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> / / / / OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY 
BY 
T. B. WIGGIN, M. D. 
PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY, 
AMERICAN COLLEGE OF DENTAL SURGERY. 
CHICAGO. 
Copyrighted. 1804. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
1. Define Physiology. 
A. Physiology is the science that treats of the func- 
tions of the body. It tells how man is begotten, born, 
lives, moves and has his being ; how he attains maturity 
and how he dies. 
2. What are the essentials of life ? 
A. Birth, Growth, Development, Decline, Decay and 
Death. 
3. Define each. 
A. Birth—Separation from the parent with power 
to maintain existence. 
Growth—Inherent power to increase in size. 
Development—Gradual advance, stage by stage, of 
animal or vegetable bodies from the embryonic to the 
perfect state. A specialization of function. 
Decline—State in which waste exceeds repair. 
Decay—State in which the vital forces become im- 
paired. 
Death—The cessation of life. 
4. Define Embryology. 
A. The science which treats of the growdh and struc- 
ture of organisms from their first coming into being. 
5. What is Protoplasm ? 
A. A Viscid albuminoid substance, homogeneous in 
structure, alkaline in reaction, the physical basis of 
all life. 
6. Define a Cell. 
A. A nucleated mass of protoplasm of microscopic 
size with sufficient individuality to have a life history of 
its own. 4 
OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
7- What changes do cells undergo ? 
A. Birth, Growth, Development, Decline, Deca3T and 
Death. 
8. What characteristics do cells have ? 
A. The power of spontaneous movement. 
Irritability, or the power of response to stimuli. 
Nutritive powers. 
Reproductive powers. 
9. What is the unit of Physiology ? 
A. Protoplasm. 
10. Upon what does all life depend ? 
A. A cell. 
11. Give fair example of a simple cell as seen in 
Nature. 
A, An amoebae, a monocellular organism. 
12. Define an inorganic body. 
A. One that does not depend upon organization for 
existence. 
13. Define an organic body. 
A. One that depends upon an organization for life. 
14. State difference in growth of organic and inor- 
ganic bodies. 
A. An organic body’s growth is interstitial or from 
within out. Inorganic bodies grow by addition to their 
outer surfaces, or from without in. 
15. What is the effect of the performance of function 
in living matter ? 
A. Every action, or effort during life wears out the 
tissues, whether voluntary or involuntary, consequently 
there is constant waste, and equally constant effurt to 
repair that waste. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
5 
16. Does the length of life of individual cells in 
different sized organic bodies vary ? 
A. It does. The processes of life are relatively more 
rapid in small animals, so the smaller the animal the 
shorter the life of the cells of which it is composed, and 
vice versa. 
17. How are cells reproduced ? 
A. By gemmation or budding in low forms of life. 
By fission or division in higher animals. 
18. How do cells die, and give examples. 
A. 1. By mechanical abrasion—cells of skin. 
2. By chemical transformation the muscle cells of 
uterus after birth of foetus undergo fatty 
degeneration. 
19. Give some differences between plants and animals. 
A. 1. Power of movement in animals, none in plants. 
2. Digestive tract in animals, none in plants. 
20. Why do animal cells require different food from 
vegetable cells ? 
A. Vegetable cells build up new protoplasm from 
organic salts from the air and from water by virtue of the 
chlorophyl or green coloring matter which they possess. 
Animal cells must have protoplasm ready formed, having 
no chlorophjd. 
21. How are cells of the body described ? 
A. 1. Shape—Cylindrical, conical, prismatic. 
2. Situation—Blood, glandular and connective 
tissue cells. 
3. Contents—Fat and pigment cells. 
4. Function—Protective, secreting, contractile 
cells. 
5. Origin—Mesoblastic, hypoblastic, epiblastic 
cells. 6 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
22. What is the first trace of the differentiation of 
Protoplasm ? 
A. Appearance of a nucleus. 
23. What two important characteristics do nuclei 
possess differing from protoplasm ? 
A. 1. Power of staining. 
2. Resistance to acids and alkalies. 
24. How are cells connected to form tissues ? 
A. 1. By intercellular cement substance. 
2. By anastomosis of their processes. 
25. What is a primary tissue element? 
A. The cell. 
26. What are derived tissue elements ? 
A. 1. Intercellular substances. 
2. Fibres. 
3. Tubules. 
27. Where is epithelium found? 
A. It covers the entire body and lines all open and 
closed cavities. 
28. How is epithelial tissue classified ? 
A• 1. Simple. 2. Transitional. 3. Stratified. 
29. Name four varieties of simple epithelial cells. 
A. 1. Squamous. 2. Spheroidal or glandular. 3. Col- 
umnar. 4. Ciliated. 
30. What is Endothelium ? 
A. A term applied to epithelial tissues lining closed 
cavities. 
31. What are the functions of epithelium ? 
A. 1. Protective. 2. Protective and moving. 3. Secret- 
ing. 4. Protective.and secreting. 5. Sensorial. OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 
7 
32. Give an example of the location of each kind. 
A. i. Protective—Skin. 2. Protective and moving- 
—Ciliated Epithelium lining respiratory tract. 3. Secret- 
ing—Glandular epithelium. 4. Protective and secreting 
—Pining intestines. 5. Sensorial—Rods and of 
retina. 
33. What purpose do connective tissues fulfill ? 
A. Forms the skeleton with its connections. A sup- 
porting framework and covering to the organs composed 
of muscular, glandular and nerve tissues. The chief 
function, a mechanical one of support. 
34. Name the different connective tissues. 
A. i. Fibrous connective tissues. 2. Cartilage. 3. 
Bone. 
35. From what two elements are connective tissues 
made up ? 
A. 1. Cells. 2. Intercellular substance. 
36. Give an example of yellow elastic tissue. 
A. The true vocal cords. 
37. What is Areolar tissue ? 
A. The sub-cutaneous, sub-serous, sub-neucous tissue 
of the body. It sheaths muscles, nerves, glands, and 
all internal organs, penetrating their interior, supporting 
and connecting their finest parts, and is the most com- 
mon of all connective tissues. 
38. Name the special forms of connective tissue. 
A. 1. Adenoid or Reteform. 3. Adipose. 
2. Gelatinous. 4. Neuroglia. 
39. What is Cartilage composed of and into what 
classes is it divided ? 
A. Cells imbedded in the matrix. 1. Hyaline. 
2. Yellow Elastic. 3. White F'ibro Cartilage. 8 
OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 
40. Name the composition of bone and give its use? 
A. 67 per cent, earthly and 33 per cent, animal matter. 
Bones form the framework of the body, protect delicate 
internal organs, and act as levers moved by muscles at- 
tached to them. 
41. What is the blood ? 
A. The principal circulating fluid of the body, red, 
viscid and containing nutrient materials for its support. 
42. What is the reaction of the blood and upon what 
does it depend ? 
A. Alkaline. It depends upon the sodium phosphate 
which it contains. 
43. Give color of blood and name coloring matter. 
A. Red. Haemoglobin. 
44. What proportion of the body is blood ? 
A. One twelfth to one-fourteenth of the total body 
weight. 
45. What is coagulation and give its use? 
A. Clotting or solidifying. Nature’s method of stop- 
ping hemorrhage. 
46. Name the Fibrin generators. 
A. Fibrinogen, Paraglobulin, Fibrin ferment. 
47. How may coagulation be aided ? 
A. 1. Moderate warmth. 2. Rest. 3. Contact with 
foreign matter. 4. Free access of air. 5. Addition of 
twice the bulk of water. 
48. How may coagulation be retarded ? 
A. 1. Cold. 2. Contact with living tissues. 3. Im- 
perfect aeration. 4. By addition of strong acids or 
alkalies. 5. Inflammatory states of the system. 
49. What is a blood corpuscle and how many kinds ? 
A. Small masses of protoplasm with or without cell OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
9 
walls or nuclei floating in plasma. Two kinds, red and 
white. 
50. Define a red blood cell. 
A. Bi-concave circular disc suW to yota of an inch in 
diameter, tstaff of an inch in thickness—with cell wall, 
but without nuclei—having a stroma filled with haemo- 
globin. 
51. Define a white blood cell. 
A. Spherical mass of protoplasm stair of an inch in 
diameter, without cell wall, and containing a nucleus. 
52. What is a leucocyte ? 
A. A white blood corpuscle or cell. 
53. What gasses are in the blood ? 
A. Carbonic acid gas. Oxygen and Nitrogen. 
54. In what proportion in arterial and venous blood 
do we find these gases ? 
Oxygen. Carbonic Acid. Nitrogen. 
A. Arterial, 20 vol. $ 39 vol. % 1 to 2 vols. 
Venous, 8 to 12 vol. $ 46 vol. % 1 to 2 vols. 
55. Give four uses of the blood. 
A. 1. To receive and store up food, drink and 
oxygen from the outer world and convey 
them to all parts of the body. 
2. The source from which the tissues of the 
body may take the materials for their nu- 
trition, and from which the secreting 
organs can obtain the constituents of their 
secretions. 
3. To absorb refuse matters from all the tissues 
and convey them to the eliminating organs. 
4. To warm and moisten the body. 
56. What is a circulation and why a circulation of 
blood ? OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
A. A circulation is a revolution or the passage of a 
liquid from one point through a certain territory and 
back to the starting point in the case of the blood. The 
circulation of the blood is in order that all 
tissues of the body may come in direct contact with it. 
57. When and by whom was the circulation of the 
blood discovered ? 
A. In 1618 by Dr. Harvey. 
58. What is the Circulatory Apparatus? 
A. A central organ, the (1) Heart, connected to a 
system of closed vessels, the (2) Arteries, (3) Capillaries, 
(4) Veins. 
59. Name and describe two kinds of circulation. 
A. 1. Pulmonic — from right ventricle of heart 
through pulmonary artery to lungs, through, 
them and back to left auricle of heart via 
pulmonary veins. 
2. Systemic — from left auricle through aorta 
and its branches to and through capillaries 
of entire system, and back through veins to 
right auricle of heart. This includes cir- 
culation through portal vein, sometimes 
dignified with name, Portal circulation. 
60. Define and locate the heart. 
A. The heart is a hollow muscular organ acting as a 
pump to force the blood throughout the body. It is sit- 
uated in the thorax, between the lungs, one-third to the 
right, two-thirds to the left of the sternum ; the base 
directed upward, inward and to the right; the apex 
directed downward, outward and to the left. 
61. Give shape, size, weight and support of the heart. 
A. Pyramidal in shape. 5x3>4x1 inches. Weighs 
from 9 to 12 ounces, and is supported by the large vessels 
which are attached to its base. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
11 
62. What is the pericardium ? Describe and give its 
use. 
A. The pericardium is a membranous sac, enclosing 
the heart, made up of : i. An external fibrous membrane 
attached by its base to the diaphragm and losing its fibres 
in the external coats of the large vessels at its upper ex- 
tremity or apex. 2. A serous coat which lines the fibrous 
coat and is reflected on to the external surface of the 
heart which it completely invests. The fibrous coat pro- 
tects the heart and limits its movement. The serous 
coat secretes a fluid which allows of a free movement of 
its opposed surfaces upon each other without friction and 
thus facilitates the heart’s action. 
63. Locate and describe right auricle. 
A. At the right part of the base of the heart viewed 
from the front. Quadrilateral in shape, prolonged at one 
corner by a tongue-shaped portion, the right auricular 
appendix. The interior smooth and lined with endocar- 
dium receives the superior and inferior venae cavae or 
great veins convejdng blood here from the whole body. 
It contains small elevated masses of muscular tissue 
called musculipectinciti. 
64. Locate right ventricle. 
A. Chief part of anterior surface of heart as well as 
small part of posterior surface. Forms right margin of 
heart but takes no part in formation of apex. 
65. Locate left auricle and tell what vessels enter it. 
A. At the left and posterior part of the base of the 
heart. The pulmonary veins. 
66. Locate Left Ventricle and tell what vessel leaves it. 
A. Occupies chief part of posterior surface and slight 
part of anterior surface. The Aorta, the largest artery 
in the body. 12 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
67. Where are the auriculo ventricular openings and 
what is their use—by what are the}7 guarded? 
A. Openings between the auricles and ventricles to 
allow blood to pass from former to latter. Guarded by 
mitral and tricuspid valves. 
68. Describe the structure of heart and endocardium. 
A. The heart is composed of striated or voluntary 
muscles acting involuntarily. They are placed longi- 
tudinally and interlace. I11 the auricles we find two to 
three layers, which find their point of attachment in the 
fibrous rings which are inserted between each auricle and 
ventricle. In the ventricles we find five to seven layers 
interlaced in the most intricate manner to secure greatest 
strength in least compass. The endocardium is the 
serous membrane lining the heart, covering its valves 
and becoming continuous with the endothelial inner 
coat of the arteries and veins which pass from it. 
69. Describe and give mode of action of mitral and tri- 
cuspid valves. 
A. The tricuspid valves present three principal cusps, 
the mitral two. In both between the principal cusps are 
smaller ones, so that the tricuspid is composed of six the 
mitral of four portions. Each portion is triangular in 
shape, its base continuous with bases of neighboring 
portions and so forms an annular membrane around auri- 
culo ventricular openings, and is fixed to tendinous ring 
which encloses those openings. These cusps are composed 
of fibrous connective tissue strengthened by tendinous 
cords and covered with endocardium. From the ventricu- 
lar surface of these cusps tendinous fibres, the chorda? tcn- 
dinccc, pass to the internal walls of the ventricles where 
they are attached to muscular fibres which project in the 
form of columns—the columnar carnece. The valves open- 
ing readily by blood pressure from auricles, fold back 
against ventricular walls until ventricles become full when OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
they close by blood pressure on their ventricular surfaces 
and are prevented from passing into auricles and allowing 
regurgitation of the blood by the tonic contraction of the 
columnae carneae which draw the chordae tendineae taut, 
thus keeping valves closed. 
70. Where and of what use are the semi-lunar valves ? 
A. They guard the openings into the right pulmonary 
artery from the right and the aorta from left ventricle 
and prevent the blood from passing out until ventricles 
are full and from passing back from above arteries into 
ventricles. 
71. What are musculi papillares ? 
A. One form of columnae carneae which are attached 
at their bases only to ventricular walls and project into 
ventricular cavities like teats. They are attached at their 
free extremity to chordae tendineae. 
72. What is meant by Systole and Diastole ? 
A. The Systole—Contraction of auricles or ventricles. 
The Diastole—Dilatation of auricles or ventricles. 
73. Where does contraction of heart begin and why ? 
A. At the base—upper part of auricles. To shut off 
blood from venae cavae and pulmonary veins, and that 
the full auricles may discharge their blood into ventricles 
and so completely distend them. 
74. Describe the contraction of auricles and tell why 
they contract before ventricles. 
A. A sudden, quick contraction from above down- 
wards which sends blood with sufficient force to distend 
ventricles and by its reflux currents to close mitral and 
tricuspid valves. Ventricles cannot contract until full, 
and blood in auricles is needed to fill them. 
75. Describe Ventricular contraction. 14 
OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
A. Immediately follows contraction of auricles, but is 
slower, and more forcible. 
76. What change takes place in the shape of ventricles 
during contraction ? 
A. The left V. becomes somewhat broader—the right 
V. slightly shorter. 
77. What is the Cardiac Period? 
A. The Cardiac cycle or whole time of the heart's 
action and repose, comprising the auricular contraction, 
ventricular contraction, and period of repose. 
78. What part of the Cardiac period is occupied by 
the contraction of the auricles, ventricles, and pause? 
A. Contraction of auricles = 1 = A second. 
“ ventricles = 2 = A “ 
Repose - 2 = A “ 
79. What is taking place in the heart during auricular, 
ventiicular contraction and period of repose? 
A. Aur. Cont. 
a. Blood goes to Ventricles. 
b. Ventricles distended. 
Vent. Cont. 
'a. Relieving Auricles. 
b. Closing Auriculo Ventricular valves. 
c. Opening Semi-Lunar valves. 
_ d. Forcing blood out. 
'a. Closing Semi-Lunar Valves, 
b. Dilating Auricles. 
c. Relaxing Ventricles. 
d. Opening Auriculo Ventricular valves. 
e. Filling Ventricles. 
f Distension Auricles. 
Repose - 
80. What is the Cardiac impulse ? 
A. Made by the apex of the heart striking the in- 
ner wall of the chest, producing a slight shock. 
81. What are the heart sounds ? 
A. Two sounds heard when the ear is placed over 
the region of the heart followed by a pause or period of 
silence. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
82. What makes the first sound—where is it heard, 
and why ? 
A. A long dull hibb sound, caused by closure and 
vibration of aurieulo ventricular valves and the contrac- 
tion of muscular walls of ventricles. Heard in fifth 
intercostal space, 1 in. to left of sternum, 2 in. below 
nipple, because apex of heart striking chest wall at this 
point communicates sound to chest wall, and so to listen- 
ing ear. 
83. The second sound where heard and why ? 
A. Short sharp dup sound, made by closure of semi- 
lunar valves and reflux of blood against them in aorta 
and pulmonary artery. Heard in second intercostal 
space to the right of sternum, carried here current of 
blood in aorta which there closely approaches inner wall 
of chest. 
84. What takes place during first and second sound 
of heart and pause ? 
A. 1st sound 
1. Contracting Ventricles. 
2. First part dilatation Auricles. 
3. Tension Aur.-Vent. valves. 
4. Opening Semi-Dunar valves. 
5. Forcing blood out. 
1. Tension Semi-Dunars. 
2. Second part dilatation Aur. 
3. Relaxing Vent. 
4. Opening Aur.-Vent, valves. 
2nd sound 
Pause 
1. Distention Auricles. 
2. Contraction Auricles. 
3. Distension Ventricles. 
85. Give function of auricles and ventricles. 
A. Of auricles—to gather blood to completely fill 
ventricles. Of ventricles—to force blood through system 
and lungs. 
86. What is frequency of heart’s action ? 16 
OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
A. From 140 at birth to 65 in old age. Contracts 
70 to 75 times per minute in healthy adult. Influenced 
by age, exercise, posture, digestion. 
87. What kind of flow of blood leaves the heart, and 
why ? 
A. Spurting, forcible flow that the blood may be 
propelled throughout the body. 
88. Compare flow of blood in arteries, veins and 
capillaries. 
A. Fastest in arteries, slower in veins, slowest in 
capillaries. 
89. Name and describe nerves of heart. 
Remok 
Bidder 
Rudwig 
A. 1. Docal ganglia in heart 
regulating 
rythm. 
2. Pneumogastric, or check nerve. 
3. Sympathetic, or accelevator nerve. 
90. Define and describe an artery. 
A. Cylindrical vessels carrying blood from the heart 
to the capillaries of system or lungs, made up of three 
coats : outer, middle and inner. 
91. Define and describe a vein. 
A. Cylindrical vessels carrying blood from system 
and lungs to heart, made up of three coats: outer, middle 
and inner. 
92. What makes the inner coat of an artery? 
A. A single layer of endothelial cells placed upon a 
basement membrane—a continuation of the endocardium. 
93. What makes the inner coat of a vein ? 
A. Same endothelial tissue that lines arteries, because 
continuous with endocardium. OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
94- Name and what are the functions of the outer 
coat of arteries? f 
1. To give under sudden pressure. 
2. Equalizes current by elastic recoil. 
3. Adapt arteries to whole amount of blood 
contained at different times. , 
4. Return to normal size when diminished 
in diameter. 
5. Adapt arteries to various movements of 
body. 
A. Elastic CoaC 
95. What is function of middle coat of arteries ? 
' i. Regulates supply to parts according 
to their needs. 
2. Adapts calibre of vessel to amount of 
blood contained. 
3. Causes contraction of end when cut 
and so stops hemorrhage. 
A. Muscular coat - 
96. Of valves of veins ? 
A. 1. To prevent back flow of blood when pressure is 
applied to veins from without as in extremi- 
ties by muscular action. 
2. They thus aid onward flow by means of colla- 
teral veins. 
97. Describe Capillaries. 
A. Small vessels composed solely of endothelial tis- 
sue—a continuation of inner coat of arteries and connect- 
ing arteries with veins. Diam. tsW of an inch. 
98. What is the Pulse ? 
A. The wave-like motion imparted to the blood in 
arteries by the contraction of the ventricles. 
99. What arteries supply the heart—How are they 
filled ? 
A. Coronary arteries—filled by regurgitation of blood 
in arteries against closed semi-lunar valves. 
100. How are arteries and veins supplied with blood ? 
A. By a network of small vessels contained in their 
own walls, called collectively vasa vasorum, 18 
OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 
101. What nerves control blood vessels ? 
A. Vaso motor nerves. Center in medulla oblongata. 
102. Name important arteries. 
A. Aorta, Pulmonary, Internal and External Iliac, 
Femoral, Carotid. 
103. Name important veins. 
A. Inferior and Superior Vena Cava, Pulmonary, 
Jugular. 
104. Give function of arteries. 
A. To carry blood from heart to capillaries of entire 
body. 
105. Give function of veins. 
A. To carry blood from capillaries of entire bod}7 to 
heart. 
106. Give four forces of blood in circulation. 
A. 1. Systole and Diastole of heart. 
2. Elastic and muscular coats of arteries. 
3. Vital capillar}7 force. 
4. Muscular pressure on veins with valves, and 
rythmic contraction of veins. 
107. Give four proofs of a circulation. 
A. 1. Eigature around limb very tight will prevent 
blood from entering. 
2. Wound of arteries—flow may be stopped by 
pressure between cut end and heart. Wounds 
in veins—flow may be stopped by pressure 
beyond seat of injury. 
3. Results of injecting plaster of Paris in solution. 
4. Passage of blood cells seen through small ar- 
teries, capillaries and veins in mesentery of 
living frog under the microscope. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
19 
108. What is Respiration? 
A. Bringing the atmospheric air into the air cells of 
lungs in order that its oxygen may be there absorbed by 
the blood. The carbonic acid gas thrown off by the 
blood is absorbed by air in air cells and thrown out of body. 
109. What is necessary to life ? 
A. Sufficient oxygen. 
110. What part does the blood play in Respiration? 
A. Carries COs to lungs and in exchange absorbs 
oxygen which it carries to all parts of the body. 
hi. Name the organs of Respiration. 
A. Rarynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Right and Reft Rungs. 
112. Describe the Rarynx. 
A. The organ of speech and upper part of passage 
that leads only to lungs. Composed of cartilages united 
by ligiments and muscles and lined with mucous mem- 
brane. Covered by cartilaginous lid—the Epiglottis, 
which is attached at base of tongue and opens and shuts 
as we breathe. The true and false vocal cords are situ- 
ated in the upper part and extend from before backwards 
—the former composed of tendinous material, the latter 
of folds of mucous membrane. 
113. Describe the Trachea. 
A. The windpipe. It extends from the fifth cervical 
vertebra to the third dorsal vertebra, 4 to 4)4 inches 
long, % of an inch in diameter. A tube of fibro elastic 
membrane, lined with mucous membrane and containing 
16 to 20 cartilaginous rings inserted in its walls. These 
rings extend from before backward two-thirds of the cir- 
cumference. The back third is composed of muscular 
fibres which are attached to the free ends of the rings and 
by their contraction keep the rings tense and so keep the 
trachea patent, or open for the passage of air. By the 20 
OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 
contraction of the fibres the ends of the rings are brought 
together, thus diminishing the circumference of the tra- 
chea. 
114. Describe the Bronchi and Bronchial Tubes. 
A. The trachea divides opposite the third dorsal ver- 
tebra into the two bronchi, right and left, precisely sim- 
ilar in structure to the trachea. These bronchi, on en- 
tering the substance of the lungs, divide into smaller and 
smaller branches which differ in structure from the bron- 
chi in the loss of the cartilaginous rings and the exten- 
sion of the muscular fibres to form a complete ring. The 
smaller tubes penetrate part of the lungs and end 
in the small subdivisions called lobules. The bronchi 
and bronchial tubes arc lined with ciliated epithelium. 
115. Describe the Air Cells. 
A. The bronchial tubes, on entering a lobule, divide 
and subdivide into still more minute tubes—the walls 
formed finally of a thin membrane of elastic and areolar 
tissue lined with squamous epithelium not provided with 
cilia. Each of these minute terminal branches widen out 
into pouch like dilatations which are called air cells. The 
walls of the air cells contain a network of capillary blood 
vessels so that nothing interposes between the blood in 
those capillaries and the air in the air cells but the wall 
of the air cells and of the capillaries. 
116. Describe in full the lungs. 
A. Occupy the greater part of the Thorax. Com- 
posed of spongy elastic tissue, some muscular fibres, 
bronchial tubes, bronchioles air cells, arteries, veins, 
capillaries and lymphatics. They are conical in shape, 
of a pink color, in appearance solid. In they are 
hollow organs, made up of lobules, which are aggrega- 
tions of air cells, each of which has direct connection 
with the outer air by the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
21 
117. Describe the Pleura and give its use. 
A. Each lung is covered with a serous membrane, a 
closed sac, the inner layer of which covers the lungs 
closely, the outer layer is reflected over the inner wall of 
the thorax. Between the two layers is a small amount 
of fluid which prevents friction during the expansion and 
contraction of the lungs in respiration. 
118. Describe the blood supply of the lungs. 
A. The Pulmonary artery bringing venous blood to 
be purified. The Bronchial artery which brings blood 
for the nutrition of the tissues of the lungs. 
119. Define Inspiration. 
A. By a muscular act the chest is enlarged. The 
pressure on the oiitside is increased, the air pressure in 
the lungs diminished. To equalize this pressure fresh 
air rushes into lungs through trachea and bronchi. 
120. Define Expiration. 
A. By elastic recoil of lungs and chest walls the chest 
cavity and lungs are diminished in size and some of the 
air in lungs is forced out. 
121. Describe the Thorax. 
A. Large upper cavity of body. Floor, Diaphragm. 
Anterior wall, Sternum, intercostal cartilages and ribs with 
muscles covering them. Side wall, ribs and muscles. 
Posterior wall, spinal column, ribs attached and muscles. 
Conical in shape, apex up. 
122. How and by what is thorax enlarged ? 
A. In vertical diam. by contraction and descent of 
Diaphragm. In antero post. diam. by contraction of 
external intercostals, serratus posticus sup. levatores 
costorum and portion of internal intercostals between cos- 
tal cartilages. These by their contraction elevate the ribs. OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 
22 
123. Wliat is meant by forced inspiration and expira- 
tion ? 
A. Extraordinary efforts at enlarging the chest and 
diminishing its size as in violent exercise. 
124. What muscles are used in forced inspiration ? 
A. In addition to muscles used in answer to question 
No. 122, the scaleni sterno mastoid, trapezius, serratus 
magnus and pectorales muscles. 
125. What muscles in forced expiration? 
A. Abdominal muscles, internal intercostals, triangu- 
laris sterni, serratus posticus inferior and quadratus 
lumborum muscles. 
126. Name and describe types of respiration. 
A. 1. Abdominal in children, muscles of abdomen 
chiefly used. 
2. Inferior Costal in men, lower chest muscles 
chiefly used. 
3. Superior Costal in women, upper chest mus- 
cles chiefE used. 
127. What are respiratory sounds? 
A. Sounds or murmers heard by the listening ear 
when applied to chest walls, caused by friction of air as 
it rushes in against the walls of trachea and bronchial 
tubes called 1. Bronchial breathing, and 2. Vesicular 
breathing—sound caused by friction of air in air cells. 
128. Give capacity of lungs. 
A. About 320 cu. in. Varies with age, stature and 
weight. 
129. Give number of respirations per minute and 
relation to pulse. 
A. In health 14 to 18 per minute, in ratio of 1 to 4 
or 5 with pulse beat. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
23 
130. Give three uses for muscular tissue of lungs. 
A. 1. To assist in expiration. 
2. To regulate quantity of air admitted to each 
part according to quantity of blood in the 
part. 
3. To aid in expelling collections of mucus. 
131. Give composition of atmospheric air. What is 
used in lungs? 
A. By weight nitrogen 75 parts, oxj'-gen 25 parts, 4 
to 5 volumes of COa in 10,000. Traces of ammonia and 
sulphureted hydrogen. Oxygen is abstracted in lungs. 
132. Name and define terms used to express quantity 
of air breathed. 
A. 1. Tidal air—quantity changed in normal breath- 
ing, 30 cu. in. 
2. Complemental air—quantity over and above 
tidal air that can be inspired, no cu. in. 
3. Reserve air—the amount that remains in chest 
after ordinary expiration but which can be 
expelled by forcible expiration, 100 cu. in. 
4. Residual air—amount which remains after 
forcible expiration, which cannot be ex- 
pelled, 100 cu. in. 
133. What changes take place in air after breathing? 
A. 1. Toss of oxygen, 5 cu. in. to 100 cu. in. of air. 
2. Gain of CO2 4.5 cu. in. to 100 cu. in. of air. 
3. Increase of water vapor and organic matter. 
4. Elevation of temperature. 
5. Increase or decrease of nitrogen. 
6. Toss in volume. 
7. Gain in ammonia. 
134. How do these changes take place. ? 
A. By virtue of the law of diffusion of gases. 24 
OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
x35- What part do the red blood cells play in respira- 
tion ? 
A. Carry oxygen away and COs to the lungs. 
136. What changes take place in the blood after 
breathing, and why ? 
A. 1. Changes in color from purple to scarlet. 
2. Gains O. 
3. Doses CO 2. 
4. Becomes cooler. 
5. Coagulates better. 
137. How does the Diaphragm act ? 
A. 1. In inspiration it contracts and descends, push- 
ing abdominal contents and walls before it. 
2. I11 expiration it relaxes and is pushed upward 
by contraction of abdominal walls on in- 
testines and so on it. 
138. Name nerves of respiration. 
A. 1. Phrenics and Intercostals-motor. 
2. Vagus motor, sensory and vaso motor influ- 
ences. 
139. What is Dyspnoea ? 
A. Difficult breathing due to lack of sufficient O in 
blood. 
140. What is sighing ? 
A. Prolonged inspiration, gradual expiration produc- 
ing sound. 
141. What is hiccough ? 
A. Prolonged inspiration, sudden expiration, due to 
spasmodic action of diaphragm causing quick sound. 
142. What is coughing ? 
A. Prolonged inspiration, sudden expiration against 
closed glottis, resulting in expulsion of foreign bod}" in 
air passages, and noisy sound. OUTLINES Ok PHYSIOLOGY. 
25 
143- What is sneezing ? 
A. Long inspiration, sudden expiration through nose 
to drive mucus there out of nostrils, loud,.shrill sound. 
144. What is speaking ? 
A. Voluntary expulsion of air through glottis by 
means of expiratory muscles. Vocal cords put in proper 
state of tension by muscles of larynx vibrate as air passes 
and so produce different sounds, and these sounds are 
moulded into articulate speech by tongue, teeth, lips, etc. 
145. What is laughing ? 
A. Series of short, rapid expirations. 
146. What is yawning? 
A. Involuntary inspiration accompanied by stretching 
of muscles of palate and lower jaw. 
147. What nerve centre controls respiration, and 
where is it situated ? 
A. Respiratory centre in medulla oblongata. 
148. How does the respiratory centre act? 
A. Automatically mostly, but at times reflexly. 
149. How is the respiratory centre stimulated? 
A. By the absence of sufficient oxygen in the blood 
circulating in it. 
150. What effects are produced by improper ventila- 
tion ? 
A. Uneasy sensations as headache, languor, a sense 
of oppression, fainting, due to the lack of oxygen and 
presence of too much COa, organic matter, etc. 
151. What effect has respiration on the circulation ? 
A. 1. Inspiration aids circulation and increases arter- 
ial tension. 
2. Ordinary expiration has no effect upon it but 
extraordinary expiration obstructs the circulation. 26 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
152. What is apnoea ? 
A. Absence of breathing due to too much 0 in the 
blood. 
153. Give symtoms of asphyxia by stages. 
A. 1. Excessive and difficult breathing. 
2. Convulsions. 
3. Exhaustion and death. 
154. What is in order that life may be 
maintained ? 
A. Food in proper quality and quantity. 
155. What are the uses of food? 
A. 1. To replace waste of tissues. 
2. To maintain animal heat. 
156. Name the eliminating organs. 
A. Euugs, Bowels Kidneys and Skin. 
157. What elements are given off by each ? 
A. 1. Euugs, C. H. O. N. 
2. Kidneys, H. O. N. 
3. Bowels, H. O. C. 
4. Skin, H. O. C. In addition all give off large 
quantities of HsO. 
158. Define a food. 
A. Any substance which, when taken into the body, 
is absorbed, assimilated when carried to the tissues and 
which supplies a want. 
159. How many kinds of food? 
A. Organic and Inorganic. 
160. Define them. 
A. Organic foods, those derived from living matter. 
Inorganic, mineral and saline matter and water. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
27 
161. How many kinds of organic foods and define 
them. 
A. 1. Nitrogenous, those containing C. H. O. N. and 
some phosphorus and sulphur. 
2. Non-nitrogenous, those containing H. O.'C. 
but no N. 
162. Name the nitrogenous foods. 
A. i. Proteids—1. Albumen, 2. Casein, 3. Syntonin, 
4. Legumin, 5. Gluten. 
B. 1. Gelatins—elastin, gelatin, chondrin. 
163. Name the non-nitrogenous foods. 
A. Amyloid, saccharine or carbo hydrates containing 
H. O. C. and H. and O. in proportion to form water e. g. 
starch, sugar. 
B. Oils and fats, H. O. C. but O. is lacking in the 
proportion to form water with the H. 
164. What common names do we give three foods 
containing nitrogen ? 
A. Beef, Mutton, Pork. 
165. What substance will do alone for diet, and why? 
A. Milk. It contains all the constituents of the var- 
ious foods we need and in the right proportion. 
Nitrogenous 
Albumens—Casein in milk covering fat 
globules. 
Non-nitrogenous 
Amyloid—Milk Sugar, or Tactose. 
Fats and Oils—Fat globules. 
Salts—NA Cl, also water. 
166. By what foods are carbo hydrates supplied? 
A. The cereals, vegetables, fruits. 
167. From what do we obtain our fats and oils? 
A. Suet of beef and mutton, lafd from pork, butter 
from milk. OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
168. Are green fruits necessary for health, and why ? 
A. Yes. Because of the fruit acids they contain. 
A lack of those acids in our diet gives rise to a scorbutic 
condition, e. g., scurvy. 
169. From what do we obtain our liquid food? 
A. Tea, Coffee, Beer, Ale, Wine, Spirits, Cider, Cocoa. 
170. What effect has cooking on food? 
A. Makes it easily digestible. 
Flesh is thus changed: 
Albumen, coagulated. 
Fibrin, solidified. 
Tendons, etc., gelatinized. 
Vegetables are softened, their starch grains swollen and 
bursted, albuminous matter coagulated, saccharine and 
saline matters removed. 
171. Effect of insufficient diet. 
A. Hunger, thirst and starvation. 
172. Effect of poor cooking. 
A. Food is made indigestible and valuable food prin- 
ciples are lost. 
173. Define Hunger. 
A. A sensation painful and weakening, referable to 
the stomach, but due to lack of food principles in blood 
and throughout body. 
174. Define thirst. 
A. Parched sensation referable to fauces due to lack 
of fluids in the body. 
175. What are some effects of too much food? 
A. Causes indigestion or diarrhoea. If excess is ab- 
sorbed we get in case of nitrogenous foods, general 
plethora or gout. I*u case of carbo hydrates we get 
obesity. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
29 
176. What are the requisites of a normal diet ? 
A. Variety of well cooked articles containing about 
same amount of carbon and nitrogen as we get rid of by 
excreta. 
177. Define Digestion. 
A. The various changes through which the food 
passes to prepare it to properly supply the waste of the 
tissues. 
178. Name the digestive organs. 
A. 1. Alimentary <"'nnal 
Mouth 
Duodenum 
Jejunum 
Ileum 
Pharynx 
Small Intestines 
Oesophagus 
Large Intestines 
Coecum 
Colon 
Rectum 
2. Accessory Organs. 
Stomach 
Teeth 
Pancreas 
Salivary Glands 
Parotid 
Submaxillary 
Sublingual 
Liver 
Spleen 
179. Give diagram showing arrangement, number, 
and period of eruption of temporary teeth. 
Months 
Decid. 
Molars. 
24 12 
Canines 
18 
Incisors 
9 7 7 9 
Canines 
18 
Decid. 
Molars. 
12 24 
in each 
jaw= 
20 in all. 
180. Give diagram showing arrangement, number, 
and period of eruption by years of permanent teeth. 
Molars 
17 12 
to to 6 
25 13 
Bi. 
Cusp. 
10 9 
Can- 
ines. 
11 to 12 
1 
Incis- 
ors. 
9 7 7 9 
Can- 
ines. 
11 to 12 
Bi. 
Cusp. 
9 10 
Molars 
12 17 
6 to to 
13 25 
in each jaw 
=32 in all. 30 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
181. Name.parts and give structure of a tooth. 
A. Crown, part beyond level of gums. Neck, con- 
stricted portion embraced by free edges of gum. Fang 
or root, all below neck, composed of Dentine or Ivory 
mainly, this contains cavity which is called pulp cavity, 
because it contains blood vessels, nerves and connective 
tissue called tooth pulp. The blood vessels and nerves 
enter tooth at ,apical foramen—small opening in extrem- 
ity of fang. The Dentine is covered in crown portion 
with enamel, fang is covered with Crusta Petrosa or 
cement. Neck also covered by enamel which here joins 
cement. 
182. Give chemical composition of Dentine. 
A. 28$ animal and earthy matter. 
183. Describe the structure of Dentine. 
A. Made up of many delicate tubules Wmr of an inch 
in diameter, communicating by their inner ends with 
pulp cavity, their outer ends coming in contact with 
enamel and cement. The tubules contain fine prolonga- 
tians of the tooth pulp which are processes of the odou- 
toblasts or dentine cells, lining pulp cavity and which give 
the dentine sensitiveness and nutrition. 
184. Describe structure and composition of enamel. 
A. Hardest tissue in body, contains only 2 to 3$ ani- 
mal matter, 97 to 98$ earthy. Made up of fine hexagonal 
fibres soVo of an inch in diameter. These are set on end 
upon surface of dentine and fit into depressions of same. 
These enamel prisms radiate in such a manner from the 
dentine in wavy parallel curves, that at top of tooth they 
are vertical, at sides more horizontal. Enamel is covered 
by thin calcified membrane called the cuticle of the enamel. 
185. Describe Crustra Petrosa. 
A. Outer covering of fang, composed of true bone con- OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 
taining lacunae and canaliculi. No Haversian Canals 
except in thickest portion. 
186. From what tissue are the teeth developed? 
A. Epithelial tissue covering jaws. 
187. What is the primary enamel organ or enamel germ? 
A. Downward growth from stratified epithelium of 
mucous membrane of the mouth. This becomes thick- 
ened along central portion of free surface of jaws. The 
process passes downward into enamel groove of embryonic 
jaw. The groove and enamel germ elongate downward 
and the deeper part inclines outward and becomes bul- 
bous, the upper part becomes constricted forming the 
neck. There is then an increased development of the 
bulbous part at points corresponding to the situation of 
future milk teeth. The common enamel organ becomes 
divided in its deeper part into special enamel germs, cor- 
responding to the milk teeth, which are finally placed 
each in a special recess of the jaw and connect with the 
common enamel organ only by the neck. The enamel 
germ is the membrane which later becomes calcified and 
so forms the enamel of the completed tooth. 
188. Describe a dental papilla and dental sac. 
A. The upward growth from underlying tissue at 
base of enamel groove—of a vascular papilla—which 
meets decending enamel organ, and pushing up becomes 
covered as by a cap by enamel organ. While the central 
part of the sub-epithelial tissue forms dental papilla, the 
part which bounds embryonic tooth forms the dental sac. 
The jaw below sends up processes which form partitions 
between the teeth, so small chambers are made in which 
the dental sac and enclosed enamel organ and papilla are 
contained. The outer layer of columnar cells covering 
papilla are called odoutoblasts and these form the den- 
tine, the remainder of the papilla forming the tooth pulp. 32 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
189. From what is the cement or erusta petrosa 
formed. 
A. From the tissue of the tooth sac which contains a 
of osteoblasts or bone-forming cells. 
190. What is the cavity of reserve ? 
A. A small sac set by from the sac of the temporary 
tooth, from which a permanent tooth is developed. 
191. What is mastication ? 
A. Crushing, grinding, pulverizing and insalivating 
food, by the movement of teeth of lower jaws against 
those of upper jaw, assisted by the simultaneous move- 
ments of tongue and cheeks. Dower jaw is moved agaipst 
upper, as a fixed body by masticatory muscles. 
192. Name, locate and describe salivary glands. 
A. 1. Parotid, below and in front of external ear-true 
salivary gland. 
2. Submaxillary, below the jaw in submaxillary 
triangle, or mixed gland. 
3. Sublingual, in floor of mouth close to symphy- 
sis of jaw, true mucous gland. In structure 
all are compound tubular glands, made up of 
lobules, the pouched ends of the smallest 
tubes containing the proper secreting cells of 
the glands. 
193. Describe Saliva. 
A. Pure saliva from parotid is clear watery fluid, 
alkaline in reaction sp. gr. 1004 to 1008. In mouth con- 
tains epithelial cells, mucous, etc., and is called mixed 
saliva. 
Mixed saliva cliem. comp. 
f Water, 994-1 parts. 
| Ptyalin, 1.4 “ 
| Salts, 2.29 “ 
| Fats, trace. 
2.13 “ OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
33 
194. What is a ferment ? 
A. Any substance which when brought in contact with 
another substance changes its character, without itself 
undergoing change or suffering diminution. 
195. To what is the action of saliva due? 
A. Mainly to the ferment Ptyalin which it contains. 
196. Name two uses of saliva. 
a. Keeps mouth moist. 
b. Dissolves sapid substances. 
c. Makes food into soft mass, easily 
swallowed. 
A. i. Mechanical, 
2. Chemical, Ptyalin converts starchy matters into 
sugar. 
197. How may chemical action be aided? 
A. 1. By moderate heat. 
2. Alkaline medium. 
3. Removal of changed material. 
198. How much saliva is secreted in 24 hours? 
A. One to three pints. 
199. What will stimulate action of salivary glands? 
A. 1. Irritation of mucous membrane of mouth or 
stomach. 
2. Movement of masticatory muscles. 
3. Sight or smell of food : hearing food prepared. 
4. By mental emotions. 
200. What is the pharynx? 
A. Portion of alimentary canal which lies between 
mouth and oesophagus, constructed of series of three 
muscles, called constrictors of pharynx, bound together 
by connective tissue and lined with mucous membrane 
continuous with that lining mouth. 34 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
201. Describe tonsils. 
A. Between anterior and posterior arches of soft 
palate, one on each side ; each consists of an elevation of 
mucous membrane with 15 to 20 orifices, leading into 
crypts, in which are nodules of adenoid tissue. The 
viscid secretion that exudes from above orifices lubricates 
bolus of food as it passes in swallowing. 
202. Describe oesophagus or gullet. 
A. Narrowest part of canal. Muscular 
and mucous tube, 9 to 10 in. long, from lower end of 
pharynx to cardiac orifice of stomach. 
1. External—fibrous. 
2. Muscular. 
3. Sub-mucous. 
4. Mucous. 
Has four coats 
203. What is deglutition ? 
A. Act of swallowing food after mastication. A re- 
flex muscular act. 
204. What prevents food from going into trachea ? 
A. The epiglottis, which acts as a lid or cover to 
larynx, and the upper surface of which acts as an in- 
clined plane along which bolus of food slides. 
205. How does food pass through oesophagus? 
A. By the dilatation of muscular fibres of oesophagus 
before bolus of food and their immediate contraction on 
bolus and behind it. 
206. Tocate and describe stomach. 
A. Situated in left hypochondriac, epigastric and part 
of right hypochondriac regions. The principal organ of 
digestion. A pear shaped dilatation of alimentary canal, 
placed between and continuous with oesophagus at its OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
35 
cardiac orifice, and small intestine at its pyloric orifice. 
Has four coats: 
1. External or Peritoneal. 
2. Muscular—longitudinal, circular, oblique. 
3. Submucous. 
4. Mucous. 
207. Describe peculiarity of mucous membrane lining 
stomach. 
A. In dilated state is smooth, pink and velvety. In 
contracted state is thrown into numerous folds or rugae, 
and presents a peculiar honey-combed appearance. 
208. Describe glands of stomach. 
A. 1. Peptic, found throughout stomach, except at 
pylorus. Two or three tubes open into one duct which 
forms about of length of tube and opens on the surface. 
The remainder of tube is divided into the neck and dilated 
end—the body. The duct is lined with columnar epi- 
thelium ; the neck contains parietal cells which secrete 
hydrochloric acid ; the cubical cells in body of glands 
secrete pepsin. 
2. Pyloric, found near pylorus. Tubes larger 
than in peptic glands ; wavy and convoluted ; devoid of 
parietal cells. Central cells probably secrete mucous only. 
209. What is gastric juice? and give its composition. 
A. The digestive fluid secreted actively when food 
is introduced into the stomach. 
' Water, - - - 994.4 
Ferment Pepsin, 3.19 
Hydrochloric acid, .2 
Salts, - - - - 2.10 
Chem. Comp. 
210. What are ends of the stomach called? 
A. The cardiac end near the heart, the pyloric end. 
The greater end or fundus, the lesser end or neck. 
211. How much gastric juice is secreted in 24 hours? 
A. Ten to twenty pints. 36 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
212. What are chief changes resulting from stomach 
digestion ? 
A. i. Proteids changed to peptones and parapep- 
tones. 
2. Milk is curdled, casein dissolved. 
3. Dissolves sapid substances. 
4. Prevents putrefaction. 
213. What is the time of gastric digestion ? 
A. Three to four hours, more or less. 
214. How may time be modified ? 
A. 1. Nature of food. 
2. Quantity of food. 
3. Time since last meal. 
4. Amount of exercise before and after meals. 
5. State of mind. 
6. Bodily health. 
215. Why must proteids be changed to peptones? 
A. Because proteids are not dialyzable, that is, cannot 
pass readily through an animal membrane, and cannot 
therefore be absorbed. Peptones are highly dialyzable 
and are readily absorbed. 
216. What are uses of muscular coats t>f stomach ? 
A. 1. Adapt size of stomach to quantity of food 
contained. 
2. Keep openings closed until digestion is com- 
plete. 
3. To perform peristaltic movements, thus, mix- 
ing food with gastric juice and propelling it 
toward pylorus when digested. 
217. What effect does state of mind have on digestion? 
A. If mind is tranquil and at rest it aids digestion. 
If busy or under the influence of grief, etc., it retards it. OUTLINES OE PHYSlOtOGY. 
37 
218. Describe small intestines. 
A. Musculo membranous tube 1% in. in diam., 20-21 
ft. long, extending from pjdoric orifice of stomach to 
juncture with coecum at ilio-coecal valve. 
4 divisions 
' Duodenum, 1st 12 in. 
Jejunum, f of rest. 
Ileum, § of rest. 
Peritoneal, external. 
Muscular—longitudinal, transverse. 
Submucous. 
- Mucous. 
4 coats 
219. Describe large intestines. 
A. Four to six feet long ; a continuation of small in- 
testines, divided into coecum, a wide pouch communicat- 
ing with small intestines by Ilio-coecal valve; the colon 
continuous with coecum, ending in rectum, which, after 
dilating at its lower part, contracts and opens externally 
through anus. The appendix vermiform is is attached to 
coecum. The coats of large intestines are same as those 
of small intestines. 
220. What, where, and of what use are the villi ? 
A. Minute vascular processes covering surface of 
mucous membrane in small intestines; they absorb chyle 
and other liquids from the intestines by means of lacteal 
and blood vessels they contain. 
221. What, where and of what use are the valvulge 
conniventes? 
A. Folds of mucous membrane arranged tranversely 
to axis of small intestine. Bach fold extends from to 
2/i of circumference of intestine. They do not disappear 
on distension of canal. 
1. Increase surface for secretion and ab- 
sorption. 
2. Prevent too rapid passage of chyle. 
3. Mix contents more perfectly with secre- 
tons of intestines. 
Function OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
222. What do we call the secretions of intestine? 
A. Succus entericus, or intestinal juice, made up of 
the secretions of glands of (i) Brunner, (2) Peyer, (3) 
Rieberkuhn, (4) Mucous. 
223. Rocate pancreas and give function. 
A. Situated in curve formed by duodenum, trans- 
versely across posterior wall of abdomen. A compound 
racemose gland analogous to salivary glands in structure, 
6 to 8 inches long by 1 Rj inches broad by *4 to 1 inch 
thick. It secretes an important digestive fluid, the pan- 
creatic juice. 
224. Describe pancreatic juice. 
A. A colorless, transparent, slightly viscid liquid, 
alkaline in reaction, sp. gr. 1010 to 1015. Contains im- 
portant ferments: 1. Trypsin. 2. Amylopsin. 3. Rennet. 
4. Steapsin. 
225. Give function of trypsin. 
A. Converts proteids into peptones. 
226. Rocate liver. 
A. Situated in right hypochondriac region and ex- 
tends across epigastruim into left hypochondrium. 
227. Describe liver. 
A. Rargest gland in body. Wt. 3 to 4 lbs. Ex- 
tremely vascular. Receives blood for its nutrition through 
hepatic artery—blood to be changed, through portal vein. 
It is made up of oval portions called lobules, A of an in. 
in diam. each of which is composed of minute branches of 
the portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic duct and hepatic 
vein. Between the minute branches of these vessels are 
the hepatic cells, nio of an in. in diam., which are the 
secreting parts of the liver. The lobules are bound to- 
gether by connective tissue into lobes. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
39 
228. What functions has the liver ? 
A. i. Secretion of bile. 
2. Elaboration of blood and glycogenic function. 
229. Name its lobes and describe Glissons capsule.' 
A. (1) right, (2) left, (3) lobus spigelii, (4) lobulus 
candatus, (5) lobus quadratus. Glissons capsule is a 
sheath of areolar tissue continuous with the fibrous ex- 
ternal coat which passes into the liver, covering the 
portal vein, hepatic artery and hepatic duct, and accom- 
panies them in all their branchings. 
230. Where is the bile secreted and from what ? 
A. In the hepatic cells from blood brought there by 
the capillaries of the portal vein. It is gathered up by 
the minute hepatic ducts. 
231. Describe the portal vein as it enters and divides 
in liver. 
A. After entering the liver at the transverse fissure it 
divides into small branches, which divide between the 
lobules, surrounding and limiting them—thus called, 
inter-lobular veins. From these inter-lobular veins a 
dense capillary network passes into substance of lobules 
which converges and empties into a single small vein in 
centre of lobule—so called, intra-lobjilar veins. The intra- 
lobular veins empty into minute veins at the base ol each 
lobule—called hence, sub-lobular—and these converging, 
by their union, form the main branches of the hepatic 
veins. 
232. Describe the hepatic duct. 
A. The hepatic duct divides in like manner with 
portal vein. The capillaries of the hepatic duct forming 
a network in the lobules, are thus brought into direct 
contact with the hepatic cells and so readily receive the 
bile from them as secreted. They pass out at cireum- 40 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
ference of lobule and empty into an inter-lobular duct 
surrounding lobule. These unite one with another to 
form two main ducts—one from the right, the other from 
the left lobe—which pass from the liver at the transverse 
fissure and by their union form the hepatic duct. 
233. Describe common bile duct and give use. 
A. Formed by union of cystic and hepatic ducts. 
3 in. long. The common excretary duct of liver and gall 
bladder. 
234. Describe and locate gall bladder. 
A. A pear shaped membranous sac located in a fossa 
on the under surface of the right lobe of the liver. Has 
an external serous coat, middle fibro muscular, and in- 
ternal or mucous coat. Four inches long, 1 in. broad, 
capacity 8 to 10 drachms. 
235. Give function of gall bladder. 
A. Reservoir for collection of bile secreted during 
intervals of digestion. 
236. Give function of bile. 
A. 1. An excrementitious substance. 
1. Emulsifies fats. 
2. Moistens mucous membrane. 
3. An antiseptic. 
4. Natural purgative. 
5. Precipitates pepsin, peptones, 
parapeptones. 
2. A digestive fluid < 
237. Wliat does chyme contain. 
A. 1. Albuminous matter broken down, dissolving, 
half dissolved. 
2. Fatty matter broken down, melted but not 
dissolved. 
3. Starch slowly changing to sugar. 
4. Sugar dissolving. 
5. Gastric fluid and fluids swallowed. 
6. Indigestible foods. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
41 
238. What does chyle contain ? 
A. 1. Fatty inolocules. 
2. Proteid matter in fluid state. 
3. Small amount of extractives and salts. 
239. How do the salts and sugars enter the circulation ? 
A. By osmosis, or the property which they possess of 
passing through an animal membrane without pressure. 
240. How do fats and oils? 
A. By filtration. That is, they pass through an ani- 
mal membrane under pressure. 
241. Define absorption. 
A. 1. The introduction into the blood of fresh food 
material and air, or whatever comes in con- 
tact with the internal or external surface. 
2. Gradual removal of parts of body when they 
need renewal. 
242. Through what vessels is absorption accomplished? 
A. The blood vessels. The lymphatics. 
243. Give structure of lymph capillaries ? 
A. Similar to blood capillaries. Single layer of en- 
dothelial cells cohering along edges to form tube. Calibre 
larger than that of blood capillaries and varies greatly; 
numerous communications exist with lymph canalicular 
system. 
244. What is the lymph canalicular system ? 
A. Irregular spaces which exist throughout most 
tissues and gather up fluid and worn out solid matter 
from the cells of such tissues. They finally discharge 
contents into lymph vessels and are one of the modes of 
origin of lymph capillaries. 
245. Describe lymph; tell what it contains and where 
it goes. 42 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
A. A clear, transparent, yellowish fluid, slightly alka- 
line; contains corpuscles similar to white blood corpuscles 
which float in an albuminous fluid; slight amount of ex- 
tractives and salts. It finally is emptied into the general 
blood current at the junction of the jugular and sub- 
clavian veins on the right and left sides, respectively. 
246. What is animal heat ? 
A. The average temperature at which animal bodies 
are maintained. 
247. Give normal temperature of human body ; upon 
what does it depend ? 
A. 98.6° to 99.50; depends upon age, sex, period of 
day, exercise, climate and season, food and drink. 
248. What is the source of animal heat? 
A. Arises from combustion due to the fact that the 
oxygen of the air is ultimately combined witn carbon and 
hydrogen from food and drink, and discharged from body 
as CO 2 and H2O. 
249. How is temperature of body regulated ? 
A. By mechanisms which permit of (1) variation in 
amount of heat got rid of; (2) variation in amount of heat 
produced. 
250. By what is heat given off. 
A. 1. By the skin. 2. By the lungs. 3. Slightly by 
kidneys and bowels. 
251. Give loss of heat by skin; how do you account 
for it ? 
A. Seventy to eighty per cent, of whole amount. 
1. Offers large surface for radiation, conduction 
and evaporation. 
2. Contains large amount of blood. 
3. Quantity of blood in it is increased when loss 
of heat is necessary and vice versa. OUTLINES OE PHYSIOLOGY. 
43 
252. How regulate amount of heat lost in different 
climates ? 
A. By varying weight of external coverings, as cloth- 
ing. 
253. How regulate amount of heat produced ? 
A. 1. By varying quantity and quality of food taken. 
2. By exercise. 
3. By influence of nervous system. 
254. Define secretion. 
A. Process by which cells of secreting organs separate 
materials from the blood and elaborate them to serve 
some useful office in the body. 
255. Define excretion. 
A. Process by which cells of excretory organs separate 
useless or injurious material from the blood and discharge 
it from the body. Excretions exist ready formed in the 
blood and thus require no making over but merely sepa- 
ration. 
256. What is necessary for a secreting gland ? 
A. 1. A primary or basement membrane. 2. Certain 
cells. 3. Blood vessels. 
257. Name and locate secreting membranes. 
A. 1. Mucous membranes lining open cavities of body. 
2. Serous and synovial membranes lining closed 
cavities of body. 
258. Name kinds of secreting glands and give ex- 
ample of each. 
A. 
1. Simple tubular. 
2. Compound tubular. 
Sudoriferous glands. 
3. Racemose. 
Kidneys. 
Neiboinian follicles. 44 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
259. Describe the process of secretion. 
A. 
i. Phj^sical 
1. Filtration—passage of fluids through por- 
ous membrane under influence of pressure. 
2. Dialysis—passage independent of pres- 
sure, or in opposition to it. 
2. Chemical—the formation of new materials by 
the secreting cells from the plasma exuding 
from the blood vessels. 
260. What circumstances influence secretion ? 
A. 1. Variations in quantity of blood supplied. 
2. Variations in quantity of peculiar materials for 
any secretion which the blood may contain. 
3. Variations in condition of nerves of glands. 
261. Give offices of skin. 
A. 1. To cover and protect deeper tissues. 
2. Sensitive organ in exercise of touch. 
3. Secretory and excretory organ. 
4. Absorbing organ. 
5. Regulates temperature of body. 
262. Name the layers of skin. 
A. 1. Derma or true skin. 
1. Stratum corneum or 
horny layer. 
2. Stratum lucidum or 
lucid layer. 
3. Stratum granulosum or 
granular layer. 
4. Stratum malpighii or 
many strata. 
2. Epidermis or cuticle 
263. What are found in derma ? 
A. Papillae duets of sweat glands, sebaceous glands, 
hair follicles, blood vessels, nerves and lymphatics. 
Derma is a dense, tough, highly elastic structure, com- 
posed of arealar tissue and many plain muscular fibres ; 
resting upon a layer of adipose and cellular tissue. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
45 
264. What found in epidermis ? 
A. Ducts of sweat and sebaceous glands, hairs and 
nails. It is composed of many strata of cells, and resembles 
epithelium of mucous membrane of mouth. 
265. Describe glands of skin. 
A. 1. Sudoriferous or sweat glands—each a small 
lobular mass formed of a coil of tubular gland duct, sur- 
rounded by blood vessels and imbedded in subcutaneous 
adipose tissue. Mouth of duct opens on surface of skin 
where its secretion of sweat is poured out. 
2. Sebaceous glands—minutely lobulated glands com- 
posed of an aggregation of small tubes filled with sub- 
stance like soft ointment. They are abundantly covered 
with capillaries and their duet opens into follicle of hairs, 
or on surface of skin near hairs. Most abundant on hairy 
parts of body. 
266. Name the urinary organs. 
A. Right and left kidney. Right and left ureter. 
Bladder. Urethra. 
267. Give shape, size, weight and support of kidneys. 
A. Bean shaped; 4 in. long, 2in. broad, 1 in. 
thick ; weight, 4J/2 to 6 oz. Supported by masses of fat 
in which they are imbedded, and the large blood vessels 
which enter and leave them. 
268. Of what is the kidney composed. 
A. A compound tubular gland. The cortical and 
medullary portions are both composed essentially of 
secreting tubes, the tubuli uriniferi, which end in the 
cortical or outer portion in little pouches containing blood 
vessels and called Malpighian bodies. The medullary or 
inner end of these tubes open through papillae into the 
pelvis of the kidney and so discharge urine which they 46 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
secrete. Between the tubes and vessels of the kidney 
which make up its substance, is a fine matrix of areolar 
tissue. The kidney is covered by a tough fibrous capsule 
which becomes continuous at the hilus with the external 
covering of the ureter. Nerves derived from renal plexus. 
269. Describe the cortical portion. 
A. The outer portion of kidney immediately beneath 
the capsule. It is reddish brown in color, soft and gran- 
ular. It is composed of convoluted and straight tubes— 
the tubuli uriniferi—of blood vessels, nerves and lym- 
phatics. Many little red masses are scattered throughout 
its substance called malpighian bodies. 
270. Describe the mudullary part. 
A. Consists of from 8 to 18 reddish conical masses 
called pyramids of Malpighii. The base of each pyramid 
is surrounded by a cortical arch and directed toward the 
outside. The apex known as a papilla projects into one 
of the calices or cup-shaped tubes of the pelvis of the kid- 
ney. The pyramids are each composed of a bundle of the 
straight collecting parts of the tubuli uriniferi. 
271. How does the kidney get its blood supply. 
A. By the renal artery, a branch of the abdominal 
aorta, which enters at the hilus. It here divides into 
several branches. Some pass vertically to the surface 
giving off branches to supply the Malpighian bodies. 
Others pass horizontally, sending branches up to the 
cortex and down to the medulla. The small afferent 
artery entering a Malpighian capsule or pouch-like end of 
a uriniferous tubule, breaks up into a fine-looped capillary 
plexus which is gathered up again into a single small 
efferent vessel which passes out of capsule near point where 
afferent artery entered. The capillary plexus described 
is called the glomerulus or capillary tuft. The efferent OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
47 
vessel as soon as it leaves capsule breaks up into another 
capillary plexus on external wall of capsule. This sec- 
ond plexus unites finally in a small vein which by union 
with others like it, finally produces the renal vein which 
passing out at hilus empties into inf. vena cava. 
272. Describe the pelvis and hilus. 
A. The pelvis is a membranous cavity situated at the 
superior part of the ureter, with which it is continuous. 
Into it open 7 to 13 cup-like tubes called calices. The 
hilus is a notch or fissure on internal border of kidney 
about at centre. 
273. Describe in brief the process of the excretion of 
urine. 
A. 1. The watery parts and salts in solution are 
thrown into cavity of malpighian capsule by 
filtration of blood in capillary vessels of 
glomerulus. 
2. True secretion, by which the epithelial cells 
lining the convoluted tubes separate from the 
blood the principal urinary solids, as urea, etc. 
274. Give office of urethra. 
A. To conduct urine from urinary bladder to outer 
world. 
275. Docate, describe, and give functions of urinary 
bladder. 
A. A pear shaped musculo membranous sac situated 
in the pelvis behind the pubes, in front of the rectum in 
the male, the uterus and vagina intervening between it 
and rectum in the female. It is a reservoir for collecting 
the urine preparatory to voiding it and holds about one 
pint. 48 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
276. How may the secretion of urine be aided and 
retarded. 
1. By increasing general blood pressure. 
2. By increasing local blood pressure by re- 
laxation of renal artery without relaxa- 
tion elsewhere. 
A. i. Aided 
2. Retarded 
1. By diminishing general blood pressure. 
2. By constriction of renal artery by nerve 
influence. 
277. What is composition of urine? 
A. Water ... 767. 
Urea - - - 14.23 
Other nitrogenous crys- 
talline bodies - 10.635 
Salts 
Inorganic 
Organic 
- 8.135 
Gases Nitrogen and CO 2. 
278. What is the source of urea ? 
A. 1. Splitting up of elements of nitrogenous food. 
2. Front nitrogenous metabalism of the tissues. 
279. Rocate and give function of spleen. 
A. To left of stomach between it and diaphragm. 
1. It elaborates albuminous food and stores it up. 
2. Forms blood corpuscles. 
3. Worn out red blood corpuscles here undergo 
disintegration. 
4. Scene of special nitrogenous metabolism. 
5. Vascular reservoir to portal system of vessels 
of stomach. 
280. Give function of thyroid and thymus glands. 
A. Supposed to aid in the elaboration of the blood. 
281. Name two chief kinds of muscular tissue. 
A. 1. Striated or voluntas. 
2. Plain, non-striated or involuntary. 
1000. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
49 
282. How may muscles exist. 
A. i. During rest, 2. During activity, 3. In rigor. 
283. What is their physical condition during rest. 
A. They have a slight but perfect elasticity; 
is abstracted from blood and CO2 given out; alkaline in 
reaction. 
284. By what properties of muscular tissue are its 
functions exercised ? 
A. 1. By its contractility. 2. By its sensibility. 
285. How may contractility be called forth? 
A. By stimuli applied to muscle or nerve supplying 
muscle, either (1) mechanical, (2) thermal, (3) chemical, 
or (4) electrical stimuli. 
286. What are the accompaniments of muscular con- 
traction ? 
A. 1. Heat. 2. Sound. 
3. Changes in shape. 4. Chemical changes. 
287. What is reaction of muscle after activity?—to 
what due ? 
A. Acid. Due to developement of sarcolactic acid. 
288. What is the cause of rigor mortis ? 
A. The coagulation of the muscle plasma. 
289. Of what use are the voluntary muscles of the 
body ? 
A. Act as source of power for removing levers—the 
latter, the bones to which muscles are attached. Thus 
we stand, walk, run, etc. 
290. Of what use the involuntary muscles ? 
A. Form walls of such hallow parts as need to dim- 
inish their calibre under certain circumstances, e. g., blood 
vessels, intestines, etc. 50 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
291. What is the average total income of the body per 
day in grains ? 
A. 58,650. 
292. What are the sources and objects of expenditure ? 
A. 1. Common wear and tear. 
2. Manifestation of force in form of heat or motion. 
3. Manifestation of nerve force. 
4. Energy expended in physiological processes as 
nutrition and secretion. 
293. Describe the production of the human voice. 
A. A sound produced by the vibration of the true 
vocal cords which bound the glottis. Caused by currents 
of expired air impelled over their edges. 
294. Describe the laryngoscope. 
A. Consists of a large concave mirror with hole in 
centre, and of a smaller mirror on a long handle. By 
means of a large mirror, light—placed behind and above 
head—is reflected into open mouth of patient. The small 
mirror is placed with its back against uvula and the light 
directed on it, when—if at the right angle—an inverted 
image of interior of larynx, vocal cords, etc., will be seen 
reflected from surface of small mirror. 
295. Give the divisions of the nervous system. 
A. 1. The cerebro spinal. 2. The sympathetic. 
296. Of what two elements are all nervous tissues 
made up ? 
A. 1. Nerve fibres. 2. Nerve cells. 
297. What is a nerve trunk composed of?—nerve 
ganglia ? 
A. Bundles of nerve fibres form a nerve trunk. Col- 
lections of nerve cells with some fibres, form nerve ganglia. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
298. What two varieties of nerve fibres have we ? 
A. 1. Medullated or white fibres. 
2. Non-medullated or gray fibres. 
299. According to function, how are all nerve fibres 
named ? 
A. 1. Centripetal or afferent. 
2. Centrifugal or efferent. 
3. Intercentral. 
300. What may conduction in centripetal nerves cause? 
A. 1. Pain or some kind of sensation. 
2. Special sensation. 
3. Reflex action. 
4. Inhibition or restraint of movement. 
301. Conduction in centrifugal nerves. 
A. 1. Contraction of muscles (motor nerves). 
2. May influence nutrition (trophic nerves). 
3. May influence secretion (secretory nerves). 
4. Inhibit, augment, or stop any other efferent 
action. 
302. What is the velocity of nerve force? 
A. Motor nerves, 111 ft. per second. Sensory nerves, 
140 ft. per second. 
303. Name some terminations of sensory nerves. 
Locate. 
A. 1. Pacinian corpuscles on hands and feet. 
2. End bulbs in conjunctiva. 
3. Touch corpuscles papillae of skin of fingers. 
304. Give functions of nerve centres. 
A. 1. Conduction. 2. Transference. 
3. Reflection. 4. Automatism. 
5. Augmentation. 6. Inhibition. 52 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
305. IyOcate and describe spinal cord. 
A. Contained in vertebral canal. A cylindrical col- 
umn of nerve substance, connected above with the brain 
by the medulla oblongata, and terminates below about 
the lower border of the first lumbar vertebra in a slender 
filament of substance, which lies in the midst of the 
roots of many nerves forming the fcanda equina. It is 16 
to 17 in. long, wt. 1% oz.; in proportion to encephalon of 
1 to 33. 
306. Name and describe coverings of spinal cord. 
A. 1. Dura Mater—external fibrous membrane, for 
protection. 
2. Arachnoid—middle, delicate membrane lined 
on free surface b}r an endothelial membrane. 
3. Pia Mater—internal, double layered membrane, 
vascular. 
307. Describe arrangement of white and gray matter 
in spinal cord. 
A. White—external, constitutes chief portion. Gray 
—internal or axial portion, appears in cross section like 
two crescentic masses connected by narrow isthmus. 
308. Give origin and distribution of nerve roots. 
A. Anterior roots arise from the anterior columns of 
cord, and more deeply from multipolas cells in ant. cornua 
of gray matter. Made up of centrifugal fibres and conve3Ts 
motor impulses to body. Posterior roots arise from pos- 
terior columns of cord and are composed of centripetal 
fibres combing sensory impressions to cord from all 
parts of the body. OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 
53 
309. Describe columns of cord. 
A. Bach half of spinal cord is divided by two longi- 
tudinal furrows on its sides, into three portions or 
columns. The anterior column extends from the ant. 
commissure to the first longitudinal furrow. The lateral 
column lies on each side between two longitudinal fur- 
rows. The posterior column lies between second longi- 
tudinal furrow and posterior commissure. 
310. Give function of white matter of cord. 
A. Mainly the conduction of motor and sensory im- 
pressions. 
311. Give function of multipolar nerve cells. 
A. To transfer and originate motor impulses. 
312. Give function of gray matter. 
A. Transference and reflection. 
313. Name the tracts of the cord. 
A. 1. Direct pyramidal. 2. Anterior ground fibres. 
3. Antero-lateral ascending tract. 4. Direct cerebellar. 
5. Crossed pyramidal tract. 6. Lateral limiting layer. 
7. Posterior external tract. 8. Posterior median column. 
314. What symptons would result from injury pro- 
ducing pressure upon both sides of spinal cord at any 
point ? 
A. Partial or complete paralysis of both motion and 
sensation below seat of pressure. 
315. What symptons would be produced if one-half of 
cord was destroyed ? 
A. Paralysis of motion below injury on same side. 
Paralysis of sensation on opposite side below injury. 54 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
316. What are nervous impulses, and how many 
kinds ? 
A. Molecular motion over a nerve fibre to nerve 
centre, being a sensory impulse. From nerve centre to 
periphery, being motor. 
317. Where do motor and sensory impulses have their 
origin ? 
A. Motor in brain or nerve centre. Sensoty at peri- 
pheral termination of fibres. 
318. What do we mean by special nerve centres, and 
name some special centres in cord ? 
A. Special nerve centres are centres which control the 
actions of organs or sets of muscles—being however, sub- 
sidiary to higher centres—under certain circumstances. 
Centres for defecation, micturition parturition. 
319. Locate and describe the Medulla Oblongata. 
A. At upper end of cord and connects it with brain. 
Formed by a widening out of columns of cord. Composed 
of gray and white substance. Rests upon basilar groove 
of occipital bone. Its columns are pyriform and continuous 
with those of cord, and it is divided into the anterior and 
posterior pyramids, restiform and olivary bodies. 
320. Name special centres of Medulla with example of 
each. 
A. 1. Simple reflex centre—mastication. 
2. Automatic centre—respiration. 
3. Control centre—sweat centre controlling spinal 
sweat centres. 
4. Tonic centre—vaso motor. 
Special centre for hearing and taste. 
321. Give functions of Medulla. 
A. 1. Conduction. 2. Reflection. 3. Automatism. outlines oe physiology. 
55 
322. Locate, describe and give function of Pons Varolii. 
A. Situated above medulla, below conra cerebri, and 
between hemispheres of cerebellum. Made up of trans- 
verse and longitudinal fibres which make it in truth a 
bridge conducting impressions from one part of cerebro 
spinal axis to another. 
323. Locate, give shape and weight of cerebrum. 
A. Enclosed in the skull, resting upon the anterior 
and middle fossae of the base of the skull, and behind 
upon a membrane—the tentorium cerebelli. Divided into 
two hemispheres by the great longitudinal fissure. Its 
upper surface is ovoidal in form and convex. The two 
hemispheres are connected by a broad band of white 
matter—the corpus collosum—which is seen, upon sep- 
arating them, lying at the bottom of the longitudinal 
fissure. Weight, about 3 lbs. 
324. What, where, and of what use is the falx cerebri ? 
A. A strong process of the dura mater, which descends 
into the longitudinal fissure and is attached to the ten- 
torium cerebelli behind. It is like a double layered par- 
tition separating the two hemispheres, and contains tli e 
blood vessels supplying the hemispheres with blood. 
325. Of what is the Cerebrum composed?—how is it 
arranged and divided ? 
A. Of gray and white nerve substance. The gray ex- 
ternally; the white, made up of bundles of medullated 
nerve fibres, forms the bulk of the cerebrum and is inter- 
nal. The cerebrum is divided into lobes by fissures which 
are readily seen upon its surfaces. 56 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
326. What are the convolutions of the Cerebrum ? By 
what are they outlined, and what do they indicate ? 
A. Small eminences seen covering the surfaces of the 
cerebrum. Separated from each other by depressions of 
various depths called sulci. The outer surfaces of the 
convolutions and intervening sulci are composed of gray 
matter—the cortical substance. The greater the number 
of convolutions and the depth of the intervening sulci 
the greater the intellect of the individual. 
327. Describe and give function of corpus callosum. 
A. A thick stratum of transverse white fibres exposed 
at the bottom of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the 
two hemispheres and forming the roof of a space in the 
interior of each hemisphere—the lateral ventricle. Its 
function is the conduction of the nerve impulses from the 
cortex of one hemisphere to the cortex of the other. 
328. Describe the septum lucidum and tell what it 
contains. 
A. A thin semi-transparent membrane attached above 
to the under surface of the corpus callosum below to the 
fornix. It thus forms a double partition between the 
lateral ventricles. Between its two walls an interval 
filled with fluid, the fifth ventrical, is contained. 
329. What and where is the foramen of Monroe ? 
A. A “Y” shaped opening between the two lateral 
ventricles above and the third ventricle below. 
330. Locate third ventricle and tell how it communi- 
cates with the fourth ventricle. 
A. Narrow, oblong fissure between optici thalami, ex- 
tending to base of brain. The iter a tertio ad quartum 
ventriculum or aqueduct of Sylvius. OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 
57 
33i- Give functions of Corpora Quadrigemini. 
A. i. Principal nerve centres for visual sensations. 
2. Centre governing movements of iris. 
3. Centre for co-ordination of movements of the 
eyes. 
332. Give functions of the Cerebrum. 
A. 1. Organ by which are perceived sensations which 
can be retained and regarding which we can 
judge. 
2. Organ of the will. 
3. Retains impressions of sensible things, repro- 
ducing them in subjective sensations and 
ideas. 
4. Medium of all high emotions and feelings, of 
memory, judgment, understanding, reflec- 
tion, imagination. 
333. How may sleep be produced? 
A. By any agency that will reduce the amount of 
blood supplied to the brain or produce anaemia of that 
organ. 
334. How many pairs of cranial nerves and give their 
origin. 
A. Twelve pairs and all arise from the base of the 
encephalon in a double series—from the under surface of 
the anterior cerebral lobes to the lower end of the medulla. 
Name the nerves of special sense. 
A. Olfactory, Optic, Auditory, part of Glasso 
Pharyngeal, and part of the Fifth. 
336. Name the nerves of motion. 
A. Third, Fourth, lesser division of Fifth, Sixth, Fa- 
cial, Hypoglossal. OUTLINES OE PHYSlOLOGV. 
337. Name the nerves of common sensation and 
mixed nerves. 
A. Common sensation, greater part of Pfifth. 
Glosso Pharyngeal. 
Vagus. 
Spinal accessory. 
Mixed nerves, 
338. Describe the origin of the Fifth nerve. 
A. The fibres of origin of the Fifth nerve arise by two 
roots of which the anterior or motor can be traced to two 
masses of multipolar cells on the inner side and close to 
the gray tubercles of Rolando in the floor of the fourth 
ventricle. The posterior or sensory root arises directly 
from the tubercles of Rolando. The two roots pass 
through an oval opening in the dura mater on the super- 
ior border of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, 
above the internal auditory meatus. They then run 
between the bone and the dura to the apex of the petrous 
portion of the temporal bone, where the fibres of the 
sensory root form a large semi-lunar ganglion—the Gas- 
serian. The motor root passes beneath the ganglion 
without having any connection with it and joins outside 
the cranium with one of the trunks derived from it. 
339. Name the three branches of the Fifth nerve, and 
give function of each. 
A. 1. Opthalmic—sensory. 
2. Superior Maxillary—sensory. 
3. Inferior Maxillary—motor and sensory. 
340. Name the branches of the Fifth nerve that sup- 
ply the teeth. 
A. Posterior and anterior dental branches of the 
superior maxillary the upper teeth. Dental and 
incisor branches of the inferior dental division of the in- 
ferior maxillary supply the lower teeth. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY". 
59 
341. Give the function of the Pneumogastric. 
A. i. Motor influence to the pharynx, oesophagus, 
stomach, small intestine, larynx, trachea, 
bronchi and lung. , 
2. Sensory influence to same regions. 
3. I11 part vaso motor to same regions. 
4. Inhibitory influence to heart. 
5. Inhibitory afferent impulses to vaso motor 
centre. 
6. Kxeito secretory to salivary glands. 
7. Excito motor in coughing, vomiting, etc. 
342. How does the mind gain its knowledge and upon 
what is it based ? 
A. Through the medium of the nervous system the 
mind gains a knowledge of the existence of various parts 
of the body and of the external world. All knowledge is 
based upon sensations resulting from the stimulation of 
certain centres in the brain by impulses conveyed to 
them by afferent (sensory) nerves. 
343. What is necessary to sensation ? 
A. 1. A peripheral end organ for the reception of im- 
pressions. 2. Nerve for conducting it. 3. Nerve centre 
for feeling or perceiving it. 
344. How are sensations classed ? 
A. 1. As common. 2. As special. 
345. Describe common sensations. 
A. All which cannot be distinctly localized in any 
part of the body, as fatigue, discomfort, faintness, satiety, 
etc. 60 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
346. Describe special sensations. 
A. From these we gain our knowledge of the external 
w7orld by medium of organs which can be distinctly 
localized in some particular part of the bod}7, as (1) touch 
by touch corpuscles, (2) smell by olfactory cells lining 
nostrils, (3) sight by eye, (4) hearing by ear, (5) taste by 
taste gobets of tongue, etc. 
347. Describe touch. 
A. An exaltation of common sensation which renders 
us conscious of the presence of a stimulus from the 
slightest to the most intense degree. It enables us to 
judge of the form and size of bodies, of their weight; 
gives us an idea of the temperature surrounding us. 
348. What is pain ? 
A. The sensations of tactile sensibility, pressure or 
temperature, carried to an inordinate degree. 
349. Describe the external ear. 
A. That part of the ear external to the membrana 
tympani, made up of the pinna or auricle and the exter- 
nal auditory canal or meatus. 
350. Describe the middle ear. 
A. A cavity in the temporal bone communicating 
with the pharynx by a cvlindriform canal, the Eustachian 
tube. The middle ear is separated from the external ear 
by the membrana tympani. The Eustachian tube and 
cavity of middle ear are lined with mucous membrane 
continuous with that lining pharynx. Its walls are osse- 
us except where apertures in them are closed with mem- 
brane, as at fenestra rotunda and fenestra ovalis, by which 
it is separated from internal ear and membrana tympani, 
by which it is separated from external ear. It contains a 
chain of small bones extending from membrana tympani 
to fenestra ovalis. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
61 
35i- Give functions of external ear, membrana tym- 
pani and chain of bones. 
A. The external ear collects and reflects sound waves 
toward a central point, the external auditory canal. The 
canal carries the sound waves to the membrana tympani 
in which they set up sonorous vibrations, which in turn 
are communicated through chain of small bones to mem- 
brane covering fenestra ovalis. 
352. Give function of Eustachian tubes. 
A. They maintain an equilibrium between air in tym- 
panum and external ear, thus preventing too great ten- 
sion of membrana tympani. They render sound clear and 
supply tympanum with air. 
353. Give function of internal ear. 
A. It receives vibration conducted across middle ear 
by chain of bones to fenestra ovalis, and by column of air 
in tympanum to fenestra rotunda. The membranes cover- 
ing these openings excite vibrations in perilymph, walls 
of membranous labyrinth and endolymph, which excite 
the terminal filaments of the auditory nerve by which 
they are conveyed to the brain. 
354. To what instrument may the optical apparatus 
be compared. 
A. To the camera used by photographers. The 
transparent media of eye correspond to lens of front part 
of camera. In the camera the images are thrown upon a 
ground glass screen at the back of box—interior of which 
is painted black. In the eye, the box is represented by 
eyeball with its choroidal pigment; the screen by the 
retina. In the camera, the screen is enabled to receive 
clear images of objects at different distances by an appar- 
atus for focussing, corresponding to contrivance in eye 
described under head of Accommodation. 62 
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
355- What is Accommodation? 
A. The power of adapting the eye to vision at differ- 
ent distances, brought about by a varying shape of the 
crystalline lens. The nearer the object the more convex 
the anterior surface of the lens becomes. This increased 
convexity is produced by the contraction of the ciliary 
muscle. When the muscle relaxes the lens becomes less 
convex b}r virtue of the elasticity of its suspensory liga- 
ment. 
356. Describe the action of the iris. 
A. A musculo membranous curtain with a hole in 
the centre for the admission of light to the retina. The 
inner surface is covered with dark pigment, so all light 
is shut out except the raj-s admitted through pupil. 
Contraction of pupil occurs (1) On exposure of eye- to 
bright light. (2) When the eye is focussed on near 
objects. (3) On local application of eserine. 
Pupil Dilates: (1) I11 dim light. (2) E}7e focussed for 
distant objects. (3) On local or internal administration 
of atropine and allies. 
357. What is myopia ? 
A. Short sight where antero-posterior diameter of eye 
is greater than normal and image is thus focussed on 
point in front of retina. 
358. What is astigmatism ? 
A. Greater curvature of eyeball in one meridian than 
in others. 
359. What normal agent excites visual sensation in 
retina ? 
A. Tight. OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
63 
360. What do we mean by the sympathetic nervous 
system ? 
A. 1. A double chain of ganglia and fibres which ex- 
tends from the cranium to the pelvis along 
each side of the vertebral column. Small 
ganglia in the cranium and connecting fibres. 
2. The cardiac, solar and hypogastric, aortic, 
spermatic and renal plexuses. 
3. Various ganglia and plexuses in the substance 
of many of the viscera. 
4. The ganglia on posterior roots of spinal nerves, 
on the glosso pharyngeal and vagus, and on 
sensory root of fifth. The sympathetic sys- 
tem connects freely with parts of itself and 
the cerebro spinal system. 
361. Name the functions of efferent sympathetic nerve 
fibres. 
A. They supply: 1. Muscles of vascular system with 
vaso motor fibres. 
2. Muscles of viscera with viscera motor and in- 
hibitory fibres. 
3. Secretory gland cells with motor fibres. 
HENSON BROS. 350 DEARBORN