. What is Cataract? 
It is a disease of the eye in which there is an opacity of 
the crystalline lens or of its capsule, which obscures 
vision. 
124 What is said of the sensitiveness of the Optic Nerve? 
It is a remarkable fact that the nerve which carries the 
impressions made by the rays of light on the retina is 
not itself sensitive to light. 
125 What is “the blind spot" of the eye? 
It is the spot on the retina where the optic nerve enters the 
eye; this spot is insensible to light. 
126 Give instances of injury to the eyes from an excess of 
light. 
Looking at the sun is painful and injurious; the reflection 
of bright sunlight from snow may cause permanent 
injury; even the direct light from a lamp or window 
should be avoided in reading or sewing. 
127. What is the best treatment for inflamed Eyes? 
Give them perfect rest; Avear colored glasses for a time, or 
remain in a shaded room. 
THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL 
AND NARCOTICS. 
1. What is Alcohol ? 
In its ordinary acceptation it is the spirituous principle result- 
ing from the fermentation of saccharine bodies. 
2. From what substances can Alcohol be obtained? 
Sugar is the only substance susceptible of \dnous fermenta- 
tion, and the only substance from which alcohol can be 
derived 
3. Ho w is it that Alcohol can be derived from potatoes and 
grains deficient in sugar? 
These vegetable productions contain much starch, and the ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
85 
starch is converted into sugar before alcoholic fermenta- 
tion begins. 
4. Describe pure Alcohol. 
It is a highly volatile liquid, possessing a pungent odor, and 
a hot, burning taste; it is transparent and colorless, and 
about one-fifth lighter than water. 
5 Is Alcohol combustiblef 
It is very combustible, and burns with a pale blue flame, with- 
out smoke, but with intense heat. 
6. If pure Alcohol be left in an uncorked bottle, -what -will be 
the result I 
It will rapidly absorb water from the air, and become di- 
luted. 
7 Why does Alcohol preserve organic bodies from putrefac- 
tion ? 
Because of its strong affinity for water, and its power of 
coagulating albumen. 
8. What is Proof Spirit ? 
A mixture of equal parts of alcohol and water. 
9. What is the composition of the strongest Alcohol of com- 
merce? 
Ninety per cent, of alcohol, and ten per cent, of water. 
10 What is the effect of taking Alcohol into the Stomach? 
Pure alcohol in the stomach is a deadly poison; when dilu- 
ted with water it produces the well-known effects of 
stimulation and intoxication. 
11. What are the chief classes of Intoxicating Drinks? 
Ardent spirits, wines, and malt liquors. 
12. What are Ardent Spirits? 
They are liquids containing a large percentage of alcohol, 
and are the product of distillation. 
13. What is Distillation? 
When fermented liquors are subjected to a moderate heat, 
the alcohol they contain is separated from the water, and 
rises as vapor. When this operation is conducted in 
closed vessels, and the alcoholic vapors are collected and 
condensed by cooling, it is called distillation, and ardent 
spirits are obtained. 86 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
14. What are the most common Ardent Spirits? 
Whisky, brandy, gin, and rum. 
15. What is Whisky ? 
Whisky is ardent spirits manufactured from corn, rye, or 
potatoes, mixed with a portion of barley malt; the fer- 
mented liquor is afterwai'ds distilled. 
16. What is Brandy? 
A spirituous liquor obtained by the distillation of wine. A 
pure article of wine-brandy is seldom found. 
17. What is Gin? 
Holland gin is ardent spirits rectified (re-distilled) from the 
fermented liquor of rye and barley with juniper berries. 
Common gin is flavored with turpentine instead of juni- 
per berries. 
18 What is Rum? 
Ardent spirits obtained by distilling fermented molasses. 
19. What percentage of Alcohol do Ardent Spirits usually 
contain? 
About fifty per cent. 
20. What is Malt ? 
Grain, usually barley, moistened with water ;\nd made to 
germinate, and afterwards dried. 
21. What are Malt-Liquors? 
Liquors made with an infusion of malt, as ale, beer and 
porter. 
22 Hoiv much Alcohol do Malt Liquors contain? 
English ale, from 5 to 10 per cent.; porter, from 3 to 6, and 
beer, from 2 to 3. 
23. What is Wine? 
It is the fermented juice of the grape; the term is also ap- 
plied J:o the fermented juice of certain other fruits, such 
as currant wine, gooseberry wine, blackberry wine, etc. 
24 What is meant by the strength of Wine? 
The strength of wine depends wholly upon the alcohol it 
contains, and this varies greatly in the different kinds. 
25. How much Alcohol do Wines usually contain? 
The lighter wines from 5 to 10 per cent.; the stronger wines 
from 15 to 25. ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
87 
26. What is the effect of Alcohol on the Skin and Mucous 
Membrane? 
Strong alcohol applied to the skin is an irritant; taken into 
the mouth or stomach it will blister the mucous mem- 
brane. Diluted alcohol produces the same effects in a 
less degree. 
27. Why do strong Alcohol and Common Salt produce thirst ? 
They both have a strong affinity for water, and when taken 
into the stomach absorb water from the tissues, and thus 
act as caustics or irritants. 
28. Does Alcohol ever slake thirst ? 
No; the large amount of water in some alcoholic drinks 
enables them to allay thirst, but this is due to the water, 
and not the alcohol. 
29. Why is an Alcohol Beverage not a natural drink? 
A natural drink will allay thirst; alcohol tends to blister, 
burn, and inflame. 
30. What effect does the habitual use of Alcohol have on the 
tissues of the body ? 
Post-mortem examinations show that the tissues are hard- 
ened by alcoholic drinks; this is due to the loss of their 
natural proportion of water. 
31. Where are the irritant effects of Alcohol most injurious? 
Upon the internal delicate membranes and tissues; hence 
the various abdominal inflammations of habitual drunk- 
ards. 
32. What is the usual effect of the habitual use of intoxicating 
liquors upon the soft tissues? 
It causes them to shrink, to harden, and to stiffen; this is 
especially true of the nervous tissues. 
33. What is the effect of Alcohol on albumen? 
Tt coagulates it; that is, causes it to become hard and solid. 
34. Ho-w tnay the effects of Alcohol on albumen be easily shown? 
By pouring alcohol, strong whisky, or brandy on the white 
of an egg. 
33. What is the effect of Alcohol on the gastric juice? 
Experiments tend to show that it coagulates and precipi- 
tates the pepsin from the gastric juice. 88 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
36 What effect does Alcohol have on the lining of the stomach? 
It thickens and hardens the membranes, permanently dilates 
the blood-vessels, and in some cases ulcerates the surface. 
37. What was observed of the effect of Alcohol 011 the stomach 
of St. Martin? 
“ The free, ordinary use of any intoxicating liquor, when 
continued for some days, invariably produced inflamma- 
tion, ulcerous patches, and, finally, a discharge of morbid 
matter tinged with blood ”—Dr. Beaumont. 
38. What organs of the body receive the largest share of Al- 
cohol from the stomach? 
The brain receives most; the liver the second largest share. 
39 How does Alcohol reach the Liver from the stomach? 
It is carried directly from the stomach to the liver by the 
portal vein. 
40. What is the effect of Alcohol on the Liver? 
“ The color of the bile is soon changed from yellow to 
green, and even black.” In the case of an habitual 
drunkard the liver becomes hardened and shrunk. 
41. Is Alcohol a food ? 
“ It can not supply anything which is essential to the nutri- 
tion of the system, since we find not only individuals but 
whole nations maintaining the highest vigor and activity, 
both of body and mind, without ever employing it as 
an article of diet.”—Dr. Wm. B. Carpenter. 
42. Hoxv do Food and Alcohol differ in their action? 
The system seizes hold of true foods to change them into 
nutrient blood; on the other hand, nature seeks to rid the 
system of alcohol, and to cast it out as poison. 
43. Can Alcohol furnish a nutriment for any fart of the body? 
“That alcohol is incapable of forming any part of the body 
is admitted by all physiologists. It can not be converted 
into brain, muscle, or food.”—Cameron. 
44 Why can Alcohol be smelled in the breath of a drunkard ? 
The lungs are scavengers for cleansing the system of im- 
purities, and they work to throw alcohol from the system, 
and cast it out with the breath. 
45. Is Alcohol a heat-producer? 
Alcohol is a stimulant, and its first effect is to slightly in- 
crease the temperature of the body; but soon the temper- ALCOHOL AND lYARCOTICS. 
89 
ature is lowered, and the reduction of temperature is in 
exact proportion to the amount of alcohol taken. 
46. Should Alcohol be used in very cold climates? 
“ In Arctic countries alcohol is not only completely useless, 
but positively injurious. I have known strong, able- 
bodied men to become utterly incapable of resisting cold 
in consequence of long-continued use of alcoholics.”— 
Dr. Hayes. 
17. Does Alcohol enable one to undergo severe bodily exertion ? 
No; men who are in training for running, rowing, and 
other contests deny themselves all alcoholic liquors. 
48. Does Alcohol enable one to -withstand the hardships of a 
severe climate? 
“The regular routine employment of alcoholic stimulants 
by man in health is never, under any circumstances, use- 
ful. We make no exceptions in favor of cold, or heat, or 
rain.”—Dr. F. H Hamilton. 
49. Why should Alcohol be called a Poison? 
“ A poison is any substance, in whatever form it may be, 
which, when applied to a living surface, disconcerts life’s 
healthy movement. Such a poison is alcohol; such, in all 
its forms, mix it as you may. It is never digested and 
converted into nourishment.”—Dr. Mussey. 
50. What is the effect of Alcohol on the -waste of the body? 
Its tendency is to cause a formation of an unstable sub- 
stance resembling fat, and thus to increase the weight of 
the body. 
51. In -what xvay does Alcohol increase the -weight of the body? 
It checks the ordinary waste of the system, and prevents the 
ordinary life processes of the body from going on with 
their healthy vigor and strength. 
52. What is the effect of Alcohol on the blood? 
It causes the blood corpuscles to shrink, and to become 
wrinkled and ragged. 
53. What is the comparative fatality of disease among those 
-who use and those -who do not use Alcohol? 
Diseases are generally more fatal with those who habit- 
ually use intoxicating liquors; they suffer from impurities 
of the blood and a weakening of the great organs of 
circulation 90 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS 
54- What are the four stages of the action of Alcohol ? 
(i) Stimulation, (2) Depression, (3) Intoxication, (4) Un- 
consciousness. 
55. Describe the stimulant effects of Alcohol, 
The first effects are to arouse the system, and for a brief 
time to give it tone and vigor. 
56. Describe the depressing effects of Alcohol. 
The second stage of its action is depression, in which there 
is more or less of a chilliness and a fall of temperature, 
and a partial loss of mental and muscular control. 
57 Describe Intoxication 
It is the third stage of the action of alcohol, in which Ihe 
organs are filled with blood, and the nervous system 
greatly deranged; the breathing is slower; the heart beats 
less rapidly, and the temperature is lower. 
58. Describe the stage of unconsciousness resulting from Alco- 
hol. 
In this stage the narcotic effects of the drug are most 
marked; the individual loses all mental control, and lies 
helpless, with his breathing slow and clogged. 
59 What names have been given to the four stages of the pro- 
gressive influences of Alcohol other than those before 
givent 
(1) The stage of Excitement, (2) the stage of Muscular 
Weakness, (3) the stage of Mental Weakness, (4) the 
stage of Unconsciousness. 
60. What effect does cold have on. intoxicated personsl 
It has a wonderful influence in hastening the stage of 
unconsciousness, and to cause the inebriate to sink into 
lethargy, fall, and die 
61 How may we distinguish the last stage of alcoholic influ- 
ence from a sound sleep f 
When a person is “dead drunk,” the pulse is slow, and 
almost imperceptible; the face is pale, and the skin cold; 
if the arm be pinched it is not moved. 
62. What organ of the body seems to have the strongest affinity 
for Alcohol ? 
The brain; this organ absorbs more alcohol than any other, 
and the delicate structure is correspondingly affected. ALCOHOL AND NARCOl'ICS. 
91 
63. What is the effect of a single overdose of alcoholic liquor on 
the Braint 
The tiny vessels of the brain become clogged with blood 
that is unfitted to nourish, and the brain is deprived of its 
usual quantity of life-giving oxygen. 
64. What is the effect on the Brain of the habitual use of Alco- 
hol ? 
In time the liquor hardens and thickens the membrane en- 
veloping the nervous matter, and the nerve capsules 
undergo a “ fatty degeneration.”—Steele. 
65. Name the nervous and brain diseases caused by the intem- 
perate use of Alcohol. 
“Diseases of the brain and nervous system, indicated by 
such names as apoplexy, epilepsy, paralysis, vertigo, soft- 
ening of the brain, delirium tremens, dipsomania or inor- 
dinate craving for drink, loss of memory, and that general 
failure of the mental power called dementia.”—Rich- 
ardson. 
66. What is Delirium Tremens? 
“ A disease of the brain, characterized by frightful dreams 
and visions, and resulting from the excessive and pro- 
tracted use of spirituous liquors.”—Braude. 
67 How are the injurious effects of Alcohol oti the mind 
caused ? 
“The effects of alcohol on the mind are caused by its para- 
lyzing and inflaming action upon the brain and other 
parts of the nervous system.”—Eclectic Physiology. 
68. What is the effect of Alcohol on the zvill ? 
Alcoholized blood weakens the will, causes indecision and 
a breaking of promises to reform, and, in a large meas- 
ure, a loss of the power of self-control. 
69. What is the effect of habitual inebriation on the moral 
sense? 
“ A lowered standard of veracity and dulled sense of honor 
quite as much as an impaired will.” 
70. What proportion of the cases of Insanity are caused by 
intemperance? 
“It is surely within the truth to say that half the exist- 
ing cases of insanity are due directly or indirectly to this 
social curse ”—Dr Trllowlees 92 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
71. What is said of /htemperance as a cause of brain disorders? 
“ With the single exception of hereditary predisposition, in- 
temperance is by far the most fruitful of all the causes of 
brain disease.”—lb. 
72. Why can -we not taste so acutely for a time after holding 
alcohol in the mouth? 
Because the nerves of taste are somewhat deadened by the 
alcohol. 
73- Why does Alcohol act as a ''fain-cure?" 
• Because it partially deadens or paralyzes the nerves, so 
that we do not feel the pain. 
74 How does Alcohol act as a Stimulant ? 
“ When alcohol is taken into the system its first effects are 
to arouse and alarm the system; for a brief season the 
person feels stronger; the mind is also brightened and 
cheered. This is called stimulation Such effects are only 
temporary.”—Eclectic Physiology. 
75. Hoxv does Alcohol act as a Narcotic? 
“The'use of alcohol in large quantities, or in small quanti- 
ties that are often repeated, invariably causes narcotic 
depression.”—lb. 
76. Why is nothing gained by the stimulating effects of Alcohol? 
“The stimulation is followed by a corresponding depression 
of power in proportion as the previous excitement has 
been greater; nothing is, therefore, gained in the end.”— 
Dr W. B. Carpenter. 
77. When is the use of Alcohol as a stimulating medicine justi- 
fiable? 
“ Its use is only justifiable where some temporary emergen- 
cies can only be met by a temporary increase of power, 
even at the expense of an increased amount of subse- 
quent depression, or where it affords aid in the introduc- 
tion of aliment into the which nothing else can so 
well supply.”—lb. 
78 What caution should be used in administering Alcoholic 
Stimulants? 
In chronic diseases and painful affections in which alcohol 
may be soothing there is a constant tendency to an in- 
crease in the frequency and size of the dose, and danger 
of begetting intemperate habits. ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS 
93 
79 What is to be said of the use of Wine as a beverage? 
“ Wine is consumed in most civilized countries, but in a 
state of health it is at least useless, if not absolutely per- 
nicious.”— U. S. Dispensatory. 
80. What diseases are caused by the habitual and excessive use 
of Wines? 
“They weaken the stomach, produce disease of the liver, 
and give rise to gout, dropsy, apoplexy, tremors, and 
not infrequently mania.”—lb 
81. Does Alcohol produce clearness and vigor of mind ? 
No; the mental activity it excites is an unsafe state of the 
mind, for the proper poise of the judgment is absent. 
82. What is Dipsomania? 
It is an uncontrollable or irresistible craving for intoxicat- 
ing liquors. 
83. What two forms of Dipsomania are there? 
(1) Periodical or paroxysmal; (2) Chronic or persistent. 
84. Describe the difference in the two forms of Dipsomania. 
In the first form the subject may be temperate for weeks or 
months, and then abandon himself to violent excess for a 
longer or shorter period; in the second form the subject 
is constantly inebriated so long as the opportunity exists 
85. Is Chronic Intemperance a disease? 
Yes; but to designate it as such is not at all to deny the 
accountability of those who voluntarily incur it. 
86 What are the various names for the disease of uncontrol- 
lable Intemperance? 
Dipsomania, methomania, oinomania, and alcoholism. 
87. What cure is there for this disease? 
“No safety exists except in seclusion for a year or two 
where the individual can not obtain stimulus, and is not 
made by company to desire it.”—Dr. Henry Hartshorne. 
88. Hoxv should the State treat the inebriate? 
“Laws should be passed by which every person, proved 
upon inquiry before a commission to be habitually intem- 
perate, should (like a lunatic) be deprived of the control 
of his liberty and property.”—lb. 
89. Hoxv long a time should the inebriate be secluded and 
restrained ? 
“ Never less than a year; better two years.”—lb. 94 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
go. IVkat are Inebriate Asylums? 
Home-like retreats for the seclusion and restraint of the 
habitually intemperate. “ The success so far obtained in 
these retreats has been quite enough to justify their estab- 
lishment and support near every large city.”—lb. 
gi. What is Fatty Degeneration of the Heart? 
It consists of the substitution of fat for the muscular sub 
stance of the heart. 
92. What influence has Alcohol in causing this disease? 
“A remarkable influence; malt liquors seem to be more 
effective in causing the fatty growth than spirits, but any 
form of alcoholism conduces to it.”—Dr. J. R. Reynolds. 
93. What is Bright's Disease? 
A dangerous and often fatal disease of the kidneys, due to a 
deteriorated or corrupted condition of the blood. 
94. Does Intemperance produce Bright's Disease? 
“ The abuse of spirituous liquors is a prominent determining 
cause of Bright’s disease.”—Dr. J. R. Rey-nolds. 
95. What proportion of cases of this disease are due to Alcohol ? 
“Dr. R. Christeon estimates the proportion of cases in Ed- 
inburgh due to intemperance as three-fourths or four-fifths 
of the whole number.”—lb. 
96. Are all dram-drinkers liable to diseases of the kidneys? 
“Dr. Christeon observes that dram-drinkers who regularly 
take ardent spirits several times a day, but short of intox- 
ication, are liable to diseases of the kidneys as well as 
drunkards.”—lb. 
97. What is a Narcotic? 
A drug which diminishes or suspends the function of the 
nervous system after a preliminary stage of excitement. 
98. In xvhat do all Narcotics agree? 
“The effects of all of them are expended chiefly on the ner- 
vous system; they stimulate the functions of the brain, 
but this stage of excitement, which majr be of shorter 
or longer duration, is followed by sopor, coma, and com- 
plete insensibility.” 
99 Is Alcohol a Narcotic? 
It is classed by the best writers on materia medica as a true 
narcotic. Ar.COHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
95 
too. What is Tobacco? 
The tobacco of commerce is the dried leaves of the plant 
nicotiana tabacutfi. 
xox. What is Nicotine? 
It is a powerful alkaloid found in tobacco; it is an oily, 
colorless liquid with a hot and acrid taste. 
to2. What are the physiological effects of Nicotine? 
It is a severe and depressing nauseant and emetic, a local 
irritant, and produces burning pain at the epigastrium. 
103 Is Tobacco used in medicine as an external application? 
It formerly was, but so many unfortunate accidents have 
resulted that now its use in this way is rare. 
104. What distinction is there between the narcotic effects of 
Alcohol and Opium, and of Tobacco? 
Alcohol and opium are cerebral sedatives; tobacco is a 
motor depressant. 
105. What is a Cerebral Sedative? 
An agent which quiets or suspends the action of the cere- 
brum 
xo6 What is a Motor Depressant? 
An agent which depresses the motor functions of the spinal 
cord and sympathetic system. 
107. How much Nicotine is there in Tobacco? 
On the average, Havana contains about 2 per cent.; Vir- 
ginia about 6 per cent.; some kinds contain 7 per cent. 
108. What is said of the. strength of the poison of Nicotine? 
The amount contained in two cigars, if thrown directly 
into the blood, would cause death. 
109. Give the principal chemical constituents of Tobacco. 
Carbonic acic, carbonic oxide, ammonia gases, carbon, and 
nicotine. 
no. What is the effect of the carbonic acid of Tobacco? 
It tends to produce sleepiness and headache. 
111. What is the effect of the carbonic oxide of Tobacco? 
It causes a tremulous movement of the muscles and of the 
heart. 
x 12. What is the effect of the ammonia of Tobacco? 
It bites the tongue of the smoker, excites the salivary 
glands, and causes dryness of the throat and muscles 96 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
113. What is it that gives the peculiar odor to the breath and 
clothing of the smoker? 
The nicotine of the tobacco; it also gives the sickening 
taste to an old pipe. 
114. What is the effect of Tobacco upon the human system -when 
first used? 
It causes nausea and headache; giddiness also ensues from 
the irritation of the motor nerves. 
115. What is the effect of habit in the use of Tobacco? 
The system becomes adjusted to the functional disturb- 
ances, and craves the narcotic influences. 
116. How does Tobacco act as a stimulant? 
By cutting off the nervous supply from the extremities, 
and concentrating it upon the nerve centers. 
117. What organs suffer most from the use of Tobacco? 
The stomach, the liver, the heart, and the nerve centers. 
118. What is the worst effect upon the mind? 
By its narcotic effects, its use fixes upon the system the 
most slavish conditions of the will, and blunts and de- 
grades the mind. 
119. What is the effect of Tobacco on the eye? 
“ It produces dilation of the pupils and confusion of vision.” 
120. What is the effect of Tobacco on the mucous membrane? 
Redness, dryness, and occasional peeling off of the mem- 
brane, and sometimes that fatal disease, cancer of the 
throat. 
121. What is Opium? 
The dried juice of the poppy. 
122. What is meant by the Opium Habit ? 
It is the habitual use of the drug or its tinctures or 
alkaloids for their narcotic and sedative effects. 
123 Name the different forms of the Opium Habit. 
Some smoke or chew the gum, some swallow morphine, 
laudanum, or paregoric, or inject some form of the drug 
under the skin. 
124. What are the effects of Opium in medicine? 
In small doses it allays pain, and in larger ones soothes to 
sleep. ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
97 
125. What is the effect of Of him-Eating on the mind ? 
It arouses the brain and fires the imagination to a wonder- 
ful pitch; following this unnatural exhilaration is a cor- 
responding depression. 
126. What is said of the appetite for Opium? 
Its use tends to produce an uncontrollable appetite, and 
the dose must be gradually increased to produce the 
original exhilaration. 
127. What is said of the strength of the Opium Habit? 
It is the most tyrannical habit known to man; few possess 
the determination to escape its fetters. 
128. What is said of the Hypodermic Injection of Morphine? 
The operation is nearly painless, and it may cause instant 
relief from pain, but it is as injurious and dangerous as 
opium-eating. 
129. Why is relief from pain more speedy token morphine is 
injected into a vein than when taken into the stomach? 
In the former case the narcotic influence is thrown at once 
into the circulation. 
130. In what respect is the Opium Habit worse than the use 
of Alcohol or Tobacco? 
“ The victim of the opium habit is bound to a drug which 
must be taken at certain times with inexorable regular- 
ity; the liquor or tobacco-user can for a time go without 
the use of these agents, and no regular hours are neces- 
sary. The opium-eater has no such reprieves.”—Hub- 
bard. 
131 What is Chloral Hydrate? 
It is a narcotic drug used in medicine to relieve pain and 
to produce sleep. 
132. What is said of the sleep produced by narcotics? 
It is not a natural sleep; while it gives rest, it does not re- 
store and recuperate the body and mind as natural sleep. 
133 Should narcotic drugs ever be used ? 
They may be taken on a physician’s prescription as a 
sedative from racking pain, but their habitual use is a 
practice that Lends to the most fatal results. 98 
ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
134 Why are the same drugs sometimes called stimulants and 
sometimes narcotics? 
Because they produce both a stimulating and a narcotic 
effect; stimulation is the first and lethargy the second 
effect. 
135. What is meant by the Law of Heredity? 
The law by which qualities are transmitted from parents 
to children 
136. To what qualities does the Lazo of Heredity extend? 
To the physical, mental, and moral. “The life of each 
individual is, in some real sense, a continuation of the 
lives of his ancestors.”—F. Galton. 
137. Are the evil effects of Alcohol transmissible? 
Yes. “ Of all agents, alcohol is most potent in establishing 
a heredity that exhibits itself in the destruction of mind 
and body.”—Dr. Willard Parker. 
138. What do the Intemperate transmit to their children? 
“ There is not only a propensity transmitted, but an actual 
disease of the nervous system.”—lb. 
139 What ancient philosophers have spoken of the inheritable 
nature of Intemperance? 
Aristotle says, “ Drunken women have children like unto 
themselves;” and Plutarch remarks, “One drunkard is 
the father of another.” 
140. Hozv may Tobacco lead to the use of Alcohol? 
“Tobacco caus-es thirst and depression that only too often 
and naturally lead to the use of liquor.”—Steele. 
141. What evils may be inherited from the Tobacco-user? 
“ An impaired constitution and a tendency to nervous com- 
plaints ”—lb. 
142. Where is Alcohol sometimes found collected in the brain of 
drunkards? 
“ The use of the ventricles of the brain has not been deter- 
mined; it is a curious fact, however, that a post-mortem 
examination of the brain of inebriates frequently dis- 
covers the cavities to be partially filled with alcohol.”— 
Hitchcock. 
143. What is the objection to the moderate use of Narcotics? 
Their use, even in such moderate quantities as to produce 
no perceptible injurious effects, creates a craving which ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS. 
99 
will not be satisfied except by the use of increased quan- 
tities. 
144 What is an Ancesthetic? 
This term was proposed by Oliver Wendell Holmes, and 
is used to mean an agent which produces insensibility to 
pain. 
145. What is Ancesthesia? 
It is a state of profound unconsciousness induced by the 
use of anaesthetics. 
146. What are the most common and powerful of Anaesthetics? 
Chloroform and Ether. 
147 Describe the physiological effects of Chloroform. 
The first effect is a general exhilaration, or cerebral intox- 
ication; if the inhalation continues, the patient passes 
into a condition of complete insensibility. 
148. What fact has been discovered concerning the effects of 
Chloroform on drunkards? 
Experience has shown that old drunkards are peculiarly 
unfavorable subjects for the administration of chloro- 
form. Instances of sudden death in such cases are rel- 
atively numerous —Bartholoiv. 
149. What is Local Ancesthesia? 
The diminution of the cutaneous sensibility in surgery by 
the application of cold and freezing mixtures 
150. How is Local Ancesthesia produced in dentistry? 
Usually by the application of a current of ether against 
the part to be rendered insensible. 
151. What is Laughing Gas? 
A colorless, inodorous gas, known in chemistry as Nitrous 
Oxyde. It is an ansesthetic employed in dentistry and 
minor surgical operations. 
152 Describe, the physiological effects of Laughing Gas. 
The first effect of its inhalation is a dizziness, noises in the 
ear, and a tingling throughout the body. Extraordinary 
illusions then beguile the senses, and the intoxicated 
subject breaks forth into singing, declaiming, laughing, 
sobbing, or manifests a pugnacious tendency. When the 
effect ceases the subject is often surprised at the ridicu- 
lous position in which he finds himself.