SYLLABUS 
OF 
Tires in ktaj and Plijsielng, 
FOR 
STUDENTS 
OF THE 
Static, JSto7‘itlclL cltlcL rFrcz.tn.tjxg School, 
AT 
CORTLAND, N Y. 
T. B. STOWELL, A.M. 
SYRACUSE, N. Y. 
DAVIS, BARDEEN & CO., PUBLISHERS. 
1877. SYLLABUS 
OF 
.wire in Anatoif and Plijsii)lo«,j, 
FOR 
STUDENTS 
OF THE 
State JVomriaZ cltlcL Training School, 
AT 
CORTLAND, N. Y. 
u 
T. B. STOWELL, A.M. 
SYRACUSE, N. Y. 
DAVIS, BARDEEN & CO., PUBLISHERS. 
1877- 
Copyright secured, 1877. I IDE X. 
Page. 
Page- 
Absorption 20 
Adjustment, Focal 76 
Air, Expired.. 38 
Inspired 38 
Alcohol 24 
Alimentary Canal 14 
Development of. 26 
Animal Heat . . 40 
Arteries 28 
Beverages 24 
Bile 18 
Blood 34 
Bones ... 
Development of. 8 
Flat 4 
Irregular... 6 
Long 4 
Short 4 
Structure 6 
Brain 52 
Development of, 58 
Capillaries 3° 
Cartilage 10 
Cerebrum 54 
Cerebellum, ...... 58 
Circulation 26 
Foetal 34 
Forces of 32 
Rapidity of. 3° 
Coffee 24 
Color 78 
Corpora Striata 54 
Corpora Quadrigemina 56 
Cranial Nerves 60 
Digestion 14 
Ear ' 70 
Eye .72 
Appendages 72 
Globe 74 
Food-stuffs 22 
Quality of. 22 
Quantity of 22 
Focal Adjustment. . 76 
Ganglion . . 44 
Gastric Juice 16 
Hair 42 
Hearing 7° 
Pleart 26 
Development of 32 
Impairment, Mental 78 
Intestinal Juice x 8 
Involuntary Muscle 10 
Inspired Air 38 
Liver 18 
Lungs. 36 
Meals 28 
Medulla Oblongata 58 
Mental Impairment.. 78 
Muscle 10 
Involuntary 10 
Plain 10 
Striated 12 
Voluntary 12 
Nails 42 
Narcotics . 24 
Nerve Cell 44 
Nerve Fibre 46 
Gray 46 
White 46 
Nerves, , 
Abduceus 64 
Auditory 62 
Common Sensation 64 
Cranial ' 60 
Facial 64 
Glosso-pharyngeal 66 
Hypo-glossal 64 
Mixed 66 
Motion 62 
Oculo-Motorius 62' 
Olfactory 62 
Optic 62 
Patheticus 64 
Pneumo-gastric 66 
Special Sense 62 
Spinal Accessory .. .1 .. 66 
Spinal Nerves 46 
Sympathetic 52 
Trigemini 64 
Neurotics 24 
Opium 24 
Optic Thalami 54 
Pancreatic Juice 16 
Periosteum 8 
Pons Varolii 56 
Reflex Action 50 
Respiration . . 36 
Saliva 14 
Sebaceous Glands 42 
Sedatives 24 
Sight 72 
Skeleton 4 
Skin .... 42 
f Smell 68 
Spinal Cord 48 
Spinal Nerves 46 
Sudoriparous Glands 42 
Sympathetic Nerves 52 
Sweat Glands 42 
Taste 68 
Tea 24 
Teeth 8 
Tobacco 24 
Tongue 68 
Touch 66 
Tuber Annulare 56 
Veins 30 
Ventilation 40 
Vertebra 6 
Villi 20 
Vision 76 
Water 24 INTRODUCTION. 
This Syllabus has been prepared with direct reference to aiding my 
classes in Anatomy and Physiology. 
It is hoped that greater efficiency as well as economy of time may be 
secured by giving directness to inquiry, and by calling special attention to 
items of chief importance. 
The Syllabus is to be used in connection with demonstrations in Anat- 
omy, charts, diagrams, stereopticon views, and the microscope. It is not a sub- 
stitute for works of reference, text books, or notes ; it is simply an aid : hence, 
where little would be gained other than orthography, terms have been omitted, 
e.g., no mention is made of the names of muscles, which are studied in class 
with the aid of manakin and alcoholic preparations; the names of most ot 
the bones are likewise omitted, all of which are studied from the skeleton. 
T. B. S. 
Cortland, N. Y., July, 1877. SYLLABUS. 
I. SKELETON. 
Items to be noted concerning each bone. 
j. Name. 2. Location. 3. General Shape. 4. Articulations. 5. Pro- 
cesses. 
Class I. 
Order for Study. 
" Femur. 
'Fibia. 
Humerus. 
Radius. 
Ulna. 
Metacarpal. 
Phalanges. 
vClavicle. 
Posterior. 
Fibula. 
Metatarsal. 
. 
Anterior, 
Phalanges. 
Long Bones. 
Structure—Shaft, 
Compact tissue, spongy tissue, medullary canal. 
Expanded extremities—Serial homologies—System of levers. 
Class 11. 
Tarsal bones, distal row—Cuneiform, outer, middle, inner, Cuboid 
Carpal bones, distal row—Trapezium, Trapezoid, Magnum, Unciform. 
Tarsal bones, proximal row—Astragalus, Scaphoid, Calcis (calcaneum). 
Carpal bones, proximal row—Scaphoid, Semi-lunar, Cuneiform, Pisiform 
(sesamoid). 
Short Bones. 
Structure. 
Compact tissue thin, chiefly spongy. 
Serial homologies—Jnterarticulations—Limited motion. 
Elat Bones. 
Class 111. 
Structure. 
Two surfaces of compact tissue, intermediate cancellous, thickness slight. Pro- 
tection, and surface for muscular attachment. 6 
Irregular Bones. 
Class IV 
Structure 
Vertebra. 
Externally compact tissue, internally cancellous, 
i. Centrum—Surfaces. 
Anterior (upper) and posterior (lower) concave, ventral (front) transversely con- 
vex, longitudinally concave, dorsal (back) arch, etc. 
Character of centrum in the several regions. 
Cervical, in atlas wanting)?), in axis peculiar odontoid process. Is it centrum 
of atlas? its distinctive mode of ossification (in man), two separate lateral 
pieces—dorsal and lumbar, relative length and breadth—ankylosis of sacral 
and caudal. 
Intervertebral cartilage, 
(Wanting between atlas and axis.) 
2. Arch—Pedicles and lamina—Intervertebral foramina for spinal nerves 
—Relative length and breadth in cervical, dorsal and lumbar regions— 
Groove in i° cervical lamina for vertebral artery. 
3. Processes—(a.) Spinous. 
In cervical region, bifid, diminutive in I°, long and grooved in 3°, general in- 
crease in length to 7°—in dorsal region, directed obliquely backward—in 
lumbar region, short, broad, directed nearly at right angles with longitudi- 
nal axis. 
(b.) Articular—at union of pedicle and lamina—anterior and posterior 
vertebrae distinguished by direction of faces of “zygapophyses.” 
(c.) Transverse—at junction of articular process and pedicle—characteris- 
tic position and direction in the three regions. 
In cervical, ventral to articular—perforations for vertebral artery—in dorsal, 
dorsally disposed—in lumbar, ventral to (in front of) articular, direction 
dorsal and transverse. 
Development of Vertebra. 
Primitive dorsal groove in germinal membrane from ‘middle blastoderm 
cells’ converted into canal by union of edges—ln floor of canal “noto- 
chord” developed—Appearance of dark cellular masses, primordial ver- 
tebrae-—Disappearance of lines of demarcation in masses—Intermedi- 
ate limits of permanent vertebrae—Vertebra formed from adjacent parts 
of two primordial masses. 
Essentially three pieces to each vertebra. 
From one develops greater part of centrum, from other two the arch and pro- 
cesses. 
Tissues. 
11. BONE STRUCTURE. 
1. Compact. 
Exterior of bones, cells small, earthy matter abundant, 
3, Cancellous, 
Interior of hones, cells large, earthy matter less, 8 
Chemical elements. 
i. Inorganic. 
Earthy matter gives hardness and solidity. 
2. Organic. 
Animal matter gives toughness and elasticity. 
Microscopic structure. 
x. Haversian canals. 
In compact osseous tissue—Size, —2!nnyin., average ffi;, in.—Arrangement, in 
long axis of long bones—Lining membrane, continuous with periosteum— 
Office, contain vessels, communication between periosteum and medullary 
canal. 
2. Lamellae. 
Concentric rings around canals—successive layers of bone. 
3. Lacunae. 
Dark spots in and between lamellae—connected by canaliculi—occupied by nu- 
cleated cells. 
Blood Vessels. 
Enter bones, 
Near articular surface (usually). 
Emerge, 
By large veins which accompany the arteries—by small veins at the extremi- 
ties—by small veins from vessels in compact tissue. 
Periosteum. 
Thick in young bones—Thin in old bones —Protection to vessels before distribu- 
tion to bone. 
Mode of development. 
Intra-cartilaginous—Intra-membranous 
Growth. 
Longitudinal, 
In cartilage at either extremity. 
Circumferential, 
Deposition of material under periosteum. 
111. TEETH. 
Temporary set. 
Number—General character of. 
Permanent set. 
1. Crown. 
Distinctive form in the several classes of teeth—covering enamel. 
2. Neck. 
Constricted portion between crown and fang—attachment to gum. 
3. Fang. 
Implanted in alveoli—lining periosteum of alveolar depression reflected upon 
fang—pressure upon crown distributed equally by taper of fang—blood 
vessels and nerves enter through apex. 10 
Structure. 
i. Central pulp cavity. 
Dental pulp, vascularity, sensitiveness, vessels, nerves. 
2. Solid part—(a.) Enamel. 
On exposed crown only, thickest on grinding surface—microscopic prisms, 
almost wholly mineral, arrangement nearly perpendicular to surface, in 
waving lines—calcareous “cuticle of enamel” on surface. 
(b.) Dentine. 
Principal part—fine tubules in matrix, open internally into pulp, externally ra- 
diate in curves and undulations, near periphery inosculate in loops, general 
direction nearly at right-angles to surface—matrix, translucent, penetrated 
by fine branches of tubules. 
(c.) Cement. 
Modified bone cells. 
Development and Growth. 
IV. CARTILAGE. 
Temporary. 
Its office—Structure. 
Fibres, corpuscles 2-3 times size of blood corpuscles, granular uniting matter, 
fibrous perichondrium-future periosteum. 
Arrangement and distribution of vessels during ossification. 
Permanent. 
Structure. 
Nucleated cells, their arrangement in groups—cartilage capsule—matrix-inter- 
cellular substance “ Cartilagine ”—no nerves. 
Classes, i. Fibro-cartilage, (a.) Articular. 
In joints—general shape—attached surface rough—free surface smooth—no 
blood vessels. 
(b.) Connecting. 
E. g. between vertebrae, 
(c.) Circumferential. 
E. g. around glenoid cavity—deepens socket, 
(d.) Sesamoid. 
Lining grooves. 
2. Costal, 
Of ribs. 
3. Reticular, 
E. g. ear, nose, etc.—structure—office. 
V. MUSCLES. 
Items concerning each muscle. 
1. Name. 2. Origin. 3. Insertion. 4. Action. 
Classes. 
I. Involuntary or Plain. 
Color pale—fibres prismatic—cells elongated, contractile, nucleated—oblong 
corpuscles—-no sarcolemma. 12 
11. Voluntary or Striated, i. Sheath, Perimysium 
Yellow elastic fibre in investing portion, white fibre in penetrating portion. 
2. Fibre, (a.) Arrangement. 
In fasciculi—prismatic in figure—composed of threads—fibrillae—fasciculi do 
not interlace in voluntary muscle. 
Fibres run nearly parallel, when depth is slight. 
Fibres diverge, when depth is considerable, e.g. bladder of frog, 
(b.) Length. 
Mean length, ,084—.089 mm., .008 in. 
(c.) Breadth, 
Mean breadth, .004—,007 mm., .0001—.0003 in. 
(d.) Nucleus. 
Form, single (generally),or rod-shaped—structure, homogeneous except gran - 
ules, nucleoli. 
(e.) Ultimate structure of fibre,-fibrillae. 
(1) Sheath-sarcolemma or myolemma. 
(2) Sarcous elements, not hollow—length T=,)lir(T in.—arroirn he—alternate 
light and dark bands of equal breadth—shade due to focal adjustment— 
line of dark dots intermediate—connection of elements by ‘‘connecting 
material”—ends of fibrillae introduced between two adjoining fibres 
near their dilated regions—sections of fibrillae transverse, show rings 
and sections of nuclei, longitudinal, show fibres and elongated nuclei. 
(f.) Vessels. 
Capillaries do not penetrate fibres— nutriment by imbibition—lymphatics 
few, in largest muscles loops from plexuses between fibres. 
(g.) Nerves. 
Contain “dark edged tubules”—known by nuclear enlargement-ganglia (?) 
Distribution. 
Smooth muscular fibre through body, in posterior wall of trachea and in 
the bronchi, in lung sacs of infants, in frogs, in salamander, etc.—Stri- 
ated fibre to various regions for motion. 
Striae not limited to Voluntary Muscle. 
Found in heart, pharynx, oesophagus (upper part), internal ear, urethra. 
Mode of growth. Increase in bulk of fibre, not in number. 
Properties of Voluntary Muscle. 
i. Irritability 
By virtue of which, contraction when stimulated. 
2. Tonicity. 
By virtue of which, constant tendency to contract. 
3. Elasticity. 
May be stretched, and will return to original shape. 
4. Extensibility. 
Will stretch when weighted—limited. 
Nature of contraction. 
In waves—tetanic—rapid and sudden, reaching maximum instantly—Re- 
laxation is slow. 14 
VI. DIGESTION. 
Food Stuffs. 
Group I. Nitrogenized group, Proteids. 
E. g. albumen, (white of eggs), gluten, (flour), fibrin (of blood), syntonin, (lean 
meat), casein, (cheese), etc. 
Group 11. Carbo-Hydrates, Amyloids. 
E. g. starch, sugar, gum, dextrine, etc. 
Group 111. Hydro-Carbons. 
E. g. fats, oils. 
Group IV. Minerals. 
E. g. salts, water, oxygen. (?) 
General Anatomy of Alimentary Canal and Accessories. 
Mouth—Pharynx—Oesophagus—Stomach, cardia, pylorus—lntestines, du- 
odenum, jejunum, (valvulae conniventes), Ileum, caecum, (ileo-caecal 
valve, appendix vermiformis), Colon, (ascending, transverse, descending), 
Sigmoid flexure, rectum. 
x. Position, 2. Length, 3. Attachment, 4. Coats, 5. Vessels, 6. Nerves, of 
each portion. * 
Omentum and its reflections—Mesentery and its attachment. Teeth, cf. p. 
Tongue, cf. Taste, p. 
Salivary Glands. 
Parotid, Submaxillary, Sublingual, Muciparous—Location, excretory duct 
and capillaries of each gland—Grape-like clusters of lobules somewhat 
flattened—Rounded extremities of salivary tube—Lining of “ Glandular 
epithelium ”—Characteristic nucleated cells of ducts and their probable 
function of secretion. 
Saliva mingled with food during mastication,-Insalivation. 
Regulative mechanism of secretion due to reflex action. 
Demonstrated in submaxillary gland, by analogy in other glands. 
Unilateral secretion in man, in herbivora, etc. 
Composition of Saliva. 
Water, epithelium, granular nucleated cells, granular matter, oil globules 
sulphocyanogen—The least concentrated digestive fluid—Ptyalin, fer- 
ment. 
Action of Saliva. 
Hydrated starch converted into glucose, and into sugar—Sugar converted 
into lactic acid—Lactic acid acts upon Group 1., q. v.—Raw starch un- 16 
changed—Relation of saliva to taste, to deglutition—Mechanical office of 
saliva—Its quantity—Action of saliva arrested by gastric juice—Waste 
of saliva by expectoration. 
Relative viscidity of Secretions. 
Parotid least viscid—Submaxillary more—Sublingual still more—Mucipa- 
rous most viscid. 
Reaction of Saliva Alkaline. 
How the glands are excited to activity. 
By sieht of food—By odor of food—Subjectively—Parotid by movement 
of jaw—Submaxillary by sense of taste. 
Gastric Juice. 
Glands—Mucous membrane of stomach, thicker near pylorus, color red at 
cardiac and middle regions, paler at pyloric—Glandular follicles—Loop 
of capillary—Simple follicle has cylindrical epithelium, compound has 
glandular—Peculiar spheroidal cells of middle area, “Pepsin cells”—Fol- 
licles—“ Peptic glands,” not found in pyloric portion—Pepsin, “Unor- 
ganized ferment,” antiseptic, not diminished by action, necessity of 
presence of free acid, non-accumulation of—Influence of temperature— 
Mode of secretion, cf. below. 
Action of Gastric Juice. 
Pepsin dissolves Group I.—Stages, i.° Swelling due to acid; 2° Soluble 
“albuminose 3.0 Diffusible stage. 
Reaction of Gastric Juice Acid. 
Peptic digestion essentially acid. 
Lactic acid, hydric chloride. 
Empty Stomach has neutral reaction. 
Effect of presence of Food in Stomach. 
1. Increased vascularity, 2. Slight elevation of temperature, 3. Exuda- 
tion of acid secretion, 4. Peristaltic movement. 
Influence of nervous condition over gastric secretion. 
Pancreatic Juice. 
Gland, position, size, lobulated structure, excretory duct—Composition— 
Secretion intermittent. 
Action of Pancreatic Juice. 
Essentially an alkaline digestion. 
i.° Transforms starch into sugar, even when raw, Group 11. 
2.0 Emulsifies fats, Group 111. 
3.0 Dissolves coagulated albuminous matter, Groujr I. 18 
How the secretion is effected 
Demonstrated in pancreas, .'. a type. 
1. Outer zone of cell formed at expense of blood. 
2. Inner granular zone at expense of outer. 
3. Secretion at expense of inner zone. 
Two Stages in secretion. 
i.° Manufacture of zymogen. 
2.0 Conversion of zymogen into ferment. 
Intestinal Juice. 
Glands, Brunner’s, limited to duodenum, lobulated structure, lined with 
glandular epithelium—Follicles of Lieberkiihn, whole length of small 
intestine, lined with cylindrical epithelium. 
Action of Intestinal Juice. 
i.° Converts hydrated starch into sugar. 
2.0 Emulsifies fats. 
Reaction Alkaline. 
Secretions of Large Intestime 
Excretine—Stercorine, transformed cholesterine 
Liver. 
Position—Lobes—Attachment—Arteries—Veins—Special character. 
i.° Two sources of blood supply—Hepatic artery—Portal vein, no 
2.0 Large size. 
valves. 
3.0 Texture—Glandular cells and capillaries—Hepatic lobules—Inter- 
lobular veins—Minute vessels into substance of lobules, Intralobu- 
lar veins—Biliary ducts lined with pavement epithelium—Plexus of 
biliary, canaliculi—Capillary bile-ducts smaller than capillary blood- 
vessels and situated at maximum distance from blood-vessels. 
4.0 Liver, Duct of Spleen—Filter for removal of discs disintegrated in 
Spleen. 
Bile, special character of. 
1. No albuminous ingredient. 
2. Is dichroic. 
3. Is fluorescent, due to biliary salts, 
4. Has characteristic spectrum. 
5. Color varies—bilirubine oxidized, biliverdine. 
6. Secretion constant, most abundant after digestion and absorption 
have commenced, 20 
7. Not found in color. 
8. Not an excrementitious fluid. 
9. Re-absorbed in intestine. 
10. Bile and gastric juice not incompatible. 
11. Bile-pigment, source of faecal pigment. 
Action of Bile. 
1. Slight emulsifying power. 
2. Assists osmosis of fats. 
3. Dissolves hydrated starch. 
4. Group 11. q. v. converted into glycogen, reserve material, which is 
transformed into sugar. 
Glycogen transformed into glucose enters hepatic vein—Formation of 
glucose constant—Does not accumulate, is absorbed—If glucose is 
excessive, sugar is eliminated in urine, Diabetes. 
How secretion of Bile is effected. 
Due to metabolic activity of protoplasm of hepatic cells. 
Digestion completed in Lungs. 
Fattv matter is transformed in lungs, q. v 
Absorption. 
1 Villi. A. Distribution from pylorus to ileo-caecal valve. 
Bathed in digested fluid. 
B. Form, in duodenum flattened, leaf-like, otherwise cylindrical. 
C. Structure, (1) Epithelial layer, (2) Capillaries, origin of mesenteric 
vein, (3) Central lymphatic-lacteal vessel, its origin is the longitudi- 
nal space, it is provided with an elastic coat. 
Relation of lymphatics and lacteals—Lymph=blood-red corpuscles—Chyle 
=lymph + neutral fat. 
D. Action, food is absorbed, (1) through epithelium, (2) to vessels, 
capillary plexus most superficial, 
2. “Peyers patches ”—Lymphatic glands, “afferent” and “efferent” vessels. 
In birds, in mammals, not in fishes, not in reptiles. 
“Lymph globules”—Lymphatic circulation, direction of, how effected, 
function—Enlargement of lymphatic glands. 
Disposition of absorbed food. 
Digested food enters circulation via Portal System and via Thoracic Duct 
—Contraction of villus forces contents into veins and into lymphatic 
plexus, through mesenteric glands to receptaculum chyli—Regurgita- 
tion prevented by valves. 22 
Absorption accelerated by peristaltic movement. 
General System of Absorbents. 
From periphery by plexuses toward centre—Ultimate discharge of Tho- 
racic Duct and by the Right Lymphatic Duct—Transudation in ca- 
pillaries—Dialysis—Osmosis—Rapidity of absorption—Hypodermic 
injections—Valves in larger lymphatics, wanting in reticulated plexus- 
es—Serous cavities Lymphatic lacunae. 
VII. SUGGESTIONS REGARDING FOOD-STUFFS. 
I. duality of food. 
Should regard waste. 
“ growth. 
“ kind of energy demanded—muscle-energy, nerve-energy. 
“ “ production of heat. 
“ condition of system. 
Infected food not suitable for use. 
Argument for mixed diet. 
Excreta of adult = 4000 grs. Carbon to 300 grs. Nitrogen, or 13 to 1. 
Diet of whites of eggs = 3)4 parts C. to 1 part N. 
7547 grs. albumen yield 4000 grs. Carbon. 
“ “ “ “ 1133 grs. Nitrogen—only 300 grs. needed. 
1 lb. lean meat yields 1000 grs. C.—deficit, 3000 grs. 
“ “ “ “ 300 o-re IST 
300 grs, N. 
4 lb. fat “ “ Carlton to supply deficit. 
Value of diet of milk, eggs, oat-meal, etc. 
Parasites are destroyed by thorough cooking. 
Quality of food-stuffs greatly effected by preparation. 
11. Quantity of food. 
Should regard demand, present and future. 
Students (generally) do not eat enough. 
Healthy appetite should be satisfied. 
111. Meals. 
Be regular at meals. Do not go hungry. 
Be cheerful at meals. Do not retire hungry. 
Be hearty at meals. 24 
VIII. BEVERAGES AND NEUROTICS. 
Importance of water in animal economy. 
Thirst, normal, abnormal—Ship-wrecked sailors. 
Temperature of beverages. 
Impurities in water. 
Spring—Mineral—Rain. 
Morbid effects of impure water. 
Tea and Coffee. 
Conclusions of Dr. Bbcker, (Researches on the Action of Tea) 
Effect upon nervous system, circulation, digestion, (Huxley) 
Prevention of waste, (Draper). 
Healthful and injurious effects, (Parkes). 
Alcohol as p, stimulant. 
Per cent of Alcohol in drinks, (Brande). 
Small beer 1.2 
Porter 5.0 
Cider 5.10 
Rhenish 9.0 
Hock ~ 9.9 
Elderwine 10.0 
Tokay 10.0 
Orange wine 11.2 
Gooseberry wine 12.0 
Champagne 12.5 
Burgundy 14.5 
Malmsey Madeira 16.4 
Claret 12.-17.5 
Cape Madeira 20.5 
Sherry 19.2 
Madeira 22.2-24.2 
Port 23 5 
Brandy 53.0 
Rum 53.0 
Scotch Whiskey ....... 54.0 
Irish Whiskey 54-° 
Physiological objections to a habitual use in even small quantities. Pois- 
onous character—Tendency to produce morbid conditions—Prevalence 
of chronic diseases among those addicted to use of strong drinks—In- 
creased liability to contagious diseases—Diminished endurance for 
prolonged labor. 
Tobacco as a Sedative. 
Influence upon vocal organs, upon circulation (Decaisne)—Effects upon 
stomach, heart, brain, mucous membrane of mouth, bronchial surface 
of lungs, etc. (Richardson). 
Opium as a Narcotic. 
Exaltation—Subsequent depression, (De Quincey) 
Interchangeable nature of stimulants, sedatives and narcotics. 26 
IX. DEVELOPMENT OF ALIMENTARY CANAL. 
A. Groove open toward yolk-cavity of ovum. 
Internal layer in which groove is formed = walls of vitelline sac. 
B. Groove closed at either extremity, open in middle. 
Alimentary canal = straight cylinder, closed at ends, in front of verte- 
bral column—Extremities of canal attached to vertebral column di- 
rectly, middle region of canal attached by membrane = mesentery 
—Canal extends from anus to brain. 
C. Groove becomes vitelline duct, which is subsequently obliterated—Vi- 
telline sac becomes umbilical vescicle—Umbilical vescicle joined to 
embryo by pedicle, which is finally atrophied. 
D. Increased length of alimentary canal forms loop in middle of body. 
Middle region of loop dilates = Stomach-longitudinally disposed— 
Loop connected with yolk sac by vitelline duct—Anterior extremity 
of duct = pharynx and oesophagus—Mouth = invagination of outer 
surface of embryo and is at first separated from pharynx by membrane 
—Anus = invagination of outer surface in similar manner. 
E. Right border of stomach enlarged first—Left border receives greater 
dilation. 
First position of stomach median, then oblique, finally transverse, Pylor- 
us seen at 3° month. 
F. Protrusion of caecum below apex of loop, cf. 40 stage. 
G. Jejunum, at first in umbilical cord, retires into abdomen after 
xo° week. 
H. Colon primarily of less calibre than small intestine. 
First appearance entirely at left of small intestine, at 10° week has 
crossed to right side adjoining liver. 
I. Caecum develops back (down) into right iliac region—Completed at 
40 or 50 month. 
Caecum primarily uniform—Anterior portion grows, posterior region per- 
sists = appendix vermiformis. 
J. Ileo-caecal valve appears at 30 month. 
No appendix at this time. 
K. Villous processes primarily throughout canal—Persist only in middle 
region = “Conniventes.” 
X. CIRCULATION. 
I. Heart. 
Position. Relation. Shape. Size. Pericardium. Divisions, 
Auricles. 
Structure of walls—Muscular columns-Openings—■-Valves. 
Eustachian, Coronary. 28 
Ventricles. 
Right, left—Walls. 
Structure, relative thickness. 
Columnae Carneae—Chordae Tendinae—Openings—Valves. 
Tricuspid, mitral, semilunar. Peculiar construction of semilunar of pul- 
monary artery, and of tricuspid, making slight reflux of blood possi- 
ble under pressure. Relative length of ventricles during systole. 
Pulsations. 
Spiral motion of heart during pulsations. 
Two sounds of heart, relative intervals. 
Rhythmic action. 
Auricles act together, ventricles together. 
Movement of foot when “ Popliteal Artery ” rests on knee—Form of pulse. 
Direction of Blood through Heart. 
Cause of Contraction of Heart. 
Due to muscular irritability. 
Not due to nervous influence. 
Woorara destroys nervous irritability, Potassic Cyanide destroys muscu 
lar irritability. 
Influence of Nervous System upon Action of Heart. 
Blow upon epigastrium produces arrest. 
Sudden emotions modify action. 
Form and frequency of pulsations regulated by Sympathetic, Pneumogas- 
trie and “Vertebral”,(?) nerves. 
11. Arteries. 
i. Coats—(i.) External, connective tissue, dense, strong. 
(2.) Middle, elastic tissue and unstriped muscular fibre. 
(a.) In small arteries, exclusively muscular, 
(b.) In medium, muscular and elastic. 
(c.) In largest, exclusively elastic tissue. 
(3.) Internal, serous, smooth, lined with flattened epithelium , 
2. Valves wanting, except semilunars of aorta, and pulmonary. 
3. Plan of distribution—Origin = large trunks, Termination = capillaries, 
Peculiar arrangement in fingers, palm of hand, olecranon, knee, toe. 
parts of sole of foot. 
4. Variation in calibre during day 
5. Sphygmograph Tracings. 
6. Items to be noted concerning the principal arteries—Name. Origin 
Distribution. Principal branches. 30 
111. Veins. 
1. Coats—(1.) External, cellular, dense, firm. 
(2.) Middle, fibrous, great resistance to pressure, very thin. 
(3.) Internal, serous, (folds). 
Muscular and elastic tissue less than in arteries, connective tis- 
sue more abundant. 
2. Frequent anastomoses. 
3. Valves—(a.) Distribution. 
In minutest venules, in upper extremity where they do not re- 
sist gravity, not in cavities not subject to compression. 
(b.) Bordered by fibrous ring. 
Veins not distended at valves. 
(c.) Function. 
To arrest reflux, when blood resists gravity. 
“ “ “ “ “ underpressure. 
“ “ “ “ muscular contraction forces blood to 
skin. 
To prevent excessive strain upon peripheral veins. 
4. Movement of blood through veins due to 
(a.) Pressure from capillary system, 
(b.) Contraction of voluntary muscles, 
(c.) Force of aspiration. 
5. Capacity of veins—double that of arteries. 
IV. Capillaries. 
1. Distinctive structure. 
Single amorphous tunic, longitudinal nuclei, flattened epithelial cells, 
small uniform diameter. 
2. Plan of distribution. 
Frequent inosculations, characteristic arrangement in muscles, in mucous 
membranes, in papillae, in malpighian bodies, in connective tissue. 
3. Circulation in. 
Arterial pressure upon blood in capillaries, uniformity of current influ- 
enced by elasticity of adjacent tissue, subject to local variations, e.g. 
pallor, “blushing,” congestion, inflammation, condition of glands in 
action, etc. 
4. Relation to tissue. 
Indirect contact with substance of tissue-Mnterva scalar spaces nourished 
by transudation and absorption of fluid, cf. Lymphatics, p. 
V. Rapidity of Circulation. 
Circulation completed in 23 sec. or 20 sec. 
All blood of body through heart in 48 sec. 
If pulsations increased, general circulation increased, but not in same ratiq. 
Not uniform .throughout body, e.g. 
In carotid from 4,3 in.—B in. per sec., in metatarsal 2-2 in. per sec. VI. Forces of Circulation. 
Contraction of Heart. 
Elasticity of Arteries. 
Capillary Attraction. 
Muscular Pressure. 
Partial Vacuum in Lungs. 
Chemical Affinity. 
VII. Circulation affected by. 
Clothing. 
Cleanliness. 
Quantity of Blood. 
Quality of Blood, cf. Respiration, p. 
Temperature, cf. Animal Heat, p. 
Exercise. 
State of Mind. 
XI. FOETAL DEVELOPMENT OF HEART. 
1. Longitudinal Tube.—Two vessels entering same = veins. 
Union of veins = Primitive Auricle. 
Dilation of tube = Primitive ventricle. 
Anterior portion of tube = Primitive Bulb. 
2. Slight dilation of Auricles.—T wo appendages = True Auricles. 
Increased thickness and length of ventricle—Flexion to right. 
3. Division of Ventricle and of Bulb by Septa. 
Y-Septum begun at 4°-5° week—completed at 8° week. Auricular Sep- 
tum begun at completion of V-Septum, (foramen ovale), completed 
at birth—cyanosis. 
4. Primitive Aortic Arches, right and Left from Bulb. 
Primitive dorsal aortas, right and left. 
Omphalo-mesenteric arteries. 
5. Union of two dorsal vessels behind (dorsal to) Heart. 
6. Formation of secondary Aortic Arches. 
These join ventral and dorsal trunks, from anterior to posterior in succes- 
sion—Five pairs—Do not co-exist. 
7. Transformation of Temporary into Permanent Arterial Ves- 
sels. Ascending aorta persists from Primitive Bulb, 7°-8° week. 
Ventral trunks = external carotids—Dorsal trunks = internal carotids. 
Formation of descending aorta from united dorsal trunks, q. v. 
Formation of “arch” from left 40 primary aortic arch. 
Formation of Pulmonary arteries from branches of left 50. 
Formation of Ductus Arteriosus from left 50 aortic arch. 
3. Oblique position of Apex at 4° month, 34 
XII. PLAN OF FOETAL CIRCULATION. 
Allantois—Mucous membrane of uterus—Penetration of villi of allantois 
into mucous membrane—Modification of maternal capillaries, com- 
plete fusion into sinuses—Foetal capillary tufts bathed in contents of 
sinuses, cf. absorption—No direct communication between foetal and 
maternal vessels—Osmosis of nutriment in sinuses—Placenta = Or- 
gan of exhalation and absorption—General direction of circulation. 
i. From placenta through umbilical vein to liver. 
(a.) Through ductus venosus to ascending vena cava, 
(b.) Through liver, via hepatic vein to vena cava. 
2. From vena cara to right auricle and through foramen ovale into left 
auricle—Action of eustachian valve. 
3. Return from head and upper extremities through descending vena 
cava to right auricle and into right ventricle. 
4. From right ventricle through pulmonary artery, ductus venosus into 
arch. 
5. . From left ventricle through system. 
6. From iliac via hypogastric to placenta. 
XIII. BLOOD 
1. Amount. 
yi weight of body, average 18 lbs, 
2. Composition. 
A. Plasma, 55 percent. 
Water, albumen, salts, fibrin 3 parts in 1000. (Serum—Clot, action in ar- 
resting hemorrhage. 
Conveys nutriment to body. 
B. Corpuscles, 45 per cent. 
Red—l. Shape = Circular in all mammalia (except camel and llama== 
oval). 
2. Size IrrW in. iotij in. diameter, average arsr in., thickness 
i-i transverse diameter—“Central depression.’’ 
In elephant and sloth exceed human, in., in some 
mammals, equal human or smaller—musk-deer small- 
est, in.—birds’ exceed mammals’. 
Human not distinguishable from most domestic animals’. 
Hemoglobine distinguishable from other coloring matter. 
3. Sexual difference.—In male more abundant than in female. 36 
4. Origin.—Theory of action of spleen = nucleus of white disc(?) 
—Connective tissue(?)—Division of disc(?)—Metamorpho- 
sis of mesoblastic cells = Sanguineous Blastema. 
5. Meta,7norphosis—Color pigment of urine—Bile. 
6. Development of—Colorless, yellow, red (foetus to in. long)— 
After 30 week until 8° week, size = 30-100 per cent, larger 
than in adult, shape circular, ovoid, globular—Nearly all 
nucleated—At 40 month, only few nucleated. 
7. Composition—Albuminous matter, coloring matter = hemoglo- 
bine, its affinity for oxygen. 
8. Structure—Homogeneous (Dalton) External membranous 
sac envelope, and internal viscid fluid, (Kblliker, etc.) 
9. Relative number—Before and after meals. 
White : red :: 1 : 830, :; 1 : 885, :: 1 ; 500. 
10. Function—Convey oxygen to system. 
Great absorbing power. 
Remove impurities—Respiratory organs of cells—C02 caus- 
es to swell, O to contract. (?) 
Colorless corpuscles—l. Shape = Globular, irregular—Amoeboid move- 
ments. 
2. Size = Larger than red, 25W in. 
3. Origin Sanguineous Blastema. 
XIV. RESPIRATION. 
Structure of Lungs. 
1. Divisions—Right, left, relative size, lobes. 
2, Pleura—Its reflections—Pleurisy. 
3. Capacity—Residual air, supplemental, complemental, tidal—Relative 
amount exchanged at each respiration—Extreme breathing capacity 
not increased by habit or practice (Flint). 
4. Air vescicles—Location—Size - siv in.—Convoluted structure—“Ul- 
timate bronchial tubes,” lining of pavement epithelium—“ Pulmonary 
lobule,” elastic walls—Capillary plexuses. Bronchi. 
Origin—Branches, angle of divergence, sub-divisions. 
Relative danger of injury from foreign bodies. 
Structure, cartilaginous rings elastic, ciliated, outward vibrations of cilia. 
Mechanism of Respiration. 
Movements of chest—Extremities of ribs raised by contraction of external 
intercostal muscles, depressed by internal—Auxiliary action of abdom- 
inal and pectoral muscles—Movements of diaphragm, depressed by “Di- 
aphragm Pillars,” elevated (a.) by atmospheric pressure to fill vacuum 
due to contraction of lung tissue, (b.) by upward pressure of abdomi- 
nal viscera due to action of abdominal muscles—Expansion of lungs 
accelerated by vacuum in pleural sac. 
Three Types of Respiration. 
i. Abdominal, exclusive in children under three years 
2. Inferior Costal = from 70 rib downward, predominates in male. 
3. Superior Costal = from 70 rib upward, predominates in female. 
Stages of Respiration 
1. Mechanical, atmospheric pressure. 
2. Simple diffusion of air. 
3. Osmosis = diffusion through cell tissue. 
Frequency of Respiratory Movements. 
Average 20 per minute, min. = 9, max. = 44. 
Modified by age, condition of system, sex. 
Expired and Inspired Air. 
Expired—Temperature 9o°-ioo° F.—Saturated with moisture—Carbonic 
acid—Nitrogen—Oxygen—Animal matter. 
Sexual difference in amount of carbonic acid. 
Inspired—Temperature variable—Moisture variable—Oxygen inspired ex- 
ceeds amount expired—Nitrogen inspired equals amount expired, tem- 
porary variations. 
Chemical changes attending Respiration. 
Action of oxygen upon Hematin crystals. 
“ “ “ “ tissues of body, 
“ “ “ “ fatty matter of food. 40 
XV. VENTILATION. 
Conditions sought. 
i. Removal of impure air. 
2. Abundant supply of fresh air. 
3. Suitable temperature. 
Items to be considered. 
Heated air allowed to escape from floor—Specific gravity of heated air— 
Impurities not due to temperature—“Ground-air,” its relation to ven- 
tilation—Sewage—Drainage—Ventilation of cellars—Epidemics—Re- 
moval of excreta, etc. 
Warming by Radiation and by Heated Air. 
Steam-radiators—Hot-air furnaces—Stoves—Quality of air, dust, poison- 
ous gases, moisture, etc.—Quantity of air accessible to heated surface 
—Economy and convenience of the respective methods. 
Construction of Apparatus for Ventilation. 
Rooms alternately occupied, and vacant—Study rooms, recitation rooms— 
Simple methods of making windows available. 
XVI. ANIMAL HEAT. 
Origin and Nature of. 
Common to all living organisms—lncrease of temperature from exterior to 
central parts—Diurnal variation—Chemical action in capillaries— 
Disintegration—Other causes than production of carbonic acid. 
In substance of muscles, in glandular organs. 
How rendered constant. 
Relation of respiration to animal heat. 
Warm-blooded, cold-blooded. 
Hibernation related to animal heat—Phenomena of evaporation-insensi- 
ble transpiration—Oven girls, Turkish bath—Effect of slight change 
in temperature of body—Vase-motor system of nerves. 
Modifying Conditions. 
Natui’e of food—Age—Exercise—Condition of brain and nervous system 
—Condition of skin, q.v. p. —Clothing as it effects radiation, etc.— 
General health. 42 
XVII. SKIN. 
Epidermis. 
External layer = Horny layer == exudation from adjacent parts. 
No blood vessels—no nerves—no lymphatics—exclusively cells—not trans- 
formed “rete mucosum.” 
Internal layer ===== “ rete mucosum ”= malpighian layer—Mucous, nucle- 
ated cells—Pigment. 
Callous epidermis = corn. 
Dermis. 
Superficial = Papillary layer (structure of papilla, cf. touch, p. ) 
Smallest papillae upon face—largest on palm of hand, sole of foot—lines 
on palm of hand = grooves between compound papillae. 
Deep = Reticulated or fibrous layer—Interlacing, elastic fibre—Non-stri- 
ated muscle. 
More abundant near “sebaceous glands, q. v.—contractions produce 
goose flesh. 
Appendages. 
Nails—Root—Border—Free edge—Lunula, slight vascularity of subja- 
cent structure—Layers nearly same as epidermis—Development in 
embryo—Mode of growth, malpighian layer stationary, horny layer 
grows. 
Hairs—General distribution—Characteristic direction upon surface—Hair 
follicle = Inversion of corium—lts three membranes. 
External = inelastic fibre, blood vessels, nerves—Middle = transverse 
nucleated fibre—lnternal = structureless. 
Parts of hair, external = imbricated cells—Roughness of surface. 
Internal = longitudinal fibres—These contain pigment and few air 
globules. 
Medulla traceable nearly entire length—Nucleated rounded cells, 
pigment, numerous air globules. 
Elasticity—General shape oval. 
Straight hair = round, curled = flat. 
Growth by imbibition from papillae—Color due to pigment. 
Sudden blanching. 
Pigment not diminished, greater part of medulla filled with air 
—possible cause. 
Sebaceous glands—Distribution—Lubricates skin—Gloss of hair. 
Sudoriparous glands—Special development in axilla. 
Peculiar excretion, volatile compounds of fatty acids. 44 
Location—Spiral ducts, lining pavement epithelium, orifices in 
grooves between rows of papillae, always oblique—Secretion = 
water and soluble salts, no fatty matter—Filtering mechanism 
—Absorbents, increase of weight from bathing—Medicated 
baths—Insensible perspiration—Effect of impermeable coating: 
to surface—Active agent probably epithelium of secreting coils. 
Congestion of skin attending exercise favors increased activity of glands, 
hence reduction of temperature and rapid voidance of effete matter 
= products of disintegrated muscular tissue. 
Relative elimination by lungs and by skin—Bathing—Action of 
soap upon excretions of sebaceous glands—Removal of epi- 
thelium—Congestion of unprotected cuticle—Injury when chill 
accompanies bath—Inflammation resulting from application of 
heat to chilled extremities = chilblain—Conducting power of 
different textures—Their relative value as articles of clothing— 
Influence of color upon absorbent power of fabrics. 
General office of Skin. 
Protection of subjacent parts. 
Preservation of external form of muscles 
Graceful outline to body. 
Excretion of effete matter. 
Regulation of temperature of body. 
Absorption. 
XVIII. NERVE CELL = GANGLION. 
Structure. 
Cell-substance, fine granular, albuminous—Nucleus—Nucleolus—Pigment 
grains. 
Size. 
Largest in anterior horns of spinal cord. 
Prolongations of Cell. 
Structure same as cell-substance—Number—Sympathetic and cranial, one 
or two (generally) = “unipolar” and “bipolar” cells—Gray matter of 
cerebrum has cells with several = multipolar—Anastomosis of branch- 
es from prolongations = Plexuses—One prolongation from “multipo- 
lar” cell, peculiar undivided “axis cylinder” process. 46 
Distinctive cells of dorsal portion of Spinal Cord. 
Not connected with nerve fibre. 
“Nerve Centres.” 
For registering and for transmitting nerve-impulses—Medium for associat- 
ing organs. 
XIX. SPINAL NERVES. 
Structure of Nerve. 
i. Kinds of tissue—(a.) white nerve fibre only—(b.) Gray = fibre, 
interstitial matter, nerve-cells, primitive nerve-fibrils. 
2. General character of nerve-fibre—Shape—Arrangement in bundles or 
tracts—Entirety of fibre, non-inosculation or division—Interchange of 
fibres from one tract to another—Neurilemma—Neuralgia, etc.— 
Relative distribution of large and small fibre to cutaneous and to 
muscular regions—Average size of fibres, variations in different regi- 
ons of same tract. 
3. Histology—External sheath—Medullary layer, its insulating office, its 
absence at origin, at termination of nerve, and “non-medullated” 
nerves—Axis-cylinder, its function. 
Peripheral termination of Fibre. 
1. Formation of “terminal plexuses”—Division of fibre and distribution 
of ultimate fibrils to anatomical elements of tissue. 
2, Correspondence in function of several fibrils to axis-cylinder of undi- 
vided fibre. 
3. Disappearance of medullary layer and blending of neurilemma with 
sarcolemma near terminal region of nerve. 
4. Persistence of “axis-cylinder.” 
5. Ultimate structure of “Pacinian Bodies,” “Tactile Corpuscles,” “Term- 
inal Bulbs.” 
6. Direction and disposal of terminal fibre in muscles—“Terminal Plates.” 
Roots of Spinal Nerves. 
Dorsal “Posterior”—Relative size—Bi-lobed ganglion, its uni-polar and 
bi-polar cells—Non-union of nerve-fibre with cells (mammalia)— 
Characteristic union of same (pisces)—Enlargement of root by addi- 
tional fibre from ganglion—Double origin of fibre corresponding to 48 
bi-lobed ganglion—Characteristic location of ganglion—Afferent func- 
tion of dorsal root—Fibres enter cord between dorsal and lateral col- 
umns. 
Some enter gray substance, some enter both gray and white, some enter anterior 
horn of cord. 
Ventral “Anterior”—Absence of ganglion—Collocation of fibre into two 
bundles—Union of gray matter of “anterior horns” of spinal cord by 
fibres of ventral root—Function of fibres = efferent. 
Union of Roots into Compound Nerve. 
Relative length of roots, consequent direction—Connection of filaments 
with sympathetic system—Hygienic considerations. 
Union of Nerves into Plexuses. 
Cervical—Brachial—Lumbar, etc. 
Number of Pairs. 
Plan of naming—Special branches and their distribution. 
General Properties. 
Irritability, exhausted by experiments, destroyed by woorara—Reunion af- 
ter separation—Paralysis, nervous, muscular—Distinctive direction in 
which “nerve wave” is propagated in sensitive and in motor nerves— 
Rate of transmission of energy—Duration of impression after remo- 
val of exciting agent—Nature of “nerve wave” same in afferent and 
in efferent nerves—Action of galvanic current upon nerves. 
Function of Spinal Nerves. 
General—Special. 
XX. SPINAL CORD. 
Position-Length. 
Embryo—Adult. 
General Structure, 
Meninges—Columns, ventral, dorsal, lateral—Central canal—Intercommu- 
nication of fibre with cells of gray substance, with longitudinal col- 
umns—Commissural union of cell with cell. 50 
Special Structure. 
Increase of gray matter at cervical and at lumbar enlargements—Gradual 
decrease of white substance from anterior (upper) region toward pos- 
terior (lower) region. 
Gray substance—Structure—(a.) Nerve cells, multipolar, grouped in 
“horns,’’ventral larger, dorsal smaller. 
(b.) Nerve fibres radiate in transverse plane. 
I. Fibres from spinal nerves. 
2. Commissural fibres, coordinating the halves of cord. 
3, Irregular fibres. 
Insensibility to artificial stimuli. 
Sensitive impressions transmitted through gray matter alone, not 
through white columns. 
White substance—Structure—Longitudinal fibres forming “columns,” ven- 
tral, middle, dorsal—Fibres from ventral column terminate in 
opposite ventral horn. 
Motor impulses transmitted through white and gray of ventral col- 
Function of Cord. 
umns, not through either separately. 
Organ of communication between brain and spinal nerves—Sensibility of 
dorsal column or fibre from dorsal root of spinal nerve to external ir- 
ritation—Inflammation of meninges—Excitability of ventral columns, 
attended by motion of parts and absence of pain—Ventral section of 
lateral column acts with ventral column, dorsal with dorsal column. 
Bi-lateral decussation of Motor Fibre in Medulla. 
Effect of injury to brain—lnjury to cord below medulla—Longitudinal di- 
vision of spinal cord, of medulla. 
Bi-lateral decussation of Sensitive Fibre throughout Cord. 
Transverse section of lateral half of cord paralyzes motion of same side 
and enfeebles sensibility of opposite side—Local hyperesthesia. 
Relative seriousness of injury to Cord. 
In lumbar and in cervical regions—Paraplegia, Hemiplegia, total and 
partial. 
Reflex Action. 
Irritability of cord increased by strychnine, by injury to peripheral nerves 
—Tetanus—lmportance of reflex action in self-preservation in regard 
to equilibrium and locomotion, in controlling sphincter muscles, etc. 52 
XXI. SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 
Structure. 
Anatomical elements same as spinal nerves q.v.—Cells, small, numerous, 
joined by nerve filaments. 
Relation to Posterior Hoots of Spinal Cord. 
Influence upon cerebro-spinal system—Homology of ganglion of sensitive 
root with sympathetic ganglion. 
General Properties. 
Noticeable interval between application of stimulus and responsive action 
of nerve—Congestion not immediate. 
Distribution. 
Double chain in front of spinal cord—To glands—To mucous membrane 
—To involuntary muscle, etc.—Classification of special ganglia with 
reference to head, neck, chest, abdomen, etc. 
Distinctive Function. 
Relation to nutrition, secretion, vaso-motor system—Experiments with 
guinea pigs—Connection with special senses, sight, hearing—Reflex ac- 
tion. 
Internal irritation, e.g. nausea, etc.—external irritation, e.g. fright, etc.—mutual 
influence of organs, e, g. peristaltic movements. 
XXII. BRAIN. 
Location—Enveloping Membranes. 
i. Dura Mater—Structure of its two layers—Outer and inner surfaces— 
Adherence to cranial bones—Periosteum of cranial bones—Internal 
sinuses—lts reflections and corresponding chambers formed, falx cere- 
bri, falx cerebelli, tentorium. 
2. Arachnoid—Extent and character of parietal and of visceral layers— 
Arachnoidean spaces, their intercommunication—Cerebro-spinal fluid, 
its function—Equilibrium of pressure upon surface of brain. 
3. Pia Mater—Extent—Vascular structure—Vessels—Lymphatics-Nerves 
Reflections in sulci of brain. 54 
\ 
Structure of Brain. 
i. Exterior surface—Kind of neurine—Gray substance penetrated by 
white fibre—Nerve-cells, their forms and elongations—Convolutions— 
Fissural pattern, three principal (a.) Fissure of Sylvius, always pres- 
ent if any, (b.) Fissure of Rolando, (c.) Parietal fissure; secondary = 
(a.) three frontal, (b.) two central, (c.) three temporal—Superficial in- 
dentations for vascular system. 
2. Interior of brain—Cerebral ganglia—Ventricles—Commissures—Mem- 
branes—White nerve substance—Nerve fibres Tiroiur in.-Wxu in. in di- 
ameter. 
XXIII. DIVISIONS OF BRAIN. 
Cerebrum. 
Position—Hemispheres—Longitudinal fissure, cf. dorsal median fissure of 
spinal cord—Corpus Callosum, extent, structure = transverse commis- 
sure between cerebral hemispheres—Lateral ventricles, boundaries, 
shape, termini of anterior, middle, and posterior cornua—Septum lu- 
cidum, 50 ventricle, its isolation in adult—Corpus striatum, its posi- 
tion, arrangement of fibre in bundles—Anterior cerebral commissure 
—Choroid plexus—Hippocampi. 
Optic Thalami. 
Position in hemispheres—Intimate mixture of fibres with gray matter—Op- 
tic tracts—Corpora geniculata—30 ventricle, its boundaries—Foramen 
of Monro—Velum interpositum—Iter to 40 ventricle—Pineal and Pi- 
tuitary bodies. 
Cf. Sheep, shark, lophius, etc. 
Corpora albicantia—Middle cerebral commissure—Posterior commis- 
sure. 
Corpora Striata and Optic Thalami, Nerve Centres between 
Medulla and Hemispheres. 
Forced movements from injury to C. S., rotation of body, somersaults, 
pleurothotonos—Spasmodic action of face and neck—Flexors rather 
than extensors stimulated—Transmission of efferent impulses through 
C. S. = motor centre—Transmission of afferent impulses through 
Op. Th. = sensory centre—Each affect the opposite side of the body 
crossed action. 56 
Corpora Q,uadrigemina. 
C. Bigemina = optic lobes—Position—Distinctive structure—Peduncles 
of cerebellum—Valve of Vieussens—Iter, etc.—Anterior tubercles pro- 
duce rigid backward flexure of body, opisthotonos, jaws clenched, 
pupils dilated—Motor centre for extensor muscles—Coordinate move- 
ments of eyeballs and pupils—Register visual sensory impulses—Pos- 
terior tubercles, production of various noises—Motor action not con- 
fined to either side of body. 
General Physiological Action of Cerebral Hemispheres. 
Homology of anterior lobes and anterior middle lobes of cerebrum with 
entire cerebrum of other mammals—Posterior lobes, centres of cere- 
bration peculiar to man—Coordinate and direct, do not originate mus- 
cular contractions—Experiments of Ferrier—Limited action, princi- 
pally crossed, not diffused action—Hemispheres not directly essential 
to life, argument from pathology, from experiment—General function 
of conscious intelligence, memory, reason, judgment—Congenital idi- 
ocy from imperfect cerebral development—Aphasia, from lesion in 
region of island of Reil, from posterior frontal convolution (Broca)— 
Distinction between machinery for execution and machinery of origi- 
nation. 
Brainless frog executes movements like entire frog except difference in stimuli re- 
quired. 
“Afferent impulses equally essential with efferent in complex bodily move- 
ments.” 
Stages of reflex action, afferent, central, efferent. 
Experiments of Hitzig and Fritsch on cerebral convolutions—“Cerebral 
spots not motor centres”—Does the escape of current to deeper un- 
derlying portions, corpora striata, produce the phenomena cited ? 
Cerebral convolutions functionally psychical—Posterior parts, corpora qua- 
drigemina, crura cerebri, pons Yarolii, cerebellum and medulla execute 
complex movements—Rapidity of cerebral operations, winking, audi- 
tory and visual sensations, etc. 
Crura Cerebri and Pons Varolii. 
Communication between spinal cord and cerebral hemispheres—Mechanism 
of coordinated movements referred to pons and to semicircular canals 
of ear, cf. p. 
Tuber Annulare. 
Nervous centre, registers sensations of pain—Reflex actions of emotional 
and instinctive character—Seat of sense of equilibrium in posture of 
body. (?) 58 
Cerebellum. 
Bridge over 40 ventricle—Connection with cerebro-spinal axis through an- 
terior, middle, and posterior peduncles. 
Cf. Corpora dentata, cerebral ganglia and olivary nuclei. 
Explanation of automatic movements begun under direction of will—Re- 
flex-action a character—Coordination of movements—Relation to sem- 
icircular canals in maintaining equilibrium—Experiments of Ferrier 
and Hitzig—No relation to sexual functions. 
Medulla Oblongata. 
Characteristic arrangement of fibre—Decussation of pyramids—Deposits 
of gray substance, increase in quantity anteriorly—Origin of cranial 
nerves except i° and 20 pairs—Olivary nuclei—A nerve centre. 
Respiratory centre—Vaso-motor centre—Cardio-inhibitory centre—Diabetic centre 
—Deglutition centre—Nausea centre—Saliva-secretion centre—Pupil-dilating 
centre—Phonation and Articulation centre, (Foster). 
XXIV. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN. 
Formation of Vescicles. 
i° Stage. Brain = Anterior portion of medullary tube. 
20 Stage. Expanded walls = three primary vescicles. 
30 Stage. Anterior vescicle bent downward, middle conspicuous. 
Anterior, middle, posterior. 
4° Stage. At 70 week angle projecting dorsally between 30 vescicle and 
spinal cord == cervical tuberosity. 
50 Stage. Angle projecting ventrally between medulla and cerebellum. 
6° Stage. Depression in middle vescicle = corpora bigemina. 
7° Stage. Flexion of first primary vescicle at right angles. 
Sub-Division of Vescicles. 
Division of anterior vescicle into : 
Anterior part = Prosencephalon = Cerebrum. 
Posterior part = Diencephalon = Thalami. 
Middle vescicle = Mesencephalon Optic lobes. 
Posterior vescicle, bridge over medulla = Epencephalon = Cerebellum. 
Triangular depression = Metencephalon = Medulla and 40 ventricle. 
Rapid development of Anterior Primary Vescicle upward and 
backward. 60 
Differentiation of Vescicles. 
Posterior Vescicle—Constituent parts of medulla distinguishable, 
(a.) Restiform bodies at 30 month. 
(b.) Anterior pyramids at 50 month. 
(c.) Olivary bodies at. 6° month. 
Delicate membrane above and across medulla at 30 month = cere- 
bellum. 
Junction of fibres of cerebellum with pyramids = pons varolii. 
Middle Vescicle—Optic lobes defined by median groove at 40 month—Per- 
sistence of primary tube connecting vescicles = “iter, etc.”—Valve of 
Vieussens—Optic lobes differentiated in upper region, sides and roof, 
as anterior and posterior at 70 month—Crura cerebri developed from 
below = floor. 
Anterior Vescicle—Appearance of two lateral outgrowths = Thalami Op- 
tici—Development of thalami, optic nerve, optic tract—Sides of ante- 
rior vescicle = Cerebral Hemispheres—Floor of vescicle = Corpora 
Striata—Anterior commissure—Development of pineal body from 
vescicle, (?) from pia mater, (?) at 40 month—Pituitary body from 
“Chorda dorsalis,” (?) from pia mater (?) from alimentary canal—Fil- 
ling of vescicle posteriorly, ventrally and laterally, 30 month—Persis- 
tence of 30 ventricle—Posterior commissure—Chambers enclosed by 
two lamellae in cerebral hemisphere = lateral ventricles, 40 month— 
Appearance of convolutions and sulci at 40 month—Separation of an- 
terior and middle lobes of cerebrum by fissure of Sylvius, 40 month— 
Appearance of fissure of Rolando—Narrow fibrous band across ante- 
rior region of hemispheres at 30 month = Corpus Callosum—Septum 
lucidum and 50 ventricle—Development of olfactory lobes from ante- 
rior part of cerebral vescicle. (?) 
XXV. CRANIAL NERVES. 
General Character. 
Common origin (ex. i° and 20) = gray matter upon and beneath floor of 40 
ventricle = continuation of spinal cord. 
Trigemini has two roots, (a.) sensitive, (b.) motor. 
Glossopharyngeal receives fibres from facial. 
Pneumogastric receives fibres from spinal accessory. 
30, 40 and 6° = branches of single nerve, cf. branches of 50 
6° and 70 = branches of 50 in Rana pipiens. 
Homologized as spinal nerves—Correspondence of structure and arrange- 
ment with spinal nerves when correspondence in function—Plan of 
nomenclature. XXVI. NERVES OF SPECIAL SENSE. 
General Character. 
Not sensitive—Not excitable—No sensation of pain or of touch when irri- 
tated—Section does not affect sensibility of neighboring regions— 
Tracts or commissures rather than nerves proper. 
Olfactory = 1 °pr. 
Anatomical relations—Limited distribution—Relative development in other 
animals—Effect of destroying it—Origin = three-cornered prismatic 
tract, whose terminus = “Olfactory bulb.” 
Cf. trigon, shark, sheep, rabbit, etc. 
Distribution of terminal fibres—Schneiderian membrane, cf. sense of 
smell, p. 
Unification of the two bulbs through white fibre of tubercles—Singleness 
of function. 
Optic = 2° p’r. 
Nerve tract from organ of vision to cerebrum—Not sensitive—Relation to 
movements of iris—Reflex action—Conducts one kind of impression 
—Chiasma—Decussation of fibre, relation to bi-nocular vision. 
' 
Cf. shark, cod, pigeon. 
Partial blindness from “Hemiplegia”—Origin threefold, corpora geniculata 
and adjoining region of optic thalami—Distribution—Apparatus of 
Retina, v. “sight,” p. 
Auditory = 8° p’r. 
Origin—Auditory ganglion on floor of 40 ventricle—Distribution—Internal 
ear, v. “hearing,” p. 
XXVII. NERVES OF MOTION. 
Oculo-Motorius = 3° p’r. 
Connection between both eyes established through decussation of fibres 
from nuclei—Effect of paralysis of 30 p’r—“Strabismus”—“Ptosis.” 
Origin—Gray cells common to 40 p’r behind optic thalami—Distribution, 
muscles of eye, ex. external rectus and superior oblique—Function, 
controls motions of eye, ex. lateral abduction and rotation. 64 
Patheticus = 4° p’r. 
Origin, with 30 p’r—Distribution, superior oblique of eye—Function, to 
preserve parallelism of eye-balls in horizontal plane, to prevent double 
vision. 
Abducens = 6° p’r. 
Origin, Gray matter on floor of 40 ventricle—Distribution, external rectus 
of eye—Function, controls outward movement of ball. 
Internal strabismus from paralysis of 6° p’r. 
Facial = 7° p’r. 
General facial expression due to stimulus of 70 p’r—Paralysis of 70, eye 
permanently open, tears not distributed, smoothness of forehead, dis- 
torted nostril, lip, etc.—May affect same side of face, or opposite 
side because of crossed action of nerve—Origin, common with abdu- 
cens—Distribution, muscles of face, as above—Function, strictly = 
motor, fibre from 50 p’r render it in part a sensitive nerve. 
Hypoglossal =l2° p’r. 
Origin medulla, near olivary bodies—Distribution, muscles of tongue— 
Action in articulation, mastication, deglutition. 
XXVIII. NERVES OF COMMON SENSATION. 
Trigemini = 5° p’r. 
Acute sensibility to mechanical irritation—Special advantages from pe- 
culiar anastomosis of branches of 50—Influence ove- special senses, 
by affecting nutrition of parts. 
E. g. Schneiderian membrane, Cornea, Iris, Mucous membrane of mouth. 
Neuralgic affections of head, teeth, “tic douloureux”—Profuse secretion of 
tears attending irritation of cheek, pungent odors, etc.—Compensa- 
ting influence when facing the wind—Detection of physical qualities 
of food, consistency, etc., taste (?) by lingual branch = “Gustatory 
nerve”—Relation to mastication—Effect of partial paralysis of 50 in 
carnivora, herbivora, rodentia—Origin, tuber annulare from nucleus 
of 50,by two roots, (a.) sensitive root, which receives fibres from “Gas- 
serian ganglion” (b.) motor root, no additional fibres—Distribution, 
three branches, 1. Ophthalmic—2. Superior maxillary—3. Inferior 
maxillary. 66 
Glosso-pharyngeal = 9° p’r. 
Anatomically and functionally a spinal sensitive nerve. 
Cf. “petrosal ganglion” with ganglion of spinal nerve. 
Tactile sensibility slight—Special sensibility acute == taste, cf. lingual 
branch of 50—Reflex action in deglutition—Artificial irritation excites 
nausea. 
Immediate action in absence of emetics. 
Origin, common nucleus of 90, xo° and n°, on floor of 40 ventricle—Distri- 
bution, posterior third of tongue, pharynx, etc. 
XXIX. MIXED NERVES. 
Pneumogastric = 9° p’r. 
Allied to spinal nerves by “Jugular ganglion”—Plexuses formed in thoracic 
region—Their relation to respiration, circulation, deglutition, voice— 
Effect of dividing io°—Phenomena of “arrest”—Origin, ten to fifteen 
filaments from nucleus, cf 90—Distribution. 
1. Pharyngeal branch. 2. Superior laryngeal. 3. Inferior laryngeal. 4. Oe- 
sophageal. 5. Pulmonary. 6. Gastric. 
Function, primarily sensitive—Compound structure renders it “mixed”— 
Protection against foreign substances in the several regions—Sympa- 
thetic action of lungs and stomach. 
Spinal Accessory = 11° p’r. 
Relation to muscles of phonation—Distribution of fibre to pneumogastric, 
to cervical muscles—Paralysis of 11° does not destroy respiration. 
XXX. SENSE OF TOUCH. 
Modes of distribution of Nerve Fibre. 
Terminal plexuses—Sensory organs, i. Terminal bulbs, 2. Tactile corpu- 
cles, 3. Pacinian bodies. 
General struchire—Central granular layer, Capsule of connective tis- 
sue, Pale nerve fibre, which terminates in core. 
Special structure—x. Terminal bulbs. 
Spheroidal—nerve fibre ends in knot—capsule simple—taste bulbs— 
terminal bulbs of conjunctiva, lips, tongue, etc. 
2. Tactile corpuscles. 
Oval—oblong nuclei of capsule transverse to axis—nerve fibre surrounds 
core in serpentine windings, and terminates in pale fibre—most 
abundant on last phalanges of fingers, less in palm of hand, sole of 
foot, lips, dorsal region, etc.—relative sensitiveness of different regi- 
ons of body. , 
3. Pacinian bodies. 
Oval—clustered like grapes—fibre terminates in knot-like body at outer 
end of = ordinary connective tissue. 68 
General Properties etc. of Nerves of Touch. 
Disposal of medullary layer and axis-cylinder—Papillae having tactile cor- 
puscles, devoid of blood vessels—Most papillae having capillaries, de- 
void of corpuscles—Office of perspiration in relation to touch— 
Knowledge of form, surface, etc.—Education of tactile nerves in blind 
—Quality of fabrics and liquids judged by touch—Confusion from 
crossing fingers, etc.—Views entertained respecting senses of weight, 
muscular tension, temperature, pain, hunger, thirst, etc. 
XXXI. SENSE OF TASTE. 
Tongue. 
Structure—Attachment—Movements—Papillae of mucous membrane. 
Fungiform, filiform, circumvallate—distribution, distinctive structure, vessels and 
terminal nerves in each. 
Terminal bulbs—Taste buds—Mucous follicles. 
Sensibility of tip, edges, and base—Distribution of lingual branch of 50 
and of glosso-pharyngeal—Sympathetic action of muscles of face 
and stomach—General and special sensibility of tip. 
Distinction in savor, flavor, pungency, “oily taste,” etc.—Relative sensibility of tip 
to sweet, of base to bitter, etc. 
Stages in Taste. 
1. Solution—effected by saliva, by movement of tongue producing pressure 
and friction—2. Endosmosis—3. Contact with nerve filaments. 
Taste = combination of general sensibility and special sense. 
XXXII. SENSE OF SMELL. 
Olfactory Membrane. 
Superior and middle turbinated region, upper septum nasi—Characteristic 
color, yellow (man, sheep, calf); brownish (other mammals)—Struc- 
ture, soft, succulent—Thickness—Ciliated membrane. 
Sense confined to filaments of special nerve = Olfactory. 
Nerves of Nasal Passage. 
1. Filaments of olfactory nerve. Origin from olfactory bulb—Tract from 
bulb to cerebrum = prolonged convolution—Olfactory cells—Termi- 70 
nal plexus—Bush-like tufts of fibres—Distribution to olfactory mem- 
brane—Communication of olfactory nerves through white substance of 
tubercle. 
Homologue in cat, clog, rabbit, frog, shark, etc. 
2. Nasal branch of 50. Distribution to inferior turbinated region—Sensi- 
bility—No power of smell—Pungent “odors.” 
3. Sympathetic nerves. Posterior nasal passage 
Physiology of Smell 
1. Solution of odoriferous particles by secretion of mucous membrane 
2. Endosmosis and contact with nerve filaments. 
Relation of smell and taste—Results of experimental division of olfactory 
nerve in dogs—Pathological investigations. 
XXXIII. SENSE OF HEARING. 
1. External Ear, 
Cartilage. 
Helix, tragus, meatus, aid in determining direction of sonorous impulse. 
Hairs—Cerumen—Muscles, comparative development. 
2. Middle Ear. 
Tympanum. 
Structure of three layers—funnel shape—attachment to malleus—lhow stretched— 
how relaxed—adaptation to pitch, etc.—tensor tympani—transmission of so- 
norous impacts to manubrium of malleus. 
Ossicles. System of levers—Peculiar articulation of malleus and incus. 
Inward motion of malleus necessitates inward motion of incus, outward motion 
does not. 
Rotation of malleus—Pendulum movement of stapes—Function of staped- 
ius muscle—Single or unit movement of ossicles. 
Openings. To meatus closed by tympanum—Fenestra ovalis to vestibule, 
foot of stapes—Fenestra rotunda to cochlea (tympanic stairway) 
closed by membrane—Eustachian tube to pharynx, open. 
Equilibrium in atmospheric pressure. 
Mastoid cells. 
3. Internal Ear = Labyrinth. 
Vestibule. Perilymph—Sacculus, its communication with cochlear duct 
Utricle, its communication with semicircular canals—Endolymph 72 
Peculiar distribution of fibre of auditory nerve—“Macula Auditiva” 
—“Auditory hairs”—Axis-cylinder, sensitive to sonorous impacts (sac- 
cuius), and to variation in pressure (utricle)—Otoconia, otoliths. 
(Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, some Mollu.'ks, some Articulates). 
Semicircular canals. In vertebrates (amphioxus ?), number and rela- 
tive position constant—Equilibration of movements (?)—Ampullae, 
absence of nerve-fibre. 
Cochlea. In mammals—Modified in birds, scaly reptiles—Absent in naked 
reptiles and fishes—Analogue in insects =,antenna—Modiolus—Spi- 
ral lamina—Basilar membrane—Vestibular staitway—Reissner’s mem- 
brane—Cochlear duct—Tympanic stairway—Organ of Corti. 
Outer rods, inner rods, relative inclination, length, shape, arch, cells of Deiters. 
Roof membrane—Spiral ganglion—Plexus—Hair cells—Auditory ele- 
ments. 
Physiology of Audition. 
Requisites for sound—Analysis of simple wave, of compound wave—Sym- 
pathetic vibrations—Octave pitch when vibrating fork held against 
temporal bone—Action of ossicles on fenestral membrane, on peri- 
lymph, endolymph, organ of Corti, etc.—Duration of sensation exci- 
ted by sonorous impulse—Pendulum motion requisite—lntensity due 
to amplitude—Pitch to frequency—Limits of audible sound. 
XXXIV. SENSE OF SIGHT. 
Appendages of Eye. 
Eyebrows. Structure—Function in relation to light, dust, etc. 
Eyelids. Relative size—Tarsal cartilage and ligaments—How opened and 
closed—Lacus lachrymalis—Caruncle—Juxtaposition of thickened 
margins forming triangular conduit to papillae, outer margin meeting 
before inner—lnsertion and direction of lashes to prevent interlacing— 
“ Plica semilunaris” and its homologues—Meibomian glands—Relative 
size in lids—Structure and function—Where discharge secretion— 
Conjunctiva, sensitiveness of, its reflections on globe of eye, corne- 
al peculiar. 
Lachrymal apparatus. Glands and ducts—Discharge chiefly in fold above 
outer canthus—Function of lachrymal fluid—Canals, relative size of 
upper and lower—Ciliated duct—Termination of nasal duct. 74 
Muscles of eye-ball. Origin, insertion and action of each—Strabismus— 
Relative tension when at rest—Action during perception and reflec- 
tion—Tension an aid in determining distance, etc.—Controlling nerves 
—Paralysis. 
Cf. shark, hammerhead, gold fish, etc. 
Globe of Eye. 
General shape. Profile view gives segments of two spheres, anterior 
smaller. 
Sclerotic coat. Its structure, extent—Outer and inner surfaces compared 
—Posterior portion thickest—Presence of nerves (?). 
Cornea. Relative convexity—Stratified structure—Refractory power, etc. 
—Absence of blood vessels—Presence of nerves—Relative thickness 
of centre and margin—-Canal of Schlemm. 
Choroid coat. Surface, inner, outer—Extent—Folds in anterior margin 
= ciliary processes—Their attachment to suspensory ligament of lens 
—Hexagonal nucleated layer of pigment, abundance on ciliary pro- 
cesses and iris—Function—Absence in albinos—Analogous lining of 
telescopes. 
Iris. Position—Structure, sphincter and dilating muscular fibre—Attach- 
ment to inner wall of canal of Schlemm—Color pigment of anterior 
surface and black pigment of posterior, continuous with choroid—Pu- 
pil, color, function, size, how regulated. 
Hyaloid membrane. Structure, thin, clear—Anterior attachment with 
“suspensory ligament” of lens—Fibres extend into interior of vitreous 
humor, in embryo—Not found in adult. 
Retina. Extent—Union of anterior margin with ciliary processes—Di- 
minishing thickness anteriorly—“Macula lutea,” yellowepot—Its posi- 
tion and how found—Depression in retina to one-half its usual thick- 
ness—Distinctive structure of yellow spot = 
xQ. Absence of superficial layer of optic fibre—2°. Abundance of cells of gangli- 
onic layer—Cells superposed. 
“‘Fovea Centralis”= centre of yellow spot. 
Retina = two layers, (a.) rods and cones—(b.) nuclear layer—Nucleated fibre di- 
rected obliquely outward, instead of perpendicularly to retina—Cones pre- 
dominate, exclusive at immediate centre—Form of cones elongated. 
Ten layers of retina—“Blind Spot”—Toward median line from yellow 
spot—Demonstrated—Predominance of optic fibre—Absence of rods 
and cones. 
Sensitive elements of eye on external layer—“Purkinje’s images”—Sensi- 
bility of optic fibre to light, experiment of Donders. Retina not merely expansion of optic nerve—Its anatomical elements give 
it a distinctive structure—Retina specialized apparatus connected 
with terminal nerves of sight. 
Humors. 
i. Aqueous—Chamber occupied—Slight refractive power—Holds an- 
terior surface of eye in form—Free movement of iris. 
2. Vitreous—Consistency—Volume—Refracting power slight—Shape 
anteriorly—Not supplied with vessels—-Nutriment by imbibition 
from adjacent vascular textures. 
3. Crystalline Lens—Capsule—Peculiar form—Retained by humors 
and hyaloid membrane—Structure, flattened fibres parallel to 
surface, edge slightly serrated (mammals)—Elements are homo- 
geneous and are united by juxtaposition. 
Function. 
(a.) To converge rays—(b.) To prevent aberration—(c.) To give distinct percep- 
tion—(d.) To enable to perceive figure and extension—(e.) To judge of dis- 
tance. (?) 
Cataract—Asymmetrical development of lens. 
Vision, 
Field of vision in man iso°-iBo° + . 
Cf. birds, fishes, insects. 
“Line of direct vision”—Distinctness due to relative sensitiveness to light 
and to focal adjustment—“ Point of distinct vision.” 
Distant object viewed, and immediately one near at hand, indistinctness until eye 
adjusted—conscious effort. 
Focal Adjustment. 
Change in distinctness of image attending adjustment, shown by ophthal- 
moscope, (Helmholtz). 
Far-sightedness = passive state of eye—Near-sightedness = excited state 
of eye. 
Eye at rest adjusted to distant objects—Weariness consequent upon protracted ex- 
amination of near objects—Far-sight remains intact in the aged—Near-sight 
is impaired. 
Focal adjustment principally accomplished by change of convexity of an- 
terior surface of lens—Experiments of Bonders and Helmholtz—“Ca- 
toptric Images” —Action of iris and ciliary muscles—Limits of adjust- 
ment—Myopia—Emmetropia—Presbyopia—Legitimate and illegiti-* 
mate use of lenses. 78 
Binocular Vision. 
Distance—Form—Position—Perspective—Photographic distortions-Erect 
vision—“ Point of fixation”—Stereoscopic effect—Correspondence of 
vision in two eyes—Vertigo—Strabismus. 
Duration of Luminous Impressions. 
Sparks from emery wheel—Spokes of wheel in motion—Thaumatrope— 
Experiments of Prof. Pood—Retention of image by retina after 
death. (?) 
Exhaustion of Optic Nerve. 
Sensibility exhausted—“Complementary colors”—Color-blindness—Tem- 
porary and permanent injury from exhaustion of visual nerve. 
Luminous effect from Pressure upon Eye. 
“Phosphene”—Subjective “stars” resulting from sudden jar, blow, etc. 
Color. 
Primary, red, green, violet—Secondary, tints. 
Suggestions. 
Admission of light into counting-rooms, school-rooms, galleries—Deco- 
ration of walls, tinting, etc.—Removal of dust from eye—Wearing 
glasses—Sudden transitions of light avoided—Training of eyes to far 
sight—Report of Dr. Cohn, of Breslau, upon the eyes of students. 
XXXV. MENTAL IMPAIRMENT. 
Phases. 
Aberration. 
Emotional Insanity—Mania. 
Hallucination—lllusion—Delusion. 
Acute—Chronic. 
Monomania. 
Homocidal—Suicidal—Kleptomania—Pyromania, etc. 
Melancholia—General Paralysis. 
Difference in sexes. 80 
Dementia. 
Idiocy. 
Primary—Secondary. 
Congenital. 
Imbecility. 
Rarely congenital. 
Symptoms. 
Debilitated attention—Loss of memory—Deviations in facial expression— 
Faltering in speech—Exaggerations in senses-—Vitiated sensations— 
Peculiar sensations—Unusual conduct—Subjective impressions, etc. 
Some of the Causes. 
Moral—Physical—Impaired nutriment of cerebral structure—Disturbance 
in cerebral circulation—Congestion—Anaemia—Vitiated blood—In- 
somnia—Hereditary transmission, etc. 82 
WORKS CONSULTED. 
Allen, Harrison—Outlines of Comparative Anatomy and Medical Zoology: pp. igo. Phila- 
delphia, 1869: Lippincott & Co. 
Carpenter, W. B.—Mental Physiology ; pp. 737. New York, 1875 : Appleton & Co. 
Dalton, J. C. Human Physiology for Students and Practitioners : Sixth Edition, pp. 825, 
illus. 316, Philadelphia, 1875 ; Lea. 
Draper, J. C.—Text-Book on Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene : pp. 300, illus. 170. New 
York, 1866 : Harpers. 
Flint, Austin, Jr.—Physiology of Man : 5 vols. New York : Appleton & Co. 
Foster—Text-Book of Physiology: pp. 570. New York; MacMillan & Co. 
Foster and Langley—Practical Physiology : second edition, pp. 244. London, 1877 : Mac- 
Millan. 
Gray—Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical: pp. 876, illus. 462. Philadelphia, 1870 : Lea. 
Hawkins, B. Waterhouse—Comparative View of the Animal and Human Frame. London : 
Chapman & Hall. 
Plutchison—Physiology and Hygiene, Text-Book : pp. 270. New York, 1870 : Clark & 
Maynard. 
Huxley—Anatomy of Vertebrated Animals : pp. 431. New York, 1872 : Appleton. 
Pluxley and Youmans—Physiology and Hygiene : Revised edition, pp. 485. New York, 1876 
Kliss—Lectures on Physiology ; pp. 531, illus. 130. Boston, 1875. 
MacDonald—Water Analysis : pp. 65, plates. London, 1875 : Churchill 
Appleton. 
Max von PettenKofer—Ground Air in its Hygienic Relations. Popular Science Monthly, 
July. 1877. 
Mayer—Physiology of Audition. American Journal of Science and Arts. 
Prescott—Strong Drink, and Tobacco Smoke : pp. 71, illus. 167, steel. New York, 1870; 
Wood. 
Quain’s Anatomy : seventh edition, 2 vols. London, 1867 : Longmans, Green & Co. 
Strieker—Manual of Plistology ; pp. 1106, illus. 431. New York, 1872 : Win. Wood & Co. 
Tyndall—Dust and Disease. Eclectic, May, IS7O. 
Wells—Long, Short and Weak Sight : third edition, pp. 248. Philadelphia, 1869. 
Wilder—What Young People Should Know : pp. 212, illus. 26. Boston ; Estes & Lauriat. 
Wilder—[ntermembral Homologies, 
Winslow—Brain and Mind : second Amer. edition, pp. 483, Philadelphia : Lea. 
Yeo—On Stimulants, Popular Science Monthly, Supplement, No, I, pp, 12, Tank, Hi h Take 
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