tei\ SCHENBERGER'S SERIES. ! BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY. EMENTS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSI^iOGY: PREPARED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AN1TCOLT.FGES, ■* W. ^p^Cff^NBERGER, M.D. ^ial^he TJ. 6. »m1 Fello-w of tha Golle, -. of Physicians; Hon. Mem&sr o't-the ™5adelphia Medical Society; Meno^- X the AoaStemyof Btatuxal Sciences ^Philadelphia, tc . ■ -. .." * 7 ..-■ FllOM THE - EXT OF MILNE EDWARDS, AND ACHiyL«E COMTE, PROFESSORS OF NATXJRii. HISTORY IN THE C0U.RGE8 OF HENRI IV, Aim QHARLEMAGNS. WITH fLATES. fa* PHIIiAB)ELPHIA: LIPPINCOTV, GPRAMBO, & CO., tfitlGG, ELLIOl & CO., No. W. NORTH FOURTH ST. 1858. /x- V. g SURGEON'GENERAL'S OFFICE § | LIBRARY. | A.V _______^______ ,iT»Tri\ y' fj 4J4NE* B Section, ;•:• V t*tfthhi+. — y----" : .......•T""1"--1 "■»■»' '■■■ '>« •••>■»*-< . .■—.'■■- v i. l .mj.T^-- ■ - 'S^. _7^ ^* 4M&C&4*Z■■- .a ^ * / * THE SKELETON. See page 97 for explanation. M*\vtt-£--Boards, nejr»ri HUSCIIENBERGER'S SERIES. FIRST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY. ELEMENTS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: PREPARED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, BY jf*-" W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D. Suigeon in the U. S. Navy; Fellow of the College of Physicians; Hon. Member of the Philadelphia Medical Society; Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, &c. &c. FROM THE TEXT OF MILNE EDWARDS, AND ACHILLE COMTE, PROFESSORS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE COLLEGES OF HENRI IV, AND CHARLEMAGNE. WITH PLATES. / /, >-. <' HV PHILADELPHIA: ^-rst Books on Natural History which were arranged and published by men dis tinguished in science, under the direction of the "ROYAL COUNCIL OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION OF FRANCE," for the Use of Schools and Colleges of that country. These First Books or Primers are seven in num- ber, and embrace the following subjects, each complete in itself. No. 1. General Notions on Physiology, and Animal Mechanism. No. 2. Mammalogy, or the Natural History of Mammiferous Animals. No. 3. Ornithology, or the Natural History of Birds. No. 4. The Natural History of Reptiles, Fishes, and Mollusca. No. 5. The History of Insects, of the Crustacea, Arachnides, Anne- lides, and Zoophytes. No 6. Botany ; and No. 7. Geology. The great care which has been bestowed in the preparation of these Primers, and their almost unparalleled popularity in France, hundreds of thousands having been sold in the course of a short time, has led me to offer to the public, the first of the series: Should this little work be favourably received, the other primers will be prepared in a similar style and offered to the American public. The work does not pretend to be more than a mere outline, and is chiefly designed as an introduction to the study of natural history; but it treats sufficiently of Physiology and animal mechanism, to be well adapted to the use of schools, as well as for young persons, and even others who have not the opportunity or inclination to study the subject in professional treatises. Each branch of the subject is treated of in as few words as perspicuity will X permit. The reader is led on from point to point, and is informed in the progress of the work of all that is requisite to enable him to understand generally, the phenomena of the circulation of the blood, respiration, digest- tion; and the structure, and mode of operation of the several senses are clearly set forth. One considerable objection to the several highly meritorious works which have been, within a short period, presented to the public on popular physi ology, namely the price, being too expensive for general use in common schools, has been obviated in this. In order to render this little book more complete for the use of schools, I have added, at the foot of each page, questions upon the text, which in many .instances serve to illustrate it, and also a short glossary of such words as are used in a technical sense. When the character of the plates, and the matter of the work, are taken into consideration, with the very small sum for which the whole is afforded, I hope it will meet with a proper reception. Philadelphia, June 1,1841. PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. The necessity for a fifth edition of this volume, in less than one year after I he publication of the first impression, is strongly indicative of the estimate set upon the work by the public. The high praise which has been bestowed upon it, by those whose opinions are most valuable, and the favor it has met in various parts of the United States, have induced the publishers, (at considerable expense) to add engravings in the body of the book, illustra- te e of the text, which has been carefully revised. Though designed as a book for schools and colleges, it will be found well idapted for the general reader; and students of medicine will find it of use, especially in the early part of their professional studies. With the view of assisting the reader in understanding and remember- ing the words used in a technical sense, their etymologies have been added in the glossary. Many of these words are derived from the Greek; and, in as much as all peisons who are in pursuit of knowledge, are not acquainted with that language, the words from it have been printed in italics, in prefe- rence to using the proper Greek characters; and the omega, where it occurs has been designated thus, (6). I wish those teachers, (who honor me by using this, or any other one of my series of First-Books), to clearly understand, it is not my design that the questions at the foot of the page shall be answered by repeating the text from memory; the pupil should be able to give the facts in his own language, and show he comprehends the subject:—I wish my readers to obtain knowledge, definite ideas of the subjects treated, and not to acquire merely the words that are descriptive of them. It is hoped that nothing is now wanting to render this little work a clear concise, and axiomatic account of Physiology and Animal Mechanism, and that it will sustain the favorable opinions which have been kindly expressed of it W. S. W. R. Philadelphia, May 15, 1842. We regard the introduction of this work, into our public schools, among the highest compliments it has received, for we feel sure that the gentlemen who constitute the Committee for selecting books, possess too much discern- ment and general knowledge, to pass favorably upon works of inferior pre- tensions. The following gentlemen composed the Committee for selecting books for the use of Public Schools. George M. Wharton, Esq. Thomas H. Forsyth, Esq. George Emlen, Jr., Esq. Francis Lyons, Esq. tohn C. Smith, Esq, INTRODUCTION.* Natural History, which may be defined the intelligent contemplation of the works of God, is in a manner the most certain and the most noble sub- ject, that can occupy the mind of man. In it alone, human genius is in full possession of certainty. Philosophy, politics, history, and morality itself, are subject to the intellectual revolutions of wavering humanity ; but the facts of the Creation are as invariable as God, and the analysis ob- tained from a pi int or an insect, marks its demonstration with the seal of eternal truth. The double effect of the study of Natural History is to impart certainty to the mind, and religion to the heart. The creation is as a visible ladder by which man ascends towards the invisible Creator. Natural History, the science which is the mother of all sciences, embraces the whole world; physical knowledge, mathematical knowledge, are all comprehended in its domain; and, as we have just said, the teachings of morality, her", mingle of themselves, without any effort, with thoughts of religion. It has been said that Natural History should be the only reading book of the people; I would add, it should be the first book of childhood. Of all the means which we may successfully employ for awakening the intellect of young people, there is none, the results of which are more certain or more durable than curiosity ; the desire to know is as natural as reason; it is vivid, and active at every period of life, but it is never more so than in youth, when the mind, destitute of knowledge, seizes upon all that presents itself with avidity, and willingly gives the attention and study necessary to know, and very naturally contracts the habit of reflection and of being occupied. It is not the labours of the learned that are to be brought to the attention of infancy, but a study of nature, to comprehend which requires scarcely anything but eyes and which consists in examining carefully the objects of nature, in order to admire their beauties, without diving into their hi.lden causes. Children are capable of this study, for they have eyes, and they have curiosity ; they desire to know, and they are inquiring. A garden, a field, a palace, all is an open book for them ; and they should be taught to read in it. "It is inconceivable," says Rollin, "how much children. might learn if we could profit by the opportunities which they themselves afford us." To seize upon these opportunities should be a desideratum with instructors and parents. *Extructed from the "Atlas Methodiqin:," of Natural History. XVI INTRODUCTION. In this, then, behold what nature was without man. . .. But if man appear, if, to recur to the brilliant thought of Bacon, "man is added to nature" then Creation has a voice, a value, a sense. Of the innumerable crowds of animals, and of plants that share between them the domain of the earth, and of the marvellous events that renew the face of things, man has become the master an GENERAL NOTIONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. 21 These three branches of the natural history of animals and of plants, constitute three sciences which are known under names of Zoology, (or, when plants are referred to, descriptive Botany,) Anatomy, and Physiology. 14. Anatomy treats of the internal conformation of living beings; it studies them by the aid of dissection, and acquaints us with the position, the form, and the structure of their organs. In as much as it embraces the consideration of either animals or plants, it constitutes two distinct sciences : Zoological Anatomy, and Vegetable Anatomy. 15. Physiology is the Science of Life; it teaches the use of different organs, and the manner in which these act, to produce the different phenomena, (that is, visible qualities), proper to living beings. Like Anatomy, it may have for its domain either the animal or vegetable kingdom, and it is consequently divided into Animal Physiology, and Vegetable Physiology. 16. It is easy to understand that, without the aid of Anatomy and Physiology, the profound study of natural history would be impossible. When we wish to obtain an exact idea of a watch, we do not limit ourselves to observing its exterior form, and to noticing the manner in which the hands turn; we open it, we examine every wheel, every chain, every spring:—we would separate them one by one, and study the relations which they have to each other, and we would seek to understand their use; afterwards, we should again put together all these pieces, and by re-establishing their mutual relations, restore what we had taken from them ; that is, their movements and their play. Now, what the watchmaker does to obtain exact knowledge of a watch, the naturalist does, as far as he is capable, to study an animal or a plant; by dissection he examines the interior of its ^-body, separates the different organs, determines their relations, and studies their form and nature ; then he observes their play during life, and, by making experiments, becomes acquainted with their uses. Unfortunately the naturalist cannot do all that the watchmaker does; he can destroy, but he cannot re-construct what he has deranged, and restore movement to organs which he has separated to study their structure—nevertheless, by anato- mical investigation, by observation of the vital phenomena and by physiological experiments, he ascertains the mechanism of these 14. What is anatomy ? what does it teach ? 15 What is physiology? what does it teach? what is animal physi- ology ? what is vegetable physiology ? 16. Why is a knowledge of anatomy and physiology necessary to under- stand natural history ? - 2* 22 GENERAL COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES. complicated machines, and succeeds in satisfying ardent curiosity, which is one of the characteristic traits of superior intelligence. No study can be more grand, or more interesting; in reveal- ing what is extraordinary in animal organization, it leaves us rilled with admiration at the sight of this infinite, this most asto- nishing work of the Creator. Considered in their mechanical relations alone, the bodies of animals present us examples of complication and perfection, to which our best constructed and most perfect machines do not approach: here we find without number, models of ingenious contrivances, of which, the most successful labors of the archi- tect or optician have produced but imperfect copies. But these are the least of the wonders which the animal econo- my offers us. The forces, which put into action all the material springs of our body, are regulated and combined with a wisdom which is far beyond human science; and the more we contemplate the play of our organs, and the faculties with which they are endowed, the more we feel the necessity of recurring to the Supe- rior Intelligence who has created this admirable production, and who has placed in it, a principle of existence and of movement. To study with profit the particular history of different animals, it is necessary, as we see, to possesss some general notions of their anatomy and physiology; and it is this preliminary know- ledge which is to engage our attention in the first of our course. Op the general composition op Animal Bodies, and the functions performed by their different organs. 17 All living beings are formed of a union of solid and of liquid parts. 18. The solid parts are composed of small fibres and litt!e plates, so arranged as to contain the liquid parts, in spaces left between them; they thus form textures or tissues of various kinds, and we give the name of organization to the disposition which the tissues assume. 19. Organized bodies, that is, bodies having an organiza- tion or mode of structure which we have just indicated, are the only living beings; because this internal conformation is necessary to the maintenance of life: therefore, non -organized or inorganic bodies, as stones, and metals are incapable of living. 17. Of what are living beings formed ? 18. Of what are the solid parts composed ? what is meant by organization? 19. What are organized bodies ? Why are stones and metals incapable of liying ? ___________ORGANS—APPARATUS- FUNCTIONS.___________23 20. The different phenomena by which life manifests itself, are always the result of the action of some part of the living body; and these parts, which may be regarded as so many instruments, are called organs. 21. Thus, an animal cannot move without the action of certain organs called muscles, or attain a knowledge of that which sur- rounds him except by the intervention of the organs of sense. 22. When several organs concur to produce the same phenome non, the assemblage of instruments is termed an apparatus. 23. We say, for example, the apparatus of locomotion to desig- nate the assemblage of organs which serve to transfer an animal from one place to another; and, apparatus of digestion to desig- nate the assemblage of organs, by the assistance of which the animal digests its food. 24. The action of one of these organs, or of one of these apparatus, or the use for which they are designed, is called a function. 25. We say, therefore, fund ion of locomotion, to designate the action of all the parts of the apparatus of locomotion; the function of digestion, to designate the action of the different parts which constitute the digestive apparatus ; and functions of the stomach, functions of the intestines, functions of the teeth, Sfc, to designate the uses of these different organs. With man, as well as with all quadrupeds, birds and a majority of other animals, the organs, and the functions which the latter exercise, are very various. 26. Considered individually, the body of the majority of animals is divided into three principal portions; the head, the trunk, and the members, or extremities. 27. The head, which is not found with all animals, oysters for instance, is subdivided into two parts ; the cranium or skull, and the face. 28. The trunk is composed also of two parts; the cheat or thorax, and the belly or abdomen. 20. What is meant by an organ? 21. Give an example of an organ? 22. What is an apparatus ? 23. What are the examples of an apparatus? 24. What is a function ? 25. Give examples of what is meant by the term function. 26. How are the bodies of animals divided ? 27. Docs every animal possess a head ? What are the divisions of the head ? 28. Of how many parts is the trunk composed ? What are they 7 D 24 DIVISIONS OF THE BODY. 29. In most of the animals at present referred to, the members exist in double pairs, and are distinguished as superior, or thora- cic, and posterior or abdominal, or inferior members, or extrem- ities. Certain animals, such as the whale, have only a single pair; others, such as serpents, have none at all, and others again have a considerable number; insects have three pairs of feet, spiders four pairs, crabs and lobsters five pairs, the wood-louse, or palmer seven pairs, and certain worms have as many even as five hun- dred pairs. 30. In all these animals, the body is enveloped on all sides in a resisting membrane, endowed with sensibility, which is termed the skin; it is secured from the inside, and its general form is determined by a solid frame, composed of a number of bones, called a skeleton, (Frontispiece.) Farther on we shall enumerate these bones, speak of their names and various forms. 31. The skeleton does not exist with all animals; oysters and snails for example are without it; and with others again, such as lobsters, the skin acquires an extreme hardness, and answers in place of this bony frame; but with all mammiferous animals, birds, reptiles and fishes, there exists a skeleton, arranged in a manner analogous to that of man. 32. Between this internal frame and the skin or external en- velope, are found the muscles, which constitute what is commonly called flesh, whose function is to produce, by their contractions, all the motions which the animal performs; between these muscles are placed the vessels which carry the blood to different points of the body, the nerves which give sensibility, &c. Within the head, and in the trunk we find also other parts. 33. The face presents several cavities, which serve to lodge the organs of sight, of smell, and of taste. 34. The cranium or skull is a sort of bony box, the interior of which is filled by one of the most important organs of the 29. In the animals at present referred to, how do the members exist ? How are they distinguished ? Have all animals the same number of mem- bers or limbs ? 30. What is the skin ? How is it secured ? What is its form ? What is the skeleton ? 31. Does every animal possess a skeleton? What animals are without a skeleton ? Is there any instance where the skin takes its place ? What classes of animals have skeletons ? 32. What aie muscles? What is their function ? What are placed between the muscles ? 33. For what purpose are the several cavities in the face? 34. What is the cranium or Skull? What docs it contain ? Is it full ? What is the continuation of the brain called ? What is found on each side of the Skull ? FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION AND RELATION. 25 body, the brain which is Fig. 1. continued downward in a thick, whitish cord, called the spinal marrow. It de- scends along the back, and communicates with the principal nerves of the body. (Pag-e 73/Sg-. 25.) 35. On cutting through the ribs and opening the bony cage, which anato- mists call the thorax, and which we commonly call the chest or breast, we find the heart (c.) and lungs, (p.p.) (Fig. 1.) A fleshy partition, the diaphragm, separates the chest from the belly or abdomen, and in this latter cavity, are contained the stomach, the intestines, the liver, the spleen, and many other organs of less importance. 36. These different organs fulfil very various functions ; some, such as the mouth, the teeth, the stomach, the intestines, and the liver, serve digestion ; others, such as the lungs, (pp) are designed for respiration ; others again, the heart, (c) for example, distribute to all the organs, matter necessary for their nourishment, and there are others again, the use of which is to enable us to appre- ciate tastes, and smells, to hear sounds, to see what surrounds us, to feel what touches us, and to transport us from place to place. 37. These functions, in spite of their diversity, tend to two principal objects, and are consequently divided into two classes : the object of one class of functions is the preservation of the life of the individual, and are therefore denominated, Functions op Nutrition; the others place the animal in relation with all that sur- rounds him, and, consequently, are called Functions op Relation. 38. The functions of nutrition, as their name implies, all serve in imparting nutrition to the animal, either by separating nutri- tive matter from the productions of the earth, by modifying this matter and by reducing it to a fluid or juice, ft to be admitted into the organs, or finally, by conveying into the substance ol the Organs this nourishing fluid, which, by its combinations, in- sures their maintenance and favours their growth. Consequently. 35. What is the thorax? What does it contain? What separates the ihorax from the abdomen ? What does the abdomen contain ? 36. What is the use of these different organs? 37. What is the chief objects of all these various functions ? 38. What is the object of the functions of nutrition ? 26 FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION AND RELATION. digestion, respiration, and the circulation of the blood belong to this class of functions. 39. The functions of relation, are all those which place the ani- mal in relation with the other beings of nature; they are princi- pally the faculties of feeling in different ways, and of moving. By the aid of these functions the animal is enabled to appreciate the form, the colour, and the position of objects surrounding him; to hear the sounds which they make, to advance towards or retire from them, in a word, they serve to establish between him and the external world a variety of relations which are as numerous as they are useful. 40. The functions of nutrition are indispensable to the main- tenance of life, and they are found, in a greater or less number in all living or organised beings, and for this reason they are called the functions of organic life, or functions of vegetative life. 41. The functions of relation, on the contrary, do not exist in all living beings; plants have them not; animals alone possess them, but, in loosing them they do not necessarily cease to live ; during a part of their existence, they do not exercise them, and this state of repose of the functions of relation, constitutes sleep. 42. In consequence of these functions being peculiar to animals, they are also called the functions of animal life. It is now very easy to state, in a few words, the most impor- tant differences which exist between vegetables and animals. 43. Vegetables are beings constituted for living, with the power of nourishing and reproducing themselves. 44. Animals are beings whose conformation enables them to live, to be nourished, to reproduce themselves, to feel, and to move. The reader will now easily comprehend the difference between organised beings, as plants and animals, and inorganic bodies, as rocks and minerals, which do not possess the power of nourishing and reproducing themselves, the first and most important effects of living organization, for without these effects, death would speedily leave the earth destitute of both animals and plants. We shall first consider those functions which belong to vege- tative life, and which have nutrition for their object. 39. What is the object of the functions of relation ? 40. Why are the functions of nutrition called the functions of organic Lfe ? Do the functions of nutrition exist in all organized beings ? 41. Do the functions of relation belong to all living things ? What is with- out them ? When the functions of relation are suspended what is the state of the anignal? 42. Why are these called functions of animal life 1 43 What are vegetables? 44. What are animals ? FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. 27 LESSON II. Functions of Nutrition—Nutrition of Organs—Proof of the existence of the nutritive movement—Coloring of bones—The blood is the principal agent of nutrition—use of the blood—study of this liquid—physical properties of the blood—red and white blood—Globules—Serum—coagulation—venous and arterial blood — Transformation of venous into arterial blood by the action oj the air. OF THE FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. OF THE NUTRITIVE ACT. 1. Nutrition is the vital act by which the different parts o, the bodies of organized beings renew the materials of which they are composed. 2. To effect this renovation, the animal appropriates certain substances within his reach, which are adapted to this purpose, and these substances being introduced into the body and distri- buted to the different organs, are there retained and become con- stituent parts of them. 3. At the same time that the organs thus acquire new mate- rials, they lose others, which, having become old and useless, are in some way detached and expelled. 4. Thus, then, the new materials take the place of those which have been detached from the organ, so that its substance is, little by little, renewed. 5. When a living being thus incorporates with its organs more material than it loses, its volume augments, and of course its weight increases:—Thus, by the act of nutrition, the infant, which at birth weighed only five or six pounds, is found to have acquired, when it has reached the age of twenty-five years, more than a hundred weight, and a proportionate increase in size; but if the contrary be true, and the living being loses more material than it incorporates with its organs, it grows thin, as is often ob- served when the adult approaches extreme age; and when these two phenomena are in just equilibrium, its weight remains the same 6. This nutritive act takes place in all living beings. 1. What is nutrition ? 2. How do animals renew the materials of which their bodies are com- posed ? 3. Do the organs always retain the materials acquired ? 4. Why is the size of the organs not increased by the constant accession of new materials ? 5 When an organ receives more material than it loses, what is the con sequence ? When an organ loses more than it receives what happens ? 6. Does the act of nutrition take place in all things ? D2 28__________PROOF OF THE ACT OF NUTRITION.____________ 7. Brute bodies, as stones and minerals are not nourished. The materials of which these are composed remain the same as long as they exist, and if their volume increase it is simply by the juxta-position of substances of the same nature as their own. 8. But animals and plants on the contrary grow by intussus- ception, that is to say, by the deposite of new particles within their very substance. 9. The continual process of composition and decomposition which constitutes the nutritive act, is not perceptible to our senses; but observations have been made which remove all doubt of its existence, even in the bones, the hardest and deepest seated parts of the body. An English surgeon, Belcher, eating of a pig which had been fed by a dyer, remarked that the bones of the animal were red, and attributing this peculiarity to the colored sub- stances which it had eaten, conceived an idea that analogous means might serve to render visible the effects of the nutritive act; he made experiments which, repeated by a number of learned men, were crowned with entire success. 10. After feeding animals on madder for a certain time, it is always found that the bones are stained red by a deposite of this coloring matter in their substance ; and after having thus fed an animal, and then suspending the use of the madder, it is found, after a certain period, that the red matter which must have been deposited in the substance of these organs, is no longer there, but has been, as we must conclude, ejected. Now, these facts may be explained by the continuous process of composition and de- composition, to which is given the name of nutrition. 11. This renovation of the constitutent materials of the body is indispensable to the continuance of life: when it stops in an organ, that organ decays, and when it ceases throughout, death soon follows. 12. The nutrition of organised bodies is effected by the aid of a liquid which conveys into all the organs, the necessary ma- terials for their sustenance, and which serves at the same time, to carry away from their substance those particles which are detached by the nutritive act, and destined to be expelled from the body. In plants, this liquid is the sap, and in animals it is the blood. 7. Are stones nourished ? How do they increase in size ? 8. Flow do animals and pl.mts grow in size? 9. Is the nutritive act perceptible to ourselves ? 10. How was it proved? 11. What is the consequence if nutrition ceases in an organ? If in all the organs? i2. How is the nutrition of organized bodies effected? What are the names of this liquid ? • OF THE BLOOD. 23 OF THE BLOOD. 13. The Blood is the nutritive liquid of animals. 14. It is this liquid which maintains life in the organs, and furnishes them with the materials of which they are composed. 15. The blood is the source of all the humors formed in the body ; as the saliva, tears, bile, &c. 16. In man, and all animals resembling him in organization, the blood is red. In a great number of others, it is colourless, or of a slight yellow or lilach tint. 17. The animals which have red blond, are the mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, and certain worms called "Annelides." 18. The animals with white btood, are the insects, theArach- nides. (that is spiders, and other animals resembling them,) the Crustacea, (a class of animals composed of crabs, lobsters, &c.) the mollusca, (or animals resembling snails and oysters) and some others. / 19. It is a vulgar error to suppose that flies have red blood in the head: when one of these animals is crushed we see, it is true, an effusion of reddish liquid, but this is not blood, and comes from the eyes of these little beings, whose blood, like that of all insects, is white. 20. Blood is more or less thick and opaque. When examined by a microscope we perceive that it is formed of two distinct parts, namely :— 1st. Of a yellowish, transparent liquid, called Serum. 2nd Of a great number of solid particles of extremely small size which swim in the serum, and which are called the globules if the blood. 21. To these globules the blood is indebted for its red color. They are flattened and have a considerable resemblance to small pieces of money slightly drilled out in the middle (page 30. fig. 2.) Their form and size vary in different animals. 13. What is blood? 14. What is the use of the blood? 15. What is the blood the source of? 16. What is the color of the blood ? 17. What animals have red blood? 1 8 What animals have white blood ? 19. Have flies red blood'2 20. Is the blood transparent? Of how many parts is it composed ? What ure these parts c.llcd ? What is serum? What are the globules of the blood? 21. Upon what does the red color of the blood depend'' What is the form of the globules? Are the size and form of the globules the same in all ani- nials ? 3 30 GLOBULES OF THE BLOOD. Fig. 3. t 22. In man, the dog, the horse, and all other ani- mals of the class of mammalia, the globules of the blood are circular, (a. b.) 23. In birds, reptiles, and fishes, the globules are of an oval form, (c.) 24. They are smallest in the mammalia, and largest in reptiles and fishes. 25. The blood of the mammalia and birds contains the greatest number of globules. 26. In animals with white blood, the globules are colourless, generally circular, and very few in number. [When these globules are carefully examined, with a powerful microscope, it is seen that each one is composed of two distinct parts, and that they consist of a sort of bladder or membranous sack, in the middle of which there is found a spheroidal corpus- cule,—(a diminutive body.) [ Under ordinary circumstances, this bladder is flattened, and forms, around a central nucleus, a circular border, of greater or less depth, so that, as a whole, it presents the appearance of a disk, (a.) swelled or bulged in the middle. The external envelope of the globules consists of a sort of jelly, which is of a more or less beautiful red colour, and is easily divided: it is to the presence of these vesicles, (little bladders,) that the blood owes its colour. The central nucleus of the globules is more consistant, and is not coloured.] 27. In its ordinary state, the blood is always fluid, and the globules swim freely in the serum; but when drawn from the vessels which contain it, and left to itself, it is not slow to con- geal, and to present the phenomenon of coagulation. * Fig. 2."—a, blood of a man,—b, blood of a sheep,—c, blood of a sparrow. These globules are magnified one thousand limes in diameter. t Fig. 3.—a, globule of the blood of a frog, magnified about seven hun- dred times, and seen in profile : b, the same globule seen in front; the envelope is torn so as to show the central nucleus. 22. What is the form of the globules in the mammalia? 23. In what class of animals are the globules oval? 24. In what animals are they smallest? In wliat animals largest? 25. What animals have the greatest proportion of globules in the blood? 26. What is the form and colour of the globules in white blooded animals? 27. What is the ordinary state of the blood? When drawn from the vessels, and left to itself, what takes place ? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 31 28. When blood coagulates, the globules unite themselves to- gether in a mass, and little by little separate from the serum, to form a clot more Or less solid. [Chemistry teaches us, that in man, 100 parts of blood, contain about 66 parts of water,Trom 6 to 7 hundredths of albumen, (1), from 14 to 15 hundredths of fibrin, (2), and colouring matter, some thousandths of fatty matters? of several salts, and traces of the peroxide of iron. Under ordinary circumstances, we cannot discover in the blood, those substances which are found in the different humors, formed at its expense ; but if we arrest the action of those organs that are charged with secreting these humors, we then find in the blood, the matters in question. We must therefore conclude that they always exist in it, but in quantities too small to be appreciated by our methods of analysis; and that the organs just alluded to, do not form them, but separate them from the blood in proportion as they are presented.] 23. The blood contains all the materials necessary to the re- paration and growth of the organs; consequently, it furnishes to all parts the matter, of which they are in need for their nourish- ment, and also imparts the excitement necessary to the main- tenance of life. 30. To appreciate fully the importance of the office filled by the blood in the bodies of living animals, it is only necessary to bleed one, and observe the effects of the operation. 31. When the flow of blood continues for a long time, the animal falls into syncope, (fainting,) and if the bleeding be not arrested, all motion ceases in a few moments; respiration is stopped, and life is no longer manifest by external sign. If the animal be left in this condition, reality soon takes the place of ap- pearance, and death speedily follows. But if we inject into his veins, blood similar to that which he has lost, we see with astonish- ment this semblance of a corpse return to life ; in proportion as ad- ~\l.)~Albijmev, is a kind of matter that enters into the composition of most of the organic tissues of animals, and almost, by itself constitutes the white of eggs. It can be dissolved in water, but by the action of heut, it solidities' and bacomes insoluble. (2.) Fibrin, is the basis of muscular flesh. It can be separated from b'ood by beating it with rods before it coagulates; the fibrin adheres to the rods in the form of very elastic whitish filaments._________________ 28. When blood coagulates what takps place? .... 29. What does the blood contain ? What other use has the blood besides that of nourishing the organs ? ,...,, 30 ilow can you show the importance of the blood to living animals ? 31. How is an animal effected by bleeding? What is the effect of inject- in^ blood into the veins of an animal that has been exhausted by bleeding? 32_________NUTRITIVE QUALITY OF THE BLOOD.__________ ditional quantities of blood are introduced into the vessels, he revives more and more, and soon breathes freely, moves with facility, resumes his habitual gait and is completely re-established. 32. This operation, known under the name of transfusion, is certainly one of the most remarkable that has been performed, and proves, better than all we could say, the importance of flie action of the globules of the blood upon the living organs ; for if wTe make use of serum, that is, blood deprived of its globules, in the same manner, we produce no more effect than if we had used pure water, and death is not a less inevitable consequence of the haemorrhage. 33. The influence of the blood upon the nutrition of the organs may be demonstrated with equal facility. 34. When by mechanical means we diminish, in an appreciable and permanent degree, the quantity Of this fluid received by an organ, we perceive that it dwindles in size, and often even decays and becomes reduced to almost nothing. 35. On the other hand we observe, that the more any one part of the body is exercised, the greater the quantity of blood it re- ceives, and the more it augments in volume. Indeed, every one knows that muscular exercise tends most to the developement of those parts which "are the seat of it; that in dancers for example, the muscles of the legs, the calf in particular, acquire an extraor- dinary size, while with bakers and other men who perform hard labor with their arms, the superior members or extremities be- come more fleshy than any other parts. Now, the muscles re- ceive more blood when in action than when in repose, and by this afflux of blood, the nutritive act of which they are the seat, is stimulated and their volume is increased. 36. The blood in giving nourishment to the organs, and in ex- citing the vital movement, undergoes a change ; it is impoverished not only by the deposite of the particles which the organs ap- propriate to themseives, and incorporate with their substance, but also by receiving the old materials which are separated from the tissue of these same organs, and which, having become useless, or even injurious, have to be expelled from the body. 32. What is the operation of injecting blood into the veins called ? Wha iocs transfusion prove ? 33. Does the blood influence the nutrition of the organs ? 34 What is the effect of diminishing the quantity of blood received by an organ ? 35. What effect does exercise produce on the different parts of the body ? Why is the volume of the muscles increased when they are much exercised ? 36. Does the blood undergo any change in nourishing the organs? VENOUS AND ARTERIAL BLOOD. 33 37. Consequently, there is a very great difference between the blood going to the organs, and that which has already passed through them, and which has contributed to their nourishment. 38. To the first is given the name of arterial blood, and to the second, the name of venous blood. 39. Arterial blood is of a vermilion red; it coagulates very easily and contains a large proportion of globules; and finally, it is essentially necessary to the maintenance of life. 40. Venous blood: is of a blackish red color; it is less coagula- ble and less rich than the arterial blood, but what distinguishes it above every other quality, is, that after having passed through them, it is no longer capable of exciting the vital movement in the organs. 41. Notwithstanding, the blood thus vitiated does not cease to be useful, because it easily regains its vivifying qualities. 42. By action of the ahj the venous blood is changed into arte- rial blood; it regains its vermilion color, and becomes again fit for the maintenance of life. 43. It is this transformation of venous blood into arterial blood, which constitutes the phenomenon of respiration. LESSON III. Functions of Nutrition—Circulation of the Blood—the Heart — Arteries— Veins—Motion of the blood in the bodies of the Mammifera?—Mechanism of the circulation—Phenomenon of the pulse—Venous absorption—Secretion, CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 1. The blood does not remain at rest in the body; it is con- stantly passing through the organs which it nourishes, and re- turning to the respiratory apparatus to come in contact with the air, to be again distributed to the organs. 37. Is the blood when it comes from an organ in the same condition as when it entered ? 38. What is the blood called that goes to the organs ? What is it called when it has left the organs ? 39. What are the properties of arterial blood? 40. What are the properties of the venous blood ? What is the essential quality that distinguishes venous from arterial blood? 41. Why does blood thus vitiated cease to be useful ? 42. How is venous blood changed into arteiial? 43. What does this transformation of venous into arterial blood constitute 7 I. Is the blood at rest in the body? 3* 34 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 2. The continuous passage of the blood from the respiratory apparatus towards all the organs of the body, and the return oj the blood from these organs to the apparatus of respiration, con- stitutes the phenomenon of the circulation. 3. This liquid, as we have seen, moves continually in a sort of circle ; after having traversed all the parts which it is destined to nourish, it returns to a particular organ to come in contact with the air, then goes back to the parts whence it came, passes through them, returns again to the apparatus of respiration, and so con tinues as long as fife endures. 4. The Apparatus of the Circulation, that is to say, the as- semblage of organs destined to effect this conveyance or trans- portation of the blood, is composed: First. Of canals, or pipes, in which the blood runs. Second. Of the heart which serves to set it in motion. 5. The heart is the centre of the apparatus of the circulation ; it is a sort of fleshy pouch communicating with the blood vessels, which receiving the blood into its interior, and which, by contrac- ting on itself from time to time, forces this fluid into the canals, and thus keeps up a continual current in them. 6. Almost all animals .have a heart. This organ exists not only in the mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes, but also in snails, oysters, and other animals of the class of mollusca; in crabs and lobsters; in spiders, &c. 7. The blood vessels are of two lands, namely: 8. ' st. The arteries which carry the blood from the heart to all parts of the body. 9. 2nd. The veins which bring back this liquid from all parts of the body to the heart. 10. The arteries spring from the heart and divide into branches which decrease in size, and increase in number as they advance, and are distributed to the very numerous parts, distant from the heart. 2. What constitutes the phenomenon of the circulation ? 3. After having traversed all the parts it is destined to nourish, what becomes of the blood ? 4. What is meant by the apparatus of the circulation ? Of what parts is it composed ? 5. What is a heart ? 6. Have all animals a heart ? 7. How many kinds of blood vessels are there ? 8. What is the fund ion of the arteries? 9. What is the function of the veins'! 10. Where do the arteries take their rise? How are they distributed? CIRCULATION OF THE Bf.OOD 35 11. The veins present a similar disposition, but which is de- signed to produce an entirely opposite result, because the blood in these vessels, pursues an inverse course. They are very numerous at a distance from the heart, but, little by little, they unite to form larger canals which, in turn, again unite, so that they terminate at the heart, in only one or two large trunks. 12. The ultimate rami- Fig. 4. fications of the arteries in c a P the substance of the or- gans, are continued into the radicles of the veins, so as to form a series of uninterrupted and narrow canals through which the blood passes through the organs. 13. To these delicate canals, which establish the communication between the termination of the arte- ries and the beginning of the veins, is applied to the name of capillary vessels, {Fig. 4.) • This name has been given to them in consideration of their ex- treme fineness, which makes them comparable to hairs.* * Explanation of Fig. 4.—This figure does not represent the natural arrangement of the heart and blood vessels; it is an ideal diagram, designed to convey some notion of the way in which the blood, incompleting the entire route of the circulation, passes twice through the heart, and also passes through the two systems of capillary vessels, namely, those of the lungs in getting from the pulmonary artery into the pulmonary veins, and those of all the organs, in passing from the minute terminating branches oi the aorta, into the radicals of the veins which end in the venee cavas. The two halves of the heart, which in reality, are only separated by a partition, are here completely isolated,—^, left side of the heart,—a, the aorta,—c, a, p, capillary vessels, which terminate the arteries, all of which spring from the aorta,—v, general venous system,—*/, right side of the heart,—a,p, pulmo- nary artery,—o,p, pulmonary vein. The arrows point in the direction of the current. _________________ 11. How are the veins arranged? 12. How do the ultimate ramification of the arteries terminate? 13. What are the capillary vessels? Whv are they so called? 36 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 14, At the extremity opposite to that where we find the capil- lary vessels, the arteries and veins also communicate with each other, by the intervention of the cavities of the heart. 15. The result of this arrangement is, that the vascular appara- tus forms a complete circle in which the blood moves, constantly returning to its point of departure. 16. The circulating circle may be compared to a tree, the trunk of which is doubled upon itself, so as to cause the ultimate ramifications of the branches to meet the ultimate divisions oi the roots; the upper portion of the trunk and roots would rep- resent the veins. 17. In all those animals which most resemble man, (anatomically,) such as the monkey, the dog, horse, ox, &c., the heart is placed be- tween the two lungs, in the cavity of the chest, which anatomists call the thorax, ,vg (Fig. 5.) 18. The general form of the heart is that of an inver- ted cone, the apex down, and a little to the left. The size of the heart is very nearly that of the fist of the individual to whom it be- longs.* a s c * Explanation of Fig. 5.—The lungs of a man with the heart and great vessels which arise from it,—p.p. the lungs,—t. the trachea which conveys air to the lungs,—c. the heart,—od. right auricle of the heart,—vd. right ven- tricle of the heart,—og. left auricle of the heart,—vg. left ventricle of the heait,—vcs. and vci. superior and inferior venoe cava?, emptying into the right auricle of the heart,—ap. pulmonary artery going from the right ven- tricle to the lungs,—vp. pulmonary veins, passing from the lungs to the left auricle of the heart,—an. the aorta,—ac. carotid arteries arising from the aorta, and conveying blood to the head,—asc. subclavian vein, corning from the arms and emptying into the superior vena cava. each 14. Have the arteries and veins any other communication with other than by the capillary vessels? 15. What is the result of the arrangement of the heart and blood vessels as described ? 1 6. To what may we compare the circulating circle ? 17. What is the situation of the heart ? 18. What is the form of the heart? What is its size? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 37 19. This organ is enveloped in a double, membranous sac, called pericatdium, and is suspended in the pericardium by the vessels which arise from its superior and enlarged entremity; but it does not adhere at any other point of its surface to the neigh- bouring parts. 20. The substance of the heart is almost entirely fleshy; it is a hollow muscle, the cavity of which communicates with the arte- ries and veins. 21. In man and all the mammalia, Fig. 6. as well as birds, it has four distinct J cavities. A thick, vertical partition ap divides it into two halves, each one forming two cavities, one above the other; a ventricle, and an auricle. (Fig. 6.) 22. The two ventricles occupy the inferior part of the heart, and do not communicate with each other, but each one opens into the auricle above it. 23. The cavities of the left side of the heart contain arterial blood, and those of the right side, venous blood. 24. The vessels which convey arterial blood into all the organs take their origin from the left ventricle of the heart, Explanation of Fir. 6.—The heart opened to show the cavities in the in- terior of this organ.—od, right auricle of the heart,—vd, Tight ventricle of the heart,—og, left auricle of the heart,—vg, left ventricle of the heart,— vcs. and vcf, superior and inferior vense cavae, emptying into the right auricle of the heart,—ap, pulmonary artery going from the right ventricle to the lungs,—vp, pulmonary veins passing from the lungs to the left auricle of the heart,—aa, the aorta,—o, left auriculo-ventricular opening,—o\ right auriculo-ventricular opening. The arrows point out the direction of the flow of the blood in the different vessels. 19. Has the heart any covering proper to it? How is it suspended in the pericardium? Does the heart adhere to the surrounding parts ? 20. What is the substance of the heart ? Is the heart solid ? 21. How many cavities has the heart? How is it divided ? What are the cavities of the heart called ? 22. What part of the heart is occupied by the ventricles? Do the ven triclus communicate with each other? Do they communicate with the auri- cles ? How is the auricle situated in regard to the ventricle ? 23. What kind of blood is contained in the cavities of the left side of the heart? In which side of the heart is found the venous blood ? 24. From what part of the heart do these vessels arise which carry arte rial blood ? What is the name of the great arterial trunk as it arises from ibe heart? 38 DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIES. through the mediurn of a single trunk, called the aorta, (Fig. 7.)* 25. This great artery first mounts upwards to- wards the base of the neck, then bends down- wards, forming a sort of crook, passes behind~the heart and descends ver- tically, in front of the spine, to the lower part of the belly. In its course, the aorta gives off a great number of branches, the principal of which are: 26. 1st. The two caro- tid arteries mount along the sides of the neck, and supply the head with blood ; (Fig. 7, ac.) 27. 2d. The two arte- ries of the upper extremi- ties, successively obtain the names of subclavian, axillary, and brachial arteries, as they pass under the clavicle, or cross the armpit, or de- scend along the arm to the elbow, where they divide into two branches, called the radial and ulnar, or cubital arteries : Explanation of Fig. 1.—The aorta and branches which arise from it to convey the blood to all parts of the body,—a, the aorta,—c, arch of the aorta,—ac, carotid arteries,—at, temporal arteries,—a, sc, subclavian ar- tery,—ax, axillary artery,—br, brachial artery,—ra, radial artery,—cu, cubital or ulnar artery,—i,i, intercostal arteries,—cce, coeliac artery,—re, renai arteries,—me, and mei, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries,—j'Z, ijiae arteries,—/, femoral arteries,—t, tibial artery,—p, the peroneal artery. 2.fi. Describe the course of the aorta? 26. What is the course and distribution of the carotid aiteries? 27. What arteries supply the upper extremities? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 39 23. 3rd. The intercostal arteries are several in number, and run between the ribs on each <-ide of the body; 29. 4th. The cceliac artery, which is distributed to the stomach, the liver, and the spleen ; 30. 5th. The mesenteric arteries, which ramify upon the intestines; 31. 6th. The renal arteries which penetrate into the kidneys ; 32. And 7th. The iliac arteries, which in a manner terminate the aorta, and which convey blood to the lower extremities, descend along the thighs and are there called femoral arteries; then they divide into many branches which terminate in the feet. 33. The reins, which receive the blood thus transmitted to all parts of the body, follow very nearly the same course as the arteries; but they are larger, more numerous and generally situ- ated more superficially. A great number of these vessels pass beneath the skin, others accompany the arteries, and, at last, they all unite to form two great trunks which emplty into the right auricle of the heart, and which have received the names of vena cava superior and vena cava inferior, (page 37. fig. 6.) 34. The veins which come from the intestines present an im- portant peculiarity. After uniting in a large trunk, they penetrate the liver, and there ramify like the arteries; there they again unite into a trunk and terminate in the inferior vena cava close to the heart. This arrangement of the vessels is called the system of the vena porta. 35. The venous blood, poured by the venae cava?, into the right auricle of the heart, descends from it into the ventricle of the same side. 36. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to a large artery, called the pulmonary artery, which next receives this same blood, and carries it into the lungs. (page37.fg. 6.) 28. What arteries run between the ribs ? 2!). What is the distribution of the Coeliac artery ? 30. What arteries ramify upon the intestines ? 31. What is,the distribution of the renal arteries? 32. What arteries are distributed to the lower extremities ? 33. What is the general course of the veins ? In what respect do the veins differ from the arteries generally ? Where do the great venous trunks empty 7 What are they called ? 34. What is the peculiar arrangement of the veins coming from the in- testines ? What is it called ? 35. What becomes of the venous blood after entering the right auricle of the heart ? 36. What artery arises from the right ventricle? Into what part does the pulmonary artery carry the'blood ? 40 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 37. This vessel divides into two branches, one going to the right and the other to the left, to enter the two corresponding lungs, and are divided into almost an infinity of branches, which are spread over the surface of the little membranous cells of these organs. 38. The capillary vessels by which the pulmonary arteries ter- minate, give rise to veins, which unite together and finally form two large vessels, called pulmonary veins, which empty into the left auricle of the heart. (page 36, fig. 5.) 39. Consequently, the pulmonary veins receive the venous blood, which was brought to the lungs by the pulmonary artery, and which has now become arterial, by the effect produced on it, by contact with the air in the interior of these organs ; they carry it back again to the heart and pour it into the left auricle. 40. Finally, from the left auricle this fluid descends into the left ventricle, whence we have already seen it issue to be distributed to the different parts of the body, through the medium of the aorta and its branches. To recapitulate what has just been said, on the route pursued by the blood, in the apparatus of the circulation in mammiferous animals and birds, we see: 41. 1st. That the'venous blood arrives from all parts of the body by the general system of veins; 2d. That from these veins it enters the right auricle of the heart; 3rd. That from the right auricle it passes into the right ventricle; 4th. That from the right ventricle the venous blood passes through the pulmonary artery to the lungs; 5th That in the capillary vessels, which form the termina- tion of the pulmonary artery, and commencement of the pul- monary veins, this liquid is changed into arterial blood ; 6th. That this arterial blood returns from the lungs, through the pulmonary veins, and enters the left auricle of the heart; 7th. That from the left auricle it descends into the ventricle of the same side; 8th. That from the left ventricle it is forced into the aorta, by which it is distributed to all parts of the body. 37. What is the distribution of the pulmonary artery ? 38. What is the origin of the pulmonary veins ? Where do they empty ? 39. What kind of blood do the pulmonary veins convey to the heart? Flow is the venous, changed into arterial blood ? 40. What becomes of the blood after it enters the left auricle ? 41 Wh-t is the loute pursued by th« Mood in the apparatus* of the circu' lation 7 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD.—THE PULSE. 41 42. And 9th.—and finally, that in the capillary terminations of the system of canals formed by the aorta, the arterial blood acts upon the organs, is changed there into venous blood, and enters the veins to be carried again to the heart. 43. In accomplishing the circulatory circle, the blood then passes twice through the heart, in the state of venous blood on the right side, and in the state of arterial blood in the left side of this organ ; (page 36. fig. 5. Sf page 42. fig. 8.) yet, the cir- culation is complete, because the pulmonary and aortic cavities of the heart do not open one into the other, and the venous blood passes through the entire respiratory apparatus to be transmuted into arterial blood. 44 The mechanism by which the blood moves through these vessels is easily understood. The cavities of the heart contract and enlarge alternately, and by contracting they force the blood into the canals with which they (the cavities) are in communica- tion. 45. The two ventricles contract at the same time, and while their sides or parietes relax, the auricles in their turn contract. 46. The movement of contraction bears the name of systole, and the term diastole is applied to the opposite movement, or dilatation. 47. The beating or pulsation of the heart is very frequent; in man of adult age it takes place from sixty to seventy-five times in a minute ; in old men the number of beats is a little increased, and in very young infants it is generally about one hundred and twenty. But a variety of circumstances may influence both the frequency and force of the beats of the heart; they are accelerated by exercise, by moral emotions, and by a great number of dis- eases; in swooning or syncope, they are considerably diminished, or even completely interrupted. 48. The left ventricle in dilating fills with blood, and in con- tracting afterwards, forces out the liquid which it contains. 49. This ventricle communicates only with the left auricle by an opening called the auricula-ventricular opening, and with the 42. Where is the arterial changed into venous blood? 4.'i'. In accomplishing its entire circle, how many times does the blood pnss through the heart? It What causes the blood to move in the blood vessels? 4"). Do the auricles and ventriclas of the heart contract at the same time? 4G. Whatis the contraction of the heart called ? What is its dilation called ? 47." What is the frequency of the heart's pulsation? Is it most frequent in infants or in old men? What circumstances influence the frequency o. the heart's pulsation ? 48. When the k-l't ventricle dilates, what, happens ? 4!). With what does the left ventricle communicate? 4 42 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. Fig. 8. aorta, ( Fig.S,aa.); the blood,at the moment of its contraction, must then either flow back into the auricle, ap (og.) or enter the aorta. 50. Now, around the edges of this -£-«* auriculo-reutricular opening, ( l-'ig. v^9, va.) there is a sort of valve, called °S the mitral valve, which is so arranged as to rise up, and close this opening, whenitispushed from below upwards. From this construction, it happens, that when the blood tends towards enteringinto the auricle (o,) the mitral valve is pushed up, and interrupts the communication between the auricle and ventricle. 51. Therefore, when the left ventricle con- tracts, the blood finds no other outlet than the aorta, and enters this vessel which it distendsVa' with more or less force, for its parietes, as well as those of all the arteries, ate very elastic. 52. Other valves situate at the entrance of )^* the aorta, prevent the blood from returning into vci Explanation of Fig. 8.—The heart opened to show the cavities in the in- terior of this organ.—od, right auricle of the heart,—vd, right ventricle of the heart,-—og, left auricle of the heart,—vg, left ventricle of the heart,— vcs. and vci, superior and inferior venoe cavoe, emptying into the right auricle of the heart,—ap, pulmonary artery going from the right ventricle to the lungs,—vp, pulmonary veins passing from the lungs to the left auricle of the heart,—aa, the aorta,—o, left auriculo-ventricul.ir opening,—o', right auriculo-ventricular opening. The arrows point out the direction of the flow of the blood in the different vessels. Explanation of Fig. 9.—The right auricle of the heart opened to show the position of the valve, va, in the auriculo-ventricular opening, which, during the contraction of the ventricle, (»«,) prevents the blood from enter- ing the auricle, (o,) ; we observe small cords passing from the edge of this valve and attaching themselves by their inferior extremities to the parietes of the ventricle, (c.) Like the rest of the heart, they are fleshy, and prevent the valve from turning entirely over into the auricle, when the blood, pressed by the ventricle, elevates it. The aorta is also open to show the valves, (w') which surround its entrance, and which are differently arranged from those of the ventricle. 50. Where is the mitral valve placed'! What is the use of the mitral valve ? 51. Into what part is the blood forced by the contraction of the left ven- iricle ? Why does it not go back into the auricle ? 52. What prevents the blood from returning into the left ventricle from the aorta ? Arc the arteries elastic or not ? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 43 the left ventricle, so that, pressed by the elastic force of the arterial parietes, it is continually pushed forward, from the heart towards the extremities of the arteries. 53. The phenomenon known under the name of the pulse, is nothing else than the motion caused by the pressure of the blood against the parietes of the arteries, every time that the heart con- tracts. According to the frequency and force of these motions, we may judge of the manner in which the organ beats, and draw therefrom, deductions useful in medicine. But the pulse is not felt in all parts; to perceive it, we p^g 10 must slightly compress an artery of a certain volume between the finger and a resisting surface, of a bone, for example, and select a vessel situated near the skin, as the radial artery at the wrist. 54. The impulsion received by tlie blood at its exit from the left ventricle of the heart, is commu- nicated to the capillary vessels and to the veins, and determines the progression of the blood in them. But the return of the venous blood towards the right ventricle, is favoured by some other circumstances. In the veins ol the extremities, the membrane which lines these vessels, forms a c pi eat many folds or valves, (Fig. 10, v.) which open when the blood pushes them from the extremities towards the heart, and shut so, as to close the passage, when this liquid flows in a contrary direc- ti. >n. Now, this arragement prevents the blood from flowing back towards the capillaries, and thus facilitates its passage towards the heart; for, every time a vein is pressed by the movements of the parts in its vicinity, the blood is pushed forward. Explanation of Fig. 10.—A large vein opened to show the valves, (r,) which are found in these vessels,—o,o, openings of two of its branches,—an, anastomosis of two veins,—c, capillary roots of the vein. 53. What is the pulse? Is the pulse felt in all parts? What does the pulse indicate ? What circumstances are to be observed in order to feel the pulse ? 54. What causes the blocd to circulate in the capillary vessels? What other circumstance, besides the impulsion received from the heart, favours the return of the blood towards the right ventricle ? 44 ADSORPTION1. 55. The passage of the blood through the right cavities of the heart, is effected in the same manner as in the left cavities. 1 be- tween the right auricle and right ventricle there also exists a valve, called the tricusped valve, which prevents the blood from return- ing from the ventricle into the auricle, (p. 42.fig.8. fyp.43.fig. 10.) and by the contractions of this ventricle the blood is forced to circulate in the vessels of the lungs and to arrive at the left auricle. 56. It is the ventricles, as we have seen, which force the bipod into the arteries and cause it to circulate. 57. The auricles are a sort of reservoirs, designed to contain the blood arriving by the veins, and to pour it into the correspon- ding ventricles. 58. Such is the march of the blood, not only in man and all the mammalia, but also in birds ; in the sequel we shall see that in reptiles and fishes, the structure of the heart is less complicated, and that the blood follows a somewhat different direction. OF ABSORPTION. 59. The blood, in passing through the veins from their capil- lary origin in the substance of the organs to their termination in the right auricle of the heart, carries with it all the fluids which in some way filter through the parietes of these vessels. Fluid sub- stances which may be in contact with the surface of the body and of the great hollow cavities in its interior, or which are deposited in the depth of the organs, are, as it were, pumped up, more or less rapidly, and carried into the torrent of the circulation. 60. To the passage of substances, of whatever kind, from the ex- terior, into the interior of the blood vessels through their parietes, or particular canals, and their mixture with the blood, is given the name of Absorption. 61. Substances thus absorbed, generally, penetrate directly in- to the veins; but under some circumstances they are carried thither by particular canals, called lymphatic vessels. In des- cribing the act of digestion, we shall have occasion to refer again to these vessels. 55. How ,s the passage of the blood through the right side of the heart effected ? What valve exists between the right auricle, and right ventricle? How is the blood forced to circulate through the lungs ? 56. What forces the blood into the arteries ? 57. What are the auricles ? 58. Is the structure of the heart, and the circulation the same in all animals? tt" 59. Do substances different from the blood enter into the circulation 1 oU. What is absorptmn? 61. Is absorption effected by the veins only? OF EXHALATION. 45 62. All parts of the body may be the seat of ffi called gums, serve, as i& well as the alveoli, to fix i~.cJ2 &m the teeth solidly in the po^ sition which they occupy. 29. Generally, each tooth is divided into two parts; one is situated with- out, and called the crown, the other,buried in the alveolus (Fig. 15.), and terminated by Explanation of Fig. 14.—The head seen in profile, to show the parotid gland, (gp.) and the chief levator, or elevating muscles of the lower jaw namely, the temporal (mt.) and maseter muscles, (m,m.) Explanation of Fig. 15.—Lower jaw of a man opened to show the man- ner in which the roots of the teeth (r.) penetrate its substance (a.)—b. the superior edge left entire,—i. incisor teeth,—c. canine teeth,—fin. false molar teeth,—gm. great molar teeth,—ed. condyle of the jaw which enters into its articulation with the cranium. 24. What is the situation of the jaws ? Are both jaws equally moveable ? 25. Where are those muscles placed which move the jaws? 26. Have all animals got teeth? 27. What arc the teeth ? What are the alveoli / 28. What are the gums? 29. Into what parts is a tooth divided t What is the neck of a tooth ? DIGESTION.—THE TEETH. 59 one or more points, is called the root of the tooth. Finally, we often remark between the crown and the root, a slight shrinking, called the neck of the tooth. 30. The teeth are composed of an internal substance called ivory, and a sort of extremely hard stony varnish, which covers the surface, and is called enamel. 31. The crown of the tooth only is covered with enamel. The root has it not. 32. The teeth are formed in the interior of Fig. 16. the jaws, and within little membranous pouches called dental capsules, which are inclosed with- in the substance of the bone, and which present in their interior a fleshy bud, or granule, from c -^ the surface of which exudes the stony mat- ter of which the tooth is composed, (Fig. 16.) 33. This stony matter is the ivory; it moulds itself upon the bud, and takes'its form ; just in proportion as new quantities of ivory are deposited upon that already formed, the tooth enlarges, as well as the species of case which it forms around the bud, which shrinks away until finally the little organ, being too much compressed, disappears; the tooth then ceases to grow. 34. In proportion as the tooth is formed, as we have just said, it rises in the alveolus, passes through the gum, and shows itself without. 35. The enamel is formed at the superior portion of the dental capsule, and is applied upon the tooth just to the extent it traverses that part of the capsule; it is for this reason that the root, which remains at the bottom of the alveolus is never covered by it. 36. The teeth which are formed in the earliest period of life, are destined soon to fall, and to give place to other teeth, stronger ----------_----------------------.-----—----------------------?——----.----------_ Explanation of Fig. 16.—One of the dental capsules opened to show the fleshy tubercle or granule which is in it,—6, the tubercle upon which the tooth in a manner moulds itself,—v. blood vessels and nerves which enter into this little secreting organ,—d. part of a" tooth which has just begun to form,—c. capsule._______________________ 30. What is the composition of teeth? What is ivory ? What is enamel 7 31. Have all parts of the tooth a covering of enamel ? 32. How are the teeth formed? What are the dental capsules? What do they contain ? What office does this granule fulfil? 33. How do teeth grow or increase in size ? Do teeth always continue to grow ? Does the bud or granule always exist in the tooth ? 34. How does the tooth rise in the alveolus ? 35. Where is the enamel formed ? How is it applied to the tooth ? Why is there no enamel on the roots of the teeth ? 36. Do the teeth of infancy remain through life? G 60 DIGESTION.—THE TEETH. and more solidly fixed. The first are called milk teeth, or deciduous teeth, or teeth of the first dentition ; the second, the permanent teeth, or teeth of second dentition. Fig. 17. 37. The teeth are djvided into three kinds, m cii (Fig. 17.) namely: 38. 1st. The incisive or incisor, which occupy the front of the mouth, and termi- nate in a thin cutting edge, have but one simple root, and are fit for cutting the various eg c £ aliments. 39. 2nd. The canine, which are placed on each side and next to the incisors, are in general, long and pointed; they also have only a single root, but it penetrates deeply into the jaw; their principal use is to fix themselves in the flesh, upon which the ani- mal feeds, and to tear it. •> 40. 3d. The molar teeth, or grinders, which are next to the canine, occupy the sides of the mouth; they are generally, pro- vided with several roots, and present a large, unequal crown, appropriate for grinding the food. 41. The molar teeth are subdivided into false molar, (dentes biscupidati) and great molar ; the first are smaller than the second, and are situated in front of them; the roots of the great molars are also more numerous, which gives them more solidity and power. 42. The number of teeth varies in different animals. Man, monkeys, the dog, the cat, &c., have the three sorts of teeth, we have just described ; but with the rabbit, the rat, and the other gnawers, (rodentia,) the canine teeth are wanting; and in other quadrupeds, such as the sloth, there are no incisors ; finally, there are also animals that are entirely unprovided with teeth, the ant-eater, and birds, for example. Explanation of Fig. 17.—The lower jaw of a very young infant, opened to show the capsules of the teeth. The milk teeth are here developed, and there are five on each side: namely, two incisors, (i,t\) one canine, (c.) and two molars, (mm.) ; we see below them the capsules of the incisor, canine and false molar teeth of second dentition, (c,c.) and further back, the capsules of the great molars, (eg.) 37. How many kinds of teeth are there ? 38. What are the incisor teeth ? Where are they placed ? What is their peculiar use? 39. Where are the canine teeth ? What is their form ? What is their use ? 40. What is the situation and form of the molar teeth ? 41. How are the molar teeth subdivided ? 42. Are the same varieties and number of teeth found in all animals J What animals are without teeth 1 DIGESTION.—THE TEETH. 61 Fig. 19. 43. The form of the teeth also varies in different animals, and we remark, that these differences are in accordance with the nature or kind of aliment upon which these beings are destined to be nourished". 44. Thus, with the dog, the cat, and other carnivorous animals, the molar teeth are sharp, and fitted to cut flesh, like scissors (Fig. 18.) ; with the mole and hedge-hog, that live upon pretty hard insects, these teeth are armed with conical points, which dovetail or fit reciprocally, and enable these ani- mals to crush their prey with facility. With the frugivorous animals, monkeys, for example, the same teeth are large, and their crown is armed with rounded elevations, suitable for crush- ing fruits; and with the ox.and horse, which browse or crop the grass, the crown of these teeth is still larger, and its surface is flat and striated like a mill stone. {Fig. 19.) 45. In man, the deciduous or milk teeth, begin to appear about the sixth or seventh month, and fall about the seventh year. They ...m are in number, twenty ; namely, in each jaw: Four Incisor, Two Canine, (one on each side,) And four molar, (two on each side.) 46. The permanent, or teeth of second dentition, are in number, thirty-two. 47. The incisor and canine are the same in number as in the first dentition ; but in place of two molars on each side of each jaw, there are five. The total number of molar teeth in adult man is consequently twenty; ten in each jaw. Explanation of Fig. 18.—Teeth of an animal of the order carnaria,—t, incisor,—a. canine,—m. molar teeth. Explanation oj Fig. 19.—Teeth of an animal of the order rodentia,—I incisor teeth,—n molar teeth,_________________________ 43. Is the form of the teeth the same in all animals ? 44. Does the form of the teeth of an animal bear any relation to its peculiar food ? 45. At what age in man do the first teeth begin to appear? When do they fall ? What is the number of the deciduous teeth ? What is the number of each kind ? 46. What is the number of the permanent teeth ? 47. How do the permanent differ from the deciduous teeth ? How many molar teeth is natural to an adult man? 62 DIGESTION. Fig. 20. 48. The five molar teeth on each side are divided into two kinds, namely ; two false molars, and three great molars. OF INSALIVATION. 49. During the act of mastication, the food is mixed with the saliva, which phenomenon is designated under the name of insalivation. 50. The saliva is a watery fluid, colourless and frothy, which is formed in particular organs, called salivary glands, (Fig. 20.) 51. In man, these glands are six in number: three on each side of the face, and are called parotid, sub-maxillary, and sub-lingual. 52. The parotid glands are the largest; they are placed beneath the skin, between the ear and the jaw, and empty the saliva into the mputh, by a long straight tube, which opens on the inside or internal face of the cheeks. 53. The sub-maxillary glands are smaller than the parotid, and are lodged below and behind the, lower jaw. 54. The sub-lingual glands are smaller than the preceding, and are found under the tongue. 55. The saliva serves to render the deglutition of food more easy, and contributes to accelerate digwltion. OF DEGLUTITION. 56. The food conveniently prepared by mastication and insali- vation, unites upon the back of the tongue in a little mass called an alimentary ball, or bolus. 57. The alimentary ball is next swallowed. We give the name of deglutition to this phenomenon, which consists in the passing of food from the mouth into the stomach, through the pharynx and Oesophagus. 48. How are the molar teeth distinguished ? 49. What is insalivation ? 50. What is saliva? Where is it found ? 51. How many salivary glands exist in man ? 52. Where are the parotid glands situated ? Where do they open ? Which of the salivary glands are largest? 53. What is the situation of the sub-maxillary glands? 54. What is the situation of the sub-lingual glands? 55. What is the use of the saliva ? 56. What is the alimentary ball or bolus ? 57. What is deglutition ? DEGLUTITION. __63 * * ■ - 58. The opening which occupies the back part of the mouth, and which forms the communication between this cavity and the pharynx, is called the isthmus of the. throat,—isthmus faucium. During mastication, it is closed by the veil of the palate, (velum palati, j but when deglutition is about to take place, this species of curtain is raised,and the alimentary ball is pushed into the pharynx. 59. The pharynx, (Fig. 21,ph.) Fig. 21 is a cavity, situate between the base of the cranium, and the front of the neck; above, it communi- cates with the nasal fossae by the posterior nares or nostrils, (an), as well as with the mouth, and below it presents two openings ; one, by which it is continuous with the oesophagus, the other, situated in front and called glottis, by which it communicates with the larynx and windpipe. We may compare it to a cross-road where the route followed by the air to get from the nose to the lungs, crosses the route followed by the food to get from the mouth to the oesophagus. 60. That deglutition may be effected, the alimentary ball must t pass beneath the posterior nostrils and over the glottis, without entering it, and descend directly into the oesophagus. Explanation of Fig. 21.—A vertical section of the head and neck, to show how the windpipe or trachea opens into the swallow or pharynx, and how this last cavity communicates with the mouth and nasal fossa? or nostrils,— b. the mouth,—I. the tongue,—vp. arch of the palate, which separates the mouth from the nasal fossae,— «,n. nasal fosses, opening externally by the nos- trils and communicating with the swallow by the posterior nares or hind nostrils, (an.)—i. isthmus of the fauces,—am. tonsils.—v. veil of the palate,— ph. the swallow or pharynx, cleft or divided like the mouth and nasal fossaa, a. oesophagus, a tube which descends from the swallow to the stomach,—la. larynx, the superior opening of which, called the glottis, (gl.) is placed at the anterior and inferior part of the swallow : we see upon this organ, a species of little tongue or valve, called epiglottis, (ep.)—t. trachea or windpipe, which descends from the larynx into the lungs,—cr. base of the skull,— gsm. sub-maxillary gland,—gsl. sub-lingual gland,—ct. thyroid gland. 58. What is the isthmus of the throat ? Is this cavity opened or closed during mastication? .")!). What is the pharynx? bO. What is necessary to effectual deglutition ? G2 64 CHYMIFICATION. m 61. The veil of the palate, by being raised up, and placed ob- liquely against the posterior wall of the pharynx, forms beneath the posterior nostrils, a sort of screen, which hinders the food from mounting upwards, and entering the nose from behind, during the act of swallowing. 62. That the food may not enter the glottis, it closes at the moment of deglutition, and, at the same time, the larynx is raised up against the base of the tongue, a movement which forces a valve situated above the glottis, and called epiglottis, ( Fiy, 21, ep.) to fall and close the opening. 63. Sometimes,however, deglutition not being properly effected, the food penetrates into the larynx, and at once brings on a fit of coughing : when this happens, it is said, " we swallow crosswise." 64. The oesophagus, or gullet, is continuous with the pharynx : it is a long membranous tube, which descends from the superior part of the neck, behind the windpipe ; enters the thorax, passes behind the heart and lungs, pierces the diaphragm, and terminates in the stomach. 65. The pharynx and oesophagus, are furnished with a layer of fleshy fibres which are placed transversely, in rings, which, contracting successively from above downwards, convey the ali- mentary ball into the stomach. LESSON VI. Functions op Nutrition.—Stomach digestion, or chymifica- tion.—Intestinal digestion, or chylification.— Bile and liver.— Pancreas, and Pancreatic Juice.—Large intestine,—Absorption of chyle.—ChyUferous vessels.—Recapitulation of the functions of nutrition. OF STOMACH DIGESTION, OR, CHYMIFICATION. 1. Food begins to be digested in the stomach; it is there trans- formed into chyme, and we give to this phenomenon the name of stomach digestion, or chymification. 61. What prevents the food from entering into the posterior nares? 62. What hinders food from entering the glottis? 63. What is the effect of food penetrating into the larynx ? 64. What is the oesophagus? 65. How is the alimentary ball conveyed into the stomach? -. Where does digestion commence? Into what is food changed in the stomach ? What is the term applied to this change of food ? CHYMIFICATION. 65 2. The stomach, (Fig. 22, es.) Fig. 22. is a membranous pouch, placed transversely at the superior part of the abdomen or belly. It has the form of a bag-pipe, and presents two openings; one situate to the left, and called cardia, (because it is nearest to the heart,) commu- nicates with the oesophagus; the other, called pylorus, (from the Greek, pulouros, a gate- keeper, because it shuts up the food in the stomach, until con- verted into chyme,) occupies the right extremity of this organ, and empties into the intestines. 3. Immediately after the pas- sage of the alimentary ball, the cardia closes in such a manner as to hinder it from re-ascend- ing again to the mouth. The pylorus is also closed, and the consequence is, that the food is arrested in the stomach, and forced to remain there a considerable time. 4. While the aliment thus sojourns in the stomach, it imbibes a peculiar liquid, called gastric juice, which converts it into chyme. 5. The gastric juice is a watery and acid liquid which is generated in a great number of very small cavities, lodged in the thickness of the parietes, or coats of the stomach, and named gastric follicles; each one of these follicles communicates with tne interior of this organ by a small pore, and thus empties the gastric juice upon the food. Explanation of Fig. 22.—Principal organs of digestion,—oe. oesophagus, or g-ullet,—es. stomach,—d. the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, __ig. the small intestines,—c. the ccecum,—ac. coecal appendix, or appendix vermiformis.--co. colon,—r. rectum,—j. the liver,—of. the gall bladder.—pa. the pancreas,—s. spleen. 2. What is the stomach ? What is the cardia 7 What is the pylorus? 3. What takes place after the alimentary ball passes in the stomach ? 4. What is added to the alimentary mass while in the stomach? 5. What is gastric juice? Where is it formed? 6 6_6_____________________CHYLIFICATION. 6. By the action of the gastric juice, the food is softened and little by little changed into a thick, grayish pap, which is called chyme. 7. As soon as the chyme is formed, the pylorus relaxes and the stomach begins to perform a series of movements which, by de- grees, push the alimentary mass towards this opening, and then into the intestine. These movements consist in the successive con- traction of fleshy fibres which surround the stomach transversely, and which contract, one after the other from left to right. OF INTESTINAL DIGESTION, OR CHYLIFICATION. 8. The chyme which issues from the stomach enters the intes- tine where it serves to form chyle. 9. The intent the (page 67. fig. 23.) is a long membraneous tube, folded upon itself, which, forms a continuation of the stomach and which, by its opposite extremity, opens outwardly. It is lodged in the abdomen, and is retained in its place by folds of a very fine membrane called peritoneum., which lines the parietes or walls of this cavity. The folds of peritoneum which connect the intestines to the spine, bear the name of mesentery. 10. The parietes of the intestine are furnished with fleshy fibres which surround them, and which, by contracting successively, push forward the matters contained within this tube. These movements are called vermiform or vermicular, because they resemble those of a worm when crawling. 11. The length of the intestine is always very considerable, but varies very much in different animals. It is remarked that in those which are nourished by flesh exclusively, it is much shorter than in those which live on vegetable substances: thus in the lion, which is essentially carnivorous, it is only three times the length of the body; while in man, who is omnivorous, its length is about six or seven times that of the body, and in the sheep which eats grass only, it is just twenty-eight times this length. 12. The intestine is composed of two very distinct portions; the small intestine, and large intestine. 6. What is chyme ? 7. What takes place after the chyme is formed ? 8. What is formed from the chyme? 9. What is the intestine? Where is it 1 dged ? What retains it in its place ? 10. What arrangement enables the intestine to push forward substances within it? 11. In what class of animals is the intestine longest ? What is its length in man ? CHYLIFICATION. 67 Fig. 23. 13. The small intestine, (Fig 23, ig.) is next to the stomach; it is narrower than the large intestine, and its ex- ternal surface is smooth. Its length is very considerable, and it is sub-divided into three portions, called: Duodenum, > Jejunum, and Ilium. 14. In the small intestine, the chyle is formed, and diges- tion finished. 15. The phenomenon of chylification is produced • by the mixture of the chyme, with the bile and the pancre- atic juice. 16. The bile, or gall is a greenish and very bitter liquid, secreted by the liver. 17. The liver, (Fig.12, f.) is a large reddish gland, and of a granular tissue. It is lodged in the superior part of the abdomen, to the right of the stomach, and presents upon its inferior surface, a membranous pouch called the gall bladder, (of.) The bile accumulates in this bladder, as in a reservoir, and is afterwards poured into the duodenum by a narrow canal, called the biliary duct, or ductus communis choledochus. 18. The pancreatic juice is a watery liquid which very much resembles saliva; it is formed in a gland, situate behind the stomach, which is called pancreas. It reaches the duodenum by a narrow canal, which arises in the pancreas, and empties near the opening of the biliary duct. 19. The chyme, mixed with the bile and pancreatic juice, passes through the whole length of the small intestine; and during 13. What is the small intestine ? What are its sub-divisions? ]4. What takes place in the small intestine? 15 How is chylification produced? 16. What is bile? 17. What is the liver ? Where is it situated ? What part receives the bile from the gall bladder. 18. What is pancreatic juice ? Where does this pancreatic juice go after leaving the pancreas? 19 What becomes of the chyme after being mixed with the bile and pancreatic juice ? 68 ABSORPTION OF CHYLE. its passage separates into two parts; one called chyle, which is de- posited upon the sides of the intestine to be absorbed ; the other, composed of those parts of the food which are not nutritious, which continues its route and enters into the large intestine. OF THE EXPULSION OF THE RESIDUE LEFT AFTER DIGESTION. 20. The alimentary matters which are not convertible into chyle, require to be rejected and conveyed out of the body, and for this purpose they enter into the large intestine, and there accumulate. 21, The large intestineis the second portion of the intestinal tube ; it differs from the small intestine in its calibre, its puffed form and in its uses. It is divided into three portions ; the cncum, the colon, and the rectum, (page 67. fig. 23.) 22. The cozcum is a swelling, or dilatation wherein the small in- testine terminates; we remark there a thin worm-like prolonga- tion, which terminates in a cul de sac, or blind canal, and is called the coecal appendix,—appendicula vcrmiformis; finally, we find on its inside a sort of valve, which hinders the matters contained in its cavity from returning into the small intestine. 23. The colon is next to the ccecum, and is continuous with the ~ectum, which terminates at the anal opening or fundament. OF THE ABSORPTION OF CHYLE. 24. The chyle is a peculiar liquid, resulting from the digestion of food, and is deposited upon the parietes of the small intestines. 25. The physical properties of this liquid, vary according to the nature of the food from which it is derived, and according to the animals in which it is observed. In man, and most mam- malia, the chyle is generally a white, opaque liquid, very much resembling milk, of an alkaline, saltish taste, and of a peculiar odour. Examined by the microscope, it presents a multitude of globules, analogous to those which form the central nucleus of the globules of the blood. If left at rest, it forms a mass, like the blood, and after sometime, separates into three parts; a solid clot which occupies the bottom of the vessel, a liquid resembling serum, and a thin pellicle, which swims on top, and seems to be of a fatty nature. 20. What becomes of those matters which are not convertible into chyle ? 21. What is the large intestine ? What are its divisions? 22. What is the ccecum ? What is the coecal appendix 7 23. What is the colon ? 24. What is chyle ? 25. Is the appearance of chyle always the same ? ABSORPTION OF CHYLE. 69 26. The chyle is destined to be mixed with the blood, to repair the losses which this liquid sustains by nourishing the organs; and that this mixture may be effected, it is pumped up by a par- ticular set of vessels which pour it into the veins. 27. This passage of the chyle from the intestine into the circu- latory system is known under the name of absorption of chyle. 28. The absorption of chyle is performed by the lymphatic vessels of the intestines, which are called for this reason, chy- liferous vessels, (or lacteals, from the appearance they pre- sent when filled with chyle.) 29. These vessels, which are extremely delicate, arise (by imperceptible orifices on the mucous membrane that lines the bowel,) from different parts of the small intestine by a multi- tude of branches, which little by little, unite among themselves, as we remarked of the veins; and after having traversed the small organs, called mesenteric glands, empty into a conduit or canal, called the thoracic duct, (tW- 24.)____________________ Explanation of Fig.'HA.—Represents a portion'of the small intestine ft) upon which we see the chyliferous vessels, the thoracic duct and the course fol- lowed by the chyle to reach the veins.—m. part of the peritoneum which serves to hold the intestines in their place, and which is called mesentery.— re. chyliferous vessels.—gm. mesenteric glands.—r. reservoir of Pecquet or receptacle of chyle, which is a slig-ht dilatation of the thoracic duct, soon after its commencement.—I. lymphatic vessels coming from all parts of the body to the receptacle of the chyle.—ct. thoracic duct which ascends along side the aorta, (aa.~) passes behind the heart (c.) and empties into the left sub-clavian vein, (v s c)—v n. vena cava, descending to the right auricle. 26. What is the use of Chyle ? Into what blood vessels does the chyle enter ? 27. What name is given to the passage of chyle into the circulation ? 23. How is the absorption of chyle effected ? 29. What are the chyliferous vessels? Where do they arise ? Where do they empty ? A* Fig. 24. 70 FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. 30. This duct, or canal, which also receives the lymphatic vessels from other parts of the body, presents at its inferior ex- tremity, a dilatation called the reservoir of Pecquet, or the leeep- taculum chyli; it lies closely glued to the anterior face of the vertebral column or spine, and mounts towards the thorax, to terminate near the base of the neck, in the subclavian vein of the left side. 31. The chyle, in passing through the mesenteric glands seem to be perfected in some degree ; it assumes a rosy tint and be comes coagulable like the blood: but it still differs very much from this liquid, and we do not know, with certainty, in what part of the body it is changed into blood, RECAPITULATION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF NUTRI- TION. Such are the different functions by the aid of which the nutri- tion of the body is effected. 32. The alimentary substances, necessary for renewing the materials of which the organs are composed, are derived, as we have seen, from sources exterior to the animal, and, in order to serve the purposes of nutrition, require to undergo a peculiar preparation to which we give the name of digestion. 33. The chief of the functions of nutrition is, consequently, in man as in all other animals, that of Digestion. 34. The nutritious matters, thus elaborated, do not sojourn in the digestive cavity; in order to support the organs, they pass from this cavity into the very substance of the body itself, to be mixed with the blood. To this transportation from without to within, and the passage of all substances from without into the torrent of the circulation, is applied the term Absorption. 35. The blood, to convey in this way, to all parts of the body, materials to repair the organs, must necessarily be the seat of con- tinual currents, and in fact, this liquid finds its way wherever there is life to be supported: this phenomenon is called the Circulation 30. Where is the thoracic duct? Where does it terminate ? 31. What change does chyle undergo while passing through the mesenteric glands ? In what part of the body is chyle changed into blood ? 32. To be available for nutrition what process does food necessarily un- dergo ? 33. What is the chief function of nutrition ? 34. What occurs next after digestion 7 35. In order to fulfil its office of nourishing the organs, what is necessary to the blood ? ________________FUNCTIONS OF RELATION. 71 36. In acting upon the tissues of the organs, the blood loses a part of its vivifying properties, and in order to regain them, requires to be brought into contact with the atmospheric air, which contact constitutes the phenomenon of Respiration. 37. Finally, the materials separated from the substance of the organs, in consequence of the nutritive movement, are carried along by the blood, and are afterwards separated and rejected from the system in the form of liquids, or of vapours. These acts, which are in a measure, the completion of the nutritive process, bear the general names of Exhalation and Secretion. 38. To recapitulate ; we see then that the functions of nutri- tion are constituted of several-series of phenomena, each having its seat in different organs, and that these different acts are : 1st. Digestion; 2nd. Absorption; 3rd. Circulation; 4th. Simultaneous decomposition and recomposition of the organs of nutrition, properly so called ; 5th. Respiration; 6th. Exhalation and Secretion. LESSON vir. Functions of Relation—Nervous system and sensibility. FUNCTIONS OF RELATION. 1. The phenomena of animal life or life of relation depend upon two faculties : that of sensation and that of motion. 2. These faculties, which do not exist in an equal degree of perfection in all animals, are wanting in vegetables. They are the result of an action of two apparatuses ; the apparatus of sen- sations and the apparatus of motion. 3. The apparatus of sensations is composed of the nervous system and the organs of the senses. 36. What is the object of respiration ? 37. What completes the phenomenon of nutrition? 38. What are the several functions of nutrition ? 1. Upon what do the phenomena of the functions of relation depend? 2. Do the faculties of sensation and motion exist in an equal degree in all animals? Do they exist in vegetables? Upon what do these facultiea depend ? 3. What parts compose the apparatus of sensations? H 72 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 4. The apparatus of motion is composed of the muscles, of the bones, and of some other organs. APPARATUS OF THE SENSATIONS. 5. Sensibility is the faculty of receiving impressions from sur- rounding objects. 6. This faculty has its seat in a particular apparatus called the Nervous System. 7. It is- also through the medium of this nervous System that motion takes place, that the influence of the will makes itself felt in different parts of the body, and that the phenomena of intelli- gence is manifested. 8. We distinguish in this apparatus two principal parts, which are called the nervous system of animal life, and the nervous system of organic life. 9. The nervous system of animal life presides over the func- tions of the life of relation ; it is also called the cerebrospinal system, because the brain and spinal marrow are the most impor- tant parts of it. (page 73 fig, 25.) 10. The term encephalon, is applied to the great nervous mass formed by these two organs and the other central parts of the nervous system, lodged in the cavity of the cranium and in the canal which exists in the whole length of the vertebral column. 11. The cranium is a great cavity which occupies all the supe- rior and posterior parts of the head, and which at the inferior part or base, presents several holes. One of these holes, which is very much larger than the other and placed a little behind, gives it a communication with the vertebral canal. 12. The vertebral canal is a cavity hollowed out in the verte- bral column or spine, of which it occupies the whole length ; it consequently descends from the head, all along the back to the lowest extremity of the trunk and even into the tail, when the animal is provided with an appendix of this sort. 4. What constitutes the apparatus of motion ? 5. What is sensibility ? 6. Upon what does sensibility depend? 7. Through what means is the influence of the will conveyed to dif. ferent parts of the body ? 8. What are the principal parts into which the apparatus of sensation is divided ? 9. What is the office of the nervous system of animal life ? Why is it called the cerebro-spinal system ? 10. What is meant by the term encephalon ? il. What is the cranium ? 12. What is the vertebral canal ? NERVOUS SYSTEM. 73 When we study the skeleton we shall recur to the description of these parts. 13. The brain, or cerebrum (Fig. 25, c.) is a voluminous viscus, of a very soft texture, and of an oval form, which fills the greatest part of the anterior of the cranium. It is divided on a middle line, by a very deep furrow, into two halves called hemispheres of the brain. Each of these hemispheres is subdivided, in its turn, into three lobes, and presents on its surface a great number of hollows and projec- tions, folded on themselves, called the convolutions of the brain. We find in the inte- rior, cavities called ventricles, and we distinguish in the sub- stance of which it is composed, two sorts of matter, one white, called medullary, which occu- pies the interior of the mass of the brain, and the other, of a greyish colour, forms its super- ficies, and is called cortical. 14. Behind and below the cerebrum, or brain, we find, also in the cavity of the cranium, another nervous mass, very much smaller, but of analogous structure, which is called the cerebellum. (Fig. 25, cv.) Fig. 25. Explanation of Fig 25.—The nervous system.—c. the cerebrum,—cv. the cerebellum.— me. the spinal marrow from which arises a great many nerves which ramify over all parts of the body.—pb. the brachial plexus or reunion or assemblage of the different nerves which are distributed to the arms.—ps. the sciatic plexus or assemblage of nerves which form the great sciatic nerve which descends to the lower extremities. 13. What is the brain ? How is it divided ? What are ventricles ? What is the difference between the medullary and cortical parts of the brain ? 14. What does the cranium contain besides the cerebrum ? 74 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 15. The spinal marrow, (Fig. 25, me.) arises from the inferior part of the brain and cerebellum. It has the form of a thick, whitish cord, and descends from the interior of the cranium to the lowest part of the canal which pierces the vertebral column. 16. We give the name of medulla oblongata, to the superior portion of the spinal marrow which is enclosed in the cranium. 17. The encephalon (which includes the brain and spinal mar- row, also called, the cerebrospinal axis,) is surrounded by different membranes, which serve to prevent it from wounding itself against the sides of the bony case which encloses it. One of these mem- branes, called the arachnoid, is extremely fine; another called the dura mater, is, on the contrary, very strong, and in the interior of the cranium forms plaits or folds which descend between the hemispheres of the cerebrum, and between this organ and the cerebellum, to sustain these parts, and prevent them from press- ing one upon the other. 18. A great number of soft whitish cords go from the brain and spinal marrow to all parts of the body; they are designated by the name of nerves, (Fig. 25.) 19. These nerves arise, some from the base of the brain, others from the sides of the spinal marrow. In man there are forty three pairs, of which, the first thirteen arise from the brain and medulla oblongata, and pass out of the cranium through holes in its base: and the remaining thirty pairs arise from the spinal marrow, and go out of the vertebral canal by holes, situate on each side of the spine. 20. The nerves are divided into branches and ramuscles, which are spread out in the different organs, and in them become so extremely fine as to escape our vision. They possess extreme sensibility, and the slightest wound of one of them causes acute pain. 21. The nerves give to different parts of the body to which they are distributed, the sensibility which these parts enjoy. They convey the impressions received by the organs to the brain, which is the seat of the perception of sensations. 15. What is the spinal marrow? 16. What is the medulla oblongata? 17 What are the coverings of the encephalon ? Whit is the dura mater? IS. What name is given to those cords which go from the brain and pimil marrow to all parts of the body ? 19. What is the origin of the nerves ? How many pairs of nerves are found inmin? Whit is the origin o: th; first thirteen pairs'of nerves in man 1 20. How arc the nerves divided ? To what part are they distributed ? Are they simple ? iJL What office i^ performed by the nerves ? NERVOUS SYSTEM. 75 It is also through the medium of the nerves that the influence of the Will is communicated from the brain to different parts of the body, and that motion is performed. 22. Indeed, if we cut the nerves which go to a limb, it becomes immediately insensible, and ceases to execute voluntary motion, or in other words, it is paralysed. 23. Certain nerves serve only for the transmission of sensations, others serve only for motion, but the greater part fulfil both these functions at the same time ; this arises from the union of a certain number of nervous fibres, of which some possess the first of these faculties, and others the second. At the point where the nerves issue from the spinal marrow;, these two species of fibres are still separate, and con- stitute two distinct roots, one situated be- fore the other (Fig. 26.) ; the anterior root serves for motion, and the posterior for sensibility. When in a living animal we cut the anterior roots of all these nerves, it is incapable of moving, but preserves its sensibility; while if we cut the posterior roots without wounding the anterior, the con- trary is true. [Theganglionic nervous system,also called the great sympathetic nerve, or nervous system of organic life, is composed of a number of small, very distinct nervous masses, which are united to each other by medullary cords and different nerves, which anastemose (communicate by branches) with the cerebro-spinal system, or are distributed to the neighbouring organs. These nervous centres bear the name of ganglions: they are found in the head, neck, thorax and abdomen. Most of them are placed symmetrically on each side of a middle line, in front of the vertebral column, and thus form a double chain from the head to the pelvis; but they are found in other parts: near the heart, for example, and in the vicinity of the stomach.] Explanat. of Fig.%6.me—A portion of the spinal marrow, showing the manner in which the nerves arise by two sets or bundles of roots.—r. anterior roots serving for motion.—rp. posterior roots serving for sensibility.—g. ganglionic swelling of a posterior root. 22. What effect would be produced by cutting: the nerves which goto a limb? 23. Do all nerves perform the same functions? How is it that some nerves serve for motion and also to transmit sensation ? Which nervous roots serve for motion ? Which nervous roots serve for sensation ?. If we cut the anterior roots of the nerves in a living animal what happens ? What re suits from cutting the posterior roots ? H2 76 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 24. That sensations may be perceived, it is necessary that the nerves transmit them from the point where they are produced to the brain, either directly, or through the intervention of the spinal marrow. 25. The brain is, at the same time, the seat of the will and of the perception of sensations; when, in consequence of a wound or strong compression, this organ cannot perform its functions, the animal becomes insensible, ceases to execute voluntary motions and falls into a state resembling profound sleep. 26. It is remarkable that the nerves which arise from the right side of the spinal marrow communicate with the left hemisphere of the cerebrum and vice versa; this results from the crossing of the fibres in the medulla oblongata, and hence it is that when the brain is paralysed on one side only, it is the members of the op- posite side of the body which lose their sensibility and motion. 27. Farther, the brain, although the seat of perception of sen- sations, is itself very slightly sensible ; we.may prick or cut it in a living animal without causing pain. 28. The spinal marrow is, on the contrary, extremely sensi- ble, and when it is wounded, the animal is convulsed ; if it be cut or compressed so that it cannot perform its functions, all the parts of the body whose nerves arise below the point of injury are at once paralysed. 29. The cerebellum seems to be designed to regulate motion. 30. The second portion of the nervous, system, or Nervous System op Organic Life, communicates with the nerves which arise from the spinal marrow by a great number of small fila- ments, but it is distinct from it. 31. This apparatus, which is also designated under the name of ganglionic system, or great sympathetic, on account of the con- nection which it establishes between different parts of the body, is composed of a great number of small nervous masses called 24 What is necessary to enable an animal to perceive impressions made upon it? 25. What occurs, if, from any cause, the functions of the brain be inter- rupted ? 26. What is remarkable in the origin of the nerves 7 27. Is the brain itself sensible ? 28. Is the spinal marrow sensible or not ? When the spinal marrow is compressed or wounded, what occurs ? 29. What seems to be the office of the cerebellum ? 30. Does the nervous system of organic life communicate with the ner- vous system of relation ? 31. Why is the nervous system of organic life called the great sympa. thetic ? Why is it also called the ganglionic system ? What is a ganglion ? To what parts are those nerves distributed which arise from the ganglions? THE SENSES. 77 ganglions, situated in the neck, in the thorax, and in the abdomen in front of the vertebral column, and tied to each other by com- municating cords ; a multitude of nerves arise from these gang- lions and are spread out in the heart, the lungs, the intestines, the glands and other organs of vegetative life. 32. These parts of the body which receive their nerves from the ganglionic system are slightly sensible, and the movements which they execute are independent of the will. 33. The principal nerves of sensibility terminate in particular organs, through the medium of which they receive and transmit to the brain, the sensations prodtrced upon us by surrounding objects. These organs are each destined to receive sensations of a certain kind, and are called organs of the senses. LESSON VIII. Functions op Relation—Sense of touch—Skin—Hands-— Hair—Heard—Nails—Horns—Mode, of formation—Sense of smell—Olfactory apparatus-—Sense of taste—Sense of hearing — Auditory apparatus. 1. We give the name of Senses to those faculties by the aid of which animals take cognizance of the properties of bodies which surround them. 2. Bodies may differ from each other in different ways; in their weight, their hardness, their volume, their temperature, Sec. by their odour, their taste, their form, and their color, or by the sounds which they afford. 3. These various qualities cannot be appreciated by the same organ; the organ which perceives taste for example, is not sen- sible of the color, or odour of bodies; therefore, the faculty of experiencing sensations from the influence derived from each one if these different kinds of the properties of external objects, is the attribute of a particular organ. 32. Do the movements of those parts of the body supplied with nerves from the ganglionic system, depend upon the influence of the will? Are the parts thus supplied very sensible? 33. I low do the principal nerves of sensibility terminate? 1. What arc the senses? 2. How do bodies differ from each other? 3. I; any one organ capable of appreciating all the properties of bodies? 7 78 SENSE OF TOUCH. 4. These faculties or senses, in man and most animals are rive in number; namely : touch, taste, smell, hearing, and sight. 5. Touch and taste are only exercised upon bodies which are brought into contact with those organs which are the seat of those senses. Smell, hearing, and sight, make us acquainted with certain properties of objects at a greater or less distance from us. 6. All animals do not possess the senses in an equal number with man; in some, there is neither organ of sight, nor organ of hearing, nor organ of smell; such is the oyster for example : in others, one or another of these instruments is wanting. We will now consider each one of the senses, and the organs which, are the seat of them. OF THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 7. Touch is the sense which reveals to us the contact of foreign bodies with our organs and informs us of the nature of their sur- faces whether rough or smooth, their movements, the degree of their consistence, their temperature, and, to a certain extent, their form, volume and weight. 8. Ta.-.t is a passive touch, but this function sometimes becomes active: it is more especially called touch, when the sensibility is most exquisite and the surface, which is its seat, can in a manner mould itself to objects. 9. Tactile sensibility is spread out in all parts of the surface of the body, and resides in.the shin. 10. The skin is the membrane which covers or clothes the body. It is principally composed of two parts, one called the eorium or derma, or true skin, the other, the epidermis or cuticle, or scarf-skin. 11. The epidermis is the most superficial layer of the skin; it is a sort of thick varnish which covers the derma and serves to protect it against the contact of hard bodies, and prevent it from Decoming dry by the action of the air. 12. The derma is the thickest and most important part of the kin; it is beneath the epidermis, and adheres to the subjacent 4. What is the number of the senses ? What are they called ? ivi5: rVh^l-is necessary forthe exercise of the faculties of touch and taste? N hat faculties convey to us notions of bodies without contact ? 6. Have all animals the same number of senses as man? 7. What is touch ? 8. What is tact? When does it become touch? 9. What is the seat of tactile sensibility? 10. What is the skin ? Of what parts is it composed? Jo Ki^^fK! W»t » the u» „f the epidermis or cuticle 7 „.J"t ,V hal„lB t";' ''c,nnu/ ;S h;Ie ls II Pl"*ed '■ H..s .h« derma any nerves' V* hat form the nap.lhe of the derma ? Whore is the derma t .. I sensible? SENSE OF TOUCH. 79 parts by its internal face. A considerable number of nerves are distributed in it, and form upon its surface small elevations called papilla?. To these nerves the skin owes its sensibility, which is greatest in those parts where there is the greatrst number of papilla?, as in the ends of the fingers for example. 13. The epidermis is applied upon these nervous papillse : it is not itself endowed with sensibility, and renders the sense of touch less delicate in proportion to its thickness. Frequent contact with rough and hard substances tends to increase its thickness, thus, the hands of those persons who perforin laborious work have the epidermis thicker and less sensible than those whose occupation does not place them in the same circumstances. 14. Hair, beard, nails, horns, &c, are productions formed by small secreting organs, lodged in the substance of the skin ; they are developed, like the teeth, by the addition of new portions of their substance upon that already formed, and are not like living organs, the seat of a nutritive movement. We give the name of bulb, to the secreting organs of the hair and beard. 15. Finally, there exists in the thickness of the derma, little follicles which secrete the sweatf a liquid which is more or less acid. 16. The contact of an object with any point of the surface of the skin is sufficient to determine a sensation there; but, that touch may be exercised, it is necessary that the part where this contact takes place shall be so formed as to apply itself exactly, and, in a manner, mould itself to the object which the animal wishes to feel; this kind of perfected tact has its seat in particu- lar organs called, organs of touch. 17. In man, the hand is the special organ of touch, and its structure is admirably well adapted to the exercise of this sense. The fineness of the . skin, its great sensibility, the species of cushion formed by the subcutaneous fat at the extremities of the fingers, the length and flexibility of these organs and the capabili- ty of opposing the thumb to the other fingers, like a pair of plyers or forceps, are so many conditions essentially favourable to the delicacy of this sense, and enables us to appreciate with great exactitude the qualities of those bodies we may feel. 13. Is the epidermis itself sensible ? What effect has the thickening of the cuticle upon the sensibility of a part? 14. How are hair, beard, horns, nails, &c. produced ? What name is given to the secreting organs of the hair and beard? 15. What is the origin of sweat or perspiration ? 16. Does contact of an object with any part of the skin determine sensa- tion a' that part? Is this coiitact sufficient for the exercise of the faculty of touch ? 17. What is the organ of touch in man ? What are the circumstances which render the hand soadmrably adapt d to its purpose? 80 SENSE OF TASTE, AND OF SMELL.____________ 18. Most animals have very imperfect instruments of touch, and, in general, the greater part of the surface of their bodies is slightly or not at all sensible, on account of the hairs, feathers, scales, and other hard parts, with which their skins are covered. OF THE SENSE OF TASTE. 19. Taste is a sense which makes us acquainted with the savor or taste of substances 20. Like touch, taste is exercised by contact only. Its seat is in the mouth. 21. The parts of the mouth where this peculiar kind of sensi- bility resides are, the edges of the tongue and the arch of the palate. 22. All substances are not sapid; those which are not soluble in water seldom are. 23. In order to act upon the sense of taste, it is necessary that the sapid substances which the animal introduces into its mouth, should be dissolved by the fluids poured into this cavity by the salivary glands, or by some other liquid. It is in a state of solu- tion, that savors are perceived by the nerves of taste, which are spread out upon the surface of the tongue, and which transmit to the brain the impressions of this sense. OF THE SENSE OF SMELL. 24. The sense of smell reveals to us the existence of odours and enables us to appreciate them. 25. Odours are produced by extremely fine particles, which escape from odorous substances, and which are diffused in the air like a vapour. 26. That odours may act upon the sense of smell, the odoriferous particles must come in contact with -the surface of the organ wherein this sense is seated. 27. The sense of smell is exercised in a peculiar apparatus, called the nasal fossae. 18. Are most animals well supplied with organs of touch ? 19. What is taste ? 20. Where is the sense of taste situated? Can this sense be exercised without contact ? 21. What parts of the mouth are endowed with the sense of taste ? 22. Are all substances sapid ? 23. What conditions are necessary to operate on the sense of taste ? 24. What is the sense of smell ? 25. How are odours produced ? 26. What is a necessary condition in order to act upon the sense of smell ? 27. Where is the sense of smell situated 7 SENSE OF SMELL. 81 28. The nasal fossae, (Fig. 27.) are two large cavities in the face, which communicate externally by the open- ings of the nose or nostrils, and open behind, into the pharynx, by the posterior nares or nostrils. The walls of these cavities, form in front, a more or less prominent ridge, which con- stitutes the nose, and a verticle par- tition separates one from the other. Finally, they are lined by a soft and very delicate membrane, called the pituitary membrane. 29. The first pair of cerebral nerves which are called the olfac- tory nerves, are distributed to this membrane, and transmit to the brain the impressions produced by the contact of odoriferous particles. 30. The air which traverses the nasal fossae in order to reach the lungs, carries with it the odorous particles of substances, and it is by touching the pituitary membrane that these particles pro- duce the sensations of smells. The form of the nasal fossa3 is such, that the air is carried towards their superior parts, where the greatest number of the delicate filaments of the olfactory nerve is distributed. 31. It is vulgarly believed that the humors with which the pituitary membrane is lubricated come from the brain ; but this is an error. They are secreted by this membrane itself, and the slight diseases known under the name of cold in the head, rheum oj the head, are nothing else than inflammation of this membrane. Explanation of Fig 27.—The nasal fossae open and seen from the inside.— c. the cranium sf the frontal sinuses, cavities hollowed out in the substance of the frontal bone, and in communication with the nasal fossa?.—no. the olficiory nerve r. its branches ramifying on the pituitary or schneiderian membrane.—cs. cm. ci. superior, middle and inferior turbinated bones ; these are projecting plates of bone which serve to increase the extent of the surface of the organ of smell—ph. the swallow or pharynx—t. the opening of the Eustachian tube. 28. What are the nasal fossae or nostrils ? What is the name of the lining membrane of the nose ? 29. What nerves are distributed to the pituitary membrane T 30. How is the sense of smells perceived ? 31 What is the origin of the humors which cover the pituitary mem brane? What disease consists of an inflammtion of this membrane? 7* Fig. 27. 82 SENSE OF HEARING. OF THE SENSE OF HEARING. 32. Hearing is the sense which enables us to perceive sounds. 33. Sounds are produced by very rapid oscillatory movements, which are manifested in sonorous bodies, and which are called vibrations. 34. Sonorous vibrations are communicated, from the bodies in which they are produced, to the surrounding air, and are thus pro- pagated, little by little, or nearer and nearer, like the undulation produced on the surface of smooth water by casting a stone into it. 35. That sounds may act upon our senses, the oscillatory motion must reach the bottom of the apparatus of hearing, that it may agitate the extremity of the nerve, destined to transmit the sensation which it produces. 36. The apparatus of hearing is called the ear; it is double and is symmetrically placed on each side of the head. Each of these apparatuses is lodged in the interior of one of the bones of the cranium, called the temporal bone. That part of the temporal bone which contains it, is extremely hard, and for this reason has received the name of petrous bone. 37. The apparatus of hearing is very complicated in its struc- ture; it may be divided into three principal parts which anato- mists have called the external eur, the middle ear or cavity of the tympanum, and the internal ear, or labyrinth, (Fig. 28.) 28. The external ear is composed of the pavilion of the ear, and the auditory canal, (meatus auditorius externus.) 39. The external ear, or pavilion of the ear, (Fig. 28, p.) is a very elastic cartilaginous plate which surrounds the entrance to the auditory apparatus, and presents, in many animals, the form of a trumpet, which serves to direct sounds towards the in- terior of the ear. In man, the pavilion of the ear presents many ridges and furrows, or anfractuosities, arising from the folds of the cartilaginous plate which forms it. 40. The auricular canal, or external auditory canal,—meatus 32. What is the sense of hearing ? 33, How are sounds produced ? What are vibrations? 34. How are sonorous vibrations propagated ? 35. What condition is necessary to produce sensation from sounds ? 36. What is the name of the apparatus of hearing ? Is it double or sin. gle? Where is it situated ? What is that part of the temporal bone called which contains the apparatus of hearing? 37. How is the ear divided ? 38. What are the divisions of the external ear? 39. Describe the external ear ? 40. What is the situation of the external auditory canal? What is the membrana tympani? SENSE OF HEARING. 83 auditorius externus, (Fig. 28, c a.) is a species of tube which commences at the bottom of a widened part of the pavilion, called concha, and buries itself in the temporal bone; it is gaping at c its external extremity; but ends internally, in a species of membra- nous parti- tion, named in ein brana tymp ani, — drum of the ear,—which separates it from the mid- dle ear. 41. The middle ear is composed of the cavity of the tympanum, and some small accessary parts. 42. The name of tympanum, (Fig. 28, cai.) is given to a small cavity of irregular form which is hollowed out in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and which is found to lie between the auditory canal and the internal ear. It is filled with air, which gets there through a canal called the Eustachian tube, which opens in the superior part of the pharynx. 43. The entrance to the tympanum is closed by a very thin partition, which is stretched like the parchment over a drum, and hence the name, tympanum. This membrane serves to facilitate the transmission of sounds from without to the very bottom of the auditory apparatus, and also to moderate the intensity of Explanation of Fig. 28—A vertical section of the organ of hearing.—p. pavilion of the ear.—co. concha.—ca. auditory canal.—t. tympanum behind which is seen ihe cavity of the tympanum (cai.)—te. the Eustachian tube.— fo. foramen oval,'.—v the vestibule,—I. the cochlea.—osc. the semicircular canals—these canals and the cochlea constitute the labyrinth or internal ear. —na. the auditory or acoustic nerve.—r. the petrous bone, that is, a part of th«' temporal bone which derives its name from a Greek word signifying, rocky, which has been applied to it from its very remarkable hardness.—c. cells in the temporal bone.—fg. glenoid cavity for the articulation of the lower jaw.—am. mastoid apophysis or mastoid process of the temporal bone, 41. Of what docs the middle ear consist ? 42. What is the tympanum ? Where is it situated ? Through what pas- sage dne« air enter the tympanum ? 43. Of what use is the membrana tvmpani ? Does it modify sounds? I ' 81 SENSE OF HEARING. sound8 ; for it is so arranged, that it can be stretched or relaxed ; and when stretched, it transmits sounds less perfectly. Fig. 29. 44. We also remark in the interior of the tympanum, m a transverse chain, formed of four small bones, named C\ on account of their shape, (Fig. 29.) the malleus, (m.) *i^f (hammer,) incus, (en.) (anvil) lenticular bone, (I.) or os * orbiculare, and stapes, (»/.) (stirrup.) n 45. The malleus rests upon the membrane of the tympanum, and affords attachment to muscles, which, by contracting, may cause it to press more or less strongly upon the membrane; in this way it is stretched or re- laxed to adapt itself to the intensity of the sounds by 0l which it is struck. /^ , 46. In the interior of the cavity of the tympanum, ^^ there are two small openings which are closed up by membranes stretched over them p. „q '*„ like that of the tympanum; they l9' ' -gm£ks% lead to the internal ear. One of -^l^^pwmP them,called the fenestra ovalis, or ""-S^pjMpJTOy??^'.....en foramen ovale, is in contact with .^^^S^m^km the base of the stapes; the other, mm rjP%p&^«SS^|">»v called the fenestra rotunda, or fot- ^^H0l,''.l^ttwPr-T**^ amen rotundum, is situated a little V' - /?W^ €t lower down. The cavity of the m "■ tympanum also communicates with a great number of cells which are in the substance of the petrous bone. 47. The internal ear is composed of three parts, namely, the vestibule, the semi-circular canals, and the cochlea, (Fig. 28.) These organs are filled with a watery liquid, in which the fila- ments of the acoustic nerve terminate. 48. The vestibule, and the acoustic nerves constitute the essential part of the auditory apparatus; the other parts which we have just enumerated are destined to perfect this apparatus, and for the most part, may be destroyed, even in man, without Explanation of Fig. 30.—The tympanum with the bones of the ear,•— t. the tympanum,—ma. the maleus or hammer,—m, the handle of the maleus, which rests upon the tympanum,—mm. muscles of the maleus,—en. the incus, oi anvil,—et. the stapes or stirrup,—me. muscles of the stapes. 44. What is found in the interior of the tympanum ? 45. What bone gives attachment to the small muscles which act on the membrane of the tympanum? 46. In the cavity of the tympanum are found two small openings; to what part do they lead ? Which foramen has the stapes bone attached to it? With what other parts does the cavity of the tympanum communicate? 47. Of what parts is the internal ear composed ? With what is these organs filled, and what terminates in them ? 48. What essentially constitutes the auditory apparatus? SENSE OF SIGHT. 85 deafness being the necessary consequence of their loss ; they are absent in a great many animals. 49. For example, birds have not the pavilion of the ear; rep- tiles are destitute of the pavilion, and the auditory canal; in fish all parts of the middle ear, or tympanum, are wanting, and in other animals, such as the craw-fish, the apparatus of hearing consists only of a small vesicle similar to the vestibule. LESSON IX. Functions op Relation.—Sense of sight—Light—Apparatus of vision—Eye-brows—Eye-lids—Lachrymal apparatus—Mus- cles of the eye—Structure of the eye—Use of different parts of the eye— Voice. OF THE SIGHT. 1. Sight is the sense by which we perceive the form, colour, volume, and position of objects that surround us. 2. This sense, which Buffon called " distant touch," is exer- cised at a distance, through the medium of light. 3. To comprehend the mechanism of sight, it is not sufficient to know the structure of the eye; we must also be familiar with some of the properties of light, the study of which subject be- longs to that branch of science called Optics. 4. Light is a fluid which fills space and illuminates the earth. It emanates from luminous bodies, such as the sun, the fixed stars, and substances in combustion, and diffuses itself afar with incon- ceivable rapidity. 5. In proportion as the rays become distant from the body from which they emanate, they diverge one from the other, and for this reason bodies are better lighted, the nearer they are to the illuminating body. 6. When light meets with a body, it either passes through it, or is reflected from it, or it may be absorbed. 7. Those bodies which permit light to pass through them are called transparent; those which oppose its passage, are called opaque. 49. Is the organ of hearing the same in all its parts in all animals ? 1. What is sight? 2. By what means is the sense of sight exercised ? 3. Is a knowledge of the structure of the eye sufficient in itself to teach us the mechanism of sight? 4. What is light? What are the sources of light? 5. Why are bodies better lighted when near the illuminating body V 6. When light meets with a body, what takes place ? 7. When are bodies transparent ? When are bodies opaque ? 86 SENSE OF SIGHT. 8. In order to see an object, the rays of light which emanate from it, or which are reflected by it, must reach to the bottom of the eye. For this reason, an opaque body placed between the eye, and the object at which we look, renders the latter invisible. 9. The surfaces of opaque bodies do not always reflect back the light the same as they receive it. As we have said, there are some which absorb all the rays; such bodies are called black. Bodies that reflect all the rays, or nearly all, are white, but those which decompose them, are coloured. 10. Colour is not inherent in bodies; it depends upon the man- ner in which they decompose the light, and the kind of luminous ray that the coloured body can reflect. Each ordinary ray of light, though it appears colourless to us, is composed of seven dif- ferently coloured rays: there is a very simple mode of being con- vinced of this fact; if we receive a bundle of luminous rays, which have.passed through a glass prism, upon a sheet of paper, instead of producing a white image, it will form an oblong image, in which we distinguish the following seven colours, namely: Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo. Violet. Now, objects appear to us white, when they reflect the light, without decompo- sing it, and coloured in this or that manner, when they decom- pose it like the prism, and absorb some rays and reflect others. 11. In passing through transparent bodies, rays of light some- times continue to follow their primitive direction: but on other occasions, they change their direction, and approach towards, or diverge from each other. For example, when a straight stick is plunged, half of its length, obliquely into water, it seems as if it were broken; and it is by acting in this way upon light, that the con- cave or convex glasses of spectacles, enlarge or diminish the images of bodies. This deviation of light is called refraction. 12. In order to see a body, the rays of light which part from it, must reach the bottom of the eye, and there paint an image of the object; the impression thus produced, is received by a par- ticular nerve, end by it transmitted to the brain which receives the sensation. 13. The apparatus of sight is composed: 1st. of the organ of vision, which consists of the globe of the eye and its nerve; 2nd. 8. What is necessary to enable us to perceive an object ? 9. Do all bodies reflect light ? What is the colour of those bodies which absorb all the rays ? What is the colour of those bodies which reflect all the rays ? What is the colour of those bodies which refract the rays? 10". Upon what does the colour of bodies depend? 11. What is refraction? 12. In what manner is the image of an object conveyed to the brain 7 13. Of what parts is the apparatus of sight composed? SENSE OF SIGHT. 87 of the accessory organs of vision, that is, of the protectors and movers of the eye. 14. The globe, of the eye, (Fig. 31.) is a hollow ball, filled with certain humors, and so arranged that the rays of light may penetrate it, and collect upon the nerve which occupies its bottom. 15. The sides of this globe are com- posed of a very solid membrane which consists of two parts; one, situated in ct, front, and named transparent cornea ; the other, occupying the sides and bot- tom, and called sclerotica, (Fig. 31.* 16. The sclerotica surrounds the eye in all parts, except in front; it is white, and entirely opaque : it is this part which is vulgarly called the white of the eye. 17. The transparent cornea is, on the contrary, diaphanous; it is framed into a great hole in the sclerotica, and resembles a somewhat arched watch-glass, set into a hollow white ball. 18. A short distance behind the transparent cornea, is found a sort of vertical partition, named iris, from its varied colours, which are seen through the cornea. Its centre is pierced by an opening which is susceptible of enlargement and diminution ; it is called the pupil. 19. The space comprised between the cornea and the iris, is called the anterior chamber of the eye, which is filled with a trans- parent liquid called the aqueous humor. 20. Behind the pupil we find the chrystalline lens, -which is a transparent lens of a globular form, and behind the chrystalline we find a diaphanous mass soft as jelly, which is called vitreous humor, and which fills all the interior of the globe of the eye. Explanation of Fig. 31.—An open eye,—s. the sclerotica, one part of which is turned back,--cA. the choroid,—r. the retina,—ct. the transparent cornea,—ca. the anterior chamber,—i. the irus, the centre of which is pierced by the pupil,—cr. the crystaline lens.—v. the vitreous humor,—n. the optic nerve. 14. What is the globe of the eye ? 15. Of what parts do the sides of the globe of the eye consist ? 16. What is the sclerotica? 17. What is the transparent cornea? 18. What is the iris? Why is it so called? What is the pupil ? 19. What is that space called which is comprised between the cornea and iris ? What docs the anterior chamber of the eye contain ? 20. What do we find behind the pupil ? What is the form of the chrystal line lens? What fills the interior of the globe of the eye ? 12 83 SENSE OF SItiHT. 21. The optic nerve, which comes from the brain, enters the globe of the eye through the posterior part of the sclerotica, and then expands itself out into a soft whitish membrane, called re- tina, which envelops the hinder part of the vitreous humor. Between the retina and the internal face of the sclerotica, we find another membrane, generally colored black, called the choroid, (tunica choroidcs) It is this coat which is seen through the retina and the humors of the eye when we look towards the bottom o the organ, and which gives to the pupil the appearance of being a black spot instead of a hole. Such are the different parts which compose the globe of the eye. Let us pass to the consideration of vision. 22. The rays of light which leave an object at which we look, penetrate to the retina and there form a small but very clear image of that object. 23. The manner in which the light acts in the interior of the eye, is the same as in the optical instrument called a camera ob- scura. The different transparent parts through which the lumi- nous rays pass to get from the cornea to the retina, have the effect of collecting the rays and concentrating them upon the retina. It is the chrystalline lens especially that determines this concentra- tion of light, and upon this phenomenon depends the formation of images at the bottom of the eye. 24. When the eye concentrates the light with too much force we cannot see distinctly, except at a very short distance ; to this infirmity is applied the term myopia, or short sightedness; when, on the contrary, the luminous rays are not sufficiently concentra- ted in their passage through the eye, only distant objects are distinctly seen, and this defect is called presbyopia or long-sight- edness ; this feebleness in the refracting power of the eye, is a consequence of old age, and is remedied by wearing convex glasses before the eyes. To give short-sighted people a longer vision, we must, on the contrary, employ spectacles with concave glasses which scatter the luminous rays, and thus counterbalance the too strong refracting force of the eye. 21. Where does the optic nerve enter the eye? What is the retina ? What is found between the retina and internal face of the sclerotica : Why docs the pupil sec m to be a black spot instead of a hn what part of the eye are the imag s of objerts formed ? 23. In what manner does light act in the interior of the eye ? What effi ct have the different p rts of the interior of the eye upon the light passing from the cornea to the retina? What part especially determines the concen- tration of light in the eye ? 24. What is the consequence of a too great concentration of light by the interior parts of the eye ? What is the cause of long sightedness ? What kind of spectacles are required for short-sighted people? SENSE OF SIGHT. 89 25. The iris is contractile, and its principal use is to regulate the quantity of light which should penetrate to the bottom of the eye; when the light is too vivid, it contracts, and consequently diminishes the pupil, through which the rays must pass to reach the retina; in the dark on the contrary the pupil is enlarged. 20 The choroid membrane, which lines the internal face of the globe of the eye, is covered with a sort of black varnish, which absorbs all the luminous rays, not necessary for vision. 27. Images painted, if we may use this term, upon the retina, are transmitted to the brain through the medium of the optic nerve. 28. The accessary parts of the apparatus of vision are of two kinds; the one is designed to protect the globe or ball of the eye, the other to move it and give the required direction to fulfil its functions in the best manner. 29. The protecting organs of the ey^e are: 1st, the orbit, 2nd, the eye-lids, 3rd, the lachrymal apparatus, 4th, the eye-brows. 30. The orbit is a great bony cavity, hollowed out in the face on each side of the nose. It has the form of a cone, the base of which is open and directed forward; its parietes are formed, above by the frontal bone; below, by the superior maxillary bone; externally, or outwardly, by the malar or cheek bone, and inter- nally by the bones which belong partly to the nose. The bottom of the orbit is pierced by a large hole, which communicates with the cranium, and gives passage to the optic nerve. 31. The ball of the eye is set into this cavity and rests upon a sort of cushion formed of fat. It is protected in the same way on all sides except in front, and there we find the eye-lids. 32. The eye-lids are moveable curtains, stretched in front of the ball of the eye. On the outside they are formed of the skin; internally they are lined by a smooth membrane which is reflected over the front of the eye upon the sclerotica, and this membrane is called the membrana conjunctiva ; between these two mem- branes—the conjunctiva, and the skin—there is placed a thin plate of fibrous and resisting substance, called tarsus or palpebral car- ilage, as well as muscles which serve to move these organs. In 25. What is t'^e action or the iris? 26. What is the use of the black covering of the choroid coat? 27. How are images upon the retina transmitted to the brain ? 28. What are the uses of the accessary parts of the apparatus of vision? 2.1. What arc the protecting organs of the eye ? 30. What is the orbit? 31. Upon what docs the ball of the eye rest? 32. What arc the eye lids? Of what do they consist ? What is their number? 8 PO SENSE OF SIGHT. man there are two eye-lids, one superior, and the other inferior. The superior eye-lid is larger than the inferior 33. Each eye-lid has two edges or borders ; one is continuous with the skin, the other is free. The free border of the eye lids, is bristled with-delicate hairs, called cilia, or eye-lashes. The use of the cilia is to form a kind of little grating in front of the eye, to arrest foreign bodies, the presence of which would inter- fere with the exercise of vision. 34. The eye-lids perform the double office of protecting the ball of the eye, by closing in front of it, and of rendering it inac- cessible to luminous rays, the brilliancy of which might disturb sleep. Besides, the eye-lids by their alternate movement of depression and elevation, spread over the front of the globe of the eye, the tears, an aqueous liquid, which prevents the cornea from drying, and also favours the motion of the eye-lids. 35. The lachrymal apparatus, which secretes the tears is com- posed of several organs, some of which are destined to form this liquid, and pour it over the front of the eye; and as the presence of the tears, if too long continued, would become troublesome, other organs convey them from the eye. The first organs, are : Fiq. 32. .36. 1st. The lachrymal gland, a small body, 7 the size of an almond, placed at the exterior and superior part of the globe of the eye, be- tween it and the orbitary cavity, (Fig. 32, gl.)\ it serves to secrete the tears. 2nd. Several small canals which arise in tljis gland, and open upon the internal face of the adhering border of the upper eye-lid, where they constantly pour upon the conjunc- tiva the lachrymal fluid, or tears. 37. The organs destined to carry away those tears which have been spread over the front of the eye, and to convey them into the nasal fossae, or nostrils, are two little canals which open upon the free border of the eye-lids, near the internal angla of the eye, by two small orifices called the lachrymal points,—puncta lachry- Explanation of Fig. 32.—The eye seen in front,—p. the pupil, and i. the iris, seen through the transparent cornea,—gl. the lachrymal gland,—pi. the lachrymal points or puncta lachrymalia,—en. nasal canal. 33. What is the use of the eye lashes ? 34. What is the use of the eye lids? 35. What is the use of the lachrymal apparatus 1 36. Of what use is the lachrymal gland ? How do th^ tears pass from this gland ? 37 What are the puncta lachrymalia ? What becomes of the tears after they have moistened the ball of the eye ? What is the nasal canal ? Explain the phenomenon of crying? SENSE OF SIGHT. 91 Fig. 33. malia, (Fig 32.) Each of these points, (which are placed one above, and the other below,) communicate with a little curved canal, which runs inwards, and opens into a vertical conduit, that is larger in size, called the nasal canal, and which empties into the nasal fossae. The function of these lachrymal puncta is to pump up and receive the tears as fast as they are poured over the eye: in this way the fluid is carried off as fast as it is formed. Under par- ticular circumstances, the equilibrium between these two pheno- mena is destroyed ; and either that the tears are secreted in too large a quantity, or the lachyrymal puncta do not pump them off with proportioned activity, or they are obstructed in their passage through the lachrymal ducts and nasal canal, this fluid overruns the eye-lids and falls in considerable quantity along the cheeks. 38. The eye-brows, which form a ridge above the orbit and are garnished with hairs, also belong to the protecting organs of the eye, but their use is less important than that of those organs of which we have just spoken. They assist in shading the eyes when exposed to strong light. 39. The motor organs of the eye consist of six muscles which are fixed, by their anterior extremities into the sclerotica, and by their posterior extremities to the bottom of the orbit, (Fig. 33, m.) By con- tracting they direct the ocular globe, to the side where their mus- cular fibres are placed. 40. The apparatus of vision pre- , m s c sents nearly the same structure in the mammalia, birds, reptiles* and fishes, but in insects, the organization of the eyes is very different, as we shall see when we come to the history of these animals. 41. Through the medium of the senses we take cognizance of all that surrounds us; but our relations with the external world Explanation of Fig. 33.—The orbit, opened to show the position of the eye in this cavity, and the muscles which move it,—cr. the cranium,—vo. the orbitary arch,—po. the floor of the orbit,—p. and pi. the upper and lower eye-lids,—s. the globe of the eye,—c. the conjunctiva,—n. the optic nerve,— in. m. two muscles of the eye,—ml. a third muscle cut so as to afford a view of the optic nerve. 38. What are the eye brows ? 39. What are the motor organs of the eye ? 40. Is the organ of vision the same in all animals ? 41. What powers are requisite besides the senses, to complete our rela lions with the external world ? 92 VOICE. would be very imperfect if we could not act upon these bodies, change place and express what we feel. Indeed, we do possess this power, which is the result of the faculty of producing sounds, and of the faculty of executing motion. OF THE VOICE. Fig. 35. 42. Voice consists in the pro- duction of a particular sound, by the aid of the air which escapes from the lungs. A great number of organs take part in the performance of this func- tion ; but that one which is especially its seat, is the larynx, a sort of cartilaginous tube, which, at its superior extremity, opens into the pharynx by an opening named glottis, and which, by its inferior opening communicates with the windpipe, which is, in a manner, only a prolonga- tion of it. (Fig. 34, and 35.) 43. The larynx is essentially the organ which produces the voice, and it is the passage of air through its interior which occasions the sounds there formed. To deprive an animal of this faculty, it is only necessary to open the windpipe, for then the air finding an exit through the accidental opening, no longer passes through the larynx, nor is it subjected to the vibrations which would have been imparted by this organ. 44. The larynx, which is composed of several cartilaginous plates, forming in front, what is vulgarly called, Adam's apple, is lined by a mucous membrane, which forms, near its middle, two broad lateral folds, directed from the front backwards, and arranged very much like the edges of a buttonhole. These folds are called the vocal cords, or inferior ligaments of the glottis; by the aid of a little muscle, situate in their folds, the slit, or opening Explanation of Fig. 34.—The larynx seen in front. The internal line in- dicates the shape of the internal surface of this organ,—h. the hyoid bone,— I. the larynx,—t. the trachea,—br, bronchiae,—v. ventricles of the glottis,— c. vocal cords. Explanation of Fig. 35.—The larynx open, seen from one side,—e. the rpiglottis,—v. one of the ventricles of the larynx,—cv. one of the vocal cords, —t. the trachea. 42. What is voice? Is voice produced by the function of a single organ ? 43. What is the larynx ? How may it be proved that the larynx is eesen- tially the organ of voice ? 44. What is meant by the vocal cords? ___________ APPARATUS OF MOTION. __________&3 of the glottis, which is between them, can be narrowed or enlarged. Under ordinary circumstances, the air expelled from the lungs, passes freely through the larynx, and produces no sound; but when the opening of the glottis is narrowed, by the contraction of the muscles of this organ, and the passage of the air, becomes more rapid, the voice is heard. 45. Words are produced by the modifications which the column of air receives in the interior of the mouth, by the combined action of the palate, the cheeks, the tongue, and lips. LESSON X. Functions of Relation.—Apparatus of motion—The skele- ton— Structure of bones; their composition—Enumeration of the bones—Articulations—Muscles—Attitudes—Locomotion. MOTION. 1. The organs of motion are divided into two classes: 1st. Those which act and produce the motive force: 2nd. Those to which the action is communicated; or, in other words, they are divided into the active and passive organs of locomotion. 2. The first are the muscles ; the second are the bones or those parts which hold their place. OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 3. Man, and all the other mammalia, as well as birds, reptiles and fishes, have in their structure, solid parts which are called bones, and the union of these bones, one with the other, consti- tutes the Skeleton, (page 97, fig. 37.) 4. The skeleton i3 a kind of frame which gives firmness to the body, in a considerable degree, determines its dimensions and its form, serves to protect the organs which are most important to life, and furnishes the passive instruments of motion to the function of locomotion. OF THE COMPOSITION OF BONES. 5. The bones are formed of a species of cartilage, composed of gelatine, (the substance which constitutes strong glue,) all the 45. How are words produced ? 1. How are the organs of motion divided ? 2. Which are the active organs of motion ? Which are the passive organs of motion? 3. What are bones? What do they constitute? 4. What is the skeleton ? What are it's uses ? 5. Of what are the bones composed? 8* 94 TONES. laminae and all the fibres of which are incrusted with a strong matter composed of lime united to particular acids, (phosphoric acid, &c.) When bone is burned, the stony matter remains alone, and is reduced to powder by slight friction, and when bone is steeped in a particular liquid, which has the property of dissol- ving this stony matter, (hydrochloric acid,) it is reduced to the state of a flexible cartilage. 6. In infancy bone is at first cartilaginous, and before ossifica- tion is complete, each one is formed of several distinct pieces, which run together, as it were, at a later period. 7. The bones that constitute the skeleton are united one to the other by articulations or joints, which change their name according to their form. 8. If the articulation that unites two bones permits them to move, one on the other, it is called a moveable articulation. 9. If on the contrary, the articulation is merely to secure the solidity and firmness of the bones, it is called immoveable. 10. The more moveable an articulation, the less solid it is, and vice versa ; the more solid, the less mobility it possesses. 11. The immoveable articulations take place through the medium of asperities which dove-tail together; this mode of union is called a suture. Fig. 36. 12. The articular surface of the move- able bones, (Fig. 36.) is covered with an elastic substance which is capable of bearing the strongest pressure, and which deadens the shocks they receive ; this substance is called cartilage. The articulations are also supplied with a viscous fluid called synovia, designed Explanation of Fig. 36.—The articulation (joint) of the shoulder, show- ing how the moveable bones are attached to each other,—o. the scapula.— t. the head of the humerus,—c. the capsule of the articulation opened,—g. glenoid cavity of the scapula,—a. the acromion process of the scapula, articu- lating (jointing with the clavicle, (fl.)—ac. coracoid process of the scapula, ~l. ligament extending from this process to the clavicle. 6. What is the condition of bone in infancy ? 7. How are bone? joined together? 8. What is a moveable articulation ? 9. What is meant by an immoveable articulation? 10. What kind of articulation is most solid ? II. What is a suture? 12. How are the articulating surfaces of moveable bines protected from the effects of friction ? What is the use of synovia ? BONES. 95 to favor the sliding of the articular surfaces upon each other. The extremities of the bones that concur to form an articulation correspond by having their respective configurations reciprocal; they are, in general, one convex, the other concave. 13. The means of union between bones is by fibrous parts which bear the name of ligaments. These are very strong bands or species of cords which surround the articulation or joint, hold- ing together the two bones by their extremities. 14. The articulations present a great variety in the motions ot which they are susceptible. 15. The bones are also very different in their forms, and on account of this circumstance they are divided into long, short and flat bones. 16. The long bones are generally cylindrical, of considerable size, and in the interior, hollowed into a canal filled with a fatty matter called marrow; this form, without injuring their solidity, diminishes their weight. At their extremities these bones are enlarged to afford a broader surface for the articulation. 17. It is easy to perceive that, if the bones were in contact by small surfaces, their union would have been less solid, they would have afforded only an uncertain and insecure motion, and their derangement would have been as common as it is now rare. 18. About their middle, the long bones are formed almost en- tirely of very compact substance ; but at their swollen extremi- ties they are chiefly composed of a spongy substance, which is not so heavy. It is these bones that form the solid frame work of the limbs. 19. Neither the short nor the flat bones have any cavity in trie interior. 20. The short bones are formed almost entirely of spongy sub- stance, which lessens their weight without diminishing their vol- ume. The chief use of the flat bones is to form the parietes of cavities which afford protection to internal organs : they are not however, insusceptible of motion ; they furnish points of attach- ment to many muscles. 13. What are ligaments? 14. Do the articulations permit of a variety of motions? 1). How are the bones divided ? 16. What is the general character of the long bones? Where is the mar- row found? 17. Why are the long bones enlarged at their extremities ? 18. In what respect do the extremities and middle of the long bones differ in structure ? 19. Have the short and the flat bones any internal cavities? 20. What is the character of the short bones ? K 96 THE SKELETON. 21. We remark inequalities upon the surfaces of bones, which afford points of attachment for muscles; they often present for the same purpose, as well as for the ligaments of the joints, salient prolongations which are named apophyses or processes. OF THE SKELETON. 22. The skeleton is a species of frame formed by the union of the different bones pf the body. A great many animals are with- out it, but it exists in the mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes. To study it we will select the skeleton of man (page 97fig.37.) 23. The skeleton, like the body, is divided into head, trunk, and extremities. 24. The head is placed at the superior extremity of the body, and is divided into two parts, the cranium and face. 25. The face presents five great cavities destined to lodge the organs of sight, of smell, and of taste : these cavities are the two orbits (for the eyes) the two nasal fossae and the mouth. 26. A great number- of bones concur to form the face : the principal ones, are: 1st. The two superior maxillary bones, which constitute near- ly the whole of the upper jaw, and rise at the sides of the nose to join the frontal bone. 2nd. The malar or cheek bones, which form the cheeks in part, and extend from the superior maxillary to the frontal bone so as to complete the orbit on the outside. 3rd. The inferior mavil/ary bone, which constitutes the lower jaw, presents nearly the form of a horse shoe. There are also other bones in the face called palate, nasal, un- guiforme or lachrymal, spmgy bones, and vomer. 27. The cranium is a bony cavity of an oval form serving to contain the brain. It is formed by the union of several flat bones which are : in front, the frontal, upon the sides and above, the parietal, behind the occipital, below, and on the sides,the tem- poral, and in the middle the sphenoid, and inferiorly and in front, the ethmoid, which also serves to complete the orbits and form the superior part of the nasal fossae. 21. For what purposes are those inequalities which are found on the sur- faces of bones? What are processes ? 22. What is the skeleton ? Is every animal provided with a skeleton 7 23. How is the skeleton divided ? 21. What is the situation and division of the head 7 25. What are the uses of the several cavities of the face ? 26. What are the chief bones of the face ? 27. Docribc the cranium ? THE SKELETON. 97 ,-f Fig. 37. 28. On the sides of the cranium, we remark an opening for the auditory canal, and on its inferior face or base, we find many Explanation of Fig. 37.—Skeleton of man; the external line indicates the «hapeof the body.—f. the frontal bone.-uc. the cervical vertebra,—*, the sternum, or breast bone,-co. the ribs,-rf. the lumbar vertebras,-*, the abdomen.-s*. the sacrum,-cZ. the clavicle,-* the scapula or shoulder bladc,-A. the humerus,-r. the radius,-C.the cubitus or ulna.-ca. the carpus,-™, the metacarpus.-p. and pt. the phalanges, or bones of the finjers—i.'the ilium,-/r.the femur,-ro. the rotula patella, or knee-pan,- ft the iibia—per. the fibula.-fa. the tarsus,-mf. the metaiarsus.-or. the toeSi—cal the calcis or heel.______________ "2lTofThat use are the several holes at~the base of the cranium? DS THE SKELETON. holes which serve to give passage to nerves and blood vessels. One of th^se holes, very much larger than the others, called the occipital hole,—foramen occipita/e,— corresponds with the verte- bral canal, and gives passage to the spinal marrow; and on each side of this great hole we find an eminence called condyle, which serves for the articulation of the head upon the vertebral column. 29. The trunk is composed of the vertebral column, the ribs and sternum. 30. The vertebral column, or spine, is a species of bony stalk, or stem, which occupies the middle line of the back, and extends from the head to the poste- rior extremity of the body, (Fig. 38.); it is formed by the union of small, short bones, ptg 39 12 called vertebrae,, (Fig. 39.) and pre- vd sents throughout its whole length a canal formed by the union of the holes by which each vertebra is pierced; this canal serves to lodge the spinal marrow. Each of these bones pre- sents in front of the hole, a species of thick, solid disc, called the body of the vertebra, which is very firmly united to the body of the vertebra next to it; behind, we remark prolongations called transverse and. spinous which form what is commonly called the spine. 31. The vertebral column is divided into five regions, namely : 32. 1st. The cervical region, which constitutes the frame of the neck: in man, and all the other mammalia, it is composed of seven vertebrae, (Fig. 38, vc.) 33. 2nd. The dorsal, or thoracic region, which gives attach- ment to the ribs which form the chest, or thorax; the vertebrae of this region in man, are twelve in number, (Fig. 38, vd.) 34. 3rd. The lumbar region, which terminates the back below, in man, is composed of five vertebrae, (Fig. 38, vl) 35. 4th. The sacral region which articulates with the bones of the hips, is composed, in man, of five vertebrae, so run, or fused to- gether, as to form but a single bone called the sacrum, (Fig. 38, s.) Explanation of Fig. 33 —A vertebra seen from above,—c. its body,—t. a hole for the passage of the spinal marrow,—at. transverse processes,—sp. spinal process directed backwards. 29. What parts co:npose the trunk? 30. What is the vertebral column ? What is found in the vertebral canal? 31. Into how many parts is the vertebral column divided? 32. How many virtebra are found in the cervical region? J3. W!>at is the number of dorsal vertebra? 34. What is the number of lumbar vertebrae? 35. What is the s icrutn ? processes. THE SKELETON. 99 36. 5th. The caudal or coccyqian region, which in man is com- posed of four very small vertebrae, concealed beneath the skin, in many animals, is very long, constituting the tail, (Fig. 38. co.) 37. The vertebral column seen in profile, presents four curves, which correspond to the neck, the back, the loins, and the pelvis. or basin, and which serve to augment its solidity. On its sides, we find, between all the vertebrae, a hole which gives passage to a nerve, coming from the spinal marrow. 38.- The ribs, which are attached to the dorsal vertebrae, are long, flat bones, which enclose the thorax on each side : they are curved and bear considerable resemblance to a half hoop. In man there are twelve pairs. The seven first, called true ribs, articulate in front with the sternum, through the medium of a cartilage; the five last pairs, called false ribs, terminate anteriorly by a cartilage which joins that of the preceeding rib, or they are entirely without cartilage. 39. The sternum is a flat bone placed in front of the thorax; it articulates with the ribs and with the clavicles. 40. The superior or anterior extremities are composed of the shoulder, the arm, the fore-arm and the hand. 41. The shoulder is the basis of the whole limb attached to it. It consists of two bones; the scapula or shoulder blade, and the clavicle, or collar-bone. 42. The scapula is a large bone nearly triangular in shape, which is applied against the ribs at the superior and lateral part of the back. At its superior external angle, it presents an enlarged articular'surface, slightly hollowed, which receives the bone of the arm and is called the glenoid cavity of the scapula. On the posterior face of this bone there is a projecting comb or ridge which extends over the articulation of the shoulder, and arti- culates with the clavicle. This prolongation is named the acromion. 43. The clavicle is a long thin bone situated at the base of the neck; it extends like a buttress between the scapula and sternum; 36. What are those vertebrae called which form the skeleton of the tail in animals ? 37 For what use are the several holes found between the vertebrae on the Bides of the spinal column ? 38. What are the ribs? Whatnumbei of ribs belong to man? How many p.re true and how many are false ribs? 39. What is the sternum? 40. How are the superior extremities divided ? 41*. What is the shoulder ? V> hat bones cimpose the shoulder? 42! Where is the scapula placed ? What is the glenoid cavity ? Wfcat is the acromion? 43 What is the use of the clavicle ? K2 too TEE SKELETON and serves to keep the first of these bones in its natural position, and to prevent the shoulder from falling too far forward. 44. The arm is formed of a single bone called the humerus. This bone is of a cylindrical form and has a swelling at its supe- rior extremity called the head of the humerus which articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. Its inferior extremity is enlarged transversely and resembles a pully upon which moves the fore arm. 45. The fore-arm is formed by the union of two bones which aver; on the inner side, the cubitus or ulna, and on the outside, (the side on which the thumb is placed) the radius. These bones are joined to the humerus by their superior extremities and to the hand by their inferior extremities. 46. The hand in man is divided into three regions; the carpus, the metacarpus and fingers; the carpus or wrist, is composed of eight small bones, ranged in two rows and united to each other by fibrous threads which preserve their mutual relations and permit them to move a little upon each other, by aid of the smooth sur- faces by which they are in contact. 47. The metacarpus is composed of five bones which may be regarded as the origin of the fingers. They are placed parallel, one along side of the other; their superior extremities articulate with the bones of the carpus and their inferior extremities with the fingers. 48. The fingers are composed of small bones articulated one at the extremity of the other, and called phalanges. Except the thumb which has but two, each finger has three of these bones. 49. The inferior extremities are formed nearly in the same manner as the superior; the hip represents the shoulder, the thigh the arm; the leg the fore-arm, and the foot the hand. 50. The hip or haunch serves to support the abdominal mem- ber or lower extremity, as the shoulder sustains the thoracic member. It is formed on each side by a very large, and very strong bone, the ilium. These bones are united together in front, and behind they articulate with the sacrum, so as to form in conjunction with it at the bottom of the belly, a sort of bony belt called the pelvis or basin. In infancy, we find that the ilium bone consists of three separate portions one of which resembles 44. What is the character of the bone of the arm ? 45. How is the fore arm formed ? 46. How is the hand divided ? 47. What is the metacarpus ? 48. How are the fingers composed? 49. How are the inferior extremities formed ? 50. What forms the hip ? What is the condition of the pelvis in infancy ? THE SKELETON. 101 the scapula somewhat, and is called the ilium ; the second,placed in front, called the pubis, may, perhaps compare with the clavi- cle, and the third, situated below and behind, has received the name of ischium, and which supports the whole weight of the body when seated; with age these three bones become solidified into one. At the point where they unite, we find a very deep, circular cavity called the cotyloid or more commonly the aceta bulum, in which is articulated the thigh bone. 51. The pelvis serves not only to support the lower extremi- ties, but also assists in sustaining the weight of the viscera con- tained in the abdomen, andjn forming the parietes of this cavity. 52. The thigh is formed of a single bone called the femur. This bone is articulated by its superior extremity with the hip bone, and by its inferior extremity with the leg. 53. The leg is formed of two bones very solidly united to each other. The bone placed internally, very much larger than the other and called tibia articulates with the femur by its superior extremity. The bone which is placed externally does not quite reach to the femur, and fs only united to the tibia; it is named fibula. In front of the articulation of the leg with the thigh is placed a small bone named rotula or patella, which is designed to strengthen the knee joint. 54. The foot is divided into three regions; the tarsus, the metatarsus and toes. It differs from the hand chiefly in the shortness of the fingers, that is, toes, their limited mobility and by the disposition of the tarsus. 55. The tarsus is constituted of the union of seven bones, one of which alone, called the astragalus, articulates with the two bones of the leg; another one of these bones, called the calcis, forms a considerable projection behind which constitutes the heel. 56. The metatarsus is composed of five bones which are united to the tarsus and to the bones of the toes, and which are ar- ranged like the bones of the metacarpus. 5%. Like the fingers, the toes are composed of p' alanges. called first, second, and third phalanges. The great toe ha - but two phalanges, each Of the others has three. All t) •>*• little 51. What are the uses of the pelvis ? 52. What number of bones is in the thigh ? 53. How many bones constitute the leg ? What are they calle< What is he patella? 54. How dors the foot differ from the hand ? 55. What constitutes the tarsus ? 56. Of what bones is the metatarsus composed 7 57. Of what bones are the toes composed 7 9 102 THE MUSCLES. bones are joined to each other by articular surfaces, the contact and junction of which are secured by fibrous ligaments. OF THE MUSCLES. Fig. 40. 58. All the great motions of the body are caused by the displacement or movement of some of the bones which form the skeleton; but these bones can- d not move of themselves, and only change their posi- tion through the action of other organs attached to them, which, by contracting, draw the bones after them. b 59. These motor organs are the muscles. They are very numerous and constitute what is commonly called flesh, and form nearly one half of the total mass of the body. They axe a species of ribbon or fleshy cords composed of fasciculi or bundles of fibres united together, and which have the property of contraction or elongation, (Fig. 40.) All the muscles destined to produce the great movements of the body, are fixed to the skeleton by their two extremities. It, therefore, follows, that when they contract they displace those bones which offer the least resistance, and draw them towards those which are not moveable, but serve as points of sup- port for moving the first. Now, in most instances, the bones are more moveable in proportion as they are more distant from the centre of the body: and the muscles which are fixed between two bones, generally act upon that which is most distant, and we always find the muscles, destined to move a bone, extend from it towards the trunk; for example, the muscles which move the fingers, occupy the palm of the hand, and the fore-arm ; those which flex the fore-arm upon the arm, occupy the arm, and those which move the arm on the shoulder, are placed upon the shoulder, (Fig. 40.) Under ordinary circumstances, however, the muscles displace the bones which serve them as pointy of support. When the body is suspended by the hands, and we endeavour to raise it, the flexor muscles of the fore-arm, not being able to displace the latter, approximate the arm, and thus draw the whole body after it. Explanation of Fig. 40.—The muscles of the superior extremity,—d. the deltoid muscle, which extends from the shoulder to the arm, and by contract- ing, elevates the latter,—b. the biceps muscle which bends the arm,—/, one of the flexor muscles of the fingers. 58. How are the great motions of the body produced ? 59. What are muscles ? THE MUSCLES. 103 t\ Fiqs. 60. When a muscle contracts, it swells; its fibres, 42. 41. which in a state of repose, were straight, fold in zig- zag, (Figs. 41, and 42.) and their two extremities are brought near to each other, drawing also with them the parts to which they are attached, but their volume is not augmented. 61. The two extremities of muscles are Fig.43. solidly fixed to the bones, and to the other ^ parts which they are designed to set in motion, such as the skin, through the medium of white cords, called tendons, (Fig. 43.) or membranes of the same nature, named aponeuroses, or fascia?. In con- tracting, they must necessarily draw towards each other the two bones to which the tendons or aponeuroses are attached. An example will enable us better to under- stand this mechanism. If we suppose the muscle, m. (Fig. 44.) Fig. 44. to be attached to the humerus, and to the ulna or cubitus, which articulates with the first, forming the elbow joint, by moveable ligaments, it is evident that when this muscle contracts, these bones will approach each h other, as is seen in Fig. 45. This example will give an idea of all the motions of the skeleton. 62. The number of muscles of the human body is very con- siderable ; they are reckoned at 470 ; in general, they form about the skeleton two layers, and are distinguished into superficial and deep seated. 63. The muscles which are designed to move any particular bone, are almost always placed around that portion of the skele- Explanation of Fig. 41.—A fragment of muscle showing the muscular fasciculi (bundles of muscular fibres,) straight, and at rest. Explanation of Fig. 42.—The same in a state of contraction. Explanation of Fig. 43.—A muscle (m.) with the tendons, (t, t.) by which it is attached to the bones. , ,. ,. Explanation of Fig. M—Eone of the arm (h.) and the fore-arm, (af.). with one of the flexor muscles of the fore-arm (m.) in a state of rest. Exvlanation of Fig. 45.—The same at the moment of contraction. 60. What changes take place by the contraction of a muscle? 6L To what parts are the extremities of the muscles attached ? What is he necessary consequence of the contraction of a muscle ? 62. What is the disposition of the muscles? How are they distinguished ? 63. How are the muscles situated in regard to the parts they are destined o move? 104 THE MUSCLES. ton which is situated between the bone to be moved and the centre of the body; for example, the muscles which move the head are situated on the neck ; those which move the arm are on the shoulder; those which flex and extend the fore-arm surround the humerus, and those which flex and extend the fingers are placed upon the fore-arm; the same is true of the muscles of the lower extremities. 64. The muscles are divided into flexors, extensors, rotators, elevators, &c. according to the uses which they subserve. 65. The contraction of the muscles is determined by the ac- tion of the nervous system, and each muscle receives a nerve which is ramified in its substance. 66. This contraction is sometimes effected through the influ- ence of the Will and sometimes independently of it. 67. The muscles whose action is dependent upon the Will be- long to the functions of relation, and those whose motions are involuntary (the heart for example) belong to the functions of vegetative life. 68. The strength Or power of a muscle depends partly upon its volume, and partly on the manner of its attachment to the bone which it moves. 69. All things being in other respects equal, the strongest mus- cles are the largest, and from exercise both their volume and strength are at the same time increased. 70. In the bodies of animals, the muscles and the bones are generally placed unfavourably for the power of motion, but very favourably for rapidity, as may be easily demonstrated by the elementary principles of mechanism. 71. The muscles not only serve to enable us to execute dif- ferent motions, but they are also equally necessary to maintain the moveable bones in the positions proper to them, and their action determines the attitudes. For example, the head by its own weight has a tendency to fall forward, but the contraction of the muscles on the back of the neck keep it erect. 64. How are the muscles divided ? 65. What determines the contraction of the muscles ? 66. Is muscular contraction always the result of the influence of the will? 67. To what principal functions do the muscles belong ? 68. Upon what does the strength or power of a muscle depend ? 69. What is the effect of exercise upon the muscles ? 70. Whether are the muscles and bones arranged more with a view to power or rapidity ? 71. Do the muscles serve any other purpose than to produce motion ? OF ATTITUDE. 105 OF THE ATTITUDES. 72. The term attitude is applied to any position of the body that is permanent during any considerable time. [In order to explain the mechanism of the attitudes it will be necessary to enter into some of the details which properly belong to the study of physics. 73. All bodies when left to themselves, tend towards each other, from the influence of a general force called attraction, and the force with which one body attracts another, is great in pro- portion as its mass is larger comparatively than that of the at- tracted body. 74. Now, the mass of the earth being incomparably larger than that of the animals, plants, stones, and all other objects spread upon its surface, attracts them unceasingly, and tends to cause them to fall towards the centre of the globe. 75. In order that a body shall rest in the position it occupies, it must be sustained by something capable of resisting this force of attraction, and which does not give way under its weight, such as the solid surface of the earth itself, or an inflexible body placed between it and this surface. 76. We name, base of support, the space occupied by the points by which an object supports itself upon a resistant body, or the space comprised between these points. 77. In order that a solid body shall rest motionless or immova ble, upon its base of support and not fall, it is not necessary that all its parts should be thus sustained; it is enough to sustain it by a single point, provided this point be placed in such a manner that if a part of the mass fall towards the earth, another part op- posite to it and of equal weight, be elevated as much; the weight of one part counterbalancing the other. Centre of gravity is the name given to the point about which all points of a body recipro- cally balance each Other, and if it be sustained, it is sufficient to maintain the entire mass in place. 78. It follows then that to prevent a body from falling, it is sufficient that its base be placed vertically beneath its centre of gravity. 72. What is meant by attitude ? 73. What is attraction ? 74. Why do all bodies tend to fall towards the centre of the globe ? 75. What condition is necessary that a body may preserve its position ? 76. What is meant by base of support? 77. What is meant by centre of gravity ? 78. What is necessary to prevent a body from falling 7 9* 106 OF ATTITUDE. 7.V It is also easy to understand that its equilibrium will be more stable in proportion to the extent of its base ; for then its centre of gravity may be more displaced, without the vertical line which passes through the centre of gravity, being carried beyond the limits of this base of support. The more the centre of gravity is elevated above the base of support, the less firm on the contrary will be the equilibrium, foi a smaller displacement from this point will then suffice to carry the vertical line, that descends from it, beyond the base of support which soon causes the body to fall.] The term attitude is applied to any position of the body that is permanent during any considerable time. 80. The principal attitudes of man are: lying, sitting, and the .. erect position on his feet, or standing. 81. When a man is lying on his back or on his belly, all parts of the body rest upon the earth : he is not then required to con- tract any muscle to keep them in place, and his position unites in the highest degree the two conditions of equilibrium, to wit; the greatest possible extent of the base of support and the proximity of the centre of gravity to this base. Hence the attitude of re- pose is that from which it is most difficult to fall. 82. In the sitting position the body rests upon the tuberosities of the ischium or haunch bones ; the base of support is considera- ble, since it is represented by the pelvis, the extent of which is in- creased by the soft parts which cover it; this position also, next to lying, offers the greatest solidity; but it cannot be preserved without muscular action. When the back is supported, the mus- cles of the neck alone contract to preserve the head erect; but if the back is not supported (as when seated on a stool or a bench for example) then the greater part of muscles on the back of the trunk contract to prevent it from falling forward, and fatigue will sooner or later result from this permanent action. 83. When man is erect, the lower extremities sustain the body and transmit to the earth the weight which they support. Con- sequently these limbs must not bend under the load, and must be kept straight by the contraction of their extensor muscles. 84. In this position the centre of gravity of the whole body lies in the cavity of the pelvis, and the base of support is circum- 79. Why is a body firm in proportion to the extent of its base ? 80. What are the principal attitudes of man? 81. What position or attitude is preserved without muscular exertion? 82. What muscles are exerted to preserve the sitting position ? 53. What supports the body when man is erect ? 84. Where is the centre of gravity in the erect position ? Where is the base of support in the erect position ? _____________________OF LOCOMOTION.__________________107 scribed by the space comprised between the two feet. Here a slight force is sufficient to destroy the equilibrium, and it is only by enlarging the base of support in one direction more than in another that a fall can be prevented. The movements by which we regain the perpendicular in the base of support are in a measure automatic. Thus, to resist a force tending to make us fall forward the foot is rapidly advanced : if the body leans to the left we suddenly extend the right arm to re-establish the equilibrium, if a force tends to throw us backward, we put a foot behind and throw the body in advance. The man who has a large belly and the man bearing a heavy load upon his shoulders are both obliged to assume attitudes that change the position of the centre of gravity. The first carries the body back- wards in order that the vertical line passing through this point may also fall between the two feet, and for the same reason, the second bends the body forward. A woman who carries an infant upon her right arm inclines the body to the left side: thus, we are constantly resorting to mechanics, even without possessing the most elementary notions of the science, and the most certain causes of our preservation are found in the continual application of physical laws, of which our reason has not the knowledge. When an animal rests upon its four members at the same time, his standing is more firm, more solid and less fatiguing: for the base of support is then very large. Then, without inconvenience the feet may be much smaller than in the bipeds and consequently lighter. OF LOCOMOTION. 85. The objects of the motions which we perform is either to change the position of certain parts of the body, or to transport us from one place to another. 86. The faculty of changing place is called locomotion. 87. The movements of progression by the help of which man and animals change place, are produced by certain parts of the body which being flexed, rest upon a resisting object, and being again immediately extended, push forward the rest of the body. 88. In man the organs of locomotion are the abdominal mem- bers, or lower extremities; in quadrupeds the thoracic as well as the abdominal members; and in birds that fly, the wings. 89. In walking, the body of man is moved alternately by one 85. What is the object of the motions which we perform ? !^6. What is meant by locomotion? 87. How is progression effected? 88 What are the organs of locomotion ? 89 How is walking distinguished from running and leaping? 108___________________OF LOCOMOTION._____________________ of the feet and sustained by the other, without his ever ceasing completely to rest on the ground. This last circumstance dis- tinguishes walking from leaping and running, movements in which the body quits the earth for a moment and launches into the air. 90. In walking, one of the feet is carried forward, while the other is extended on the leg, and as this last member is supported on the ground, its elongation displaces the pelvis and throws the whole body forward. When the foot which was advanced alights upon the ground, the pelvis turns on the femur of that side, and the leg which was at rest behind, is flexed and carried front of the other, touches the earth and in its turn serves to sustain the body, while the other limb by being extended gives a new impulse to the pelvis. By the aid of these alternate movements of flexion and extension each limb in turn bears the weight of the body, as it would do when standing on one foot, and at each step the centre of gravity of the whole mass of the body is pushed for- ward. Security in walking is always in a direct ratio to the degree of separation of the feet, and in an inverse ratio to the mobility of the surface that supports us. It is only at the end of a certain time that sailors walk securely upon the deck. When they have once •* got their sea legs" it is very easy to recognise them on shore from the habit which they have of considerably separating the feet in walking. 91. Leaping or jumping is a movement by which a man pro- jects himself into the air and again falls to the ground as soon as the effect of the impulsion is lost. 92. The mechanism of the leap consists entirely in the previous flexion of the joints and their sudden extension. When a jumper wishes to spring, he shortens himself by folding himself up as it were upon himself; the leg is flexed forward on the foot, the thigh is also flexed back on the leg, and the trunk with the pelvis are flexed forward on the thigh; and, when one wishes to spring with all his strength, the trunk is flexed upon itself like a spring. In these preliminaries of the leap, the lower extremities and the body describe a series of zigzags. At the moment of the leap all the articulations are extended at the same instant and raise the body with such rapidity that it leaps into the air like an elastic rod that had been bent to the ground, and then suddenly abandoned to its elasticity or spring. 90. What is the mechanism of walking ? 91. What is leaping ? 92. What is the mechanism of a leap ? OF LOCOMOTION. 109 93. It is easy to perceive that the parts which act most in the leap are the legs: indeed, it is upon them that the weight to.be raised is most considerable. The facility and rapidity of the leap are always in direct ratio to the energy of the muscles, which determine the extension of the legs. It is observed that the most vigorous dancers and even great walkers have the calf strongly developed: indeed this part is formed of the muscles which effect the extension of the leg upon the foot. 94. Running partakes both of walking and leaping. There is always a moment in running when the body is suspended in the air, a circumstance which distinguishes it from rapid walking in which the foot that rests behind does not leave the ground until the forward one again touches it. 95. Swimming and flying are movements analogous to those of leaping, but which take place in water or in the air, fluids whose resistance to a certain extent, takes the place of that of the ground in the act of leaping. 96. When an animal is destined to live in water and to swim, its members have a different form from that of those animals which are organized for walking only. The limbs are then short and constitute a species of paddles or oars called fins. When the animal is designed to elevate himself in the atmosphere, the thoracic members on- the contrary are very much expanded and are so arranged on each side of the body as to form a kind of moveable sail or fan, fit to strike the air with force. In one of the following lessons, when we consider the mam- malia and birds, we shall recur to the study of these organs, and we shall see how the same members may constitute in different animals, the instruments of prehension, of walking, of natation, or of flight. We here conclude what we proposed to say generally, on the manner in which the principal phenomena of animal life are per- formed, and on the organs which serve as instruments for the exereise of the faculties with which animals are endowed. We shall next proceed to study each of these animals in par- ticular, and see in what way they differ from each other END OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 93. What is remarkable in the legs of great dancers and walkers ? 94. What is the mechanism of running ? 95. What are swimming and flying ? 96. What is the character of those animals which are destined to live in water? What is the character of the limbs of those animals destined to elevate themselves in the air ? PH YS I O LO G Y. GLOSSARY. Abdomen.—From the Latin, abdere, to conceal; the belly. The chief; viscera contained in the abdomen, are the stomach, intestines, liver, &c. &c. Absorption.—From the Latin, absor- bere, to suck up. The function of] absorbent vessels, by virtue of which they take up substances from with- out or within the body. Acetabulum.—From the Latin, ace turn, vinegar. 'From its resem- blance to the ancient Greek vinegar ve-sel, called oxybaphon. (See Coty- loid.) Acoustic—I rom trfc Greek, akouo, I listen. Relating to sounds. Acromion.—From the Greek, ahros, extreme, and dittos, the shoulder. The superior prominence of the scapula, that joins to (he clavicle, forming the bony point of thi shoulder. Adult.—One arrived at maturity- full grown. Aliment.—From the Latin, aliment turn, which is formed from clerc, to nourish. Any substance, which, if introduced into the system, is capable, of nourishing it, and re- pairing its losses. Food. Alveolus.—Latin. The hole in which a tooth is placed. Alveoli.—Plural of alveolus. Sock- ets of the teeth. Anatomy.—From the Greek, ana, through, and temno, I cut; the des- cription of the structure of ani- mals. The word anatomy properly signifies1 dissection; but it has been appropriated to the study and know- ledge of the number, shape, situa- tion> structure, and connexion, in a word, of all the apparent proper- ties of organised matter, whether animal or vegetable. Anatomical.—Relating or belonging . to anatomy. Analogous.—From the Greek, ana, between, and logos, reason. I lav. ing some resemblance or relation though differing, in essential par- ticulars. Similar. Analysis.—Froirf the Greek, analuo, I dissolve. The separation of bodies into their component parts. Anfractuosity.—From the Lilio, an- fractus, the bending or winding of a way in or out. A groove or fur- row—used in anatomy to signify sinuous depressions, of greater or less depth, like those that separate the convolutions of the brain." Animal.—From the Latin.a/n'/nnh's— a name given to every animated be- ing provided with digestive organs. Animalcule.—From the Latin ani. malcalum—a diminutive animal. Animalcula.—Plural of animalcu- lum—animals that are only per- ceptible by means of the micro- scope. Annelides.—A class of animals with- out vertebrae. Anus.—Latin. The fundament—the -inferior opening of the bowels. Aorta.—From the Greek, aorte, a vessel. The great artery which arises from the left ventricle of the heart, and conveys the blood to all parts of the body. Aortic.—Relating to the aorta. Aponeuroses.—From the Greek, apo, from, and neuron, a neive. (The an- PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. Ill cients called every white part neu- ron.) Membranous expansions of muscles and tendons are so called. Apophysis.— From the Greek, apo, from, and phud, 1 ris;-. An emi- nence or process of bone. Apparatus.—Latin, ad, for, and par AuDiToRius.-^Latin. Belonging or relating to the sense of hearing. Auricle.—From the Latin, auricula, which is the diminutive of auris, an ear. The two auricles of the heart, derive the name from their resemblance to ears. are to prepare ; a collection of in- \ Auriculo-ventricular.—Relating or strumen's or organs for any opera- tion whatever. An assemblage ofj organs. Appendix.—Latin, ad, to,and pendere to hang ; something added. Any part that adheres to an organ, or is continuous with it. Arachnmes.—From the Greek, ara- kne,a. spider. Insects of the genus of spiders. Arachnoid.—From the Greek,arokne, a spider's web, and eidos, resem- blance. A thin, transparent mem- brane, which covers the brain. Artery.—From the Greek, arteria, formed according to some, from aer, air, and terein, to preserve, because it was anciently believed that the aiteries were filled with air, like the windpipe. The vessels which convey blood from the heart to all parts of the body, are called arteries. Arterial.—Belonging or relating to an artery. Articulate.—From the Latin, arti- belonging both to an auricle and ventricle. Automatic.—From the Greek, auto. matus, self-moved, spontaneous, which is formed from autos, him- self, and mad, I desire. Automatic movements, are those which xlepend on the structure of the body, and are independent of the will, such as that of respiration, the circula- tion of the blood, &c. Axillary.—From the Latin, axilla, the arm-pit. Belonging or relating to the arm-pit. Azote.—From the Greek, a, privative, and zoe, life—without life; because azote will neither support animal life, nor combustion. A gas which is unfit for respiration. It is one of the component parts of the at- mosphere. It is also called nitrogen. Bile.—A yellow, greenish, viscid, bit- ter, nauseous fluid, secreted by the liver, to aid in the process of diges- tion. The gall. cuius, which is the diminutive of > Bolus.—Latin. A mass, lump, or artus, a limb, which is derived from the Greek, arthron, a joint. To join or joint. To form words, to utter. Articulation.—A joint. Asphyxia.—From the Greek, a, pri- vative, and sphuxis, pulse. Sus- pended animation. Asphyxiate.—In a state of suspended animation. Astragalus.—Name of the ' bone of; the foot which articulates with the tibia in the ankle joint mouthful. A ball. Botany.—From the Greek, botane, a plant. The natural history of plants. Brachial.—From the Latin brachium, an arm. Belonging or relating to the arm. $ Branchiae. — Latin. It is derived from the Greek, bragchos, the throat. The gills Of fi.-hes. They aie the respiratory organs of fishes, and are very different from lungs, both in their form and structure. Astkonomy.—From the Greek, astron, I Bronchle.—From the Greek, brog- star, and nomos, law. The natu- ral history of the heavenly bodies. Atmosphere.—From the Greek, at- chos, the throat. The two branches of the wind-pipe which convey air to the lungs. mos, vapor, and sphaira, a sphere i Calcis. — Latin. Genitive of calx, or globe. The air which surrounds the earth the heel. Camera.—Latin. A chamber. 112 PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. 3 Canine.—From the Latin, canis, a 1 dog. The name of certain teeth. Capillary.—From the Latin, capillus, hair. Hair-like, small. The capil-\ lary vessels are the extremely min-! ute terminations of the arteries and commencing branches of the.veins. Capsules, ( Dental,) — Membranous pouches in which the teeth are formed. Cardia.—From the Greek, kardia, the heart. The left opening of the stomach, where the oesophagus en- ters it. Carotid.—The great arteries of the neck, which convey blood to the head, are so called. Carpus.—From the Greek, karpos, the wrist. The part between the fore- arm and hand. Cartilage.—Grisile. A solid part of the animal body of medium consis-< tence between bone and ligament, j Caudal.—From the Latin, cauda, a! tail. Belongingor relatingtothe tail.; Cava.—Latin. Hollow. Vena cava, the hollow or deep seated vein. A name given to the two great veins of the body, which meet at the right auricle of the heart. Cerebellum.—The diminutive of cer- ebrum. The little brain. The in- ferior portion of the brain contained in the cranium. Cerebro-spinal.—Belonging or rela- ting to both the cerebrum and spine. Cerebrum.—The brain. The term is sometimes applied to the whole con- tents of the cranium ; at others, to the upper portion; the posterior and infeiior being called cerebellum. Cervical—From the Latin, cervix, the neck. Belonging or relating to the neck- Choroid.—From the Greek, chorion, (the skin,) and eidos, resemblance. The name of several vascular mem- branes. A thin membrane of a very dark colour, which lines the sclero- tica internally. Ciioroi des.—Choroid. Chyle.—From the Greek, chulos, nutritious juice. A nutritive fluid of a whitish appearance, which is extracted from food by the action of the digestive organs. Chyll—Latin. Of Chyle. Chylification.—From the Latin, chy lus, chyle, and facere, to make. The formation of chyle by the di- gestive processes. Chyme.—From the Greek, chumos, juice. A kind of grayish pulp, formed from the food after it has been for some time in the stomach. Chymification. — From the Greek, chumos, juice, and the Latin facere, to make. The formation of chyme. Cilia.—Latin. The eye-lushes. Clavicle.—From the Latin, clavis, a key. The collar-bone. Coccygian.—Relating to the coccyx, ! which is an assemblage of small ' bones appended to the sacrum : if prolonged, it would constitute a tail. Cochlea.—Latin. A snail-shell. The name of one of the three cavities | which form the labyrinth of the ear. [Coeliac—The name of one of the ! arteries of the abdomen. | Concha.—The hollow part of the car- ! tilage of the external ear. ! Condyle.—From the Greek kondulos, | a knot, an eminence, a bump. A [ small round eminence of bone en- j tering into the composition of an | articulation. I Conjunctiva.—Latin. Formed from I con, with, and jungere, to join. The mucous membrane which covers the anterior surface of the ball of the eye, and unites it to the lids. Corium.—The skin. | Cornea.—One of the coats of the eye, i so cnlled, because it has some rc- j semblance to horn. It forms about 1 one fifth of the anterior part of the ' eye. CoTYLom.--From the Greek, kolule, > a drinking cup, and eidos, resem- j blance. The name of a hemisphe- rical cavity in a bone of the pelvis, which receives the head of the > thigh bone, forming the hip joint ! It is also called the acetabulum. PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. 113 Cranium.—From the Greek, kranon, head. The skull. Crustacea.—From the Latin, crusta, a crust. A class of animals whose! bodies are inclosed in a covering,! like the crab. ! Cubital.—Relating to the cubitus. ! Cubitus.—Latin. One of the bones) of the fore-arm, which is also called ulna. Deciduous.—From the Latin, cadere,\ to fall. Falling, that which falls; off—not permanent. j Deglutition.—From the Latin deglu- tire, to swallow. The act by which substances are passed from the. mouth into the stomach, through' the pharynx and oesophagus. \ Derma.—Greek. Tne skin. I Diaphanous.—From the Greek, dia,, through, and phainein, to shine.! Permitting the passage of light. ; Diaphragm.—From the Gieek, dia-\ phragma, a partition. The fleshy i or muscular partition, between the | cavity of the chest and cavity of! the abdomen. Diastole.—From the Greek, dias- tello, I open, I dilate. The dilatation of the heart and arteries when the blood enters their cavities. Dorsal.—From the Latin, dorsum, the back. Belonging or relating to the back. Dura.—Latin. Hard. Dura mater is a dense membrane, which covers the brain, lying between it and the skull. Encephalon.—From the Greek, eg, in, and kephale, head. The brain and spinal marrow. ! Epidermis.—From the Greek, epi,\ upon, and derma, skin. The ex.! ternal covering of the derma. The j cuticle or scarf-skin. 1 Epiglottis.—From the Greek, epi,\ upon, and glottis, the glottis. A species of cartilaginous valve, situ- ate at the upper part of the larynx, behind the base of the tongue. It( closes at the moment of swallowing,! and thus assists in preventing the; passage of alimentary substances! into the air tubes. ] 10 Ethmoid.—From the Greek, ethmos, a sieve, and eidos, resemblance. The ethmoid bone, so called because its upper plate is pierced by a con- siderable number of holes, is situate at the base of the cranium betwixt the orbits. Excretion.—From the Latin, excer- nere, to separate. The separation or throwing off of those matters from the body of an animal which are supposed to be useless, as per- spiration, &c. The matters thrown off from the body as useless, are termed excretions. Excretory.—An excretory vessel, or duct, is one .which transmits the fluid secreted by a gland, either ex- ternally or into the reservoirs, in which it has to be deposited. Ex- cretory organ means any organ charged with the office of excre- ting : thus, the skin is said to be an excretory organ, because through it the perspiration or sweat is ex- creted. Exhalation.—From the Latin, ex. halare, to throw out, to exhale- That which exhales from any body. A fanction, by the virtue of which certain fluids obtained from the blood are spread, in the form of dew, on the surface of membranes, either for the sake of being thrown out of the body, or to serve for cer- tain purposes. The sweat is an ex- ample of an exhalation as well as of an excretion. Extend.—To straighten; to stretch out. When a limb is straightened it is said to be extended. Extensor.—A muscle whose office it is to extend certain parts. External.—Outside. It is used in relation to the middle line of the body; for example, the little toe is external, and the big toe internal; the corner of the eye next to the nose, is the internal corner, and the other the external corner of the eye. Externus.—Latin. External. Extremities.—The limbs; the legs and arms. 114 PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. Fascia.—Latin. Formed from fas- cis, a bundle. The aponeurotic ex- pansions of muscles which bind parts together, are so termed. Fascle.—Plural of fascia. Fauces. — Latin. The swallow or gorge. Faucium.—Latin. (The genitive case, plural of faux. (See Isthmus.) Femoral.—Relating to the femur. Femur.—Latin. The thigh-bone. Fenestra.—Latin. A window,—an opening or hole. Fibre.—An organic filament, of a solid consistence, and more or less extensible, which enters into the composition of every animal and vegetable texture. v.„„,.' > A very small fibre. tibrilla. ^ J Fibrous.—Composed of fibres. Be- longing or relating to fibre. Fibula.—Latin. A clasp, a brace. The name of the long, small bone, situate at the outer part of the leg : it assists materially in holding the foot in its proper position. Filament.—From the Latin, jilamen- turn, which is the diminutive of Jilum, a thread. A very small fibre —a fibril. Fissure.— From the Latin, fissura, which is formed from jindere, to cleave. A long narrow cleft or opening. Flex.—To bend. Flexion.—The state of being bent. Flexor.—A muscle whose office it is to bend certain parts ^ Follicle.—From the Latin, follis, a bag. A diminutive glandular sac, or bag. Foramen.—Latin. A hole. Foramena.—Latin. (Plural of fora- men.)— Holes. Fossa.—Latin. From fodio, I dig. A cavity of greater or less depth, the entrance to which is always larger than the base. The nasal fossa, are two largei irregular cavi- ties, situate between the orbits be- low the cranium and behind the nose. The nostrils. Function.—From the Latin, fungor I act, I perform. The action of an organ or set of organs. We see, for example, by the function of the eye, and the function or action of the ear enables us to hear. Ganglion.—From the Greek, gagg- lion, a knot. Nervous ganqlioni are enlargements or knots in the course of a nerve. Ganglionic.—Consisting of ganglions Relating to ganglions. Gas.—Any substance or fluid which is permanently aeriform under Um ordinary conditions of the atmos- phere. Gastric—From the Greek, gaster, the stomach. Belonging or lela- ting to the stomach. Genus.—Latin. A kindred, breed, race, stock, lineage, or family. Genera.—Plural of genus. Generic—Belonging or relating to genus. Geology.—From the Greek, ge, the earth, and logos, a discourse. A description of the structure of the earth. Glenoid.—From the Greek, glene, the pupil, and eidos, resemblam e. Any shallow articular cavity, which receives the head of a bone. Globule.—From the Latin, globulus, a small globe. Glottis.—A small oblong apertuie, situate at the upper part of the larynx. Hemisphere—From the Greek emisus, half, and sphaira, sphere or globe. One half of a sphere or globe, or globular body; I he brain is divided into two hemispheres. Humerus.—The bone of the arm, which is situate between the shoul- der joint and the elbow. Iliac.—From the Latin, ilia, the flank. Relating or belonging to the flank or ilium. Ilium.—The haunch-bonc. Incisor.—From the Latin, incido, I cut. The teeth which occupy the anterior part of the upper and lower jaws, are called incisors, or incisor PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. 115 teeth, because they are used for j cutting the food in the manner of j cutting instruments. Insect.—From the Latin, insectum, j which is formed from secare to cut. 1 The generic name of small animals ! whose body i3, as it were, divided J or cut into several parts; as the' chest and belly. Insects have j neither a circulating apparatus, nor | vertebrae ; but they possess an ap-1 pai atus for breathing, have jointed ; extremities, and generally have < wings. I Intercostal—From the Latin, inter,', between, and costa, a rib. That! which is situate between the ribs. ; Internal.—See External. ! Intussusception.—From the Latin,! intus, within, and snscipio, I re j ceive. The mode of increase pecu-1 liar to organised bodies. Ischiatic—From the Greek, ischion, \ the haunch. An epithet applied to ! parts connected with the haunch. ' Ischium. —The hip bone—the seat: bone. Isthmus.—Latin. Formed from the Greek, isthmos, a narrow tongue of land, joining a peninsula to a con- tinent. Anatomists have givan the name isthmus faucium, isthmus of the fauces, to. the strait or passage between the mouth and pharynx. Juxtaposition.—From the Latin, jux- ta, near to, and ponere, to place. The mode of increase, proper to minerals, which is by the succes- sive addition of new matter on the outside of that which already ex- isted. It is opposed to intussus- ception. Labyrinth.—From the Latin, labyrin. thus, which is formed from the Greek laburinthos, a place full of turnings, the exit of which is not easily dis- coverable. Anatomists have given this name to the a?gregate of pirts, constituting the internal ear. Lachrymal.—From the Latin, lacry- ma, a tear. Relating to the tears. Lachrymalia.—Latin. Belonging or relating to the tears. Lamina.—Latin. A plate, or thin piece of metal or bone. Lamina.—Latin. Plural of Lamina. Larynx.—From the Greek, larugx, a whistle. The apparatus of voice. It is situate at the superior and an- terior part of the neck; and at the top of the trachea, with which it communicates. Levator.—A muscle whose office it is to raise or elevate certain parts. Ligament.—From the Latin, ligare, to tie. A name given to fibrous structures, which serve to unite bones, and form articulations. Lobe.—-A round projecting part of an organ. Lumbar.—Relating to the loins. Lymph.—A name given to the fluid contained in the lymphatic vessels, and thoracic duct of animals. Lymphatic.—Partaking of the nature of lymph. Relating or belonging to lymph. Malar—(bone.)—From the Latin, malum, an apple; so called from its roundness. The cheek bone. Malleus.—Latin. A hammer. Mammalia.—From mamma, a breast. Animals that suckle their young. Mammalogy.—From the Latin, mam- ; ma, breast, and the Greek, logos, a ' discourse or treatise. That part of Natural History which treats of mammiferous animals. Mammary.— From the Latin,mamma, a breast. Belonging or relating to the breast. Mammifer^e—From the Latin, mam. ma, a breast, and fero, I carry. Animals that have teat*. Mammiferous—Belonging or relating to mammiierse. Mater.—Latin. Mother. Meatus.—Latin. A passage. Meoulla.—Latin. Marrow. Membrana.—Latin. A membrane. ! Membrane.—A name given to differ- j ent thin organs, representing spe- cies of supple, more or less elastic, webs. Membranous, or Membraneous.—Be- longing to membrane 116 PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. Mesentery.—From the Greek, mesos, in the middle, and enteron, an in- testine. A term applied to several duplicaturcs of the peritoneum, which maintain the different por- tions of the intestinal canal in their respective situations; allowing, how- ever, more or less mobility. Mesenteric—Relating to the mcsen- . tery. Metacarpus.—From the Greek,meta, after, and karpos, the wrist. Thut! part of the hand which is between ! the wrist and fingers. X Metatarsus.—From the Greek,meta, j after, and tarsos, the instep." That! part of the foot which is between s the instep and toes. j Meteorology. — From the Greek,, meteoros, a meteor, and logos, a } discourse. The natural history of the atmosphere. Mineralogy.— From the Latin, mine- ra, a mineral or mine,and the Greek logos, a discourse. The natural his- tory of minerals. Mitral—Of the form of a mitre, or bishop's bonnet. The name of two valves of the heart. Molar.—From the Greek, nmlos, a millstone or grindstone; or from the Latin, molo, I grind. That which bruises or grinds. The name of certain teeth. Molar Teeth.—The grinders. Jaw teeth. Mollusca.—From the Latin, mollis, soft. A class of marine animals without vertebrae, which have blood vessels, a spinal marrow, and a sim- ple body, without articulated limbs. Molluscous.—Relating to Mollusca. Motor. ) That which moves, or Motive. \ gives the power to move. Myopia.—From the Greek, mas, a mouse, and ops, sight. Because mice were . supposed to be short- sighted. Nearsightedness. Nares.—Latin. The nostrils. Nasal.—Relating to the nose. Nitrogen.—From the Greek, nitron, nitre, and gennao, I beget. The aame given to azote on account of its being the acidifiable base of nitric acid. Nutrition.—The function by which the various organs receive the nu- tritive substances, necessary to re- pair their losses and maintain their strength. Oblongata. — Latin. Elongated — lengthened. Obscura.—Latin. Dark—obscure. Oesophagus.—From the Greek, oio, I carry, and phago, I eat. The gul. let. A tube leading from the mouth to the stomach for the transmission of food. Olfactory.—From the Latin olfactus, the smell. That which belongs or relates to the sense of smell. Orbiculare.—Latin. Orbicular. Orbit.—From the Latin, orbis, a cir- cle. The circular cavities arc so called, which lodge the organs of sight. Organ.—From the Greek, organon, an instrument. Part of an orga- nised being, destined to exercise some particular function ; for ex- ample, the cars are the organs of hearing, the muscles are the organs of motion, &c. Organic.—Relating to an organ. Organised —Composed of organs ; having a mode of structure. Os.—Latin. Bone. Ossification.—From the Latin, og, a bone, and facere, to make. The formation of bone. OvaAle!" ( Latin' °val> Oxygen.—From the Greek, oxus, acid, and geinomai, I engender.— The generator of acid, as it was believed to be exclusively, when this name was given to it. A gas which con- stitutes about one fifth of our at- mosphere ; which is necessary to the respiration of animals, and con- sequently indispensable to animal life. But it cannot be breathed alone for any considerable time with impunity, requiring to be mixed with about four parts of nitrogen or azote, as is the case in PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. 117 our atmosphere, to render it suit- able for respiration. Palati.—Latin. (The genitive case of palatum.) The palate. Palpebral.—From the Latin, palpe- bra, the eye-lid. Belonging or re- lating to the eyelid. Pancreas.—From the Greek, pan, all,; and kreas, flesh, that is, quitefleshy. A gland deeply seated in the ab- domen, which resembles the sali- vary glands in its structure, and has been called the abdominal sali-! vary gland. It is this part of the; calf which is called, in common language, the sweet bread. Pancreatic—Relating to the pan- creas. Pa pill.*;.—Plural of Papilla. Parietes.—From the Latin,paries, a! wall. A name given to parts, which t form the inclosure—the limits of! different cavities of the body. Papilla.—Latin. A nipple. A name ! given to small eminences, which! appear to be formed by the u!ti-j mate expansion of the vessels and^ nerves. Parotid.—From the Greek, para,\ about, and ous, the ear. The paro- tid gland is the largest of the sali- vary glands, seated under the ear, and near the angle of the jaw. Pateila.—Latin. (The diminutive of patina, a dish, so called from its shape.) The knee pan. Pelvis.—Latin. A basin. The name of the bony structure at the lower part of the trunk, which forms the inferior boundary of the abdomen, gives support or place of foundation to the spinal column, and affords points of articulation for the thigh bones, constituting the hip-joint. Pericardium.—From the Greak, peri, around, and kardia, the heart. The pericardium is a membranous sac, which envelopes the heart, and the arterial and venous trunks that pass from, or into it. Peritoneum —From the Greek, peri, around, and retn8, I stretch. A bcious membrane which lines the 10* abdominal cavity, and covers entire- ly or in part all the organs con- tained in it, and by folds, maintains them in their respective relation!. The peritoneum is a sort of sac without aperture, which covers the abdominal organs, without contain- ing them within it; the internal surface of this sac is smooth, and lubricated by a serous (watery) fluid. Petrous.—From the Greek, petra, a rock, a stone. A part of the tem- poral bone, which contains the in- ternal organs of hearing, is so called from resemblinga stone in hardness. Phalanges —The plural of Phalanx. Phalanx.—From the Greek, phalagx, a file of soldiers. The bones con> posing the fingers and toes. They are named first, second, and third phalanges. Pharynx.—From the Greek,pharugx, the pharynx. The swallow. Th6 superior opening of the Oesophagus. Phenomenon.—From the Greek, phai. nomai, I appear. Appearance; visi- ble quality. Phenomena.—Plural of Phenomenon Philosophy.—From the Greek phileo, I love, and sophia, wisdom or knowledge. A clear and distinct knowledge of things. The pursuit of truth. Physiology.—From the Greek, vhu- si?, nature, and logos, a discourse. The science which treats of the functions of animals or vegetables. Porta.—Latin. A gate. The part of the liver, where its vessels enter as by a gate. The vena porta is a vasculir apparatus, which conveys black blood to the liver. Prehension.—From the Latin, pre- dendere, to lay hold of. The pre- hension of aliment consists in lay- ing hold of, and conveying food into the mouth. Presbyopia.—From the Greek, pres. bus, an old man, and ops, an eye— Longsightedness. Primer.—From the Latin, primus, first. An elementary book—a first book. US PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. Process.—From the Latin, procedo, I go before—an eminence of bone— an apophysis. Pubis.—The anterior and middle part of the pelvis. Pulmonary.—Belonging or relating to the lungs. Puncta.—Latin. Plural of punctum. Points. Pylorus—From the Greek, pule, a gate, and ouros, a guardian. The lower or right orifice of the stomach Radial. — Belonging or relating to the radius. Radius.—Latin. A spoke—so called Secretion.—From the Latin, secer. nere, to separate. Tho organic functions of the several glands, by which tliey separate from the blood the materials which they respective- ly demand for their several purposes: each organ according to its peculiar structure, differs from the rest, and hence we have the formation of the different fluids, as bile, saliva, milk, &c. The fluids thus elaborated or separated from the blood are also termed secretions. Sense.—The faculty of receiving im- pressions from external objects. from its shape—one of the bones of! Sensibility.-TIic ability or faculty of the fore-arm Ramuscule.—From the Latin, ramus, a branch. A diminutive branch. Receptaculum.—Latin. A recepta- cle—a reservoir. Renal.—Belonging or relating to the kidney. Retina.—From the Latin, rete, a net. The essential organ of vision: on it the images of objects are impressed. Rotator.—From the Latin, rota, a wheel. A name given to muscles, which turn the parts to which they are attached on their axes. Rotula.—The patella. Rotundum. ) r ,. „ , „ > Latin. Round. Rotunda. ( Sacral.—Relating to the sacrum. Sacrum—The bone which forms the posterior part of the pelvis, and is a continuation of the vertebral column. Saliva.—Spittle. Salivary.—Belonging or relating to suliva. receiving impressions from sur- rounding objects, and being con- scious of them. Sinuous.—Relating or belonging to a sinus. Partaking of the nature of a sinus. Sinus.—Any cavity, the interior of which is more expanded than the entrance ; in this respect, being the reverse of a fossa ; which see. Skeleton.—From the Greek, skello, I dry. The aggregate of the hard parts of the body, or the bones. Skin.—The dense, elastic membrane, which envelopes the body. It con- sists of three layers or lamina;; the derma, the epidermis, and rete mucosum, the last being situate be- tween the other two. The colour of the different races of men de- pends upon the colour of this rite mucosum, (mucous net;) the other two layers being alike or nearly so, in the whole human family. Sap.—The nutritious liquid, or blood sSfhknoid,—From the Gieek, sphen,a of plants. Scapula.—The shoulder blade. Science.-1-From the Latin, scientia, • knowledge. Any art or species of\ knowledge, arranged in order, or? on some plan. I Sclerotica—From the Greek, skle-l rod, I harden. A hard, resisting, > wedge, aiid eidos, resemblance—a bone, situate on the middle line and at the base of the cranium. It ariiculates with all the other bones of the cranium ; supports them, and strengthens their union, acting very much like the key-stone of an arch. pearly white, opaque membrane, ^Stapes.—Latin. A stirrup. The in. which forms the posterior four 5 nermost of the small bones of the fifths of the external coat or cover-1 ear, so called because itresembles a ing of the eye ball. ' stirrup. PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. 119 Sternum.—From the Greek, sterros, > solid. The breast bone. Subclavian.—From the Latin, sub, \ under, and clavis, the clavicle, j That which is under the clavicle. ! Subcutaneous.—From the Latin,sub,) under, and cutis, the skin. That j which is under the skin. > Sublingual.—From the Latin, sub, < under, and lingua, the tongue. \ That which is under the tongue. I Submaxillary.—From the Latin, sub, I under, and maxilla, the jaw. That! which is under the jaws. j Suture.—From the Latin, suo, I stitch. A kind of immoveable ar-j ticu'ation or joint, in which the] bones unite by means of serrated ] edges, which are, as it were, dove- < tailed into each other. The at ticu- j lations of the bones of the cranium; are of this kind. ! Symmetrical.—From the Greek, sun, \ with,and melron, measure. A term ! applied to those parts of the body, '< which if seated ou the middle line,; may be divided into two equal, and'. perfectly like halves : or which, if situate—the one to the right and the other to the left of this line— h ive a similar conformation, and a perfectly analogous arrangement. Syncope.—From the Greek, sugkopto, I fall down. Fainting—complete loss of sensation and motion, with considerable diminution or entire suspension, of the pulsations of the heart and the movements of respi- ration. Hence, syncope resembles death. Synovia.—From the Greek, sun, with, and don, an egg. The lubricating fluid of the joints, which enables the surfaces of the bones and ten- dons to glide smoothly over each other. System.—From the Greek, sun, to gether, and istemi, I place. An arrangement according to some plan or method. Systole —From the Greek, sustello,', I contract. The contraction of! the heart, by which it gives im-: pulse to the blood or causes its pro- gression in the blood vessels. It is opposed to the diastole of this organ. Tarsus.—From the Greek, tarsos, any row, the sole of the foot. The posterior part of the foot, which, in man, consists ot seven bones, and forms the heel and instep. A thin plate of cartilage seated in the sub- stance of the free edge of each eye- lid. Tears.—The fluid secreted by the lachrymal gland, and poured be- tween the globe of the eye and the eyelids, to facilitate the motions of those parts. Tendon.—From the Greek, teino, I ; stretch. Strong, white, fibrous, ! cords, which connect the muscles > to the bones which they move. The ; tendons may be considered as so ! many cords, for transmitting the ; motion of the muscles to the bones ! ■ or levers. ! Tendinous.—Belonging to, or parla- '. king of the nature of tendon. | Thorax.—From the Greek, thorax, j the chest. It is bounded posteriorly by the vertebras; laterally, by the ribs and .scapula; anteriorly, by the sternum; above by the clavicle; ! and below by the diaphragm. It | is destined to lodge and protect the ■ chief organs of respiration and cir- \ culation:—the lungs and heart. Thoracic.—Belonging to the thorax. Tibia.—Latin. A flute. The largest bone of the leg is so called. j Tissue.—From the Latin, texere, to weave. The interlacement or union of many things which form a body, as threads of flax, silk, wool, &c., of which cloths and stuffs are made. From analogy, the term is employed in anatomy to describe the sub. stances of which the organs of animals in general, and of man paiticularly, are formed, and which result from the, interlacement ol fibres. It is applied to the different kinds of organization of the body, as,for example, the muscular tissue, 120 PHYSIOLOGY:—GLOSSARY. osseous tissue, meaning the struc- ture of which the muscles, and bones are composed. Trachea.—From the Greek, trachus, rough, and arteria,an artery, which is formed from aer, air, and terein, to keep. The canal which conveys the air to the lungs. The wind- pipe. Tricuspid.—From the Latin, tres, three, and cuspis, a point—having three points. The three valves situate in the right auriculo-ventri- cular opening of the heart are thus named. Tunica.—Latin. A tunic; a coat or covering of an organ. Tympanum.—Latin. A drum. The drum of the ear. Tympani.—(Genitive case of tympa- num.) Of the drum of the ear. Ulna.—The bone of the forearm, which forms the prominence of the elbow, during the flexion of that joint. Ulnar.—Relating to the ulna. Unguiform.—From the Latin, unguis, a human nail, and forma, shape— Of the form of a nail. Valve.—From the Latin, valvce, doors —a small door. Any membrane or doubling of membrane which pre- vents fluids from flowing back in the vessels and canals of the ani- mal body. Vein.—The veins are vessels for the conveyance of black blood from all parts of the body to the heart They are found wherever there are arteries. Velum.—Latin. A veil. Venous.—Relating to the veins. Ventricle.—From the Latin, venter, a belly. A name given in anatomy to various parts. Vermiform.—From the Latin, vermis a worm, and forma, form. Worm- shaped. Vermicular -Belonging or relating to worms. The motion of the in- testines is vermicular, that is, re- sembling that of a worm. Vartebra.—From the Latin, vertere, to turn. This name has been given to each of the bones, which, by their union, form the vertebral or spinal column, vulgarly called the back-bone. VertebrjE.—The plural of vertebra. Vertebral.—Belonging to the ver- tebree. Viscid. ) Glutinous; sticky; tcna- Viscous. \ ceous. Viscus.—Any bowel or entrail, or in- ternal part, as the heart, liver, lungs, pancreas, &c. Viscera.—The plural of viscus. Vitreous—Resembling glass—glassy. Zoology.—From the Greek, zoon, an animal, and logos, a discourse. That part of natural history which treats of animals. Zoologist—One devoted to the study of zoology. FINIS. TO TEACHERS AND SCHOOL COMMITTEES. NEW AND POPULAR SCHOOL-BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO., (SUCCESSORS TO GRIGG, ELLIOT & CO.,) No. 14 NORTH FOURTH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. The attention of Teachers, School Committees, and all interested in Education, is solicited to the following School-Books, which are for sale by Booksellers and Country Merchants generally —with testimony from numerous Teachers and others, who have practically tested these hooks in the School-room, or care- fully examined them. THE PRIMARY SPELLING BOOK, INTRODUCTORY TO THE " FAMILIAR SPELLING BOOK," COMPRISING EASY ELEMENTARY LESSONS FOR TEACHING ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION, SPELLING, AND READING. PAPER COVER. MORAL TALES, IN WORDS OF ONE SYLLABLE, OR, FIRST STEPS IN READING. "Train up a child iu the way be should go, and when he is old, he will not depart from It FANCY PAPER COVER. FIRST READING LESSONS FOR CHILDREN. COMPILED BY THE ASSOCIATION FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF JUVENILE BOOKS. FANCY PAPER COVER. S>5 LLPPINCOTT, CRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. PEIRCE'S NATURAL SERIES OF READING BOOKS. " Take Nature?! path, and mad opinions leave."—Pope. L —THE PRLMER, alphabetical, with more than seventy cuts; 72 pages. II.— THE FIRST REAPER, " " fifty " 108 " III. —THE SECOND READER, " "fifty " 252 " IV.—THE.THIRD READER, " • forty " 284 " V-THE FOURTH READER, in press. VI.—THE FIFTH READER, in preparation. Whoever presents to the public a new book, is expected to give, with it, his reasons for the act. Within a few years, great advance has been made in the science and the art of teaching. la reading-books, there has not been a corresponding improvement. This is admitted by all; and practical educators everywhere are dissatisfied. Most of the books we have, are the same that were in use before the public mind was aroused to the necessity of reform in this department of education, and before criticism was directed against the books; or, if we have some new books, they are such as are chiefly formed to the old, defect- ive models; or are encumbered with useless, because impracticable, techni- calities, definitions, and rules as to the "science of reading"—a mass of arbitrary and needless distinctions and directions, altogether incomprehen- sible to the learner of the art of reading—books, of course, which derive little advantage from having been prepared and published in the midst of progressive improvement. Hence, it is a common remark among teachers, that our " reading-books are decidedly behind the times." To remedy some of the existing evils, by supplying some of the acknow- ledged deficiencies, in this department of instruction, is the object of the Natural Series t)F Readers. It is believed that these books, as mere reading books, will be found better arranged as to the extent of the pieces, for the exercise of thought and fcefing, aiid the modula- tions and discipline of the voice, than any other books now before the public. 1. In the Primer, the learner is taught one letter at a time, as a lesson — the sound or sounds of the letter being learned in connection with its name; though instructors pre- ferring to do so, can teach the Alphabet in the usual manner. 2. By this series, the child is taught how to pronounce each syllable of the words in the reading lesson ; and this, by a very simple key of twenty-two words, which a child can learn in two hours, and which having learned, he requires no more assistance in pronunciation. 3. By the peculiar method here adopted, the learner is instructed -to pronounce each ■yllable of a word as though it was the part of a word ; and not, as taught by other orthoepists, as though each syllable was an entire word. 4. By this system, too, the pupil is instructed in what are really the sounds which make the spoken words,and is taught (more than by any other system he can be taught) to speak with perfect distinctness the sounds of the words he utters, and in the manner in which he should utter them, to make his elocution clear and easy. 5. By the arrangement of the pronouncing and spelling lessons, in the first four books of the series, the learner is put on his guard against relying on the sounds of the spoken words, in giving the letters of the printed words; the great cause of all the bad spelling of the language. 6 In other reading books, the lessons and "stories" are alike short —too short to excite and keep up an interest in the minds of learners. 7. In this-scries, the subjects are continued through several lessons; while each lesson has its peculiar point.. Besides, the whole tenor and varying styles of the different pieces are such as to kindle the intellect, and prolong its healthful excitement; to arouse the social and moral feelings; to throw a charm around the common incidents of every. day life; and to impress the student with the truth that rectitude, industry and useful- ness, arc the great conducers to honour, competence, and peace. oa LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. The books are commended to the attention of the friends of educational improve- ment, ... the full belief that they will secure a free, easy, and natural style of elocution in the progressive tyro, and will naturalize the constrained, stiff, and artificial reader; and with the full conviction, also, that they are better graduated in their intellectual charactpr than other books in common use, and simpler, clearer, higher, and more attractive and impressive in their moral tone ; that to the old as well as young, the, will be found "playful without being coarse, humorous without irreverence, if witty not profane - instructive, though not prosy or dictatorial, severe, yet not repulsive, and' sentimental without being dull." Rome, K ., January 25,185I. 0LIVE* * PEiRCE. {&- The above books are obtaining a general introduction into most of the best schools in the country; and teachers, by writing the publishers, (post-paid,) can obtain a copy for examination. GRIGG & ELLIOT'S NEW SERIES OF COMMON SCHOOL READERS, NUMBERS FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH, These books are particularly adapted for an introduction into the Schools generally in the South and West. HAZEN'S NEW SPELLER AND DEFINER. VERY MUCH ENLARGED. THE NEW SPELLER AND DEFINER. 312 Pages, 12mo. BY EDWARD HAZE2T, A. M. This work was prepared for the press by the author of "The Speller and Definer;" a book generally known throughout the country. The words are classified according to the number of letters or syllables, and according to the parts of speech. Experience of twenty years in the origi- nal work just mentioned, has proved beyond doubt that these classifications greatly diminish the labour of committing the definitions to memory, and equally increase the certainty of recollecting them. By the same classifi- cations, pupils are prepared to learn with facility the analysis of words, as the primitives commonly occur, in the various classes of words, before the derivatives. The work contains about ten thousand words, more than half of which are primitives, which serve as the foundations of others formed by the help of prefixes and suffixes. A sufficient number of derivatives are explained to guide in defining others. The form of definition generally cor- responds with the meaning of the suffix or the prefix. Unwearied pains were taken to give correct, unequivocal definitions. Mere synonyms were, therefore, avoided as much as possible; and circum locution was preferred, with the view to indicate, with some certainty, the 27 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO A. CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. precise applications of the words. On this account, the definitions are longer than they are in School Dictionaries, which contain so many words on each page, that, in most cases, they have no point. The best definitions, however, seldom give a complete knowledge of a word; hence, in all large and complete dictionaries, sentences or parts of sentences are given to show how the words are applied. In this way the author has illustrated many words, to show how pupils are to associate them in regular exercises. By the time pupils are competent to commit to memory the definitions of words, and to illustrate their applications, they are able to learn the theory of grammar. The outlines of English Grammar have, therefore, been introduced at the bottom of the pages. The space thus occupied amounts to thirty-three pages; yet the definitions of etymology, the rules of syntax, the formulas of parsing, and the structures of the language, together with numerous examples of illustration, are systematically presented. English Grammar is to be applied by pupils in the construction of sentences, and is thus to be rendered a subject of practical utility. The book which has thus been described, can be depended upon as a correct and highly finished work. No recommendations are presented in its support, not because those of a high character could not be obtained, but because its author is sufficiently known to command the confidence of the teachers and the public at large. 5>3~ Teachers, in ordering, will be careful to say, " Hazen's New Speller and Definer; Lippincott, Grambo & Co.'s edition." WALKER'S SCHOOL AND FAMILY DICTIONARY. NEW EDITION. FROM NEW STEREOTYPE PLATES. GREATLY IMPROVED, AND PRINTED ON WHITE PAPER. A CRITICAL PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY AND EXPOSITOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, tN WHICH THE MEANING OF EVERY WORD IS EXPLAINED, AND THE SOUND OF EVERY SYLLABLE DISTINCTLY SHOWN. To which are prefixed an Abstract of English Pronunciation, and Direc- tions to Foreigners for acquiring a Knowledge of the Use of this Dictionary. BY JOHN WALKER, Author of " Elements of Elocution," " Rhyming Dictionary," etc. ABRIDGED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, BY AN AMERICAN CITIZEN, t Chamber of the Controllers of Public Schools, (First School Drst. of Pennsylvania, Philada., March 15, 1848. At a meeting of the Controllers of Public Schools, First School District of Pennsylvania, held at the Controllers' Chamber, on Tuesday, March 14th, the following resolution was adopted: Resolved, That " Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary," published by Gngg, Elliot & Co., be adopted for use in the Public Schools. fCertificd from the Minutes.] Thomas B. Florence, Secretary. 28 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. TRACY'S NEW SERIES OF ARITHMETICS: AN ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC, CONTAINING EXTENSIVE EXERCISES FOR THE SLATE. 12mo. A SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC, CONTAINING NEW AND IMPROVED RULES FOR THE APPLICATION OF NUMBERS. 12mo. BT C. THACY,A.M., PRINCIPAL OF CLASSICAL INSTITUTE, NEW YORK. Tract's Elementary Arithmetic, and Tracy's Scientific and Prac- tical Arithmetic, constitute a part of our educational series. These works are from the pen of a thorough, practical teacher, of long experience and eminent success, especially in the mathematical department. We therefore invite a critical investigation of their peculiar merits, with the fullest assurance that the result will be, their extensive introduction into the schools of our country. Space will not allow us, in this connection, to pre- sent all we desire ; we therefore refer the inquirer to the works themselves, simply stating that we shall be happy to furnish teachers with copies for examination. The design of the more elementary treatise is to lay a broad and deep foundation, on which may be reared a substantial superstructure. The exercises are therefore of an elementary character, but extensive and prac- tical. A thorough investigation of the varied examples in Simple Arith- metic, presented in this book, must secure for the scholar of ordinary capacity a thorough acquaintance, not only with the nature of numbers in their elementary capacity, but with their application to the practical pur- poses of life. The Scientific and Practical Arithmetic, although a work complete in itself, in every respect, has peculiarities not noticeable to any great extent in the primary work; its object being to apply the elementary principles therein developed, so as to secure, in all cases, the required result by the most direct course. The mode of dealing with figures here inculcated, inspires the scholar with activity of thought and execution, and consequently ready and accurate results. Instead of presenting full illustrations of what we here state, we refer the inquirer to the work of analysis by cancellation, as exhi- bited at page 81, and applied throughout tl e body of the work to all solu- tions naturally effected by the combined upplication of multiplication and LIPPINCOTT, QRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS.________ division; and especially to the computation of exchanges in the money, weight, or measure of different countries, as exhibited at pages 241-2-3-7, &c The principle of cancellation, in itself considered, is of course no new thing; but its application as here presented, important though it is, we are confi- dent, cannot be found in any other system of Arithmetic extant. In the application of the roots to business purposes, other new features in arithmetical science, which both abbreviate and shorten the ordinary pro- cess, are presented. We say " new features;" by this we simply mean, new applications of principles previously well known. In conclusion, we would simply invite attention to the following notices of the works from those who have tested their merits ; most of whom are practical teachers, of eminent success. The third number of the series will be issued soon. It will contain much that is new and important, relative to commercial and other business trans- actions of life. Dear Sir:—I have examined your Arithmetics, and am free to say I know of no better works extant. I am particularly pleased with the clear- ness with which principles are stated, and with the general arrangement of the work. SAMUEL GLEN, Principal of Parochial School in Twelfth street, N. Y. Having examined the series of Arithmetics by C. Tract, A. M., I think them in many respects superior to any others I have seen. The exercises of the "elementary" work are well calculated to make expert and ready arithmeticians; while its whole plan renders it a fit substitute for a more expensive work. The " Practical Arithmetic" contains much original mat- ter, aspecially on the subject of cancellation. Its rules and principles are clearly expressed; its examples are copious, appropriate, and well arranged. The excellence of these works renders them worthy of extensive patronage. HENRY KIDDLE, Principal of Public School No. 2, New York. ------By the application of the principle of cancellation throughout the series, the shortest way will be the ordinary method of the learner. The system is well adapted to make rapid and accurate arithmeticians, and emi- nently practical. M. C. TRACY, Principal of Mechanics' Institute, New York. From the " Teachers' Advocate." Mr. Tracy considers that the simple rules are most used, and urges the necessity of acquiring great familiarity and expertness in their use and application. His "elementary" work, therefore, contains extensive exer- cises for the slate. It is systemai ic and analytic; and many of the examples are made up from statistics occuiring in commerce, practical economy, and science. 30 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. Of the " Scientific and Practical Arithmetic," the new and marked fea- tures are — a free and rational use of cancellation, an explanation of Propor- tion by agencies and results, and the application of the principle that the product of the roots of several numbers is equal to the root of the product of the same numbers. These works are written by a skilful and eminently practical man, and are sufficiently extensive for all ordinary business purposes. From Rev. Isaac Ferris, D. D., President of Rutgers Female Institute, N. Y. It gives me pleasure to state that I have examined the New Series of Arithmetics by Mr. Calvin Tracy, with attention and interest. His larger work, professing to be an improvement of a former edition, is worthy of the name. His plan is lucid, comprehensive, and practical; and the whole shows the successful teacher, of long experience. The results of years in teaching Arithmetic are here very happily presented. From Professor A. Rand, Principal of Boys' Select School, No. 16 Thirteenth street, New York. Mr. Tracy: Sir — I have for some time used your system of Arithmetic with much satisfaction. I give it the preference on account of its general application of the principle of cancellation. When your former edition was out of print, or rather when I was erroneously informed that it was so, I was so unwill- ing to relinquish its use, that I sent to my former pupils, and bought up old copies to supply my classes. H&~ The testimony of Prof. Rand respecting the purchase of old copies, is not a solitary case; others testify to having done the same. SMITH'S NEW COMMON SCHOOL GEOGRAPHIES. THE CHILD'S FIRST BOOK IN GEOGRAPHY. designed as an introduction to R. M. SMITH'S COMMON SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. A small Quarto, illustrated by numerous Maps, on a new and improved plan, and over one hundred beautiful and original Cuts, forming the most complete and attractive Primary Geography yet published in this country. This elementary work, as also the larger School Geography named below, contains as much or more geographical information, and better arranged, than any other Geographies now used in the schools of this country; foi the truth of which, the publishers particularly request all teachers to exa- mine for themselves. Copies for examination will be furnished gratis. 31 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. SMITH'S NEW COMMON SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, AND PARTICULARLY ADAPTED FOR ALL COMNON SCHOOLS, ACADEMICS, &0. This is a new work; and all persons ordering will please say — Lippin- cott, Grambo &. Co.'s edition of Smith's Geography. There is no School-Book ever issued from the American press that is more highly recommended than this invaluable elementary work ; and it will be universally introduced into all the Public and Private Schools in the United States, if real merit is taken into consideration. All Teachers are particu- larly requested to give it a candid examination. We subjoin testimonials from numerous distinguished Teachers and others, who have practically tested their value as school-books. From John M'Clusky, D. D., PrtTtcipal of the Academy and Normal School, West Alexandria, Pennsylvania. - June 23d, 1849. Messrs. Grigg, Elliot <£ Co. — Having used R. M. Smith's Quarto Geo- graphy in the Academy of West Alexandria for some time, it gives mo pleasure to recommend it to the attention of all Common District Schools, Academies, and even Colleges, as decidedly a work of great merit. JOHN M'CLUSKY. Richmond, November 13th, 1848. Dear Sirs — I have devoted all my leisure to the books left with me. Smith's Common School Geography is the best system 1 have ever examined. I know of no book 60 well adapted at the American, to aid the instructor in teaching boys to think — without which there can be, in truth, no education. Very truly yours, R. N. FOX, Teacher of Classical and Mathematical School, S. E. corner Capitol Square. The following teachers in Richmond, Virginia, have also recommended and introduced R. M. Smith's Geography in their Schools and Academies. IL PORTERFIELD TAYLOR, Principal of Union Academy. JUDITH A. BREEDEN, Select School, Miss AUSTIS MAGEE, SUSANNAH H. BURTON, E. G. STARKE, CAROLINE H. GAY, A. B. SMITH, ELIZABETH L. READ, ABIAH S. HILLER, C. A. STANFIELD, M. H. SMITH, A. LYON, MARY F. ANDERSON, WILLIAM S. FISHER. 32 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. Norfolk, Virginia, Jan. 9th, 1849. We have carefully and critically examined R. M. Smith's Geography, and give it a decided preference over all other works of the kind, and have introduced it into our schools. H. HUTCHINSON, HOPE BAIN, W. S. FORREST, ELIZA M. RAMSAY, WILLIAM WHITE, A. E. BROWN, E. G. NEWSUND, LAURA L. DANIEL, ANN DORER, Teachers. Petersburg, Va., Nov. 3d, 1849. We have introduced R. M. Smith's Geography into our schools. S. PARRISH, ABIGAIL ROCKWELL, W. W. CAMPBELL G. M. F- BASS, Teachers. We have introduced R. M, Smith's Geography into our schools. JAMES CHARLTON, Newberry, Pa. JOHN TOBIN, Boydstown, Bedford co., Pa. JACOB LAND1S, York, Pa. JOSEPH H. THOMPSON, York, Pa. W. G. MITCHELL, York, Pa. A. IRWIN, M'Connellsburg, Pa. SAMUEL ARTHUR, Olney Clas. School, Phil, co., Pa. S. SHIRLEY, Fayetteville, Pa. M. J. BOYD, Lancaster, Pa. PHC5BE PAINE, Carlisle, Pa. W. H. BLAIR, Orrsburg, Pa. JAMES M. ALEXANDER, Bedford, Pa. M. J. LAVERTY, Shippensburg, Pa. THOMAS W. MORRIS, Plainfield. Pa. THE COLUMBIAN ORATOR, CONTAINING A VARIETY OF ORIGINAL AND SELECTED PIECES, TOGETHER WITH RULES CALCULATED TO IMPROVE YOUTH AND OTHERS IN THE ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL ART OF ELOQUENCE. BY CALEB BINGHAM, A. M., Author of " The American Preceptor," " Young Lady's Accidence," &c One volume, 12mo. 33 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. THE AMERICAN MANUAL; A COMMENTARY ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. WITH QUESTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND MARGINAL EXERCISES, ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS. BY J. BAHTLETT BURLEIGH, LL.D. Twelfth Edition ; 1 vol. 12mo. The Publishers ask the particular attention of all Teachers and School Directors to the following notices of this popular School-Book: Certificate of Correctness, from the Department of State. Department of State, ) Washington, Oct. 1, 1850. > This is to certify, that Joseph Bartlett Burleigh's Script Edition of the U. S. Constitution, with the Amendments, has been carefully collated with the originals in the Archives of this Department, and proved to be accurate in the capitals, orthography, text, and punctuation. Dan. Webster, Secretary of State. W. S. Derrick, Chief Clerk. f Office of the Controllers of Public Schools, I First School Dist. of Pennsylvania, Philada., Dec. 11, 1850. At a meeting of the Controllers of Public Schools, First District of Penn- sylvania, held at the Controllers' Chamber, on Tuesday, December 10th, 1850, the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That the American Manual, by J. Bartlett Burleigh, be intro- duced as a class-book into the Grammar Schools of this District. Robert J. Hemphill, Secretary. This book has also just been introduced into the Public Schools of Wash- ington, D. C. Alleohant City, May 31, 1849. Having examined the American Manual, by J. B. Burleigh, and having used it as a text-book in our classes in the Public Schools of this city, we think it a work of superior merit. The subject, the style, the marginal exercises, the questions at the foot of each page, the appendix, and the .statistical tables, are such as to make the work complete. In the hands of the judicious teacher, it will be found the very book needed. J. A. COVELL, A. T. DOUTHETT, E. FRAZIER, JNO. STERRITT, M. WILSON, WM. M. HASTINGS, JAS. B. D. MEEDS, LEONARD H. EATON, Principal of 2d Ward Boys' School, Pittsburg. JAMES ANDERSON, Principal of Pittsburg Academy, and many other Principals of Schools and Academies. 34 LIPriNCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. (COPY.) At a meeting of the Board of School Commissioners of the city of Wheel- ing, Va., held at the court-house, June 14th, 1849, the following resolution was adopted unanimously: Resolved, That the American Manual, by Jos. Bartlett Burleigh, be and the same is hereby adopted as a text-book, to be used in the Public Schools of this city. Attest, GEORGE W. SIGHTS, Clerk of Board of School Commissioners. Pittsburg, June 5th, 1849. We, the undersigned, Teachers in the Public Schools of Pittsburg, have used Burleigh's American Manual with great satisfaction and delight. The plan of the work is in all respects judicious. The marginal exercises are a novel and original feature. They are arranged with great accuracy and dis- crimination. Their use not only excites the liveliest interest among the pupils, but produces great, salutary and lasting effects in arousing the men- tal powers, and leading the scholars constantly to investigate, reason, and judge for themselves. The Manual is elegantly written, and must have the effect to give a taste for what is pure and lofty in English literature. Throughout the entire work, the strictest regard is inculcated for the purest morality. B. M. KERR, SAMUEL C. HARPER, J. WHITTIER, M. H. EATON, N. VERNON, Prof, of Mathematics and English Literature in Frederick College. And many other Principals of Schools and Academies. Extract of a Letter from Wm. Roberts, Esq., President of the Board of School Commissioners of Princess Anne county, Virginia. Newtown, Princess Anne Co., Va., July 27, 1849. The Board of School Commissioners, of this county, held a meeting about three weeks ago, and passed a resolution that the American Manual be introduced into our schools. The popularity of the Manual, upon exa- mination by so large a number of our citizens, almost surprises me ; for not only the School Commissioners have read it, but a great number of our citizens. I consider it the best book for training the young mind, in the earlier stages of its education, I have ever seen." (COPY.) Baltimore, October 5th, 1848. The American Manual, by Joseph Bartlett Burleigh, A. M., has been introduced by the Commissioners of the Public Schools into the Central High School, and the two Female High Schools of Baltimore. J. W. TILYARD, Clerk of Commissioners of Public Schools 35 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. Baltimore, March 14th, 1849. This is to certify, that the Board of Commissioners of the Public Schoolf for Baltimore county have adopted'the American Manual, by J. B. Bur- leigh, as a text-book, to be used in the schools under their direction. This Board has under its control over sixty schools located throughout Baltimore county. WILSON C. N. CARR, Clerk to the Board of School Commissioners for Baltimore county. Extract of a Letter from Leroy G. Edwards, Esq., President of the Board of Public School Commissioners for Norfolk county, Virginia. I consider the American Manual a desideratum which had not before been supplied, and respectfully recommend that it be used generally in every District Free School in this county. Extract of a Letter from John B. Strange, A. M., and R. B. Tschudi, A. M., Principals of the Norfolk Academy, Virginia. We do not hesitate to pronounce it (the American Manual) one of the best School-Books we have ever examined, not only as regards the matter, but also the manner of communicating it. The Manual is adapted to the capacity of the youngest, and must prove highly interesting and instructive to the oldest pupils. It communicates information which every American should possess, in a style so clear, and by a plan so admirable, that the work must commend itself to all who become acquainted with its merits. We Bhall introduce it into this institution, and hope that the schools throughout the country will not fail to appreciate its worth, and adopt it at the earliest moment as one of their text-books. Extract of a Letter from Hon. Colman Yellot. I sincerely hope that the American Manual may become a standard text- book in all our schools. But it is a work designed not merely for the perusal of the young. Its peculiar beauty of style, and the great amount of useful information collected in so convenient a form, should render it a favourite book of reference for the legislator, the politician, and the general reader. Extract of a Letter from Alexander Campbell, D. D., LL. D., President of Bethany College, Virginia. The American Manual is an admirable text-book for teacher and pupil, on the various important subjects so essential to the American scholar and statesman. (copy.) Steubenville, Ohio, May 17th, 1849. Messrs. Grig^; Elliott <$• Co. — We, the undersigned, Teachers of the Public Schools in the city of Steubenville, find, on trial, that Burleigh's Amencan Manual is the best book with which we are acquainted for waking up the mind of youth, for training them to understand what they read, for leading them to investigate and reason for themselves j thereby thoroughly 36 LIPPLNCOTT, GRAMBO k CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. fitting them for the duties of after life. The school, the infallible test of the merits of a class-book, proves that its proper use need only be witnessed to receive the approbation of every friend of thorough education. M. A. WALKER, WM. M'CAY, M. KIDDO, FRANCIS TURNER, M. HULL, I. B. BUTLER, J. BROWN, E. KELL, M. ALLEN, M. ORR. Extract of a Letter from the Hon. B. Everitl Smith. I doubt whether the ingenuity of man can ever devise a work better adapted to the purpose avowed by the author. I arose from the perusal of the American Manual, more deeply impressed than ever with my responsi- bility as a citizen, and with the absolute importance of fostering sound virtue and political morality. From L. T. Cowell, Esq., late Teacher of Mathematics, Ypsilanti Seminary, Michigan. Having carefully examined the American Manual, by President Burleigh, A. M., and having used it as a text-book (the best test of its merits), I deem it a work of superior merit. As a Commentary on the Constitution of the United States, it is of high intrinsic worth. The directions upon the method of instruction —the subject, the style, the marginal exercises, the appendix (a key to the whole work), the statistical tables, and the questions at the foot of each page, fully meet the wants of the pupil and teacher. Tho points treated of, the language, and the plan of the work, make it complete. It is of the highest order. Its merits commend it to universal approbation. SMILEY'S ARITHMETIC; Or, The New Federal Calculator, in Dollars and Cents. This work contains, among other very important improvements, Questions on the Rules and Theory of Arithmetic, which are considered, by Teachers generally, very conducive to the im- provement of the pupil. Although a prejudice exists among some Teachers in favour of the old works on Arithmetic, yet. the very liberal patronage which this work has received, must be considered as decisive evidence of the high estimation in which it is held by most of the instructors of youth. Upwards of FIVE HUNDRED THOUSAND COPIES have been printed and sold. The sums being altogether in Dollars and Cents, gives it a decided preference over any other Arithmetic in use. The most distinguished Teachers in our city pronounce it superior to any other similar work; therefore the publishers sincerely hope this useful improvement will overcome the prejudice that many teach- ers have to introducing new works —particularly those preceptors who wish to discharge their duty faithfully to parent and child. A KEY TO THE ABOVE ARITHMETIC, In which aU the examples necessary for a learner are wrought at large, and also solutions given of all the various rules. Designed principally to facilitate the labour of Teachers, and assist such as have not the opportunity of a tutor's aid. 37 LIPPINCOTT, OBAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. SMILEY'S ARITHMETICAL RULES AND TABLES, FOR YOUNG BEGINNERS. This is the best work of the kind now in print; but teachers are parti- cularly requested to examine for themselves. PRACTICAL QUESTIONS, ADAPTED TO THE USE OF ANY A1UTI-IMETIC BY J. BARTLETT BURLEIGH, LL.D. This little volume should be in every school. It is unlike any other work before the public; pupils engage in its exercises with the enthusiasm of play, and are thoroughly fitted by it for the active duties of life. A Valuable and Necessary Assistant to the Study of Natural Philosophy in Schools and Academies. MAYO'-S MECHANICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. ILLUSTRATIONS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, IN SIX LARGE PLATES, MOUNTED ON PASTEBOARD, AND CONTAINING NEARLY 100 FIGURES. ARRANGED AND EDITED BY W. S. MAYO, M. D. A well-selected and well-engraved set of illustrations. They may not supersede an apparaius, when an apparatus can be had ; but in all ordinary cases, and in all schools where the elements of natural philosophy are taught by the aid of nothing but the little, miserable illustrations in the books, these plates will unquestionably prove of the greatest service to the pupil, and very much facilitate the labor of the teacher. C. W. HACKLEY, D. D., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in Columbia College. I have examined a set of plates about to be published by Lippincott, Grambo & Co., and believe that they may be very useful in illustrating the elementary principles of Natural Philosophy. JAMES RENWICK, Prof, of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in Columbia College. 38 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. I have examined the Philosophical Diagrams prepared by Dr. Mayo. They are, in my opinion, very accurate and well arranged, and cannot but prove highly useful for elementary instruction in the various branches of Natural Philosophy. It affords me pleasure to recommend them. HORACE WEBSTER, LL.D., President of the New York Free Academy. GRIMSHAW'S LADIES' LEXICON AND PARLOR COMPANION: CONTAINING NEARLY EVERY WORD IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, AND EXHIBITING THE PLURALS OF NOUNS AND THE PARTI CIPLES OF VERBS: DEINO ALSO PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO THE USE OF ACADEMIES AND SCHOOLS. BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW, Esq. One volume, 18mo. THE GENTLEMAN'S LEXICON, OR POCKET DICTIONARY. BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW, Esq. One volume, 18mo. "They differ from all preceding works of the kind in this, that they exhibit the plurals of all nouns which are not formed by the mere addition of the letter s, and also the participles of every verb now generally used; and, unless accompanied by a particular caution, no word has been admitted which is not now of polite or popular use ; and no word has been excluded which is required either in epistolary composition or conversation." In giving the above extract, we take occasion to say, that Teachers will find the "Ladies' and Gentleman's Lexicons" admirably adapted to take the place, with advantage to their pupils, of the different works recently put into their hands under the name of Expositors, &c. JF3~ The above work has been introduced as a class-book into many of our academies and schools, with great approbation. MURRAY'S EXERCISES AND KEY, ADAPTED TO HIS GRAMMAR. . 39 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. THE BEAUTIES OF HISTORY; OR, EXAMPLES OF THE OPPOSITE EFFECTS OF VIRTUE AND VICE. FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. I vol. 12mo., with Plates. "There are here collected, within a narrow compass, the most striking examples of individual virtue and vice which are spread forth on the pages of history, or are recorded in personal biography. The noblest precepts are recommended for the guidance of youth, and in the most impressive manner is he taught to conquer the degrading impulses which lower the standard of the human character." CONVERSATIONS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; IN WHICH THE ELEMENTS OF THAT SCIENCE ARE FAMILIARLY EXPLAINED. ILLUSTRATED WITH PLATES. By the Author of " Conversations on Chemistry," &c. With considerable Additions, Corrections, and Improvements in the body of the work, Appropriate Questions, and a Glossary. BY DR, THOMAS P. JONES, Prof, of Mechanics in the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania. CONVERSATIONS ON CHEMISTRY; IN WHICH THE ELEMENTS OF THAT SCIENCE ARE FAMILIARLY EX- PLAINED, AND ILLUSTRATED BY EXPERIMENTS AND ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD, From the last London Edition; in which all the late Discoveries and Im- provements are brought up to the present time. BY DR. THOMAS P. JONES, Professor of Mechanics in the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsyl- vania, &c. ANSLEY'S ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE: OR, AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF RHETORIC AND BELLES-LETTRES. BY E. A. ANSLEY, A. M. Half cloth; 1 vol. 12mo. 40 LLPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. CLEVELAND'S GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION. A COMPENDIUM OF GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES, BY CHARLES D. CLEVELAND. A NEW EDITION, REVISED. One volume, 12mo. RUSCHENBERGER'S FIRST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY, FOB SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES. 1. ELEMENTS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, for Beginners; 45 outs. 2. ELEMENTS OF MAMMALOGY, THE NATURAL HIS- TORY OF QUADRUPEDS, for Beginners; 75 cuts. 3. ELEMENTS OF ORNITHOLOGY, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS, for Beginners; 81 cuts. 4. ELEMENTS OF HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLO- GY, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF REPTILES AND FISHES, for Beginners; 66 cuts. 5. ELEMENTS OF CONCHOLOGY, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SHELLS AND MOLLUSCA, for Beginners; 119 cuts. 6. ELEMENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS, for Beginners; 91 cuts. 7. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLANTS, for Beginners; 194 cuts. 8. ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY, THE NATURAL HIS- TORY OF THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE, for Beginners; with 300 cuts. ALSO, THE WHOLE SERIES, COMPLETE; Bound in 2 vols., half Turkey morocco. WITH A NEW GLOSSARY. * * The above series is considered one of the most valuable contributions to the cause of Education which has ever been published in this country, and should be found in the library of every farmer and intelligent man, and particularly in all our School Libraries. 41 LIPPINCOTT, ORAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. Ruschcnbcrger's Lexicon of Natural History. A LEXICON OF TERMS USED IN NATURAL HISTORY. PREPARED FOB. SCHOOLS, COLLEOES, AND FAMILIES, BY W. S. W. RUSCIIENBERGER, M. I>. One volume, 12mo; "Dr. Ruschenberger performed a valuable service to science, as well as to popular education, when he prepared his series of popular manuals on Natural History. He has now added to the value of his previous works by the preparation of this lexicon of scientific terms, which puts into the hand of the student the key to them all. These works, which cannot be too well known among Teachers and School Directors, are, 1. Anatomy and Physi- ology ; 2. Mammalogy ; 3. Ornithology ; 4. Herpetology and Ichthyology ; 5. Conchology; 6. Entomology; 7. Botany; 8. Geology. Each of these subjects is treated of, in an elementary way, in a small duodecimo volume, about the size of an ordinary English Grammar, and suited for instruction in common schools and academies. The Lexicon now just issued is a rolume of about the same size as the others, and contains a popular expla- nation of the technical terms used in the others. It is at once a key to the whole series, and also a valuable manual to the general reader; giving, in a small compass, all the most important items in the nomenclature of Natural History." GRIMSHAWS POPULAR HISTORIES, FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILY LIBRARIES. GRIMSHAW'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, RECENTLY BROUGHT UP BY THE AUTHOR TO THE PRESENT TIME. ALSO, QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE ABOVE HISTORY; AND A KEY, ADAPTED TO THH QUESTIONS, FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND FAMILIES. 42 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. GRIMSHAW'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. RECENTLY BROUGHT UP BY THE AUTHOR TO THE PRESENT TIME. ALSO, QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE ABOVE HISTORY; AND A KEY, ADAPTED TO THE QUESTIONS, FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND FAMILIES. GRIMSHAW'S IMPROVED EDITION OF GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF GREECE. WITH A VOCABULARY OF THE PROPER NAMES Contained in the work; and the Prosodial Accents, ia conformity with the pronunciation of Lempriere. ALSO, QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE ABOVE HISTORY; AND A K EY, ADAPTED TO THE QUESTIONS, FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND FAMILIES. GRIMSHAW'S IMPROVED EDITION OF GOLDSMITH'S HISTORY OF ROME, REVISED AND CORRECTED: AND A VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES Appended, with Prosodial Marks to assist in their Pronunciation. Also, QUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE ABOVE HISTORY; And a KEY, adapted to the Questions, for the use of teachers and families. LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. GRIMSHAW'S HISTORY OF FRANCE, WITH KEY AND QUESTIONS. GRIMSHAW'S HISTORY AND LIFE OF NAPOLEON. In one volume, 12mo. GRIMSHAW'S SOUTH AMERICA. THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA, FROM THE DISCOVERY OF.THE NEW WORLD BY COLUMBUS, TO TnE CONQUEST OF PERU BY PIZAURO. Interspersed with Amusing Anecdotes, and containing a Minute Descrip- tion of the Manners and Customs, Dress, Ornaments and Mode of Warfare, of the Indians. BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW. One volume, 12mo. The Editor of the North American Review, speaking of these Histories, observes:— " Among the Elementary Books of American History, we do not remem- ber to have seen any one more deserving approbation than Mr. Grimshaw's History of the United States. It is a small volume, and a great deal of matter is brought into a narrow space j but the author has succeeded so well in the construction of his periods, and the arrangement of his mate- rials, that perspicuity is rarely sacrificed to brevity. " The chain of narrative is skilfully preserved; and the author's reflections are frequently such as to make the facts more impressive, and lead the youthful mind to observe causes and consequences which might otherwise have been overlooked. As a school-book, it may justly be recommended. "What has been said of this volume, will apply generally to his other historical works. They are each nearly of the same size as the one just no- ticed, and designed for the same object; that is, the use of classes in schools. " The History of England is an original composition; but the Grecian and Roman Histories are Goldsmith's, improved by Grimshaw, in which he has corrected the typographical errors with which the later editions of Gold- LIPPINCOTT, QRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. smith's Abridgements so much abound ; and removed any grossness in lan- guage, which, in some few instances, render these valuable compends less useful in the schools to which youth of both sexes resort. He has also added a Vocabulary of Proper Names, accentuated, in order to show their right pronunciation, which is a valuable appendage to the History. "All these books are accompanied with very full and well-digested Tables of Questions, for the benefit of pupils, and also with Keys to the same, for the convenience of Teachers." AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW. Third Edition; 1 vol. 12mo. MOODEY'S BOOK-KEEPING. A PRACTICAL PLAN OF BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. BIGLAND'S NATURAL HISTORY Of Animals, Birds, Fishes, Reptiles, and Insects. Illustrated with Numerous and Beautiful Engravings. BY JOHN BIGLAND. Complete in one volume, 12mo. With QUESTIONS. This work is particularly adapted for the use of Schools and Families, forming the most elegantly written and complete work on the subject of Natural History ever published, and is worthy of the special attention of the teachers of all our schools and academies. KUNST'S GERMAN AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY. AN AMERICAN DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH AND GERMAN LANGUAGES; CONTAINING ALL THE WORDS IN GENERAL JSK. BY P. T. KUNST. J........., 12mo. LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. VIRGIL DELPHINI, WITH ENGLISH NOTES AND KEY. One volume, 8vo. HORACE DELPHINI, WITH ENGLISH NOTES AND KEY. One volume, 8vo. HUTCHINSON'S XENOPHON. One volume, 8vo. Neuman and Baretti's Spanish and English Dictionary. A POCKET DICTIONARY OF THE SPANISH AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES: COMPILED FROM THE LAST IMPROVED EDITIONS OF NEUMAN AND BARETTI. In Two Parts: SPANISH-ENGLISH, and ENGLISH-SPANISH. One volume, 12mo. DIAMOND POCKET DICTIONARY OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE: CAREFULLY REVISED, AND THE Pronunciation of all the Difficult Words added. BY J. ROWBOTHAM. One volume, 18mo. 46 LIPPINCOTT, GIIAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. BALDWIN'S PRONOUNCING GAZETTEER. K Universal Pronouncing Gazetteer ; containing topographical, statistical, and other information, of all the more important places in the known world, from the most recent and authentic sources. By THOMAS BALDWIN, assisted by several other gentlemen. To which is added an Appendix, containing more than ten thousand additional names, chiefly of the small towns and villages, &c, of the United States and of Mexico. Eighth edition, with A SUPPLEMENT, giving the pronounciation of near two thousand names, besides those pronounced in the original work: forming in itself a complete Vocabulary of Geographical Pronunciation. From Professor Anthon. " The subscriber has examined Baldwin's ' Universal Pronouncing Gazet- ,eer' with considerable care, having consulted it almost daily for at least a month past, and takes great pleasure in recommending it as a very superior work." CHAS. ANTHON. From G. C. Verplanck. " Baldwin's Pronouncing Gazetteer—A work of great accuracy, learning, and taste." Note to " Antony and Cleopatra," Harpers' Illustrated Shakspeare. Extract of a Letter from Professor Lieber, Editor of the Encyclopedia Americana. " A Pronouncing Gazetteer is not only a necessary work in the literature of every nation, but it is particularly wanted in the present age." * * * "It seems to me the teachers of whatever schools can scarcely do without naving this book of reference near them." From the Hon. Jorm Pickering. " This work cannot fail to be highly useful, not only to instructors and pupils, but also to general readers." From the Princeton Review for October 1845. "We have no hesitation in pronouncing this one of the most scholarlike productions of our native press. The authors show not on.y a familiar know- ledge of the modern languages, but a highly respectable acquaintance with general philology." * * * " We look upon this work as full of entertain- ment and instruction to all who take an interest in orthoepy." From Professor Hart, Principal of Philadelphia High School. " This is a book that has been very much needed, both in families and in schools. Its general introduction would greatly facilitate the study of geogra- phy, by preventing the present confusion in regard to the pronunciation of foreign names. * It ought to be in the hands of every teacher, and of all pupils who can afford it.' " From the Christian Examiner (Boston) for January 1846. " This is a good book in two ways It was much wanted, and it is exceed- ingly well done." From the North American REViEw/or January 1846. " The practical value of a work of this sort depends entirely on the fulnssi and accuracy with which it is executed; and in these respects we can commend this volume in the strongest terms." From DR. A. T. W. Wright, Principal of the Philadelphia Normal School. " Baldwin's Pronouncing Gazetteer was adopted as a text-book at the organization of the Normal School, and has since been used as such, every pupil being furnished with a copy. Besides its use as a geographical work, it is made the standard of orthoepy and orthography in this department of instruction." The Universal Pronouncing Gazetteer has been adopted as a book of reference for teacn- ers by the Public Schools of Philadelpliia, New York, Detroit, Cincinnati, and several otfcM of our DrinciDal cities. . _ RTTSCHENBERGERJB SERIES, FIRST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTOR FOR SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES. 1. ELEMENTS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. *'. . 2. ELEMENTS OF . .-•<■-. MAMMALOGY, :si The Natural Hist#*ty,of Quadrnpedj. . .' & 3. ELjeMENTSspF 0ENfTHO.LV&;Y;"'; ^ j The Natural History of Birds. • " . ! 4. ELEMENTS OF < '"•• ' r " HERPETOLOGY ANU ICHTfiYOLQG The Natural History of Reptiles and Fishes. 5. ELEMENTS O? 0 0 LC H (T ll# G Y ;■ The Jfatur.il History of 8helr| and M(ltlusca7i bt ELF'^fTS OFr ENT^lfOLOCfY, The Natural* History of Insects. 7. EtEMENTSiOF " Baa: any, The Natural H'isVory of Plants, G. ELEMENTS OF Gl^LOGY, The Natural lli^rfry^f the Earth's Structure. The -above valuable Series of Elementary School JBo&ki sale by Booksellers and Country Merchants generally thro k United States. "'' . k t #! $ :f- **rr: