MANUAL
  GENERAL, DESCRIPTIVE, AND PATHOLOGICAL


            ANATOMY,

                              S
                         BY
                   J. F.  I^ECKEL,
              Professor of Anatomy at Halle, &c. &c. &c


TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN INTOFRENCH,


           WITH ADDITIONS AND NyOTES,

                         BY     **
                 A.  J.  L. JOURDAN,
        Member of the Royal Academy of Medicine at Paris, &c. &c. &c.

                         and *     y
                               lS
                   G.  BRESCHET,
       Adjunct Professor of Anatomy at the School of Medicine, &c. &c &c.


        TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH,


                    WITH NOTES, y
                                 \S
         BY A.  SIDNEY  DOANE,  A.M., M. D.
IN THREE VOLUMES.
     VOLUME I
fA jOlltl
      PHILADELPHIA
CAREY & LEA.—CHESTNUT STREET
              1832.
                  C 
MHltt
  IV3X
   v.l
, * ^Utfrld ^C0,"lll-sJO^ ^ct of Caress, in U.e year 1832, by Henry C. Sloi»ht in ihe
office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Southern District of New York."
SLEIGHT AND ROBINSON, PRINTHc
    No- 1J1 Nassau St., New York. 
$
                          TO






GEORGE C. SHATTUCK,  A.  M.,  M. D., M. M.  S.,





                     OF BOSTON,





     THESE VOLUMES ARE RESPECTFULLY






                  DEDICATED. 
 
             PREFACE

OF  THE  AMERICAN TRANSLATOR.
   We feel ourselves called upon to state why the publication of
 this volume  has been delayed so long: should we mention all
 the  adverse  circumstances which have retarded its progress, it
 would be matter of surprise  to many that it appears now: but
 we shall not trespass  upon the patience of the public, and will
 only plead in excuse, the magnitude of the work, the difficulty of
 procuring  a copy of  the  original with which  to compare  the
 translation,  and the labor of this revision; as  these difficulties
 are in some measure  removed, the publication will proceed  in
 future without delay;  in fact, the second volume  is now in  the
 press.
   In submitting our work to the profession, we claim their indul-
 gence ;  we know it to  be defective, and but illy fitted to meet the
 eye  of criticism: a translation seems to be an  easy thing:  we
 advance no  new theories, are responsible for no assertions, and
 are not bound to defend the opinions of the author:  our object is
 merely to present his views with plainness  and perspicuity: we
 may read, we may understand, but if we attempt  to  convey the
 meaning to others, unexpected difficulties are encountered.  These
 are  increased if the work be translated  through  the medium
 of a second language,  and still more,  if this  medium, like  the
 French of Meckel's manual, (we say  it with  high respect for
 those eminent  men  whose names appear on the  title page,) be
 incorrect.  Farther, a  work  of this character demanded a more
 able interpreter, some one whose name would have been a pass-
port  to its excellence:  let it  be remembered, however, that the 
AMERICAN PREFACE.
manual has  now been extensively known for six years; that
during this time, translations have been announced both in Ame-
rica and England, (in this country  four to our knowledge.) and
have been withdrawn, probably from the want of patronage, and
we trust that our attempt  will not appear presumptuous.
   In regard  to the original,  Professor Meckel's reputation as  an
anatomist, and a man of profound science, is immense;  his works
are extensively and favorably known  in Europe;  and of all
scientific works in a foreign language  imported into this country,
no one has been circulated so extensively as the French transla-
tion, which is now out of print.  Farther, we have the written
testimonies of some of the most eminent medical men in the United
States, among whom we would mention Drs.Coates,(l) Horner,(2)
Mott,(3) Physick,(4) Sewall,(5) J.  A. Smith,(6) N. Smith,  (7)
Stevens,(8) and Warren,(9)  (whose courtesy  we take pleasure
in acknowledging,)  all of whom  have been in the  habit of
referring to the work for years, and consider  it one of the best
treatises on anatomy ever written.   We should not mention this,
unless  called upon  by a  passage  in the  preface to  Cloquet's
anatomy, translated  by Dr. Knox of Edinburgh, and republished
in this  country;  a good  translation of a  valuable work.   We
quote the passage.  Speaking  of Cloquet, the Dr.  says:  " His
omission of what  is  called ' General Anatomy,' with  all its  ab-
surd theories, its tiresome  diffuseness, its  verbosity, and unprofita-
ble minuteness, ought to be deemed  by the student a great advan-
tage, and a  recommendation of the work;  and  should  any one
doubt this, let him  peruse the first volume  of the ' Manuel
dAnatomie  Generate,   descriptive,  et  pathologique,'  by  J.  F.
Meckel, where he will find, under the title ' General Anatomy,' all
the absurdities without the good sense contained in the 'Elementa

  (1) Physician to the Philadelphia Hospital.
  (2) Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania.
  (3)  Professor of Op. Surgery in the College of Phys. and Surg., New York.
  (4) Emeritus  Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania.
  (5) Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in Columbia College, D. C.
  (6) Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in College of Phys. and Surg., N. York.
  (7) Professor of Surgery in the University of Maryland.
  (8) Professor of Surgery in the College of Phys. and Surg., New York.
  (9) Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in Harvard University, Boston. 
AMERICAN PREFACE.
vii
Physiologic^  of Haller;  and in addition, more idle, extrava-
gant, unintelligible theories, misnamed anatomical, than ever yet
were collected in a single volume."
  We should  not  expect,  after this  thorough condemnation  of
general anatomy without trial or jury, we had almost said with-
out a judge, to find the Doctor employing his time and talents in
translating a Work on the same subject.  One would think, too,
that in guarding against absurd theories, absurdities stated as
facts would have been avoided; yet this is not the case. The trans-
lation of Cloquet has been followed by that of Beclard's General
Anatomy, into which Dr. Knox has introduced many strange things,
 not idle, extravagant, unintelligible theories, pardonable terms in
regard to a favorite opinion, but statements professing to he facts,
absolutely contradictory to common sense.(l)  We admit that the
 French translation of Meckel contains assertions on one  page
 which are contradicted in the next; these, perhaps, may be found
 in  our volumes, but  a mere reference to the original will prove
 them to be errors of translation; it  is surely something new in
 criticism to attach the responsibility of  these to the author, and if
 the position be tenable, we would only say—poor Beclard !  We
 respect Dr.  Knox for his talents and information, but not for con-
 sistency,^) or for possessing that tone of kind feeling and liberal
 sentiment,  which ought to exist  between the educated men of
 every nation.
    We have admitted in the preceding paragraph,  that  contra-
 dictions occur in  the  French translation,  which was evidently
 hurried: some of these errors are important to  the  student, and
 to  correct them, our translation has  been compared  with the ori-
 ginal.   Here,  the translator  and publisher would acknowledge
 their  obligations to  Dr. Alfred C.  Post,  of this  city, for  his
 generous kindness in translating several notes and passages  omit-
 ted in the French, and for the correction of several errors in  the
 text; but he is not  responsible for those which may  have passed
  (1) Such as comparing a muscle to a mitten! &c.  For a nice dissection of Dr.
 Knox's translation, see the preface to the American version  by J. Togno,  M. D.,
 published at Philadelphia, 1830.
  (2) We almost repent of this charge, more especially if the work was selected by
 the Doctor "with the consent of his publishers, as one worthy of transla.ion," and if
 the medical men on the other side of the Atlantic ever feel, as do many on this, the
 " wholesome stimulus of prospective want." 
Vlll
AMERICAN PREFACE.
 unnoticed.   Dr.  Post's importunities have been  great:  the  best
 advantages which our country afford, have  been open  to him:
 added to these, by residing in  France and Germany, and by at-
 tending lectures at the most celebrated universities he has acquired
 a good knowledge of the languages of those countries, and can
 command new sources of learning.  The path  of usefulness is
 now open before  him, in which  we most cordially wish  him
 success.
   We have endeavored in the American translation to present the
 meaning  of the author faithfully: but we regret, that notwith-
 standing the utmost care in revising the  manuscript and correct-
 ing the proofs, some errors are introduced; the  most  important
 are noticed in our errata, and for them we would again  ask
 indulgence.  The volumes are already  so large, that  we have
 increased  them only by adding such facts as have been observed
 since the  publication of the French ; the original notes of Pro-
 fessor Meckel are designated  by figures;   to those added by  the
 French translator, the letters F. T. are  attached: our own  are
 marked with an asterisk*: for  them we  have depended on  the
 medical journals, more especially  the American  Journal of  the
 Medical Sciences,  published  at Philadelphia, whose Quarterly
 Periscope  presents a  brief summary of the  discoveries made
 throughout the world.
   Hitherto, we have depended  for our advance in the science of
 anatomy principally upon Europe.   While the American practice
 of medicine combines  the  advantages of  the different European
 systems, and our medical men are not deficient in talents and ap-
 plication, the unjust and oppressive laws  of our country exclude
 them from the study of anatomy.  We say unjust and oppressive ;
 what can be more so, than to make a surgeon amenable to a civil
tribunal for a professional error, while at the same time, if detected
in attempting to  gain the knowledge necessary  to  avoid those
errors, he is exposed to fine, imprisonment, the stigma  of public
 opinion, and the  risk   f  being torn to  pieces by an infuriated
mob.  We congratulate the profession,  however,  that  the time
is  rapidly approaching, when  the study  of anatomy  may  be
prosecuted in this  country without  the   dread of the  debtor's
or of the state  prison.   Through  the  continued   and  well di-
rected  efforts  of  Dr.  John C.  Warren, the able Professor  of 
AMERICAN PREFACE.
IX
Anatomy and Surgery  in  Havard  University, the legislature  of
Massachusetts have finally passed an act legalizing the study of
anatomy; this act imposes additional penalties for  violating the
sepulchres of the dead, but at the same time it is  all that any
reasonable  medical man can  wish.   Dr. W.'s exertions in the
cause of science have  been  great, and this last effort, happily
crowned with success, entitles him  anew to the  gratitude of the
profession.   We hope that the course of the legislature of Mas-
sachusetts will be followed by the governments of the other states,
and anatomy will then receive that attention which its importance
demands.
  But we  trespass upon  the public,  and  will  conclude   with
observing that no exertions shall  be spared to render the suc-
ceeding volumes of our  translation worthy of their patronage.


  New Yohk, Nov. 10.
Vol.  I.
2 
 
              PREFACE

TO  THE  FRENCH  TRANSLATION.
   We have long wished for a work which  should comprise all
the important  facts of  General, Descriptive,  and  Pathological
Anatomy, and of Physiology.  A task so arduous  demanded a
knowledge both extensive and profound, and could be accomplished
only by one of the fust anatomists of the age.   Meckel, who hono-
rably sustains the medical reputation of his family, and to whom
the world is indebted for several productions of merit, has fearlessly
undertaken this laborious work.   His treatise on anatomy is con-
sidered as a standard  in his own country, and will doubtless be
favorably received in this.  It is one of the finest productions of
Bichat's school, Bichat,  the envy of all Europe,  and  to  whom
Meckel has paid the most brilliant tribute of respect that talent
can pay to genius, by professing for him a calm admiration.  We
have  been careful in our  translation to add  all  the new facts
which have been  discovered  since the  publication of the origi-
nal^ 1)

  (1) Handbuch der menschlichcn Anatomw, Halle and Berlin. Vol. i. 1816. Gen.
Anatomy. Osteology, Syndesmology, and Myology, Vol- ii. 1816.  Angeiology a»d
Neurology, Vol. iii. 1817. Splanchnology and Vmbrylogy, Vol. iv. 1820. 
 
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GENERAL  ANATOMY. 
 
                   MANUAL

                           09

GENERAL, DESCRIPTIVE, AND PATHOLOGICAL

                ANATOMY.
                INTRODUCTION.

   I. Anatomy is the science of the organic form.  This term is not
very convenient, as it suggests only one of the numerous means em-
ployed to attain a knowledge of the organism: hence, the  terms zoo-
gaphy, physiology, organography, and morphology,  have been pro-
posed as substitutes for it;  but  as the word anatomy is sanctioned by
long usage, and does not retard the continual progress of the science,
it may be retained without inconvenience, and probably will be always
used.                                                        t
   That series of practical rules by which we gain  a knowledge of
the organism, constitutes  the  art of anatomy.   Its relations  with
anatomy are then those which exist between the means and the end.
   II. The particulars of the organic form are,
   1. The external form, which may also be called the configuration;
it  is determined  by the relations  which exist between  the three
dimensions.
   2. The inner form  or the texture, (textura,) the manner in which
the body or its parts are composed.  The term structure is also given
arbitrarily to  the composition of the„ whole body, inasmuch as it is
formed of large parts, while texture is applied to the composition of
these parts, since they themselves are produced by the union of parts
still smaller.
   3. The size.
   4. The color.
   5. The physical properties, the degree of cohesion, of elasticity, &c.
   6. The relation of locality of one part in regard either to  the others,
or  to the whole body, and consequently, a.  its situation, its place in the
organism; 6. its mode of connection with the parts adjacent.
   In the sketch of the  organic form, we consider more or less com-
pletely,
   Vol.  I.                       3 
18
introduction.
   1. The Chemical composition, and
   2. The properties and actions of the organisms, in order  to present
 as complete a view as possible of all their characteristics.
   In fact, we may say that anatomy is to a certain extent the histori-
 cal part of physiology; hence it would be convenient to consider these
 two sciences as forming but one, and to place them first an all books.
   III.  The subject of  anatomy is extremely varied; it  may then  be
 presented in a great many different forms.

   IV.  Thus:
   1. The science of the organization may comprehend a  greater or
 less number of different organisms.   The subject of anatomy, in gene-
 ral, is to make known the form of all the organs;  but the objects are
 so many  and  various,  that it has been subdivided into phytotomy,
 or vegetable anatomy,  and  zootomy, or comparative anatomy.(1)    In


   (1) The unity of the organic composition, the most important fact of animated na-
 ture, is now admitted by all enlightened naturalists.  The meditative Greeks disco-
 vered it; but when they studied  it in detail, they objected to what were termed  its
 numerous exceptions.  This difference arose from the fact that Aristotle, and after
 him Galen,  who have been followed by all anatomists, founded comparative anatomy
 on the unity of functions, because they knew not  how to  proceed, except upon per-
 fect organs, exercising determinate functions, and did not recognize identities, ex-
cept in pursuing the insensible gradations of forms.  An example will show better
than abstract remarks the defect of this method, which prevented the unity of ana-
tomy from being recognized, although that of the organic composition  was admit-
ted, and which determined the naturalists to make as many distinct systems of ana-
tomy as they could perceive different characters.  Take, for instance, the four limbs
of a cat; they carry the trunk; they are the organs of support; they are composed
of moveable parts, which, put in action by the muscles, serve to move the trunk;
they are, then, the  organs  of locomotion;  they are terminated by moveable pha-
lanxes, which extend and bend—these are the organs oiprehension, to seize and retain
their prey; finally, the last phalanx, which is naturally  turned backward, can  be
brought in the same direction with the others, so that the sharp nails, which termi-
nate it, project—they are the means of attack and  defense.  Now, if we consider the
four limbs of the ape, we find they are capable only of the first three functions; they
perform only the first two in the dog, and the second in the seal. Their  anatomical
relations are, however, the same.  Anatomy demonstrates, in the limbs of the cat,
of the ape, of the dog, and of the seal, the same bones, the same muscles, the same
ligaments, the 'same envelops, and the same nails; they differ only in slight modifi-
cations of form and size, to assist their uses.  How then  ought we to regard these
forms, proportions, and functions'?
  Impressed with these great principles, J. St.  Hilaire discovered, that  to attach to
 anatomy a philosophical and truly scientific character, we must neglect the organs
themselves, their too fugitive forms, and various functions, and consider  only the or-
ganic elements, which change or increase from new developments. In this manner he
arrived at organic elements, which are, strictly speaking, the same, and  discovered
that the functions of the organs are much modified, according as some of their parts
 vary in length and thickness. Such is the path pursued  by this naturalist, to give
 a philosophical turn to anatomy.  His doctrine is, in fact, that of Aristotle, but with
 this important distinction, which gives it the character of a real discovery: Aris-
 totle did not recognize the analogy, except while the functions were preserved •  that
 is, he admitted no similarity when organs, composed of elements, employed these
 same elements, partly before, partly behind, or on  the side; in a word directed them
to other, organs.  Hence, a resemblance in form, and an equivalent destination
 assured  him that the organizations were identical: in short, he mistook  the appear-
 ance only for the rule.  J. St. Hilaire does not say that the organs, but the materials
 of which they are composed, are always the same.  This distinction changes the
 state of the question entirely, for then the identity remains a general fact  even
 when the organs do not continue the same, as on leaving the classes.  In fact  it ia
 only when the connections and mutual relations of two parts are similar, that'thev
 are analogous according to the new theory, which attaches but a secondary impor-
 tance to the different uses entailed by their newly acquired relations, and introduces
 for the first time in anatomy, the  principle of the  dissemination of the organic ma- 
INTRODUCTION.
19
each of  the two organized kingdoms, the science may treal particu-
larly of  a class, an order,  a genus,  or even a species.  In fact, we
must know the forms of all the species, to have a complete phytotomy
or zootomy, and lastly, a complete anatomy.
  2. The limits of anatomy may also be contracted or extended, be-
cause  the organic  form is not confined in each species by absolute
rules, nor are all individuals formed after the same type.   Thus:
   a. Anatomy is not the same at all periods of life :
   6. The two sexes differ  from each other, at all ages, at least in the
perfect species:
  c. The species comprehend a greater or less number of varieties, of
races.
   There is then an anatomy of ages, sexes, and races :
   These differences may be considered as regular, inasmuch as they
are constant, and necessarily belong  to organized bodies.
   A second class of differences comprises  the irregularities, so called
either  because they are not necessarily connected  with  the essential
forms  of organized  bodies, and most of them arise more or less  evi-
dently by a departure of the formative act from the laws of formation,
or because they endanger more or less imminently the existence of the
organism.
   Pathological  anatomy treats  of these  aberrations from  the primi-
tive type.(l)
   The anatomy of a species, to  be complete, should comprise  all the
conditions  above mentioned.   We may,  however, separate some of
them from  the rest, and consider  them only.


terials,  which is so fertile in results; by virtue of which these materials, when dis-
placed,  take on new actiens, as do all those organs which have become rudimentary.
Thus the  doctrine of our learned compatriot is founded on the following:  1. That
identity does not always depend upon the organs as a whole, but only on the mate-
rials of which each is composed.  2.  That inquiries after identity should regard the
mutual, necessary, and consequently invariable, dependence of the parts.  3. That
the organic elements which touch, are, from their position, necessarily constrained
to assist one another reciprocally. 4. Finally, that an organ, whether in its normal
or pathological state, never possesses extraordinary activity, unless  some other one
of the same system, or of those connected with it suffers proportionally, and in the same
ratio.  J. St. Hilaire briefly terms these the four fundamental laws of every organic
formation, theory of analogies, principle of connections, elective affinities of the organic
elements,  and balance of organs. Regarded in this new light, anatomy will change
the view of physiology, and will finally allow it to rank among the sciences; it will
even have a direct influence upon the practice of medicine; for, first, it will estab-
lish general pathology on a rational foundation, and refer to a single principle the
many facts observed by pathologists, although ignorant of the law which embraced
them all; secondly, it will teach us to mistrust the experiments on animals, in
which we have hitherto confided implicitly.  Many physicians draw conclusions
from these experiments in regard to man,  saying, "the organs are the same, and
consequently the functions must be similar."  A blow from the claw of a cat, or the
tiny hand of a child, would lead to an opposite conclusion. The stomach of the dog
is unique like that of man ; but an enlargement in the size of its parts would change
the nature of its functious. Will the  dog  then vomit, as man does 1  Be careful
how you conclude.                                                  F. T.
  (1) Our idea of pathological anatomy would not be correct did we suppose, from
the definition, it treated only of monstrosities, or of variations from the formative
type; for it makes us  acquainted, also, with all the accidental alterations of the
organic tissues produced  by disease.  Hence, to avoid all doubt, we  say, that it
treats of all aberrations from the primitive type, congenital or accidental.   F. T. 
20
INTRODUCTION.
   The differences of the first class are not generally excluded from
works which treat of the form in its regular state.  It is to be regretted
that the periodical  differences arising  from age are not  usually suffi-
ciently appreciated, being often very wrongly separated  more or less
from the anatomy, and considered as branches of a science with which
they have no connection.   On the contrary, the study of the normal
state is often separated from  that  of the  anomalies.   This is  also
wrong; first, because the line of distinction between the rule and the
exception cannot always be exactly drawn.   Secondly, because  the
anomaly is often a  comment on the rule, and is a deviation only at the
age when it is  found.  And finally, because, as anatomy proposes to
give a complete view of the organic form, this  end can be attained only
by treating of every particular of this form.
   V. Anatomy may be presented in very different forms.  Sometimes
it .is thought sufficient to describe successively the organized bodies as
a whole, and in detail;  sometimes general results are deduced from
these isolated descriptions,'in order to obtain  directly a knowledge of
the peculiarities which distinguish the different tissues which compose
the organism, and the general laws according to which the organic
form seems to have been produced.
   Hence anatomy is divided into two parts, according as it treats of a
single species of animals, or embraces all organized bodies, into general
and special, or topographical anatomy.
   The first comprises the general conditions of the organisms, and the
union of the parts which form them: the other is confined to their
details.   The first acquaints us with the different systems composing
the organism, the other learns us the distinctions between the different
parts of the same system.   The former pertains rather to physiology^
the latter to surgery; but the second  is indispensable to the physiolo-
gist, as .the first is to the surgeon. 
GENERAL ANATOMY.
                           SOURCES.


  The sources of general anatomy, are all the works on general anato-
my, and on physiology, as well as on the different branches of the former;
since we there find an exposition, more or less exact and complete, both
of the general properties of the organic formation, as of those of each
of the systems which unite to form the organism.
  Under the first head we recommend  several chapters of the first
volume of Dumas (Principes de Physiologie, Paris, 1806 ;) under  the
second, Haller's (First lines of Physiology,) Bichat, (General Anatomy,
Boston,  1822,) with Beclard's additions, and Soemmering, (Lehre vom
Baue des menschlichen Kozrpers, Frankfort, 1800.)  The last is men-
tioned, principally, for the  general conditions of most of the organic
systems, particularly the bones, ligaments, muscles, nerves, and vessels.
  In most of these works, the healthy and unhealthy state of the parts
are considered at the same time, but without saying all that can be said
upon the latter topic, and without always ascribing to it the importance
it merits.  Portal (Anatomie medicate, Paris, 1804,) has treated all the
organized systems in both  of these states  on a good plan.
  The French anatomists have, generally, described pathological altera-^
tions in their treatises before the writers of other nations.  Munroe's
book (Outlines of the Anatomy of the Human Form, London, 1813) is
an exception to this remark.
  The principal treatises on the alterations of textures, and of the struc-
ture of the human body, and the most important for exact descriptions,
and the great number of facts tending to establish the systems of patho-
logical anatomy on a firm basis, are those of
  Morgagni, (De caus. el sedibus morb.)
  Baillie, (Morbid Anatomy of the Human Body, 1793.)
  Voigtel, (Handbuch derpathologischen Anatomie, Halle, 1804,) and
  Mechel, (Handbuch der pathologischen Anatomie, Halle, 1813.)
  The principal works upon each part  of general anatomy will be
mentioned hereafter, when  treating of those parts. 
GENERAL
ANATOMY.
PART I.
                 GENERAL LAWS OF  FORMATION.


   § 1. The human body, as well as all those thatresemble it, is com-
posed of various parts, which have the mutual relations of preservation
or of generation, and  which reciprocally play the part of means and
end, one with the other, and of which the actions, infinitely varied, have,
for  a result, life, and the  preservation of every thing formed  by their
union.
   § 2. These parts are so different in form, chemical composition, phy-
sical and vital powers, and the phenomena dependent upon them, that
it is much easier to point out their differences, than their  analogies.
Nevertheless, when the thing is examined attentively, we can mention
certain general qualities, in regard to  all the conditions above, so that
these considerable differences then seem to be only simple modifications
of a single and even primitive type.
   § 3. The organic form, consequently also the human form, presents
two points of view :  1st, its intimate  composition,  the texture  of its
parts ; 2d, the external composition, the structure or the form.   But
when closely regarded, it is seen  that  these two points  differ only in
degree.
   § 4. As regards  texture, the component parts  may be reduced to
others more simple, which in their turn differ from each  other, in their
degree of simplicity, and may, therefore, be divided into proximate and
remote.
   § 5. The remote  constituent parts of the organic form, are finally
reduced to two, of which one appears constantly under a given  form
which is not the case with  the other,  although this is equally suscep-
tible of figure.   These parts are the globules and a coagulated or  co-
agulable substance.  The  part is solid or liquid, according as the latter
in the first or second state, exists alone, or with globules, and it has an
external form in the former case.   All the solid and fluid parts do not
contain these last two constituent materials : but the globules never
exist alone; they are  always imbedded in a coagulated  or coao-uJable
substance.
   § 6. The term globule is not well  adapted to corpuscles  having a
definite form ; for it is proved that many of them, particularly the glo- 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
23
bules of the blood,(\) are not equally thick in all directions, but are flat
and lenticular, since, if rolled on an oblique surface, their edges maybe
seen with a microscope.(2)   They are  however  never  angular, but
always  rounded, and  vary in form,  size, number, color, and  chemical
composition, not only in different subjects and in different parts of the
same subject, but even at different stages of  life, whether they pass or
return, and are regular or irregular.
   Thus, in regard to form, the globules appear more  complicated in
some parts than in others.  In the blood, according to the  best authori-
ties, they  are  formed of  a  central part, which  is  solid, and of an
external part, which is hollow, vesicular, and incloses  the first, but does
not adhere to it.  Every where else their structure appears more sim-
ple, for one only of these two parts is perceived;  but whatever may be
the region of the body in which they are examined, their  general form
appears the same in the same animal, that is, they are never found ob-
long in one part, and rounded in another.   In man they are rounded.
   The globules  differ much  in volume in the  different  parts of the
body : they are smaller in the liver than in the kidneys, and larger in the
spleen than in the liver.(3)   Those of  the nervous  system are smaller
than those of the blood; (4)  these latter are in their turn larger than  those
of the lymph, of milk,  and of chyle.(5)   At the commencement of sup-
puration^) they are smaller than when it has existed  for some time. (7)

   (1) C. H. Schultzhas very recently attempted to demonstrate that blood endowed
with the vital principle is  not composed of globules swimming in serum, but forms a
homogeneous mass, which is divided into numerous corpuscles, exercising, upon
each other and on the parietes  of the blood-vessels, the most lively action; so that
they are reciprocally drawn together, or rather are  united, and then reform them-
selves  anew: they attract each other mutually, and join to form  one  mass: this
mass resolves itself into several parts; and the same thing occurs again.   This new
theory of the vitality of the blood founded on microscopic observations, if confirmed,
will have a powerful influence on physiology, and will serve to explain the existence
of animal scions, which have been rejected too soon, because we could not understand
them  See two important memoirs of Schultz in  the Journal Complementaire:
 Observations microscopiques sur la circulation du sue propre dans la chelidoine et dans
plusieurs autres plantes, vol. xvi. p. 208. and vdl. xvii. p. 136.   Memoire sur lespheno-
mines de la vie dans le sang, demontres par les observations microscopiques, vol:
xix pp 19 and 212. The observations of this physician have been resumed by Du-
trochet who thinks they were founded on an optical delusion.—Same Journal, vol.
ix p 289   This subject  demands more attention, and we invite to it the talent and
zeal'of physiologists.  We ought, however, to add that Dcellinger (Was ist Abson-
derungund wie geschieht sie, Wurtzburg, 1819, p. 21.) had  already rejected the
thooryof globules swimming in serum ; but he admits the existence ot globules : he
thinks too that the blood should  not be termed a  fluid; for it  does not run like
water, but like the fine sand contained in an hour-glass.  F.T.
   (2) Hewson, Experimental Inquiries, London, 1777, vol. in.  p. 15.  Leuwenhceck
says they are globular in man and the mammalia, but flat in fishes.-Mrc. Nat. vol. l.
p 51)  Schmidt states they are round in man and the mammalia, and elliptically ob-
loncr'in all other animals.-(Sur les globules du sang, in the Journal  Compl duDict.
 des Sciences Med. vol. xviii. pp. 107 and 210.)  See also the work  of G. A. Magm,
 (Nuove osservazioni microscopiche sopra le molecule rosse del sangue, Milan, 177b,)
 as likewise that of Prevost and Dumas, (in the Bibliotheque Vmverselle, 1821, July,
   IfjWenzel.  Prodromus eines  Werks uber das  Gehern des Menschen und der
 Sceugthiere, Tubingen, 1806, chap. iv.
   (4) Prochaska.  De  Struct. Nerv. Vienna, 1779, chap. iv.
   (5) Hewson.  Exp. Inq. tabs. 1 and 4.
    6) Home. On the Properties of Pus, London, 1778, p. 14.
   m M Edwards, from  his microscopic researches upon the cellular, fibrous, and
 vascular tissues, the muscles, and the nervous tissue, or pulpy substance of the brain 
34
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  Some fluids, as urine, contain very few globules;  the same is true of
some solids, as the mucous tissue, the fibrous parts, the cartilages, the
bones.  On the contrary,  there are more in the blood, the muscles, and
the nervous substance.  More are found in the blood than in chyle and
milk;  they are also more numerous  in perfect pus than in that which
is just forming.                            ,    ,  ,  ,       .      .   ,
  The color and chemical composition of the globules are determined
usually by those of the parts; since the latter are constituted by them,
and they cause the  differences of the parts.  This proposition appears
incontestible, at least as regards the solids.
  In all these respects the globules  are subject to periodical changes.
The analogy between  man and animals renders it  probable that at
different periods of life they vary considerably also in him, both  as
regards form and volume; for in the  fetuses of birds  and reptiles, glo-
bules of blood have been  found of another form and much larger  than
in the  adults.  The same remark is true in respect to color and chemi-
cal  composition; since the two qualities do not remain the same in the
same  parts  at all  periods of existence.    Their number certainly
changes regularly at different times.   At the commencement of the
first period, when the fetus is forming, no globules can be perceived,
and the substance of the new being is composed entirely of a coagu-
lable, homogeneous liquid ;  this soon  separates into a fluid part and
another which is more consistent;  the latter is surrounded by the for-
mer, and, as a plate of zink moistened with  water,  is alternately in
a positive or negative state of electricity, according to its situation, so
the positive state every where prevails in the solid portions, or  the glo-
bules,  and  the negative, in the liquid which surrounds them.   But
when  the fluid, which was at first homogeneous, once divides into glo-
bules and a liquid, the  globules, continue for some time more apparent
than they are afterwards, and then may be discerned  in all parts of the
fetus.
  § 7. These two remote constituent parts, the globules and the coagu-
lable liquid, produce, either the  second alone, or both  combined, two
principal forms :  in the first, the length much exceeds the other dimen-
sions ; in the second, it is more  nearly equal to the breadth, although
they both exceed the thickness.  The first form is called fibrous, the
                                                                    (
and nerves, has determined that the elementary parts of these tissues are formed and
arranged in the same manner in every animal observed by him.  Edwards thinks
he can establish, as a general law, that the proper elementary structure of these dif-
ferent tissues is the same in all animals. A still more remarkable fact is developed
by his researches, viz., that the form and size of the globules are  always the  same,
whatever is the organ or animal in which they are examined. We must then believe
that the primitive form of the molecules of solid and  organized  animal matters is
always constant and definite.  In fact, as Edwards states, the organic tissues above
indicated are formed of spherical corpuscles j£^ of a millimetre in diameter,  what-
ever may be the other properties of these parts and the functions for which they are
designed.—(H. M. Edwards.  Memoire sur la structure elementaire des principaux
tissus organiques de I'homme,  Paris, 1823.)  F. T.*
  * M. Raspail concludes, from some recent microscopic observations, that the mem-
branes, when isolated, and reduced to their proper consistence, are not composed of
globules perceptible by our means of observation, and however coarse those exa-
mined  may be, their surfaces  appear smooth, and not granulated.—Am.  Med
Jour. Nov. 1828, from the Repertoire d'Anatomie. 
GENERAL  LAWS OF FORMATION.                25
second, the laminar: the fibrous form belongs usually only to the coagu-
lated liquid, which is sometimes changed into fibres, even without the
globules, as in the bones, tendons, &c.
  The globules tend  very much, with the coagulable liquid, to form
fibres ;  that is to say, to arrange themselves one after  another, as is
seen in the nervous and muscular systems ;  although in several parts,
as in the substance of the viscera, they are deposed  without any regu-
larity, being placed indiscriminately in the coagulable fluid.  The latter
is,however,inseparable from the globules, for it envelopes them entirely:
even the most delicate fibres are surrounded with a sheath, produced
by this fluid, in which all the parts are, in some measure, placed, and
in the liquid portions of which, the globules contained in the fluids float.
  The properties of the fibres vary as much as those of the substances
which constitute them.   There is, then, no single or elementary fibre.
  § 8. The union of fibres and laminae, or of the latter alone, produces
spaces of different forms, called cellules. Gallini, Ackermann, and some
others, were wrong in considering these cells as the only final elements
of form.  The  very  expressions of these authors refute their  own
opinions ;  for if " all the parts of the body are aggregations of laminae
of" different sizes, joined one to another at different angles, so as to inter-
cept between  them, spaces or cells of various sizes,"(l) or if "four
mucous laminae joined  at an acute angle, enclosing a space called a
cell, are the homogeneous elements of every organization,"(2) it is
easy to perceive, that the cellular formation comes manifestly from the
lamellar, and thus that the cells are a secondary formation.  To this it
may be objected that the  globules are, properly speaking, cells, and
hence that the fibres themselves are composed of cells ; but this opinion
cannot be admitted, because these globules exist in a loose state in the
fluids.   Besides, there are many parts in which there are no traces of
these hypothetical cellules, and which appear to be  produced by a ho-
mogeneous fluid coagulated in large laminae, as is seen particularly
in the serous  membranes.   It  is equally improper  to call the  fibres
the crystaline forms of organized bodies.(3)
  § 9. In the body the fibrous  formation exceeds  the  lamellar  very
much, and the parts themselves in the whole form  in which  the
dimensions of  length and breadth are equally developed, such as the
fibrous membranes, the broad bones  and muscles, manifestly exhibit
the fibrous texture internally, a circumstance belonging, unquestion-
ably, to the law, in virtue of which the dimension of  length, in the
whole body, exceeds  the other two. The fibres are easily distinguished
in the nerves, muscles, most of the bones, and  the fibrous organs.  A
tissue, at once fibrous  and lamellar, is found in the viscera,and partially,
also, in the bones.
  § 10. These elements, disposed in fibres and laminae, which originally
differmuchin figure and composition, produce, when united, several proxi
mate or immediate constituent parts oftheform,which vary considerably,

  (1) N. Gallini,  Betrachtungen veber die neuen Fortschritte en der Kennlniss des
Menschliehen harpers, Berlin, 1794, p. 61.
  (2) Ackermann, Darstellung der Lehre von den Lebenskrceften, vol. i. p. 11.
  (3) Autenicith, Physiologic, vol. i. p. 7.
  Vol  1                         4 
26
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 both in their internal and external figure.  These bodies have received
 the name of systems, in relation to their form, by which we understand
 that the different parts of a given combination resemble each other, and
 differ from the others in all the parts of the body.  Many, as the mu-
 cous, nervous, and vascular systems, deserve this  term in a still more
 special manner, because they form an uninterrupted whole.   Here the
connection is less intimate in some systems than in others ; for example,
 the bones and muscles do not offer, like the above mentioned, an unin-
 terrupted continuity in their proper substance ; nevertheless, they are
 so united into a whole by peculiar systems, to wit the fibrous, that the
periosteum which covers the bones, not only has the  same structure
as  the  accessory ligaments which pass from one bone to another, and
as  the  tendons of the muscles which are inserted into it, but also
forms with them a continuous whole.
  Other parts of the body, on the  contrary, as the viscera, and serous
membranes, are isolated, and are retained, one to the other, only by the
first three systems, which are universally diffused, and form an unin-
terrupted whole.
  The different parts of the body receive also the name of tissues, (tex-
tus,) in regard to their internal structure ; and that of organs, by reason
of the actions they execute ;  for each acts, in its manner, for the pre-
servation of the body, which is itself called an organism, in reference to
the  activity of the parts constituting it.
  §11. These different parts vary much from each other, in their ex-
ternal and internal form, their chemical composition, their mode of vital
activity, and their functions.  They differ most, however, in the degree
of complication.  There  are, in this point of view, two grand princi-
pal  classes, which may be called, the  first, the class of simple organic
organs  or systems, or of similar parts, (partes  similares,) because
they are found in the body more  than once ; the  second, the class of
compound organs or systems, or  of dissimilar  parts, (partes dissimi-
lar es,) or as Bichat terms them, of apparatus, because they are found
in the body only once, or at most twice.   The union of  the simple or-
gans takes place in  a determined manner, many of them uniting  to
give rise to parts designed to accomplish a special function,  single,
or at  most double.   Combining thus,  they form the apparatus;  so
that the body, considered as a whole, results from an assemblage of
compound systems which  we must  decompose and reduce to  their
elements, if we wish  to have an exact and complete idea of the condi-
tions of their existence.  The hand, the foot, each viscus, the different
organs of the senses, &c. are examples of these apparatus.  Neverthe-
less, we should observe, that the line of demarkation between the sim-
ple  and compound organs is not rigorously traced.  The simple organs
themselves are composed of several different parts, and combine and
unite differently.   As for the more complicated  organs, we can with
attention, refer them to simple systems, since we finally find, in several
the  same conditions which are presented by the latter.   This is the case'
at least with many of them, and particularly with those termed viscera :
doubtless all these do not differ from other parts, sufficiently to  consti-
• 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
27
 tute special  organs ; but when examined attentively, we ascertain,
 first, that they are only simple modifications, or branches of one and
 the same system, the cutaneous ; and secondly, that they are so analo-
 gous to the vascular system, that no perfectly distinctive characters can
 be assigned to them: both are canals having their parietes formed essen-
 tially of two layers, an internal and an external, of which the latter tends
 to move the contents, and which are both formed with vessels and nerves.
 We are then embarrased in attempting to decide on the subject of cer-
 tain parts, whether they should be regarded as simple or compound
 organs.   The skin, for instance, is certainly an apparatus, a compound
 organ, if  we consider it in its totality, as is necessary to acquire an
 exact idea of its functions : but, we can distinguish in it several particu-
 lar systems,  since we can reduce it mechanically, not only to parts
 which are found in other organs, but into those which are peculiar to
 it, as the cutis, papillary tissue, epidermis, hair, and nails.
   §12. We ought  not, however, to think, from what has been  said,
 that a classification founded on the difference of tissue and of  compo-
 sition, is useless and impossible; on the contrary, it appears more pro-
 per, not only to examine the simple and compound organs separately,
 but farther, in making the table of the most simple systems, to consider
 all the parts manifestly connected with  a compound organ, as belong-
 ing to this organ, and to describe them with the others, rather than fol-
 low the opposite course, and to refer the history of these different parts
 to that of the simple  systems to which they belong.   This method is
 decidedly the best, at least for those  systems which do not form an en-
 tire whole, as the vascular and the nervous systems.
  §13.  The number of systems should be determined after a profound
 study of the properties possessed by  the different parts ; since we must
 admit as many particular systems as we can demonstrate different tis-
 sues.   But at the  same time we must  be careful to refer to the same
 system, all the parts which resemble each other in these different points
 of view, however great may be the distance between them.
  §14.  To approach the truth as nearly as possible in this respect, we
 must clearly distinguish the final forms and the final tissues, to which
 all the formations are reduced, that is, the laminee and the fibres,  from
 the forms which proceed from a particular arrangement of the latter,
 and which appear to constitute so many distinct species, because each
 of them has less analogy with all the others than exists between those
 of their parts, which are found in different regions of the body.  Suffi-
 cient attention is not generally paid  to this difference; hence why the
forms of the second species have been united with those of the first.
  Haller(l) and some other  physiologists admit only three tissues, to
 which  all the others are referred; these are the  muscular fibre,  the
nervous fibre,  and  the mucous tissue.   They assert that all the  organs
 which are not formed from the first or second of these fibres, belong to
the third division.
  This resembles the division of those authors who admit three primi-
tive forms:  1, the  cellular, or  membranous;  2, the vascular,  or
(1) De part. corp. hum. vol. i. p. 46. 
28
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
fibrous; and 3, the nervous.(1)  These two classifications have  the
same defect, for if, in arranging the first elements, only the difference of
texture is considered, the number of divisions is too great, since the ner-
vous and vascular formations belong evidently to the same class, that
of the fibrous  organs.  But if we attend to the specific differences of
the external and internal form, and of the  actions, these two classifi-
cations are insufficient, because the number of the  forms  and of  the
modifications of the vital phenomena is much greater.
   The classification of Dumas(2) is more correct; he admits four tis-
sues ; the cellular, or spongy; the muscular, or fibrous;  the mixt, or pa
renchymatous;  and the lamellar, or osseous.   The first three represent
truly the primitive form,  although the term muscular, given to  the
second, is badly chosen;  but the fourth  should be rejected, as  the
osseous tissue evidently belongs to the second class.
   §15. Nevertheless, as these classifications announce only the primi-
tive forms, and consequently may be referred to what has been stated
above, (§7,) they are  far from removing the  differences pointed  out
between the particular systems.   It is less correct also to derive  cer
tain systems from others, and hence to regard them as modifications,
than  to say, certain systems are extended more generally than others,
and contribute  to their composition and preservation, while they do  not
exercise a similar influence upon them.
   With these ideas, Bichat has formed his general anatomy, although
his classification is not perfectly correct.  He admits general  systems,
eaadparticular systems; the first, which are alsocalledgenerah'ue,because
they are generally distributed, and concur to form all  the others, are six
in number: the cellular,ox mucous, the arterial, the venous, the exhalent,
the absorbent, and the nervous systems.(3)   He has even increased this
number by one, having subdivided the nervous system into the nervous
system of animal, and that of organic life.   If  we unite, as should be
done, the second, third, fourth, and fifth, we reduce the systems to three,
the mucous tissue, the vascular system, and the  nervous system, which,
adopting  Bichat's meaning, might be called primitive, or general sys-
tems, but to which  this name is not  applicable when we confine our-
selves to the acceptation universally received.
   Besides these three, we usually establish but  a small number of sys-
tems, because the general characters of the tissues, in different parts of
the body, are neglected, while other tissues, which are composed of very
different  elements,  are considered as primitive; and, in tracing their
history, we describe the different parts which concur to form them  but
without reflecting that several of these parts, although they do  not
form a connected  and coherent whole, and often differ, even in their
external  form,  do not  the  less belong to one  and the same system
when  their  most  essential  properties  are  considered.    Thus  a
muscle is described as composed of a fleshy and of  a  fibrous portion
without thinking that the first alone enters  into our idea  of what  a

       (1) Walther, Physiol vol i. p. 97.
       (2) Prop, de phys. vol. ii. p. 4.
       (3) Bichat's General Anatomy, trans, by G. Hayward, vol. i. p. 79. 
GENERAL LAWS OF  FORMATION.
29
muscle should be, and that the second belongs not to the muscle only,
but also to other and very different parts.
  Other systems are then referred  to the  bones, cartilages, ligaments,
muscles, and viscera.   Hence anatomy is divided  into osteology, to
which is joined chondrology, as most of the ligaments are blended with
the bones, syndesmology, myology, splanchnology, angiology, and neu-
rology.   Nevertheless, this division does  not exhaust, by any means,
the subject of anatomy.   The bones, cartilages,  ligaments, muscles,
and viscera, are, it is true, essentially different organs : but, first, the
class of ligaments is  faulty for two reasons : because it comprehends
two kinds of different tissues, on the insufficient ground  merely that
both extend from one bone to another;  secondly, because  there  are
several organs, which deserve, as much as the ligaments,  to be admit-
ted  to  that class, even after rectifying it, as it might be  amended.
Again, the class of viscera,  which may  safely be  called a negative
class, embraces organs so dissimilar, that no general characters can be
assigned it; and we know not how to retain it, at least, as  we do not
wish to give it the name of the class of the most complicated organs or
apparatus.
   § 16.  Here we cannot overlook  the services  which Bichat has ren-
dered to anatomy, regarded philosophically, and  as a science, although
we must admit he has made too many classes.(l) He mentions fourteen
besides the generative systems,(§ 15,) viz : 1, the osseous system: 2, the
medullary system :  3, the cartilaginous system :  4, the fibrous system  :
5, the fibrocartilaginous system : 6, the muscular system of animal life :
7, the muscular system of organic life : 8, the imicous system : 9, the se-
rous system : 10, the synovial system : 11, the glandular system :  12, the
cutaneous system : 13, the epidermoid system, and 14, the pilous system.(2)
   Among these systems, we suppress the medullary system, which is
 the same as the cellular tissue, and the synovial system, a slight modi-
fication of  the serous system: the two  muscular  systems  should be

  (1) Bichat gen. anat., Vol. ii. p.  141.
  (2) It may be well to mention how modern physiologists and anatomists have di-
 vided the organic tissues since Bichat.
  Walther thinks that all the tissues are derived fromjthe cellular; and that they proceed
 from this primitive tissue in two series : one comprising the serous and synovial
 membranes, the mucous membranes and glandular tissue, the dermis, epidermis, the
 horny and pilous tissues:  the other, the muscular tissue, the fibrous membranes, the
fibro-cartilages, the cartilaginous, and osseous tissues—(Darstellung des  BichaV-
 schens systems:  in Schelling and Marcus, Jahrbuchen der Medicin.)  Vol. ii. P. i.
 p. 49.
  Dupuytreyn has diminished the number of tissues admitted by Bichat, and has add-
 ed one very important, which Bichat had omitted: 1, the cellular-system: 2, the vascular
 system, arterial, venous, and lymphatic: 3, the nervous system,cerebral, and ganglionic :
 4, the osseous system: 5,  the proper fibrous system, fibro-cartilaginous, and dermoid :
 6, the muscular system, voluntary and involuntary: 7,  the  erectile system:  8, the
 mucous system: 9, the serous system : 10, the horny system, pilous, and epidermoid:
 11, the parenchymatous system, properly so called, and the glandular.
  Chaussier divides thepartsof the animal body as follows: 1, the bones: 2, the articular
 cartilages, of prolongation, of ossification : 3, the muscles: 4, the ligaments:  5, the
 vessels: 6, the nerves: 7, the vascular ganglions, glandiform bodies: 8, the simple folli-
 cles, or crypts, proximate,compound: 9, the lachrimal,salivary,smA mammary glands,
 the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and testicles: 10, the lantellar, muscular, albugineous, sim-
 ple villous, or serous, compound villous, or follicular, and coriaceous membranes, and
 epidermis: 11, the lamellar or cellular : 12, the viscera, the digestive respiratory, circu-
 latory, urinary, and genital organs, and those of the senses.—(Table synopliques des
 solides organiques.) 
30
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  united.  We  ought not to separate  the fibrous system from the  epi-
  dermoid system, which, perhaps, should be joined to the dermoid  sys-
  tem.   Finally, all the probabilities  authorize us to unite the dermoid,


   H. Cloquet admits fifteen tissues, viz: cellular tissue, membranes, vessels, bones, car-
  tilages, fibro-cartilages, ligaments, muscles, tendons,  aponeuroses  nerves glands,
 follicles, lymphatic ganglions, and viscera.—(Cloquet's Anatomy, Boston, 1830.)
   Lenhossek numbers only eight tissues : 1, the cellular tissue: 2, the mucous, serous,
 fibrous, and mixed membranes: 3, the cutaneous  system, including the epidermis,
  nails, and hair: 4, the  vascidar, arterial, venous, capillary, and lymphatic system:
  5, ttie nervous system:  6, the muscular system : 7, the glandular system: 8, the os-
  seous system, with the cartilages and the medulla—(Physiologia medicinalis.)
   Mayer also admits eight:  1, the lamellar, or  albugineous tissue, tissue of the crys-
  taline and cornea, epidermis, hair, and nails : 2, the cellulo-fibrous, cellular, adipose,
  medullary,serous,synovial tissues, and that of the vascular membranes,der moid system,
  system of the mucous network, tissue of the uterus:  3, the fibrous tissue, proper mem-
  branes of the glands, of the spleen and kidneys; albugineous membrane of the testicle's,
 tissue of the corpora cavernosa, tissue  of the sclerotica, of the  dura-mater, and of the
 periosteum, the perichondrium, fibrous articular capsules, ligaments, aponeuroses,
 tendons, neurilema : 4,  the cartilaginous tissue  of organic life, or fibro-cartilage,
 that of animal life, or articular cartilage:  5, the osseous tissue : 6, the glandular
 tissue:  7, the  muscular tissue,  and,  8, the nervous tissue.—(Ueber Histologic  und
 eine neue Eintheilung der Gewcbe des menschlichen Kierpers, Bonn, 1819.)
   Rudolphi divides the solid parts into simple and compound. The simple parts are :
 1, the cellular tissue: 2,  the horny tissue, which comprises the epidermis, epithelium,
 nails, and hair: 3, the cartilaginous  tissue: 4, the osseous tissue: 5, the  tendinous
fibre: 6, the vascular fibre: 7, the muscular fibre : 8, the nervous fibre.   The
 compound parts are': 1, the vessels,  both general and special; the former com-
 prising the arteries, veins, and absorbents, and the latter, the special canals of the ex-
 cretory organs, as the biliary, salivary, urinary, and seminal  ducts:  2, the  mem-
 branes, which are also divided into general, as the serous, mucous, and fibrous, the
 dermis and epidermis; and special, as the membranes of the ovum, of the eye,  and
encephalon : 3, the viscera : 4, the glands.—(Grundriss der Physiologic, Berlin, 1821.)
 See  alsoC. A.Rudolphi, Programmade corporishumanipartibus similaribus, Grisp-
 wald, 1809; and S. J. Bugaiski,  Dissertatio de partium corporis humani solidarum
 similarum aberrationibus,  Berlin,  1813.
   J. Cloquet classes the  tissues of the human body as follows: 1, the cellular system:
 2, the adipose system : 3, the vascular system : 4, the nervous system :  5, the serous
 system : 6, the mucous  system :  7, the ligamentous system : 8, the elastic system :
9, the cartilaginous system: 10, the fibro-cartilaginous system :  11, the osseous  sys-
tem  : 12, the muscular system:  13, the erectile, or cavernous system:  14, the glan-
dular system: 15, the horny system.—(Anatomie de I'homme, ou Description etfigures
lithographies de toutes les parties du corps humain, Paris, 1821.)
   Heusinger refers all the organic tissues to eleven: the formative, or  cellular, the
horny, the cartilaginous, the osseous, the fibrous, the  membranous, the  nervous, the
serous, the vascular, the parenchymatous, and the glandular.—(System der Histologic.
 Eisenach, 1822.)                                                          °
   Ducrotay de  Blainville admits a generative  clement, the cellular, or  absorbent
tissue, and two secondary elements, the muscular, or contractile fibre, and the ner-
vous, or exciting fibre.   By slight modifications, the cellular tissue produces nine
systems : the dermoid, mucous, fibrous, fibro-cartilaginous, and cartilaginous osseous
serous, synovial, arterial, venous, and lymphatic. The first  secondary element pro-
duces three systems, the subdermoid  muscular, submucous muscular, and the pro-
found muscular ; and the  second  secondary element forms four : the pulpous gan-
glionic, the apulpous ganglionic, the nervous system of animal life, and  the nervous
system of organic life.—(Principes d'Anatomic comparte, Paris, 1822.)
   Beclard admits 11 classes  of  tissues : 1,  the cellular and adipose tissue .- 2  the
serous membranes: 3, the tcgumentary membranes: 4, the vascular system ': 5'  the
glands: 6, the ligamentous tissue : 7, the cartilages: 8,  the osseous system : 9  the
muscular system : 10, the nervous system: 11, the accidental formations.__(Elemcns
d' anatomie generate, Paris, 1823.)
   We may also consult, in  regard to similar parts, or simple tissues of the animal
economy, Fallopia, De  partibus similaribus humani corporis, Nurembure- 1575__
Malacarne, 1 sistemi e la loro reciproca influenza indagali, Padua  1803—^Prorh'
ka, Bemer/aingrn uber den Organismus des menschlichen Kirr'pers Vienna. 181 (vfl
Mascagni, Prodromo delta grande Anatomia, Florence, 1819 : Milan 1821 4 vol
                                                                      F. T.' 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
31
muscular, and glandular systems.  Thus the twenty-one systems ad-
mitted by Bichat, are reduced to twelve, and even to ten, viz:  the mu-
cous, vascular, nervous, osseous, cartilaginous, fibrous, fibrocartilagi-
nous, muscular, serous, and dermoid systems.(l)
  These will be examined in the general anatomy, according to  theu-
general  conditions, and in  the special anatomy, topographically, or ac-
cording  to their local relations ; when the general considerations of the
organic  form, including the human form, shall have been first given.
  §17.  The general laws of the organic form, and hence those which
belong to man, are as follows:  first, the oidline is not sharp and angu-
lar, but  rounded.   This law is true, both in regard to the form of the
whole body, as well as to that of each of its organs, and  its smallest
elements.  The roundness of the form  usually depends upon  the fact,
that all  the solids are accompanied with fluids, for the first effect of  so-
lution is to smooth down the angles of solid bodies.  We  mention, as
examples, the round form  of the cavities of the body, of the viscera, ves-
sels, nerves, muscles, bones, &c.
   §18.  II.  The  dimension of length exceeds the  others.   This law,
already mentioned above; (§9,) is seen no less in the body as a whole, and
in the external form, than  in the internal form, or the texture of its parts.
The whole length of the body, much exceeds its breadth and thickness.
It is divided into three principal regions, the head,trunk,tmd the limbs,ox
extremities.   Of these, the head alone is round, but it is only the upper
and bulging extremity of the  vertebral column, that is of the osseous
base of the trunk, in which the dimension of length evidently predomi-
nates.  This column is enveloped by lateral expansions, producing ca-
vities designed to lodge the apparatus placed before them, but it is not
entirely concealed.  The  excess of length is most manifest in the ex-
tremities,, generally, and in their different parts.  It is the same with
all the  particular systems.  The dimension of  length  much exceeds
the other two in the vascular and nervous systems.  It  is especially
marked in  the hair.  The number  of the long bones, muscles,  and
fibrous  organs, is much greater than of those which are broad or thick.
The intestinal canal, the trachcea, ureters, urethra, &c, are very nar-
row in  proportion to their length.
   This rule applies exactly to the texture, since the fibrous is the most
common of all, and every large fibre is divided  into an endless multi-
tude  of others which gradually become smaller and smaller.
   &19.  III.  The structure of the organism is radiated.  From the cen-
 tral parts, which are largest, originate  others, which are smaller, which
 move in all directions,  and in which the dimension of length especially
 predominates.   Thus  the extremities arise from the trunk :  the long,
 and narrow ribs, from the  spine ; the nerves,  from the brain,  spinal
 marrow, and ganglions, the vessels from the heart.   But, besides these
 grand  centres,  from which the rays  commence, there is an  infinite
 number of the second order, since each ray usually, divides into several,

   (1)  Perhaps it would be better to  suppress, not only the fibro-cartilaginous system,
 which is a mixed, or compound tissue, as its name indicates, but also the serous sys-
 tem, which has the same relations with the mucous, or cellular tissue, as exists be-
 tween the dermoid and epidermoid, which Meckel has very properly united,  b. I 
32
GENERAL ANATOMY.
which, in some systems, particularly the general, as that of the nerves
and vessels, also, in their turn subdivide.  The rays then ramify.
   Another general law is, that the number of rays augments as they
depart from the principal centre of radiation, and their volume diminishes
in the same proportion.  Thus, instead of one long bone, as in the arm
and  thigh, we find two, which are smaller, in the forearm  and leg,
twenty-six in the foot and twenty-seven in the hand, still smaller.  The
number of  the muscles and tendons inserted into the bones, and of the
ligaments, multiplies in the same manner, and they diminish in size in
the same ratio. In the whole course of the nervous and vascular trunks,
branches and twigs are constantly sent off in every direction, at  dif-
ferent angles, and at certain distances from the principal trunks they
divide into others still smaller, which are themselves again subdivided.
   This division is true, not only in respect ta length, and from with-
out, inward : it also, occurs in the thickness of the organs ; for  the mus-
cles and nerves represent bundles composed of cords, which are, in their
turn, formed of fibres and filaments.
   § 20.  IV. At the side of this law of ramification proceeds another,
the law of anastomosis.   These rays, it is true, subdivide a great many
times, but the subordinate rays which result  from this division, unite in
different ways with each other, and with the principal ray.  The same
remark  is true in regard to the continuity, that  is, to the thickness of
the organs ; for these anastomoses take place from above, downwards,
and also from within, outwards.  The different  trunks, branches, and
twigs of the nerves and vessels, the different tendons of the same mus-
cle, the simple fibres, their fasciculi, both large and small, in the nerves, or
at least in many muscles, the fibres of the bones, and those of the fibrous
organs, mutually anastomose together.  We can, to a certain extent,
mention here those bones placed side by side, which, in addition to the
ligaments necessary to keep them  in place, are connected by interos-
seous membranes.
   § 21.  V. These rays are not straight, but usually more or less curved.
This law, which has been termed  the law of the spiral line, is seen in
the vertebral column, which describes several  curves; it is confirmed
also by most of the long bones.  The cochlea, semicircular  canals,
several vessels, excretory ducts, and nerves, are also  examples.   Fi-
nally, this  is sometimes seen very evidently in the double monsters :
since, when two heads are placed side by side, or two bodies are united
by a head,  the direction of these two bodies or two heads is always dif-
ferent ; so that the monster, considered as a whole, appears spiral.
   § 22. VI. The different organs are somewhat analogous.(l)   It  has
already been stated (§5) that the texture of the most dissimilar organs
cam be reduced to two elements of form, which are generally united •
we have there indicated the analogy which exists between the final
structure of the organs, and to which many writers have wrongly rriveri
still more extent.   As the structure of almost all  the organs is^radi-
ated, (§19,) it follows  that the analogy of their external form is demon-
the analogy of organic forms, in our Beylragc zur ccr-
1. ii. p. 2. 
                  GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.                 33

strated.  It exists even where there is no manifest radiation ;  since we
there remark parts first dilated, and  others  which  are  contracted.
Thus, the brain is joined to the spinal  marrow, the vertebral column
to the skull, the vascular trunks to the heart, the esophagus to the buc-
cal cavity,  the intestinal canal  to the stomach, the  trachea to the,
larynx, the cystic duct to the gall-bladder, the  ureter to the  pelvis of
the kidney, and the urethra to the bladder.
  Another great analogy between the  different  systems is established
by the circumstance that those which  vary the most from each other
are formed after the same type in the same parts of the body.  Thus,
the simple trunk of the arteries of the superior or inferior extremities is
almost always divided into two different branches, at the place where
the number of bones is doubled;  in general, the divisions  and unions
correspond exactly in the different systems situated near each other.
The number of the arteries destined for the fingers and  toes is the same
as that of these appendages.   The nervous trunks and the vessels ana-
stomose in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet.  In the same
manner, the tendons of the flexor and extensor muscles of the fingers
and toes are united by mucous and tendinous slips.  The different parts
of the nervous system and of the vascular system proceed together.
  The whole form of the body is repeated not  only in those systems
which are generally diffused in the entire economy, and which form a
whole more or less continuous—as the cellular tissue and the nervous,
vascular, osseous, and muscular systems—but also  in  each of the
organs.   We should refer to this  the form already pointed out as
belonging to so many systems, the peculiarity of which is an enlarge-
ment at one extremity and a continuation into a narrower process at the
other. We must refer to this also the manner  in which most of the
organs, and principally the glands, receive their vessels.  In fact,  we
always observe a considerable depression, a fissure, about the centre of
these organs, through which the vessels  enter and emerge exactly as
in the fetus.   Here the organ is open to a certain extent,  and is much
more so the nearer it is to its formation, exactly  as in the  fetus, which
at first is open entirely before.
  The peculiar analogy of certain systems is  still greater.  This is
seen particularly in the genital organs and the intestinal canal.(l)
  § 23. VII.  The body is formed symmetrically. We find an analogy,
and even a resemblance to a certain  extent, not only between the  dif-
ferent organs, but particularly also between their different regions.(2)
This analogy may be demonstrated, both in the breadth, and in  the
length, and thickness, or even between  its right  and left  sides, (3)  be-
tween its upper  and lower extremities,(4) and between  its anterior

  (1) A. A. Meckel.  De genitalium et intestinorum analogia, Halle, 1810.  Trans,
in J. F. Meckel's Beytr. zur vergl. Anat. vol. ii. p. 2. No. 1.
  (2) J. F. Meckel, loc. cit. p. 95.
  (3) Du Pui, De homine dextro et sinistro, Leyden, 1790.—Heiland, Darstellung
der Verhaltnissen zwischen der rechten und linken Halfte des menschlichen Kar-
pers, Nuremberg, 1807.—Losehge, De sceleto hominis symmetrica—Erlangen, 1795.
—J. B. Monteggia,  Fasciculi pathologici, Turin, 1793 : morbi symmetrici et asym-
metrici.—Mchlis, De morbis hominis dextri et sinistri, Gcettin°-en, 1818.
  (4) Vicq-D'Azyr, Sur les rapports qui se trouvent entre les usages, et la structure
  Vol. I                       5 
34
GENERAL ANATOMY
and posterior  faces.(l)   We must here remark  generally, that the
similitude is never perfect, and that usually one extremity predomi-
nates, more or less, over the other.  This is  sometimes expressed by
the greater volume, and sometimes by the greater development  in tne
radiation of corresponding parts.   Nor is the symmetry equally great
in all directions, nor between the different corresponding regions,    Ihe
most perfect is the lateral  symmetry, or that  of the two sides  of the
body;  and the most imperfect, that of its anterior  and posterior  faces.
The nervous,  osseous, ligamentous, and muscular systems, and the
genital apparatus, are the most symmetrical parts ; we find less sym-
metry in the vascular system and in the thoracic and pelvic viscera, if
we except the genital apparatus.
   § 24.  1.  The most perfect lateral symmetry is in the external form,
and on the surface of the body.  Hence, it is  better known there.   In
fact, the  body seems to be composed of  a  right and  a left half, since
most of the organs are double, and those which are single, are placed
more or less on  the  median  line, so that a plane drawn from  before
backward, would divide them into two nearly equal parts, as they
are formed  of two lobes united and blended on the median line.
These latter, when placed between cavities, form _ septa; and on the
contrary, are called media of communication, commissures, when placed
between two corresponding parts, which are otherwise separated.
   Similar arrangements are found in all the systems,  and we may say
with justice that a commissure  exists more or less perceptibly in all
the body, although it is often interrupted ; this, at the same time, forms
a septum between the right and  left sides.(2)  Thus, the falx cerebri
descends from before backward, from the centre of the skull;  and the
internal ridges of  the frontal and occipital bones correspond to it.   Be-
low it, is the corpus callosum which unites the two hemispheres of the
cerebrum;   below, is the  septum  lucidum,  formed  of two  layers
closely applied to each other, and which represent in the brain what the
falx and spinous ridges have in the skull.  The nasal cavity is divided
into two parts by a partition, which is bony above  and behind, and
cartilaginous before;  the former of these portions being formed by a part
of the os ethmoides, and by a particular bone, the vomer.  The frena
of the lips in front, and the uvula behind, represent this septum  in the
mouth.   In the chest, the internal parietes of the pleura, which partly
touch, and are partly separated by organs placed  between them, form
the anterior and posterior mediastina, and thus establish a line of demar-
kation between the two halves of the thoracic cavity.    A longitudinal
septum, generally perfect,  exists between the right and left sides of the
heart.   This septum is only indicated in the abdomen, where the two
halves seem blended together ;  the division has been destroyed, or its

des quatre extremites dans I'homme et dans les quadrupedes;  in Mem. de Paris-
Mi4, vol. ii.—Meckel, loc. cit., p. 97—148.—Falguerolles, De extremitatum analosid
Erlangen, 1780.                                                  °  '
  (1) Meckel, loc. cit.; p. 148.
  (2) F. L. H. Ardieu, Considerations sur la ligne medianc, Strasburg, 1812. 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION,
35
formation has been  prevented, by  the  considerable mass  of  organs
which are inclosed by this  cavity.  We  trace it,  however, forward
and above, in the suspensory ligament of the liver which extends from
the inferior face of this gland to the umbilicus, and below, in the analo-
gous  but less extensive fold of the peritonaeum, which reaches from
the bladder to the umbilicus, covering the remains  of the obliterated
umbilical artery and urachus ;  and finally, behind, in the other fold of
the peritonaeum, which goes from the anterior face of the lumbar ver-
tebrae to the intestinal canal, and which is called  the mesentery.   On
the median line of the penis in  the male, and of the  clitoris  in the
female, we find a perpendicular  septum.  The corpus spongiosum of
the penis, and the septum and the raphe of  the scrotum in the male,
are situated exactly on the  median line.  The cellular tissue, which
unites the skin to the subjacent  parts, is thicker  in all regions of the
body on the anterior and superior, than on the posterior face.   The ves-
sels frequently anastomose together on the median line, as  is seen in
the coronary arteries of the lips, the  sinuses of the medulla spinalis,
and the cerebral arteries, which, supplying the two hemispheres of the
brain, unite by numerous  transverse branches.   So, likewise, the two
vertebral arteiies  unite on the median  line, to produce the basilary,
and the anterior and posterior spinal arteries descend along  the spinal
marrow.  Several sinuses  of the dura mater exist on the median line
of the skull.   The aorta,  venae cavae, thoracic canal, the azygos vein,
and partly even the  esophagus,  describe a curve, which corresponds
very nearly to the median  line  of the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
   The vertebral column, sternum,occiput, osfrontis, os ethmoides, and
os sphenoides, are those  parts which are unmated and distinct, and
serve to join the corresponding parts of  the same  system, as they are
united with them, and wedged in by them.  Those bones which meet
on the median line, but remain  always distinct, although  united by
an intermediate substance, as the ossa parietalia and ossa ilia, form the
connecting link between  them and those which do not touch  in the
least.
   The  brain and spinal  marrow, the heart, womb, vagina, prostate
gland, bladder, urethra, thyroid, and thymous glands, the intestinal
canal, the trachea, larynx, and tongue,  are unmated, but are  formed
of two similar portions, between which the median line passes,  at least
to a certain extent.
   All the other organs are mated, and are rarely united by their own
proper substanee.  They are connected in various ways.  Thus the kid-
neys lie on each side, and are united above by the blood-vessels,  and be-
low by the ureters, which go to the bladder. The lungs are joined above
both by the trachea and pulmonary blood-vessels, while the extremi-
ties are  perfectly insulated, or at least are united only at their upper
ends, where but a small number  of parts are found belonging to them
in common.(l)

  (1) See a note by J. F. Meckel,  on the differences between the right and left por-
tions of the body, in respect to the proportional size of the arteries and  veins, in
Deutsches Archiv. fur die Physiologic, vol. i. p. 450. 
3G
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  § 25. 2.  The symmetry of the upper and lower parts of the body is
less than than that of the lateral portions ; but it cannot be mistaken.
It is especially seen in the pectoral and abdominal  members, where it
is indicated by the  number of subdivisions which they include.   1 ne
form and number of the parts of the  different systems, which contri-
bute to form the members, are the same in all, except some slight dif-
ferences, which depend  for the most part upon the difference of func-
tions performed by the superior and lower extremities, so that one can-
not doubt but that these are constructed  after the same type, even in
man.   The upper and lower regions of the central parts of the whole
body also correspond, when the head  and trunk are supposed to be
united.   To the central part of the vertebral column alone are attached
peculiar and distinct bones, called ribs.  Next come, above and below,
vertebras without ribs; above are the cervical, below the lumbar, the num-
ber of each being less than that of the dorsal.  To the former is annexed
the head, to the latter the sacrum, which is, like the head, an aggre-
gation  of large vertebrae; these are  similar to each  other, partly in
their increase of size, and also because they unite more  slowly, and
sometimes do not fuse upon the median line, because the number of
pieces of which each is composed has become more considerable, be-
cause they are more solidly united to  each other; and finally, because
they are fused together, and articulate with moveable bones—the coc-
cyx below, the lower jaw above.  Hence, we may consider them as
imperfect vertebrae, since the first represents the arch, the second the
body of the vertebra.
   The upper and lower  parts of the body correspond manifestly also
in the  energy with  which hair is there produced.   We may espe-
cially compare together the hairs of the beard, of the nose, and genital
parts,  which surround  the upper and lower  openings of the intestinal
canal, and the apparatus connected with it, since they appear  in the
 same  places, and are  or are not developed under  the influence of the
 same conditions.
   But the two  extremities of the intestinal canal,  and  the  organs
 which are there annexed,-also correspond.
   The intestinal  canal commences above by a considerable dilatation,
 the buccal cavity and the pharynx; next comes the esophagus, the
 muscular  parietes of which  are attached to the  adjacent bones, and
 are susceptible of voluntary motion.  The same  arrangement is ob-
 served in its inferior extremity, the rectum, which continues above with
 the colon.  The parietes of those two  extremities  also are provided
  with very strong  muscular fibres.   The same thing occurs a  second
  time  in  the remainder  of the alimentary  canal, and two new ex-
  pansions are remarked ; the superior is the stomach, which is continued
  with the small intestine; the inferior, the colon, and  still farther the
  ccecum, which opens in the same manner with the large intestine!
    Farther, in the upper and lower parts of  the body there are several
  organs which manifestly correspond.   The respiratory apparatus may 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
37
be compared with the urinary apparatus;  and the thyroid and thymous
glands, the tongue, and the nose, correspond to the genital parts.
  The first  comparison is  established more easily than the second.
The principal organs of the  two apparatus, the lungs and the kid-
neys, are similar : first, in number, they are two : second, in situation,
they are separated  one from  the other—are  not inclosed  in  a com-
mon sac, and are placed along the  vertebral column :  third, in their
mode of connection;  for they are united, by large vessels which enter
them, and canals which come from them, all  of which are united on
the median line, the lungs by the trachea, and the kidneys by the ure-
ters and urethra: fourth, by their structure; apart from the general
conditions presented by the  texture  of  the glandular organs,  the
formation of the cellules of the lungs is represented by the size of the
vessels which secrete  the urine, and of the large or small cellules so
commonly found in the kidneys.
  The genital parts and the other organs maybe compared, and a paral-
lel drawn between them from structure and functions.   The thymous
gland, which is  composed of  two lateral lobes more or less evidently
separate, corresponds  to the ovaries and testicles in its glandular struc-
ture, and in its  situation, since it is the deepest of all.  The thyroid
gland, an unmated organ, is  placed much higher and more externally,
and represents the  prostate gland with the  vesicular seminales, and
the uterus.  The external and internal form of the tongue, the abun-
dance  of its vessels and nerves, the development of these vessels and
of these nerves  in papillae, the nature of its epidermis and, finally, the
arrangement of  its muscles, vessels, and nerves, resembles the glans
penis, and clitoris.  So, too, with the nose and larynx ; the first may
be compared with the urethra and vagina,  in regard to its structure, its
texture, and its  functions.  With regard  to  the larynx, the powerful
influence of the state of the genital parts  upon the bosom and on the
voice, already assures us that we may compare it to these organs, but
as  it fulfills peculiar  functions, we ought  not to expect to find in the
lower half of the body any thing exactly corresponding to it.
   Besides the analogies already indicated between the upper and lower
halves of the body, they correspond:  a. in the arrangement of the vascu-
lar system.  The aorta and venaa cavae are distributed in almost  the
same manner, and form, above, the vessels of the head and upper ex-
tremities, and below, those of the pelvis and lower extremities.
   6. In the arrangement of the nervous system : the cerebral nerves,
and even one of the spinal nerves proceed from* behind, forward, while
the direction of those of the spinal cord, except the upper,  which move
somewhat  obliquely, is from  before, backward.  The spinal marrow,
after giving off  the spinal nerves, is prolonged, and sometimes bulges
like a button, which corresponds to the brain.
   c. In the arrangement of the muscular system: since several of the
 muscles of  the back  and belly are  repeated in the upper  and lower
 parts of the body. 
38
GENERAL ANATOMY
  We have already remarked that the greatest analogy exists m the
arrangement of all the systems which unite to form the extremities
  The diaphragm forms between the upper and lower parts of  the
body a partition resembling the median line. (§24.)
  § 26. 3. The more obscure analogy  between the  anterior and poste-
rior faces of the body is generally neglected  for that  which is seen in
the two directions above mentioned.  However, we must point  it out,
although the external face of  the body offers but few faint traces of it.
  The vertebral column is evidently represented on the anterior face of
the body by the sternum, since this bone closes the cavity of the chest
before as the vertebral column closes it behind.   The sternum corres-
ponds particularly to the centre or pectoral portion of the vertebral co-
lumn ; nevertheless, it extends both above and below, beyond the car-
tilages of the ribs with which it is united, and as it is shorter than the
pectoral portion of the spine, so that, in regard to one dimension, it re-
presents only an  imperfect spine, the upper and  lower  extremities,
which do not support any ribs, are incomplete imitations of the cervical
portion and of the lumbar portion of this column.-
  The costal cartilages represent also  the false ribs, since they remain
always behind the true ribs, either in  their smaller  size or in their tex-
ture and chemical composition.
  In the anterior  part of the abdomen there are no bones to correspond
to the vertebral column; but the linea alba, that strong tendinous cord
which extends along the  median line  from the sternurq to the pubes,
certainly represents it.
  The internal mammary and epigastric vessels on the anterior face
of the .trunk, correspond to the large  vascular  trunks which descend
along the vertebral column;  and the medulla which passes through
the spine, resembles the grand sympathetic nerve  situated before this
column.   This law is recognized also  in the  doubleness of each lateral
half of the spinal marrow which is itself composed of an anterior and a
posterior cord,inthe existence of an anteriorand posterior series of roots of
the spinal nerves,  and in the division of the encephalon into the cerebrum
and cerebellum.  In the same manner the frontal and occipital bones cor-
respond before and behind.  In the  spine, the arched  ribs  before,
resemble the vertebral arches behind, and the more  so, as the latter are
developed by separate points of ossification.
   The analogy extends also both to the trunk and limbs, between the
extensor and flexor muscles, in respect to number, size, form, situation,
and mode of insertion. *
   § 27. We have said above (§  23)  that the symmetry is not per-
fectly regular.   We have explained the possibility  of this  fact, and its
reality is already in part proved by the details into which we have en-
tered.  A glance at the different systems, and at the different regions,
 will prove that the differences we have mentioned really exist.  The os^
seous and ligamentous  system,  as also that of the voluntary muscles
and the nerves associated with them,  appear to be  essentially formed
of two exact halves, which correspond so closely, in volume, form and 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
39
situation, that they are almost perfectly similar.  On the contrary, the
vascular system, the grand sympathetic nerve, the  organs of respira-
tion, of digestion, and of the urine, are not symmetrical.   The heart is
not placed perpendicularly but obliquely, so that its septum does not cor-
respond to the axis of  the body.  In its two portions we see the same
divisions and the same general arrangement; but they differ much in
capacity, and in the thickness of their parietes.  The vascular trunks
which belong to these two parts correspond neither  in external nor in-
ternal form, nor in destination.  The vascular system, considered as a
whole, is composed of four trees united by the heart: these are the  ar-
teries and veins of the body, and the arteries and veins of the lungs.
The first two trunks,  as well as the last two, accompany each other,
but neither the two parts of each tree, nor the portions of different trees
which proceed together, perfectly resemble each other.  The trunk of
the aorta is not placed exactly on the median line, but is found, first on
the  right, and then on the left of  the vertebral column.  Hence  it is
arched.  From this arch the carotid and subclavian arteries arise  by
a common trunk on the right side, while they have separate origins on
the left.  The large vessels of the right and left sides are very seldom
alike in their  origins, volume, and rout.  The two venae  cavae incline
to the right; on the same  side we find between them the  azygos  vein
to which the small vein of the same name corresponds, but imperfectly
on the left side.   The  two arteries of the heart arise each by a single
trunk from their respective ventricles ; but the pulmonary veins, when
they arive at  their auricle, are four in number, while those of the body
are only two.   So, likewise, we almost  always see three  or four veins
corresponding to a single secondary arterial trunk.
   The two lungs have neither the same volume nor the same form:
the right lung is larger than the left, and is composed of three lobes ;
and its bronchia is shorter, but broader.  For this reason, and also on
account of the obliquity of the heart, the anterior mediastinum is di-
rected obliquely from above downward, and from right to  left.
  If we extend our observations to  the digestive system, we see the
esophagus inclines more to the left than to the rright, and that the sto-
mach occupies  the left side, whence it extends obliquely to the right,
and near its  left portion is the spleen, which, even when connected
with the pancreas also situated more to the left than the right, cor-
responds but slightly to the liver, which, with its voluminous mass, fills
all the upper parts of the right portion of the abdomen. The mesentery
extends from  above downwards, and from right to left.  The large in-
testine  continues with the small intestine, not on the median line, but
on the right side; its right and left halves do not correspond. The kid-
ney and capsula renalis of the right side are situated  lower than those
of the left, and have not exactly the same form : their blood-vessels and
their excretory ducts are  rarely arranged  in a similar  manner.   The
genital  organs  are  more  symmetrical;  nevertheless, one testicle is
sometimes larger than the other, and sometimes one  remains in the
abdomen, when the other descends into  the scrotum.   The direc- 
40
GENERAL ANATOMY.
tion of the womb is often oblique, which does not arise from accidental
circumstances.
  The least symmetrical organs correspond, however, in this respect,
that they are formed at least of two similar halves.   The digestive ap-
paratus presents so little symmetry only because this want of symme-
try is  necessary from its length, and the functions it  executes.  Its
whole extent may be divided  into two  nearly similar  parts, which,
setting aside its cylindrical form, are well indicated by the arrangement
of the vessels.   In fact, in almost its whole length, that portion of its
circumference which is turned towards  the mesentery, and in  some
parts especially, as the  stomach, two opposite portions of the same cir-
cumference receive vessels which ramify uniformly, and which, pro-
ceeding each upon one  of the portions of this canal, anastomose oppo-
site their point of commencement.
  Hence why the lateral parts of the least  symmetrical organs resem-
bje each other  so  much that the lateral symmetry is more perfect than
the others, and the parts which correspond laterally execute precisely
the  same  functions.   Hence especially this more  distinct  symmetry,
which in several respects, is indicated  in other directions so obscurely
that it is not perceived by one unaccustomed to tracing  analogies, and
who knows not how important it is to determine them when we wish
to explain the cause of  the phenomena of formation.
  But the want of perfect symmetry may usually be explained by the
law above mentioned, (§ 23,) and, in accordance with which, one of two
opposite corresponding parts is almost always more developed than the
other.  All the right side is larger than the left.   The  right portion of
even the most symmetrical organs is larger than the left.   The larger
lung and the liver are placed on this side.  The common trunk of the
right carotid and subclavian arteries seems  to be produced by a greater
energy of the formative power.  The cerebrum develops itself at the
expense of the cerebellum, and the inferior part of  the spinal  marrow
offers hardly a trace of expansion which may be regarded as corres-
ponding to  the brain.  Where such marked differences exist, we see
another organ very largely developed in the parts where  the system
is so considerably diminished, of which there is scarcely a trace on the
opposite  side.  The spinal marrow terminates rather high in  the
vertebral column, although we see appear  in the pelvis, and in front of
the sacrum which corresponds to the cranium, (§ 25,) a special appa-
ratus, that of the genital system, which very much  resembles the nerv-
ous system in  structure and functions.
   On the contrary, on  the  opposite side, at the upper extremity of the
body, where the brain so remarkably predominates, the generative sys-
 tem is but imperfectly indicated ; for, first,  the different parts here situ-
 ated  are  not  united in a  single  body, as constantly happens  when
 the  development  of parts, which, if regularly formed, constitute  a
 whole, is disturbed and cannot be perfected ;  secondly, these different
 parts have not a  common function, since the tongue belongs to the di- 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
41
gestive, and the nose to the respiratory system, while the thyroid and
the thymus glands are not included in any.
   The differences between the organs which are here compared are
such as to oblige  us to  enter upon a more  profound  examination, in
order to prove that the analogy established  is not forced.  We have
said that the genital system  corresponds, partially at least, with the
brain, or, perhaps more exactly, with the nervous system.
   Our arguments are :
   1st.  This proposition is rendered very probable by the  functions  of
the two apparatuses.  The nervous system is the  principle of all life
and of all formation in the organism.   The existence of the individual
is more closely connected with the  integrity of its central parts than
with that of any other organ.  A similar relation exists between the
principal parts of the generative system and the life of the species. We
may even, and with justice, say that the generative system has the
same effect on the formation of the individual, when we reflect upon
the remarkable modifications its presence or absence produces in the
activity of the mind and of the body.
   2d.  The form of these two systems  argues in favor of this opinion.
The remarkable exception made, by the perfect symmetry of the geni-
tal organs, to the common arrangement of the other organs with which
they have some affinity,  must be mentioned.   The round  form of the
ovaries and testicles also furnishes a point of comparison.   The texture
of the testicles  and bram is very analogous, since both are formed of
very delicate fibres, similar in flavor and chemical composition.  The
dura mater forms  septa between the  two hemispheres of the brain,
and between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, which partially resemble
the septum  of the scrotum, and partly those found in the substance
of the  testicle, which are formed by the  prolongation of the tunica
albuginea.   The corpus highmorianum, which arises from the testicle
by numerous roots, may be compared  to the spinal marrow; it opens
externally on each side by an excretory canal comparable  to the
nerves, although the brain and spinal marrow are necessarily con-
nected with the organs by several rays.   But  few lymphatics arise
from the brain and  the  spinal marrow, while very many  originate in
the testicles, in order to strengthen  the influence which those  organs
have on the body.  We ought also to remark that the arrangement of
the blood-vessels in the brain and  testicles is very analogous, since in
both the circulation of the blood is evidently retarded.
   3d.  The study of these organs comparatively in  the animal series
presents still more points of agreement,  of which we shall mention only
one of the principal, the development of one of the two systems accom-
panied by the wasting of the other.
  We have already stated (§ 25) several arguments which justify the
comparison established between the genital parts and those organs situa-
ted in the upper half of the body, the development of which appears to be
restrained in part by the brain, as that of the lower extremity of the
spinal marrow is checked by the genital system.   It might be objected
   Vol. I.                      6 
42
GENERAL ANATOMY
that the uses of the  tongue relate to  the  functions of the alimentary
canal, and so with the nose, which is very intimately connected wi n
the organs of respiration.   But on one side, the genital system is on y
developed out of the alimentary canal; and again, the senses ol smell-
ing and of taste are at least as closely connected with the sexual appe-
tite as with  that for food.  We  shall avail ourselves of this favorable
opportunity  to explain the difference between the upper 'and lower
extremities of the body, relatively to the arrangement of the two extre-
mities of the alimentary canal and of  the  organs near them.   Below,
the canal is  entirely separated from the genital  and urinary systems
blended together;  above, on the contrary, it unites with the respiratory
system, and the tongue  inclosed in the buccal cavity corresponds to a
part of  the genital apparatus.  This  arrangement  depends partly on
the analogy between the genital and digestive systems, and partly on
the fact that the epiglottis and  velum palati form septa,  which, by
changes in their direction, can separate the nasal cavity and the trachea,
and consequently  the organs of respiration, from the  buccal cavity,
and even from the pharynx, and necessarily from all the digestive ap-
paratus.
  The form, situation, texture, and liability to the same kind of disor-
ganization, justify the comparison established  between the  trryroid
gland and the womb, or prostate gland.   That the thymus gland
corresponds  to the testicles and ovaries, is known from its  similarity
in form, situation, texture, the analogy of the fluid secreted, and the cir-
cumstance trfe.t its activity ceases when the testicles  or ovaries come to
maturity.  .
  The differences  between the anterior and posterior faces of the body,
which we have compared together, are reconciled in the  same manner.
All the posterior or dorsal half is more completely developed and more
strongly marked than the anterior.   The occipital is thicker than the
frontal bone, and the bones of the skull are  generally stronger than
those of the face.  The face is naked, while the skull, especially be-
hind, is  thickly covered with hair.  The muscles are more numerous
and stronger along the spine than along the sternum.   The sternum
is formed  like an imperfect spinal column ;  as it represents only the
anterior part the bodies of the vertebra properly speaking, and corres-
ponds to the lower extremity of the spine, to the coccyx.   The linea
alba is still more imperfect and  feeble.   The ribs  ossify;  the costal
cartilages do not ossify, or but rarely, and  at an advanced age.   The
posterior part of the ribs is, in its turn, much stronger than the ante-
rior.  The ribs below the tenth belong  properly to the  spine.  An
artery winds on each side along the rudiment of the anterior vertebral
column, and corresponds to the aorta, which is placed before the proper
spine; the whole in conformity to the law, that  formations of an infe-
rior order are characterized by a want of concentration^ 1)

  (1) See our remarks on the progressive advancement of the organization  or on the
difference between the formations of a superior and inferior order, in our liciitrwirc
zur vergleichcndcn Anatomie, vol. ii. part 1, Leipsick, 1811. 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
43
      Notwithstanding  these adjustments, corresponding  parts, even the
    right and left halves of the body, always differ essentially.   The sym-
    metry is, then, not perfect.   The organization of man has  no advan-
    tage in this respect over that of animals, notwithstanding what Hei-
    land intimates when he says that the dualism (lateral) is particularly
    marked in the human  body.(l)  So far is this from being true, that
    the farther we proceed from man, the more distinct is the lateral sym-
    metry,  with a few exceptions.   For not only do the organs, which are
    but slightly symmetrical in him—for instance, the heart, some  parts
    of the  vascular  system, the respiratory system, the urinary system,
    and digestive system—become  more and more so as we descend the
    scale, but  even the organs most symmetrical in man, as the  nervous
    system, and the brain especially, become still more so in animals.
      § 28. The conditions enumerated form the object of an anatomy,
    which compares a body with itself, considering it only in reference to
    its different parts.  But this body may be compared  with itself,  consi-
    dering it in time, that is to say, in regard to the different periods of its
    existence.
    .• VIII. No organ possesses precisely the same qualities at all periods
    of the existence of the organism.  There are none which are alike at
    all  periods of their  existence.   Each  organ, and  consequently the
    whole organism, passes through certain regular and normal stages. (2)
    This very  important  law, called  the  law of development, gives rise to
'   the following considerations:
     1. There is for each organ, and for the whole  organism, a period of
    imperfection,  in which the whole development is not attained; this is
    called  the period of youth, or infancy; a second  called that of mature
    age, or period of maturity, of perfection;  and a third, that of  old age,
    or of decline.
     2. The resemblance is much greater between different organs, and the
    different regions  of the body, the nearer each respective organ, and the
   whole organism, is to its origin; the more recent  the organism, the
   more symmetrical it is.   The  heart is,  at first, perpendicular;  its
   septum  corresp4bmls  exactly to  the median line, and its two portions
   have the same size and thickness.  The liver projects as much to the
   left side as to the right;  its  left lobe is as large as the right, and its sus-

     (I)  Loc. cit. p. 5.  Walther (Physiologie, vol. ii. p. 102.) is not more correct when
   stating that the dualism of the two portions of the body is less evident in the inferior
   classes of the animal kingdom, and commences to be perceptible only when the
   nervous and  muscular fibres can be distinguished.   In fact, the bodies of many ani-
   mals destitute both of muscles and nerves are evidently formed of two symmetrical
   halves.
     (2)  See, in regard to the changes which supervene during the first periods of ex-
   istence till birth, the work of F. G. Danz, Grundriss der Zergliederungskunde des
   ungeborncn  Kindes, Francfort and Giessen, 1792-3; and for the particulars of the
   structure of the body till the latter periods of life, the dissertation ofSeiler, (AnatomuB
   corporis humani senilis specimen, Erlangen, 1800.)  Consult also Hopfengcertner,
   Einige Bemerkungen uber die menschlichen Entwickelungcn, und die mit aerselben
   in Verbindung slehendcn Krankheitcn, Stuttgard, 1792.—A. Henke, Ueber Entwick-
   clungenuiidFJnlwickelungs-KrankheitendesmenschlichenOrganismus,'Nv.remberg,
   1814.—C. A. Philitcs, De decrcmento altera hominum cetatis periodo, seu de marasme
   scnili in specie, Halle, 1808. 
44
GENERAL ANATOMY.
pensory ligament is on the  median line.  The stomach is perpen-
dicular.  The upper extremities are more similar to the lower than at
later periods.  The  sternum is, at first, composed of several  cartilagi-
nous pieces, which afterwards become so many bones.  Each piece is
placed between twocostalcartilages, and the latter are always implanted
in a groove, hollowed from two pieces of bone.  This  analogy after-
wards disappears, since the osseous pieces, each of  which corresponds
to a vertebra, fuse together, so as to form only one body.
   Generally, the mode of development of the organs is the same, or at
least almost similar, which increases the analogy remarked between
different parts and  different  regions, during the first periods of life.
Thus the spinal  marrow, and probably also the brain, arise at first  by
two layers, which are not even united.   The intestinal canal forms in
the same manner.
   The heart is at first only a single cavity, with thin parietes.  The
cerebrum  also exists  before  the cerebellum, and its  parietes are ex-
tremely thin in proportion to its cavity. The intestinal canal is a continu-
ation  of the umbilical vesicle  or of the vitelline sac, as the genital and
urinary systems are probably of  the allantoid membrane.   The ex»
tremities of the urinary, genital, and digestive  apparatus, are  at first
blended together, and form a drain.  This arrangement certainly exists
in the upper end of the body, for  at first the palate does not exist be-
tween the nose and  the mouth, which form but one cavity.  The male
and female genital organs are more similar in form and situation when
studied in the young fetus.
   3.  The color of the organs  develops itself gradually.   At first,
the whole body is whitish,  and even transparent; it  gradually assumes
a deeper  color, and  becomes  opaque.  Each organ does not acquire
its peculiar color till a later period.
   4th. Every organ  is softer and more fiuid, the nearer it  is to  its
origin; it gradually acquires its normal  degree  of consistence, and
its cohesion increases till the end of life.   Thus, softness  characterizes
the first, and rigidity the latter periods of life.  This law is founded on
the fact that all the solids come from the fluids, both*at the period of
the first formation of the  new organism, and during the rest of life.
The substance of the organ is not only soft and fluid,  but it is also sur-
rounded with an abundant fluid, or if hollow, it contains  a  liquid, the
quantity of which is very considerable in proportion to the thickness of
its parietes.  The nervous and vascular systems prove this assertion.
The vascular system is composed at first only of  channels formed in
a homogeneous material, and has no distinct parietes.   The progres-
sive increase in the  consistence of the organs is clearly seen in certain
portions of the vascular system, in the uterus, in the serous membranes,
in certain organs, as the spleen  and some fibrous organs, where  an
osseous tissue is formed, which is almost regularly developed in them
at an advanced age.  When  the degree of cohesion equals that of the
bones, there  appears in the mass, at first homogeneous and  fluid a
peculiar system, very dense in relation to  the others: this is the carti- 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
45
laginous, which gradually changes to  a tissue still more solid, the
osseous.
  5th. This state of great fluidity is attended with a want of a deter-
mined texture during the first periods of existence.   At first we do not
see even globules in the organic substance ;  these  globules  then ap-
pear, but they are not yet united to form distinct organs ;  when this is
commenced, fibres are not yet formed.  All these circumstances unite
to strengthen the resemblance between different organs in the extreme
periods of life.
  6th. All the organs do not appear at the same time.  This proposition
is true in regard to the whole system and to each of its different parts.
It is more difficult to determine the  order in which  the  systems are
developed in man, and in the superior animals generally, which pass
very rapidly through the first periods of existence, than in the inferior
animals ;  and it often happens  that organs of great importance do not
appear until the growth is terminated:  but we are certain that vessels
and nerves are the parts first seen in the primitive homogeneous mass,
and that  the  intestinal canal begins to form almost at the same time.
At first, the trunk  of  the  body exists alone; no trace of the limbs oi
head  is perceived ; next we see the head, then the upper extremities,
and afterwards the lower, the parts  of which also gradually develop
themselves.  The organs  of sense  and of  generation are seen'at a
period still more advanced.  The muscles and the  bones, especially
the teeth, are developed still later.   Finally, the dermoid system is the
last to form, since a long period elapses during which the nails and hairs,
the latter especially in certain parts of the body, are entirely wanting,
or  are  developed but imperfectly.    Naturally  the similar parts
are the slowest to show themselves in the regions which appear the
last.
  7th.  TJiese  parts, which are but  repetitions of other  more perfect
parts, and which especially correspond to them, are the last to appear.
Thus the sternum and linea alba,  do not appear till long  after the ver-
tebral column;  the  thymus and thyroid glands are formed after the
genital organs; the right ventricle of the heart appears after the left.
  8th.  The external form develops itself much more  rapidly than the
texture  and chemical composition of the organs.   There  is no percep-
tible  difference between the gray and the white substance, in most of
the cerebral mass, when its parts are entirely formed.  A bone, when
cartilaginous,  has its  external  characteristic form.   But  this form dif-
fers remarkably at different periods.
  Generally, the form is more simple, as the organ is younger.  The
brain has no circumvolutions nor layers; and the cartilage forms a ho-
mogeneous mass, although the bone is fibrous, and has  not the same
texture in all its parts.   The heart, which afterwards contains cavities,
is at first, single, and is formed  like a vessel,  &c.
  9th. The organs arise  almost  entirely by separate  parts, %ohich
gradually unite to form a whole.  The whole body, the nervous sys-
tem, the intestinal canal, are, at first, formed of two halves, which after- 
4G
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 wards unite upon the median line.  The vascular system, at first, forms
 islands filled with a fluid substance, isolated  lakes, which, by slow de-
 grees, form  themselves by intermediate passages into a canal, with nu-
 merous ramifications in their intervals, and gradually give rise to a, net-
 work of  vessels.  The kidneys are, at first, composed of several lobes,
 which are then more numerous than at subsequent periods.   The bones
 develop  themselves by several different points of ossification,  which
 are afterwards united.
   10th.  All the organs have not the same proportional volume at every
 epoch of life. The brain, the whole nervous system, the heart, the whole
 vascular system, the  liver, the kidneys, and still more the capsular re-
 nales,  the thymus, and thyroid  glands, are, at first, larger in propor-
 tion to the other organs, than they are at later periods.
   On  the contrary, other organs, the intestinal canal, the spleen, the
 genital parts,  and the  lungs, remain for a long time relatively small.
 We also observe certain organs shrink after a time, before others, which,
 though small at first, had acquired considerable size.   This is the case
 with the thymus gland, which is formed late, and the sexual organs,
 particularly  those of the female.
   Hence the respective proportions of parts of the entire system differ
 very much  at different periods of life.   The clavicle, so small in the
 adult, is,  at first, six times as large as the humerus and femur.
   In  virtue  of the same law, the mutual relations of different parts of
 the body do not remain the same at different periods of life.  The
 head, which at first does not exist, soon acquires almost the size of
 the trunk; and the limbs are, for a long time, but stumps, the upper
 being the larger.
   11th.  The duration  of the organs is not the same.  For this reason,
 the organism is not constantly formed of the same number of organs.
 Some of its parts are temporary, others remain during Ufe.   The
 membrana pupillaris is destroyed before birth;  the membranes of the
 ovum, the placenta, and umbilical  cord, disappear soon after this period.
 After a time those portions of the vascular system  which coexisted
 with these organs, are entirely obliterated.    A little later the thymus
gland becomes smaller, and gradually vanishes; at twelve years  of
 age we cannot trace it.   The first twenty teeth are shed at the age of
seven years.
   The capsulae  renales sometimes disappear in old age;   and per-
 haps, the same thing occurs  with  the ovaries.
   We  may  establish  it as a principle, that the parts which grow the
 latest, are those which disappear, or at least those which cease  to be
 active  the soonest,  and  which are most easily destroyed.  This  is
 proved by the facility with which cicatrices of the skin and of the
 bones open again in general diseases.
   Many  of the organs which  disappear are replaced by new organs
 As others serve only to replace those which are not sufficiently active'
 their disappearance is  not necessarily  attended with the formation of" 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
47
new parts, and  only with  an increased action on  the part of some
already formed.
   12th.  Some systems pass through a greater variety of degrees than
others, not only in respect to texture, but in external form, situation, and
proportional  volume: the  history  of their  life is more complicated.
The vascular system stands first in this respect; the intestinal canal,
with  its appendages the genital organs, come next.   The osseous
system, at different periods of life, varies very much.  The differences
are less in the nervous system, and still less in the others.  •
   13th.  In some parts we  can always trace the primitive formation;
in others we  cannot, although we know not exactly the cause of this
difference.  Thus, in the adult, we rarely see the four pieces of bone
of which the  os occipitis is composed, or the two halves  which unite to
form  the frontal bone, or the lower jaw, while the existence  of the in-
termaxillary  bone, and the  articulation of the mastoid portion of the
temporal bone with its squamous and petrous portions, are always very
perceptible. Nevertheless, this circumstance may possibly depend on the
fourteenth law,  and the fact, that the traces of the transitory normal
formations, which correspond to the constant formations generally ex-
isting  in the  animal kingdom, are preserved longer than those of any
others.
   14.  The degrees of development  through which  man passes from
birth to the period of perfect maturity, correspond to constant formations
in the animal  kingdom.(l)   All the organs prove this assertion.
   The fetus,  in fact, is allied to  animals much lower in the scale,(2)
from the circumstances of the greater resemblance between the different
parts and the different regions  during the early periods of life, the
smaller number, the uniformity of color, the greater degree of softness,
the less distinct texture, the relative difference of volume of the organs,
and their production  by  the union of parts at first isolated.    The most
general law in this respect is that the organisms which the fetus resem-
bles, are the  more inferior, the nearer it is to its origin when the com-
parison is made ; whence it follows, that the embryo, from its first for-
mation to the  time of its maturity, passes through a series of forms more
and more complicated.

  (1) See our Essay on the resemblances which exist between the fetal state of the su-
perior and the permanent state of the inferior animals, in our Beytrcege zur vcrglev-
chenden Anatomie, vol. ii. p. 11., No. 1., Leipsick, 1811:
  (2) There is, perhaps, in anatomy no axiom more incontestable than this; but we must
guard against abusing it, and should not confound analogy with identity.  Thus, it
is too much to say that man, from the period of formation to that of birth, passes suc-
cessively through different forms, which  are permanent in the  inferior animals.
First, this proposition is never true in respect to all parts, but only in regard to some,
so that the relations supposed by modern physiologists to exist between the human
fetus and reptiles, fishes, effitacea?, &c,  rest only on analogies, more or  less remote,
between some of its organs and  those of the animals  in these classes.  Again,  we
must not forget that the human fetus,  from the period of its formation, irresistibly
tends to assume the peculiar form of  man,  and so too with those of all animals.
These remarks seemed necessary to anticipate the forced applications which might
be made of one  of the discoveries most honorable to modern anatomy,  and to keep
within reasonable bounds that enthusiasm which exists with us; for by falsifying the
principles of a science we retard its progress.                         F. T. 
48
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  The proofs drawn particularly from the organs are:
  a. In regard to the vascular system.  At first only one system of
vessels is found in the embryo, the omphalomesenteric vein. 1 his state
of the vascular system corresponds to what  is observed in the medusae
and zoophytes allied  to them, in  which also only one order of vessels
exists : and farther, because the vessels have no proper parietes distinct
from the mass of the body.   When the development is more advanced,
the heart appears as an enlarged point slightly dilated, a little muscu-
lar, oblongs channeled, and  curved  from the  vascular  system,  as in
many worms, where, although a complex system of vessels exists, the
heart is wanting.  Even in the  arachnides and the branchiopedous
Crustacea, the heart  resembles a thin elongated sac, and the vessels
arise from its extremities and parietes.  At first  only one dilatation
exists, even as in the most perfect Crustacea, where the heart is  con-
tracted to a sort of small quadrangular and muscular cavity.
  A later formation, in which a  second  dilatation is  produced by the
separation of the auricles with the venae cavae, corresponds to the heart
of most mollusca, of fishes, and of the lowest reptiles ; this is more per-
fect, and presents two cavities, each composed  of an auricle and ven-
tricle ; but here the two auricles and the two ventricles  communicate,
as the septum between them is imperfect. This formation includes also
the hearts of certain reptiles, for example, that of  the scorpion turtle,
and of the lacerta apoda, and as respects the communication between the
two ventricles only, that of most reptiles, of those which constitute the
upper orders.  At first, as only one ventricle exists, there is  only one
artery, which, as in the mollusca, fishes,  and reptiles, commonly arises
by a considerable  muscular  dilatation which is, in fact, a third cavity.
The pulmonary artery does not begin to form a  distinct trunk till after
the aorta, and during all fetal existence these two vessels are united in
a common trunk by the arterial canal.
  So too in most  reptiles, particularly those where the  heart  is com-
pletely developed, we not  only recognize two aortas coming  from
the heart, which meet at an acute angle, and are  blended together; but
the pulmonary artery communicates during life with the corresponding
aorta by a broad canal,  as  is evident at least in  the turtle.   In the
plungers, among the mammalia, the communication between the two
auricles is so often found open, that it forms a  new analogy between
the human embryo and animals.  A peculiar system, that of the vena
porta, which is intermediate between the arterial and venous system, is
seen only in the vertebral animals:  as we descend  the scale, the veins
of the intestinal canal empty immediately into the vena cava inferior.
This system of the vena cava is deficient during  the first periods of
fetal life, and the blood of the intestinal  canal then returns directly to
the heart;  since the vena porta is the first vessel which appears, and
the liver is not yet formed.   We  trace this  primitive formation in the
venous duct, even when  the development is perfect.
  b. The nervous system also somewhat resembles the organization of
animals. 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
49
  a. It is formed  by the  union of two distinct cords, and is similar in
this respect to the arrangement in most  invertebral animals, in which
the two cords which unite  one ganglion to the following are more or
less evidently separated from each other.
  (3. As  at first the spinal marrow exists alone, there also the forma-
tion corresponds to that of the most inferior worms.
  y. The spinal marrow is  much longer at first, and descends lower in
the vertebral canal; even so  the medulla dorsalis of worms, of most
mollusca, of fishes, of several reptiles, and  of all birds, extends to the
posterior  extremity of the body;  and even in almost all the mammalia
it is longer than in man. In the fetus, a cavity extends entirely through
it: in the superior vertebral animals, this remains during existence.
  S. In the fetus, the parietes of the ventricles of the brain are thin,
its surface has no circumvolutions, and  the  gray substance predomi-
nates : these  circumstances are similar to what always exist in rep-
tiles and fishes.  The brain, properly speaking, has  no circumvolu-
tions in the mammalia or in birds.   The proportion  between the gray
and white substance is greater in animals  than in man.  The surface
of the cerebellum is indented before  that of the cerebrum, both in ani-
mals and in man, since this organ is fissured in several fishes,in all birds,
and in all the mammalia.
  s. Finally,iboth in the fetus and in the animal kingdom, the organs
of sense, the. appendages of the nervous system,  appear very gra-
dually, and these  organs  in  their development  present very great
resemblances to what occurs in animals.
   c. The intestinal canal  is at first  closed at its  upper and  lower
extremities, as in most of the  intestinal worms.   The  posterior end
remains closed longer than the anterior extremity, as is seen in several
zoophytes, where the mouth performs at the same time the functions of
the anus.  At first the intestinal canal is not longer than the body,
and enlarges gradually;  so too we  see, generally speaking, and with
but few exceptions, that it always shortens as we descend in the animal
scale.  Another analogy also with its mode  of development in animals
is its greater  simplicity during the first periods of fetal life ; since then
there is no distinction between the large and small  intestines, and the
stomach is but slightly distinguished from the rest. The cavities of the
nose and mouth are at first united, a little  later they are only joined
posteriorly, and  finally the want of separation between them  is ex-
pressed by the imperfect  union of the upper lip on the median line ; so
too the posterior part of  the  palate is constantly closed in birds, the
velum palati  is wanting in these animals and in almost all reptiles, and
many mammalia have a hare-lip.  While the teeth develop themselves
very late in the embryo, they never appear in several  mammalia, in
birds, in  many reptiles and fishes, and  in most of the invertebral ani-
mals^ 1)

  (1) Thio delect however is more apparent than real, at Ica.st in the mammalia
edentata and in birds.  Thus J. F. St. Hilaire has remarked that the lower jaw in the
fetus of the whale is channeled  by a deep fissure, where he found the rudiments of
   Vol.  F.                        7 
50
GENERAL ANATOMY
   During the first periods of fetal existence, an appendage is attached
to the ileum, which traces the communication existing anteriorly with
the umbilical vesicle.   This communication  always remains in many
birds.  Finally, the liver  diminishes in size, while the spleen enlarges
from the first period of the existence of the fetus—phenomena perfectly
similar to those found in animals.                       •
   d. The sexual parts are at first constructed after the same type, and
their primitive form is that of the female.(l)  Afterwards arrives a period
when some of these  organs,  particularly the external, resemble the
male form, in all individuals, at least in volume.   So several zoophytes
and mollusca have only one ovary, which in the former, as in the fetus,
does not open externally.   The testicles of the male fetus remain for a
long time in the abdomen;  an arrangement, which is the case during
life in all animals, if we  except some  mammalia.   The uterus,  in
its development, passes through  those forms which  are  permanent
in the animal series; in  fact at  first  it has  long horns, which re-
semble  the  separation of the oviducts in  reptiles  and  fishes,  and
in most mammalia, and reminds us of the great length of the internal
horns, in proportion to the body of the organ;  these  horns  shorten,
then the fundus of the uterus is somewhat deepened.  Finally the neck
is very long and thin in proportion to the body : the same as the horns
of the uterus gradually become smaller in  the animals allied to man,
and the uterus of many of  the apes differs but little from, that  of the
female, except  in being thin and narrow.  The external genital parts
appear late, as in animals.
   e. The urinary system, one of those which is formed very late  in
the animal series, since it is not distinctly seen until we arrive at the
fishes, does not appear very early in  the fetus.   The  kidneys are  at
first united, as in most fishes and many reptiles; they are also lobed as
in almost all reptiles, in birds, and in  many mammalia.   The number
of lobes is greater and their size smaller, the younger the fetus is, as is
also seen in fishes, birds, and the cetaceae, and in  the  superior mam-
malia.   The kidneys are generally larger in the last three classes of
the vertebrated animals than in the mammalia ;  but also in the newly
born infant they are much larger in proportion to the  size of the body
than at subsequent periods.  We  find the capsulae  renales very much
developed in some of the mammalia, particularly in the order of gnawers,
which also present other analogies with the proper  organization of the
fetus.


teeth in a substance analogous to that of the gum: these rudiments seemingly dis-
appear early ; for then the fissure closes, and the bone fills up. This anatomist haa
also recognized in birds the existence of rudiments of teeth reduced to pulpous nuclei,
which secrete the horny substance of the beak instead of the phosphate of lime. The
Banae arrangement exists undoubtedly in reptiles of the  order chelonia.__Systeme
dentaire des mammiferes et des oiseaux, sous le point de vue de la composition et de
la determination de chaquc sorte de ses parties, Paris, 1824. F. T.
   (1) Muller, Degenitaliumevolutione, Halle, 1815, p. 6. D. de Blainville, Remarque*
sur les organes genitaux, in the Bulletin de la societe philomatiqne, 1818, p. 1B5. 
GENERAL LAWS OF  FORMATION
51
   /  The  thymus gland, which in its vital periods is similar to the
 capsulae renales, appears late in the fetus, as in the animal kingdom.
 The mammalia are the first in which  it is seen  unequivocally; but it
 soon after acquires a considerable preponderance, and when the fetus is
 formed it resembles, in this respect, the gnawers, the amphibious  ani-
 mals, and several plantigrades, in which the thymus gland always re-
 mains fully developed.
   The thyroid gland is at first formed of two lobes only, which are per-
 fectly distinct, as in most mammalia.
   g.  The osseous system presents very remarkable  analogies,  viz.
 first, in the late period of  its development.    Most of the other systems
 are formed when  the bones have acquired only a  cartilaginous con-
 sistence.   So, too, almost all the organs are developed in the vertebral
 animals  before  we see the skeleton.   When the skeleton shows itself
 for the first time in the cephalopoda,(l) the part first formed corresponds
 to the bones of  the head, which  are also the first to ossify in the fetus.
 But in the former case the skeleton always continues cartilaginous ;
 so, too, a number of  fishes are called cartilaginous,  by which is meant
 that their osseous system always exists in the state of cartilage ;  and
 in other animals of this class, as  also in the reptiles, the bones never ad-
 vance from  the temporary  conditions of fetal  life, i. e.  they  always
 remain softer than in animals of  the upper classes.   In the higher ani-
 mals  the texture and  composition of the bones  in the early periods of
 life form a second analogy between man and animals. A third comes
 from their  external form.  There is not a  single  bone which, in the
 course of development, does not  pass through some of the  forms which
 are permanent in animals. This  proposition is true, especially in regard
 to the bones of the trunk and head.   In fact the pieces which gradually
 unite and form the vertebrae, the occipital  bone,  the  temporal bone, the
 ethmoidal  bone, the sphenoidal  bone, the frontal bone, and  the upper
 and lower maxillary bones in the fetus, always remain distinct and sepa-
 rate in most animals inferior to man; and the first periods  of  fetal
 existence correspond to the formations, which are permanent when we
 descend  in the animal scale.
   h.  The external form of the fetus also passes through several inferior
 formations.  The want of distinction between the head and the trunk,

  (1)  J. F. St. Hilaire thinks  that  the articulated animals, which form one of the
 great divisions of the invertebrata, also have a skeleton,.but it is placed externally,
 instead of  internally as in the vertebrata: he compares the rings of their bodies to
 vertebra and their  feet to ribs.  (See J. F. St. Hilaire, Mem. sur un squelette chez
 les insectes, dont toutes les pieces identiques entre elles dans les divers ordres du sys-
 teme entomologique, correspondent a chacun des os du squelette, dans les classes su-
perieures; in the Jour, compl. du Diet,  des sc. med., vol. v. p. 140.—Id.  Mem. sur quel-
ques regies fudamentales en  philosophic naturelle, same collection, vol. vi. p. 36.—
Id. Rapport surun Memoire d'Audouin, concernant I'organisation des insectes,  ibid.
vol. vi. p. 36.—Id. Mem. sur une colonne vertebrate et ses cotes, dansles insectes api-
 ropodes, same collection, vol. vi. p. 138.) This opinion has been adopted by Rudolphi,
 (Beytrage zur Anthropologic, 1812, p. 89,) and by Carus, (Zeitschriftfur die j\atur
und HeUkunde, vol. ii. p. 308, 1822 ;)  it is well developed in the Dictionnaire  clas-
 sique d'histoire naturelle, vol.  v. p.  141., article Crustaces.               F.  T. 
52
i.l.NERAI. ANATOMY
itself destitute otthe extremities, is manifest in worms and the mollusca,
as also the want of the neck after the limbs are developed assimilates the
futus to fishes and the cetaceae.   Many fishes, many reptiles and even
the cetaceae among  the mammalia, also want one  or  the  other of the
two pairs of members, and where the limbs appear-for the first time in
the animal series, they are merely stumps, without fingers or toes, as
when they are first  seen in the fetus.  In no animal  is the number of
fingers greater than in man, and in many it is less.  In many the toes
although the same in number as in man, are, to a certain extent, united
by a swimming  membrane ;  this  is another  analogy with the human
fetus, where the fingers  and toes are at first joined together, although
one easily perceives that they constitute so many distinct  parts.   The
vertebral column evidently terminates at first in a small prolongation,
similar to a tail.
   15th.  Man is distinguished from the > other animals by the greater
rapidity with which he passes through the inferior formatioms.  , As his
organization is the most  perfect of all, he rises above the inferiorde&rees
more  rapidly than  other  animals, doubtless in order to  gain time to
arrive at his highest perfection.(l)
   § 29. IX. Although the form of the human organism varies at different
periods of life, yet it presents  certain peculiarities which distinguish it
from all  others, and characterize the human race as a  separate species.
This species, however, is only one of the numerous modifications of the
primitive type which constitutes the base of  all animal formations, so
that its form necessarily resembles, in many respects, those of other ani-
mals, particularly those most allied to man.   It is  then almost incredi-
ble that, even  recently,  several writers would consider many of these
conditions of the human form not as results of this law,.but as proving
positively that, after the  original sin, man was even physically degraded
from the great excellence he possessed in Paradise ! They pretend that
the traces of the intermaxillary bone prove that the cerebrum  and cra-
nium are diminished ; they add, that the face is developed in the same
proportion, that  the plantaris muscle has attained at the same time
the aponeurotic expansion of the sole of the foot, and that its actual rudi-
mentary existence proves that men then walked on all fours, &c.  All
these assertions  are  unfounded :  all these  phenomena  demonstrate
nothing, since it might be proved in the same manner, by the arrange-
ments of some other part, that  man, before the deluge, was a  different
animal from what he is now.  The human  structure has  nothing to
distinguish it entirely from that of animals :  it ought then to have the
same forms : those  presented by it serve to remind  us, here and there

   (1) This law should be called the law of Harvey; for, although it was long forgotten
and has been completely developed only by the moderns, it was, however  ifarvey
who founded it, in saying: Est cquidem, quod miremur, animaliumomnium(puta
canis, equi, cervis, bovis, gallinm, serpentis, hominis denique ipsius) primordiatam
plane galbcefiguram et consistentiam referre ut oculis internoscere nequeas  (De
generatione, Amsterdam, 1662, p. 77.) This law is of general application to the'whole
organic kingdom.  We must, however, distinguish it from the false law of Harvev
u( which we shall soon speak.                                          y' 
GENERAL LaWS OF FORMATION.
53
of what is found in animals.  But these marks, such for instance as the
intermaxillary bone, are  easily explained by the preceding law ; they
trace that series of degrees of the organization through which the em-
bryo, but not the whole human  race, always passes ;  or they are the
vestiges of the primitive state when the human formation was depressed
to the level of the animal formation.   In order to give some probability
to the opinion  we  oppose, it is necessary, at least, to compare the hu-
man skulls before the fall of man and the deluge with each other, and
with  those of the present time.(l)  Nor are there any  facts to support
a similar hypothesis,  the  partizans of  which pretend, that  as the
human organism, in accordance with the preceding law, passes through
different periods,  so this is the case withnhe whole human family; and
that certain races are now at a point formerly possessed by other races
at present more elevated, and that  these also are capable of gradual
improvement. (2)   In refuting this hypothesis, we cannot deny but that
the  different  classes of organisms are developed gradually,  and  in
direct proportion to their greater or less degree of perfection.
   To determine the special conditions of the human organization, we
can bring together the  characteristic  marks which distinguish it, so
far as they depend on the conditions of the forms of the different parts;
and  also those drawn from the form of the whole body, and  use them
to trace a general  picture.(3)
   We become acquainted with the  marked characters of the human
organization,  by studying, successively, the different systems and the
different  apparatuses.
   Nevertheless,  before proceeding farther, we should observe, that
most of these characters distinguish man only from those  animals
which are the nearest to him, as the other mammalia.
   1st. The mucous tissue  of  man differs from that of  almost all other
animals by its greater softness; perhaps  the  power he  possesses of
living in all parts of the world, and the frequent anomalies presented
by his organization depend on this.

  (1)  The following passage from Ackermann, (De naturae humanae dignitate, Hei-
delberg, 1813,) will show that we have not misrepresented him, as is, uuhappily, too
often done : " Fuere lempora, quae antediluviana dicimus, ubi ita despecta et abjecta
erat humana species,  ut. brutorum animantium naturae non aequivaleret tantum, sed
et infra earn deprimeretur.   Argumenta ultra omne dubium elata nobis exhibet ana-
tomica corporis humani perscrutatio.  Reperimus  enim per totum corpus non rara
vestigia degeneratce in brutorum naturam humanee fabricce, ita ut inter mvltas ra-
riores excitem species...  Os intermaxillare, aperto indicia: aliquando  in homine
maxillas, uti in brutis magis versus anterior a protrusasfuisse, cranii recedentis am-
plitudine diminuta... Musculus plantdris pedis... argumento, \aliquando hominem
extremis digitis incessisse quod aliomodo fieri non potuit, nisi etiam priore extremi-
tate corpus sufultumfuerit."  Who is not reminded of Stepbanus and Sylvius 1
  (2)  See Schelver's Memoir " On the primitive race of the Human Family," in
Wiedemann's Archiv  fur Zoologie und Zootomie, vol. iii. p. 1. No. 4. Schelverand
Doornik pretend that all the races are formed by gradual improvement from the negro
race.  Pallas had already presented this opinion as a probable hypothesis.  F. T.
  (3)  The  distinctive characters of the human race have been well denned by Blu-
menbach, (De Generis humani varielafe nativd, Goettingen, 1795, p. 4. 4b«)—See
also W. Lawrence, Lectures on Phyn. Zool., and the Nat. Hist, of man, republished
at Salem,  1828.—Caldwell, Thoughts on the  Original Unity of the Human Race,
New  York, 1830. 
54
GENERALANATOMY
   2d. The vascular system.   The  obliquity of the heart, the inclina-
 tion  of its apex to the left, and the adhesion of the lower face of the
 pericardium to the centre of the diaphragm, are characteristics of man,
 or at least are possessed in common with him only by a small number
 of apes, which resemble him very much.
   There are  but few animals, too, in which the vessels of the head
 and  superior  extremities arise, as in man.   The distribution of the
 vessels is not the same;  we distinguish the want of the rete  mirabile
 i. e. of a plexus formed by the internal carotid artery before entering the
 eye; if this be not peculiar to man alone, it serves to distinguish him
 from a great many animals.  We may also mention here, the arrange-
 ment of the thyroid arteries, "^hich are two on each side in man, while
 in the other mammalia we find only one, &c.
   3d. The  nervous system of  man  differs from that of  other animals
 in the remarkable size  of the brain.   Nevertheless, as a comparison
 of the brain with the rest of the body does not lead to exact results,
 either when we  regard its weight, or consider its volume only,  it is
 more convenient to contrast the encephalon with the spinal marrow and
 nerves.  In doing this, we find the relation to the brain more favora-
 ble in man than in any other animal; and we discover that, in him,
 the brain is larger in proportion to the spinal marrow and nerves.(l)
   At the same time the spinal marrow in man is proportionally thin-
 ner and shorter than in all other animals ;  since, in him, it occupies
 only  the greater part  of the vertebral canal, while  in animals, with
 few exceptions, it fills all this canal.
   If we compare the  different  parts of the encephalon, we find also,
 that  man is distinguished from all other animals by the greater volume
 and development of the cerebrum in him, which predominates over all
 other parts of the nervous system.
   The upper and anterior part of the brain principally exceeds those
portions  which relate  to the organs of  the senses.  To the first  law
then is attached a second, viz.  That the cerebrum, properly speakiag,
is very much developed in proportion to the organs of the senses.
  There are also,  or at least they state as such, other characters pe-
culiar to parts of the encepholon, viz.
   1.  In  the brain;  the  existence of the small calculi  of the pineal
gland,(2) which are not constant except in man, but which exist also in
the buck, and  which  are sometimes  deficient even in man, as in old
persons. (3)
  The greater  development of  the cerebrum, properly speaking, is at-
tended also  with the presence of parts  peculiar to man, as a  special
dilatation of the  third cerebral ventricle, the third horn,  and the emi-
nence inclosed by this cavity.


  (1) Soemmerring, Von Baue des menschlichen Koerpers, vol i p  85— J G Fbel
 Observationes nevrologica ; in Ludwig, Scrip, neural, minor vol iii p 148  '    '
  %l h^°}0,rPe lal^mS- Vel F^* vel infra gland, pineal, sitis,  ivfayence, 1785
  (3) Wentzel, De penittori cerebri structural, p. 156. 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
55
  The spinal marrow of man presents this peculiarity, that when per-
fectly developed, it is completely solid.  In other animals we see along
its centre a cavity, but in man, this does not exist always, being 30on
obliterated.
 . 2. In the organ of sight,  a. The vicinity of the eyes which are
still nearer each other in the ape.
  6. The  absence of the  membrana nictitans, although its rudiment
exists in the inner angle of the eye,  where it forma a semi-circular
fold.
  c. The  absence of the  suspensory muscle of  the eye,  a character
which belongs also to the  apes, but which, with this exception, dis-
tinguishes the organization of man from that of all other animals.
  d. The existence of the eyelashes, although these are found in some
mammalia, and also in some birds.
  3. In  the organ of hearing,  a.  The existence of the lobe of the
ear, which is also seen in some apes,  but in them it is much smaller.
  b. The immobility of the external  ear;  this last, however, is not
general,  and is seen only in civilized people, and may be ascribed to a
want of exercise: on  the other hand it is common also to the ant-
eater.
  4. In the organ of smell,   a.  The projection of the nose  over the
mouth, and generally its prominence, a character to which, notwith-
standing its generality, the simia rostrata is  an  exception, not to men-
tion the trunk possessed by several mammalia.
  b. The want of an organ like a sack, which has  been lately disco-
vered in all the other mammalia on  the  floor of  the nasal fossae, and
necessarily the absence of a communication between the buccal and
nasal cavities, the foramen incisivum, which always exists in  the other
mammalia.(l)
  c. In the organ of touch.  The smoothness of the skin, which arises
from the fewness and shortness of the hair.   It is well proved that no
part of the skin of the ape is more naked than that of man; but the
skin of the cetaceae is undoubtedly  less hairy than  the human skin.
The abundance of hair on some of the  South Sea Islanders approxi-
mates the skin of man to that of the other mammalia.
  4. The osseous system.
  1. In the head we remark,
  a. The proportion between the skull  (cranium) and the face (fa-
cies).(2)   The excess of the former over the latter distinguishes the hu-
man organization from all others.  It exists because  the brain is much
greater in proportion to the other parts of the nervous disposition, espe-
cially the nerves and the organs of sense, as the skull is designed par-
ticularly for the brain, while the organs of the senses of sight, smell,
and taste, are  situated in the face.  We may also  separate from  the

  (1) See the Description of an organ observed in the mammalia by Jacobson, con-
firmed by Cuvier, in the Annates du Museum, vol. xviii. p. 412—24.
  (2) G. H. Crull, Diss, de cranio ejusque adfaciem ratione, Groningen, 1810- 
56
GENERAL ANATOMY.
brain-case  that  part  of the  head designed  for the organ of hearing,
inasmuch as  the  temporal bone which contains it is situated at the
base of the skull;  and secondly, its squamous portion, which is appro-
priated to the sense of hearing, is always separated from that part, and
concurs  to form the brain-case;  thirdly, the  Eustachian tubes unite
the organ  of hearing with  the buccal cavity, consequently with the
other organs of the senses.   This mode of considering  the subject  is
justified still more by comparative anatomy.
   The skull also exceeds the  face in size, from the predominance  of
the brain  over  the organs of  mastication, with  which the  greater
development of the organs of taste and smell coincides.   The projection
of the jaws forward and the retreat of the forehead, which is a conse-
quent of it, have  given rise to the facial angle of  Camper.(l)  This
angle is  formed  by the union  of two lines,  one of which, called Cam-
per's facial line, descends from the most projecting part of the forehead,
along the  edge of the upper incisors, and the second is parallel to the
base  of the cranium, and passes by the external auditory passage and
the inferior edge of the nasal passage.  It is evident that as the jaws
retreat,  and the forehead  projects, the angle  enlarges, although for
several reasons  it does not indicate precisely the relation of the face to
the skull considered as the brain-case.
   b.  The situation of the occipital foramen.   In man this  foramen is
found exactly or very nearly in the centre of the base of the skull;  so
that  the centre  of gravity of the head corresponds  to its centre of mo-
tion when  the head rests on the base of the skull: a circumstance very
important in regard to the question of the erect posture of man.(2)
   c.  The arrangement of the Upper jaw.   Its anterior and internal part,
in which the incisors are inserted, constitutes in animals, with the ex-
ception only of  some apes, a bone, which remains distinct through life,
and is called the intermaxillary bone,(o* incisivum s. intermaxillare.) (3)
This portion  however is entirely separate from the rest of  the bone in
man also, but  only during  the  early periods of existence; and in the
intermaxillary fissure we can always trace more or less evidently the
 peculiar formation of animals. (4)
   d.  The shape of the chin, which in animals retreats more or less
 behind the alveolar processes,  while in man it projects slightly before
 them.

   (1) P. Camper,  IHss. sur leg rarietes naturclles qui caracterisent la physionomic
 des hommes des divers climats et d^ different  ages, translated by Jansen, Paris,
 1791 •—See also Stuart, De mensch, zoo als hij voorkomt op den bekenden aardool, Am-
 sterdam, 1802, p. 51.—Wiedemann in Archiv fur Zoologie und Zootomie, vol. i. part
 1. p. 18.—J. E. Doorniek, Wijsgeerig natuurkundig onderzoek aangaande den oors-
 sprongliken mensch en de oorsprong like stammen van deszelfsgeslacht, Amsterdam,
 1808.
   (2) See the memoir of Daubentonf Sur les differences de la situation du grand
 trou occipital dans Vhomme et dans les animaux, in Mem. de V Academic des sciences
 1764, p. 568—575.  F. T.                                        anew" ,
   (3) G.  Fischer,  Ueber die ver.ichiedene Form des Intcrmaxillarknochcns in ver-
 schiedenen  Thieren, Leipsick, 1800.
   (4) Goethe, Zur Naturwisacnschaft uberhaupt,  insbesondere  zur Morphologic
 Stuttgard, 1820, p. 201.                                          r   °  ' 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
57
   c. The position of the teeth, in two respects :
   a. These bones in man form an uninterrupted series, while in ani-
mals, except the  anoplotherium,(l)  we always observe a vacuum,
caused either for the  greater development of the canine teeth or by
their absence.
   (3. Man is almost the only animal in whom the direction of the in-
cisors is perpendicular to that of the two jaws.
   2. The trunk also furnishes some distinctive characters :
   a. The pelvis in man is peculiarly formed.  With a few exceptions,
the human  pelvis is the only one which appears as  a low, spacious
cavity, surrounded by broad parietes, or as the bottom of a' reservoir.
   b. In man also the bones of the vertebral column, from above down-
ward, increase considerably in volume, although generally the spinous
processes, particularly of the thoracic  vertebrae, are  proportionally
shorter than in  animals.
   c. The sternum. When man is perfectly developed, the sternum is
formed at most  but of three bones ; while in the other  mammalia its
parts are very numerous, equaling  the number of  spaces between
every two true  ribs ; an arrangement which is also regular in man at
certain periods  of life.
   5. The muscular system in man differs from  that of other animals by
the shght development of some muscles  and the greater power  of
others.
   The muscles least developed are those which move the skin ; the
most vigorous,  on the contrary, are  those which serve to maintain
the erect attitude, and those which  prevent  the inferior part of the
trunk and the lower extremity of the thigh from bending forward, that
is, principally those of the haunch and of the calf of the leg.  The
muscles which  move  the  head are also more developed in other mam-
malia, both on account of their proper attitude, and because they serve
to sustain the head, and to bite.
   The composite systems and apparatuses present the following pecu-
liarities :
   1st. In the intestinal canal, the vermiform appendix of the ccecum
is in some measure a distinctive  character of the human formation.
But the  vesicula umbilicalis is not confined to man  only,  since the
tunica erythroides which is found in all the mammalia, at least at cer-
tain periods, and the vitelline sac of birds, reptiles, and of many and
probably of all fishes, correspond to this organ.
  2d. In the genital apparatus, the separation which takes place soon
after birth between the serous sac of the testicles and  the peritoneal
sac is a character which belongs exclusively to the male ;  for the canal
of communication between these two cavities is never obliterated in the
other mammalia.   In the female, the external form of the womb, the
tissue of this organ, and the presence  of the hymen, have  been consi-
dered as so many particulars belonging exclusively to  the  human

             (1) Cuvier, Ann. du Museum, vols. iii. and ix.
   Vol. I.                       8 
58
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
race;  but this is false in regard to the hymen, which has been found
well developed in several  other  mammalia, or at least is always indi-
cated by folds.(l)  The other two characters are more valuable :  1.
In fact the womb of most  mammalia is not single  and pynform  both
externally and internally, like that of the female; but it has two horns,
and frequently is completely divided into two cavities.  2.  It has also
a distinct red layer of muscular fibres, which is attached to the internal
membrane only by a loose cellular tissue, and its parietes are very thin
in proportion to its cavity,  while  the fibrous texture of the human ute- /
rus is developed  only during pregnancy; even then the fibres of this
organ do not assume the peculiar appearance of those of the muscles:
it is difficult to separate the internal membrame from the rest of its tis-
sue ;  and its cavity is always very small in proportion to the thickness
of its  parietes.
   Neither are these conditions exclusively peculiar to the human race;
for they are found in almost all  the edentata and tardigrada;  besides,
the womb of the apes and  makies differs but little from that of woman.
   § 30.  The principal  character of the human species is drawn then
from  the large size of the  brain, from the inferior development of the
organs of sense, and their almost uniform development.
   It is in this sense only that we can admit the proposition  of  Her-
der(2) so often repeated by others, that man is but a species interme-
diate between those beings above and below him.
   § 31.  From the many particulars already mentioned, and from those
which remain to be examined, may be deduced a fundamental charac-
teristic of the human  species, viz., that originally, and from  his very
nature, man was formed for the erect posture.  The ancients understood
this law perfectly well, and showed  more sagacity in. developing  it
than many modern writers have in opposing it.(3)
   § 32. X.  Notwithstanding the  peculiarities of conformation which
prove  that man, hke every other organism, forms a  separate  species,
daily observation demonstrates that, under any relation, all the indivi-
duals are not exactly alike.
   The principal difference, which  extends to the whole  species,  is
the distinction .of this species into  two sexes,(4) male and female.   This
in fact does not exist, or is not marked so distinctly, in the early periods
of fetal existence ; and  as the resemblance of the organism to  itself is
much greater the nearer it is to the time of its origin, so at  this period

  (1) Cuvier, Anatomie comparee, vol. iv.
  (2) ldeen zur Philosophic der Geschichte der Menschheit, Carlsruhe, 1790 vol. i.
  (3) Compare Moscati, Delle corporeeldiferenze essenziali che passano tra la strut-
tura deh bruti e la umana, Milan, 1770; and  against his assertions  G Vrolik De
homine ad statum gressumque rectum per corporis fabricam disposito Levden  1795
—G. Bakker, Natuur-en geschiedkundig onderzoek aangaande den oorsvrone-liiken
stam van het menschehjk geslacht, Harlem, 1810.—The opinion of Moscati has heen
mamtained by Schelver and Doornik, and contested by Blumenbach, Herder Vrolik
and Bakker.                                                  '      '
  (4) Hufelanrf, Sur I'egalite numerique des deux sexes dans I'espcce humninr i„ tu-
Jour, compl. du Diet, des Sciences Med., vol. vi. p. 361.      ^  AMmotBe»m the 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION,
59
all the organisms appear  formed more  exactly after the same type
But this difference soon begins to show itself, and although the sexual
characters in the general form are not well marked until after the four-
teenth year, nevertheless the form of some organs, as the genitals, in
the regular course of development soon assumes the characters of the
male or female.  The two sexes differ from each other both in the size
of the body in general and of the  organs in particular, and also in the
proportion either  between these  organs themselves or between them
and the whole body, as in  regard to their external form and texture,
physical properties, and the position of their parts.
  1st. In size. The male is usually taller than  the female.  Some
organs are proportionally larger in the male, and others in the female.
Besides the differences in this respect between the different parts of the
genital organs, for the mammae of the male are less developed than
those of the female, and the uterus is larger than the  prostate gland,
and again, the testicle is  more voluminous than  the ovary, and the
penis than the clitoris: independently, we say, of these differences, the
heart, lungs, and organs of voice are larger in the male, while the liver,
and the brain considered proportionally to  the  nerves and the whole
body, are larger in the female.   The hair of the  head is more deve-
loped in the female than in the male; in the latter there is a strong
beard, and the whole body is hairy, which is not the case in the female,
except on the head and pubis.
  2d.  In the external form.  The number of parts is the same in the
female, but they differ somewhat in form, for if the stomach in the female
is more oblong, and in the male  rounder, the form of the body of the
female, and usually that of all the organs, is rounder than in the male
where the outline is sharper  and more angular.
  In fact all the parts of the genital  apparatus correspond in the two
sexes; but their external forms vary so much that it seems at first im-
possible to believe that the genitals of the two sexes are only modifica-
tions of the same primitive  type.  In this respect the distinguishing
characteristic is the predominance of length in the male, and of breadth
and thickness in the female.   It is seen both in the form of the genital
organs and in that part of the body which contains them.   Thus the
male pelvis is narrower, more contracted, and deeper, than that of the
female; the perns is longer and narrower than the vagina and clitoris,
the vasa defer en tia are longer than the Fallopian tubes. The two sexe3
differ also as respects their constancy of form, which is much greater
in the male than in the female.
  3d.  In texture and physical  qualities.   The body of the female ia
usually more delicate, softer, and less firm than that of the male.
  4th. The situation of the  parts is the same in both sexes, if we ex-
cept those organs which relate to the generative functions.   The' prin-
cipal  difference in this respect  between the -male and female is, that
the parts are external in  the male, but internal in the female.  The
testicles are situated externally, and the ovaries  internally, the pros-
tate is at the outlet, and the uterus within the cavity, of the pelvis; the 
60
GENERAL ANATOMT.
 penis extends along its external face, while the clitoris and vagina  are
 placed within its cavity.
   § 33. Besides this grand fundamental difference, which divides the
 human species into two halves, there are others less striking which are
 common to both of these halves, which distinguish the species, not into
 sexes, but races.    They are called, differences ofraces.(l)
   The characters  employed to establish the principal divisions of  the
 human family may be very different, but the suitable track to follow
 is that which embraces the whole organization, and is not confined to
 the consideration of only one or another of its peculiarities, as, for exam-
 ple, the color, size,  the proportions of the different parts of the body, &c.
   Buffon was the first who proceeded in this manner, and divided man-
 kind  into  six races, viz. the  Hyperborean, or Laplander,  which in-
 cludes  the  polar nations: 2d, the Tartar, which is the largest, and
 inhabits central Asia:  3d, the Southern Asiatic, which embraces also
 the South Sea  Islanders:  4th, the  European: 5th, the  Ethiopian:
 and 6th, the American :(2) but, finally, he reduces these six races to
 five only, considering the Laplanders as degenerated Tartars, and in-
 dicating very precisely the tribes  which make  the transition from  the
 Tartar race properly so called, to  those imperfectly developed nations
 who live under the poles.
   After this correction, the five races established by Buffon, correspond
 to those of Blumenbach, as the Laplander and the  Tartar of the first
 are the Mongolian  of the second;  the Southern Asiatic corresponds to
 the Malay, and the European of  Buffon is the Caucasian of Blumen-
 bach ; the similarity of names  identify the other two.
   § 34. The principal characters which distinguish the European, or
 the Caucasian, race from the others, are as follows :
   A white skin, but in the people of  the south it  is brownish yellow;
 cheeks red, but they have  little or no color in the other races.   The
 color of the hair varies, from a light yellow to a deep brown, and even
 black.  The eyes, that is to say, the irides, are blue, gray, brown, and
 rarely entirely black.   The form of the face  is oval, neither very flat
 nor very angular.  The bones are no where very prominent; neither
 do the cheek bones ever project much.   The forehead is arched, but
 never retreating;  the nose narrow, the mouth moderately large.   The
 lips do not project  much ;  the lower projects beyond the upper.   The
 teeth are perpendicular to the two jaws. The chin is full and rounded.
  (1) The principal work on this subject is that of Blumenbach, De generis humani
 vartetate nahva, Goettingen, 1795.  Consult also, besides the work of Herder quoted
 above, A. G. Zimmermann, Geographische Geschichte der Menschenundderallee-
 metnverbreiteten Thier^ Leipsick, 1778-1783. G. Josephi/ Grundriss der Naturge,-
 chichte  des Menschen, Hamburgh, 1799-C. F. Ludwig,' Gundriss der Naturges-
 t^n  I  ■nSC^eZS' h"^ 1796-,J- J* Virey, Histoire naturelle duglnre
 humam, Paris, an IX.-Id  Recherches sur  la, nature et les facultes de Jfhomme.-
 C. Gross, Magazmfur dieNaturgeschichte des Menschen, Leipsick 1788-1791—S
 S. Smith, An essay on the causes of the variety of complexion and figure in the hu-
 man speeds, rath- American Museum 1789, p. 30, et seq.-C. Meinerf, Vnterswhul
gen uber die Verschiedenheiten der Menschennaturen, Tubingen 1811
  (2) Histoire naturelle, vol.iii:  Histoire naturelle de I'homme. 'Variites dans I'es-
pece humame, p. 37.                                              n  f 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
61
   The Caucasian race represents, in some measure, a centre, on each
 side of which are varieties.   In fact, the head, and to a certain extent,
 the whole body becomes either broader or narrower.   The Mongolian
 and American races are marked by greater  breadth, while a lateral
 compression is seen in the Ethiopian and Malay races.
   The principal characters of the Mongolian race, are a yellowish or
 olive color, between that of wheat and boiled quinces or dried lemon
 peel; hair black, short, thin, stiff, and straight;  head almost triangular;
 face broad and flat;  cheek bones high and  prominent; forehead very
 broad and flat; small flat nose; cheeks almost round, and plump;
 eyelids half closed.   The proportion  of the skull to the face, is a little
 less favorable than in the Caucasian race, being about one tenth less.
 The stature of the northern nations of this race is very low ; the  ex-
 tremities are very short, even in the countries at some distance from  the
 north, which probably depends in part on artificial habits.
   The American race is distinguished from the others by a copper or
 cinnamon color; hair fine,  black, straight, and thin; forehead low ;
 eyes sunken; nose slightly flat, although projecting.  The face is broad;
 the cheek bones are generally prominent, but the different features  are
 not both flat and depressed ; they appear, on the contrary, very full,
 especially on a side view.
   In the Malay race the skin is brown; the hair is soft, curled, and abun-
 dant ; the head narrow; the forehead prominent; the nose broad, diverg-
 ing, and thick at its apex; the mouth large.   The upper jaw projects
 considerably; but on a side view  the features are well proportioned.
   The Ethiopian race is farther removed from the Caucasian in many
 respects.  The color is more or  less black ; the hair is short, thick,
 woolly, fine, hard, glossy, and elastic:  it  does not extend itself gra-
 dually towards the neck, but terminates suddenly, like a wig.  The
 eyebrows are also curled and thinner; the eyelashes are much more
 arched and thicker than in the other races. But these peculiarities are
 not seen at all periods of life, for at birth the color is whitish, and the hair
 is long and curled, but not woolly, and on the back part of the head it
 continues insensibly to the neck;  this latter is stronger, and the occiput
 is more feeble ; the occipital  foramen is placed a little farther forward
 and is larger; the head is narrow and compressed laterally, whence
 the forehead  appears  sloping.   The  cheeks  project forward,  but
 not on the sides;  the  upper  jaw  is constructed after the same type,
 and the cheek bones project, evidently, from this arrangement.  Hence
 the alveolar processes  appear narrow and long.  The upper incisors
 are directed obliquely forward.  The bones of the skull are very strong
 and very thick.  Of all the human races, the Ethiopian is that in which
 the proportion between the face and skull is least  advantageous to the
 latter, for the facial angle is only  seventy degrees, while in the Mongo-
 lian race it is seventy-five, and in the Caucasian, eighty.  The surface
 of the face, compared to that  of the skull, is one fifth larger in this race
 than in the Caucasian. The nerves, especially those of the first, second,
and fifth pairs, are also more voluminous, in proportion to the brain.
The brain is firmer.  We could discover no difference in its color, and 
62
GENERAL ANATOMT.
 the  various  opinions among authors on this  subject leave it doubt-
 ful.   The lips, especially the upper, are thick and turned upward ;
 their color is not purely red, but they are bluish black, or at most a
 dirty rose-red.   The chin is more or less retreating.   The nose is very
 thick, and is almost blended with the upper jaw, and it is, moreover, flat,
 even in young fetuses.  The eyes  are  very prominent, and  often so
 black that, in  many nations  of this race, we  cannot distinguish the
 iris  from the pupil.  The aperture of the eyelids is generally smaller
 than in  the  Caucasian race, but the globe of the eye  is larger, and
 blackish to about half a line round the cornea, while the rest is yellowish.
 The rudiment  of the third eyelid is greater than in the other races.
 The external ear is rounder, more analogous  to that of the ape, and
 stands out farther from  the  head.   The muscles of the mouth are
 more developed; hence the temporal  fossa  is deeper, and the semi-
 circular  line  on the side of the skull is more distinct and prominent.
 The anterior orifice of the nasal fossa? is extremely large, and the sur-
 face of the pituitary membrane is increased by some irregularities within
 the nose.  The anterior  palatine foramen is broader.  The teeth are
 very large and very broad.   The pelvis is narrower than  in the Euro-
 peans.   The hands and feet are well proportioned, but flat; the fingers
 and toes are  long.
   The genital organs in this race present some general peculiarities,
 and  some characters which belong only to certain tribes.  They are
 chiefly characterized by their great development; in males, this is seen
 in the size of the penis, and in that of the clitoris in females.(l)   The
 nymphse are sometimes (2) excessively lengthened, and sometimes, in
 different nations, even new parts seem to be developed, certain acces-
 sory organs, which serve to enlarge the external genital apparatus.(3)
 All these peculiarities are very remarkable, because they resemble the
 structure of the ape.  In fact, the Ethiopian race seems to form the
 transition from the Caucasian race, to the quadrumani.(4)
   §  35.  The number of races can be restricted still farther, by referring
 to a single type, those  which  are  separated in the same  manner,

 n (l)V«illant's Travels in the Interior of Africa, in the Mag. merk. Reisebeschr, vol.
 2. p. 308.
  (2) Peron and. Lesueur in the Anatomie  Comparee of Cuvier vol.  iv.—Barrow in
 Vo.gt's Magazm fur die  Naturlehre, vol. iii.  p. 4. p. 792.  Barrow, however,
 pretends that the parts found  in the Boschisman woman are prolongations of the
  (3) The exhibition of a Boschisman woman at Paris as a Hottentot Venus who died
there, proved that Peron was deceived in admitting a special organ.   Thrjetendea
 apron, very impropeily stated in regard to the Hottentots, (as the true Hntt™tr>!« ™»
 deprived of it, and it belongs only to the Houzouanas Ar R^v,-         t0ts^e
 a prolongation of the nymph*, developed, if we ma^' sneak ^Z? WomeR>X »
 labia externa, which are hardly visible  Cuvier has shown ihtl exPensc oi th«
 the two fleshy lobes which compose this apron, are Z^edTroAnre?^ *£?
 summit of the nymphs, while the rest is only an extension nfihl  PrePuce aJ?d *h.e
 Memoir on this subject, in the Memoires du KS^iif \ M^t^  ^^
 tice sur la Venus Hottentote, in the Journal complimented™ dt  ^ ?•  Ure?8> ^
 sjiencesmedicates, vol. iv. p. ^^.^n.r^S^i^SSS^.tS.

 JiutSJr, ISortlf^6"  ** ***"***«  V™h^nheit de, Nefers 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
63
from the middle term of the formation peculiar to  the Caucasian race.
We should then have only three races.  This classification is more con-
venient, as it is favored by the similarity of customs.  Finally, the (lif-
erent races not only pass from one to the other by imperceptible shades,
but still it sometimes happens that certain.individuals belonging to one
race, resemble others in many essential respects, and especially in the
form of the head.  We have before us, at the present moment, the skulls
of several Germans, so strongly marked with the characters of the Ethi-
opian race, that it would be difficult to distinguish them from the skulls
of negroes.
  The form of  the whole  body, and especially of the head, evidently
proves, that the Caucasian race, is that, in which the human character,
the predominance of the brain, is seen  most perfectly, and on the con-
trary, the Ethiopian race most resembles the apes.  The other races
form intermediate degrees between the Caucasian race and  the other
mammalia.   But we have  no proof, nor is it even probable, that the
Ethiopian race can in time be perfected, and that the other races have
already possessed their form, than that the  human race has once been
formed more perfectly, of which form it is now deprived.  On the con-
trary, there  is every reason to think, that the species man was formed
last, and that all  other beings are so many attempts of nature, before
making him.  We  cannot decide, whether the different races are con-
secutive modifications of a  single primitive trunk, or if the differences
be original, and if the number of primitive races,, which perhaps ap-
peared at the same  time, be not infinitely greater than  that of the races
afterwards formed, by including several, similar to  each other, in some
large families;  the  second hypothesis  however, is more probable than
the first ;(1) nevertheless, it does not prevent us from reducing the
five races, actually  admitted by naturalists, to three.
  § 36.  Besides the differences of sexes and of races, the human forma-
tion presents others of a third kind.  These latter are separate from the
first, and are common  to the whole species, and are found indiscrimi-
nately in both  sexes and in all the  races, although they may be more
frequent in one sex, or race,  than in another:  they are called abnormal
formations, or deviations of formation.   In fact,  the  whole body, as
well as each particular system, possesses an external as well as an inter-
nal form, which recurs oftener than any other, and which may therefore
be considered as the rule.   This  regular form, is, at the same time, if
not always,  at  least in most instances, the most suitable, because it is
the most favorable for the performance of  the functions. It may then be
called the healthy form, or the form in harmony with the health.  vOn
the contrary, those which vary from it  should be called morbid forma-
tions ; first,  because they often disturb the functions of the organ, and,
according to the  nature of  the organ, and the manner and degree of
the aberration, may even prevent the continuance of life ; and secondly,

  (1) See the memoir of Rudolphi On  the distribution of animals, in the Beitrcege
zur Anthropologic und allgemeine Naturgeschichte, Berlin, 1812. 
64
GENERAL ANATOMT.
because the cause of those aberrations from the normal state, is evi-
dently a disease, as most of the alterations  of texture result from mor-
bid affections.
   These anomalies form the subject of pathological anatomy.   Never-
theless, it is impossible to separate completely the study of the regu-
lar from that of the irregular structure ; so that general anatomy ought
to embrace, also, the most important considerations arising from ano-
malies of texture.(l)
   All the abnormal  formations are  essentially the same ; in the end,
they consist in the rarity, and  consequently, in a deviation from the
rule.   Nevertheless, these formations may be distinguished from each
other, either from the size and importance of the organ, or from the in-
fluence of the anomaly on its function, or according to the degree of the
anomaly.   But the differences they present in relation  to the qualities
of the organs, and to  the manner in which they are themselves deve-
loped, are still more important.
   Many of these  anomalies, in fact, affect only the external form of
the organs; others their internal structure, their tissue, chemical com-
position,  and physical  properties.   Many arise during the course of
life, and are accidental, while others are primitive.   Alterations of  tex-
ture are the most frequent, but they are not always accidental.   The
defects of formation are congenital  when they do  not depend upon
mechanical injury, or on previous alterations of  texture.
   § 37. The anomalies of form, whether appearing primitively, or after
the period when the part affected has its regular form, refer, 1st, to the
number, 2d, to the volume, 3d, to the situation, and 4th,  to the form of
the organs.
   1st.  In  the  first respect, an  organ may be entirely or partly defi-
cient;  sometimes the defect is original, but it is often, also, only acci-
dental, resulting  from  morbid actions,  which, either  mechanically,
chemically, or dynamically, have  partially or  totally  destroyed  the
organ.  Thus compression and irritation, arising from tumors, or from
the teeth  which  are cutting, cause even the hardest bones, the milk
teeth, to disappear; by the  want of extension, as consequent to a
ligature,  the blood vessels are obliterated as high as the first branch,
furnished by the trunk, in which the  circulation  is impeded.   The
acids destroy the  most solid parts  by  solution;  the testicles vanish
without leaving the least trace, and often without any known sufficient
cause, &c.
   We cannot always determine with precision, if a part which is de-
ficient, has  existed previously,  and has  been destroyed,  since  nu-
merous  observations demonstrate, that parts, existing at first partially
or wholly disappear, not only morbidly, but normally.  (See page 46 )


  (1) These considerations, however, can be pointed out only very briefly, when
treating either of genera or of descriptive anatomy. We have made Aem the subject
of a separate treatise, called  Handbuch der pathologischen Anatomie, HaUe 1812-15 
                  GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.               65

  Neither is  there an instance of the defect  of  any part whatever
which has not been differently explained by different observers.
  The reverse of defect or absence, is a plurality of parts, in which we
observe  numerous gradations commencing with multiplications of the
small parts.   This defect of formation is always congenital, or at least
the power of  the  human organism to produce supernumerary parts, is
extremely limited, except during the period when the normal parts are
forming.  In truth, all these parts are not formed at once.  (See p. 45.)
But if we  except those which appear regularly after the others, the
organism never produces parts in  any manner composite, and similar
to those which  exist in  the normal state, unless in conditions analo-
gous to those which the formation of a new organism requires.
  2d. Aberrations in regard  to mass and volume,- are also congenital
or accidental.  In this case, the mass  and volume is greater or less
than in the normal  state, and the increase or diminution in mass and
volume does not necessarily take place in these  two-respects at the
same time.   An  organ may become much larger than usual, without
an  increase,  and even from a diminution in its mass when its tissue is
considerably  dilated  or extended.   This is proved by the swelling of
the bones and the dilatation of the hollow organs.
  The abnormal stricture (strictura, coarctatio) of the hollow organs,
may even entirely efface their cavities ; this is called obliteration, or
atresia, which has been badly divided into true and false.
   3. Anomalies of situation are accidental more frequently than conge-
nital.  In this point of view, first, sometimes a part is found on the side
opposite to that where it is generally placed; or, second, higher or lower
than usual.  Third.  Sometimes it is perpendicular when it should be
oblique, or oblique when it should be perpendicular. Finally,it may exist
outside of the cavity within which it is commonly found.   When this
part has only left its usual situation, it is called a hernia, or luxation
(luxatio). Hernials when a part usuallyinclosed in one of the three large
cavities of the body, escapes from it.  Luxation is when a bone leaves ita
articular  cavity.  Inversion  is when the  internal face of a part is
turned outwardly.   Inversion sometimes produces an intussusception
or invagination, when the inverted part, or those which envelop it, pass
into another cavity, as happens for instance in the intestinal canal, and
sometimes it causes a. prolapsus, when these same parts project more or
less externally. Every prolapsus is, at first, for a longer or shorter time,
only a simple intussusception, which sometimes lasts only an instant;
but an intussusception does not always become a prolapsus.
   4 th. Anomalies in form, are produced in various ways; since the varie-
ties of which the form is  susceptible depend on  the particular cha-
racter it possesses in the  normal  state.   Thus a rounded part can be
oblong or more angular, and vice versa.   A single part may be-divided
into several others, and parts usually united may be separate and dis-
tinct.  The deviations of formation most often found, are the abnormal
separation of parts usually united, and  the abnormal union of parts
   Vol. I.                       9 
66
GENERAL ANATOMY.
generally separated.   But abnormal separation may often, although
not always, be referred to  defect, or absence, as for example, in fissure
of the palate, or of the abdomen.   So  too with  abnormal union, as
the fusion of the two eyes into one, the union of the two auricles, or of
the two ventricles of the heart, &c.
  The anomalies of  this class also are accidental, or  congenital; in
the latter case, they are probably for  the  most part  primitive  or ori-
ginal.
  The anomalies of the first  kind, besides those  already mentioned,
are the lobed structure of the spleen and  kidneys, the fissure of the
vagina, of the womb, and  of the bladder, &c.
  Those of the second kind, are the different  accidental solutions of
continuity, as lacerations,  wounds, and fractures, which may depend
on an infinity of causes ; the accidental union of parts originally sepa-
rate, as in anchilosis, &c.
  § 38.  We have already said that aberrations of form are  sometimes
congenital, and sometimes  are not developed till after birth.   But even
if one of those  anomalies exists  when an infant is born, it does not
thence follow, that it is original,  that the altered organ has not been
well formed at  a former period, and that the  monstrosity it presents
does not result from a morbid cause acting upon it before birth.   Ne-
vertheless, irrefutable arguments unite to demonstrate, that  congenital
aberrations of the external form, are also usually original.  We can
refer these arguments  to the following, which make us acquainted at
the same time with the most essential and most remarkable  conditions
of original deviations of formation.
  1.  The nature of  the deformities announces that they are original.
In fact,
  a.  Most of them can be explained in no other manner.   Such, for
instance, as the inversion of  all the organs, or of some one only, the
result of which is, that on the right side we see parts which are usually
found on the left, and vice versa ; and much more, when the inversion
takes place, not only in situation, but also in form;  the increase  in the
number of certain parts,  as of the fingers and toes; irregularities in
the distribution and origin of  the  vessels, &c.   The  attempts  which
have been made to account  for these anomalies mechanically, are so
monstrous, that they refute the  hypothesis imagined to explain them.
Organogenesis  proves that many deviations of formation, are original;
since it can be demonstrated that they depend on the fact, that the or-
gan has remained stationary at one of those degrees, through- which,
in its normal progress, it successively passes.
  6.  The sides of the body seem to differ a little, one from the other, in
regard to the frequency of deviations of formation presented by them.  In
fact, most are found  only on the left side.   Thus, for instance, the ver-
tebral artery rarely arises,  except on the left side, from  the arch  of the
aorta.  We see,  too, anomalies  in the renal  vessels of the left side,
more commonly than in those of. the right.  To express this law more
generally, we may say that  the  regions and the parts which are but 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
67
imperfect representations of parts better developed, or to produce which,
the formative power  seems habitually to employ less energy, are also
those which vary the most from  the rules  laid down, and which are
formed with less constancy.  Thus the  sternum differs so much in re-
spect to the number and size of its osseous nuclei, that we can scarcely
establish any thing  certain in regard to them, while anomalies in the
vertebral column are  very rare.   So too, varieties in the vessels of the
lungs, the most noble and  most important organ, and which appears
very early in the animal  series,  are less  numerous  and  rarer than
those of the renal vessels.
   Nevertheless, this  law has exceptions.  Thus, for instance, the dis-
tribution of the vessels, varies more frequently in the upper than in the
lower extremities, although the latter appear  later than  the former.
But this exception is perhaps only imaginary, as the inferior members
in the progress of life soon become larger than the superior.
   c. Some systems  are more subject to deviations  of formation than
others.   The greater part  of the nervous, osseous,  and muscular sys-
tems, present anomalies more rarely than the other systems, particu-
larly the vascular.  Among the apparatuses, those of voice and respira-
tion are less subject to  derangement, than  those of generation, diges-
tion, and of the urinary passages.   The last two, with the  vascular
system, are those which are most frequently anomalous.  In this re-
spect, there is a remarkable contrast in the nervous system  between
the brain, spinal marrow, and their nerves on one part, and the  great
sympathetic nerve on the other.  The difference we have pointed out
between the different  organs  certainly depends on  this  contrast, at
least in part, since the organs which receive their nerves from the brain
or the spinal  marrow, are  distinguished from  the  others,  by the con-
stancy of their  forms.  These  organs in which the form is most con-
stant are, at the same time, more symmetrical, so that these two condi-
tions seem to depend  on the same principle.  In  fact, there is here only
a  simple difference of relation, since symmetry is to the individual,
what constancy is to the species.
   d. Anomalies of the same organ are similar.   Thus,  when two
tongues exist, they are not* placed side by side, but one above the other.
Anomalies in the large vessels arising from the trunk of the aorta,
vary much, in truth, but each resembles itself.  Thus, for  instance, if
the right subclavian artery does not come from the arteria innominata,
it arises, most usually, above that of the artery of the left  side, and
there is not merely a division of the trunk of the innominata.  When the
vertebral artery forms a separate trunk, it is always the left which pre-
sents this irregularity, and itusually rises from between the large trunks
of the  left side, instead of implanting itself below the corresponding
subclavian artery, although in the preceding anomaly, the origin of the
right subclavian  artery is placed lower  even than that of  the last.
The perforation of the septum of the heart, the division of  the urethra,
the contraction  of the stomach,  always occur  in  one  determined
place. 
68
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  e. In the anomalies of an  organ there is a gradual  transition from
one to another.  We can establish a series from the slightest anoma-
lies of an organ, to the greatest disfigurement of the whole organism.
Thus the doubling of the whole organism commences by the  multi-
plication of the toes, the heart, the head, and  is arrested when two bo-
dies are united by the head, the  chest, the abdomen, &c.   So too, in
monstrosities of an opposite character, there is a perfect gradation from
the approach of the two eyes, to the existence of only one on the me-
dian fine, with which the anomalies  attending it in other parts of  the
head, coincide.   We can also trace this transition from the inversion of
the inferior limbs, to the existence of a single pelvic member, which is
also central, and developed  very imperfectly.   This law does not con-
tradict the preceding; it only restricts it to a certain  extent, and the
more, as the different degrees of the anomalies of the organs present
themselves not merely once, but frequently exist in different individuals
of the same and different species.
  f. The deviations of formation are  bounded by certain limits.  To
whatever extent the form of  an organ, or of the whole organism, may
be abnormal, it can always be recognized, even when the organism is
deformed by several simultaneous deviations of formation.   Thus  the
heart is never seen on the back, the lungs in the abdomen, the cranium
between the lower extremities, &c.   These organs then are never ano-
malous to such a degree, that heterogeneous parts should be blended in
one mass ; for instance, the  nerves with the vessels, the aorta with  the
esophagus, &c.   This is one of the strongest arguments against the
hypothesis, that monstrosities depend on mechanical influences.
  g.  Slight anomalies are much more frequent  than large  deviations,
both as regards the relation  of the volume of the parts, and the influ-
ence of the anomaly on the functions.  The small branches and rami-
fications of the vessels vary much, while the large trunks are more con-
stant.   It is much more common to see the radial artery arise from the
brachial artery in the region of  the axilla, or the left vertebral artery
coming  directly from the trunk of the aorta, than to see the right sub-
clavian  artery arising below the left, or the aorta divided completely or
incompletely  into three trunks.  The  rarest  anomalies in the  circu-
latory system are those which allow a mixture of the pulmonary blood
with that of the body, and those which affect the health : as the per-
foration of the septum of the heart, the origin of the pulmonary artery
from the aorta, of the aorta from the right ventricle, or of the pulmo-
nary artery from the left ventricle.   This  law may be  expressed in a
general way by saying that an anomaly is more  frequent the less the
arrangement of the parts varies  from  the  normal state; but thus ex-
pressed this law is not correct: for instance, the perforation of the sep-
tum of  the heart is a normal formation during  the first periods of fetal
existence, and nevertheless it exists much more rarely than varieties in
the distribution of vessels, which are never normal.
   2.  The relations which connect deviations of formation to other condi-
tions not dependent  on the misformed  organs  themselves, prove that
these anomalies are original. 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
69
  h. Tlie simultaneous existence  of several  anomalies in the same or-
ganism.  Although but one organ is usually abnormal, a circumstance
which is connected with the preceding law, nevertheless we sometimes
find in  the same body many which vary from the normal formation.
The anomalies then present sometimes the same and sometimes a
different and even an opposite character.  Thus, in certain  cases all
the imperfectly symmetrical organs are inverted: those of  the right
side are found on  the left, and those  of the left side on the right.
Again, several systems are deformed by a defect of development: often,
and in  fact most usually, some parts  are deficient, while others  are
immoderately developed.   But we rarely or  never find supernumerary
organs in a body where the general form is characterized by an exces-
sive  activity  of  the formative power:  for instance, a  double-bodied
monster has  never more than five fingers and toes.   Thus, generally
speaking, the formative  powers  appear not to employ more energy
upon one part unless at the expense of another ;  and one part remains
deficient only because another is too much developed.
  t.  The simultaneous existence of several misformed fetuses, or the co-
existence of a monstrous fetus with one that is well formed.  We some-
times meet with twins or triplets which present  similar deviations of
formation in the same organs, almost always ascribable to a defect of
development; and it is  more  common to find two or three together
which  are monstrous on account  of some fault  in their development,
that is to say, in general by defect.   A singular relation sometimes
exists in  this respect between  one pregnancy and another: a finger,
for example, which is deficient in  one  child is found  in excess in the
next.   This law is the  same  as the  preceding, but  applies to other
objects.
  k. Monstrosities of the same kind are hereditary in some families.
This does not cease  even by marriages with other families,  although
it sometimes disappears  for several generations.   The best  known
examples of  this are those families with supernumerary fingers.   But
the hare-lip, fissure of the palate, hypospadias, &c, are equally heredi-
tary.   Sometimes  a tendency to produce anomalies  is transmitted
rather  than an anomaly, although usually the species of aberration is
then the  same.   The predisposition does not often extend except to one
generation;  nevertheless, we may ask if cases of this kind • have been
well observed, and if, when such a tendency is developed in one gene-
ration,  it  is not transmitted at least to the following  generations, as
certain diseases are developed sometimes under favorable circumstances
and have now become contagious.
  /.  The influence  of sex.  We may state as a principle that anoma-
lies are more common in the female.   This  phenomenon seems to us
to depend upon the eighth law, since  the organization  of the female
results from  the development being  arrested at an  inferior degree.
Hence it follows also that deviations of formation absolutely opposite
in their nature are more common in the female than in the male.   Ne-
vertheless certain organs may be exceptions to this rule.  Thus, several 
70
GENERAL ANATOMV.
anomalies of'the heart(l) and of the bladder(2)  are  found more fre-
quently in  the male than in the female.
   m. Most deviations of formation are analogous to what is seen in ani-
mals.  The organs of man do not present a single anomaly which is
not similar to what is seen in animals.  A whole book might be writ-
ten on this subject, and  exact observation would multiply to infinity
the facts we coujd now mention in favor  of this law.  It is founded on
another law, that the  human fetus while developing passes through
several formations, and that those monstrosities which are formed essen-
tially by the development being arrested in one or another of these for-
mations, are the most common because they were normal in the first pe-
riods of its existence.  Nevertheless we trace a resemblance with the or-
ganization of animals in certain anomalies which have never been nor-
mal, such as the inversion of the least symmetrical organs, and most of
the varieties of the vessels.  This law then can be expressed in general
terms as follows :   All the organisms have one primitive fundamental
type : hence one may be transformed into another.(3)
   n.  The spontaneous appearance  of similar phenomena  during life,
which do not result from the effect of an external lesion.  The alterations
of texture and all new formations are usually developed spontaneously.
Why, then, is it not probable,  after this, and setting aside too the argu-
ments #hitherto  adduced, that, by a stronger reason, congenital  mon-
strosities are original, and do not depend on external influences 1  But
it is a peculiar anomaly which favors this opinion.   In  several animals,
especially in the class of birds, the  female habits  and female desires
are so effaced by age, that, although  the genital organs remain the
same, yet in these particulars the bird belongs  to the male sex.   It is
true that at first sight these phenomena appear to oppose the doctrine
of original monstrosities, as they show the possibility of a total change;
but in truth they favor it, as they combat the opinion which ascribes
these monstrosities to the influence of mechanical causes.  To us it does
not seem very unlikely that some parts  originally well formed in the
first periods of life should afterwards assume of themselves an abnormal
form; that, for instance, some  parts at first single should afterwards be-
come double, instead  of  merely acquiring an abnormal volume,  since
the inferior organisms, which  the  fetus so much resembles, have the
power, not merely of enlarging, but of increasing the  number of their

  (1) Schuler, De morbo caaruleo, Muhldorf, 1810, p. 29.
  (2) See Duncan's paper On the malformation of the urinary organs in the Edin.
Med. and Surg. Jour., vol. i. p. 132.
  (3) This law has been perfectly developed by J. F. St. Hilaire, who has endeavored
to demonstrate that the organization of vertebrated animals maybe referred to a
uniform type, i. e. that the materials ol all these are the same; but they varv in size
forms, and uses, and form the organization according to the wants of the animal and
the medium it inhabits.  Although their forms and size change, their connections
always remain the same, their relations are invariable.  The same materials being
given, and animated by a sum of life nearly uniform in each class, a greater de-
velopment of one cannot take place unless one or more of the parts adiacent  suffer
Such are the principles of the truly philosophical theory which J. F. St Hilaire Ion''
•ince brought forward (Philosophic anatomique, 1818) as the Theory of analogies °
                                                             F. T. 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
71
parts, under the same circumstances which  in  the superior animals
are at most attended only with an increase of volume.
  § 39. Thus almost all the  congenital  deviations  from the normal
form are primitive, or at least do not result from mechanical causes.(l)
The classification most convenient for their study is  that which views
them in their essence.   In fact it is not impossible  that the formative
power when producing  them differs  only in degree from its normal
state; and this  proposition, although at present unproved, is not at
least unlikely.   Monsters may then be classed according as  they are
anomalous in quantity  or in quality.   The first class comprehends, 1st,
monsters by defect, (monstra per defectum,) their essence is a want of
energy(2);  2d, monsters by excess, (monstra per excessum.) which are
characterized by an excess of formative power.(3)  The  second are
divided into those which depend upon the  uirion of the characters of
both sexes in the same individual, or the hermaphrodites, (monstra an-
drogyna)(4), and 2dly, those which cannot be referred to any of the
preceding classes, (monstraperfabricam  alienam.)
  To the first class of the first section are  referred the defect, smallness,
and too long continuance in the forms or proportions of early youth ;
to the second, the plurality, excessive volume, and too  rapid develop-
ment.  The objects of the second section are expressed generally by
the definition itself.  As to the classes of the first, it appears that,
besides the first two conditions, which are common  to  all the organs,
the same kind of anomaly presents as many  differences in each organ
as naturally occur in its  normal form  and development.   Besides the
differences relative to the frequency of the anomalies, which we  have
before mentioned, we may remark that we find more deviations in
formation in those  organs which while developing pass through the
greatest variety of forms; because this circumstance  increases the
number of temporary forms in which they can stop.   Perhaps there are
organs  peculiarly predisposed to one or another  class  of deviations of
formation;  this would certainly seem to be the case: thus, for instance,
the abnormal multiplication is observed particularly  in  the limbs, but
seldom in the internal organs or in the trunk.   We may establish then,
as a  general law, that an increase of  the formative  power is directed
rather to the surface, and diminution inwardly.  Nevertheless there is

  (1) J. F. St. Hilaire has settled this important proposition also, (Des monslru-
osites  humaines, Paris, 1822.)  Monsters have given new support to his doctrine of
the unity of composition in vertebrated animals.  In  fact he has observed that these
anomalies are usuallymarkedbythe excess or deficiency of only one of the parts which
form the being in its proper state, but that the parts themselves are often  equal in
number, and their relations are always the same.  Although these observations have
been confined to monstrosities of the head, they are sufficient for us to conclude, by
induction, that all others enter into this common law, and that their origin is truly
dynamic and vital.                                              F. T.
  (2) We have given the complete history of these deformities in our Handbuch der
pathologischen Anatomie.                                   .  .
  (3) The general laws and  particular conditions of these anomalies have been men-
tioned in our Commentarius de duplicitate monstrosd, Halle, 1815.
  (4) Besides several treatises on hermaphrodites, some of which are excellent, as
those of Ackermann and Burdach, consult the second volume  of our Handbuch der
pathologischen Anatomie. 
72
GENERAL ANATOMY
only a difference  in degree, as  nothing is  rarer than monsters from
defect of the external parts.
   § 40. Alterations of texture extend to all qualities connected with
the intimate composition, that is to say, principally, 1, to the color;  2,
the density; 3, the number and the composition, of the particles which
contribute,^ form the whole part; and finally to the chemical composi-
tion.
   Alterations in texture, considered generally, consist essentially in the
formation of a  tissue different either  in one or in all parts from the
normal tissue.
   1. The abnormal colors are very often accidental and foreign  to
the tissue which presents them.   This takes place when, as in jaun-
dice, cyanopathia, &c, the color of this tissue arises solely from the
morbid state of otner organs, or when it is not situated in the tissue,
but in the fluids it contains; it then disappears  as  soon as the disease
which caused it is cured.  On the contrary,, the color is rarely or even
never normal when the tissue varies from the rule in  another  relation:
in this case it  is darker, brighter, or entirely different.   Generally it
becomes more clear when the morbid alteration is not caused essentially
by an excessive development of the  vessels.
   2. The density is sometimes greater and 'sometimes  less.  In the
first case, the organs are hard and firm, in the second, loose, soft, brit-
tle, and fragile.
   3. Usually the morbid tissue is less distinct and more uniform ; the
number of vessels is often increased, and often also  diminished, &c.
  • 4. The  chemical composition also varies much. Here applies all that
has been said above with regard to its intimate texture.
   We should observe in general that the texture of the organs changes
in two different ways.   Sometimes an  organ whose conformation  is
regular is partially or wholly changed into an abnormal tissue.  Some-
times a new and anomalous tissue is  developed near it, entirely differ-
ent from  the old tissue,  which disappears  as the  former increases.
Nevertheless this difference is only apparent, for even in the latter case
the new tissue is unlike that whose place it supplied, and is only the
change of another, ordinarily of the mucous tissue, which has assumed
an abnormal state.
   The most general condition of the alterations  of texture, and the
most general cause of their production, is inflammation, which may be
defined a state in which the blood flows in greater  abundance towards
a part of the economy, and attempts a new formation.
   Even the alterations of texture are either the repetitions of a tissue
which already exists in the normal state, or formations entirely abnor-
mal, which do not exist in the regular state.
   All the parts are not anomalously  produced, nevertheless this is the
case with almost all, and especially the most simple.  Thus we see the
cellular tissue  abnormally produced, which  then contains  fluids of a
different nature ;  the tissue of the bones, and even enamel, that of the
cartilages, the fibro-cartilages, the fibrous tissue, the  skin, and several 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
73
parts of the epidermoid tissue, especially the horny parts and the hairs:
the serous texture, which, hke the cellular, contains different fluids, the
synovial tissue and the mucous tissue.
  As the vessels and nerves enter more or less evidently into the for-
mation of  several of  these  tissues, we  may say they are  reproduced
in an abnormal manner, whether they do or do not arise from vessels
and nerves previously existing.
  The muscular and glandular tissues  are those only which appear
not to be formed anew.
  These repetitions  of the normal formations take place principally
in two different circumstances:  sometimes to repair a loss of substance,
and consequently at  the place where the organ usually exists ; some-
times accidentally, and in other places.   This difference is merely ac-
cidental : the proof is, that those parts which are easily and  perfectly
reproduced after  having been destroyed, or those which  grow more
than once in the'normal state, are those also which are most completely
and frequently developed as anomalies  in other  parts of the economy.
Here are included the mucous  tissue, the bones, the teeth,  the hair,
and especially the epidermoid tissue.
  On the  contrary, the muscular and the glandular tissues are  never
reproduced.
  The  most essential characters of  the new formations of this kind,
resemble those of the parts of which they are  repetitions: their tex-
ture and chemical composition are the same : they pass  through the
same periods of development, and exercise no injurious influence on the
health and life unless from their mechanical effects, or because they di-
vert the formative power from other organs. The accidental differences
found in parts which are produced abnormally, are a less perfect form,
a chemical composition which is often not exactly the same, while their
duration is shorter.
  It is difficult to class the abnormal formations which are entirely new,
because they differ only by insensible  shades.   Generally they have
this in common, that  at first, they are more solid than the organs  in
which they are developed, or which  are changed to  them, which de-
stroys them and  those organs; and that in all those and  particularly
during the latter  periods of their existence, they have a marked pro-
pensity to pervade the whole organism.
  § 41. XI.  The organic form every where presents traces  of a forma-
tion in accordance with the purpose  to  be attained.  It is impossible
not to perceive that an intellectual power, whatever may be its rela-
tions to matter, has governed the  formation  of  the organized bodies.
This is especially confirmed by those mechanical arrangements which
we find in a multitude of places, and by  the greater protection given to
the organs essential to life.  Among the phenomena of the first  class, we
shall mention the  valves established in those vessels which have no im-
mediate power of impulse, as the veins and the lymphatics, and the multi-
plicity of these valves, either at those points where the friction is greatest,
as in the small veins and in the lymphatic vessels generally, or in those
  Vol.  I.                       10 
74
GENERAL anatomy.
where there is no mechanical impulse, as in the lymphatic system.  On
the contrary, there are no valves in those veins where the different trunks
anastomose together.  In other parts of the vascular system, also, as
at the base of  the aorta and pulmonary artery, between  the ventricles
and auricles, we find valves which oppose the  reflux of  the blood.   A
similar arrangement exists also when it is required to separate parts of
the same cavity in which different functions are executed : for instance,
at the union of the stomach with the small intestine, and of the latter
with the large intestine, &c.
   As to the phenomena of the second kind, we see that  the organs
most  essential to life, as the brain, spinal marrow, and lungs, are wholly
or partially inclosed in large cavities, the skull,  vertebral column, and
the thorax, which are also particularly remarkable, on account of their
circular form.   So, likewise, the veins are situated less deeply than the
arteries.
   The duplication of most of the organs deserves also to be regarded in
this point of view, since it allows the continuance of the function, even
when an organ, or a portion of it, is destroyed.   Sometimes the remain-
ing organ increases in size, as happens, for instance, in the kidneys;
while,  sometimes, the sound portion  redoubles its activity, as in the
brain, lungs, &c, although in fact one half can never be perfectly re-
placed  by the other.
   The texture and external form  of all the organs seem to harmonize
 with the final end of the organism, since most  anomalies soon suspend
 its functions.
   § 42. Each organ  has  its peculiar functions.   Nevertheless, there
 are certain conditions,  in respect to which the  functions of some organs
 agree  together  better than in regard  to  certain others.   On this is
 founded the classification of the functions.  The first, and  most gene-
 ral division is  that  which divides the organic  actions into  functions
 which are related with consciousness, with the spiritual existence, which
 connect mind and the external world, the animal functions  properly so
 called, and into those which immediately concern the material existence,
 the preservation of the substance,  which are accomplished without con-
 sciousness, the vegetative functions. These functions unite and constitute,
 the first, the animal life, the second, the vegetative, organic, or automatic
 life,  a  division to which Buffon,(l) Grimaud,(2) and Bichat(3)  have
 called the attention of physiologists.   The latter  has assigned to the
 two fives, and among other things to the forms of their organs, peculiar
  characters which have been adopted by modern writers, (4) and are re-
  duced to the following:            *
    1.  The organs of animal life are symmetrical, those  of organic life
  are unsymmetrical.   To the first class are referred,  1, the  brain and
  spinal marrow, with their nerves  and appendages, or the  nervous sys-

              (1) Histoire des Animaux, Paris, 1709, vol. ii. ch. 1.
              (2) Memoire sur Nutrition, St. Petersburg, 1789, p. 3.
              (3) Bichat, On Ufe and Death.
              (4) Sprengel, Inst. Med. vol. i. p. 197,198. 
GENERAL  LAWS  OF FORMATION.
75
  tern of animal life ; 2, the muscular  system; 3, the osseous  system ;
  and 4, the organs of voice..  The second  comprises, 1, the  vascular
  system; 2, the great sympathetic nerve ; 3, the digestive apparatus ;
  4, the respiratory apparatus ;  and 5, the urinary apparatus.   This dif-
  ference, as respects symmetry, is seen even in the  anomalies, which
  appear  on both sides at once in the first class, and exist on one only in
  the second.
    Lately, some have wished to establish between the different systems
  of the animal fife, differences founded upon the greater or less perfection
  of the  symmetry, and still more recently, it is pretended that the os-
  seous system exceeds all others in this respect.(l)
    2.  The organs of animal life are formed in a type more constant than
  those of vegetative life :  hence  anomalies are as frequent in the  latter
  as they  are rare in the former.
    3.  The influence behoeen the  form and the activity of the organs in the
  two lives, is entirely different.   An anomaly in the form of an organ of
  animal life, instantly deranges  its functions, while the most considerable
  aberrations in that of an organ of organic life are not attended with bad
  consequences.  The normal condition of both halves of  the organs of
  animal  fife is especially necessary in order to the regular performance
  of their functions ; for  every derangement  in one of them is  followed
  immediately by an interruption in the whole function.   On the con-
  trary, one part of an organ of  vegetative life may be diseased without
  incommoding the  function, if the other portion  supplies its  place.
 And again the symmetry is  such, that one half of an organ of animal
 fife may be diseased, while the other remains in a state of perfect health;
 while the disease of one half of an organ of vegetative life deranges
  the functions of all.
   Although these characters are true to a certain extent, yet they are
 too general.   It is true, and the remark has already been made, (§23,)
 that the organs of animal  life are disposed more symmetrically and more
 constantly than those of vegetative life.   But this difference is only in
 degree, and is not a direct contrast.   Neither are the organs of animal
 life entirely symmetrical,  and when we consider what has been before
 stated, the symmetry of the organs of organic life seems still more per-
 fect. This difference, too, has no general value, since comparative ana-
 tomy demonstrates that it is not observed in the great majority of ani-
 mals, for, in most of them, the organs of organic life are  not less sym-
 metrical  than those of  animal life, although Bichat seems to admit the
 contrary.  Besides, even in man, the genital system is disposed with as
 much symmetry as any system of animal life, while that belongs only
 to vegetative life.   It is true that Bichat separates it from these organs,
 saying that it does not relate to the  individual: but he is  mistaken,
 since the essence of the functions  fulfilled by this system, corresponds
 perfectly to that of the other organs of  vegetative life.  It is not true
 that the anomalies of the  organs of animal  life exist  on both  sides at
once, and that those of organic life are found on one side only.  We

            (1) Bartels, Physiologie, Freyburg, 1809, p. 21, 
76                     GENERAL ANATOMY.
have almost always found varieties in the distribution of the vessels of
the upper extremities, of the kidneys, &c, on both sides at the same
time, while anomalies of the muscles  and of the bones are frequently
found only on one side.  That the osseous system is more symmetncal
than the other systems of animal fife, is also false.  The same system de-
monstrates, also, the too great generality of the proposition which states
that the type of the formation is  more constant in the organs of animal,
than in those of vegetative fife,  since we meet varieties of form in the
bones,  as often at least, as in the vascular system. Finally, the greater
frequency of anomalies in the organs of vegetative life depends on the
greater number  of stages through  which  they pass.   When these
stages are numerous, as in the osseous system, and especially in some
of its parts, deviations from the normal form are also very frequent.
  The third proposition, especially, is too general. All the truth it con-
tains, is,  that deviations in the form of organs affect  their functions, if
these functions depend in any  measure on mechanical arrangement.
It is of no consequence whether the kidneys are lobed or not, united or
separated; whether the stomach or heart is on the right or the  left side,
&c; but when the kidneys are too small, or when one kidney is deficient,
when the ureters are obliterated, when the stomach is contracted in its
centre, when the valves of the heart are deficient or adhere, when there
is only one ventricle instead of two, when the aorta arises from both of
these cavities at once, &c, the derangements are certainly more impor-
tant than when the brain is oblique, when  one side of the skull possesses
more wormian bones than usual, or when a muscle is attached to an
unusual number of ribs.
  This pretended  difference is  then without  foundation, and both for
this reason, and because that duplication has been  confounded with
symmetry, the propositions mentioned by Bichat in  his third law ab-
solutely contradict each other.   The normal arrangement of two parts
of an organ of animal life is necessary only when, by their structure
and relations with external objects, they form a single organ, and when
their external form is connected with their functions, as happens, for in-
stance, in the organs of the senses.  When this is not the case, a devia-
tion in formation of one of the portions has no bad effect, because it is
replaced by that which is not mal-formed.  The disease of one half of
an organ of vegetative  life does not always affect the function  of the
whole.  When one kidney is diseased, the  other enlarges.  It is true
that the disease in a part of an  organ of vegetative life affects  the func-
tion of the rest, but  only when the different  organs are parts of one
whole;  thus, a disease of the liver affects digestion, because the liver
forms part of the digestive apparatus.
   § 43. So far in regard to the general conditions of the human form :
before we pass to  the general description  of the individual organic sys-
 tems, let us attend to the general conditions of the chemical composition
 and the actions of  the human organism.
   § 44. The human body, like all other organized bodies, is composed
 of  proximate and  remote chemical elements, even as it contains proxi-
 mate  and remote elements of form. 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
77
  Among the remote elements, there is no one which is peculiar to it;
all are met with in the general organism.  It contains, on the contrary,
some of the elements found in nature, but not all.
  The union of several remote elements produces theimmediate elements
which  belong particularly to organisms.  We find especially oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon,  azote, and phosphorus, in almost  all the imme-
diate  elements.   The  predominance of one or another of these prin-
ciples distinguishes the materials from each other, as that of  azote and
phosphorus  characterizes the chemical composition of animals, and
consequently of man.   Some of the immediate elements are more ge-
nerally diffused, and concur to form more of the solids and fluids than
others which are found only in certain parts.
  Those which  exist most generally  are albumen, fibrin,  gelatin, a
peculiar  substance, mucus, which resembles  gelatin very much, and
was long confounded with it, fat, and several salts, which also occur in
other than organized bodies.   Fibrin, gelatin, and albumen, are only
modifications of one and the same substance; they may be  converted
into each other by art: so too  the  most varied forms may be finally
reduced to a certain number of simpler terms (§5).
  The immediate elements which every where  exist are,  with the
exception of gelatin,(l) contained in the common nutritive fluid, the
blood.  The  blood is  composed  of globules (cruor,  globuli) and of a
coagulable fluid:  the latter consists of serum  and fibrin, the primitive
elements of form.
  The fat is a  substance  generally diffused, which does not enter
into the composition of organs, but only  envelopes them.
  The immediate principles  which are found only in certain parts are
acids and salts, or other  compounds, which appear principally in the
secreted fluids, to which they impart  their peculiar characters.
  These immediate principles concur in different proportions to form
the different organs and the different  fluids; and even  viewed  che-
mically,  they may be considered  as the  proximate elements of the
organism.
  All the organic combinations, with a very few exceptions, take place
contrary to the usual  laws of  affinity; hence  sooner or later after
death they form  other compounds, which obey the laws of affinity,
and which differ from those  above-mentioned/principally because they
contain fewer elements, because they are more simple.
  Although the solids  and fluids differ from each other by the excess
of an immediate principle more or less properly belonging to  them, and
this peculiarity depends in its turn on  the predominance of an imme-
diate principle, still  they may all be divided more or less easily into two
classes, opposite to each other in this respect,  that there is an excess of
free acid in the first, and of free alkali in the second : a contrast which
is also developed by electricity in the heterogeneous fluids.(2)

  (1) Bostock, in Med. Chirurg.  Trans. London, 1809, vol. i.—Marcet,  ibid. vol. ii.
—Berzelius, ibid. vol. iii.
  (2) Besides the general works of Thomson and Thenard, we may consult on ani-
mal chemistry J. J. Berzelius, Foerelaesningar i Djurkemien, Stockholm, 1802-6, 
78
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  § 45. The organisms  possess  dead and living forces, which differ
from each other inasmuch as the latter do not belong to them  except
for a certain period called life, during which only they may be consi-
dered as organisms enjoying a separate existence.   Nevertheless these
dead forces themselves differ very much during life  and after  death,
for they depend on the form and chemical composition of the parts:  so
that the change death brings in this form and composition ought neces-
sarily to produce other phenomena.
  The living forces of the organisms  may be referred to three, accord-
ing to the different phenomena of action presented : 1, productiveness,
(productivitas);  2, motivity, (motilitas); 3, sensibility, (sensilitas).
  All the phenomena arising from these forces can also be reduced to
two  classes, according to the principle which forms  the basis : these
are the material and the intellectual:  for we observe that the substance
changes in the phenomena of formation and  motion; but  this is not
seen in those of sensation.
  The phenomena  of formation essentially consist  in  the production of
a peculiar substance,formed at the expense of another which  is unlike it.
The formative power shows itself in  preserving the normal  state, or in
bringing to it the abnormal state.  If this abnormal state be so changed
to the normal state that a new part forms in the place of that which has
been destroyed, the phenomenon is called regeneration or reproduction
(regeneratio, reproductio); so too the preservation of the normal state
of the species by the formation of a new creature  is called  generation
(generatio).  The substance which produces all these new formations
is the common nutritious fluid, the blood, which is itself formed from
heterogeneous substances, in accordance with the same laws by which
all organic products are derived  from it.   The quantity of nutritious
fluid increases then in a local or  general manner, in  order that each
new formation may  take place: and this  state may be  generically
termed inflammation.
  The essence of the phenomena of motion is an alternate change in the
degrees of cohesion and form, which increases the volume in one direction
at the expense of the same  volume  in  another direction.  When a part
endowed with this  power contracts and shortens, it swells, and becomes
thicker ;  whei* it lengthens, it seems  more and more thin.   But in the
first of these two states  it is also much harder than in the second ■
either from this circumstance, or  because the first state is  the  imme-
diate result of an irritation acting on the  part, it is  called the active
state of the organ susceptible of motion.  We are certain that, although
the volume and the mass are the same in the two cases, nevertheless
the nature of the  two states is  entirely different, even when the che-
mical composition of the part should not be modified, and the difference
should consist only in a change of cohesion.

2 vols.—Id., Ucberblick uber die Zusammensetzung der thierischen Flussigkeilen,
Nuremburg, 1814.—Id., Uebersicht der Fortschritte und des gegenwaertigen Zus-
tandes der thierischen Chem.ie, Nuremburg, 1815.—J. F. John,  Chemische  Tabellen
des Thierreichs, Berlin, 1814. 
GENERAL LAWS OF FORMATION.
79
  This vital motivity differs much from similar dead forces, particularly
from that of elasticity, although it is somewhat  analogous to them.
Neither should we confound it with the extensibility and the contrac-
tility of tissue admitted by Bichat, who represents them as principles of
peculiar phenomena, which are either  phenomena  of  formation  or
merely those of elasticity.
  The phenomena of motion  have also been classed either from the
manner in which this motion is manifested, or from the relation between
it and the cause on which  it depends.  Thus  they are distinguished
into voluntary and involuntary motions, or into  animal, which are con-
sidered as belonging to animals only, and into organic.  The  latter
have also been divided into sensible  and insensible.   But if the first
classification, founded on the relation of the phenomena to their remote
causes, be correct, the second is not,  since the insensible organic mo-
tivity depends only on the phenomena which become  active probably
in another manner.
   Sensibility is the power of receiving and of propagating impressions.
It belongs to the nervous system, which  should be considered as the
organ of the internal principle, or organ of the soul, since it is in one of
those parts that the spiritual principle experiences, from the impressions
received by its periphery, the spontaneous changes  afterwards  trans-
mitted to other organs by the conducting portion of the system.
   As all the  nerves  do  not propagate the impressions they receive
even to that part of the nervous system in which the changes relative"
to the intellectual  phenomena take place, or which immediately  cause*
them ; and again as all the intellectual changes are not transmitted to
the same  organs,  the sensibility may be distinguished into animal and
organic ;  and although  this difference relates only to the nerves, we
may extend  it to the organs themselves : so that some are organs of
animal and  others  organs of organic sensibility.  Nevertheless, we
would ask, if to establish this distinction too much latitude be not given
to the idea of sensibility, or if that be not wrongly confounded with that
of susceptibility in general.  Then, the animal sensibility alone would
be called sensibility, and those parts destitute of it  would be  called
insensible.   The phenomena alledged in support of  the  hypothesis of
sensible or insensible organic sensibility, do not prove its  reality;  even
as, on the other hand, those which they assure  us  demonstrate the
presence of a pretended  sensibility purely organic in certain parts, are
not sufficient to justify the admission of this hypothesis. 
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
PART  II.
         DESCRIPTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL ORGANIC SYSTEMS.

   § 46. We have already stated, (§15,) that the different systems
composing the organism, are divided into general and particular.   The
general systems, the mucous, the vascular, and the nervous systems, exist
in all parts of the economy, and everywhere unite to constitute the body;
and form,  more or less perceptibly, the basis of all the other systems.
They differ, however, in their extent: that of the nervous system is much
less than that  of the vascular, and the latter cannot be demonstrated
in many parts where the mucous tissue is evident. The mucous tissue,
then, is the most general, and, in fact, is the matrix of all the  organs.
It also is the first to appear.   We ought, then, to mention it first.
                            SECTION I.


                       OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM.


   § 47. The mucous system,(\) or cellular tissue, (telaseu textusmucosus,
cellulosus, cribrosus,) is one of the  two elementary forms to which, in
ultimate analysis, the  whole  organic formation may be referred.   It  is
the  coagulable fluid  coagulated.. It is  generally described(2)  as an

  (1) D. C. Schobinger, De telce celluloses in fabrica  corporis humani dignitate,
Goettingen, 1748.—Thierry, E. incelluloso textufrequentiusmorbiet morborummu-
tationes, Paris, 1749,  1757,1788.—Hunter, Remarks on the cellular membrane and
some of its diseases, in the London  Med. Obser. and Inquiries, vol. ii. p. 26.—Th.
Bordeu, Recherches surle tissu muqueux ou cellulaire, Paris, 1767.—J. Abadie, Diss.
de corpore cribroso Hippocratis, seu de textu mucoso Bordevii, Montpelier,  1774.—
C. F.WolflF, De tela, quam dicunt cellulosa, observationes: in the Nov. Comment. Petro-
pol., vol. vi. vii. and  viii.—Detten, Beytrag zu der Lehre von der Verrichtung des
Zellgewebes. Munster, 1800.—Luca:, Anatomisch-physiologische Bemerkungen  iiber
den ZeUstqff: in the Annalen der Wetterauer Gesellschqftfur die Naturkunde,\o\. ii.,
1810.—G. R. Treviranus,  Ueber die organischen Elemente des thierischen Koerpers :
in Vermischte Schriften, vol. i. 1816, p. 124.—Felici, Cenni di una nuova idea sulla
natura del tessuto cellulare, Pavia, 1817.—Heusinger, System der Histolosrie. Eise-
nach, 1823, Part II. p. 121.
  (2) This is the view taken by Haller, Bergen, Schobinger, and Thierry.  This opi-
nion was adopted by Bichat, and recently by Beclard and Blainville, and is now ge-
nerally received in England, France, and Italy.  Bordeu's opinion, which  Meckel
follows, has been defended in Germany  by Wolff, Autenrcth, Prochaska, Blumen-
bach, Rudolphi, Treviranus, and Heusinger.                           F.  T. 
           OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM, OR CELLULAR TISSUE.        81

 assemblage of numerous layers, and of soft  and white  fibrils, which,
 varying constantly in their arrangement, produce cellules of different
 sizes and  forms.   All these cellules communicate, so that  the whole
 tissue  forms but  a single cavity which  is infinitely subdivided, from
 which circumstance its most common name, cellular, is derived.  But
 when closely examined, it is perceived that this assertion is at least too
 general, and that the mucous tissue is a cohesive, homogeneous, viscous,
 shapeless, and but slightly solid substance.   It appears thus in the in-
 ferior animals, and in the commencement of all formations.   In fact,
 we see at first only this homogeneous semi-fluid mass, in which globules
 afterwards appear, and  concur to form  the whole organism.   There
 exists primitively between it and these globules, and afterwards between
 it and the organs, the same relation as between the shapeless portion of
 the fluids, and the globules  which swim in them.
   We may be convinced of the exactness of this representation at all
 periods of life.  Neither layers, fibres, nor cells, are perceptible to the
 naked eye, even when aided by a microscope, and we see only the sub-
 stance spoken of by us, without the least opening.   This substance ap-
 pears to be composed of fibres and layers only because its viscidity
 causes it to assume that form when it is extended,  and with or without
 a microscope these layers and fibres may -be seen to  form  under the
 eyes of the observer.  When, for instance, we separate two muscles or
 muscular fasciculi, the homogeneous substance between them becomes
 at first uneven, and appears filled with channels, without always losing
 its cohesion.  But if this traction be continued, or if more force be used,
 it tears and produces filaments' or small cyhndrical columns, which be-
 come very long if the extension be sustained.   If we cease to extend it,
 so that the space  occupied by the substance is diminished, the filaments
 first shorten and finally unite anew in a coherent mass.
  When the mucous tissue is extended, air sometimes accidentally pe-
 netrates it and produces vesicles of different sizes and figures. But this
 air escapes when the tension ceases and the tissue then assumes its pri-
 mitive form. The  cellules which arise in this manner are not always the
 same, for  if these parts  be again separated  the air penetrates anew,
 but the cells nowformed are very different from the first both in size and
 form. When these cells remain by continued extensions, the air is confined
 only by the contraction of the mucous tissue at the moment when the
 traction ceases, so that, when renewed, cells of the same form are natu-
 rally produced.   When air  penetrates into the mucous  tissue, it can be
 pushed in  every direction;  we  can divide or reunite  the vesicles  to
 which it gives rise, and thus vary their form to infinity.
  The facts which Bichat(l) regarded as proving that the mucous tis-
sue is an assemblage of filaments and laminae, demonstrate  only that,
when properly considered, this substance can assume this form, whenever
the circumstances are favorable.   Thus, for instance, it is  pretended
that the distension of a part  of the mucous tissue of the scrotum would

                  (1) Bichat's Gen. Anat. vol. i. p. 114.
   Vol. I.                        11 
82
GENERAL ANATOMY.
demonstrate its lamellar and fibrous structure, because it then appears
as a transparent membranous layer, presenting many irregular filaments,
which are seen when more force is used, as the  spaces between them
are then enlarged.  But this experiment  only proves that whenever
the homogeneous mucous tissue is distended, it can assume the lamel-
lar and  the fibrous form.
   Accordingly, then, as we simply extend the part, or at the same time
inflate it with air, and as the substance is more or less viscid, we obtain
in the same part  either vesicles of different sizes, or filaments, or, finally,
both vesicles  and filaments, at the  same time we then  see  simple
meshes, or true permanent cells.
   Nor does the  cellular structure obtained by congelation prove that
this arrangement is original.  As the mucous tissue is  always filled
with liquids, the interstices  they occupy must become permanent  by
freezing.
   These pretended fibres have also been called absorbent or exhalent
vessels,  because  they are discovered  only in those portions of the mu-
cous tissue which have been formed into membranes by extension, and
have not been observed in those parts which have a cellular form from
the introduction  of the  air.   But it is easily perceived that this differ-
ence also depends on the process employed ;  for traction ought  neces-
sarily -to produce fibres; while distension  by air, which acts in every
direction at once, gives rise only to laminae and vesicles.
   The color of this semi-transparent substance is grayish.   The white
tint commonly attributed to it does not belong to it, but results only
from the reflection of light from an infinite number of surfaces when
laminae  and filaments have been artificially formed.  The term mucous
tissue already adopted by Bordeu, is then more exact  than that  of
cellular  tissue which is  generally used.
   § 48. All the  phenomena  presented by the mucous tissue are ex-
plained with as much, and even with more facility, by the hypothesis of
this structure,  than of that of the formation usually attributed to it.
   The most remarkable property of  this  tissue is its penetrability or
permeability.  Foreign substances which are accidentally introduced,
or which are abnormal only from their great abundance, are frequently
seen in parts the most distant from where they entered ;  or when they
form a  coherent mass, they  sometimes extend through  the  whole
tissue and  sometimes are expelled only by one opening.'
   Here we may mention,
   1st, The migrations of those firm solid bodies which have penetrated
into the organism.   Thus, pins  which have  been introduced into the
stomach proceed to the fingers, the toes, or the other regions of the sur-
face of  the body, as the loins, sides, &c.   Often too they are carried
from the surface into other  parts, and move from the arm towards the
chest—from the  hand towards the upper part of the arm, &c.
   2d. The facility with  which general emphysema  is  produced  by
blowing air into any portion of the body, and the ease with which the 
            OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM, OR CELLULAR TISSUE.        83

 air passes out from a single opening.(l)   Air, if introduced under the
 skin penetrates, not only below the cutaneous organ and the parts
 covered by it in the whole  body, but also within the. interstices of the
 muscles and into the substance of all the viscera.  The same thing hap-
 pens after wounds of the lungs;  the air which is constantly renewed
 by respiration, passes, first, through all the branches  of the bronchial
 system in its mucous tissue, and from thence into every part, so that
 the body often resembles a large bladder distended by air.
   3d. The ease with which collections of pus point at  a distance.  The
 pus of abscesses developed  in the chest burrows a passage to the feet
 through the mucous  tissue which fills the interstices of the organs.
 Urine, which filters through  a wound in the bladder, penetrates the
 cellular tissue of the abdomen, and even of the chest.   The blood from
 a wounded artery spreads itself through the cellular tissue of an entire
 limb, &c.
   4th.  In a general anasarca all the serum sometimes escapes by an
 accidental or artificial opening, if the nature of the fluid will  permit.
   These phenomena are commonly attributed to the continuous com-
 munication of the cellules with each other; but they may be explained
 as well by the softness and semi-fluidity of a cohesive  substance.  All
 these unusual passages are  but temporary, and it is evident that many
 of the above mentioned phenomena, as the migrations of foreign bodies,
 and of collections of pus, favor the hypothesis of the cellular structure
 of the tissue less than that of its mucous structure, for it  is not pro-
 bable that these bodies would follow the direction of the cellules.  They
 burrow,  removing, destroying, and separating, purely mechanically,
 the mucous tissue before them :  in the former case the tissue is repro-
 duced, or collapses when they have passed ; in the latter case the dis-
 ease, which at first was slightly developed, is now extended.   If we be in-
 correct, how do bodies  which have been swallowed descend from one
 cavity to another ?   How  do pins proceed from the  intestinal canal
 into the vessels 1 Why is the mucous tissue altered at all points where
 it contains pus %  None of these  phenomena demonstrate a cellular
 structure, and many prove the contrary.
   § 49.  The relations  of the mucous tissue with the organs  are of
 two kinds ;  it forms, or does not form, one of their essential  parts.  In
 the first place it may be called the internal or special mucous tissue in
 the second, the external, ox general mucous tissue.
   The former contributes  to form the organs, either alone or combined
 with nerves, vessels, or a peculiar  substance which pervades it: the
 second is found between  the  organs, and fills the intervals between
 them.  But at  the same time  both unite;  for  the external mucous tis-
 sue gradually blends with that which properly belongs to the organs.

  (1) We have seen several of these general emphysemas which so commonly follow
wounds of the lungs, and which sometimes result from the rupture of a cartilaginous
 ring of the trachea. Air penetrates into the mucous tissue very rapidly, but when
a large opening is made for-it, but little escapes, even when we press around the
wound. Most probably, then, it is absorbed, rather than expelled.       F. T. 
84
GENERAL ANATOMY.
As the mucous tissue of the organs penetrates all their substance, the
distinction between the internal and external mucous tissue is not very
strict, and  the whole body is  imbedded in mucous tissue.   The most
essential difference between these two tissues relates only to the func-
tions.  The internal mucous tissue  contains the different substances
which form the organs, while the external includes only the fat and se-
rum, which are necessary for their continual reproduction, and also
for their constant activity.
   § 50.  The external mucous tissue may, nevertheless, be  considered
as forming, in  some measure, a separate system: for in the different
regions of the body it is connected with the internal mucous tissue less
intimately than with its own  peculiar parts.  Setting aside both this
internal tissue and the organs it assists to  form, it represents an unin-
terrupted system, which is a duplicate of the form of the whole body,
but which, in certain parts, differs considerably in  regard to quantity,
cohesion, and the nature of the fluids it contains.  Besides the general
connections between all  the  portions  of the mucous tissue there are
places where those of the principal regions, which correspond with the
principal regions of the body, pass more particularly and imperceptibly
from one to the other.  Although these details may belong strictly to
special anatomy, they should be anticipated here, since we must  know
them to acquire a complete idea of the mucous system.
   The mucous tissue exists but in a  small quantity within the  verte-
bral column and the skull;  the cavity of the spine contains more than
the skull, especially between  the dura mater and its bones: and there
also it contains an abundance of fat, which is not found in the cranium.
This phenomenon is very remarkable, since in  several animals, parti-
cularly in most fishes, a very considerable mass of fat is found within
the cranium between its parietes and the brain which is small in rela-
tion to the capacity of the cavity, so that  the substance scattered be-
tween the organs, as nutrition  in reserve, exists at  least where the
brain is  still very imperfectly developed.
   On the contrary, much mucous tissue exists  around the vertebral
column, and there is  always more before than behind, and also around
the head.
   In the trunk this tissue abounds, not only around the vessels which
proceed along the vertebral column the aorta and the vena cava,  in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities, in the neck around  the carotid arte-
ries, the jugular veins, the pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves, and
the esophagus, but it accumulates in great quantities in several parts of
those regions.   On the sides of the neck, at its upper part, it surrounds
the numerous lymphatic glands and  the salivary glands, and below,
the vessels and nerves of the  upper extremities as they emerge from
the thorax. It abounds in the chest in the twomediastina and around the
large vessels :  and without this cavity, especially at its superior part, it
exists around the mammary glands, and also between the two pectoral,
and the serratus magnus, muscles.  There is more in the abdomen than
in the chest, particularly around the kidneys and at the entrance  of the 
          OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM, OR CELLULAR TISSUE.         85

vessels into the abdominal viscera, between the folds of the peritoneum,
and especially in the mesentery.   But in no  part is it more abundant
than in the pelvis, around the rectum, the internal organs of generation
and the bladder, and it thus favors the great enlargement of the parts
within this cavity.   It accumulates also on the outside of the pelvis and
principally forward in the external genital organs, the scrotum, and the
labia pudenda.  On the external surface of the skull there is less than in
the face where large masses exist in the orbits of the eyes, between the
muscles of the face, in the cheeks, and around the  mouth.
  In the limbs its quantity is in a direct ratio with  the extent of motion
in the different regions.   It is most abundant in the axilla and in the
groin; and there is more in the former than in the  latter: less is found
in the succeeding articulations.   There  is not so much between the
muscles of the arm and of the thigh, as between those of the fore arm
and  the leg, and of the hand and the foot.
   The masses of internal  and external  mucous  tissue communicate
together in the different regions of the body, principally by the open-
ings of these regions and the spaces between them.  These are then
the points through  which abnormal substances pass from one region
to another.
  The mucous tissue of the  cavity of the spine,  communicates with
that which covers the spinal column externally, principally by the in-
tervertebral foramina; and the mucous  tissue of the  cavity of the
skull is connected with that of the exterior of the skull and of  the
face by openings  for the  passage of the nerves,  as also by the great
and small emissary veins.   That of the  face is continuous,  particu-
larly on the sides of the lower jaw,  with the mucous  tissue of  the
neck: this mucous tissue of the neck unites with  that of the thoracic
cavity, in the place where the vessels and nerves of the arm emerge
from the thorax;  this proceeds to the abdomen along the large vessels,
especially the aorta, and along the esophagus also, passing  through
the openings in the diaphragm designed for the passage of  these ca-
nals, and  gliding at the same time through the smaller perforations in
this muscle.  The mucous tissue of the abdomen  communicates with
that of the organs of the pelvis by the inguinal ring, the crural arch,
the sciatic notch, the foramen ovale, and the lower cavity of the pelvis.
  § 51.  The mucous tissue immediately connected with the organs, for
which  we  cannot find a better term than special, also divides into two
parts: the external serves  to envelope each organ, continues itself  im-
perceptibly with  the general mucous tissue, and forms the transition
from the  general  to  the special mucous tissue:  the internal, on  the
contrary, concurs with the materials coming from  the other systems to
form the organs.
  The external portion of the special mucous tissue forms around each
organ a layer which separates it from the rest.   We may say, then,
with Bordeu, that this tissue represents a kind of atmosphere.  This
separation, as a layer, is produced, first, by the peculiar Ufe  of the mu-
cous tissue ;  secondly, by  the fat  and serum  with which it is filled. 
86
GENERAL ANATOMY.
The most important  organs, then,  are  generally imbedded m  the
largest masses of this tissue, whenever they are not insulated  by other
modes ; although, in certain  cases, this result is produced by the two
arrangements united.
  In the organs formed of several superimposed layers, as the alimen-
tary canal, the bladder, &c,  a proper layer of mucous tissue always
exists between the different coats, which may be regarded as forming
the transition of this to the internal mucous tissue ;  since, if it is inter-
nal in regard to the whole organ, it is also external in relation to each
of its different layers.
  Partly on account of these atmospheres of mucous tissue, the adja-
cent organs  and the superimposed  layers of an  organ, escape for a
time the diseases which  attack one  or more of them.   Nevertheless,
the mucous tissue does not insulate them perfectly, so that, in general,
the disease of an organ or layer finally passes through it, and attacks
the organ or layer adjacent;  and again it only serves to concur in the
insulation of the diseases of  the organs which depends principally on
the peculiar structure of each part, and on the differences of the life it
enjoys.   This proposition seems at  least very probable, when we re-
member  that, although the nerves and vessels are not lined with this
tissue, they often escape disease, although all around may have been
destroyed by  suppuration: the character of the disease itself has also
some  influence, for some  maladies extend to the  surrounding parts
more readily than others.
  Further, these atmospheres of mucous tissue relate also to the mo-
tions of the organs, and hence are found abundantly around parts which
are very movable.
  § 52.  Usually it encompasses the respective parts in their whole ex-
tent, except the skin, where it is found only on its internal face.  Hence
the skin has been compared, in this respect, to the serous and  mucous
membranes,  and  even to the  vessels ; but the comparison is incorrect,
since all the hollow organs are enveloped in all parts with the mucous
tissue.  In fact their internal surfaces are not lined  with it, so that,
when opened and drawn out to reduce them into flat membranes, they
are analogous to the skin.  And will not all the other organs present
the same phenomenon if they  are also treated in this manner ?  Finally,
the skin is no exception to this rule, as the epidermis, which covers it,
may be  considered as an indurated mucous tissue, and as an external
envelope or capsule.
  § 53. The proper substance, the vessels, and the nerves, of the organs,
are situated within the special mucous  tissue,  which may itself be
divided into  two  other parts.  Each branch of a vessel, of an excre-
tory duct, or  of a nerve in the interior of  an organ, has its layer, its
proper cellular sheath, which is more solid than the rest.  Between these
sheaths we find a looser mucous tissue.  The  fasciculi and the fibres
of a muscle  are surrounded with proper sheaths, which are arranged,
in regard "to  the  looser  mucous  tissue in their spaces, in the  same
manner as is the capsular mucous tissue  of a whole organ in regard 
OF THE MUCOUS SYSTEM, OR CELLULAR TISSUE.         87
 to the general mucous tissue.   The final element, which possesses a
 definite form, is also enveloped with mucous tissue.
   Thus,  in  final analysis, the mucous tissue represents a cavity con-
 stantly folding from  without  inward, which  closely  envelopes  the
 whole body, and all the organs, and even their minutest portions.
   We cannot perceive with the naked eye in all tbe organs, that the
 quantity  of the mucous  tissue is  in  an equal ratio with  the other
 compound elements included by them ; many seem  even entirely des-
 titute of  it.   Thus we find  little  in the brain, spinal marrow, bones,
 tendons, &c, while there is much more in the muscles and the lobate
 glands.
   § 54.  Although some vessels and nerves of large and small caliber,
 wind into the mucous tissue, we cannot consider them as its compo-
 nent parts, since they pass through it only to go to the organs and form
 with it their bases.   But the most delicate ramifications of the exhalent
 and absorbent vessels,(l) undoubtedly  enter into its  organization, and
 very probably have no proper  parietes distinct from the rest  of this
 tissue.
   As regards chemical composition, the mucous tissue belongs to  the
 class of organs formed principally of gelatine.
   § 55.  The mucous tissue is  highly elastic, so  that it may be  ex-
 tended to a great degree, and  contracts in the same proportion; its
 elasticity, however, is diminished by the effects of inflammation and
 other morbid changes, and it becomes fragile.
   The plastic or formative power, is developed in it to a great degree ;
 hence its  facility of prompt and complete reproduction, when it has once
 been destroyed ; and hence too it replaces those  parts which cannot be
 reproduced in perfection, as the muscles and the tendons.  All reproduc-
 tion then commences by the formation of mucous tissue.   This tissue
 is destroyed  with difficulty.  The other vital phenomena, irritability
 and sensibility, are not  observed in it;  at least it possesses,the former
 only in certain regions, and in a feeble degree ; and even the  pheno-
 mena which lead to this conclusion do not positively prove it, since they
 may occur in the muscular system or  in the cutaneous tissue, as well
 as in the mucous system.
   § 56.  The mucous tissue includes two different fluids, a serum, ana-
 logous to  that of the blood, and fat.
   The serum, unlike the fat, exists  in all parts, but not always in the
 same quantity, which  seems to be inversely as that of the fat;  thus it
 abounds in the scrotum and eyelids, which normally contain no fat, and
 it collects  there more  readily than in other places; an accumulation of
 it constitutes anasarca.  The serum of the mucous tissue, hke all the

  (1) Absorbent and exhalent vessels do not exist. They have never been seen, but
 have been  imagined, to account for the phenomena of exhalation and absorption.
 Before they were thought of, these phenomena were well explained by transudation
 and imbibition.  Physiologists owe this doctrine to Magendie and Fodera.  Fodera
 thinks that  exhalation and absorption depend on capillarity of  the tissues, that this
 double phenomenon can exist in all parts, and that the liquids which they contain may
 be carried either by the lymphatics or by the arteries and ^eins. See his Recherches
experimentalcs sur rabsorption et I''exhalation,  Paris, 1824.               F. T. 
88                      GENERAL ANATOMY.
serous fluids, contains an abundance of albumen combined with a small
quantity of coagulable  mucilage  and salts.  If we may judge irom
experiments made upon the serum which is  collected abundantly by
blisters between the cutis and epidermis, the ratio of the animal matter
to water, is less than in  the serum of the blood.(l)
   § 57.  The fat(2)  is  yellowish and less fluid than the  serum of
the mucous tissue.  This substance occurs in masses of various forms,
composed themselves  of regular, rounded  globules or vesicles arranged
more or less  compactly, one  against another.   The masses and ve-
sicles are formed of mucous tissue,  which contains the fat, but is not
connected with it, and which unites them altogether. Their size varies,
although Wolff  pretends it is always the same in man, for the small
masses which they inclose, differ much in volume.  The largest  are
generally situated internally, and continue  diminishing as they approach
the circumference, where they are also more  compact.   Nevertheless
small masses are found  among the large.   These have the same vo-
lume in all the regions of the body, although  that of the masses varies
infinitely.
   In regard to chemical composition, fat differs from all other animal
substances, as it contains but very little azote:  by  distillation it is re-
solved, for  the most part, into water  and carbonic  acid, and a small
quantity of ammonia.   A peculiar acid, which  Krell believed  he had
discovered  in fat, seems not to exist; as is the case too with the salts
and acetic acid mentioned by Thenard,(3) while the peculiar acid he
thought  he  discovered  in fat, is benzoic acid,(4) according to Berze-
lius. (5)
   The quantity and nature of the fat is not the same every where.
   This substance presents itself in two  states  loose, and in combina-
tion.
   There are parts of the body which contain no loose fat, as the inte-
rior of the  skull, of the  brain, of the eye, of the nose, of  the organ of
hearing, the lungs, the intestinal canal, and the  glands.
   Much is found, however, under the skin, except in the penis, eyelids,
and scrotum.  It abounds in the face, the neck, the abdomen, the groins,

  (1) Marcet, A chemical account of various dropsical fluids, in the Medico- Chirurg.
Tr-ansae., vol. ii. p. 34-384.  Bostock, On the analysis of animal fluids, in same
journal, vol. iv. p. 53.
  (2) Malpighi, De omenta,  pinguedine et adiposis ductibus; in his Epist. anat,
London, 1686, p.  33.—Jansen, Pinguedinis animalis  consideratio phys. et pathol.,
Leyden, 1784.—Wolff, De adipe, in Nov. Act. Petrop., vol. vii. 1789, p. 278.—Reussing,
Diss, de pinguedine sandet  morbosa, Jena, 1791.—Allmer, Diss, sistens disq. anat.
pinguedinis animalis, Jena,  1823.
  (3) Veber die Fettsaure, in Schercr's Allgem. Journ. de Chemie, vol. viii. p. 127.
  (4) Veber die Fettsaure, in Gehlen's Journ. fur Chemie und Physik, vol. ii. p. 275.
  (5) Chevreul has recognized in it, as in  many other fatty bodies,  two portions, a
fluid called elain, and a solid called stearin; this latter very much resembles the
fat of tallow, but is distinguished from it,  as by saponification, we have margaritic
but not stearic acid.  It is white and has but little lustre; when fused it crystalizea
on cooling in small needles,  the mass of which is  terminated by a plane surface. As
to elain, it is colorless, and  resembles an oil; it is liquid even at four degrees below
zero, and begins to form an acicular mass at several degrees below this temperature.
It is inodorous, or nearly so', its taste is sweetish, and when fresh is not disagrre-
able.  F.  T.                                                        & 
           OP THE MUCOUS SYSTEM, OR CELLULAR TISSUE.        89

the upper parts of the extremities, the palms of the hands, the soles of
the feet, between the voluntary muscles and among their fasciculi and
even their fibres, around certain membranes, as the peritoneum and its
prolongations  especially the  omentum and mesentery, in  the pelvis,
beneath the internal layer of the pericardium, consequently on the sur-
face of the heart, around the origins of the large vascular trunks, in the
mediastina, around certain glands, as the salivary glands and kidneys,
around the nerves penetrating between their fasciculi in considerable
quantity, and finally within  the bones, especially the long bones,
where it is  called marrow. (1)
   It accumulates  in those parts especially which  execute extensive
and frequent motions, and in those where it is necessary that the heat
should be concentrated.   It is deficient, on the contrary, in fat persons,
where it would  incommode  the functions, and where its existence
might affect even life.
   The fat, combined with the other immediate materials of organized
bodies, exists in several places where it is rarely found in a loose state,
and where  even it is never uncombined, as particularly in the brain, (2)
which, like the nervous  system in general,  contains a considerable
quantity of the two different fatty substances.
  ' The fat  does not exist in the substance of the fibrous organs, in the
cartilages,  bones, or  serous membranes, either in a loose state or in
combination;  although it sometimes collects in considerable quantities
around those parts.
   The fat has not the same consistence every where : thus, it is very
hard around the kidneys, but softer on the heart and in the orbits of
the eyes.
   G. Hunter was led to conclude, from the constant deficiency of the
fat in some parts of the body while it abounds in others, from a greater
accumulation of serum or air in parts destitute of fat in persons affected
with edema or emphysema, while,  whatever degree of obesity occurs,
fat never accumulates in these parts even when they are so situated
that a fluid contained in the mucous tissue would collect in them from
the fact of its gravity alone, as the scrotum; from the difference ob-
served too, even in the most extensive anasarca, between those parts
of the mucous  tissue filled with water  and those which  before con-
tained fat;  and from another  circumstance, that the fatty portions of
the mucous tissue do not yield at  all to pressure, as do those which
contain an excess of serum, and that the fat usually cannot pass from
one  place  to  another: all these facts, we say, led G. Hunter to con-
jecture that the fat is secreted by a peculiar glandular apparatus, dis-
tinct from the common mucous tissue, and composed  of vesicles. (3)

  (1) Analysis of the marrow  by Berzelius, in Gehlen's Journal fur  Chemie und
Physik, vol.  ii. p. 287.
  (2) Vauquelin, Analyse de la matiere  cerebrate de I'homme et de quelques ani-
maux, in the Ann. du Museum naturel, vol. xviii. p. 212-239.
  (3) Wolff was the first to state that the molecules of fat are contained in the spaces
of the mucous tissue in which they are placed, and not in special cells.  Heusinger
   Vol. I.                       12 
90
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 Most probably, however, this special apparatus does not exist, and the
 adipose cellules are all produced simply by fatty globules, which pene-
 trate the mucous tissue as the  fat forms.  Our opinion is founded too
 on the circumstance of the fat  appearing in the form of globules inde-
 pendently of the mucous  tissue, of which we may be easily convinced
 by destroying a lump .of it.                               .
   Riegel's opinion is still  less probable: this physiologist thinks that fat
 is formed in all the glands, but principally in the renal capsules.(l)
   Fat has several uses.  Its unctuous nature facilitates the  motions of
 the  organs ; it is a bad conductor of caloric, and hence it  protects
 them from cold by opposing the dispersion of the animal heat.  Finally,
 it serves particularly as a reserve of nutriment, although, as it contains
 no azote,  it is but feebly  animalized.   Farther, as its  formation is
 favored by rest, so those  organs which remain for a long time unused,
 even the muscles'among  the rest, are transformed into fat; on the con-
 trary, fasting, intellectual and bodily labor,  and debility from any rea-
 son, cause it to disappear.   The  facility of its production doubtless
 depends on its  slight degreee of animalization :  hence the reason why
 it appears, not only in  the circumstances  above mentioned, but also to
 replace those parts which are wasted, and which have been removed:
 as, for example, the testicle in the scrotum or the eye in the orbit when
 they have been extirpated.
   §  58. The mucous tissue  and the fluids it contains differ very much
 in several respects at different periods  of life.   Like all other parts,
 they are more fluid in  proportion1 as the  organism is younger.   The
 mucous tissue appears at first absolutely homogeneous, very soft, and
 differs but  slightly or not at all from serosity, from which it is after-
 wards distinguished  by  its  greater solidity.  Hence the reason that
 during the  early periods of life we can easily  separate  parts which
 afterwards become inseparable ;  this is seen particularly in those parts
 which are formed of  several superimposed layers united by mucous
 tissue.
   The mucous tissue is more abundant  the younger the  organism is.
 The organism originally, when homogeneous, is formed of  this  tissue
 alone ; even after the organs are developed, its proportion  is  still much
 greater,  as it  contains few substances which  are peculiar  to it.
 This is proved by the muscles, whose fasciculi are small in  proportion
 to the mucous tissue, and  by the glands, which are composed of several
 lobes, united by a loose mucous  tissue, and easily separable  from each
 other.
   The fat is more liquid, thinner, more transparent, and whiter, the
 nearer the organism is to the time  of its origin.   Nor  is its quantity
 the same at all periods of life.   In the early periods of fetal existence

adopted this opinion; but Beclard has rejected it, and, faithful to the old doctrines)
admits a special adipose tissue, even as he adopts the opinions of Bichat's school in
regard to the structure of the mucous tissue.  F. T.                      '
  (1)  De usu glandularum suprarenalium in animalibus, necnon de origine adipis
dtequisitioanatomico-physiologiea, Copenhagen, 1790. Riegel has explained the uses
of the fat very clearly, although his little work contains many arbitrary assertions
wholly unproved, partly true or entirely false.                    ' 
OP THE MUCOUS SYSTEM, OR CELLULAR TISSUE.
91
it is deficient in those organs which afterwards contain the most.   It
begins to appear at the fifth month under the skin in small isolated
masses.  It exists in masses in this place only, even in the fully grown
fetus ;  for  the  internal parts,  even those where it afterwards abounds,
as the  epiploon, the heart, the surface of the kidneys, the muscles, &c,
have none  or but very little, while it is formed in  abundance near  the
surface of the body.   This  arrangement resembles that in the ceta-
ceous animals,  where  little is found internally, but enormous masses
exist near  the  external surface of the  body.   It gradually increases
also internally; but, generally speaking, this occurs only towards  the
middle of life.  At puberty the fat diminishes  externally, as it does in
the hibernating animals, in proportion as the  semen is secreted with
more activity,(l) and in the  same manner also, as in insects,  the
genital organs  develop themselves at its expense,  so that the  neuters
and those which lose their sex are fatter than the others.
   Finally, the  fat not  unusually disappears in ^,11 parts of the body at
an advanced age, and  the subject actually wastes.   The extremities of
life then  are alike in this respect.   Nevertheless,  the body of  the  old
man differs from  that  of the infant, in that,  although the layers of fat
diminish in him^ the organs are still provided with it, and consequently
the body always  possesses it in a large  quantity.   A severe and long
continued dropsical affection can alone remove it entirely, which depends
doubtless on the fact that the  abundant formation of the serum prevents
that of the fat.
   § 59.  The mucous  tissue forms the basis not only of the regular  but
also of the  irregular tissues.   The history then of all the  alterations of
texture might  be given in this place, since they develop themselves
near it and in it;  but as these  alterations present peculiar characters, as
they appear in the mucous tissue  of some  organs rather  than in that
of others, we had better mention them when speaking of those organs
of which they  are repetitions, or in which they are developed.
   The induration of the mucous tissue is rather a common morbid
alteration,  and occurs most  frequently in very  young  children.   It
attacks  particularly that found under  the skin.   The fat and serum
seem to participate in  it also, for if we  cut into the indurated mucous
tissue, a yellowish fluid escapes.
   The serum of  the mucous  tissue accumulates morbidly in general
anasarca.  In  this disease the fat disappears more or less completely,
and is converted into a mucous substance analogous to gelatin.
   The fat itself often varies from the normal  state, principally as
respects its quantity.   We  have  already pointed out in a  summary

  (1) H. Reeve, De animalibus hyeme sopitis, London, 1803.—Idem,  An essay on the
torpidity of animals, London, 1809.—Mangili,  Saggio di  osservazioni per 'servire
alia storia de* i mammiferi soggetti al periodico letargo, Milan, 1807*—Idem,  Me-
moire sur la lethargic  periodique de quelques mammiferes, in the Annates du
Museum, vol. x. p. 234.—J. A. Saissy, Rccherches experimentales, anatomiques, chi-
miques, etc., sur  la physique des animaux mammiferes hibernans, Paris, 1808.__
Prunelie,  Recherches sur les phenomenes et les causes du sommeil hivernal de quel-
ques mammiferes, in the Annates du Museum, vol, xviii. p. 20. 
92
GENERAL ANATOMY.
manner the circumstances of its excess or deficiency.   Its general or
local  accumulation is sometimes  enormous.  Generally speaking, it
increases in those parts where  it is  found in a state of health rather
than  in any other, although in other places the  ordinary proportion
exists: we have observed this particularly in the great epiploon.  The
same may be said of the surface of the heart and mediastinum.  Thus,
it is in the epiploon that lipomata are most frequently formed.   But we
must not  confound  these  congestions  of  fat with the lardaceous
tumors, which do not deserve this name, as they are simple condensa-
tions of the cellular tissue, or repetitions of other regular tissues, or
finally peculiar morbid tissues.
  The lipomata almost always perfectly  resemble  the normal fat; we
rarely find them surrounded with a proper  cyst;  they are connected
intimately  with the  adjacent  fat, although from their size and pro-
minence they are immediately discovered.  Those  below the skin may
be confounded with othej diseases, especially with  hernias, when they
are developed in those parts where the viscera appear after leaving their
cavities; of this we have seen several instances,  and have some pre-
parations in our cabinet.
  Fat, however, develops itself sometimes irregularly where it does not
exist in a natural state: as first in the ovaries, then  on the  internal face
of the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, and rarely within the
skull.  In  the ovaries we often find hair developed with the fat;  and
as in the normal state the mucous tissue  contains both fat and serum,
so collections of the latter fluid are almost always  found in those ova-
ries which are overloaded with fat.
                          SECTION II.

                   OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.(1)

  § 60. The vascular system (systema vasorum) is composed of numer-
ous flexible ramifying canals, formed of several membranes, in which the
fluid of nutrition is  perfected, and carried to all the organs and to all
the parts  of  the body, and reconveyed from all the organs.   As  the
blood constantly returns to the place from which it started, that is as
it circulates, this system is also called the circulatory.  The first name
is derived  from its form, and the second from its function.   It comprises

 (1)  There are but few general works which embrace the whole of  the vascular
system,  because it is formed of so many different portions, and so many views have
been  taken  of it, both generally and particularly; both in its outer and inner
form, we study its properties, functions, and its changes whether regular or irregular
We may however mention  the following as the principal works on the normai
structure and functions of the whole vascular system:  Scemmerrine- Lehre vom
Baue des menschlichen Kcerpers, vol. iv.—Bichat, General Anatomy trans bv Hav
ward vol. i.-Beclard, General Anatomy, trans, by Togno, p. 237.  For the propeV-
ties of this system see Haller, Memoire sur la nature sensible et irritable des parties
Lausanne,  1756, sect, xi., and  in Op. min., vol. i. nos. 13, 14, 15.—Verschuir De 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.                   93
three principal parts, of which two, the arteries (arterioz) and the veins
(venue), contain perfectly formed blood, which is carried  by the former
to the organs, while the latter takes it back from them..  These two
systems of vessels meet in a common centre^the heart, a hollow organ
with thick muscular  parietes, from which  the arteries  originate, and
where all the veins empty themselves.   The third principal part is
the  lymphatic or  absorbent system, (systema lymphaticum, vasa  ab-
sorbentia;) its vessels do ,not carry blood, but are filled with the pro-
duct of  digestion, the chyle, or with the residue of the processes of
nutrition, the lymph.   In several respects this system is only an  ap-
pendage of the venous system.
   § 61.  The arteries, the veins, and the heart itself, are also divided
into two  separate systems.   The  veins  of the one, called for this
reason the veins of the body, carry back all the blood from the organs ;
and, as the lymphatics terminate in this system, to which they are only
appended, they carry the chyle and  the lymph to the right  or anterior
portion of the heart.   The  different  veins of this system unite in three
trunks, the upper and lower vena? cavse and the large coronary vein of
the heart; these open separately into the right auricle.   From this
cavity the blood passes  into  the right ventricle, thence into the pul-
monary  artery, which carries it into  the lungs, where it is subjected to
the influence of the atmospheric ah.
   The ramifications  of  this  artery  carry it to  the pulmonary veins,
whence  it passes to the left auricle of  the heart,  then into the left
ventricle, and it is afterwards conveyed to all the organs.  Harvey, in
1619,(1) first demonstrated the complete circulation of the blood, which
had already been discovered in some parts by Servet, Colombo, Levas-
seur, and  Cesalpin.    As this fluid has peculiar qualities in the veins
of the body, in the right portion of the  heart, and  in the pulmonary
artery;  as it also possesses properties  equally peculiar in the  pul-
monary veins, the  left portion of the heart, and the arteries of the body

arteriarum et venarum vi irritabili et inde  oriunda sanguinis directione abnormi,
Groningen,  1776.  On the motion of the blood consult Harvey, Exercitatio de motu
cordis et  sanguinis in animalibus, Oxford,  1628.—Haller, Experimenta de motu
cordis a stimulo nato; De motu sanguinis sermo, quo experimenta continentur;
De motu sanguinis sermo, quo corollaria experimentorum tradantur, in  Op. min. vol.
i. p. 60-241.—Spallanzani, De' ifenomeni delta circolazione osservata net giro univer-
sale de' vasi, Modena, 1777.  For the morbid alterations of different parts of the vas-
cular system, although they  are treated of very imperfectly, see Baillie's Morbid
Anatomy,  § 1, 2, 3.—Voigtel, Handbuch der pathologischen Anatomie, vol. i.—Baillie,
Of uncommon appearances of disease in blood-vessels, in the Trans, of a soc. for the
improvement of med. and surg. knowledge, London, 1793, vol. i. no. 9.—Sandifort,
De rarissimo cordis vitio, in Obs. anat. pathol., book i. no. 1.; De cordis et valvularum
aorta nonnullis vitiis. ibid., no. 2.;  De notabil. vasor. aberrationibus, ibid., lib. iv. no.
8.—Corvisart, Essai sur les maladies organiques du caur et des gros vaisseaux, Paris.
1806. Burns, Observations on some of the most frequent diseases of the heart, Edin-
burgh,  1800. These  last works, however,  treat  only of the sanguineous  system.
The Anatomie Medicate of Portal, vol. iii., art. Angiologie, gives a complete history of
the whole vascular system, both in a healthy and diseased state.
  (1) Harvey, Exercitatio de  motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus, Francfort, 1628.
—G. Kerr has recently denied  the reality of the circulation, (Observations on the
Harveian doctrine of the circulation oj the blood, London, 1819,) but all his objections
are easily refuted. 
94
GENERAL ANATOMY.
while its qualities in  all parts of these two opposite systems are the
same ;  finally, as the structure is similar, and differs only in an analo-
gous manner in the corresponding portions of each in relation to the
functions they fulfil, we may with Bichat  consider both of them as
separate systems, of which the first is that  of black blood, and the
second of red blood; even as two circulations were long since admitted,
viz., the great circulation, performed by the  latter system,  and the
small, of which the first is the agent.   Each of these two systems is
composed of  a  central part, the  corresponding half of the  heart, of
a second portion, through which the blood passes to arrive at  the first,
and of a third,  through which it passes after leaving the heart.  These
two halves of  the heart belong, in situation, connections, and structure,
the auricle to the carrying system, and the ventricle to the  bringing
system.
   The three principal parts of the vascular system, the arteries, veins,
and lymphatics, present peculiarities  of structure which  distinguish
them from each other; but they have also certain common  characters,
which identify them as belonging to one and the same system.
                      ARTICLE  FIRST.

         OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.

               A. THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL.

  § 62. I.  The external form of the vascular system is that of a tree.
On leaving the heart, it gradually divides into trunks, branches, twigs,
and ramuscules,' which continually diminish in caliber.  If we suppose
all these divisions united in a single canal, the form is not a cylinder
but a cone, whose apex is at the heart, while the base rests on the sur-
face of the body, where it is formed  by the union of the orifices of the
smaller vessels.  We  know not  the exact  relation between the base
and summit of the cone; nevertheless, we imagine, from the numerous
subdivisions, that  the  difference is very considerable.(l)   Thus, al-
though the vessels  diminish in caliber as they recede from the heart,
this diminution occurs  in the branches, and not in the whole system;
and even, in each particular case, the orifices of the branches, if united,
are always broader than that of the  trunk from which they come. But
the branches do not diminish much in caliber in their passage, and
preserve the same breadth as long as they do not  furnish twigs : we
may be convinced of this by  observing vessels which proceed a consi-
derable distance without ramifying, as the spermatic arteries.  Thus,
although the whole system represents a cone, its parts considered sepa-
rately are cylinders.

  (1) See  several different calculations on this subject in Haller, Defabr. etusu, 
              OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL.            95

  § 63. The .number of divisions in all parts of the vascular system is
not the same ;  a vessel, however, rarely offers more than twenty.
  § 64. Neither are the angles formed by these divisions  always the
same, although the calibers of the vessels  have no marked influence
upon these angles.  Ordinarily they are more or less acute, and in this
respect vary very  much.   The spermatic vessels are perhaps  those
which are given off at the most acute angle.  Almost all the vessels
of the extremities also arise  at acute angles.
  On the contrary, the trunks coming from the arch of the aorta, the
cceliac artery, the superior mesenteric, the renal, most of the intercostal,
and the diaphragmatic arteries arise by almost right angles.
  The superior intercostal-and the recurrent arteries of the extremities
describe an obtuse angle with their trunks.   The more modern asser-
tion,  therefore, is entirely false, viz. " that the branches of the vessels
every where rise at acute angles ;" and  some anatomists still admit,
quite erroneously,  the  differences  of the  angles above mentioned
only according to measurements made on dry arteries.(l)
  § 65. II.  Notwithstanding these divisions, there is an uninterrupted
communication between the different parts of the vascular system, not
only by the union of all in common trunks, but also by the connections
between most of them.  This latter arrangement is called anastomosis;
it differs considerably in  its form and its greater or less frequency in
the different parts of the  same section of the vascular system.
   1. The most usual case is when two vessels anastomose to form an
arch, while the place of union is not exactly known, and from this
arch vessels of a smaller caliber arise, as happens around the articula-
tions and near the intestinal canal.
  2.  The communication of two vessels by a small transverse branch
of little extent is  more rare.   This arrangement exists, for instance,
between  the two  umbilical arteries, where they  enter the placenta;
they are observed frequently between the umbilical arteries of twins.
We find an instance too in the anastomosis of the anterior with the
posterior cerebral arteries, giving origin to the vascular circle of Rid-
ley.   The umbilical vein unites with the vena cava in the same man-
ner, by the venous  canal.   This kind of anastomosis is very common
in the veins of the limbs, especially in those  of the  superficial layer.
  3. It is still more rare to  see two vessels  unite at an acute angle to
form one, the direction of which is between  that of the two trunks
which have produced it.   This is the mode of union between the pul-
monary artery and  the aorta in the fetus  by means of the arterial
canal and between the two vertebral arteries, to give rise before  to the
basilar, and behind to the anterior spinal artery.
  In the last species of anastomosis  the  two vessels which unite  are
almost equal in volume, while in  the other two they often differ very
much in this respect.
(1) Walthers, Physiologie. vol. ii. § 399. p. 49, 
96
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  With regard to the frequency of anastomoses, we may say, in gene-
ral, that they are very frequent between the small vessels particularly,
and that they increase the farther the vessels are from  the  heart; so
that the  smallest form  a very  complex network.   Anastomoses  be-
tween the large vessels are rare;  they are most common in the intes-
tinal canal and the extremities.   The largest, that between the pul-
monary artery and aorta, is  only temporary.   They facilitate  the
course of the blood, and diminish the inconvenience of obstacles to  the
circulation, and even those which might arise from the destruction of
the principal large trunks; as then the  anastomosing canals, already
very large or at least very dilatable  in  the  normal  state,  permit  the
blood to arrive at the parts.  Hence  the reason that even  the  large
trunks, as the aorta,(l) vena cava,(2)  internal jugular vein,(3) and  the
thoracic canal,(4) have  been found partially contracted or obliterated,
and the subject has not suffered from this anomaly.
  § 66.  III. The direction of the vessels is usually straight.   This
axiom is true particularly in regard to the trunks and branches ; as for
the smaller divisions,  they are somewhat tortuous:  but, in general,  the
the course of the vessels presents differences in this respect independent
of their caliber, which arise from the nature of the organs.  In fact  the
vessels of those organs  which change very much in volume are very
tortuous.   This  arrangement is well marked in the uterine  vessels
during pregnancy, where the curves are so  numerous and so  consi-
derable, that acute angles often result.  We observe  it  also, although
in a smaller  degree, in the vessels of the stomach,  of the  intestinal
canal, of the face, of the lips, and  particularly in those of the iris,  the
tongue, and the bronchia.  This arrangement allows the blood to  cir-
culate uniformly when the organs are collapsed  as well as when they
are dilated;  for in the latter case these vessels lengthen and extend.
In those organs which are not subject to these changes  in volume, but
which are liable to changes in situation, similar, for  instance, to what
the limbs experience in flexion and extension, this tortuousness of  the
vessels is replaced by their elasticity.
  There are also other instances, where the course of the vessels is  not
straight, but very much  curved : this  is the case with  the  arteries of
the spleen and  those of the brain.   The purpose  of  this anomaly
appears to be slightly to retard the course of the blood.

  (1) Paris, in Desault's Journal de chirurgie, vol. ii.—Scarpa,  Sur PAnevrisme
trans, by Delpecb, Paris, 1809.—A. Cooper and B. Travers, Surgical works—Gra-
ham in Medico-chirurg. trans, vol. v.—Th. Goodisson, in Dublin Hospital reports,
Dublin, 1818, p. 194.                                         r     r    '
  (2) Haller, De gravior. quibusdam aortcc venceque cavce morbis,  Goettino-en 1794
§ vui.-Bailhe, in Trans, of a society for the imp. ofmed.  and surg. knowledge,  vol!
i. no. 8. p. 127 -Wilson, ibid., vol. viii. no. 6. An instance of the obliteration^ of the
vena cava inferior by inflammation, p. 65.—Hodgson, Diseases of the arteries and
veins.
  (3) G. Lardner, Case of the obliteration of the internal jugular vein in Edinb
med. and surg. journal, vol. vm. no. 28. p. 407.
  (4) Sir A. Cooper, in  Med. records and  researches,  London,  1813 —Flandrin
Journal de medecine, vol. lxxxvii. 1791.             '        '    3' *Iananni 
                OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL.          97

   There are other vessels in which these curves exist only at certain
 penods of life,  and are observed when the organs are developed in a
 part which they afterwards leave.  Thus, the vessels of the  testicles
 are very crooked while these glands continue in the abdominal cavity,
 but they afterwards become straight.
   § 67. IV. The vascular system, considered in a general manner, is
 symmetrical, that is, the right and left sides, the superior and inferior
 portions, and to a certain extent the anterior and posterior parts of the
 body correspond in this respect.   Nevertheless, even the symmetry of
 those parts which are most similar, the right and left sides, is much
 less than that observed for instance in the nervous system.   Thus, the
 heart is not perpendicular, nor situated so that its axis corresponds to
 the median line, neither are the unmated trunks of the arteries, veins, or
 lymphatics, placed upon this fine.   Finally,  the corresponding vessels
 of the  two sides are not arranged in the same manner:  thus, for in-
 stance, the arteries of the head and superior extremities arise from a
 common  trunk on the right side, while  on the  left  they come  off
 from the aorta by separate trunks. In fact the symmetry seems a little
 greater when we  consider the vascular system as a whole ;  for then
 we find, for instance, the trunk  of the veins of the body on the right
 side, that of the aorta  on the left, and that of the absorbents in the
 centre; but the symmetry is, at  the best, very imperfect.   In animals,
 particularly  those  far removed  from man, and  in the fetus, the
 arrangement is more symmetrical.
   § 68. V. The distribution of the vascular system presents numerous
 and very considerable differences, since the origin and distribution even of
 the largest vessels varies.  This  system is undoubtedly that in which
 we find the most  anomalies.  When  an  anomaly exists on one side,
 a similar or analogous  one is usually observed on the other.   These
 anomalies frequently add to the symmetry, but  often also they render
 it less evident.
  Neither is it  rare that anomalies of the same kind  are  observed ;n
 the upper and  lower parts of the vascular  system.  Thus, we have
 met with two instances where in the same subject the left renal artery
 divided, and the vertebral artery  arose immediately from the aorta.
  On the contrary, the anomaly of one portion of the vascular system
 has usually no  influence on the course of the others.  Hence the rea-
 son why anomalies of the arteries are so common in all the parts of
 the body while  the veins do not vary, and vice versd.  The  anomaly of
 one part often approximates it to the normal  formation of another ; an
 effect which is produced, for instance, by the development of large ana-
 stomoses or of the large superficial vessels in the arterial system.
  § 69. With regard to its internal form or its texture, the vascular
 system in almost every part is composed of several layers.
  The internal  layer is the most essential, as it exists in every part of
 the system, and passes  uninterruptedly from one to another of its prin-
 cipal divisions.  This membrane is very thin, whitish, more or less trans-
parent, homogeneous, and has no trace of  fibres; but it differs very
  Vol. I.                       13 
99
GENERAL ANATOMY.
much in regard to its thickness, extensibility, and solidity, not only in
different portions, but also in different parts of each principal portion.
It is loosely attached to the inner and outer surface of the membrane
next to it, and may easily be  detached, and represent a separate organ.
The serous membranes are those with which it seems the most ana-
logous, and perhaps it connects them with the mucous system.
  Does it secrete?  We find an unctuous fluid in the vessels of the
cadaver, even in those parts  which contain no blood, as the arteries ;
but this fluid may perhaps be the serum of the blood or the result of trans-
udation after death.   Bichat,(l)  who considers the internal membrane
only as an epidermis to protect the vessels against the blood, thinks
this fluid is not produced by  the vital action  of the arteries, founding
his opinion on this fact, that  the internal surfaces of the arteries when
deprived of  blood adhere  intimately.   But this phenomenon proves
nothing against  the opinion, since  the  example  of the serous  mem-
branes announces that the fluid to which  it refers may be the agent of
this adhesion, and because we find adhesions in the mucous membranes.
  In several parts  of the internal  membrane are folds called valves
(valvular) which  project within the vessels.  Usually the form of these
folds is semi-elliptical, adhering by their convex edge, while the straight
edge is unattached.   Their arrangement  is always  such as to oppose
the reflux of the blood when its course is impeded by any cause;  because
the  retrograde motion of this fluid separates them from the parietes of
the  vessel, and adjusts them to each other.   On the contrary, when
the  column of fluid  moves uninterruptedly, it forces them against the
sides of the vessel.  We almost always find several  of these valves in
the  same  part;  this arrangement, while  it increases the obstacles to
the reflux of the blood in the first case, impedes it much less in the second.
  The only membrane  outside of the internal  membrane which is
common to the whole  vascular system, is that called the cellular or
nervous tunic (tunica  cellulosa seu nerved) ; but in  all the arteries and
in .the large  veins, between this and the internal tunic, we find another,
called  the fibrous, muscular,  or fleshy tunic, (tunica fibrosa, muscularis,
seu carnea.)  The cellular coat blends insensibly with the mucous tissue
disseminated through the organs; it  consists only of a thicker and
denser mucous tissue,  the resistance of which is  so great that it forms
a cylinder different from the rest of this tissue.   The line of distinction
between this and the fibrous tissue being as distinctly drawn, we ought
to consider it as a peculiar membrane belonging to the vascular system.
  Scarpa asserts that  we  should  not regard the cellular tunic as
belonging to the vessels, as  it only covers them externally, to  keep
them in place, and to  unite  them to the parts adjacent, and that it is
the soft and extensible mucous tissue of these latter.  But we cannot
agree with him,  since  the cellular  coat of the vessels is more closely
united to their fibrous  membranes than to the adjacent mucous tissue
from which it appears  to be distinct.  Vessels are every where found
(1) General Anatomy, vol. i. p. 313. 
0E THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL.            99
surrounded with this funnel-like layer, which is attached to the fibrous
membrane by a thin  layer  of loose- mucous tissue, and which is evi-
dently distinct from the mucous tissue found between the organs.   If
we divide an artery, taking care to cut the fibrous membrane only in a
part of its circumference, we  can easily raise the dense and whitish
cellular tunic in the  form  of a continuous  membrane, and with the
blade of a scalpel  can neatly detach it from the subjacent cellular
tissue.
   It is principally to  this external membrane  that  the curves in the
vessels are to be ascribedj which disappear as soon as it  is cut.   There
is no fat in its interstices, nor does it  furnish any serum.  It does not
penetrate internally between the other membranes.
   § 70. The vascular system contains the common nutritious fluid of all
the organs; but its own proper substance is supplied by peculiar vessels
•(vasa  vasorum) which are distributed in it.  This arrangement is not
confined to that portion of the vascular system which  carries  an im-
perfect nutritious fluid ; it extends to all.  The vessels which compose
it arise from those near, and rarely or never  from the artery to which
they belong.  They  divide and anastomose in the cellular membrane
before penetrating the internal tunics.   Almost all their ramifications
are appropriated to the fibrous membrane, at  least the internal  coat
receives very few; the arteries and veins reciprocally accompany them
there.
   The existence of the absorbent vessels is very probable ;  but it has
not been demonstrated :(1) although blood has not been  diminished in a
portion of avessel comprised between two ligatures.(2) This experiment
proves only that the action of the absorbents does not  extend into the
cavity of the vessels.
   § 71. The nerves  of the vessels  are not numerous ;(3)  they gene-
rally form a network on their surface.  The nervous system of organic
life furnishes twigs to most of the vascular system, but not to the whole,
since  those  of the vessels  of the extremities  come from the nervous
system of animal life. (4)
   § 72. The most delicate branches of the vessels are called the capillary
vessels, (vasa capillaria.) This term is applied both to the final ramifica-
tions of the arteries and to the origins of the veins.   Ought we  to con-
                                          \
   (1) It seems to be demonstrated, not only by the microscopical observations of
Malpighi and Lceuwenhceck, and by the injections of Ent* but also by those inflam-
mations where there is no blood effused, and where the lymphatics are gorged with
it.  In this case, the excess of this fluid which distended the blood-vessels has been
absorbed by the absorbents.  This explains the utility of means to quicken  the
absorption in inflammation. See Cruikshank, The anatomy qf the absorbent vessels,
ch. x. p. 20.—E. A. Lauth, Essai sur les vaisseaux lymphatiques, Strasburg, 1824,
sect. ii. p. 12.—Alard, De Vinflammation des vaisseaux absorbans  lymphatiques, der-
moides, et souscutanes, &c, 2d edit., Paris, 1824.                       F. T.
   (2) Bichat's  General Anatomy, vol. i. p. 321.
   (3) The nerves of the vessels are very numerous, especially in the thoracic and
abdominal cavities.                                              F. T.
   (4) Wrisberg, De nervis arterias venasque eomitantibus, in Sylloge comm. Goettin-
gcn, 1800. 
100
GENERAL ANATOMY.
sider the capillaries as a separate system, distinct from the rest,°^he vas-
cular system, in which the arteries terminate, and from which tne veins
and the exhalent and absorbent vessels  arise? Bichat has adopted this
opinion.   Autenrieth goes still further, for he pretends that tne capuia-
ries, even as regards their form, constitute a system intermediate be-
tween  the arteries and veins, saying  that the final  ramuscules of  the
arteries anastomose with the first twigs of this system, and tnat tnese
unite in trunks which afterwards ramify a second time ; so that accord-
ing to  him the form of the capillary  system is the same as that of  the
vena porta.(l)   But  this.form which  Autenrieth  assigns to the lym-
phatic system does not depend upon  positive observations.   1 he most
minute injections demonstrate only two series of ramifications, and not
four.  On the other hand, Bichat has  too widely separated the capil-
lary system from that of the arteries  and veins.  He has extended the
limits of this system too far, in saying  that it furnishes all the vessels
designed to nourish the organs.  Nutrition ought necessanly to be car-
ried°on without the cavity of the vascular system, and cannot take
place  unless the nutritious fluid leaves the vessels which contain it.
It is not true then, even in this respect, that the organized body should
be considered simply as an assemblage of vessels.
   § 73. Nevertheless,  the capillaries  differ in several respects from
the larger divisions of the vascular system:
   1. In the nature of the fluid they contain.  Blood is not found every
where, as  in the large  branches of the arteries and veins ; the small
vessels also carry other colorless fluids, particularly serum.
   2. The  heart  has less  influence  on  the motion of the fluids they
contain.  This is demonstrated by  the absence of pulsation in  the
venous system, which is in a great measure explained in this manner:
by the arbitrary increase in the activity of these vessels in inflammation,
which is seated principally in them, or at least takes place much more
rarely in the large vessels ; and finally, because-those secretions which
are performed in the limits of the capillary system are independent of the
heart's action, to a ceitain extent.
   § 74. The capillaries do not extend  equally far in all parts, neither
is there every where the same proportion between  the blood and  the
other fluids they contain.   We rarely can demonstrate the presence of
very minute vessels in the cartilages, in most of the  fibrous organs,  the
epidermis, the  nails, the hair:  those which we sometimes find  there
when  in their normal state never contain blood.  The bones, the skin,
the  glands, the parietes of the vessels, the serous membranes, and some
fibrous organs, are furnished with capillaries, some of which contain
blood, and others colorless  fluids.   By means of fine injections, and
sometimes even during life, as  after certain irritations from  diseases,
 &c, we see parts, which at first view seem entirely destitute of vessels,
covered suddenly with a vascular network.   In  other organs, as  the
(1) Physiologie, vol. ii. p. 138. 
OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL,           101
muscles, the capillaries appear to carry red blood only;  nevertheless,
we must observe that the coloring substance  is found also outside of
the vessels.
  Finally, the  relation between  the blood and the colorless fluids is
no where always the  same.   The  examples  mentioned of the blood
penetrating parts usually colorless furnish already one proof.   Nor
ought we to rely  upon  the injection of colored liquids to  discover
the true  limits of  the  blood in  the capillaries, since,  when it  suc-
ceeds, and fills even the smallest  vessels, it tinges red, parts which,
hke the  serous membranes, are  colorless, or at most but very slightly
colored during life.
  § 75.  The vascular system contains the fluid of common nutrition,
carries it to all the organs, and sends it into all.   How  does this  fluid
escape from its cavity 1  How does it penetrate into them 1  We must
observe first, that absorption and exhalation  take  place very  pro-
bably only in the most delicate twigs of the vascular system, because
all  the vessels are provided with  smaller vessels, conductors  of the
blood which is distributed  to their parietes, because  these vessels
ramify infinitely, and finally because there are no plausible reasons for
admitting the contrary opinion.
  But how do these fluids enter into these most delicate ramifications,
and how do they come from them 1   Are the terminations of the  arte-
ries and the origins of the absorbents closed or open ?   Neither in the
smallest nor in the largest vessels has observation demonstrated chasms
in their parietes, or orifices at their extremities.  Nevertheless, constant
openings  probably exist,  but their diameters vary with the degree of
vital activity they possess.   At least these openings exist necessarily
where the fluids enter and depart.   But absorption and  exhalation are
never interrupted, and it  is  impossible to demonstrate  that the sub-
stance is  destroyed  and reproduced alternately, in infinitely  small
spaces, at the extremity of the vascular system.
  § 76.  Tt is still  less probable  that the different portions of the vas-
cular system every where form closed cavities which do not communi-
cate with each other.   We have already (§60) said that the absorb-
ents are only an appendage  of  the  venous  system, from which  they
arise  by several large tiunks : there can be no doubt in  any respect in
regard to this.   That the final twigs of the arteries and veins commu-
nicate is less certain.(l)   Nevertheless, the opinion of those who refuse
to admit this communication, and who think  that the blood is effused
between the two  orders  of  vessels, either into the substance  of the
organ or into  special cells, or who  believe  that  the  arterial blood is

  (1) Among the moderns who do not admit this communication are Doellinger and
Willbrand.  The former thinks that the terminations of the arteries have no parietes,
that the blood moves freely in the solid substance of the body, which he term* mu-
cous, and partially continues its course, to pass into the venous and lymphatic ves-
sels arising from this substance, as the arteries terminate in it.  According to
Willbrand, all the blood changes into organs and secretions,  and these organs,
becoming in a measure fluid, are formed again into venous blood and lymph, which
continue to circulate.                                           F- _T, 
102
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 changed at the extremity of the arteries into the substance  of the
 organs, and that the venous blood itself is formed from all parts at the
 expense of this same substance, this  opinion, we say, is at least very
 improbable;  for,
   1.  Some substances although  coarse, provided they are sufficiently
 warm and consequently fluid, pass easily from  the  arteries  into the
 veins of a part whose temperature is also properly elevated.
   2.  Microscopic observations made on the transparent parts  of living
 animals, as the  bronchise of the  salamander, the mesentery and the
 swimming membranes of frogs, the tails  of fishes, &c, demonstrate
 clearly the uninterrupted continuance  of the arteries with the  veins.
   3.  This phenomenon is often observed  under the microscope in the
 same transparent parts when they have been well injected.
   But these anastomoses are always  very narrow.   They suffer only
 one globule  or a very small number  of globules of  blood to pass at
 once, and those  admitted by certain  anatomists between the arterial
 and venous branches of a large caliber,  as  for  instance between the
spermatic arteries and veins,(l) have been long rejected by reasonable
 men.(2)  In one part of the body only, the lungs, does the system of
red pass to that of black blood in a manner opposite to that  which is
 usual.  It is true that large anastomosing branches exist between the
arteries and  pulmonary  veins; but they  are rather anastomoses be-
tween vessels of the  same kind,  since the small branches of  the pul-
monary artery carry red blood.
   The  transition from the arteries to the veins does not every  where
take place in the same manner, either  as respects  the size of  the ves-.
sels,  or the other  conditions of  the  phenomenon.   Sometimes the
artery only folds  upon itself, and thus becomes a vein, and again small
branches are detached, which empty into the vein adjacent.  But very
probably in this  case the union takes place by a small  intermediate
branch, of which consequently one half is venous, the other arterial.
   § 77. The relation of the vessels to the organs may be considered in
several  points of view :  1st, in regard  to the quantity of nutritious
fluid which arrives at the organs  and  which  returns from  them, and
consequently, other things being equal, in regard to the greater or less
size of the vessels ;  2d, to their number ; 3d, to their direction • 4th to
their divisions and anastomoses ;  5th, to their place of origin •  6th and
lastly, to their length.
   § 78.  1st. Abundance of vessels and abundance of nutritious fluid
are not synonymous, since an organ which has many vessels of a small
caliber, as a bone, may nevertheless not receive abundance of nutritious
fluid.   The secretory organs are those in which the vessels  are pro-
portionally the largest. Next comes the muscular system, the  nervous
system, the bones, and finally the fibrous  organs and  the cartilages.

  (1) LealisLealis, Departibus semen conf., Leyden, 1707.
  (2) G. Martin, Reflections and observations  on the seminal blood-vessels in Med
essays and obs. of Edin., vol. v. no. 19.                             '   •"■">'*• 
             OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL.          103

The cuticle, the enamel of the teeth, the amnion, and the tunica arach-
noidea, receive no vessels, at least in man.
  2d.  Every  organ  is usually supplied with  several vessels.   The
unmated organs, formed of two halves more or less intimately united
on the median fine, as the brain, the nasal fossae, the thyroid gland,
the larynx, the  stomach, the liver, the uterus, the bladder, and the
penis, not only receive two vessels of the same name—the one on the
right side, and the other on  the left—but also each organ, without re-
gard to volume or its importance, in more than one point receives ves-
sels which  often arise from  very remote parts of the sanguineous sys-
tem, and which usually anastomose near, or within this organ.  Thus
the internal carotid and vertebral arteries proceed on each side to the
brain, and there anastomose with each other and with those of the  op-
posite side.  The spinal marrow, besides the posterior and anterior spi-
nal arteries, receives a great many vessels from the aorta, which pass
through  the intervertebral foramina.  The thyroid gland receives on
each side two arteries, a superior and an inferior, which anastomose with
each other, and with their  congenitals.  So four arteries are given off
to the stomach, two  to the intestines, four to the uterus, and an  equal
number of veins arise from these organs.   The kidneys  receive two,
or even a greater number of arteries, more  frequently than one ; and
the number of those belonging to the renal capsules is very considera-
ble.   All the muscles and bones are supplied with vessels which enter
in several points.   In certain organs, possessing but one vessel, as  the
eye, which receives  only the opthalmic artery, we find an equivalent
for this  arrangement in the number of anastomoses.   But one vessel
is rarely so much larger than the rest, that we have reason to say with
Walther,(l) that each important organ receives but a single principal
vessel.
   3. The vessels generally proceed  in  almost  straight lines.   When
we find exceptions to this rule, the curves of the vessels are attended
with a change in their caliber, or in their form, as in the hollow organs,
and then consequently are  not constant; but they sometimes depend
on other circumstances of  which we are ignorant, and are then con-
stant  as  in the brain.
   4. A vessel never enters or leaves an organ, unless it be  more  or less
divided.   Of this we may be convinced by looking at the brain,  the
eye, the  tongue, all  the  organs of  secretion, and the muscles.  The
vessel is generally divided near the organ,  but sometimes at a certain
distance  from it.   The muscles furnish an instance of  the latter.   In
this respect we do not always find  the same arrangement, and  the
elongation of the branches makes the vascular trunks more numerous,
as  we can easily perceive in the  kidney.  These branches  almost
always anastomose  together.   We have before mentioned the differ-
ences in  regard to the number and size of the anastomoses.
(1) Physiologic, vol. ii. p. 55. 
104
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  5.  The vessels do not always arise from the same point, as we have
already stated, (§68,)  and it matters little, either to the development
or the function of  an organ, from what point its vessels arise, whether
they proceed difectly from the aorta, or  the vena cava, or come from
secondary trunks.   Thus the left vertebral artery often detaches itself
from the arch of the aorta ;  the inferior thyroid artery is anomalous in
the same manner, or presents other variations.   The renal artery arises
sometimes from the primitive iliac, or  even from the internal iliac ar-
tery ;  the three branches of  the cceliac artery come directly from the
aorta  in some subjects; in others their  trunk  unites to that of the su-
perior mesenteric artery, &c.  All these  facts prove that the importance
and individuality  of an organ are  not lessened because its vessels
belong to those of the  second order, as  Walther says.(l)
  6 th. The  origin of  the vessels is generally not very  remote from
the place where they  enter the organ to which they belong;  and we
rarely see one passing through any considerable space, unless it sends
off  branches to those  parts before which it  passes.   When the con-
trary  takes place,  as in the ovaries,  the testicles, the brain, the contra-
diction is but  apparent,  and explains itself  easily, by the primitive
situation of those  organs:  thus  the testicles and  ovaries are formed
very  near the  place from whence the spermatic arteries arise ;  and in
the early periods of life, the neck is so short that the brain rests imme-
diately on the point from whence its vessels are derived.
  § 79.  We can make but few general observations on the activity of
the vascular system,  because, like the structure, this varies in its dif-
ferent component  parts.  We  can  only  say,  it is to a certain degree
elastic, extensible, and contractile, and  insensible in the healthy state.
A dispute still  exists, whether it be  susceptible of vital contraction, or
in other words, if it be irritable.   The heart and the absorbents cer-
tainly possess irritability,(2) but observations on the arteries and veins
as well as  the results drawn from them are  contradictory.  Hal-
ler  has never  seen stimulants produce  contractions,  except in  the
trunks of the venae cavae, although he  does not deny the irritability of
the arteries exactly for that. (3)  This  subject will be better discussed
at the end of the  remarks on each of the three portions of the vascu-
lar  system;  for, in regard  to  this,  the phenomena are not the same
in all.
  § 80.  The vascular tissue is composed of several parts entirely dif-
ferent from each other; hence, this very complex form is one principal
cause why it  varies so much at different periods of life.   The princi-
pal parts in the history  of  its development  are the  inquiries, 1st, if
certain parts of the  system  appear before the rest, and what these
parts are; 2d, the investigation of  its  mode of origin ; 3d, the study

  (1) Walther, loc. cit. p. 54.
  (2) Verschuir, Diss, de arter. et venar. vi irritabili,  Groningen, 1766.—Hastings,
Diss, de vi contractili vasorum, Edinburgh, 1820.
  (3) Mem. sur la nature  sensible et irrit. des parties. Lausanne, 1756, Sect xi
De part. carp. hum. yraec.fabr. vol. i. p. 140. 236. 
OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL.
105
of the relations which  exist  at  different periods  of life between the
systems of red and black blood, and between the large and small cir-
culatory systems; 4th, that of the  mutual relations of  the vessels, as
respects number and capacity, at different periods of existence.
  § 81. 1st. We are deficient in exact observations relatively to what
parts  of the vascular system are formed first, either in man or in the
mammalia.   Nevertheless, we may admit, as almost certain, that the
veins appear before the arteries, and that the first are those of the umbili-
cal vesicle;  for it is proved, in birds, that the vitelline veins, and particu-
larly the omphalomesenteric, are soonest developed; now the umbilical
vesicle in man corresponds exactly with the vitelline sac of birds.(l)
  Nevertheless, it is  not improbable that, in the body of the human
fetus, the principal  trunk of  the arterial system, the aorta, arises  at
least  at  the same time as the veins, or perhaps before them.  This
conjecture acquires some  weight, when we regard:  1st, the arrange-
ment of the vascular system in the acephalous monsters ; and 2d, the
manner in  which this system is formed in the animal kingdom.   In
supposing it to be true, there is first formed on the anterior face  of the
vertebral  column a long  canal which ramifies at its two extremities,
and  which  blends  above, in  the  place  where the heart afterwards
exists, with the  vena  porta, with  which it probably  communicated
before, only by small twigs.(2)
  2d. As to  the mode of development  of the vessels, we learn the
following from observing what occurs in the egg.(3)   When at some
distance from the embryo, we  see in the membrane of the yolk, which
is at first homogeneous,  certain rounded, circumscribed rents, which
are filled with a mass more fluid.  These rents are, at first, entirely
separated from each  other, and appear like islands in the rest of the
mass.   New  lacunae  are gradually formed in the  substance of the
membrane  of the yolk, which increase  the number  of islands, and
give rise  to a fine  network  of  vessels which ramify  exceedingly;
these soon contain real blood instead of the clear thin fluid which first
filled  them.  This  vascular  network  is  the  commencement  of the

  (1) We do  not hesitate to use thi3 expression, (notwithstanding the celebrated
Osiander (Goetteng. Anz. 1814. part 163, p. 1627.) has declared the umbilical vesicle
to be a morbid  abnormal formation, inasmuch as it is never found in the well-
formed fetus, but only in monsters,) because we have hitherto found it, by careful
examination,  in every  fetus where it  had not disappeared, and all these  fetuses
were well formed.  That the formation of the fetus has no effect on the existence
of this vesicle, is shown by the observations of the best anatomists, of whom we
shall mention only Albinus, Hunter, Wrisberg, and Blumenbach, who all observed it
in the perfectly normal embryo.
  (2) We only mention these as probable conjectures, and, to prevent all false inter-
pretations, we would have them understood as such.
  (3)  Among  the modern authors  on this subject, we would distinguish Rolando,
Sur la formation du cccur et  des vaisseaux arteriels, veineux et capillaires; in the
Journ. complement, du Diet, des Sciences Medicals, vol. xi. p. 323, and vol. xii. p.
34.—Pander,  Memoire sur le developpement du poulet dans I'oeuf;  same journal, vol.
xiv. p. 306.—Home, Observations on the changes of the egg during incubation,.
with notes by Prevost;  in the Archives  generates de medecine, July, 1823, p. 451.—
Prout, Experiences sur  les changemens qui arrivent dans les principes fixes de I'oeuf
pendant V incubation; same Journal, September, 1823, p. 119.—F. T.
  Vol. I.                       14 
106
GENERAL ANATOMY.
omphalomesenteric vein;  its trunk is not the  first portion formed,
but the ends of the vessel appear soonest; these gradually unite into
branches, and finally  produce  the  trunk.   At  first, the  vessels
have  no  proper parietes which  are distinct from the rest of the sub-
stance,  and represent only lacunae,  channels hollowed m this sub-
stance ;  but this insensibly accumulates still more around them, and
then  their parietes  appear,  the structure of which is slowly  and
gradually developed.                                        ,
  3d. When the omphalomesenteric vein is thus once formed,  the rest
of the vascular system produces itself as follows, concluding always,
as we are obliged to do, from  the  results furnished by the organo-
genesis of birds.  The vein bends from below upwards,  and dilates on
the anterior face of  the body of the fetus to form the  heart.   From
this  the  trunk of the  arteries  of the body  arises, which carries the
blood to the  organs, and after this we see the accompanying veins.
The omphalomesenteric artery  next  appears.   We do not yet know
positively,  whether the umbilical veins, hke the omphalomesenteric
veins, are formed  before the umbilical arteries, or if the  reverse be
true ; but the  former is more probable.
  In examining the thing more attentively, this is the progress of for-
mation.  The vessel into which  the omphalomesenteric  vein opens, or
to speak more  exactly, into which  it is changed, is the vena porta.
This, which at a later epoch, finds itself simply inclosed  in the general
system of the veins of the body, constitutes, at  present, the principal
trunk, and, at its upper part, produces, the heart. The heart appears,
at first,  hke  a half ring lying loose; the portion first seen, is  the left
ventricle.  Immediately after,  the  trunk of  the aorta  shows itself,
appearing as a considerable dilatation.  A little later the upper extre-
mity  of  the vein dilates, then contracts before the venous trunk, and
thus produces the auricle.  These three vesicles  are, at first, separated
by  folds, very long in proportion, of which one, that between the ven-
tricle and auricle,  is  called the  auricular canal,  (canalis auricularis.)
These folds soon  disappear, and the three  vesicles approach each
other.  All the parts which are finally double, are still single at this
period.
  At the same time  the arrangement of the rest of the vascular sys-
tem is perfected.   The vena porta reunites to the umbilical vein, with
which it ramifies in  the  liver.  It  is only then  that the blood it con-
tains commences to circulate there and reaches the heart by passing
through  the  hepatic  veins.  Nevertheless, during the period of fetal
existence we  can  trace in  the  venous duct  (ductus venosus)  the pri-
mitive arrangement of the vena porta, and the important part it at first
performed.  The venous duct  extends from the  umbilical vein and
vena porta, on the inferior face  of the liver, to the inferior vena cava,
and consequently conducts a part  of the blood  immediately into this
last.  We sometimes see the primitive arrangement preserved even
through  life, when the whole trunk of the vena porta opens directly
into the vena cava. 
OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL.
107
   While these phenomena take place, the heart continues to develop
 itself.   Of all  its  parts the auricle first becomes double ; an imperfect
 septum descends from its circumference, and floats in its cavity, so that
 the  two parts communicate, at first, by a very broad opening.   The
 interauricular  canal, and  the common trunk of the veins of the body,
 the  umbilical  vein, and the vena porta,  opens  into  the  auricle  at
 the  place of this  septum.  The doubling of the ventricle  does not
 take place in the same manner, but it depends in some measure  on
 gemmation,  and is produced by the prolongation of the primitive por-
 tion at its upper  part.  The right ventricle appears,  first, as a small
 tubercle,  which gradually extends  itself towards  the summit of the
 heart, and communicates with the left ventricle, not only when it first
 appears, but even  after.  This communication takes place at the upper
 part of the  two ventricles,  because,  at first, the left cavity  only pro-
 longs itself.   Hence, why the  aorta  arises, at first, from both ventri-
 cles.  The pulmonary artery is the last to detach itself so as to con-
 stitute a distinct trunk, but it was indicated before along the aorta.   In
 fact, at first, this  latter, which arises solely from the heart, divides, at
 some distance from this organ, into two branches at least, which  soon
 unite to form it's descending portion.  As the aorta is blended gradually
 with the ventricle, the bifurcation is depressed  also, and when one of
 the  two branches separates  itself entirely  from the other, by complet-
 ing  the formation of the opposite portions of their circumference, the
 pulmonary artery  appears forming a distinct trunk.   But as all the
 cavities of the heart communicate, the pulmonary artery continues
 not  only at  first,  but  during  the whole of fetal existence, with the
 aorta, of which it constitutes the second root.   Nevertheless, as it
 also divides  at the same time into two branches, which proceed each
 to a lung, the continuation of its trunk, properly so called, that portion
 between the point where it  bifurcates, and that where it is implanted
 in the  aorta has  been  particularly  termed the arterial canal, or the
 canal of Botal.  (Ductus  arteriosus s. Botalli.)
   The  vascular system is then formed at its commencement, at least,
 of parts which do not afterwards exist. On the contrary, during the
 latter periods of fetal life  the  number of  these parts is greater,  and
 several exist then which  disappear after birth.   The  circulation is  at
 first  single, and even after  the different systems are  formed, the line
 of distinction  between  the  systems  of red  and  black  blood is not
 drawn  with  precision.  Some  of these supernumerary parts which
 latterly are effaced, trace the primitive formation when the parts were
 not so numerous  as  in the  perfect state: all relate  to the connec-
 tions of the  fetus  with external objects.  The arrangement of the
 vascular system causes a circulation entirely different from that seen
 in the adult; it varies from the latter, particularly in this, that all the
 organs do not receive blood from the same source ;  the small and large
circulations are not yet completely distinct from each other.   In fact,
the vena cava inferior during  the  whole period  of  fetal existence,
opens  more into the left  than  into the right auricle,  so that it pours 
108
GENERAL ANATOMY.
immediately into the former cavity the blood of the umbihcal and
omphalomesenteric veins,  mixed with that of the inferior parts ol  tne
body ;  from the left auricle the blood, mingled with that which comes
from the pulmonary veins, passes into the left ventricle, which then
sends  it through the aorta into  the carotid and subclavian artenes.
One portion goes to the lower part of the body.  From these organs
the blood returns to the right  auricle by the jugular and subclavian
veins;  from the right auricle it passes into the right ventricle, where
it  arrives at first alone, but  afterwards, when the orifice of the vena
cava inferior also  opens into the side of the right auncle, it mixes
with the blood from this last vessel.  The right ventricle causes it to
pass by the pulmonary artery,  partly into the lungs, and partly also
by the arterial  canal into the descending aorta, where it mixes with
that which comes from the  trunk of the aorta ; from thence it goes
into the lower part  of  the body, which is larger than the  upper por-
tion.   The descending  aorta divides at its inferior extremity into two
large trunks, the umbilical arteries, which, arriving at the umbilical
cord, go to the  chorion of the ovum, and at a later period principally
to  the  placenta, where  they are continuous with the roots of the um-
bilical  vein.
   Thus, the head, neck,  and arms continually receive almost all the
blood which returns from the placenta by the umbilical vein, but they
receive it mingled with that which returns from the lungs and the
inferior part of the body.  On the contrary, the blood which circulates
in  all the other parts, has already circulated in the preceding, and con-
tains only  a small  portion of that which arrives at the right auricle,
and which, passing  from there into the aorta, is not propelled by it to
the superior parts of the body.   Although the blood which returns
from the placenta does not arrive at the first organs pure, they receive,
however, a quantity greater than the others.
   When the formation of the  vascular system is finished after birth,
the systems of red and black  blood are totally separate;  they com.
municate only by their extremities, in the lungs on one side, and in the
other organs in another, and no  part of the blood can arrive at these
organs, unless it has passed through the lungs.   But the blood of the
pulmonary veins does not mingle, except with that which goes to the
upper  part of the body ; and before this fluid has arrived  at the lungs,
the arterial canal removes most  of that which the  right ventricle
throws into the pulmonary artery,  even as the insertion of the vena
cava inferior into the left auricle causes the blood which returns from
the lower parts of the body to flow almost entirely into the aorta, while
a  small portion only  goes to  the  lungs.   The pulmonary" artery
receives but a small portion of the blood which comes to the right
ventricle.  The small circulation then does not form a separate sys»
tern ; it is  only an  appendage  of the large, since the arteries of the
lungs  arise from a vessel which  carries its blood to other parts also;
and its  veins unite  with  the inferior vena cava, which receives the
blood from other organs.  The arterial canal has been called, also, the 
OF THE VA8CULAR SYSTEM IN GENERAL.          109
derivative canal, because it turns  aside the blood before it arrives at
the lung.
  These differences depend  principally on the inaction  of the lungs,
since after birth the small and large circulations are not separated, ex-
cept on account of the changes which the blood experiences in the
organ, and which  are caused by the air which  rushes there.  Pro-
bably the lung is replaced  to a certain extent  in its  functions by the
placenta, so that the umbilical arteries and veins may be compared to
those of the pulmonary system.  But the small  circulation, which is
carried on through the placenta, is not separate from the large, since
the umbilical arteries arise  from the descending aorta,  the umbilical
vein and stomoses,  directly and indirectly, with the  vena cava inferior;
and the blood which comes from the placenta mingles, both in the au-
ricles and at the union of the pulmonary artery with the  aorta, with
that which returns from the organs of the body.   Thus, in the fetus,
the blood which returns from the placenta, and that which comes from
the organs, is not  pure in  any part  of the circulation.  On account
of this peculiarity, and doubtless  because the lungs are very imper-
fectly replaced by  the placenta, there is no marked difference between
the arterial and venous blood, either  in the human fetus, or in those
of the other mammalia.
  4. With  regard  to  the capacity of the vascular system, and the
number of vessels at different periods of life, we may say, generally, that
when the vessels are once formed, their number and diameters are pro-
portionally greater, in the early, than at subsequent  periods.  The heart
of the fetus is unquestionably much larger in proportion to the rest of
the body, the nearer it is to the period of its formation. .  How inconsi-
derable are the only ramifications of the umbilical vessels !   The same
remark applies to the small vessels.  The latter, and generally speaking
the whole vascular system, are much more easily injected in young
persons, than in individuals advanced in life; and there are even parts,
in which they cannot be demonstrated,unless in very young subjects.  In
fact, we find in the  first periods of life some organs, which are then desti-
tute of vessels, and in the place of which there are developed afterwards
others, which possess vessels,  thus  the  cartilages  are replaced by
bones.   But this peculiarity disappears when compared with the enor-
mous  development of vessels in all  other parts.   This abundance of
vessels is to be ascribed to the great necessity for them, since the num-
ber of the organs  augments continually, they constantly require new
nutritious fluids.   Hence the caliber of the vessels is in direct ratio to
the volume  of the  different parts of the same system.
   These observations  are true, especially in regard to the arteries, but
are less  applicable to the veins; for these are scarcely larger at the
first than at subsequent periods, and at most have  a caliber only equal
to that of the arteries.
   The specific gravity, both of  the veins and arteries, is less in young
men than in old persons;  the vessels  are then denser, during the latter 
110                     GENERAL ANATOMY.

periods of life.  In other respects, the difference  is trifling;  it is more
perceptible in the arteries than in the veins.
   § 82. We  may consider as sexual differences  the greater thickness
and power of the vascular system in males than in females, which is
observed equally in its three divisions.  The localities are  no  where
different.
                            B.  ARTERIES.

   § 83.   The arteries (arterice)(l) differ from the veins in their exter-
 nal form and situation, and in their texture and properties.
   They are usually narrower, less numerous, more deeply situated, and
 more tortuous than  the veins.   The branch near the heart is always
 larger than the branches which arise from it.   The diameter is very
 constant in the same vessels whenever the  parietes  do not  vary.
 In those places where the arteries divide, the  largest branch almost
 always  follows the  direction of  the trunk.  Anastomoses  are rare
 among the arteries of a large caliber, and in general there are fewer
 anastomoses in  the arterial than in the venous system; nevertheless
 they are more common than is usually supposed.   We cannot con-
 sider them as a  sign of imperfection in the formation  of the  arteries,
 and as  indicating that they are  degraded to a  level  with the ve-
 nous system, as Walther(2) has said, since in  the  normal state they
 belong no less to the arterial than to  the venous system.  They are
 developed to such an extent in this system that the largest trunks may
 be obliterated by ligatures, or in any other manner, and the circulation
 nevertheless continued by the anastomoses, which are dilated.  Thus a
 dog, in which the two carotid, the crural, and the axillary arteries were
 successively tied, continued to live.(3)  Surgeons  at present do not
hesitate  to tie, not only the  axillary and crural arteries, but the exter-
nal iliac,(4) the internal iliac,(5) and the primitive carotid.(6) Even the

  (1) Bassuel,  Dissertation hydraulico-anatomique, ou Nouvel aspect de Vinterieur
 des arteres et de leur structure, par rapport au cours du sang: in Mem. pres. de
math, et de physique, vol. i. p. 23-55, Paris, 1750.—Belmas,  Structure des arteres
 leurs proprietes, leurs fonctions et leurs alterations organiques,  Strasburg  1822.__
Ehrmann, Structure des arteres, etc., Strasburg, 1822.
  (2) Physiologic, Vol. ii. § 399. p. 43.
  (3) Dissection of a limb on which the operation for popliteal aneurism had been
performed by A. Cooper; in the Medi. chirur.  trans, of London, vol. ii. p. 259.
  (4) Case of femoral aneurism reaching as high a's Pauparts ligament, cured by
tying the  external iliac artery, by J. Abernethy ; in Edin, med. and surg. journal,
vol. iii., p. 46.—Case of inguinal aneurism cured by tying the external iliac artery,
by W. Goodlad, same journal, vol.  viii., no. 29., p. 32.—An account of the anastomo-
sis of the arteries at the groin, by A. Cooper, in Med. chirurg. trans., vol. iv., p. 425.
  (5) A case of aneurism of the glutoeal artery cured by tying the internal iliac, by
 Stevens ; in the Medico-chirurg. transactions, vol. v., p. 422.
  (6)  A. Cooper,  A case  of aneurism of the carotid artery; in the Med chirurg.
transact, of London, vol. i., no. I.—Second case of carotid  aneurism; same jour-
nal, no. 17.—Case of aneurism from a wound in which the left carotid artery was
tied by A. Macauley; in Edinburgh Medical and Surg. Journal, vol. x., no  38 p
 178.—A case of aneurism by anastomis in the orbit, cured by the ligature qf the com- 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   ARTERIES.
Ill
 abdominal  aorta has been  tied(l)  or found  obliterated,(2)  without
 causing any bad effects.   We cannot admit  a resemblance between
 the venous and arterial systems, except  when extraordinary anasto-
 moses are formed between the arteries.
   The arterial is more symmetrical than  the venous system in some
 parts, and less so in others.   Thus the two spermatic arteries arise from
 the aorta, while of  the two corresponding veins the right comes from
 the vena cava, and the left from the renal vein.  On the contrary, the right
 subclavian and right carotid  arteries have a common trunk, and those
 on the  left side have  separate trunks, while the jugular and subcla-
 vian veins unite on each side in a single trunk.
   § 84. The arteries are usually considered more constant in their distri-
 bution  than  the veins,(3)  but we think wrongly.  If the  veins offer
 greater varieties in their branches, twigs, and secondary trunks, the dif-
 ference is only apparent;  it is because these vessels are more nume-
 rous and larger.  In those parts of the system where the arteries equal
 the  veins in  number,  the number  of their  anomalies  is the  same.
 In fact, every artery, even  the  origin of the  aorta, is sometimes  di-
 vided ;  the three large vessels which arise from its arch, present, at least,
 nine or ten varieties, in relation solely to their origin.  On the contrary,
 we know only one anomaly  of the vena cava superior, where the right
 and left trunks were not united, which, in fact, corresponds solely to the
 division of  the aorta at its base,  but which we are obliged to compare
 also with the other anomalies of the large trunks, arising from its arch,
 since the vein offers no other.  But how common are anomalies in the
 arch of the aorta!  and how  uncommon is a division of the vena cava
 descendens!
   The  arrangement of the renal vessels has been adduced as a remark-
 able  exception.  On  the contrary, these  furnish  the strongest argu-
 ment in favor of the rule just established.(4)    In fact, the renal-veins
 vary less frequently than the arteries.

 mon carotid artery; in Med. chirurg. trans., vol.  ii., no. 1.—Finally, Valsalva had
already tied without inconvenience both carotids on dogs, (Morgagni, Ess. an. med.,
xiii. a. 30).  Baillie and Hunter had also advised this operation, when it is indicated,
(Trans,  of a society for the improvement of med. and surg. knowledge, vol. i., p. 125.)
and Cooper had performed it, but unsuccessfully, although he failed from accidental
circumstances.  (Med. chirurg. trans., vol. i., no. 1.)
  (1) A.  Cooper, loc. cit., vol. ii., p. 260.
  (2) Case of obstructed aorta, by R. Graham; in Med. chirurg. trans., vol. v., p.
 287.
  (3) "I have found many more varieties in the division of the veins, the origins and
number of their branches, than in the arteries." Haller, De Fabr., vol. i. p. 255.—The
branches of the arteries are generally more constant than the unions of those of the
veins. Scemmerring, Gefaesslehre, p. 77.—Walther even asserts that the greater con-
stancy of the course of the arteries proves they are the most noble vessels (Loc. cit.
vol. ii. § 404.)   Bichat has been more exact  in saying the arrangement  of the
branches and twigs in the veins is at least as variable as in the arteries.
  (4) Haller, El. phys. vol. iii. p. 260.  The renal arteries vary more than any, and
even more than their accompanying veins, p. 266.   " The form of the renal veins is
much more simple and constant, than that of the arteries." The renal veins vary less
than the arteries : Scemmerring, loc. cit. p. 419. Voigtel was, then, mistaken in say-
ing (Path, Anat. vol. i. 6. 480.) their anomalies equalled those of the arteries. 
112
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   In the extremities, the veins always follow the same course ;  and
 although we have often seen the brachial artery divided much higher
 than usual, the arrangement of the corresponding veins was normal
 among all the anomalies of the arteries, while variations in the venous
 trunks are rarely found, unless  there  are corresponding anomalies in
 the arteries.(l)
   § 85.  The internal structure of the arteries presents, also, several pe-
 culiarities. (2)
   The internal membrane is much  thicker, less transparent, harder,
 and more brittle, than in other parts of the vascular system.   It is not
 very elastic, and is very solid.   In dogs, the other membranes have
 been raised, and, although in several instances the adjacent parts did
 not protect the arteries, still it was neither torn nor distended.(3)  This
 membrane differs also in different parts of the arterial. system.  It is
 thickest in the left ventricle, less thick in the aorta, and thinnest in the
 pulmonary artery.  In the arteries themselves, it seems to be almost uni-
 formly thick every where, although it is thicker in the aorta than in
 the other branches.  It is smooth in almost the  whole  extent of the
 arterial tree, and is not larger than the external membrane.   In the
 places only where the great trunks arise from the heart, it forms three
 valves,by expanding and folding on itself. These valves, called sigmoid,
 or semilunar (valvuloz sigmoideoz  seu semilunares) from their semicircu-
 lar form, are attached by their inferior edges to the circumference of the
 arterial orifice :  their upper  edge,  which is loose, forms two fissures,
 which unite in a central process of a  cartilaginous nature, called the
 tubercle (nodulus.)  These valves, and the portions of the arteries which
 correspond to them, form sacs closed towards the heart, which open out-
 ward. The parts of the circumference of the vessels which correspond to
 them, are dilated,  and  project outwardly; while within, are corres-
 ponding 'hollows, called sinuses.   The valves and the tubercles of the
 pulmonary artery, like the other  portions of its internal membrane, are
 thinner than in the aorta.   But in both vessels, these folds prevent the
 reflux of blood  to the ventricles;  for when the fluid takes a direction
 contrary to  that which it ought to follow regularly, they leave the pa-
rietes of the artery, approach its axis, and join so that their edges touch.
 The tubercles fill up the void which may be left between  them. •

  (1) For particulars on this subject see J. F. Meckel, Veber den Berlaufder arte-
 rien und venen.  In Deutschen Archiv.f die Physiol. 1815. vol. i. No. 2. p. 285.
  (2) Ludwig, De arteriarum tunicis, Leips. 1739. rec. in Haller's coll. diss, vol. iv.
 No. 1.—A. Monro's Remarks on the coats of arteries, their diseases, and particularly
 on the formation of aneurism.  In med. essays and observ. of a society in Edinburgh
 vol. ii.—De Lasonne, Sur la structure des arteres,  in Mem. de Vac. des sc. 1756. p!
 166-210.—Mondini, De arteriafium tunicis : in Opusculi scientifici, Bolog-na, 1817!
 Beclard, Sur les blessures des arteres ;  in the Mem. de la soc. med. d' emulation  vol"
 viii. Paris, 1817.                                                  '
  (3) Home, An account of Mr. Hunter's method of performing the operation for the
 cure of popliteal aneurysm.  In Transact, of the society for the improvement of med
 and surg. knowledge, vol. i. No. ix. p. 144-145. 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   ARTERIES.
113
   § 86. The internal membrane ofthe arteries, and of the arterial portion
 of the heart, in the system of red blood, has a great tendency to ossify.(l)
. This tendency is strongly seen in the arteries, although it is usually
 developed at  an advanced age;  it is then so  frequent, that,  in
 some countries, after the 60th year,(2)  or  even, as Stevens says,(3)
 after the 30th, we find the arteries ossified more commonly than unos-
 sified.   Bichat says,  of ten subjects, there were,  at least, seven which
 presented the osseous incrustations, after the 60th year. (4)   Cooper is
 not then altogether wrong, in regarding this degeneration as a normal
 state, and in calling it morbid only during youth.(5)   Nevertheless, it
 is not an inseparable attribute of advanced age, for we have found no
 traces of it in very aged persons, whom we  have dissected expressly
 for this purpose.   Perhaps, in this respect, differences exist which may
 be referred to the  climate,  or manner of living.  Ossification is ex-
 tremely rare in the arterial portion of the system of black blood.   We
 have never met with it, and we know  of but few examples cited by
 authors, except those cases where the valves of the pulmonary artery
 have been found ossified, and adherent even at an early age,—circum-
 stances which contribute powerfully to aggravate cyanopathia.
   § 87. The fibrous membrane of the arterial system, is firm, hard, dry,
 somewhat elastic, yellowish red,  and evidently formed of transverse
 fibres, or to speak more precisely, of fibres a little oblique.   These fibres
 form several layers, rarely separable from each other, but which unite
 differently together, as do also the fibres of each layer,  so that we can,
 at least in that respect, consider them as so many distinct tunics, since
 their structure is absolutely the same, and their number depends on the
 greater or less attention used to separate them.   This membrane  is
 commonly known as the muscular tunic, (tunica carnea,) from its fibrous
 structure and reddish color; but its fibres differ from muscular fibres, by
 their greater elasticity, firmness, fragility, dryness, flatness,  and finally
 by the entire want of mucous tissue in their interstices.(6)
   This membrane is the  thickest of the arterial tunics, and on it the
 great force of the arteries principally depends.   Its internal layers are
 more solid and closer than the external.  Its absolute thickness dimi-
 nishes much, as its distance from the heart increases.   It is also much

   (1)  This inner coat never ossifies: ossification ofthe arteries depends on an accu-
 mulation of calcareous salt in the cellular tissue, which unites their internal to their
 fibrous tunic : hence these layers can be easily insulated from the tunics between
 which they are deposited, and ought to be regarded rather as calculous concretions
than as real accidental bones.  F. T.                          #
  (2) Baillie, Of uncommon appearances of diseased blood-vessels ; in the Fransac.
 of a society for the improv. of med. and surg. knowledge, vol. i. no. 8. p. 133.
  (3) In Med. Chirurg, Transact, vol. vi. p. 433.
  (4) Bichat, General Anatomy, vol. i. p. 314.
  (5) Philos. Transact, no. 299. p. 1970.
  (6)  Hence a separate tissue has been made  of this fibre called the elastic tissue ;
 this tissue, as it is represented, exists also in the parietes of the air passages; it sur-
 rounds certain excretory ducts ;  it forms the envelope of the corpus cavemoaum
 and of the spleen, and the yellow ligaments of the vertebra;; it constitutes also the
 posterior cervical ligament in certain  animals.  See Hauff, De systemate lcl<e elas-
 tics, Tubingen, 1822.  F. T.
   Vol. I.                        15 
114
GENERAL ANATOMY.
greater, and from this, too, the fibrous structure is much more apparent,
as the arteries themselves are more voluminous, while the proportional
thicknesss augments in an inverse ratio ; for the parietes become mucn
stronger, in regard to the orifice and caliber, as the arteries dimimsri.
We also observe that the membrane becomes redder in the same propor-
tion, and, if we may judge of it from experiment, proportionally more
irritable also.
  But the thickness of this  membrane differs also considerably, either
in the different parts ofthe same artery, or in the different parts of the
arterial system.   In the first respect, it is always more considerable at
the convexity than  at the concavity of the curve  of the arteries, and
also in the angles of their divisions, than in  other  parts.  As  regards
the second point, we must remark :
■   1st. That the thickness of the arteries within the viscera is propor-
tionally less than within the muscles, and in the points where these ves-
sels are loose, than  where they adhere to other parts.
  2d. That the arteries of the brain differ much from the others, by
the thinness of this tunic, which is even so shght, that formerly its ex-
istence was doubted, but wrongly. (1)   Hence, the cerebral arteries col-
lapse when they are empty, are more subject than the other arteries to
break during fife, and the blood is more clearly seen through their pa-
rietes.   This layer  is much  thinner and more extensible in the pulmo-
nary artery, than in the system of the aorta.
  Some anatomists admit internal longitudinal fibres in the arteries,
either from applying to man what is observed in animals, or from  erro-
neous observations,  or finally, in order to agree with ideas purely theo-
retical ;  these fibres do not exist.
  § 88.  The cellular tunic is  very  thick, very solid, and perfectly dis-
tinct from the  fibrous.  ,It is much more extensible than the internal
tunic.(2)
  § 89.  The arteries receive some considerable nerves.(3)   In general,
these nerves are more numerous in the arteries of the vascular system
of red blood, than in the pulmonary arteries.   They are also, propor-
tionally speaking, more numerous and  larger in the small than in the
large arteries.  The trunk of the aorta and of the arteries of the neck,
of the 'chest, abdomen,  and skull, receive their nerves only from the
nerves of  organic life.  They form a very complicated plexus  on  their
surface.   The arteries of the extremities,  on the contrary,  receive
filaments from the adjacent nerves of animal life.   Some pretend there
are two kinds of the latter : that some of the largest are expanded only
in the cellular tissue;  that they furnish none to the fibrous membrane,
inasmuch as they have stillan inconsiderable size; that they are pulpy,
flat, and soft, at their origins, and that they are insensibly lost in the
cellular tissue ; they add, that the others are smaller, and penetrate to

  (1) Boerhaave, Prcelect, vol. ii. no. 234.
  (2) J. S. Hebenstreit, De vaginis vasorum, Leipsick, 1740, rec. in Halleri coll. die.

GStt£g"enbeifdoZ?e m%jarteriaS vena9^uc wnUantibus; in Sylloge comment. 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.  ARTERIES.
115
 the fibrous tunics of the arteries;  that they are cylindrical, harder, and
 more dense than the preceding;  that the distance between the trunks
 from which they arise and the artery is very small, and that they ex-
 pand in the fibrous tunic, as a thin membrane, on which fibres are dis-
 tinctly seen.(l)  Nevertheless we have always seen that the internal,
 or the smallest nerves, are only the branches of the more voluminous,
 and they have never appeared to be rounder or firmer.
   Finally, all the arteries are not accompanied with nerves.(2)    We
 find none in the umbilical arteries, and probably those of the interior of
 the cranium are likewise destitute of them.   They soon disappear in
 most ofthe viscera. (3)
   § 90. The arteries pass, first, into veins, as mentioned before; (§ 76)
 second, into roots of the excretory vessels in  glandular organs ; third,
 into exhalent vessels.
   § 91. The specific gravity of the arteries does not much exceed that
 of water.  The relation is about as 106 :100.  They are proportion-
 ally lighter, and less dense,  than the veins,  being about as 25 :26.
 Nevertheless,  this ratio  diminishes with age, and is  often in advanced
 life as 140 :139.  This diminution in density is made up by the greater
 thickness  of  the parietes of  the  arteries.   Nevertheless, the veins
 posssess more resistance, and are  more difficult  to tear than the ar-
 teries.
   All the arteries have not the same force.  Those of the secretory
 organs seem to resist much more than the others.   Such, at least, is
 the case with the splenic and renal arteries, where the proportion is as
 13:10.
   § 92. It is not easy to determine, from the phenomena presented by
 the arteries, upon  what different  forces  these phenomena depend.
 However, most of these forces reside in the fibrous and cellular coats.
   The arteries are highly elastic ;  hence they remain patulant, after
 having been divided, and they rebound when compression is removed.
 This elasticity resides especially in the cellular membrane. (4)  The two
inner membranes are more fragile, and hence are more easily ruptured;
this is the reason why the two internal tunics of the arteries are torn,
 whenever ligatures are applied to those  vessels.
   On the contrary, the arteries are not susceptible of great extension,
nor of great contraction;  they extend and contract in the dimension of
length more than in that of breadth.   We must distinguish from these
phenomena,  the power  of  the arteries  to  enlarge,  and to lessen.

  (1) Lucae, Qjucedam observationesanatomies circa nervos arterias adeuntes et comir
tantes, Erfort, 1810.
  (2) Lauth, jun. has, however, followed the threads of the great sympathetic nerve,
surrounding the vessels of the liver, and losing themselves in their coats, even four
inches within this viscus.—See Lobstein, De nervi symp. hum.fabrica usu et morbis.
Paris 1823 § 33.—Compare Journ. de la soc. des sciences, arts  et agriculture du de-
partement du Bas-Rhin.
  (3) Wrisberg, loc. cit. § 30.—Scarpa, Tabul. neurol. ad illust. nerv. card. hist. anat.
 1794. p. 25.—Lucaj, loc. cit. p. 28-29.
  (4) We must, however, observe, that the poofs given by the author of the elasticity
 of the arteries refer it to the fibrous, and not to the cellular, coat; the utmost brittle-
 nesa of the fibrous coat does not prevent it from being elastic.  F. T. 
116
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 When the circulation is impeded in a  principal vessel, this vessel is
 gradually contracted and  reduced to the size of a thread :  the colla-
 teral branches dilate in the same proportional) become more tortuous,
 and longer ; but at the same time their parietes also thicken, but this is
 not always the case.   The change  then supervening  in these "latter
 vessels is not confined to simple dilatation.  The  principal trunk does
 not merely collapse ;  it diminishes also in volume, receives less nutri-
 tion, and is  destroyed by absorption.   Some  time after the oblitera-
 tion of a principal vessel, the number of enlarged collateral  vessels is
 much greater than at a later period, for in time they diminish, and the
 circulation becomes more similar to what it was in the normal state.
 Further, several weeks are requisite for  the dilatation of the collateral
 branches, and this  enlargement is greatly hastened by the motions of
 the limb.
   Sometimes there is dilatation rather than increase in mass, as is espe-
 cially the case with the uterine arteries during pregnancy.    So, too,
after death, injections, if pushed with force, distend the arteries very
 much, rendering them tortuous, although they before appeared straight.
 The arteries of old  people, particularly those of a large caliber, as the
 aorta and primitive iliacs,  are almost always  slightly curved, because,
 as they take a less active  part in the circulation, the heart sends the
blood into them with more force, and slightly lengthens  them.
   These phenomena result from a mechanical influence.   They de-
 pend neither  on a  force of expansibility, nor  on an  effort  to resist a
 state of expansion;  they are not connected with the life of the artery.
 But it may be asked if the  arteries have  not, besides, the power of vital
contraction or of dilatation 1(2)   They have  not this power, at least
they are not subject to  the will;  still it is incorrect to attribute to elas-
 ticity alone all the phenomena of extension, or of contraction, which
 they present.
  This last opinion is that of Haller,(3)  Bichat,(4.)  and Nysten.(5)
Bichat, particularly, has supported it with many arguments  of which
the principal are:
  1st.  Whatever may be the manner in which the artery is irritated
whether chemically or mechanically, internally or externally or even
by raising its fibres, layer after layer, it   gives no sign of organic con-
traction.   Cut longitudinally, it does not turn over on its edo-es  as do
the irritable canals,  the  intestines,  for instance, in  similar  circum-
stances.
  2d. The artery does not contract when separated from the heart or
when a portion of it is comprised between two ligatures.

  (1) This subject has been perfectly described by Jones, On the process employed by
nature in suppressing the hemorrhage from divided and punctured  arteriesfiZdon,
1808.-Cooper.Dm. of a limb, &c. in Med. Chir. Trans, of London vol  i  n Ml
Anaccmint of the anastomose ofthe arteries ofthe groin, same collection, voi iv. p 424
  (2) Kramp, De vi vitah arteriarum, Strasbourg, 1785—Parry, An exv ino into
the puke and other prop, of arteries, Bath, 1816 : Additional exp. LoncST'lSlY
  (3^ Memoire sur les parties irr. et sens. sect. xi.                    '  oia'
  (4) General Anatomy, vol. i.
pe(r5Apr$ E°R T^" maintained by MaSendie-  See his Journ. de Physiol, ex- 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.  ARTERIES.
117
  3d. Neither are contractions observed by irritating either the whole
nervous system, or the proper arterial nerves.   Even galvanism does
not produce these phenomena.
  4th. Opium, which destroys the  motion of the irritable parts, has
no effect upon those of the arteries.
  But  most  physiologists, especially  Van Doeveren,(l)  Zimmer-
mann,(2) Verschuir,(3)  Scemmerring,(4)  and Hunter,(5) profess the
contrary opinion.  It may be objected, generally, to the arguments of
Bichat,  that, in fact, the artery does not always contract under the in-
fluence  of an irritating cause, but the same thing occurs in very irrita-
ble  parts.  Also, that the arteries  often contract when exposed to the
actiorr of stimulants.  Zimmerman,  Lorry,(6) and Verschuir,(7) have
seen very  sensible  contractions produced by  concentrated  mineral
acids.
  Bichat(8) admits  these facts, but says they do not result from con-
tractibility ; but from a horny hardening, which is observed as well
after death as during life, and that the arterial tissue  never returns to
its natural state, after such a contraction.
  But the circumstance alone, that  this phenomenon is not constant,
proves that it depends upon irritability.
  Besides, what is observed in a dead body is not a true contraction,
but a corrosion,(9) a state entirely different.
  The arteries contract also under other influences than those of che-
mical agents; as when irritated by the point of the scalpel. (10)  After
being divided, they sometimes close, so that hemorrhage ceases spon-
taneously, notwithstanding the  impulse  of  the heart.    The  im-
pression of the  external air  is often sufficient to close  an  artery ex-
posed to it, so that  its cavity is  entirely effaced,(ll) or, at  least, is
much diminished; and this contraction, which does not every where
exist uniformly, is always greater than that observed after death, even
when the vessel contains no blood.(12)  Sometimes, also, the arteries,
when exposed, move with great vivacity, and very differently from the
usual manner.(13)
  The  contraction, dependent on these causes, and which is often very
considerable, ceases at death, (14) or during life when the irritating cause
is removed.(15)   It extends beyond the point acted on by the stimulus.

  (11 Verschuir, loc. cit., p. 22.
  (2) De irritabilitate, Goettingen, 1751.
  (3) De vi arteriarum et venarum irritabili, Groningen, 1766.
  (4) Gef&sslehre, p.  67.
  (5) On the blood, vol. i.
  (6) Vandermonde, Rec. period, vol. vi.
  (7) Loc. cit. exp. 1.2.  7.8.
  (8) General Anatomy, vol. i. p. 332.
  (9) Verschuir, Exp. 16.
  (10) Ibid. Exp. 8.14.18.
  (11) Hunter, loc. cit.
  (12) Verschuir, Exp. 8.
  (13) Ibid. Exp. 8. 22.
  (14) Ibid. Exp. 8. 17.
  (15) Ibid. Exp. 18 
118
GENERAL ANATOMY.
If after death we dilate the artery,  which was thus contracted, it col-
lapses, but much less than during life.
   The electric spark also occasions strong contractions  in  the  arte-
ries.(l)
   We may also mention against the assertion of Bichat and Nysten,
that irritation of the nerves, by galvanism(2) or other means, as caus-
tic alkalies,(3) causes contraction in the arteries.
   There are no arteries, even those detached from the body, which do
not truly move according to irrefutable proof.(4)   In  cold blooded ani-
mals, even when the heart is removed for hours, and even days, we not
only see the motion ofthe blood, but a contraction and expansion ofthe
arteries.
   Finally, the circumstance  that  opium produces no effect upon the
motions of the arteries would prove only  that  the irritability  of these
vessels is independent of the  nervous system, but not that it does not
exist.
   To  all this we must add :
   1.  That the arteries do not always and every where exhibit the uni-
form phenomena of contraction and expansion.   Sometimes  when a
limb is paralized, the pulse is  deficient in  the diseased side, although
it may be regular in the opposite side.(5)   To explain this phenomenon
we must admit, either that the artery, having lost its contractility, re-
mains constantly in its greatest state of dilatation, or that the dilata-
tion is a state no less active than that of contraction; for  in  either of
these states there will be no pulsations.
   On  the other side certain arteries sometimes beat with extraordinary
power.   This certainly  happens  in  the large arteries of  an inflamed
part;  and also usually, if not always, in those of a small caliber.  This
phenomenon is observed also in the abdomen,  from different causes,
especially when the  activity of the nerves is increased.(6)
   Sometimes  the  number of the  pulsations  varies also in the  same
portion of the arterial system.   Thus in  a patient affected with aneu-
rism of the pectoral aorta, the pulses were from 100 to 110 in a minute
in the right arm, and only from 90 to 100 in the left.(7)
   2d.  The phenomena of irritability  disappear after death in the arte-
ries, but not immediately.   This  is proved by the experiments on the

   1) Bikker and Van den Bos, in Verschuir, loc.  cit. p.  29.
   2) Giulio and Rossi, Diss, de excitabilitate contract, in part muscul. involunt. ope
animal, electric, in Mem. de Vac. des sc. de Turin, vol. iv. p. 50-52.
  (3) Home has seen the carotid arteries beat for some time and violently  in a
rabbit, after touching the sympathetic nerve with caustic alkalies.
  (4) Housset in Mem. sur les parties irritab. et sens. vol. ii. p. 404.
  (5) Hoffman, Veber Empfind. und Reizbark. der Theile, Mayen'ce,  1792, p. 141 —
Storer, Vicker, and Wells, have observed several similar cases.  Storer, Instances of
theentirewant of pulsation in the arteries of paralytic limbs; in Transact, of a soc.for
imp. of med. and surg. knowl., &c., 1812, No. xxxii.—Marshall has witnessed the
same phenomenon: Case of suppression of urine from stricture succeeded by gan-
grene ofthe arm ; in Edinburgh med.  and surg. journal, vol. iv. No. 36. p. 449.
  (6) Armiger, Case of Dysphagia produced by aneurism ofthe aorta;  in Med. chir.
Irans. of London, vol. ii. p. 247.
  (7) Alber's Veber Pulsation en Vntcrleibe.—Burns, On the principal derangements
ofthe heart; On pulsations in the epigastric region.
 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   ARTERIES.
119
contraction of these vessels according as they had been divided, sooner
or later.   In many experiments of this kind, which have been made on
the umbilical arteries, it has been remarked in observing the changes
of their orifices, that they contracted three days after the  placenta
was detached, but that they possessed this power no longer.(l)
   3d. The local application of certain irritants causes the arteries to
contract, while others excite them to dilate.  Ammonia contracts them
so rapidly that they almost entirely disappear.  The hydrochlorate of
soda, on the contrary, causes them to enlarge their caliber almost as
constantly.   The rapidity with which this phenomenon takes place, its
duration, and its power of being repeated, vary much as the subject is
more or less robust.(2)
   The arteries, besides elasticity, possess, also, irritability.   The first
property predominates in the large, the second in the small vessels.
It is on account of its elasticity that the artery gapes,  that it does
not  collapse,  that it remains moderately extended, and  that  it in-
creases the force  of the blood sent forth by the heart.   Irritability
allows it to contract, to  collapse more  than when in  a moderate
state of extension,  especially after it has been dilated by the efflux of
the blood.
   The arteries exhibit no sign of sensibility in their normal state, al-
though they sometimes evince a httle when carefully irritated by sti-
mulants. (3)
   § 93.  The arteries carry the  blood from the  heart to the organs.
This function is demonstrated:
   1st.  By the swelling and sometimes the rupture of the arteries be-
tween the heart, and the part where they  are tied or compressed.
   2d. By the absence of blood in that part of the vessel  situated be-
tween its periphery and the hgature.
   3d. By the arrangement of the valves at the origins of those trunks
which arise from the heart.
   § 94. With a few rare exceptions,(4)  the artery moves regularly
and uninterruptedly through life ; it beats; it pulsates.   Two ques-
tions are now presented: what change does the artery experience in
pulsating ? how is this change produced 1
   The first problem has been resolved in several different ways.  Some
physiologists admit that the dilatation of the arteries is necessary from
the afflux of the blood, which the heart sends forth, and which is ad fed
to that they already contain ; for, according to them, the arterial sys-
tem is always full of blood.   Others, on the  contrary, adducing the
small quantity of blood sent forth by the  heart, which is not  sufficient
to dilate the arteries sensibly, pretend that the  pulses are  caused only
by the displacement  of the  vessels.  These two opinions should be
united, for it is very probable that the same quantity of blood which

  (1) Hunter, loc. cit. p. 256-7.
  (2) Thomson's Lectures on Inflammation, Edinburgh, 1813, p. 75-89.
  (3) Verschuir, Exp. 12.              t  ,         ,„.,-.„„• j
  (4) See a case of thie kind in the Mem. de Vac. des sc. de Parts, 1748: Hut. p. 87. 
120
GENERAL ANATOMY.
supportsthearterialsystemshould produceinit a marked drlatation also.
Nevertheless, numerous observations made by us' on the arteries of the
umbilical cord lead us to think that the displacement contributes more
than dilatation to produce the pulses ;  in fact, we have always found
the displacement very considerable, while the dilatation is scarcely per-
ceptible.
   The solution of the  first question  contains also that of the second,
since it results from it,  that the capacity of the  arteries changes very
little in their pulsations : the principal cause of the pulses, and hence
ofthe circulation of the blood, is the contraction of the ventricles ofthe
heart, which pushes forward into the arterial system a  considerable
quantity of blood.   The artery remains passive ; it acts  only at the
second time, during which we see no motion, or at least but very little:
it is  then that it slightly contracts on itself.   This  theory is founded
on the following facts:
   1st. The contraction of the ventricles is cotemporary with the dila-
tation and displacement of the arteries.
  2d. The arteries beat regularly, even when diseased; as, for instance,
when ossified; and  when irregularities are observed, they take place
because a morbid affection renders the dilatation, or the displacement of
the vessel, more difficult.
  3d.  The arteries beat even after death when they communicate with
the heart of a living animal;  and any flexible tube whatever will pre-
sent  the same phenomenon.
  4th.  The blood issues most forcibly from  the  wound of an  artery
during the contraction of the heart.
  §  95. Nevertheless the arteries concur also, though feebly, by their
vital contractions, to push the blood forward ;  as is proved :
  1st. By the continual flowing of the blood  from a wound in an arte-
ry, although it is more abundant during the contractions of the heart,
than between them.
  2d.  By the circulation of this fluid in  acephalous monsters which
have no heart.
  3d.  By its motion and the alternate dilatation and contraction ob-
served in animals which have no heart.(l)
  §  96. We may consider as sexual differences the greater thickness
of the tunics in the male, which is to  those of the female about as
11:10 ; a greater density and specific gravity, which is as 154 :150 ;
and,  finally, their greater force,  which is as 13 :  10.   The narrow-

_  (1)  For the part taken by the heart and arteries in the motion of the blood, we refer,
in addition to the works of Harvey, Haller, Spallanzani, Scemmerring, and Bichat, to
Prochaska,  Controversial physiologies, qua vires cordis et motum sanguinis per vasa
animalia concernunt; in Opp. min. anat. arg., Vienna, p. 1-58. This author thinka
the arteries influence the circulation.—Aralai, Deltaforza, e delV infiusso del cuore
sul circolo del sangue; in Mem. delle societa italiana,  Modena, 1804, vol. xi. p. 342-
383., vol. xv. p. 2.1810, p. 166-196.  These are researches on the capacity of the force
ofthe heart, tending to determine the extent of its influence on the vascular system.—
T. Young, On the functions of the heart and  arteries; in the Phil, transact,  of
London, 1809.  This author attributes the circulation to the action of the heart alone. 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.  VEINS.
121
 ness  of these vessels, compared to the veins, which, in the male, is
 greater than in the female, must be referred to the same
   § 97. The arteries are much larger, more numerous, and softer, the
 younger the organism is, except in some points, such as the arch of
 the aorta, and the trunk of this vessel generally, where the force ofthe
 blood, m advanced age,  causes an  inverse  arrangement •  that is an
 enlargement and thinness.  After the middle of life, they become brittle,
 and lose their elasticity in a greater or less degree.  Their internal mem-
 brane differs most at different periods of life ;  for it is frequently ossified
 (§  86.)   Ihe number of  the nutritious  vessels, and of the  nerves
 especially  of  those  filaments which go to  the fibrous membrane!
diminishes by age.(l)
C  OF THE VEINS.
    § 98.  The veins (venoz) (2)  differ  very much from the arteries in
  their internal and external arrangement.
    As regards their external arrangement, they offer the following dif-
 ferences  as to their capacity, number, situation, direction, the relation of
 the trunks to the branches, and their anastomoses.
    The veins are more numerous andlarger thanthe arteries.  They usu-
 ally accompany the arteries, and are even intimately united with them
 But besides the veins termed deep-seated, there are others also which
 arise from the capillaries in several parts of the body, proceed to the sur-
 face, and run immediately under the skin ; hence they are called cuta-
 neous veins. The latter form considerable trunks, sometimes even larger
 than the deep-seated veins, and correspond to no artery.  They are seen
 particularly in the extremities.   Farther, the deep seated veins which
 accompany the  arteries are almost  always  double, although  often of
 small caliber.   Hence  the capacity of the  venous system  evidently
 much exceeds that of the arterial system.
   The  difference is not equally great every  where.   In general it is
 much more marked in the vessels of the secretory organs than in others.
 Nevertheless  we must not believe it as considerable as it seems after
 death;  because then the blood accumulates in the venous system  from
 the inaction of the lungs, and continues to be propelled there by the
 arteries long  after they receive none ; and,  finally, because the veins
 are very dilatable.
   In some parts of the body, the number of the veins only equals that
 of the arteries, as in the stomach, intestinal canal, spleen, kidneys, tes-
 ticles, and ovaries.
   In other parts a single vein  corresponds to two arteries,  as in the
penis, chtoris, gall-bladder,  and umbilical  cord.  Still, even then the
single veins are always larger than the several  arteries whose blood
they carry.

  (1} Luc», loc. cit. p.'32.
  (2) Marx, Diatribe anatomico-physiologica de structural atque vita venarum. Carl-
eruhe, 1819.                                                   '
  Vol.  I.                      16 
122
GENERAL ANATOMY.
    § 99. The veins generally accompany the arteries.   They issue from
 the organs at the same point as where the arteries enter, as is seen in
 the lungs, kidneys, muscles, intestinal canal, spleen, &c.   But besides
 the superficial veins which exist in several parts, as we have stated
 above, independently of the deep veins, the arteries, and veins of cer-
 tain organs, proceed entirely distinct  from each  other,  and enter or
 emerge from different points.  The liver and nervous system, especially
 the brain, furnish instances  of this arrangement.  The  azygos  veins
 have no corresponding arteries, unless they are considered as a compli-
 ment to  the venae cava?, which is  more admissible as they follow the
 aorta.  Besides,  this view of the subject appears well founded ;  for it
 is certain that the general type is strictly followed in the largest trunks
 of the two systems—the  aorta and the vena cava.  The right and
 left azygos veins, which are situated on each side near the aorta, cor-
 respond to those  deep and sometimes very small venous trunks which
 immediately accompany the arteries, while the vena  cava represents
 the larger  superficial trunks.
   § 100.  The veins are, in general, more external and less concealed
 than the arteries.  We mention, in support of this proposition, the large
 subcutaneous veins which carry back most of the  blood of the limbs,
 and also the situation of the deep veins which are-placed at the side,
 and over the arteries they accompany, as the renal veins ;  and the ar-
 rangement of the veins of the brain, which, instead of rising from the
 base of the skull hke the arteries, are, for the  most part, united at its
 arch, so that they are still more exposed to  injuries from external
 agents, as in children they are not in many places protected by bones. •
   The number of parts where the arteries are nearer the surface  than
 the veins, is very small;  in the pelvis,  however,  the iliac veins are
 situated more internally and farther  backward than their correspond-
 ing arteries.  When this  arrangement  exists, it has no effect on the
 security which they ought to have; for the situation and volume ofthe
 vessel is such, that every wound which would  extend to the region it
 occupies would of itself endanger the life of the subject.
  § 101. The direction ofthe veins is straighter than that ofthe arteries;
 this facilitates  the course of the blood within them very much.   They
 ramify hke the arteries,  except that the relation between the branches
 and trunk is not so  constant, that is, that  the  branches appear  nar-
 rower : but this depends principally on  the  greater disability of the
 veins which allows the least cause to distend their  small branches in
one point or another so much, that their diameters equal and even  sur-
pass that of the trunk from whence they arise.   The branches are
broader than the trunk especially when the blood is forced  to proceed
a long period agamst its own gravity, as when we  stand or when the
arms hang down a long time.
< § 102.  In general, a constant law of the arrangement of the veins
is, that the branches and twigs are  larger in proportion to the trunks
than in the arterial system; so, too, the veins of one part, and even
those of the whole body, never  unite in so small a number of common 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   VEINS.
123
 trunks as that ofthe principal vessels which give rise to the arteries. The
 aorta and pulmonary artery come from their respective ventricles. On
 the  contrary, the veins  of the body arrive at their auricle in three
 trunks, the superior and inferior vena cava, and the large cardiac vein.
 The first receives a large vein just before entering the right auricle, the
 azygos. The pulmonary veins arrive at the left auricle four, sometimes
 five, and even six in number.  At the side of one brachial artery we find
 four large venous trunks.  The character of the veins then is to rami-
 fy, and that of the arteries to concentrate themselves.
   § 103. The veins  present a character opposite to the arteries in re-
 gard to then anastomoses ; these are more numerous and more gene-
 ral in the venous system: nevertheless, there is  no contrast between
 these two laws,  as the second is a consequent of  the first.
   In fact, the less degree  of concentration in the veins renders the
 anastomoses more necessary, at least in part, in order to replace to a
 certain extent the common trunks which are not  formed by the large
 branches.
   Not only are the communications between the small branches as nu-
 merous as in the arterial  system, but the large branches and the large
 trunks anastomose together more frequently than in that system.  We
 see a remarkable instance of this in the subcutaneous veins of the ex-
 tremities.  But this law of the superficial veins is subordinate to another
 of a higher order:  that the anastomoses increase  in number wherever
 the course of the blood in the veins is more difficult, from a want of im-
 pulse and of powers which favor it.   Hence their frequency in the sub-
 cutaneous veins of the limbs ; in the spermatic veins, which are narrow,
 and very straight; and finally in the veins of the pelvis which are ex-
 posed to compression from so many different causes, and which fre-
 quently anastomose,  to form a network so  complicated, that it is diffi-
 cult to foUow the direction of the vessels correctly.
   The number ofthe anastomoses in the venous system is also increased
 by this circumstance, that  in  many parts  the veins form two distinct
 layers, the one superficial, the other deep. These two layers constantly
 communicate, as is seen in all the superficial veins of the limbs of the
 neck and head on the one hand, and the deep veins of  the neck and
 arm, and the sinuses  of the dura mater, on the other.
   The great trunks of the venous system of the body communicate by
 a large anastomosis,  the  azygos vein, which arises directly from the
 vena cava inferior, or from some one of its ramifications, and empties
 itself into the vena cava superior.
  This arrangement  explains how the circulation continues, although
it may be impeded by some  very considerable obstacles;  as,  for in-
stance, when the principal  veins of the limbs are entirely obliterated,
or when the vena cava inferior is compressed in its course behind the
liver by the swelling of this gland.
   § 104. The venous system is more complex than the arterial, as re-
 gards its extent.  The arterial system ramifies incessantly  and uni-
formly after leaving the heart; both the aorta and the pulmonary ar- 
124
GENERAL ANATOMY.
tery represent  each a single tree.   But the venous system of the
body embraces in the peritoneal cavity a second tree, that of the vena
porta, which communicates as usual with the arteries ofthe abdominal
viscera ;  but which, instead of carrying its blood directly to the vena
cava inferior, ramifies in an opposite direction in the liver, and thus re-
presents two trees, one' of which, the venous portion, carries the blood
of the branches to the middle trunk,  while  the other, the arterial part,
distributes it from this part to the liver, from whence it passes into the
hepatic vein, to arrive finally at the inferior vena cava.
   § 105. The principal differences in the texture of the veins are the
following.
   The internal membrane is thinner, more delicate, but more extensi-
ble, and less fragile, than that ofthe arteries; at the same time it does not
ossify in old age.   This alteration of texture is a very rare phenomenon
in the veins, while it is almost normal in the arteries, of aged persons.
We improve this opportunity to observe, that in regard to this we should
compare not only all the carrying vessels of the arterial system, con-
sidered as a whole, but also the pulmonary vein, the veins of the body,
the pulmonary artery, and the internal membrane of the right ventricle,
should be opposed to the left portion of the heart and the system of the
aorta ; so that there is only the arterial portion  of  the system of red
blood which has a marked tendency to ossify.  The truth of  this law
becomes still more striking when  we know the opening between the
auricle and ventricle is the limit of ossification on  the internal face of
the left portion of the heart; and we seldom observe ossifications in the
auricle, while they are very common in the ventricle.
   § 106. The internal membrane of  the veins differs also very much
from that of the arteries in its purely physical arrangement; for the
valves (§ 69) are generally very common in the  veins, while in the ar-
terial system they are met with in only two parts.(l)  The chief points
in their history regard their  form, direction, number,  situation,  and
size.
   1st. The form of the valves of the veins is that which valves gene-
 rally possess.  They are slightly parabolical; one of their edges is semi-
circular and attached—the other  is loose and straight, or little fissured •
both are slightly turned over.  The valves and those parts of the cir-
cumference of the veins  to which their similunar edges are attached
form sacs, the diameter of which is a little larger  than that  of the ad-
jacent part of the vessel.
   2d.  Their direction is opposite  to that of the valves of the arteries.
 Their loose edges, and the bases of their sacs are turned from the heart
 so that the blood which runs from this organ distends them  and  that
 which flows towards the heart  presses them against the  parietes of
 the vein.

  (l)Meibomius, Devalvulis seumembranulis vasorum, earumque structura et usu.
 Helmstadt, 1682, rec. in Haller's, Coll. Diss. vol. ii.-Th. Kern^r, De  valvular^.
 xn corp. hum. naturajabrica et usu mechanico, Jena, 1683, rec. ibid.   vaivuiarum 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   VEINS.
125
  Their number offers several points for consideration.
  a. They do not exist every where.  There are none in the system of
the vena porta, of the pulmonary veins,* the umbilical  vein, the trunk
of the vena cava inferior, in the veins  of the brain, of the vertebrae,
of the spinal marrow, of the heart,  of the kidneys, and of  the womb.
Still these< veins make  the  transition to those  which possess many
valves, since they are sometimes found  in them but very rarely, and
are always incomplete.  The sexes  seem to differ also  in this respect;
at least the spermatic veins of the female have no valves, while they
exist in those of the male.   There are none, or but few, in the anasto-
mosing branches.   Hence while there are many in the median vein of
the arm,  there are very few in the azygos vein.
  b. Even in those parts of the  venous system  which possess them,
the number of valves varies.  Generally speaking, this number in-
creases in the inverse ratio of the cahber of  the vessels.   Nevertheless
the valves disappear entirely in the  small veins ; more are also found
in the superficial, than in the deep seated veins.
   c.  The number  of valves varies  also in  this point of view, that the
number of these folds which close the orifices of the vessels is not every
where the same.   These valves are usually arranged in  pairs, as is
seen principally in the large trunks and large branches.   Sometimes
also they are insulated;  this last arrangement takes place in  the veins
less than a line' in diameter.  StiU  we  find also single  valves in the
large veins ; as, for instance, at the opening of the vena cava inferior,
and of the great cardiac vein into the right auricle. These single valves
are proportionally larger than the others.
   Sometimes also three, or  even four and five  valves are found where
usually only two exist, but this state of things is rare, and is not con-
stant.
   4th. With  regard to the position  of the valves, we may say they
are generally found in  those parts where  a  subordinate vein unites
with  a larger one;  sometimes there are none in these points,  while we
see them in others  where no such union exists.
   5th. The valves vary in size.   They generally close the  mouth of
the vessel entirely.  This  closure is more perfect when there are two
or three; but sometimes they are  insufficient to shut up the passage
entirely.  Thus, in certain  places we find only  a slight projection the
rudiment of a valve.  Besides, particularly in the sinuses of the dura
mater, there are transverse cords, incontestable marks of valves which
are also observed in other veins, as,  for instance, in the crural veins, (1)
but not constantly.

  * This assertion has recently Wen contradicted by Professor Mayer, (Zeitschr\ft
der Physiologie, vol. iii. p. 155,) although hitherto admitted by all systematic wri-
ters on anatomy. Professor M. states, that the valves are large and numerous in the
pulmonary veins, and  always occur where a venous branch joins the larger trunks
at an  acute angle; and the  more acute the angle, the more marked is the valve.
Where the branches join at a right angle,  however, no valve exists, as is the case in
the other parts of the venous system.  Hence the valves are fewer in the  pulmonary
than in other veins, because the ramifications of  the pulmonary veins take place
chiefly at right angles.
  (1) Haller, De fabr. vol. i. p. 265. 
126
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   We must here speak of the differences presented by the valves as
 respects  their integrity.   They are commonly entire, but sometimes
 they seem  to be torn, especially on their loose edge.   Doubtless this
 arrangement often  results from a primitive formation, which has con-
 tinued ; but it may be consecutive also, and may then arise from com-
 pression  or  any other cause, as,  during life, the valve at the orifice of
 the, vena cava inferior, which is at first entire, is frequently changed
 into a network, or  reduced to simple filaments, or disappears entorely.
 The valve placed at the orifice ofthe large cardiac vein often presents
 the  same phenomenon.   But these valves are precisely those most
 exposed from their  situation  to the influence of mechanical  causes,
 and before birth they are always entire.   When the reticulation of
 the  valves  is congenital, it marks  the  transition of the  simple trans-
 verse filaments to real valves.
   § 107.  The  fibrous membrane of the veins differs also from that of
 the arteries.
   1st. It is  thinner.   The  difference between the two systems in this
respect, is still  greater than that  mentioned when speaking of the
internal tunic;  since  distinguished  anatomists, as Vesahus, have not
been able  to see this fibrous membrane.
   2d. Its  fibres are less  closely  connected, and  hence  this layer is
less dense and less compact.
   3d. It does not exist in every part of the venous system.   While in
the arterial  system  it becomes even  proportionally thicker in the small
ramifications, it is  only visible in the large  branches of the  veins.
There is,  however, between the  large  branches and trunks of the
veins the  same relation as respects the thickness of  this membrane,
compared to their caliber, as in the arteries.
   4th. The fibrous membrane of the veins  offers  also  other differ-
ences in regard to its thickness and even its existence.
   a. It is always  proportionally  thicker  in  the  system of the vena
cava inferior, than  in that of the vena  cava  superior ; a remarkable
difference  which evidently coincides with the obstacle opposed by the
weight of the blood to its progress in the former system of vessels.
   6. It is also stronger in the subcutaneous  than in the profound
veins, which depends on the same cause ; for the course  of the blood
not being favored in  the former as it is in the latter by the pulsations
of the adjacent arteries, the  structure of the vessels should compen-
sate for this  unfavorable circumstance.
   c. The  fibrous membrane is evidently deficient in several parts,
especially in the venous trunks; situated between the two layers ofthe
dura mater,  that is,  in the meningcean sinuses.   Most anatomists even
suppose that there is no venous membrane in those parts, and that the
blood runs directly on the dura mater.  But Bichat(l) has  proved
this opinion  to be false.  .In examining  attentively the interior of the
triangular space formed  by the  separation of the  two layers of the

  (1) General Anatomy, vol. i. p. 402. 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.  VEINS.
127
  dura mater, we discover a rounded canal, formed by the internal mem-
  brane of the veins.  Now this canal continues on one side with the
  internal membrane of the cerebral .veins  which communicate with the
  sinuses of the dura mater, and on the other with that of the internal
 jugular vem, into which these sinuses open.  The dura  mater  which
  slightly resembles the middle membranes of the vessels, here replaces
  it.   As, however, the dura  mater has no contractility,  it would seem
  that the purpose of this absence of the  fibrous membrane is to retard
  the course of the blood.
    The veins which  open into- the  sinuses of the dura mater, are all
  well provided with a fibrous membrane, but it is thinner in proportion
  there, than in the other veins of an equal volume.
    5th.  The  veins differ also from the arteries in the direction of their
 fibres.
    We have  ascertained by the most minute dissections, that these
 fibres are all longitudinal, and there are none which are circular.(l)
 This difference  between  the arrangement of the arterial and venous
 fibres  is  remarkable, inasmuch as the two layers of longitudinal
 and  transverse fibres which are observed in the whole extent of the
 intestinal  canal, reappear also in the vascular system, which is but a
 development  of the intestinal tube ;  but the membranes are separated
 and  distributed each  to one of the principal portions of the vascular
 system.  This analogy is strengthened,  as the  external layer of  the
 fibres of the  intestinal canal is  composed  of longitudinal fibres,  and
 the internal  of oblique  fibres, as  the external is always feebler than
 the internal,  and as the first is deficient, or at least is not very appa-
 rent  in several parts, either  of the  circumference or of the length of
 the intestinal canal.  Thus the longitudinal fibres are united in three
 distinct bands in the  large  intestine,, and in the small intestine they
 are so thin, that, in many parts, they are indistinctly seen.
   6th.  The fibres of the  venous  membrane  are redder, softer, more
 extensible, and less brittle than those of the arterial tunic.
   7th.  Their arrangement and their existence are more liable to varia-
 tions than those of the arterial fibres, for they  are very well developed
 in certain  subjects,  and are scarcely visible in others: a new point of
 relation between the' fibrous membrane of the vessels and that of  the
 intestinal canal.
   § 108. The cellular membrane of the veins  is  also  thinner, less
 dense, and less sohd than that of the arteries.  Prolongations proceed
 from *t to the fibrous membrane, which are not observed in the arteries:
 these extend  even to  the  inner membrane.   The  veins of the brain
 have none.
   § 109. The veins receive fewer blood-vessels than the arteries, which
is undoubtedly because they are thinner.
   Their nerves, both those which come  from the  system of animal
and from that of organic life, are equally less numerous than those of

  (1) Bichat said correctly, ,! There are no circular fibres in the veins."—p. 403. 
128
GENERAL ANATOMY.
the arteries.  This relation certainly exists between the system of the
vena cava and  that ofthe aorta.
   §110. The  veins  are much more  extensible(l) than the arteries.
The latter  tear when slightly distended; the veins resist much more,
and often dilate considerably when the course of the blood is impeded
by an obstacle.   They are then less elastic than the arteries.
   They are  equally susceptible of vital contractions, although these
have not been observed in every experiment.
   The large trunks which possess very apparent fibres, are particularly
irritable.
   § 111. The  veins  return the blood to the heart, and change neither
in  their diameter nor in their situation.   They do not pulsate except
in some rare  and extraordinary cases.
   The facts  which prove  that they really  perform  the above men-
tioned function are,
   1. When tied, they swell between the surface of the body and the
part to which the  ligature  is  applied, while  they are empty between
this point and  the  heart.   When these phenomena do not take place,
it is on account of  their anastomoses.
   2. The direction of the valves.
   3. In microscopical observations, the blood has been seen proceeding
within them,  from the surface of the body towards the heart.
                      D.   LYMPHATIC  VESSELS.


   § 112. The  lymphatic  vesels (vassa lymphatica) (2) form a system,
which differs from that of the veins by the nature of the fluid it carries,


  (1) The phenomena of erectility depend principally on the extensibility of the
veins.  Some  have formed a special tissue of the corpora cavernosa of the penia
and clitoris.   This has been termed the erectile tissue, and to it have been referred
the papillae, mammae, &c.  Degraaf, Ruysch,  Duverney, Boerhaave, Haller and his
school considered it as a loose and elastic cellular tissue, forming cellules, and inter-
posed between the arteries and the veins.  Duverney, Mascagni, Cuvier, Tiede-
mann, Ribes,  Moreschi, Panizza, and Farnese have demonstrated that it consists
only in the terminations of the blood vessels, especially the roots of the veins, which
are very large and extensible, supplied with many nervous filaments.—F. T.
  (2) Although we find traces of a knowledge of the lymphatic system very early,
and even in the works of Aristotle, (Hist. anim. lib. iii. c. vi.) the different portions
of this system have been successively known; the Swede, Olaus Rudbeck, in 1650,
discovered the connection of these vessels with the thoracic canal,  and the motion of
the fluid which they contain, (Nova experimenta anat. exhib. ductus hepatis aquosos et
Vasa glandularum serosa, Westeras, 1653). The structure and distribution of the lym-
phatics have been particularly studied in England by G. Hunter, (Med. comment.
London, 1762, vol. i.) Hewson, (Experimental inquiries, vol. ii. London, 1784, vol. iii.
1777,) and Cruikshank, (The anatomy of the  lymphatic vessels of the human body,
London, 1774); in Germany by Meckel, (Diss, epist. ad  Haller. de vasis lymph.
glandulisque conglob., Berlin, 1757, in 8vo.—Nov.  exper. dejinibus venarum et vas.
lymph, in ductus visceraque excretoria carp, hum., Berlin, 1772, in 4to.); in Italy, by
Mascagni, (Vasor. lymph, carp. hum. historia  et ichnographia, Sienna, 1787, in fol.)
Ludwig has collected the principal works on this subject in G. Cruikshank's und P.
MascagnVs Geschichte und Beschreibung der Saeugadern des mensclichen Har-
pers, Leipsick, 1789, 3 vol. in 8vo.—Werner and Feller, Vasorum  lactcorum, atquc
lymphaticorum anatomica physislogica descriptio, Leipsick, 1786.—Haase, De vasis 
               OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   LYMPHATICS.         129

   but which ought to be considered an apnenda a* in *w    *
   count of the connections between he?S     1S SyStT> °n aC"
   blish this connection, as theTqukl aSdlh^T^^
   always changed into hln J1„ ?        .  ?J   e ^mPhatics is almost
   ctiwdys cnangea into blood m its course to the sanguineous svstem   '





  system 01 trie vena cava superior receives this appendae-e  The Ivm
  phatics unite m two trunks, one on the left  called^ahoract duS"

  ^i::t::azuf thr:her ? ?e ^which ^^£r^&
  lTni  li^r rlS\ ymP atlC/ °/ the ri^ht half of the he^  and neck,
  terrnb^e m th?^^' ^ °f the right SUPerior extremit? 5 a11 othe^
  2SS  trer, ,* 1S ?0t Certain but that in man> as in d^r-
  svLmnf in  ntl, Jmphf1Cl°f  a small^liber  open into the venous
  afatomLi^v^'iP^l-^11  the  tW0 a^ady mentioned.   Some
  Sfffft8  ^, and comparative  anatomy seems to au-



  l^feoS^^^^

   § 114. The lymphatic system resembles the venous more than the

  Se'e   T^S ^ * alS° m&XS mUCh fr0m *■ «*™& «£* d-
  SdifFprTn,   ^   ^ ^ ltsanal0^  with  the venous system, and
  its differences from the arterial system:
   I- In relation to external form.

  oth\tpmfound!W°SyStemS  f°rm  tW° la^ers'one superficial, and the

 rnfnl  ^h6 nU?ber °f branches and twigs compared with that of the
 trunks, is much greater than in the arterial system
 hr, J\  btrancbre™ote from the heart is not always narrower than the
 branch with which it communicates.
   4th.  Their capacity is very variable.

   55'  mf16^ are  wider and more numerous than the arteries.
   bth.  1 heir direction is very straight.
   7th  Their anastomoses are very numerous, and obey the same laws
 as in the veins.

   But these relations do not establish the identity of the  venous and
 lymphatic systems; for,


hSLSkmi ^S'uf iPrCk) "SB'-ScnnBger, Fragmenta anat. et phys. fuse, i.,
^S^Jdi^S^^S^ °dCr Mhandl™Z *>" das IjipLische

veins ^tWtrfnn0^  Th^' P.ublishe<^ ^e communication of the  lymphatics with the
veins, other than by  the thoracic canal, has been proved bv Fohmann (Anato-

latter admi«^ 7^  T ' JLM {^T SU-leS v?isseaux lymph., Strasburg, 1814). The
ries emp£intath*^P^cs teminate in three modes: 'those whicii as capilla
veLtZuSLtJS m,the1tlssu^ of «>e organs; those which terminate in the
veins witmn the lymphatic glands, ending in the same manner:  finallv those whirl.

   Vol  I       ° CanUl and the lar^°lymphatic vein of the ri^feidT  f t 
130
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   1st. The distinction of the lymphatics  into superficial and  deep-
 seated, is more general than in the veins:  not only the trunk, the  head,
 and the extremities, but also all the viscera have superficial and deep-
 seated lymphatics.   The difference is still  greater between these two
 orders of lymphatics, than between the  two corresponding orders  of
 veins, both as respects number and volume, for the largest  and fewest
 lymphatics are not the superficial, but the deep-seated.
   2d. The proportion between the small divisions and the trunks is still
 more advantageous to the former than in the veins ; the concentration
 is still less.   In then course, which is often very long,  as for example
 in the limbs, the lymphatics of no part of the body unite in several large
 trunks; but their diameter being exactly the same or nearly so, we
 see  them, from the instant they become visible, advancing separately,
 or in great numbers, to the neighborhood of the principal trunk, where
 their number diminishes,  although  inconsiderably, and where their
 volume augments in the same proportion.
   3d. The branches remote from the heart are often much more nu-
 merous and much larger than those near this central organ;  this ar-
 rangement exists much more frequently hi the lymphatics than in the
 venous system.
   4th. Their capacity is much more variable than that of the veins.
 The  preceding difference depends on this: hence, too, the reason that
 in living dissections, and sometimes even after death, we find the lym-
 phatic system dilated  from  space to space, so as to form considerable
 vesicles, which in living animals often entirely disappear.  Finally, it is
for this reason that we cannot fix the exact relation between the trunks
and their branches, and that the calculations made of the caliber of the
large thoracic trunks are so very different.
   5th. The lymphatic system is almost as broad as the venous; but as
the branches do not unite in trunks, their number is much greater than
that of the corresponding veins, and each large venous or arterial trunk
is accompanied with at least ten lymphatics.
   6th. The direction of the lymphatics is in general straight.  Still they
sometimes curve considerably, and even more than the arteries.
   7th. The anastomoses are still more frequent in the lymphatic than in
the venous system, which  accords  entirely with  their  less  degree of
concentration.  Even their  trunk is completely surrounded with  very
many large anastomosing  vessels, which also communicate with it
extensively, and which are sometimes so voluminous that we can with
difficulty distinguish a single principal trunk, and are obliged to admit
an immense network of lymphatics.
   §  115. The lymphatics  are not a continuation  of the arteries like
the veins.   They arise independent of them.(l)   It has usually  been

  (1)  Although it is certain that the lymphatics are not connected with the arteries
as with the veins, we however admit with Lauth, ir. (Essai our l7rJ?£ »    Vrien.es
sect. 2. p. 12.) the existence of lymphatics whict^Sj^Te^faSS^uK^
the arteries, as from all the other surfaces, which is well proved by iXmmations
                                                          F.  T. 
OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.  LYMPHATICS.          131
supposed, since the discovery of this system, that some arteries  called
lymphatic (arterioz lymphatics) continue with the proper  lymphatics,
in the  same manner as the final ramifications of the arteries, which
also carry red blood, join the roots of the veins ; but this arrangement
cannot be demonstrated.
   The principal reason alledged is drawn ftorn what has been observed
by several anatomists in different parts  of the body, that fluids of all
kinds, introduced into the arteries, penetrate into the lymphatics.
   But then we always find ruptures and extravasations; when even the
final twigs of the arteries should have been injected, they are filled only
in their trunks or large branches: finally, the phenomenon itself is rare
when there is no * extravasation, even  when the arteries are filled
more successfully, and the injection reaches the veins through them.
   When there is no rupture, and the arteries are perfectly injected, and
the veins are at  the same time filled, it  sometimes happens, that the
injection passes  into the  lymphatics; but  its colorless portion pene-
trates into them, so that we cannot conclude from this there is an unin-
terrupted  communication between the  injected  lymphatics and  the
arteries, since the  colorless fluid is found also out  of the vessels, and
abounds in the part injected.  This phenomenon then is better explained
by saying, that the colorless portion of the injection transudes through
the arteries, and is absorbed by the lymphatics.
   The  following are the principal arguments to  prove that the origin
of the lymphatics is independent of the  arteries :(1)
   1st.  The circumstances attending the passage of fluids from the arte-
ries or veins to the lymphatics.
   2d. The phenomena presented by the  lymphatic system in regard to
the substances submitted to its action.   The fluid contained in these
vessels exactly resembles  that found at  their origin.  The lymphatics
coming from the liver contain a fluid analogous to bile; those from the
breasts a milky fluid; those which arise from parts  where blood is
effused, a liquid resembling blood.   The bronchial glands, and often
even the lymphatics which go to them, are of a blackish blue, like the
lungs.  The color of the spleen is the same as that of the lymphatic
glands placed near it.   If a deleterious substance, as the pus of a ve-
nereal ulcer,  or of  a varioloid pustule, or generally of any ulcer what-
ever, be presented to the  action of the  lymphatics, those which arise
from the diseased part inflame, and the glands in which they terminate
swell.   This effect takes place only in  the side  on which  the delete-
rious substance acts.
   As all these phenomena supervene  uniformly when their  causes
exist within the organs, in the cavities of the viscera, or on the surface
of the  body,  we have  no doubt  that the  lymphatics arise from the
substance of  the organs, and from their  surfaces, particularly from the

  (1) Hunter, Medical commentaries, London, 1762, p. 5.—A. Monro, De venis lym-
phaticis volvulosis, Berlin, 1757.—Hewson, Exp. inquiries, p. 2., London, 1774, chap.
ii.—Morgagni, Loc. cit., sect. 3., De vasorum lymph, origine. 
J32                     GENERAL ANATOMY.

cutaneous  system, both from the skin properly so called,(l) and from
the mucous and serous membranes.
   § 116. Our remarks on  the  external form and on the track of the
lymphatics, apply to their texture also.   Their internal membrane is
still finer,  ihinner, and  more' extensible than that of the veins  and is
not subject to ossification.   It  also forms parabolic valyes,(2) which
are generally arranged in  pairs, but are sometimes insulated, and are
usually more numerous as the vessels diminish m  caliber  so that the
thoracic canal  contains fewer than aU  the  others.  The distance
between them is not every where the same:  but a general law is, that
it is much  greater in the lymphatics than in the veins.
   § 117. The fibrous  membrane(3) is deficient »ot only, as m the
veins, in most of  this system, but even in the thoracic canal; at least
the most attentive observations  have not  recognized it m man.  The
internal membrane is directly under the cellular tunic, which is thinner
in proportion  to the size of the vessels, than in the other parts of the
vascular system.
   § 118.  Besides all  these differences the lymphatic system presents
others  which are very considerable.   We may mention here the con-
globate glands, (Glanduls lymphatics, conglobats,) peculiar forma-
tions  which are found in no other part of the vascular system.
   § 119. These couglobate glands are small round  bodies more or less
oblong, usually a little flattened, of a grayish red color, hard, varying
much in size, which exist in certain parts of  the body, where they are
about the  same in number and volume ; they interrupt the course of
the lymphatics, are not symmetrical, and have no regularity in their
arrangement.
   These glands  vary considerably and constantly in number, form,
size,  and color.
    1st.  Most of these glands are found in the neck and within the pec-
 toral and  abdominal cavities, along the sides of the vertebral column,
 and also between the folds of the serous membranes, which retain the
 organs situated in these cavities, and near these same organs, for
 instance,  at  the  roots of the lungs, around the  bifurcation  of the
 trachea.
   They are  very numerous in the face, especially around the mouth.
 There  are fewer in the skull.
  (1) Lauth, jun., (Essay on the  lymphat. sect. 2, p. 13.) has even demonstrated
anatomically, that the lymphatics arise from the surface of the skin, having injected
them to its outer face.—F. T.
  (2) We  often find (E.  A. Lauth, Essay on the lymphatics, sect. 1, p. 4.) in the
lymphatic trunks annular valves formed by the union of two valves, which being
lower than usual, do not close the canal entirely. The same arrangement exists in
the lymphatics of the different viscera, especially thdse of the liver.—F. T.
  (3) Mascagni denies the existence of muscular  fibres also in the lymphatics.
Schreger  admits, however, (Fragm. anat. et phys. fasc. 1, Leipsick,  1791, p. 9.)
that there are transverse fibres in the thoracic canal of man and the calf.  Scem-
merring also believes they exist in this canal.  Rudolphi was unable to find them
either in man or in the horse.—F.  T. 
            OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   LYMPHATICS.          133

  In the extremities they  commence usually at the elbow and knee,
and are placed around the  articulations;  there are fewer, however, in
those parts than in the axilla and groin.
  Their existence has never been demonstrated within the organs, and
the proofs of them, which are believed to have been found in those peculiar
morbid masses, which are developed in these parts, as in the lungs,
the liver, the spleen, the brain, &c, are insufficient, since these masses
never present the characters of lymphatic glands; and examining
them attentively, we recognize that they are not even glands.   The
conglobate glands exist only in the mucous tissue between the organs.
We find none in the skull.
  In comparing these  glands, as  regards their greater or less abun-
dance in different regions, we arrive at the following results:
  a. They increase in number as they approach the trunks, which
throws some light upon their functions.                        i
  b. They are entirely distinct and separate from the proper substance
of the organs.
  c. They are especially numerous in those parts, where the mucous
tissue abounds.
  d. They are found in great numbers in those places where foreign
substances come ; consequently near the lungs and intestinal canal.
  2d. The lymphatic glands vary much in size, in the same, and in
different  regions of the  body. The largest exist  in  the groin, the
pelvis, around the bronchia, in the mesentery, and in the axilla.  But in
these different places we  see them alternately large and small.  They
are rarely  more than  an inch long, half an inch  broad, and  three
or four  lines  thick.  Age  certainly affects  their size.  Is the same
true of sex 1   We cannot think it,  since excellent observers contradict
each other on  this point.  Hewson says they  are proportionally larger
in the male,(l) while Bichat asserts that they are more evident in the
female.(2)  They  are  assuredly  larger  in youth than towards the
close of life, for, in old age, they much diminish, and in some  parts
often entirely  disappear.  But do they enlarge much after puberty, as
Hewson pretends %   Our observations have not determined it.
  3d. Their form depends in some  measure on their size.  The largest
are flatter  and more oblong,  the smaller are rounder, the smallest are
perfectly round.   It is very remarkable that each system of organs is
subject to  the same laws  as  the  whole  series of organized bodies;
since, in general, also living beings resemble them in every sense, that
is to say, become rounder as their volume diminishes.
  4th.  Their  color  also varies much.  Those found within the pecto-
ral and abdominal cavities are the brightest; the subcutaneous glands
have a deeper  tinge; those  placed at the base of the lungs and of the
trachea  are the  darkest, and are almost black; those  which are near
the spleen are also" deeply colored.  These differences of shade seem
(1) Exp. inquir. p. 3 and 50.
(2) Gen. Anat. vol. ii. p. 113. 
134
GENERAL ANATOMY.
to depend  partly on the influence of the light, and partly also on the
nature of the fluids within them.   Hence the dark color of the sple-
nic and bronchial glands, the yellow color of those near the liver, and
the white appearance of those of the mesentery, which are filled with
chyle.
   § 120. The general conditions of the structure of the lymphatic
glands are  as follows.   At first sight they  resemble a homogeneous
and almost smooth mass.   But  when the  lymphatic vessels which
enter them  are filled, their surface becomes  irregular.  They receive
a considerable quantity  of blood which is generally conveyed to them
by several  branches which  divide within them  into very fine twigs.
They receive branches of nerves, but these are very fine.   They are
not enveloped with a membrane proper and distinct from their sub-
stance ; their surface is well covered with a  dense cellular tissue, but
this tissue cannot be detached from their substance without destroying
it. The Cellular capsule does not continue insensibly with the surround-
ing mucous tissue,  but is  separated from it by  well  defined limits,
so that these bodies are very movable  in health, and do not become
fixed  and adherent in diseases, except when the cellular tissue which
surrounds them is inflamed.
   The general phenomena of the connection of the lymphatic vessels
with their glands, are as follows.  At some lines distant from the peri-
phery of the gland, at the  end farthest from the  thoracic canal, one
or several  lymphatics, according to its volume, divides into branches
which enter into it with the blood vessels, and these again separate
into numerous small vessels ; but towards the other extremity of this
gland, these ramusculi  again unite in  a small number of simpler
trunks, which leave the gland and go forward.  These last vessels
may be considered as the excretory ducts of the lymphatic glands.
   § 121. Are there in the lymphatic glands any integral parts besides
those  already  mentioned?   Many  anatomists,  namely, Malpighi,
Mylius,  Cruiskshank, Werner, and Feller, admit  also proper follicles,
a species of hollow, rounded, white, and soft cellules, which constitute
the glands  in great part, and in whose parietes the blood vessels are
distributed,  and from whence new lymphatics arise.   Some say that
these  cells are arranged uniformly, which is denied by others.   Thus
Werner and _ Feller pretend  that in the glands nearest the intestinal
canal, there  is but  a single large central vesicle, from whence  the
vasa afferentia arise, while the glands  situated farther from the intes-
tine, and those of all the other regions of the body, contain several of
these  cellules.  Facts in comparative anatomy also would lead us to
admit the existence of cells in the lymphatic glands of man for we find
some very large, for instance, in the lymphatics of  the horse and ass.
   But according to other anatomists, particularly Ruysch Albinus
Gmelin, Hugo, Haase, Meckel, Hewson, and  Masfiagni, the lymphatic
glands are only agglomerations of blood-vessels, of lymphatics, and of
mucous tissue.  The cellular structure of these organs is very impro-
bable, at least in man. 
             OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.  LYMPHATICS.          135

   Hewson admits, besides the vascular plexuses, small cellules visible
 only with the aid of  the  microscope, from whence, he  pretends, that
 new lymphatic vessels arise, and we see, even with the naked  eye,
 numerous small  points, from whence a fluid runs when they are com-
 pressed.    But it remains to be ascertained if these be true cells, or
 only lymphatic  vessels divided.   The second supposition appears
 more probable, as the larger vesicles are. themselves only single local
 dilatations of the lymphatics, which continue uninterruptedly both with
 the vasa efferentia and deferentia,  as Mascagni has perfectly demon-
 strated ;  and secondly, a similar arrangement is observed in the venou3
 system, for instance in the corpus cavernosum of .the penis and clitoris.
   The phenomena which are thought to favor the hypothesis of the
 cellular structure of the lymphatic glands, are rather opposed to it, or
 at least  may be explained  in  another manner.   It is pretended that
 these cellules become apparent, especially when the injection of a gang-
 lion is suspended after it is half filled, that one series of cells only is
 discovered  when there is only a single vas afferens  and deferens,
 while, when the contrary is true, several of them are observed which
 do not communicate together,  since  they cannot be filled except by
 pushing the injection into  their proper vasa afferentia ; hence, conse-
 quently, the existence of cellules is indisputably demonstrated,  espe-
 cially in the glands of the groin, by pushing the mercury through a ves-
 sel until it comes from the  opposite  side, provided that the vascular net-
 work which entirely covers the glands does not hinder the process.
   But these  phenomena prove only, as is natural  to expect, that the
 intimate structure of the glands becomes recognized more easily, when
 the external vessels are not filled with mercury. They do not demon-
 strate that the internal spaces are  cellules rather than dilated vessels,
 which, of course, are filled with mercury more easily than vessels of a
less caliber expanded on the  surface of an organ.  We should also na-
 turally observe  the curves  better, in  proportion as they are fewer.
 Besides, the want of communication between  the  different  spaces or
 curves seems to indicate that they  should be considered as partial dila-
 tations of the vessels, and not as cellules.
   The external  appearance of the  injected lymphatic glands,  with
 which also Cruikshank supported his opinion, proves nothing in his
favor, since  the  projections  which give these bodies the  appearance
of a grape may be curves in the vessels as well as cellules.
  Analogy drawn from the structure of animals attests only one thing,
which is. that in some animals the ramifications of  the lymphatics are
larger than in others.
  We have reason to deny, then, the existence of cellules.  We should
even reject  the opinion of those who endeavor to reconcile the two hy-
potheses, by saying,
  First, that the glands are simple  vascular twigs in some parts of the
lymphatic system, especially  in the posterior medastinum and pelvis.
  Secondly, that in other parts, particularly in the groin, they are com-
posed both of vascular plexuses and of small cellules. 
136
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  Finally, that in other regions they are formed entirely, or almost so,
of small cellules, to which the lymphatic vessels proceed, without pre-
viously forming any plexus.                           .       .   ,  .
  In fact it is not very probable that these  organs, so similar in^theu
other essential qualities, and which execute the same functions, should
differ so considerably in  a part of their structure in different  places.
Besides, it is probable that even where the  third  modification  seems
to exist,  this appearance may depend on this,  that  the division of
the  convoluted   lymphatic  vessels,   commences  only within  the
glands.(l)
  Some anatomists, as Malpighi(2) and Mylius, have admitted, above
the cellular capsule, a muscular membrane enveloping the substance
of the gland, and from the internal face of which numerous filaments
proceed, which form a reticulated tissue, in the spaces of which the vesi-
cles are placed;  they add that the purpose of  this  arrangement is to
favor the progress of the  lymph.   But  this muscular membrane does
not exist.
  § 122. The lymphatics are very extensible.  This is demonstrated
by the considerable variations presented in the same part in different
subjects, as in the lactiferous ducts, and  particularly the astonishing
size to which the thoracic canal may be increased when the passage
ofthefluid it carries is obstructed. The total disappearance of very dilated
lymphatics, when the fluid which distends them has been evacuated by
an incision, and the wasting ofthe lymphatic glands when absorption is
completed, prove that these vessels are  no less contractile.   This phe-
nomenon takes place in the lymphatics, at least in a great degree, only
as long as life remains.   We  cannot then attribute it to elasticity alone.
Besides, these vessels when touched with strong acids, not only shrink
up, which may be attributed, at  least in some cases, to the chemical
action of these bodies on animal substances, as Bichat has done, but
evidently contract when touched with less powerful stimulants,  as the
chloride of antimony, alcohol, hot water, and even cold  air.  A me-
chanical  irritation, the presence of a foreign body,  the action of  a cut-
ting instrument, also cause contractions  and alternate dilatation and
closing.(3)   The thoracic canal does not return to its original form af-

  (1) Lauth, jun. (Essaisur les vaiss. lymph, sect. 3, p. 29.) also denies the existence
of cellules within the glands.  Among other proofs with which he supports  his opi-
nion, the following seem to us the mo3t conclusive: the lymphatic glands do not ex-
ist in the fetus:  instead of them we find only simple layers, where the continuity of
the vessels cannot be doubted; but if this continuity be interrupted in the adult bv
the cellules of the glands, it would follow that these vessels, continuous in the fetus
should cease to exi3t when the glands are formed, which is not probable  In birds
we find true lymphatic glands only at the upper part of the thorax, through which
the lymphatics of the neck pass : in all the rest of the body, the glands are replaced
by large layers where we observe the vessels are dilated at the points of their unions
and divisions. These dilatations are evidently what have been considered as ecl
lules in the glands, where this structure could not be as distinct as it is in birds in
which these layers are nofunitcd in a solid body.                      p rp
  (2) Malpighi, Degl. conglob.slr. annex, op.poslh.-a. 1.—Mylius.
  (3) Schreger, Deirritab. vas, lymph. Leipsick, 1789, cxp. 3, 4, 6"  7, 9 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.  LYMPHATICS.          137
  ter death, as much as during life, when it has experienced a mechanical
  mjury.(l)
    We cannot deny then that the lymphatics are irritable, and we find
  no reason  to attribute to  them, in place of this property, a peculiar
  vitality which would render them susceptible of contracting.(2)
    On the contrary, absorption which continues after general death, the
  direct relation between the  rapidity and duration of this action  the se-
  lection made by the lymphatics, and their different degrees of activity,
  do not prove, as  has been pretended,(3) that they are endowed  with
  irritability, but only that the admission and motion of the substances
  which they contain, are phenomena dependent upon life, and not sim-
  ply on the  laws of mechanics.   We need not demonstrate that Bichat
  is mistaken, or at least was unfortunate in his  language, in sayino-
  they fulfill their functions by reason of an insensible contractility.
   In the healthy state the lymphatics are not more sensible than other
  vessels, but become much more so when diseased, as in inflammation.
   § 123. The function ofthe lymphatic system is to absorb, to elabo-
  rate, to a certain degree, and to carry into the venous system, the sub-
  stances presented to its radicles.  The fluid it contains, then, goes from
 its branches towards its trunks and the heart.   This is proved
   1st. By  the phenomena already mentioned, (§ 115,) to demonstrate
 that the lymphatic system is  independent of  the arterial system, and
 that it arises directly from the substance of the organs and from 'their
 surfaces.
   2d. By the swelling of the  lymphatics between their periphery and
 the part where they are compressed or tied, and also by their contraction
 between this point and the heart.   The  fluid contained by them flows
 in accordance with the same law when they are wounded.
   3d. By the direction and arrangement of their valves.  (§  116.)
   As  these conditions are the same in all parts of the lymphatic sys-
 tem, the function and motion of the fluid ought also to be the same in
 all its extent.  We cannot, then, admit with  some ancient(4)  and
 even modern(5) writers, either that  the lymphatic system does not
 conduct the lymph to the heart,  but carries it in an opposite direction,
 or that this motion takes place in the lymphatics of the  intestinal ca-
 nal,  in the lacteals, or chyliferous vessels, but  does not occur in others
 in the lymphatics properly so called,  where the fluid  moves, on the

  (1) Ibid. exp. 2.
  (2)  Ontyd, Decausis absorptionispervas. lymph., Ley den, 1795, p.  79.
  (3) Schreger, I. c. p. 53.
  (4) Bils, Diss, qua verus hepalis circa chylum et pariter ductus chyliferi hactenus
dictiususdemonstratur.—Cf. Haller, Depart, carp. hum. fab. i. § v. vi.
  (5) Humpage, Phys. researches into the most important parts ofthe animal econo-
my, London, 1794.—Treviranus, (Untcrsuchungen iiber wichtige Gegenstaende der
Naturgeschichte und Medicin 1803, p. 126, 128,) thinks that we ought to refuse to the
lymphatic system the function of providing the nutritious substance designed to con-
tinue the vital action, and to attribute it to the veins alone: 1st, because it is too nar-
row ; 2d, because nutrition takes place in aged persons when the mesenteric glands are
obstructed; 3d, because this function is performed in animals destitute of lymphatics.
We shall examine these arguments farther.
  Vol. I.                        18 
138
GENERAL ANATOMY.
contrary, from the trunk to the branches, so that they immediately ac-
complish nutrition and absorption.   It is  easy to  refute all the argu-
ments adduced in support of these paradoxes.
   But two problems are  presented for solution.  1. Is the function at-
tributed  to the lymphatic system constant, or, does it  not fulfill also
the opposite function which consists in the retrogradation and excretion
of the liquids within it % 2.  Do they alone  perform  the function of
absorption, or do the veins absorb %
   I.  Kratzenstein,(l)  Humpage, and Darwin,(2)  are the principal
physiologists who  think that  the fluid contained in  the lymphatics
sometimes follows a retrograde motion.  They found their  opinion on
the following facts:
   lsf. The valves  are ho obstacle,  and as they enjoyJife, they may
either acquire the power of acting  in a contrary direction by an in-
crease of their vitality,  or be paralyzed; in both cases the course of the
fluids would be retrograde.
   But the increase of  life can only quicken the habitual motion.   Be-
sides the valves act not only by their  vitality, but also by their mechani-
cal arrangement, so that even after  death they oppose the passage of
a fluid from the trunk into the branches, however forcibly it  may be
propelled, while they permit it to  flow in a contrary direction.
   2d.  The analogy of other vascular valves, which, in a morbid state,
do not oppose the retrograde motion of the fluids and the valves of other
organs  also, as the pyloric and  ileoccecal valves, overt he resistance
of which the antiperistaltic action  of the intestinal canal sometimes pre-
vails.  But these facts prove nothing:  1st, because the structure is not
the same; 2dly, because the valves of which we are speaking are single.
  3d.  They pretend that after death the lymphatics absorb liquids in
the opposite direction better than in the normal direction.   But the ex-
periments which have been  made on this point prove, only, that the
liquids transude sometime after death, and not  that the lymphatics are
channels which allow them to pass.
  4th. The phenomena of the urinary secretions, after the introduction
into the stomach of substances which communicate certain qualities to
the urine ; the changes arrive with too much rapidity for us to believe
that the substances in question are carried to the kidneys by the circu-
lation ; but this proves nothing, since  experiments which cannot be
doubted, prove that they are in fact carried there by the circulation.
  5th. The maladies which some have wished  to explain by this  hy-
pothesis, as  diabetes, scrofula, diarrhoea, &c, cannot be conceived ac-
cording to the theory its  partisans have stated, and are  explicable in
another manner much more satisfactorily.
  II. We cannot exactly determine if the lymphatics alone absorb or
if this function be shared  also by the veins. The  former hypothesis
however, would seem more probable  for the following reasons.
  1st. The obliteration of the lymphatic system prevents the escape

 <\) Theoriafluxus diabeiici more geometrico explicati, Halle, 1746.
 (2) Zoonomia, rec. in Falleri coll. disp. pract. vol. iv.  p. 51.  Hanover 1795 vol. i.
D. 2. TT1T                                                 '    I  •  * 
             OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   LYMPHATICS.         139

of the chyle or lymph, from the parts which inclose it.   The ligature
of the thoracic canal also causes death.
  It is true that these phenomena have been used as arguments in fa-
vor of venous absorption,(l) but very wrongly, since where absorption
by the veins was admitted because the lymphatics were thought to be
obliterated, the latter were not completely destroyed ; and again, when it
was pretended that absorption ceased after the ligature of the veins,(2)
the lymphatics were tied at the same  time, and  absorption took place
when the latter were left unobstructed.(3)
  2d.  The lesion of  the lymphatics produces the same phenomena,
and wounds of their  common trunk are fatal.
  3d.  The substances  placed  in  contact with  an absorbing surface
serve only to modify the action of the lymphatic system and the nature
of the fluid it contains.
  This is  proved by the fact, that at first only the lymphatic vessels
and glands inflame and swell after infection.
  2dly.  That the characteristic properties of the substances placed in
contact with an absorbing surface have been found only in the lymph,
and not in the blood.
  After having  injected milk and colored or perfumed  liquids into the
intestinal canal  of living animals, it is always observed that the liquid
contained in the lacteals has the same color and smell;  but this is not
the case with the blood.  If the intestinal canal be filled with a colored
liquid, and another which is easily colored, as milk, be injected into the
arteries, it reappears colorless, when it is returned by the veins.  The
same takes place when perfumed fluids are used.  Although the .intestine
be distended with warm water, even till it bursts, the blood of the intes-
tinal veins does  not become more fluid. (4)
   Mertrud pretends  to have  passed  liquids several times from the lac-
teals into the azygos vein and the  lumbar veins; but he mentions
neither the fluids used nor the means employed.(5)
  In other experiments, where water has been injected  from the intes-
tinal canal into the veins of the intestine,(6) compression  has been made
for a long time, and very probably it was torn, as is easily done, even when
the .compression is slight.  We ought also much more to suspect either
this cause or a  transudation after death  in  those cases where a sub-
stance injected  into  the veins after death has passed into the intestinal
canal, and in those where it has flowed back into the veins, either from
the intestines or from other hollow organs, as the vesicular seminales.(7)

  (1) As was done by Home, for instance. See his attempt to show that fluids proceed
directly from the stomach into the circulation without passing through the thoracic
duct.
  (2) Lower, De Corde, vol. ii. p. 122.
  (3) Hewson, loc.  cit. p. 145.
  (4) Hunter, Med. comment., p. 42.
  (5) Mertrud, Mem. ou Von se propose de demontrer que tout le chyle n'entre pas
dans le canal thoracique, fyc, in Mem. present, vol. iii. p. 155-58.
  (6^ Kaaw Boerhaave, De per spiral., §469-71.
  (7) Meckel, Exp. et obs. definibus venarum. 
140
OKNERAL ANATOMY.
One is much  more  authorized in this, since in the experiments of
Hunter, the phenomena first mentioned were found as long as animal
existence continued; the second  appeared only after death, and were
not always constant.  If water passes from the cavity of the intestinal
canal into the veins, it  transudes also in a much greater quantity on
the surface ofthe intestine.(l)
   We ought here to speak of the traces of the chyle which have been
observed in the blood of the intestinal veins.  But, admitting even that
the whitish streaks which  have been taken  for it were really chyle,
they are found also in  the blood of other veins ;  so that they prove
nothing.
   4th.  The lymphatic system is sufficient for absorption, as the num-
ber of its vessels is immense, and the motion of the fluid contained in
them is very rapid.   The narrowness of the thoracic  canal proves
nothing, both on account of this rapidity, and because the capacity of
the duct varies very much, and more  than one is always found.
   5th.  Even the mildest substances, as water, milk, oil, air, and muci-
lage, introduced into the venous system, endanger and destroy life.
   6th.  The other arguments by which the necessity of venous absorp-
tion is thought to be established are easily refuted. They are as follows:
   a. The veins in fact absorb in some animals which have no lym-
phatic  system.  Until the time of Hewson,(2) the classes of reptiles,
birds, and fishes, had been cited in support of this rule.  Treviranus(3)
denied  the existence of lymphatics in  them, even after they were
demonstrated by Hewson.   At present it can be asserted  only of the
invertebral animals ;(4) but then we might  say that absorption is-not
performed by the vessels, and  that the nutritious fluid  penetrates
every where into the substance of the organs, since there are animals
which have not a single vessel.
   b. Absorption by the veins takes place also in certain  parts of the
bodies of animals provided with a lymphatic, system.  The examples
cited are the placenta, the  penis, and the clitoris, saying that the first
has no lymphatics,  and as for  the other two,  the blood which is
effused from the vessels is  in fact  resumed by  the veins to be car-
ried  again into the  circulation.   But the absence  of lymphatics in
the  placenta is not perfectly demonstrated ;  far from it:  some  observa-
tions made lately lead us to think their existence probable.(5)  Farther

   (1) Mascagni, loc. cit,
   (2) Experim. inq. London, 1774, vol. ii. ch. 4-6.
   (3) [Inters, 'iiber wichtige Gegents. der Natur und Medicin, Goettin»-en, 1803 p.
127.  All animals below the mammalia have no entire lymphatic system.
   (4) Magendie has resumed the observations  of Hewson, and concludes from his
own dissections that the lacteals  and the thoracic canals do not exist in  birds, and
that the only traces of the lymphatic vessels are seen in the neck, where we find
lymphatic vessels and glands, as in the mammalia, which during life are often filled
with a diaphanous and colorless lymph.  He is led to think that reptiles  and fishes
are  entirely destitute of lymphatics, and that the organs described as such are
sanguineous veins.  See his Mem. sur les vaisseaux lymphatiques des oiseaux in
the Journal de Physiol, experimentale, 1821, vol. i. p. 47.               p T\
  (5) G. Uttini, in the Mem. dell'  istituto nazionalc  Italiano, vol. i. p. 11. Boiogna,
1806, p.  209-16.—Michaelis, Obs.  tirca placenta ac funiculi umbilicalis vasa ab-
torbentia, Goettingen, 1790. 
OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.   LYMPHATICS.           141
it might be possible that, as  the  placenta  is  a temporary organ, and
consequently less perfect in  its  structure, its veins  had the power of
absorption, in the same manner  as they every where possess it in the
imperfect  animals.   As for the penis and clitoris, the blood in them is
never extravasated, but the pretended cells of their corpus spongiosum
are only dilated veins ; besides, even  if this were not  the arrangement,
the veins there would absorb only blood.
   c. They pretend also that it is not possible to explain satisfactorily
the great difference between the capacity of the arteries and that of the
veins, unless we admit that the latter receive something besides blood.
But on  one part, the veins are not  so much larger during life as is stated ;
and again, it depends,  in a great part, on the obstacles to the course of
the blood in these vessels, and the greater expansibility of the venous
blood.
   d.  Finally, the  alledged difference between the venous and arterial
blood is that the  former is less coagulable, while  even  that of the
vena porta does  not coagulate.   This assertion, however,  is erroneous.
Besides, the chyle, to  the presence of which this  fluidity and want of
coagulation has  been attributed,  coagulates  itself.(1)   This difference
is  founded on the change of venous into arterial blood.

  (1) The opinion that the veins absorb may be referred even to Galen ;  but it was
rejected by  Bartholini,  and also by Hunter,  Hewson, and Cruikshank, and after 1795
was considered only as an  historical curiosity, till 1809, when  Magendie published
his Memoire sur les organes de I'absorption  chez les mammiferes, in which he related
his experiments made  conjointly with  Dupuytren and Delisle. (Journ. de physiol.
experim., vol. i. p. 18.—Precis element, de  physiol.,  vol. ii. p. 176.)  The  principal
results were, 1, that if all communications  between the thoracic canal and the sub-
clavian  veins were tied, the animal would perish in five or  six days; 2, that the
ligature of the thoracic canal would not prevent or even retard the death of an ani-
mal when exposed to the influence of poison ; 3,  that  poison applied to a part would
produce its effects, although this part communicated with the rest of the body only
by its artery and vein ; 4, and finally, that perfumed or colored  substances, when
submitted to absorption, were found in a very short time in the venous blood, but not
in the lymph ofthe thoracic canal.
  Magendie concluded from these results, 1, that the veins  absorb; 2, that it is
doubtful if the lacteals absorb any thing but chyle ;  3, that it is not certain that the
other lymphatics possess the power of absorption.  Ribes (Mem. de la soc. mid. d'e-
mulation, 1817, vol. viii. p. 604 et seq.)  also  thought  the veins  absorb, having satis-
fied himself by injections that their orifices open into the cellular tissue and cavity
ofthe intestines, and having also found in the veins  different substances, as fat and
pus, while these are never seen in the arteries  and  lymphatics.  Emmert, Mayer,
Nasse, Jaeckel, Tiedcmann, Gmelin, Seiler, Ficinus, and  several others, drew the
same conclusions, either from their own experiments  or from repeating those of Ma-
gendie.  All these experiments, however, served only to prove absorption by the veins,
and did not exclude thatof the lymphatics. To determine this point, Segalas instituted
a series  of experiments in an inverse order, (Note sur Vabsorption intestinale, in the
Journal dephys. exper., vol. ii. p. 11,) that is, poison  was submitted  to the action of
the lacteals only;  the deleterious substance being introduced  into a portion  of
intestine, having first tied the blood-vessels, taking rare not to include the lacteals,
which were seeh gorged with chyle.  The  results were, that none of the symptoms
of poisoning appeared when the fold of intestine communicated with the rest of the
body only by the lacteals ; but they were seen as quickly as usual, when the blood
passed through the vein to the rest ofthe body.  He concluded that the veins exclu-
sively absorb substances other than chyle which  are found in the intestinal canal.
These experiments having been repeated several times, and always with the same
results,  many physiologists have adopted  this opinion, and every day it gains new
advocates.   Fohmann (Anatomische  Vntersuchungen iiber  die Verbindune der
Saeugadern mit  den  Venen, Heidelberg, 1821) was the first to raise doubts in re-
gard to these conclusions, by explaining the results of Magendie by communications 
142
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   § 124. In regard to the duration of its action, the lymphatic system
is one of those organs which preserve their vitality the longest.  Colored
liquids, which are  injected  into  the chest or abdomen, or in which an
organ  is  immersed, penetrate into  the  lymphatics  forty  hours after
death.(l)
   The activity of these vessels  remains  longer than the irritability of
the muscles,(2) and continues   even after  the animal  heat  has  va-
nished. (3)
   These experiments do not always succeed,(4) but we must be care-
ful not to  conclude from  this  that   the  phenomenon never takes
place. (5)
   On the  contrary, the difference observed proves  that  it is really
owing to the influence of life, and that the absorption which continues
after the death of the other organs, is not a capillary phenomenon, al-


between the lymphatics and the veins, which he demonstrated to exist in the tissue
of the organs and within the lymphatic glands.
  Lauth, jun., (Essai sur les vaisseaux  lymphatiques, Strasburg, 1824) pursuing the
same method, confirms the existence of the channels asserted by Fohmann; and
then, availing himself of his own experiments, or those made by authors before him,
which prove the absorbing power of the lymphatic vessels, drawing  an argument
too from the impenetrability of the tissues by inorganic pores, in the  physiological
state, and finally considering that the sanguineous veins are necessarily continuous
with the arteries, and that every venous branch which arises by an open orifice is no
longer, for this reason, a sanguineous  vein, concludes,  1, that  the  lymphatics
absorb;  2, that these vessels terminate  partly in the sanguineous veins, partly in the
tissue of the organs, and in the lymphatic glands; 3, that there seem to be substances
which are always poured into the veins by the lymphatics, in order  to  be eliminated
from the animal economy more quickly;  4, that we have no proof that the veins ab-
sorb, and that this is even contradicted  by the idea we ought to have of these vessels.
See also on the subject Tiedemann and Gmelin, Recherches sur la route quepren-
nent diverses substances pour passer de Vestomac et du canal intestinal dans  le sang,
translated from the German, Paris, 1821.—Fodera, Recherches experimentales sur
Vabsorption et Vexhalation, Paris, 1824.—Wertrumb's Memoir on the question, Ya-t-il
ou non passage immediat des substances appliquees au corps humain,  de la surface
^application dans le  systeme sanguin, in the Journ. compl. du Diet, des sciences
med., vol. xvi. p. 225.—Experiences surle pouvoir absorbant desveines, by Seiler and
Ficinus, in the same Journal, vol. xviii. p. 318, and vol. xix. p. 125.
  We observe in the Florence Anthology that  Lippi has discovered several large
lymphatic trunks which empty directly into the vena cava, in the centre of the abdo-
men, and explains by this several of the phenomena adduced to support the opinion
that the veins absorb.   His memoir was read before the Medical Society at Florence
on the 6th of May; but it  has  not yet  been  published, or at least  we have not
seen it.*                                                            p_ t.
  * These experiments have since been confirmed by M. Amussat.  He injected the
abdominal lymphatics, when the mercury passed directly from the  lymphatics into
the vena cava and the common iliac veins.  This communication between the lympha-
tic glands and the large trunks is established through the medium of certain canals
  Dr. Dubled has also injected the two inferior thirds of the thoracic duct and some'
ofthe neighboring lymphatics, by pushing an injection by the inferior vena cava
But in order to this, the vein must be forcibly distended, as was verified by the fol-
lowing experiment:  the inferior vena cava having been tied below the diaphrajrm
in a living animal, he found, many hours afterward,  blood in the thoracic duct and
in some other vessels of the same system.—Amer. med. journal  Mav 1830 from
Archives generates, Nov., 1829.                               '    J)     '
  (1) Mascagni, Ichnograph. vas. lact.,  pp. 21, 22.
  (2) Schrceger, De irrit. vas. lymph., p. 21, 22.
  (3) Ontyd, i. p. 30.
  (4) As has been frequently remarked by Mascagni.
  (5) Walther, 
        OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.     143

though the inclined position of the parts favors it.(l)  Experiments
are more successful as life is less extinct;  hence they never or seldom
succeed in men, or animals, who have sunk under disease -(2) and are
seen in young men better than in aged  persons ;(3) when the hquid
too is warm, sooner than when it is coid.(4)
   §  125.  These facts throw some light upon the cause of absorption •
it follows, then, that it is a vital phenomenon, a consequence which is
deduced still more,
   1st.  From the choice made by the lymphatics, if not always, at least
in their normal  state, between the  substances presented  to their ac-
tion.
   2d.  From the fact that their activity is not always the same.  Con-
nected intimately with the degree of vital energy, their activity remains
sometimes suspended during whole years in certain parts, as  is  seen
in dropsy for instance, and reappears  suddenly, often without any evf-
dent cause, or in circumstances proper to  exalt the energies of life.
                     ARTICLE SECOND.

        OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

   § 126.  In quitting the normal state of the vascular system to study
the abnormal state, we must first seek the accidental origin of the ano-
malies.
   They arise  from inflammation  supervening in the substances pro-
duced by  the coagulation of the effused fluids.   As all the regular or
irregular formations are produced  by Inflammation, or an act analo-
gous, and as this is situated in the vascular system, it appears proper
to mention here its historical character very briefly, and attending par-
ticularly to the form.
   Inflammation is situated in the finest ramuscules of the sanguineous
system, in the capillaries.  Blood accumulates there in greater, quantity
than  usual, and circulates sometimes with more, and sometimes with
less rapidity than in the normal state.(5)   The result of this accumu-
lation, is to dilate the capillary vessels.(6)   The part then  becomes

  (1) Schrceger, loc. cit. p. 47.
  (2) Ontyd, loc. cit. p. 28, 30.
  (3) Mascagni,  loc. cit.
  (4) Mascagni, p. 22. Ontyd, p. 31.
  (5) For the state of the blood vessels in inflammation, see Thompson's Lectures on
Inflammation, Edinburgh, 1813.
  (6) This dilatation can remain even when the inflammation is discussed, whence
the vessels are visible even on the surface of parts where before they were very mi-
nute, as, for  instance, in the pterygium.                              F. T. 
  144                     GENERAL ANATOMY.

 redder than usual.   When this state has existed some time,(l) others
 supervene, called the terminations of inflammation.   But we should not
 forget that the first  termination excepted, inflammation continues, al-
 though more feebly, during the consecutive states.   Sometimes inflam-
 mation disappears without leaving any traces, and then it is said to be
 resolved; sometimes a new formation supervenes. The most simple is
 exsudation, which occurs by the effusion of the colorless portion of the
 blood, in a greater or less degree of purity, into the substance, or on the
 surface of the inflamed part. (2)  As the fluid effused is more or less
 coagulable, there results  from it either a kind of dropsy only, or an
 induration of the substance of  the  organ, or,  finally, the adhesion of
 parts originally separated, but adjacent, because the  effused fluid solidi-
 fies,  and  represents more or less the  mucous  or serous tissue.   We
 rarely find these last two states united.    Blood vessels generally deve-
 lop themselves in the  effused and coagulated substance.  These vessels
 are  not necessarily prolongations of those which  already exist, but,
 even as at the period of the first formation, the vessels appear in the
 homogeneous substance,  and gradually  unite with each other, as with
 those which previously existed. (3)  Their structure is not so regular
 as that of the latter,  and they are simple channels(4) rather than real
 vessels, and are not separated  by peculiar membranes from  the sub-
 stance in whieh they are developed.   The mucous and serous tissues,
 which are very similar, are especially disposed to adhesions of this na-
 ture, which prevent the motions of the parts to a greater or less extent.
 When this process occurs in organs which have experienced a solution
 of continuity, it is called union by adhesion, or by the first intention.
   A  second kind of new formation is that of suppuration.   Here the
 texture is changed more  essentially, since the inflamed part  becomes
 in a great measure a new secretory  organ, analogous  to  the mucous
 membranes, and produces a peculiar  fluid called pus.(5)  The previous

  (1) Physicians have been led by scholastic views, dictated by empiricism, to di-
 vide inflammation into acute and chronic, terms connected with  the vague idea of an
 inflammation which has continued a shorter or longer period of time. From the pre-
 tended success of stimulants in the latter state, it has been considered as opposite to
 that of inflammation; so that acute inflammation is allied to strength, or is a sthenic
 state,  and chronic inflammation with weakness,  and is an asthenic state. The latter
 has been called atonic inflammation by those whose language is the most contradic-
 tory.  While these scholastic speculations have been infinitely varied under the in-
 fluence of all sect3, the part which inflammation takes in new or abnormal formations
 has been most generally neglected, though sometimes recognized.  At this moment
 it attracts general attention.  No one now, at least among  us, admits asthenic in-
 flammation ; but some physiologists still deny that all new formations depend on in-
 flammation.  We shall return to this subject in a note to Section XII.      F. T.
  (2) Hunter on the Blood, &c.
  (3) See, on this subject,  an important note of Th. Dowler, Sur les produits de /'in-
flammation aigue : in the Journ. complem.  du Diet, des  sciences med vol xviii d
 188.                                                      '         ' v'
  (4) Bordeu, Recherches sur le tissu muqueux, Paris, 1767, p. 28.   See on this sub-
 ject, the important note of  Home, on the changes which take place in the blood in
 coagulating, in the Phil. Trans. 1818, p. 172-1&5.
  (5) Brugmans, De puogenis, Groningen, 1785.—Home, On the properties of pus,
 London, 1788.—Pearson, Observations and experiments on pus, in the Phil  Trans
 1810, p. 294-317.                                      '          '      ' 
         OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.     145

  formation of this organ is, however, not indispensable to produce pus ;
  thus it is not observed in the mucous membranes.   In general, in order
  that suppuration should take place, the inflammation must have at-
  tained a certain degree of intensity, and have lasted a certain length of
  time.  But these conditions are not rigorous.
    The fourth Xermination of inflammation  is by sphacelus of the part
  which is  preceded  by gangrene.   The first  of these states is called
  moist, the second dry gangrene.   The bright red  color changes  to a
  deep red. and soon becomes black ; the mortified part then undergoes
  changes, which every organized body experiences after its death.(1)
    When this state occasions only the death of the inflamed part, the
  gangrene is arrested.   There forms then on the limit  of the dead and
  living part a reddish fissure, a furrow along which  the living part  ap-
  pears of a bright red.
    This  furrow  is produced by absorption,  which becoming  more ac-
  tive, endeavors to separate  the dead from the living parts.
    The means of restoration are more complex where  suppuration and
  mortification occur than where resolution and adhesion only take place.
  There are developed on the surfaces which secrete pus, small reddish
•  elevations, formed of mucous tissue, and of minute  vessels;  these are
  called granulations.   These graduErfly unite, contract, and finally form
  a cicatrix, which is smaller in all its dimensions than the diseased part,
  and which has more  or less perfectly the structure  of the organ it
  replaces.(2)
    §  127. Although in parts newly formed new vessels also  are deve-
  loped, of which some arise independently of those already existing,
  while others  are simple prolongations of the latter, (§ 126), the old
  vessels do not possess the power of being entirely regenerated. When a
  vessel is destroyed by a ligature, or in any other manner, a new  vessel
 is never  formed  in its place.  Even when a wound made  in a vessel
 heals by cicatrization, and  the canal  is not obliterated, this  vessel al-
 ways differs in hardness and indefinite texture from those which have
 never been injured, although Maunoir advances the contrary.  What
 this  anatomist  considered as the commencement of regeneration, was
 merely an imperfect closure ofthe artery.(3)
   §  128. The four portions of which the vascular system is composed,
 viz. the  heart, arteries, veins, and lymphatics, present a  great  many
 anomalies in their external and in their internal form.  Of these many
 are common to all, while others belong more particularly, or even strictly,
 to one of them ; but those  which  are formed indefinitely in  the four
 portions of  the system, are  more or less modified, by differences in the
 normal structure of each one.

  (1)  For the state ofthe blood vessels in gangrene, see Thompson's Lectures on In-
flammation, p. 352.
  (2)  Moore,  On the process of nature in the healing of wounds,  London, 1789.—
 Home, On the change of pus into granulations, in the Phil. Trans. 1819,  p. I-11.
  (3) Maunoir, Mem. sur I'anevrysme, Geneva, 1802, p. 108.
   Vol.  I.                        19 
146
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
   We may establish the following classification.  The aberrations of
the vascular system are divided into anomalies : 1st, of their external
form ; 2d, of their internal form, or  texture, and  of their chemical com-
position.
   The former relate, 1st, to their  situation;  2d,  to their  mass and
volume ;  3d, to their figure ; and 4th, to the continuity of the system.
   All these anomalies may be congenital, or produced accidentally by
influences which act  contrary to  rule.  Not  being  able  to enter
into'a minute description of all  the peculiarities  which,  to be well un-
derstood, should be referred to special  anatomy,  we shall confine our-
selves to the following remarks.
   § 129. I.  The anomalies of situation are marked in the vessels princi-
pally by an unusual character in their origin and course ;  in the heart,
by changes in its direction.(l)
   § 130. II. Anomalies in mass  and  volume, consist in an excess or
diminution in the vessels from the normal state.   The mass and volume
are not necessarily increased or diminished both at once ; the anoma-
lies in these  respects are often at  the same time  opposite.  Increase in
 mass and volume is more common than diminution and  contraction.
   Enlargement is not usually attended with change of texture in the
 heart, veins, and lymphatics. It is«often attended in the heart with an
 increase of substance, while, generally, there is only a dilatation in the
 veins and absorbents.  As to the arteries, when they are dilated, we
 observe not  only an alteration of texture, but a partial rupture.
   The history of the special  alterations presented by the heart in
 this respect, also belong to special anatomy ; but the history  of those
 of the other portions of the vascular system may be given here.
    Abnormal dilatation in the arteries is called aneurism (aneurisma.)(2)
 Nevertheless, by this term we mean several states of the"arteries which
 are essentially different, viz.
    1st. The total or partial dilatation of their circumference.
    2d. The  total or partial destruction of their  continuity.
    These two states are still distinguished from each other by the term
 true aneurism applied to the first, and of false or mixed  aneurism to the
 second.
    By true aneurism, (aneurisma verum), we usually understand simply
 a dilatation of the circumference of the arteries.  Such a 'state is pos-
 sible, and sometimes even occurs ;  but  it is extremely rare, and seldom
 exists in the cases usually supposed.  Although this does not take place in
 all circumstances, there is more frequently a slight dilatation, accom-
 panied by a morbid alteration of the inner membrane of  the artery, such
 as inflammation, formation of cartilage, fragility of  this  tunic, and
 afterwards, when the  dilatation has progressed,  the internal and fibrous
 membranes are ruptured, blood is  effused  into'its cellular membrane
  through the fissure, which is always more or less perceptible.

    (1) See our Memoir on the primitive deformities ofthe heart and large vessels, in
  ReU's Archivfur die Physiologic, vol. vi. p. 3.
    (2) The principal writer on this subject is Lauth, Collectioscriptorumlatinorum de
  aneurismatibus,  Strasburg, 1785.—Scarpa, On aneurism. 
        OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.     147

   The cellular membrane already, before this, intimately adhered to
 the inner tunic, either from its diseased state or from compression ; so
 that, whether the rupture be sudden or  gradual,  no effusion of blood
 could occur which, by  its  unlimited duration, should cause death.
 Hence,  why the artery is not uniformly  distended in large aneurisms;
 we observe on the artery only the sac produced by the cellular tunic',
 which is usually united to it by a narrow neck.  This sack adheres to
 the parts adjacent, but the pressure of the blood gradually or suddenly
 destroys it.  When the part destroyed corresponds to a hard part, espe-
 cially to a bone, and the opening every  where adheres to this part, no
 fluid escapes from it;  but when its adhesion to another organ, which
 is not itself protected, is torn, the blood rushes from the opening, runs
 slowly or  rapidly into a cavity of the  body,  or into another organ,
 even to the surface of the body, and death sooner or later occurs.  Such
 at least is the  usual result of true aneurism.   When the tumor is left
 to itself, an inflammation, accidentally developed, rarely obliterates the
 vessel in its diseased portion, and the circulation is very seldom re-esta-
 blished by the dilatation of the collateral arteries.
   These remarks demonstrate that most of the aneurisms regarded as
 true, are hi fact mixt;  since there is, at the  same time, a rupture* of
 the internal, and a distention of the external, tunic.  Simple dilata-
 tion of the arteries rarely occurs,  except in  organs  which enlarge
 much:  since,  then, the  artery participates in the increase  of nutri-
 tion ; still this does not always happen even in this  case.
   The  arterial system is sometimes more or less disposed to  this mor-
 bid alteration, in a greater or less portion of its extent.  This is termed
 an aneurismatic  diathesis (diathesis aneurismatica) ;  in it we find
 several aneurisms in the different parts of the same body, and in the dif-
 ferent arteries  of the same part.   Such  a predisposition is not however
 necessary ; and whether there be or be not fragililty of the arterial tu-
 nics, external mechanichal influences can produce this effect, although
 these causes are generally confined to alterations ofthe tissue in the ar-
 teries of those parts upon which they act.
   The false aneurism (aneurisma spurium) does not deserve the name
 of aneurism, since it does not consist of a dilatation, but merely a solu-
 tion of continuity in the artery.    It is produced generally by an exter-
 nal injury, frequently by bleeding when the artery is opened instead of
 the vein.   Hence it is found more particularly at the lower end ofthe
 brachial artery ; accordingly then, from different causes, as the blood
 is diffused through the whole limb between the muscles  and beneath
 the skin, or pervades  only a small space, the aneurism is, termed dif-
fused, (aneurisma diffusum,) or circumscribed,  (aneurisma circumscrip-
 tum.)
  The mixt aneurism (aneurisma mixtum) of authors is where some ofthe
 membranes of the artery are ruptured, and others are simply distended.
 They admit that the external membranes may be  ruptured, and the
 inner membranes distended, or the latter may be ruptured and the for-
 mer dilated. 
148
GENERAL ANATOMT.
   The latter, as we have stated, generally occurs  in a true aneurism.
 The first is necessarily very  rare, since the removal not only of the
 external coat, but also that of the middle membrane, occasions no dila-
 tation in the vessel, even when the adjacent  parts  of the artery do not
 protect it.(l)
   Besides these abnormal states which relate to the arteries only, the
 lesion of an artery may be attended with that of the veins.   If then the
 wounds are so placed that the two vessels open into  each other, there
 results a varicose aneurism (aneurisma varicosum, varix aneurismati-
 cus), called also, but improperly, a mixt aneurism.(2)
   This accident is rare and  purely fortuitous in the aneurisms deter-
 mined by aninternal cause, which are usually considered as true aneurisms.
 It may be that the sac then opens into an adjacent vein, or into a ves-
 sel carrying black blood,(3) to whichit adhered before,and the parietesof
 which it finally destroyed at the point of contact.   But the accident is
 more common and necessarily supervenes where an external lesion pro-
 duces an ordinary false aneurism, when the vein has been pierced through
 and through with the corresponding wall ofthe artery which accompa-
 nies it. The blood runs, then, from the artery into the vein and surround-
 ing, cellular tissue ;  but the nearness of the two vessels, the ease with
 which the blood passes from the artery into the vein,  and the effect of
 compression, cause the two corresponding openings to close, as also the
 external wound of the vein, and an abnormal communication between
 the two vessels only remains.
   The dilatation of the veins(4) (varix), and that ofthe lymphatics,(5)
 (cirsus)  are seldom attended  with a degeneration of the  membranes.
 They depend upon a simple dilatation more frequently than the aneu-
 rism, because the veins and lymphatics are much more extensible than
 the arteries.  They  mostly arise from mechanical obstacles which
 oppose the free course of the  fluids.  Nevertheless, ruptures some
 times occur when the distension progresses too far.
   The partial dilatations of the lymphatics, which occur between two
 pairs of valves, and which are attended with the obliteration of the ves-
 sels, can give place also to the formation of a kind of hydatids, which are
 much more rarely developed in the veins from this cause.

  (1) Hunter  in the Transact, of a soc. for the improvement of med. and surg.
 knowledge, vol. i. p. 144.
  (2) Hunter, History of an aneurism, in  Med. obs. and inq. vol. i. No. 26. p. 340.—
 Farther observat. uponapartic. species of aneurism, ibid. vol. ii. No. 36.—Cleghorn
 Case ofananeurismal varix, ibid. vol. iii. No. 13.—White, On the varicose aneurism,
 ibid. vol. iv. No. 34.—Armiger, On varicose aneurism, ibid. No. 35.—Brambilla Von
 der blutader igten Schlagadergeschwulst, in Abh. d. Joseph Akad. vol. i p 92 —Lar-
 rey, in the Bullet, delafac.de med. 1812. No. 1-3.
  (3) Wells,A case of aneurism ofthe aorta communicating with the pulmonary arte-
 ry, in the Transact, of a soc. for the improvement of med. and surg. knowledge,
 vol. ill. No. 7.                                             o        o i
  (4) F. A. B. Puchelt, Das Venensysteminseinen krankhaften Verhaltniseendar-
gestellt, Leipsick, 1818.
  (6) Scemmerring, De morbis vasorum absorbentium corporis humani, Frankfort, 
       OP THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.     149

   Abnormal dilatation of the vessels affects, usually, but one system.
Still it is not rare that it extends to all the three together.  The capil-
laries are then always diseased.   The disease  appears as a red pul-
sating tumor which bleeds often, and is composed of a complicated tissue
of vessels ;  it is frequently found in the subcutaneous  cellular tissue,
and called aneurism by anastomosis, angieclasia, or accidental cavernous,
or erectile tissue.
   §  131.  The opposite state, the abnormal smallness and narrowness
of the vascular system, is much less common than the  preceding.  It
is rarely general.  For the most part it affects only one series of ves-
sels ; and the abnormal contraction of one, determines an unnatural
enlargement of the other.
   This state may be only a simple defect, of formation, or depend on a
morbid alteration of texture.   To this is referred the contraction of the
canal by an effusion of fibrous matter supervening to inflammation of
the vessels.  But in most cases this effusion not merely contracts the
vessels, but it entirely obliterates them.
   The vessels always diminish gradually, contract, and are obliterated
without previous inflammation, when the blood no longer flows within
them,  whether this  state be  connected with the regular  develop-
ment of the organism, as for instance in the obliteration of the um-
bilical arteries and veins, or depends on some accidental cause.
   §  132. III. The peculiar conditions ofthe abnormal form of the vascu-
lar system, cannot be examined here, any more than  those of its  abnor-
mal  situation, and for  the  same  reasons.  Besides,  the anomalies  of
configuration and of situation usually accompany each other, at least
in the primitive deviations of formation.  We shall only observe here,
that most of the  anomalies of configuration are congenital, and may
all be referred to two classes : the first comprises those, the results  of
which are attended only with an irregularity in the motion of the blood,
while the second embraces those which, consisting in an unusual com-
munication between the systems of red and black  blood, derange the
formation of blood, and cause the disease called the blue disease, (mor-
bus csrulsus,)  or cyanopathia, from its most  prominent symptom, the
abnormal discoloration of the skin.
   §133. IV. The investigation of the changes which supervene after
the wounds ofthe vessels, especially ofthe arteries, are healed, is very
important.   We must examine here, 1st, the total and partial solutions
of continuity; 2dly, wounds from stabs and  incisions ; 3dly, the lon-
gitudinal and transverse wounds ; finally, the  phenomena produced by
ligatures of the vessels.(l)

  (1)  Petit, Mem. sur la maniere  d'arreter les hemorrhagies,  in Mem. de Vac.
des sc. de Paris, 1731-1732.—Morand, Sur les changemens qui arrivent aux arteres
couples, in Mem.  de Paris, 1736, p. 440-450.—Ponteau, Ven den mitteln vel che
die natur anivendet Blutungen zu stillen, &c, Dresden, 1764.—Jones, On the pro-
cess employed by nature in suppressing the hemorrhage from divided and punctured
arteries, London, 1815.—Travers,  Observations on the ligature  of arteries, in the
Medico-Chirurg. transact., London, 1813, vol. iv., p. 434-465. 
150
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   The ordinary mode of healing in wounds of the arteries is the obli-
 teration of the vessel by inflammation.   This occurs even when there
 is no solution of continuity, when a ligature is merely passed around
 the artery, and is removed  after being drawn  tightly.   The effect of
 this constriction is always  to cut  the two internal  tunics without in-
 juring  the external; consequently it produces a wound  in  the first
 two, and changes  them  into a secretory surface, which  immediately
 adheres.   In some experiments made expressly, adhesion took place
 immediately, one  hour after the  application of the ligature, for  the
 pulses were not perceptible in the side operated  upon, even after the
 ligature was removed.(l)   When we merely tie the ligature and im-
 mediately remove  it, the circulation is, at first, uninterrupted;  some-
 times, but not always, obliteration takes* place immediately,(2). which
 proves that it does not result from the coagulation of the blood, but from
 inflammation and from exudation.   The artery is obliterated, not only
 at the part on which the ligature or compression acts  directly, but its
 cavity is  almost always effaced from this point to the first branch it
 gives off.   In this part it becomes a fine cord, and finally entirely disap-
 pears, while the  collateral  branches  dilate in a  greater  or less
 degree (§ 94).
   This occurs necessarily when the whole extent of the vessel has been
 divided crosswise.  But the pricks, the cuts,  which implicate but
 a small  portion of the" arteries, can heal without the obliteration of
 the vessel, and even without the  diminution of its cavity, or  at least
 without any considerable contracti'on.(3)   It  is then possible to heal
 certain wounds of the arteries by cicatrization without  obliteration,
 although(4) the latter frequently results from the method employed to
 form a cicatrix.(5)
   The following occurs in all wounds of  the vessels.  Blood escapes
 from the wounded vessel and coagulates.  If the lesion be inconside-
 rable, and the circulation uninterrupted, the effusion  takes place only
 on the external surface of the artery; but the coagulated portion pro-
jects a little internally, and  soon adheres on one side with the edges of
 the wound, and on the other with the portions of the external surface
of the vessel which immediately surround it.   If the vessel be entirely
divided, it contracts  very much, both lengthwise and across, after the
e'ffusion of blood.   The blood which remains around it, and that which
rests in its cavity, coagulates, whence results a transitory obliteration;
but afterwards the internal membrane of the artery inflames, all the
internal surface of the vessel adheres,  and its  cavity is completely
effaced.
  §  134.  The alterations of tissue in the vascular system are
  1st. Inflammation and its consequences, which act on all the por-
tions of this system, and which very often, by the exudation with which

  (1) Travers, loc. cit. p. 463.
  (2) Travers, loc. cit. p. 442.
  (3)  Jones, loc. tit. p. 151.
  (4) Lambert, 4 new method of treating aneurism, in the London med. obs. and
inquiries, vol. n. p. 3b0.
  (5)  Asman, De ancurismate, Groningen, 1773, 
         OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.    151

 they are followed, determine the obliteration, even of the larger trunks,
 especially in the venous(l) and the lymphatic system, for they attack
 principally their internal membranes.   Inflammation sometimes causes,
 particularly in the veins, a chain of abscesses, which progress along
 thoir course,(2) gradually open externally,and by cicatrizing, obliterate
 the vessel.
   2d. Ossification of the vascular system is not rare.  It depends un-
 doubtedly, hke other  new formations, particularly that of the osseous
 tissue, on an increase of blood.  But the state which precedes  it
 hardly deserves the name of inflammation.
   The principal  phenomena in the ossification of the vascular system
 are:
   a. Ossification always takes place in the internal membrane.
   6. The newly formed  osseous substance appears as  scales of dif-
 ferent breadths, which cover more  or less of the vessel.
   c. Very commonly the internal  membrane, in this  part, is  either
 totally or partially destroyed.
   d. These ossifications develop themselves almost exclusively in the
% system of red blood.    They are very common in the arteries, especially
 the descending aorta below the diaphragm, in the arteries of the lower
 extremities, and in the left ventricle of the heart.   The venous portion
 of the system of red blood, and  all the system of black blood, on the
 contrary,  rarely afford instances.   They are not rare in the lymphatic
 glands, even in young subjects.   In fact, these small bodies often seem
 to be entirely ossified; but when attentively examined, we find a greater
 or less portion, which has undergone no alteration.
   e. They are more common in the male than in the female.
   / Ordinarily they supervene only at an advanced age (§ 86). Still we
 ought to consider them as a morbid state ; for, although they are often
 met with in Europeans, there are aged persons who offer no traces of
 them,  and  they are  rare in  the West Indies.(3)   Besides they are
 sometimes developed in young men, both in the pulmonary artery, and
 in the system of red blood.
    Fragility in the arteries(4) is somewhat allied to ossification ;  this
 sometimes exists alone, but almost  always accompanies the anoma-
 lous development of  the osseous tissue.
    Of all  portions of the vascular system, the lymphatic glands are
 almost  the only parts liable to be converted into formations entirely

   (1') Bouillaud, De V obliteration des veines, et de son influence sur la formation des
 hydropisies partielles; in the Archives generates de medecine, June, 1823, p. 188.,
 May, 1824, p. 94.—Id., Observations sur Vetat des veines dans les infiltrations des
 membres; in the Journal de physiol. experiment, vol. iii. p. 89.
   (2) J. Hunter, Observations on the inflammation of the inner coats of veins; in
 the Trans, of a soc. for impr. of med. and surg. knowl., London, 1793, vol. i. no. 2.
 —Schmuck, Diss,  de vasorum sanguiferorum inflammatione, Heidelberg, 1793.—
 Sasse, Diss, de vasorum  sanguiferorum inflammatione, Halle, 1797.—Spangenberg,
 Sur Vinflammation des arteres et scs terminaisons; in Horn. Archiv fur med. Er-
 fahrung, vol. v. p. 2. no. 1.
   (3) Stevens, in Medico-chirurg. transactions, vol. v. p. 434.
   (4) Malacarne, Osserv. in chirurg. vol. ii., Turin, 1784, art. xii. p. 160. 
152                     GENERAL ANATOMY.
anomalous.  These formations are sometimes primitive, as in scrofu-
lous patients, where the lymphatic glands swell, and  finally are par-
tially or totally changed into a whitish albuminous substance ;  this is
rather hard at first, but afterwards  alters to a thick, grumous  pus.
They may grow by infection when a contagious principle, absoibed»in
a part before diseased, arrives  at the lymphatic  glands, which react
rapidly upon it, as it is their function to assimilate foreign substances.
Hence  inflammation,  tumefaction, and  suppuration  of these organs,
and their changes into morbid  tissues analogous to those already pre-
viously developed in other  parts, with  which they communicate by
means of lymphatic vessels, as is observed in different kinds of ulcers,
in cancers, &c.
                           SECTION III.


                      OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.


                       ARTICLE   FIRST.

            OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.

   § 135.  The nervous system  (systema nervosum) (1). of man, and  of
most animals, namely, of  all those which have a vertebral column,
comprises two portions:  the one,  more  or less  globular,  terminates
in a prolongation similar to a tail;  it is inclosed in the cavity of the skull
and spine.  The other is composed of elongated fine rays, which ramify,
and which, being attached  to the former by their central extremities, are
expanded through the whole body among the other organs, which are
partly formed by their other extremity, or periphery.   The first portion,
called the central or internal, is composed ofthe brain, (encephalum),(2)

  (1) Willis,  Cerebri anatome  nervorumque descriptio et usus, Geneva,  1676.—
Vieussens, Neurographia universalis, Lyons, 1684.—J. C. Mayer, Abhandlung vom
Gehirn,  Ruckenmarck und dem Vrsprungc der Nerven, Berlin, 1779.—G. Pro-
ohaska, Destructura nervorum tractactus anatomicus, Vienna, 1779.—Monro,  Obser-
vations on the structure and the functions of the nervous system, Edinburgh, 1783.—
Vicqd'Azyr, Recherches sur la stucture du cerveau ; in  the Me moires de V academic
des sciences de  Paris, 1781, 1783.—Pfeffinger, Diss, de structural nervorum, Stras-
burg, 1782, 1783.—Metzger, Animadversiones anat. physiol. in doctrinam nervorum,
Koningsberg, 1783.—Gall et Spurzheim, Recherches surr le systeme nerveux, Paris,
1819.—Carus, Anatomic  und Physiologic des Nervensystens, Leipsic, 1814.—Wede-
meyer, Physiologische Vntersuchungen iiber das Nevrensystem und die Respira-
tion, Hanover, 1817.—Nasse, Veber das verhaltniss des Gehirns und Ruckenmarks
zur Belebung des vhrigen Korpers. Halle, 1818.—Georget, De la physiologic du
systeme nerveux, specialement du cerveau; recherches  sur les maladies nerveuses,
etc., Paris, 1821.
  (2) Malpighi,  De cerebro; in the  Epist.  anat. de cerebri cortice;  ibid.—Vicq
d'Azyr, Traite d'anat. et de phys., Paris, 1786.—J. and C. Wenzel, De penitiori struc-
tura cerebri twminis et brutorum, Tubingen. 1812.—Reil, Fragmente iiber die Bil-
dung des Gehirns; in the Archiv fur die Physiologic, vol. viii. ix. xi.—Rolando,
Saggio sulla vera struttura del cervello  dell' uomo, Sassari, 1809.—Rosenthal, Ein
Beytrag zur Encephalotomie, Weimar, 1815.—Gordon,  Observations on the struc-
ture of the brain, Edinburgh, 1817.—Burdach, Vom Bau und Leben des Gehirns,
Leipsic, 1819-1822.—Tiedemann, Anatomie du cerveau, transl. by Jourdau, Pari3,
1823.—Serres, Anatomie comparee du cerveau, Paris, 1824. 
6P THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      153
  and of the spinal marrow (medulla spinaliS))(l); the other, the exter-
  nal or peripheric, is the nerves.(2)
    Those nerves which arise from the brain are called the  cerebral
  nerves, (nervi cerebrates,) and those coming from the spinal  marrow
  are called the  spinal  nerves  (nervi spinales).   The whole number is
  forty-two pairs, twelve of which  are  cerebral,  and the other  thirty
  spinal;  strictly speaking, however, there are only eleven pairs of cere-
  bral and thirty-one of spinal nerves.
    § 136. It is in  the nervous system  especially that we discern that
  the body is composed of two lateral corresponding portions.  In fact, all
  its parts are double, or when simple are placed near the median line,
  along which the two halves which constitute them unite, and blend in
  one mass.   This  arrangement is observed equally in the central por-
  tion, and in the periphery.  At  the same  time the two lateral parts
  correspond exactly in all the nervous  system, so that they vary less
  in situation, form, and volume, than other organs, and it is often  im-
  possible to perceive the least difference  between  them.   This system
  is then symmetrical in the strictest sense of the word.  The symmetry
  appears  especially in   the brain and  spinal  marrow, and  the nerves
  which are immediately attached  to  these  two organs.  It is less
  marked in the  great sympathetic nerve, a part of the system almost
 isolated from the rest.   This difference  deserves to  be more attended
 to, because the symmetry of  the organs corresponds exactly to that of
 the portion of the nervous system with which they are connected.  All
 parts of the brain, the spinal  marrow, and  their nerves are not  how-
 ever equally symmetrical.  The external is less so than the internal
 portion.  Hence why the  surface of the brain and  the arrangement
 of the  extreme  ramifications of the nerves on the right and left sides
 differ more than  the deep portions of the encephalon, and the origins
 of the nerves on both sides.
   § 137. The structure of the nervous system is also very constant.
 It is indisputably the system of organs  in which we find the fewest
 anomalies.  In this respect however the same difference exists between
 its parts as in the preceding;  for the great sympathetic nerve presents
 numerous and considerable variations  in every respect, while the in-
 ternal parts, especially  the origins  of the nerves, are very constant
 We have no instance of a nerve arising from any other than its usual
 point;  unlike the vascular system, in which anomalies, even of the
 largest  trunks, are  very  common.

 Jw?1^?;.Medul\^Pin^anat., Amsterdam, 1666.-J. J. Huber, De medulld
 «Afl  r%e\mJ\~r1- C-Jr7^er Descriptio medullcc  spinalis, Erlan-
 Sf^' V Kenffel, De medulla spmali diss., Halle, I810.-Racchetti, Delia
 struttura, delle funzione e delle malattie delta midolla spinale. Milan, 1816.—Olli-
 Vzrk if1 surfa™tomve et les vices de conformation de la moelle epiniere, Paris,
 ZH'iZ    ,'  ■ l la m?elle epi™™ et de ses maladies, Paris,  1823,-Rolando, Ri-
 cercneanatomiche sulla struttura del midollo spinale, Turin, 1824.
 , J,7 A™emann, Versuch iiber die  Regeneration an lebenden Thieren, Gottingen,
Halle 1797 P""'P" 127~308-~Reil> Exercitationes anatomies de structure/, nervorum,
   Vol. I.                        20 
154
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   § 138.  Considered either in regard to symmetry or structure, the
nervous  system of man is less  regular than that of other animals,
even  those which are nearest to him.   This remark has already been
made by Vicq d'Azyr ;(1) and the observations of Wenzel(2) prove
its justice.  In fact the halves of the nervous system correspond more
perfectly in the mammalia, and the deviations from the  normal state in
these animals are  rarer than in man.
   § 139.  The nervous system is composed principally  of semi-coagu-
lated  albumen.  We find, besides, two kinds of fatty matter, a peculiar
reddish-brown gelatinous substance, osmazome, phosphorus, sulphur,
hydrochlorate of soda, and several phosphates.(3)  The  analysis of
the brain of man gives the following results:
   Water................80.00
   Whitish fatty substance -----......4.53
   Reddish fatty substance, called cerebrine.....0.70
   Albumen................7.00
   Osmazome..........,...-.   1.12
   Phosphorus -   -   -  -...........   1.50
   Salts and sulphur  -  -  -..........5.15

                                                   Total, 100.00
   The spinal marrow and its  upper part, the medulla oblongata, have
the same chemical composition;  but they differ from the brain in con-
taining more fatty matter, and more -albumen, osmazome, and water.
   In the nerves on the contrary, we find less fatty substance and more
albumen than in the brain.(4)
   § 140. This system  is mostly formed of a white and soft substance
called the medullary substance, (substantia  medullaris.)   This  sub-
stance alone probably  constitutes  the  nerves.   In the central part of
the system  we find  an abundance  of  another  substance called the
gray  or  cineritious substance,  (substantia cinerea,) from its color, and
the cortical  substance (substantia corticalis,) because it  forms  the
external layer of the brain, where it envelopes the medullary  sub-
stance.   Finally,  the brain contains more or less of a third substance,
the yellow substance,  (substantia flava,) and, besides these two, in some
parts, even a fourth, the  black  substance,  (substantia nigra;)  but
properly speaking, these are simple  modifications of one and the
same  substance.
   § 141. Besides  their difference in color,  these  substances vary from
one another in many respects  :

  (1) Mem. de VAcad. des sc, 1783,  p. 470.
  (2) Wenzel, Prodr.  et De penit. cer. struct, chap. iii.
  (3) Fourcroy, in the Ann. de chimie, vol. xvi. p. 282-322.—Vauquelin, Analyse de
la maticre cerebrate  de  Vhomme  et des animaux, in the Ann. du  Mus. d'hist.
naturelle, vol. xvin. p. 212-239.
  (4) Home, Observations on the brain and nerves, proving that their component
materials exist m the blood, in the Philosoph. Transact. 1821, p. 25.-Chevreul has
detected cerebrine in  the blood.—P. T 
          OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      155

   1st. In their proportional quantity. The medullary substance exceeds
 the cortical substance, although in certain parts of the brain the latter
 is more abundant.
   2d.  In structure.  Their final elements of form are in fact the same;
 but we remark in the medullary substance  that they more evidently
 combine to produce  secondary formations, as we shall show hereafter.
   3d.  In their physical qualities. The gray substance is softer and more
 fluid than the medullary substance ; it also diminishes more in drying.
   4th.  The gray substance receives more blood vessels than the medul-
 lary substance;  hence it has been considered  as entirely vascular;
 but this is not probable, since even the most successful injections do
 not change it into a  tissue of vessels.
   5th.  The gray substance differs perhaps a little from the medullary
 substance  in chemical composition.   It is said  not to contain phos-
 phorus. (?) (1)
   This substance is not similar  in all parts.   Thus it is paler in the
 tubercula quadrigemina than in the  thalami optici;  paler too in the
 latter and on the surface of the brain than in the corpora striata. The
 yellow substance is less abundant than the gray, and the band it forms
 between the latter and the medullary substance, is narrower than the
 gray  stratum.   Still the gray substance forms considerable masses in
 different parts; for instance, in the centre of the cerebellum, in the cor-
 pus fimbriatum,  and the eminentia olivaria.  It is  there also firmer
 than the medullary substance.
   The black substance is found only in a few parts.   There is also in
 some parts a bluish substance.(2)
   § 142. The structure of the nervous system is every where the
 same, at least in its essential characters. Its remote elements of form are
 globules, united by a semi-fluid substance.(3)  These globules are found
 both in the medullary and cortical portions, in  the brain, spinal mar-
 row, and in  the  nerves.  Opinions vary in regard to their form and
size, and to  the  degree of  consistence of the substance which unites
 them.
   § 143.  According to Delia Torre,  these  globules  differ in volume
and  transparency in all  parts of the nervous  system;  the largest
being found in the cerebrum so called,  the next in size are those of the
cerebellum, while those of the  medulla oblongata are  still smaller,
although  larger than those of the medulla spinalis ;  the  smallest and
most opaque are found in the  nerves;  even in  these they vary in size,
diminishing continually from the origin of the  nerves to their termina-
tions.   The globules .of the cortical,  are always larger than those of
 the medullary, substance.


  (1) John, Chemische Tabellen des Thierreichs, Berlin, 1814, p. 74.
  (2) Wenzel, loc. cit. chap. 16.
  (3) Delia Torre, Nuope osservazioni  microscopiche, Naples, 1776, p. 16-21.—Pro-
chaska, De structural nervorum,  Vienna,  1779, sect. ii. c. 10.—Wenzel, loc. cit.
chap. iv.—A. Barba,  Osservazioni microscopiche sul cervello e sulle parti adjacenti
Naples, 1807.—Home and Bauer, in the Phil, trans., 1821. 
156
GENERAL ANATOMY
   Prochaska and Barba on the contrary think that the globules are of
the same size in  every part of the nervous system ; and that the dif-
ference remarked by some depends on the difficulty of separating from
each other.
   Prochaska  estimates their  size at  one eighth of  those of  the
blood ;(1) but  he  thinks they are not all similar in this respect, even
in one and the same part.
   It has not  yet  been  ascertained whether  they differ regularly at
different periods of hfe, as has been observed in certain animals.(2)
   § 144. They are not perfectly round.   Whether they are hollow or
sohd has not yet been determined ; because, from their smallness, and
from  optical deception, this  part of their history is ascertained with
difficulty.
   § 145. According to Prochaska, these globules are united by a deli-
cate cellular  tissue.   Delia Torre thinks, however, that it is by a
transparent viscous fluid,  more tenacious in the medullary than in the
cortical  substance.  In the different parts of the nervous system the
viscidity of that which belongs to the medullary substance increases in
the same ratio as the size  of the globules decreases.
   Barba says,  however, that this difference is only imaginary, and
depends on the length of time which elapses between death and the
moment of observation.
   § 146. These two elements of form unite in all parts of the nervous
system,  giving rise to fibres, most of which are longitudinal.
   § 147. In no system is  this fibrous structure more apparent than in
the nerves.  Almost all the nerves  are formed  of a greater or  less
number  of fasciculi, visible  to the naked eye, these are composed of
smaller cords,(funes) and these again of minute filaments (fila.)   The
fasciculi, cords, and filaments ramify and anastomose extensively; and
we cannot  find a  single fasciculus which extends any distance in a
straight line.   At the ends of the nerves these ramifications and com-
munications are fewer  than in their course.  The size of the filaments
and cords formed by them differs not  only in different nerves, but even
in the  same nerve.   Their diameters vary from one tenth of a line to
several lines.   They are  thicker in  the  body of a nerve than at its
extremities, where they separate and become smaller.  All the nerv-
ous fasciculi, whether  formed of large or small collections of  fibres,
follow the longitudinal direction of the nerve.
   § 148. The medulla of the nerve is not loose.  .  Each filament, even
the smallest, has  a special  sheath which closely  envelopes it,  and
which is formed like  the filament.   Hence when the medullary  sub-
stance is removed  by an  alkaline solution, the tunnels represent the
form  of  the entire nerve, and the medullary substance exhibits the
  (1) Loc. cit. p. 72.
  (2) Carus thinks that the globules are arranged in masses in the central nortions
and ,n  regular lines in the nerves.  Milne fdwards  determined that the^Tus
substance ofthe encephalon, ofthe  spinal marrow, and of the nerves in 3Sfour
classes of ver ebral animals, is formed of globules of  « of a millimetfe uniteS1 £
a series so as to form primitive fibres which are considerably long.-P. T. 
          OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       157

same appearance  when its tunic is removed  by  immersion  in an
acid.(l)   The alkalies  dissolve the  pulp, which may  be pressed out
easily, so  that having tied the nerve and filled it with mercury or air,
and  dried  it,  the. canaliculated  structure becomes apparent.   On the
contrary, the  acids destroy the sheath and harden the fibres, the finest
of which then become visible to the naked eye.
   §  149.  The nerve then is composed of two substances, a medullary
portion  and the  canals- which inclose it.   These canals are formed of
mucous  tissue, and are  called neurilemma,  a term derived from their
relation to the medullary substance.  The neurilemma envelopes the
whole nerve, and generally we can suppose it furnished internally with
folds which continually  diminish.   It receives numerous vessels which
divide, at  right  angles,  into two trunks, one straight, the other retro-
grade ;  these frequently anastomose together.
   The neurilemma is very firm  and difficult to tear.   It appears to be
the secretory organ of the medullary, with which its relations diminish
at the two extremities of the nerves.   Near the central termination it
disappears within the nerve sooner than on the surface, so that the col-
lection of the neurilemmatous canals forms a considerable depression
towards the brain and spinal marrow.
   §  150.  Besides the fibrous structure  of the nerves and their forma-
tion  by two substances, the pulp and neurilemma, and the irregularity of
form which results  from this circumstance, their  external surface is
banded and undulated, and hence appears uneven.(2)  By the naked
eye  we observe on the surface of the nerve, and with a microscope, in
the  cords  which compose it, spiral bands which are directed obliquely
in zigzag.  This  appearance vanishes when the nerve is extended,
but  is again perceptible when  the  extension ceases.   It disappears
entirely  in the  morbid  state, or at least in nerves softened or decayed'
either from  maceration  or  from  the effect of alcohol.  It  doubtless
depends on  a folding which  takes place when the nerve  shortens, on
account  of its slight contractility.   It is principally  seated in the neu-
rilemma, for  it is not well marked in those nerves which are soft, and
those furnished with a feeble sheath, as  the olfactory nerve.(3)


  (1) Reil, De structura nervorum, p. 3-17.—Osiander, Epigr.incompl.museianat.
res., Gottingen, 1807, p. 51.
r (2) Molinelli,  Comment. Bonon., vol. iii. p. 280.—Fontana, Sur la structure des
nerfs; in his Obs. sur les poisons, vol. ii.—Monro, loc. cit. chap. 12, 13.—Arnemann,
loc. cit. p. 147-174.
  (3) Prevost and Dumas have published some observations on the structure of the
nerves, which we shall here mention.  They state that the nerves have a satinlike
appearance, which was first completely and exactly described by Fontana. It is very
smooth, especially in the nerves of the cat, rabbit, guinea pig,  frog, &c.  When
examined with  a magnifier of ten or fifteen diameters only, we then see on their
surfaces alternate white and dark bands, which frequently resemble the turns of a
spiral spring which might be placed under the neurilemma. This appearance, like that
of the tendinous tissues, depends on a slight folding of the fibres of the neurilemma,
wliich loses its transparency in some parts, and retains it in others.  Those which are
opaque reflect all the light  which strikes on  their surface,  and the others on the
contrary allow  it to pass in sufficient quantity to render visible the colored bodies
placed under the nerves. When we  attempt to draw it out, all this appearance 
158
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   § 151.  All nerves are not formed exactly after the same type, and
 probably  the modifications observed in this respect depend on differ-
 ences in  their mode of action.   These differences relate to their inner
 structure  and their configuration or external form.
   Modifications of the inner structure may depend either on the  medul-
 lary substance, or the  neurilemma  ; but it is  probable that in most
 cases both are concerned.  They are—
   1st.  Differences  in solidity and  hardness.   Generally,  the  nerves
 which go to  the heart, the large vessels, and to the abdominal viscera,
 the auditory, and particularly the olfactory nerves, are much softer than
 the others.   We find scarcely a trace of the neurilemma in the olfactory
 nerve.   On the contrary, the fasciculi of the optic nerve are, proportion-
 ally speaking, much larger than those of the other nerves.   Very pro-
 bably, then, this difference depends not only on the greater or less con-
 sistence of the medullary matter, but also  on the arrangement  of the
 neurilemma.
   2d. Differences in color.  The  nerves of the heart  and abdomen,
 and the olfactory nerves,  are mostly reddish,  and not white like the
 others.   There is even a gray substance in the centre of the olfactory
 nerve.
   3d. Differences in the arrangement of the nervous cords and fila-
 ments.   Their size varies, but not in proportion  to the volume  of the
 nerves.   The cords of the principal nerves of the inferior extremity, for


 vanishes, and if we divide the neurilemma we find nothing resembling it. It would
 not then deserve notice if it did not offer a very certain mark to recognize the small
 nervous filaments, and render it easy to distinguish them from the blood-vessels or
 the lymphatics. But when we take a nerve, and, dividing its neurilemma longitu-
 dinally, draw out the pnlpous matter under water, we find it composed of numerous
 small parallel filaments of equal size, and which seem to be contained in the whole
 nerve.  At  least we never see them unite or divide, whatever part  we examine.
 These filaments are flat and composed of four elementary fibres, arranged in nearly
 the same level, whence they appear like a ribbon.  They are also formed of globules,
 aa usual, and  are curious, as the two  external are most apparent.   The middle
 range is observed occasionally, doubtless, because the pressure it experiences causes
 the line traced  by the globules of which it is composed to disappear.  The number
 of these secondary nervous fibres is very great, as is seen by the following calcula-
 tion, even when the results of experiments are not strictly regarded. Let us suppose
 that each nervous fibre occupies one thirtieth of a square millimetre of a section of a
 nerve, we have  90,000 for each square millimeter.  But we know that the secondary
 nervous  fibres include four elementary fibres.  We should then find 22,500 in the
 same space, or  about 16,000 in a cylindrical nerve of the diameter of a millimeter
 See their Memoire sur les phenom. qui accomp. la contract, de la fib. muse  in the
 Journ. de Physiologie Experimentale, vol. iii. 1823, p. 301.—F. T *
  * In regard to the composition of the nerves, M. Raspail, from recent microsco-
pical observations, asserts, " that if a filament from a nervous trunk be  examined by
the microscope, the trunk is seen to consist only of an agglutination of cylinders,
the 50th part of a millimeter in diameter."  Fontana has proved that these cylinders
are composed of a smooth and transparent membrane, containing within " a glutin-
 ous, transparent, and elastic matter that does not dissolve in the water in which the
cylinders float."  Having pressed out this  matter between two glasses he  caused
it to return again by diminishing the pressure.  M. Raspail considers each of these
cylinders as a cellule which has grown only in length.  It incloses a true cellular
tissue, imbued  with a homogeneous and fatty substance.   It has no longitudinal
cavity, and its  growth extends itself from the encephalon to its extreme ramifica-
tions.  Am. Med. Jour., Nov. 1828, from the Repertoire d' Anatomie &c 
        OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       159

instance,, are always finer than  those of the superior, although the
nerves of the latter are larger than those of the former.  The laryngceal
nerve appears as one fasciculus, on which are numerous furrows, which
indicate the smaller cords, and it is surrounded externally only by a tis-
sue composed of fine filaments.   In some nerves, as the median nerve
and the sciatic nerve, the size of all the cords is nearly the same.   In
others we  see the large cords  alternating  with those which are very
small.   The anastomotic structure, so apparent in most of the nerves,
is not observed in the optic nerve which is composed of straight separate
cords, which proceed one at the side of another ; these cords do not di-
vide in turn into others which are smaller, so that we may consider
them filaments as well as fasciculi.
  In regard to figure, the nerves are generally similar in their round
form ; nevertheless, the olfactory differs from all others, as its shape is
triangular.
  Most nerves resemble long trunks, which give off branches along
their course, and gradually divide into smaller trunks.  The cords and
fascicuh consequently are united here.   Another arrangement is seen
in the nerves of the abdomen, where the fasciculi and cords are sepa-
rated from each other;  so that the trunks which are formed, when com-
pared with their branches, are not very thick.   This difference must be
ascribed partly to the difference in the form of the regions to which
the nerves proceed, since the trunks of  the extremities are the longest
of all, and those of the head and trunk are  much  shorter ; and it must
doubtless  be ascribed also partly to the general law, which is, that the
organisms and organs of an inferior character are, as a whole, less cen-
tralized than the organs and organisms of a superior character.
  § 152.  The large or small collections of fibres of which the  nerves
are composed, do not remain united; but the nerves ramify in their
course,  as their  fibrous  fasciculi separate.   The trunks divide into
branches,  and these into twigs, &c.   The branches are generally given
off  at acute angles.   But the cords and filaments which unite to form
a secondary division, are always separated within the  trunks much
higher than they  seem to be when we examine their surfaces only.  -In
this arrangement the nervous and vascular systems differ'greatly.  It
is not strictly correct to say, that the structure of the nerves differs from
the arrangement of the vessels, because the cords and filaments which
constitute a trunk or a branch of a nerve partially retrograde, as there
is something analogous in the arrangement of the branches and  ramus-
cules ofthe vessels.  But the nerves differ from the vessels because their
trunks sometimes run a long space without dividing, while the  vessels
ramify every where and at short intervals, except in a few instances, as
the spermatic vessels, which in fact prove nothing, since this arrange-
ment exists because, at a certain period of  life, the vessel is inclosed in
a small space.
  § 153.  The fibrous and anastomotic structure is seen not only within
the nerves, but is apparent  also at their origin  and in  their course.
Many nerves anastomose differently together. 
160                    GENERAL ANATOMY.
   There are three kinds of anastomosis :  1st, anastomosis, properly
so called, or union in  a web, (ansa);  2d, the  plexus;  and  3dly, the
ganglion.
   Anastomosis is formed  by isolated branches  of  different nerves,
which have nearly the same size.   In this manner, for instance, the
ulnar and the median nerves unite in the hand; the  spinal nerves,
shortly after, leaving the vertebral canal, the different branches of the
fifth pair, the branches of this nerve, with the facial and cervical nerves.
In this manner also the ansa are formed around the vessel.   Anasto-
mosis occurs:
   1st. Between the different branches of the same nerve, as is seen in
the fifth pair, those of the facial, laryngoeal, and intercostal nerves.
   2d.  Between two branches  of different nerves, situated,  however
on the same side, as between two spinal nerves, or between the branches1
of the spinal and the intercostal nerves.
   3d.  Between two branches of synonymous nerves on each side, as
the superficial nerves of  the fifth and  seventh pairs,  and the nerves of
the neck.
   § 154. The plexus(l) is, properly speaking, only an anastomosis be-
tween the different cords of the same or of different nerves.   The cords
divide into very minute branches, and the filaments which come from
this division give rise to very numerous anastomoses between different
nerves ;  so that the new nerves, which come from the plexus, are
formed of filaments derived from many different trunks.   The pneumo-
gastric nerve, before it enters the lungs, is an instance of a plexus
formed by different cords, coming from the same nerve.   The plexuses
formed from  different nerves occur in the nerves of the upper and
lower extremities particularly.
   One cannot admit the difference between the plexus and anastomo-
sis, mentioned by Bichat, when comparing the communication be-
tween the filaments of the facial nerve, and of the fifth pair  with that
between  the spinal nerves, by saying, that in the former  there is an in-
timate mixture, a perfect fusion or identity, while there is only a simple
propinquity, a simple juxtaposition in the second ;  for there is as much
fusion and mixture in both ;  but in the latter, the branches which unite
are smaller and more numerous.
   § 155. The structure of the ganglions is more complicated than that
of the plexus, and  their destination is probably different.    Their exist-
ence seems to be more independent than the plexuses; they appear
to be distinct bodies, much larger than the nerves with which they are
united, while the plexuses are simple communications which intimately
connect adjacent nerves, but do not increase their substance.
   The ganglions(2) have no general and  regular form ; in different
persons they vary exceedingly in size, form, attachment, and  even in

  (1) Scarpa, De nervorum gangliis etplexubus, 1779.
  (2) Haase,  De gangliis nervorum, Leipsic, 1772.—Kwiatowsky, Theses anat.
phys. de nervorum decussationeetgangliis, Konigsberg, 1784.—Weber, De systemale
nerveo organico, Leipsic, 1817.—Wutzer,  De  corporis  humani gangliorumfabricd
atqueusu, Berlin, 1817. 
         OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      161

 existence,  since large ganglions  are sometimes  entirely  deficient.
 Most of them, however,  are rounded,  a little flattened, smooth on the
 surface, situated very deeply,  and surrounded with an abundance of
 cellular tissue.   They are somewhat  hard, and of  ordinary  color.
 When we open  them, we  see they are homogeneous masses, having no
 determinate structure.   In all their  qualities they singularly resemble
 the lymphatic glands.   The substance of which they are composed is
 always closely surrounded with a peculiar thin membrane formed of
 mucous tissue,  and very  abundant in vessels, over which there is
 either a loose cellular tissue, or a fibrous capsule, a continuation of the
 dura mater spinalis.   Nerves arise from the ganglions.
   When the nervous ganglions are macerated, they can be resolved into
 two substances, viz. into convoluted filaments, which are continuous with
 the nerves attached to the  ganglions, and a grayish red, gelatinous, saltis
 mass, which fills the spaces between the filaments, and also envelopes
 them.  According to Scarpa(l) the  latter  substance is oily, and even
 pure  fat in gross people.    Bichat(2) was mistaken in saying that fat
 is never formed in the ganglions.
   The substance of the nervous ganglions is very vascular.
   § 156. The ganglions may be divided into simple  and compound.
 The former are developments ofthe filaments of one nerve only, and com-
 municate with no other.   The compound, on the contrary, are the cen-
 tral and connecting points of several nerves.  They differ too from each
 other in more than one respect.
   § 157. The form and situations of the simple ganglions are constant.
 They are never deficient, and are found near the origins  of the spinal
 nerves, and belong to their posterior roots.  Their envelope and sub-
 stance is firmer than those of the compound ganglions.  Their exter-
 nal capsule continues with the dura mater spinalis, and the internal
 with the spinal portion of the pia mater.  Although the filaments of
 these ganghons ramify, and anastomose  very extensively, yet they
 have  all the same longitudinal direction.   Nerves arise from them only
 in the two opposite points,  viz. from the inside arises that portion of
 the posterior root of the nerve which is between the ganglion and the
spinal marrow, and from the outside, the external nerve^ which soon con-
 nects  itself with  the anterior root. (§170.)
   §158. The compound ganglions exist in every part of the body, but
 are found principally in the thoracic and abdominal cavities, more par-
 ticularly in the latter.  They are softer than the simple ganghons; their
 external envelope is formed by the surrounding cellular  tissue.  They
 vary in form, situation, and  number.  Their constituent fibres do not ex-
 tend from one extremity to the other, but proceed in all directions.  Fi-
 nally, nerves emerge not only from their two extremities, but from va-
 rious points of their surface.  The filaments never come from the points
 where other nerves enter ;  hence these same filaments are never inter-
 cepted at very acute angles.

                 (1) Loc. cit. p. 16.
                (2) General Anatomy, vol. i. p. 259.
   Vol. I                       21 
162
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   § 159. The fibrous structure and  the  intercrossing of the  nerves
 are also found in the brain and spinal marrow ; but here they are less
 evident than in the nerves.  At first, the brain and spinal marrow seem
 formed only of a soft, pulpy, and homogeneous mass ;  but the fibrous
 structure should not be denied on  account of this appearance, as has
 been done by several anatomists.(l)
   We have no need of mechanical  or chemical agents to observe in
 many places distinct fibres, especially in those brains which are firmer
 than usual.  Thus they are seen in the corpora pyramidalia of the me-
 dulla oblongata, the crura cerebri, the corpora striata, the corpus cal-
 losum,  the tuber annulare, the commissures generaUy, and in  the for-
 nix.  We have even distinguished them on cutting into the mass of
 the hemispheres. But those who admit their existence in several parts
 of the encephalon, say it is not certain that the structure of the whole
 organ is fibrous, or at  least they allow it only in certain cases.(2)
   Others, who admit the existence of these fibres after death, regard
 them as produced by  the coagulation of the cerebral substance, which
 they consider pulpous during life ;(3) consequently these two opinions
 are similar.  Malpighi was the first to demonstrate the fibrous structure
 ofthe brain, and to describe in what manner its fibres come from the spi-
 nal marrow.   But the principal writers u« this part of anatomy are Gall
 and Reil; the latter, especially, has rendered a very important  service
 to science in  making  known the  structure  of  the  spinal marrow,(4)
 which, before his time, had been regarded as a shapeless, pulpy mass,
 even by those who admitted the fibrous structure of the brain.
   Those who admit the fibrous structure of the brain, differ*in opinion
 whether this  structure be peculiar  to the medullary substance or
 whether the cortical substance also be fibrous.
   Those who admit fibres in the medullary substance, deny that they
 exist in the cortical;  as  Malpighi, Haller,  and Soemmerring.   The
 cortical substance, however, is truly fibrous.  In dissecting some very
 firm brains, we have often observed, not only the phenomenon remarked
 by Stenson(5) and Vicq d'Azyr,(6)  viz.  that the delicate  fibres of
 the medullary substance  may be followed into the cortical portion  but
 also that the  latter is evidently fibrous in its structure.
   The fibrous structure of the brain  is demonstrated  by another cir-
 cumstance ; that the fibres are always arranged in the same manner
 however various are the  means used to demonstrate them.
   § 160. The spinal  marrow makes  the transition from  the  nerves
to the brain, since it is, like the latter, inclosed in  a  bony case  en-
veloped by the same membranes, communicates directly with it  and

  (1) See Bichat, Anat. descrip. vol. iii. p. 96., where he goes so far as to ascribe the
transverse fibres of the corpus callosum to a slight laceration by the knife
  (2) Haller, De part. vol. iii. p. 48.—Scemmerring, Nervenlehre, p. 29.
  (3) Ackermann, Veber die Gall'sche Schddellehre, § 6.
  (4) De cerebro, Amsterdam, 1669, p. 8-10.
  (5) Disc, sur Vanat. du cerveau, Paris, 1669.
  (6) Mem. de Vac. des sc. 1781. p. 511. 
         OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       163

,a t first view has a soft and pulpy appearance ; but in texture it resem-
bles the nerves.   It is closely surrounded with a membrane formed of
mucous tissue and of vessels, which resembles the neurilemma, but is
called the pia mater,  on account of its intimate  union with it, or
the vascular membrane, from  its numerous vessels.  A simple  pro-
longation is detached from the  centre of the internal face of the an-
terior part of this membrane, which goes inward and backward, and
penetrates to the centre of the spinal marrow.  Numerous small chan-
nels arise from each side of this prolongation, which pass through the
whole spinal marrow, anastomose frequently together, and are visible,
especially when the medullary substance has been destroyed by an al-
kaline solution.   This structure is also seen when  the spinal marrow
is hardened by immersion in an acid, for it is then divided into nume-
rous  longitudinal layers,  formed in  their turn of very fine cords.
Sometimes it is observed in the spinal marrow in its natural state, when
its two portions are gently separated; and it may be distinguished also on
the surface of this organ if it be naturally firm, and its pia mater be re-
moved.  The channels are smaller in the gray than in the medullary
substance, and are limited suddenly by it.
   The internal structure of the spinal marrow is then more analogous
to the nerves, although it is softer and its fibres are less apparent.(l)
   § 161.  The spinal  marrow is composed  of two lateral parts, which
are separted from each other before, by the  prolongation of the pia ma-
ter above mentioned.  Towards the upper part of this organ, near
where it enters the skull, its cords divide into several fasciculi, which
cross obliquely,  so that those from the right side  pass to the  left,
and vice versa.   At the same  time,  these are  enlarged by  the  ad-
dition of several  masses of gray substance.   On the sides are detached
the crura cerebelli, or corpora restiformia, which develope and give rise
to the cerebellum.  Before and above are perceived the pyramidal
bodies,  (corpora pyramidalia,)  two  oblong eminences  placed  near
each other, on the under face of the upper extremity of the spinal mar-
row.  These pass over a large  projection formed of transverse fibres of
cortical and medullary substance called the pons varolii, or annular
protuberance, (nodus cerebri,) and penetrate  the inferior face ofthe brain,
where their fibrous structure becomes apparent by the separation of their
medullary substance,  in  the  interstices of which the gray substance
extends.   Being now much enlarged and  divergent, they pass before
the pons varolii, and produce the peduncles of the brain, (crura cerebri.)
These pass below and across the two masses of gray substance, situated
one at the side of the other, called the thalami optici, and before which
are formed the  corpora striata;  after  this,  their  fibres, becoming
very apparent, unfold  in all directions in the cerebral hemispheres, of
which they form the principal part, and extend circularly ;  this radia-
tion of fibres from the gray substance is  called, by Reil,. the corona
radiata (stabkranzes).(2)
                 (1) Scemmerring, Nervenlehre, p. 62-63.
                 (2) Reil, Archiv., &c. vol. ix. P. 1. p. 159. 
164
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   § 162. The two lateral  portions of the  spinal marrow and of the
 encephalon are not only placed close to each other, but are attached
 by medullary fibres, and gray substance.   The places where they are
 connected may be termed by the general name of commissures.  These
 commissures are every where narrower  than the parts  which  they
 unite.    If examined attentively,  they can be traced in each  part
 much farther than one would suppose at first view.   As the fibres de-
 scribed in the preceding paragraph are longitudinal, while those of the
 commissures are, on the  contrary, oblique,  Gall(l) considers them as
 forming a peculiar fibrous apparatus, and admits both in  the cerebrum
 and in the cerebellum, an order  of diverging, and one of  converging
fibres.   These two orders have been more  physiologically termed the
 first, the apparatus of formation, the second, the  apparatus of union.
 They are also named from the parts they concur to form ; the first,
 the system of the cerebral peduncles ; the other, the system ofthe corpus
 callosum.  The fibres of these apparatuses differ, not only in their direc-
 tion, but in their origin, position, and  consistence.  In fact, while the
 diverging fibres terminate at the external  surface of the encephalon in
 the gray substance, the recurrent fibres arise from the gray substance and
 proceed on the median line, where they unite by commissures of greater
 or less extent. We cannot consider these  unions themselves as origins
 ofthe recurrent fibres ; for it is a general law, that the medullary sub-
 stance arises from the gray substance, and the commissures extend
 some distance beyond  the two  cerebral hemispheres.  The fibres of
 this system are  placed between those of the diverging system, and
 consequently much more internally.   They are much softer and finer
 than the latter. They form distinct layers, which envelope the cerebral
 ventricles. In admitting this second system which arises from the gray
 substance deposited on the surface of the encephalon,  we explain  how
 the two parts of the organ inclose more of the nervous mass than the
 corpora striata, so that they appear only as an appendage or appurte-
 nance of these parts.
   We cannot determine  with precision  how the two systems unite.
 Even Gall  admits that we cannot ascertain whether  the fibres of the
 diverging mass are reflected in the gray  substance, and change their
 direction, and thus produce a new recurrent nervous system, or if the
 latter be really a separate body, which does not arise  from the former.
 Reil, who does not appear to admit a single system of commissures  con-
 nected in all parts, since he describes the structure of the corpus callo-
 sum separately from that ofthe anterior commissure of  the brain, and no
 where  informs us that  their expansions are connected, Reil, we  say,
 thinks  the  two systems  are not  in every  part united in the same
 manner.  He only states  generally in regard to the union of the radi,
 ating fibres of the anterior commissure with those of the cerebral pedun-
 cles, that they form  a whole, but  he believes the modes of union be-
  (1) Gall, Ontheanator
my and physiology ofthe 
OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.
  tween the radiations of the  corpus callosum and that of the cerebral
  peduncles are numerous.  In fact, we find between them and forward
  a medullary substance less evidently fibrous, which unites them. Far-
  ther back  the two systems anastomose ;  and still farther, their fibres
  reciprocally penetrate each other, and intercross several times, forming
  a dehcate suture ; finally, the most posterior part of the corpus callo
  sum passes above the system of the cerebral peduncles without uniting
  to it, and gives origin to two separate  masses, which may be entirely
  detached from each other.(l)                                     *
    § 163  The structure of the brain differs from  that of the nerves
  principally in two respects:  1st, its  constituent  fibres  mostly form
  ayers ; 2d, we find no neurilemma within it.  Its  fibres are loose and
  he surface of the bram is covered only with a capsule analogous to
  he neurilemma, which, as in the spinal marrow, is called the pia ma-
  Zw w    ^unl^mmatlc tubes do not  exist,  even in those  parts
  which, from then form,  are usually considered as nerves ; as that part
  of the optic nerve situated behind the place  of crossing, and the olfac-
  tory nerves^  Thus  they consider the  olfactory nerve!' as  making a
  part of he  bram itself, and very properly  regard their branches alone
  as constituting so many distinct olfactory nerves.   Besides the absence
  of neurilemma, the form of the nerve, its gray mass and the swelling of
 its round extremity which resembles a  ganglion, are so many circum-
 stances in favor of this opinion.  The same remarks apply to the inner
 part of the optic nerve, which would then arise only at the place of
 crossmg.                                         J        v
   The arrangement ofthe pia mater, however, and its relations to the
 cerebral substance also establish an analogy between  it and the neu-
 rilemma.  On one hand, the external surface of the brain is folded  at
 least partially, in certain animals;  and every where in man and  in
 most mammalia, has  circumvolutions (gyri) and furrows (sulci) situ-
 ated between them, by which the pia mater penetrates to the internal
 surface of the  brain, into the ventricles, where the choroid processes
 (processus choroidei)  form, and numerous  vessels  enter, especially
 in  certain uniform  places, into the  internal part, and  may  there
 be recognized on examination, not  only by red points in consequence
 of the blood which flows out when they are cut, but may even for a
 short distance be drawn out freely from  the soft parts.  On the other
 hand, several parts of the brain resemble the nerves, both externally
 and internally:  such as, for instance, the anterior commissure which is
surrounded by a cellular sheath furnished by the pia mater of the ven-
tricles ;  this sheath accompanies it in its course across the thalami
optici and is changed, hke the neurilemma, into a delicate cellular tis-
sue, and disappears only at that part where the extremities ofthe com-
missure expand into a radiated tissue.(2)   Perhaps, then, the struc-

ihUJ^t r,e,current.fibre3 of^e brain are not admitted by Tiedemann, who considers

  (2, Reil, Archiv. vol. xi. P. i. p. 91.            ' v    ' 
166
GENERAL ANATOMY.
ture of the brain is every  where  the  same  as that of the  nerves,
but the softness and fineness of the mucous tissue prevents its  demon-
stration.
   § 164. From the above remarks it follows, that the brain and spinal
marrow are formed of fibrous fasciculi differently intermixed ; -that these
fasciculi are perceived more easily in the medullary than in  the gray
substance, and that their connections are more or less evident.   It fol-
lows, then, that the nervous mass contained in the skull and vertebral
canal is formed, essentially, after the same type  us that formed in  the rest
ofthe body, and that the principal difference between the two masses  is,
that the first  is accumulated in one part, while the second is more dif-
fused.
   § 165. The gray substance does  not form, like  the medullary sub-
stance, a continuous  system.  According to several  anatomists(l) the
neurilemma supplies the nerves with a gray substance, because these
are not so white as the  cerebral substance, and become more volumi-
nous as they leave their centre.   But these two circumstances  are not
sufficient to establish the opinion in favor of which they are adduced,
although this opinion is probable to a certain extent, as it increases the
analogy between the brain and nerves.   That it should be more than
probable, it is requisite that the pia mater should no where possess the
direct power  of producing the medullary substance, but it really does
possess it in several points ofthe  encephalon, and in all the spinal mar-
row.   So little does the gray substance  represent in the brain a con-
nected whole.  The gray substance, it is true, forms an uninterrupted
layer over the whole surface of the cerebral organ, but it does not com-
municate with the nerves ofthe same substance within this vise us, nor
can we demonstrate an uninterrupted communication between these lat-
ter.(2)  Some anatomists admit,  also, a sort of communication depend-
ent,  1st, on the vessels, as the cortical substance is entirely vascular ;
2d, on the communication between the internal portions of the thalami
optici with the corpora striata, the tubercula  quadrigemina with the
other parts ofthe encephalon, and the medulla  oblongata with the pons
varolii :(3) but the truth is, that a layer of medullary substance exist8
every where between  the  gray substance of  the thalami optici and
that ofthe corpus striatum,(4) and that the gray substance ofthe pons
varolii and of the olivary bodies does not communicate with the  distant
masses of this same substance. (5)
  The gray substance diffused in  the" body by the ganghons, is like-
wise insulated.  The mass of this substance within the brain, and ge-
nerally in all the central parts evidently corresponds to that which ex-


  (1) Battie, Exerc. deprinc.anim., p. 156.
  (2) Munro, On the nervous system, chap. 10, § 25.
  (3) Ludwig, De cinered cerebri substantia, Leipsic, 1778, p. 11 §2.
  (4) Wenzel, loc. cit. chap. 6.
  (5) Vicq-d'Azyr, loc. cit, an. 1781, p. 507. 
OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      167
 ists m the ganghons.(l)   When man is fully developed, the quantity
 ofthe medullary substance is much greater than that of the cortical
    § 166. The inner ends of the nerves communicate with the central
 parts of  the nervous  system.   The fasciculi which form them there
 separate more  or less  distinctly, proceed  without communicating to-
 gether, and enter the cerebral substance ;  but we cannot distinctly per-
 ceive where the fibres of the two unite.
    Two questions arise as respects the origins of the nerves. With what
 substance of the central part are they connected ?   Do the origins of
 the synonymous nerves communicate, or do they arise from sides oppo-
 site to where they are distributed, so as to intercross ?
    § 167. In regard to the first point, the most general opinion is, that
 the nerves arise from the medullary substance;  that they radiate from
 it  and are prolongations of  it.(2)   It has even  been conjectured that
 in the spinal marrow this substance is placed  externally, so  that the
 nerves which come from it pass over less space,  and are not obliged to
 penetrate through the gray substance.(3)   Nevertheless, when closely
 examined,  all the nerves  are seen  to  communicate more or less evi-
 dently with the gray substance.  Vicq d'Azyr had ascertained  this
 fact, as he says that the gray substance is generally accumulated near
 the origins of the nerves.(4)  Gall has added his testimony in favor of
 it, and we are satisfied from our observations that he is perfectly correct.
   This fact is incontrovertible in regard to insects, worms, and fishes'
 where the nerves arise by several roots from the mass of gray sub-
 stance.   It is evident, also, in some nerves of the superior animals and
 of man, for instance, in the olfactory and optic nerves.   It is more dif-
 ficult to prove it in regard to  the other nerves, which, at first view seem
 connected only with the medullary substance ;  but we must carefully
 distinguish the place where the nerve detaches itself from the central
 mass, from that where it arises.(5)  Although in the first of those two
 points, which is external to  the central part, most of the nerves com-
 municate with the medullary substance only, and several, as almost
 all ofthe cerebral nerves are so feebly attached to it, that they may be
 easily separated from it, whence we might infer they arise from it • we
 can, however, follow them farther, and at  a certain depth, sometimes
 their bundles  unite in a cord which communicates with  the gray sub-
 stances, as takes place for instance, in the fifth pair ;  sometimes their
 filaments  come  from this  same substance  separately, as is the case
 with all the spinal nerves.


  (1) This is intended for Haller, who says expressly:  In homine et quadrupedibus
 qus mihi mnotuerunt, in nervis ipsis ejusmodi noduli unice reperiuntur neque in
 cerebro unquam aut in spinali medulla.  (De part. corp. hum.fab vol  viii' p 322 )
  (2) Haller, De part, vol. viii. p. 319. Principium nervorum com'munis'ensuin
 medulla est encephali et spinalis medulls.
  (3) Martin,  De nervis corp. num., Halle, 1781, p. 27.
  (4^ Loc. cit, p. 508.
  (5) By origins of the nerves, we commonly understand  that portion between the
place where they arise from the central mass and that where they emerge from th«
skull.  But this term is too inconvenient to be long retained. 
168
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  Although in man and the superior animals, all the parts of the spi-
nal marrow, from whence nerves arise, are not enlarged by the accu-
mulation of the gray substance, as Gall pretends, yet we cannot deny
but that this substance exists in greater quantity at the origins of the
large nerves.  Hence its greater volume at the origin of the nerves
which go to the extremities.
  § 168.  But although we should seek the origin of the nerves be-
yond the surface of the central mass, we have  no right  to believe it
deeper than we can trace it, and to  consider all the nerves as arising
from a single point of small extent; an opinion maintained  by those
who are disposed to consider the medulla  oblongata as this common
origin.
  § 169.  Do the  nerves arise from the  same  side of the body as
that to which they are distributed 1   Do the synonymous nerves unite
or cross each other 1  or do we find both union and crossing 1  All these
problems  have been resolved, sometimes  negatively  and sometimes
affirmatively.   Throwing out of view the  fact  that all observations
have not been made with the same exactness, the difference of opinion
in this respect depends on this, that the arrangement of the parts is not
the same  in all animals.   The interlacing of the nervous fibres  has
been supposed, from the paralysis of one side of the body, when the
opposite side has been injured.(l)   But we learn from dissections, both
in the normal and abnormal states, that these observations and experi-
ments demonstrate only the crossing of the spinal marrow at the point
mentioned above, (§ 161,) and do not prove that all the nerves arise
from the half of the brain or spinal marrow opposite to that side of the
body in which they are distributed.   Although we have often followed
the spinal nerves  into the  gray substance, we have never observed a
single filament  passing to the side opposite.   Injuries of the central por-
tion are not followed  by a paralysis  of the opposite side of the  body,
when they affect a part above that where the intercrossing, of which
we  have  spoken,  takes  place.  This paralysis  of the opposite side
occurs when the  medulla oblongata is injured,(2) but not when the
parts  below are affected;  for then  it supervenes  on  the  same side
as that where the  section of one  half of the spinal  marrow has been
made.   Galen was acquainted with this difference in the consequences
of the injuries  of the brain and spinal marrow.(3)   Even when one
half of the spinal  marrow is cut near its upper part, paralysis  takes
place only on the  corresponding  side, as is proved by recent experi-
ments.(4)

  (1) Hippocrates, Epid., Book vii. § 1.—Valsalva, in Morgagni, Ep. vol. xii. p. 14__
Prochaska,  Obs. path, in Opp., Vienna, 1800, vol. ii. p. 298-320.
  (2) Yelloly, A case of tumor in the brain, with remarks on the propagation of
nervous influence; in the Med. chirurg. trans, vol. i.xvi. p. 181-222. A tumor as
large as a nut on the left side of the pons varolii and of the left pyramid, produced
a paralysis of the right side.
  (3) De anat. administr. vol. viii. p. 5, 6.
  (4) Yelloly, loc. cit, p. 197. 
          OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      169

   No interlacing, either in the brain or spinal marrow, can be demon-
strated, except that which exists in the place indicated above.  Obser-
vations and experiments, from which it has been concluded that fibres
cross each other  principally in the coipora  striata(l) prove nothing.
Besides the  proposition  contradicts itself, since the corpora  striata are
not  connected with  each other; nor does the  anterior  commissure,
which passes through  them,  communicate  either with  their proper
substance, or with the fibres which enter them.   From these observa-
tions we  can only observe, that the  fibres  cross below the corpora
striata, as we have proved above.
   Still a partial communication takes  place between some  of the
nerves, as their external filaments arise from one side, and their inter-
nal from the side opposite.   This arrangement however  has been ob-
served only in the optic nerve.
   Nor can we demonstrate that the origins of all the nerves unite on
the median  hne, although this union  is  sometimes observed between
the corresponding nerves of the fourth pair, and the auditory nerves.
Probably this is not rare, especially in the spinal nerves.
   § 170. The origins of all the nerves are similar in one respect, that
the  fasciculi  which form  them separate from each  other in  those
places (§ 147).   But the spinal and cerebral nerves differ constantly
from each other in their mode  of origin from the central mass.
   In fact the cerebral nerves  arise  by a single  root, wnile  the spinal
nerves have two, a posterior and an anterior, corresponding to the ante-
rior and  posterior faces  of the spinal  marrow.   Nevertheless, we see
that the  nerves of the brain (commencing at the fifth cerebral nerve)
resemble those of the spinal marrow by the division  of their fasciculi
into two parts.   The posterior roots are always larger than  the an-
terior, and  usually arise nearer  the centre of the spinal marrow ; but
their fascicuh are fewer and less evidently fibrous, single, and do not
ramify, while the anterior come from the medulla by numerous rami-
fications.  The two series of the anterior and posterior roots are sepa-
rated by a prolongation of the tunica arachnoidea, called the ligamen-
tum denticulatum, which goes from  the lateral  face of the  medulla  to
the corresponding part of the internal face of the dura mater.
   The fascicuh of each nervous root are also remote from each other
until they  leave  the dura mater spinalis,  and  are connected  only
by a looser mucous tissue.  But arrived at the dura mater, they reunite,
and each root emerges by a single foramen, formed by this  membrane.
The foramina of the anterior  and posterior roots are near  each other,
but always  separate, and the roots unite in  a single nerve only after
traversing the dura mater.
   On the contrary, the  fasciculi which form the cerebral nerves come
from the dura mater by a single opening, although at the moment they

   (1) L. Caldani, Esperienze ed. osservaz. dirette a determinare qual sia it luogo
principale del cervello, in cui, piu di altrove le fibre medollari dello stesso viscera si
incrocicchiano; in Mem. di Padova, vol. i. p. 1-16.
   Vol. I.                       22 
170
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   arrive at it they are not intimately united, as is seen particularly in the
   posterior nerves.
     The direction of the origins of all the nerves is not the same.   The
   cerebral and spinal nerves are totally different in this respect.   The
   nerves of  the  encephalon are  all directed forward, those of the spinal
   marrow downward, except the first two, the superior fascicuh of which
   descend, while the inferior ascend.
     The cerebral nerves generally proceed much more directly forward,
   and the spinal form acute angles at the base, which are more acute as
   the  first  arise  farther forward, and the second  farther behind.   The
   middle pairs, the posterior  nerves of  the encephalon, and the upper
   spinal nerves, have a more oblique direction.
     We also find, that the filaments of several pairs of nerves communi-
   cate within the dura mater, as is seen especially in the  upper spinal
   nerves, and also between the  fourth  and fifth pairs of the cerebral
   nerves.
     The posterior root of each spinal nerve, shortly after passing through
   the  dura mater, becomes a simple, oblong, rounded ganglion, (§ 157,)
   with which the anterior root does not communicate/1)  although, as
   Gall very justly remarks, we  sometimes see, especially  in the neck,
   the  anterior roots forming thick reddish plexuses, which may be con-
   sidered as ganglionary bodies.
     In many cerebral nerves, either in  their  passage across the dura
   mater, or at some distance from this point, we see  analogous  bodies,
   which are formed however by all the nervous fasciculi.
     § 171.  The nerves gradually enlarge in their course.   In fact they
   always ramify ; and the trunks which arise from the encephalon and
   spinal marrow divide  into branches, twigs, and filaments.  These  are
   given off  almost always at acute angles, and rarely at right or obtuse
   angles.   But if we imagine  all the branches reunited, we shall  have
   a cone, the summit of which corresponds to the origin of the nerve,
   and the base to its periphery.   This  is a general law.   The nerves
   which do  not give  off branches in their course, as  the optic  nerves,
   the  auditory,  and  also  the  olfactory  nerve, (if the portion  of  the
   nervous system generally so called, be  a real  nerve,) are not every
   where equal in size, but sometimes  even become  thicker, as is seen
   in the last two  especially.

     (1) Scarpa is generally regarded as having discovered that the ganglions of the
   spinal nerves are formed only by their posterior root.  The honor of this discovery
   is however  ascribed to Monroe by Nicolai (De medulla spin,  av, Hal. 1811, p. 28);
   but wronsrly, since Prochaska states, in his treatise  on the  nerves, (1778, p.  139,)
   " Funiculi posterioris principii (nervorum spinalium) soli in ganglium spinale intu-
   mescunti anterioris vero principii funiculi ganglio illi ope  celluloss adhsrentes
   solummodo  et pratereundo cum posterioribus ex ganglio egressis primo conjugun-
   tur," &c.  Scarpa's work appeared in 1779, the original of Monroe's in 1783 ; but
   Haase (De  gangliis nervor. Leips. 1772, p.  87) says: " Sed hsc, (radix nervorum
   spinalium anteriori,) non tola in ganglion inserebatur, sedpaucis tantum succulisin
+  ganglion immisis, major hujus radicis pars ganglion quasi prsteribat, ut nonnisi
   contextu celluloso ganglio leviter agglutinata per foramen vertebrate." Thus the ho-
   nor of this discovery belongs to a German. 
         ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      171

  The three  branches of the fifth pair are evidently larger than its
trunk, &c.  Some branches also are arranged in the same manner, as
the nerves of the hps and  the cord of the  tympanum.  This law,
however, does not depend on  the large size of the nerves of some
organs,  as  among others of those of the muscles of the eye, for this
size depends upon the circumstance, that the nerves of which it treats
are very large, proportionally, at their origin.
  The  central  mass  also enlarges from the inferior extremity of the
spinal marrow  to its  termination in  the skull, where it produces the
encephalon.
  §172. The relations of situation between the nerves and vessels
are not every where the  same.   Some nerves accompany the arteries
and  veins,  and this is most usually the case ; we see it in the crural
nerve, in the median nerve, those of the forearm and leg, the intercostal
nerve,  and those  of  the abdominal viscera.   Others  accompany
the  veins only, as the  large  cutaneous  nerves of  the extremities.
Many  proceed  alone,  at  least  for some distance, as the ischiatic, the
radial, the ulnar, and the laryngeal nerves.  These differences depend
on those in the modes and places of  origin of the nerves and vessels ;
for  1st, the nerves arise more detached  from each other, and more
directly from the spinal marrow and the encephalon than do the vessels
from the aorta and the vena cava ; 2d, the central parts of both  systems
are  distant from each other,  so that the principal rays must pass
through a certain space  before meeting.   Hence why the secondary
branches of the nerves usually accompany the vessels, and why the
branches of the nerves and vessels enter the organs at the same point,
while their principal trunks are separated.
   § 173. The terminations  of the nerves are not  every  where  the
same.   The  optic nerve  differs from all others, as it does not ramify;
when it reaches the eye it forms a homogeneous  expansion, called the
retina.  Some assert that the structure  of the retina is fibrous,(l) but
the observations on which this opinion is founded are not conclusive.
   On  the  contrary we cannot deny that  the  fibres  of the auditory
nerve  interlace  like  a plexus, and terminate in a thin expansion.
Generally, we  cannot discern  the terminations of those nerves which
penetrate to  the interior of the organs, and  do not form like the pre-
ceding, a  particular  layer,  but seem rather blended with their sub-
stance.  Nevertheless, the  final  branches certainly become very soft,
and consequently, seem wholly or partially deprived of their envelope,
so  that  the  medullary  substance appears to predominate  at  their
periphery,  as also at their  central extremities.   This arrangement is
very important, not only  in an anatomical, but in a physiological point
of view, as it  establishes between the  two extremities an analogy of
structure, expressed, even in the external form, by the uniform separa-
tion of the filaments, while the denudation of the medullary substance,
in these two points, attests its importance for the reception of internal or
external impressions.
(1) Darwin's Zoonomis, vol. i. 
172
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   The nerves do not probably ramify so much that they are identified
to a certain extent with the substance of the organs, for microscopical
observations  demonstrate  the  contrary, even in those organs which
are very sensible, as the  muscles.   The finest nervous filaments are,
however, certainly twelve times  as  large  as  the  smallest muscular
fibres, but the latter are compressed against each other so closely that we
see them only, and cannot perceive the nervous filaments, or even the
branches of  the vessels, although both  are considerably larger than
the muscular fibres.(l)   Probably then the extremities of the nervea
have  an atmosphere by which their influence  extends  beyond their
substance.   In this manner we can explain how paits,  destitute of
nerves and therefore insensible, when diseased, experience very acute
sensations.
   § 174. The nervous system is not  connected with all the organs,
nor does it exist to the same extent in those in which  it  is found.
The parts  destitute of nerves are the mucous  tissue and its semi-fluid
fat, the serous membranes, the bones with their medulla, the cartilages,
the fibrous  parts, the upidermis and  its appendages the nails and the
hairs, some organs of a peculiar tissue, as the  transparent cornea, the
crystahne humor, and finally certain  parts  of  systems which receive
nerves in others,  as   all   parts  of  the  ovum,  notwithstanding the
large size of  the umbilical arteries and veins.
   Among  the organs  possessing nerves, the viscera of the chest and
abdomen are those which receive the  smallest and fewest.  As they
are formed principally  of mucous membranes and of vessels, we may
say that the mucous  membranes are  those parts  which possess the
fewest nerves.
   The vascular  system stands a little  higher in  this respect; the
arterial system possesses  more nerves than the venous and lymphatic
systems.
   The nerves of the muscles  are still larger.   But the muscles differ
greatly in  this respect.   The nerves of the heart  are smaller  than
those of the  voluntary muscles, and  thus it makes the transition from
the arteries to these organs. Among the voluntary muscles, the nerves
of those  of the  eye are the  largest, the others are nearly similar in
this respect.
   The nerves of the flexor muscles are generally  larger and more
numerous than those of the extensor  muscles.
   The organs of sense which must be considered as simple appen-
dages of the nervous  system, are those in which  the most nervous
substance  is  found.  Of these the skin receives the smallest nerves:
but all its parts are not similar in this respect.   Thus the skin of the
fingers,  of the lips, of the chtoris, and of the penis,  possesses more
nerves than  in  other places.   The olfactory  membrane of the nose
and the envelope of the tongue  possess still more. The auditory nerve is
still larger, and the optic nerve the largest of all.
(1) Fontana,  Veber das Niperngift, Berlin, 1787, § 392. 
         OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      173

   Further, all the organs of the senses, except the skin, receive nerves
from different sources.   One is the nerve of sense, properly so called,
which  developes itself to give rise to the sensitive apparatus, the other
is  another  pair, generally the fifth.(l)  The tongue by its structure
and the arrangement of its nerves, forms the  transition from the other
organs of sense to the skin ; for it receives branches from several pairs,
of which one alone is developed in the organ of taste, and that is not
a distinct trunk, but comes from the fifth pair..
   § 175. The Ciervous system is  supplied with a considerable quan-
tity of blood.   The strictest and most exact calculations estimate the
blood which goes to the brain  of man(2) one-fifth of that in the whole
system. The nerves also'in their course receive numerous vessels which
are  proportionally  large.   These vessels usually penetrate  them
almost at  right angles.  Arrived  at  their  surfaces, they divide into
two branches,  an ascending and a descending branch, which curve,
frequently  subdivide, penetrate  the tissue of the nerve, and anastomose
not only with  each other,  but with the adjacent branches.  From the
frequency  of  these anastomoses and the numerous  vessels of the
nervous  system,  the circulation  can never be  interrupted.   This
arrangement exists in all parts of the system :  for each side of the brain
receives  two arteries which anastomose with  each  other and with
those of the opposite side, and form a circle of vessels.   The arrange-
ment of the vessels is also peculiar in this respect, that the circulation
in them is much retarded.  This is strikingly seen in the brain where
all the arteries make numerous and very considerable curves.   The
vessels of  the  nerves offer something analogous in their division into
two  branches,  forming  together  a right  angle.   All these vessels
divide  also  into very minute branches before penetrating into the sub-
stance of the nervous  system.   However, they do not  extend very
deeply into this substance, at least the nerves  of the medullary part of
the brain  are  not  tinged, and  hardly change their color, even when
other parts become entirely red. (3)
   The vessels of the gray substance, both in  the brain and ganglions,
are more numerous and larger than those of the medullary substance
(§. 141.)   Even  where the latter is external, vessels pass through it
to expand  in  the gray  substance.   Those which come to the latter
proceed inward,  dividing  continually  until they have  attained the
white  substance, when they  change their direction,  follow that of
the fibres, and do not give off any more branches.
   The arteries and veins in the nervous  system have not the same
relations  of situation as in most other parts.  In  fact, they do not
accompany each other  mutually ; so that their  trunks  come  from
entirely different parts of the skull and nerves.  The arrangement of

  (1) On this subject see Treviranus, Observations pour servir de complement d V Ana-
tomie comparee et a la  Physiologie de I'organe de la vue; in the Journ. compl.  du
Diet, des sc. med. vol. xvi. p. 331.—F. T.
  (2)  Haller,  De part. corp. hum. fub. vol. viii. p. 230.
  (3) Prochaska, Disq. organ, corp. hum. an. phys. Vienna, 1812, p. 100-103. 
174
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 the veins is  peculiar in this respect, that the branches unite to the
 trunks in a direction opposite to that of the course of the blood.   They
 have no valves.  This arrangement, with that of the arteries, proves
 that the blood in the brain circulates slowly and uniformly.
   The vessels of the cortical substance are also peculiar in this respect,
 that the veins are not more numerous than  the arteries, as in other
 organs.(l)   Ruysch  asserts even  that  this  substance has no veins,
 and that the  passage from the arteries to the veins takes place on its
 outer surface, in the pia mater.(2)
   The existence of absorbent vessels and lymphatic glands within the
 brain has not as yet been demonstrated.   Pathological  phenomena,
 particularly the formation of round tumors in the brains of scrophulous
 subjects, which have been considered  as  proving the existence  of
 lymphatic glands,(3)  prove nothing; for these tumors may be wholly
 new formations, as they are in other parts of  the body where similar
 formations are developed.
   § 176.  The nervous system is surrounded with different envelopes,
 which are not alike every where.   The most  immediate and essential,
 and that  which seems most intimately connected with the nervous
 substance, is a  membranous layer  of mucous tissue,  in which the
 vessels expand  before they pass into the  nervous substance.   This
 membrane is  the pia mater, the  neurilemma, the principal modifications
 of which have already been stated, since its  transition from the brain
 and spinal marrow to the nerves is  very  evident.  A thick layer of
 mucous tissue is found immediately above  it.   The structure of this
 tissue is not fibrous in the nerves; but it  is  very strong, and has a
 silvery lustre. It not only entirely envelopes the nerves in all parts, but
 also sends prolongations internally, which surround their several cords.
 Serum and generally fat also are deposited within this cellular layer;
it becomes thinner externally, is continuous with the mucous tissue of
 the whole body,  and unites the nerves with the parts adjacent.  The
 nerves within the skull and vertebral canal are destitute of this external
 and solid envelope ; but  the brain  and spinal marrqw are there sur-
 rounded with two membranes  beside  the neurilemma.  The middle
lining is the  arachnoid  membrane, (tunica arachnoidea,) a thin white
 membrane, which is destitute of vessels.  This membrane, after lining
 the brain and spinal marrow, sends  a  hollow prolongation, which
 extends to the opening of  the skull or of the vertebral canal, where it
 disappears.
   The third  envelope is  the  dura  mater,  which  takes the place
 of the periosteum,  at. least  in the  skull; for it  is  intimately con-
 nected to the internal face of its  bones, while  it does not  adhere
 to the parietes of the vertebral canal.   This membrane belongs to the
 class of fibrous organs.   It generally stops at the opening through
 which the nerve emerges from the skull or vertebral column, and blends

           (1) Vicq-d'Azyr, Mem. de Paris, 1783, p. 510.
           (2) Thes. anat, vi. no. 73.
           (3) Reil, Memor. clin., Vol. ii. pp. 1. 39. 
          OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      175

with the periosteum and the external cellular membrane which covers
it.  The  optic nerve alone is  an exception to this rule; since, after
leaving the skull, until it is inserted into the globe ofthe eye, this nerve
is surrounded by a thick and  firm  membrane, resembling  the dura
mater, and entirely different from the external envelope, which continues
uninterruptedly with the fibrous membrane of the eye.   The external
or cellular tunic of the nerves has some analogy with the dura mater
and the two are united.  Still the ancient anatomists were wrono- in
blending them, and in thence admitting that the nerves are enveloped
by the dura mater, an  opinion which  Haller (1)  and Zinn  (2) have
refuted.
   The ganglions have the same  envelopes as the nerves with which
they are connected.   All have an internal cellular capsule, analogous
to  the neurilemma or  to the pia mater, in which their vessels are
expanded, and an external envelop which arises in the compound gan-
glions from the cellular coat of the nerves, with which it is blended;
in the ganghons of the spinal marrow, however, this is the same as the
dura mater.
   § 177.  The nervous substance possesses to a certain degree the
power of extending and contracting.   But  this power does  not exist
in all parts of the system in the same degree.   The changes of form
and volume are every where slow and gradual.
   The dropsy ofthe ventricles of the brain proves the extensibility of
the nervous tissue.  In this disease  the thickness of the  brain, which
is usually several inches, diminishes to a few lines only, and the  whole
organ becomes an immense vesicle. Here we may mention the nerves
over large tumors, which resemble broad flat bands.
   The nervous substance is contractile ;  for the nerves which are cut
across retract, whether  they be, or be not  organically connected with
the parts to which they go.
   Elasticity is also a property of the nervous substance.  If  the brain
be compressed, it rises when this compression ceases ; a nerve when
drawn out, lengthens, and when released, returns to its original dimen-
sions.
   But the phenomena of extensibility, contractility, and  elasticity, do
not prove the irritability of the  nerves, as Home asserts ;(3) for the
contractions observed in experiments on nerves removed from the body
or still attached to  the organs, prove only the existence of  the first
three properties, and not that they possess the fourth.
   All the parts of the  nervous system are not alike in regard to sensi-
bility.  Its periphery,  comprising the nerves  properly  so called, is
highly sensible, and it is even in this that their function consists.   This
power undoubtedly resides  in the  nervous  substance, since the  neuri-
lemma disappears at  the  extremities of the nerves, and pain is not

  (1) Prim. lin. n. 370.  De fab., vol. viii. pp. 305, 306.
  (2) De Venveloppe des nerfs, in the Memoires de Berlin, 1753, p. 130-144
  (3) On the irritability ofthe nerves, in the Phil. Transact, 1801. 
176
GENERAL ANATOMY.
caused by merely exposing these organs, but they must be compressed
or divided.
   Opinions differ in regard to the sensibility of the cerebral substances.
Some writers, particularly Lorry(l)  and  Lecat,(2) wholly deny it;
others, on the  contrary, as Haller,(3)  admit it in regard to the deep
portions of the. encephalon, but refuse it to the cortical substance and
even to the  superficial layers of the  medullary substance;  finally,
many assert its non-existence in the deep parts, but  admit it in the
superficial portions.   The last hypothesis seems most probable to us.
It belongs to Boerhaave (4) and Caldani.(5)
   § 178.  Although we have seen above that the masses of gray sub-
stance do not communicate, still  the whole nervous  system is every
where connected, and  all its parts communicate with each other in
different modes.  We must now point out the relations between these
different parts,  that is, we must determine, 1st, what are the relations
between the  two substances, and the functions performed by each ;  2d,
what is the  mutual relation of the different parts or the principal sec-
tions of the nervous system.
   § 179.  The  medullary and  gray substances have undoubtedly
important relations with each other, since they  exist  in all those ani-
mals which  have a  nervous  system;  but it is  difficult to determine
what these  relations are.  It is generally  thought that the medullary
substance is  connected with the intellectual faculties  more intimately
than the cortical substance, the  function  of which is to  nourish the
medullary substance, or to secrete a principle which acts in it ;(6)  and
this because it receives so many vessels.   The gray substance is sup^
posed to be the matrix ofthe medullary substance,
   1st. Because it is generally diffused.   It  not  only  covers all the
extremities of the nerves, and forms, for  instance, most  of the pituitary
membrane, the retina, and the fluid in which the extremities of the audi'
tory nerve and the  rete mucosum of  Malpighi  are  placed, but also
accompanies the nerves in their whole course.
  2d.  Because we find it in masses wherever the  medullary substance
exists in greater quantity, and its functions are more important.
  But these two circumstances are not sufficient to prove that these are
the functions of the cortical substance.   It  is  not proved that the gray
substance accompanies the nerves in every part, nor that it surrounds
their extremities ; and if it abounds in  the parts where the medullary
substance is  found in excess, it may be designed for an end very different
from that assigned to it.  The accomplishment of certain vital actions
may possibly depend on the simultaneous presence, the union, and reac-
tion, of these  two substances.   If the hypothesis above mentioned were
correct, the cortical substance probably would not become more and more

  (1) Memoire sur les mouv. du cerveau, in Mem. pres., vol. ii. p. 354.
  (2) Traite du mouv. muse., Berlin, 1765, p. 289.
  (3) Mem. sur les part. sens, et irrit., sect. vi. no. 1, exp. 139-147.
  (4) Impetumfac. die. Hipp, p* 257.
  (5) Mem. sur les part. sens, et irrit, vol. iii. p.  82.
  (6) Ludwig, De substantia cinered, Leipsic, 1779- 
          OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       177

predominant as we descend the animal scale ; its relations with the
medullary substance would be every where the same.
   We need not explain  the progressive increase of the nerves from
their  centers to their peripheries(l) by supposed additions to this sub-
stance, since the gray substance within  them is demonstrated by no
fact, and it is  evident that the medullary substance can enlarge of
itself.
   The most probable hypothesis is that which considers the gray and
white  substance as two  masses in  antithesis with each other, while
the  difference  in  their structure and chemical  composition is ne-
cessary to accomplish the functions of the nervous system.(2)
   § 180.  Notwithstanding the undoubted importance of the gray sub-
stance, we  have no right to think that is more noble than the medul-
lary substance, or that the changes in  the mind, corresponding to
corporeal changes, take place in it, as Wenzel seems to think(3) when
he says, " Cinerea singularum cerebri partium substantia videturprsci-
pue id esse, quo propris cuivis istarum partium sensationes efficiun-
tur;"  and tha tthe  medullary substance is merely a simple conductor.
Reil  comes nearer  the truth in stating that the  principal organs of
the soul  are placed around the masses of gray substance within the
the brain.(4)   Haller had already advanced this theory before him.(5)
He says, " Non ergo in cerebri cortice sensus sedes erit aut plena causas
muscularis motus origo; eritque utraque in medulla cerebri et cerebelli."
   This opinion is favored by the excess of gray substance in the fetus
and the inferior animals.
   § 181. What  is  the mutual  relation of .the different parts of the
nervous  systeml  Do  they  form so  many  separate systems merely
connected with  each other ?  Or  do  they all emanate from a central
part?  The last opinion has  prevailed even in modern times.   But
the first begins to be general, although with  several modifications.
   It  supposes either  two opposite nervous  systems, or many  which
co-exist and are independent.
   § 182. The  first hypothesis which is defended by the most inge-
nious  anatomists(6) and  physiologists, opposes to the system formed
by the brain, spinal marrow, and theirnerves, that of the great sym-

  (1) Sprengel, Inst, phys., vol. ii. p. 191.
  (2) A hydrogen and oxygen antithesis, a gray and a white substance,  appear
to be essential parts of every nervous tissue. (Reil, Archiv fur  die Physiologte,
vol. ix. p. 485.)
  (3) De penitiori cerebri struct, p. 69, chap. vi.
  (4) Archiv fur die phys., vol. ix. p. 207.
  (5) Elem. Phys. vol. iv. p. 392.
  (6) Winslow, Expos, anat, vol. iii. p. 220.—Johnstone, An essay on the use of the
ganglions of the nerves,  1771.—Pfeffinger, De structurd  nervorum, Strasburg,
1783.—Scemmerring, Veber das Organ der Seele, Konigsberg, 1796, p. 9.—We consi-
der the last (the sympathetic nerve,) as a separate pair of nerves independent of the
brain and spinal marrow, which is, however, connected with them mediately, but
not immediately.—Bi«hat, Traite de la vie et de la mart, ch. vi. § iv. p. 76.—Reil,
Archiv. fur die Physiologic, vol. vii. part ii.—Gall, Anatomie et Physiologic  du sys-
teme nerveux, 7810.
   Vol. I                       23 
178
i.ENERAL  ANATOMY
pathetic  or intercostal nerve which expands in the neck and in the
cavities of the chest and abdomen, and admits only simple connections
between these two systems, which are otherwise independent.
  As the first  is  distributed principally to the organs which preserve
the relation of the mind .with external objects,  and are subject to the
influence of the will, and the second is expanded in  the organs which
are only  materially connected with external objects, the first is called
the nervous system of animal life, and the  other the nervous system of
organic, vegetative, or automatic life.
  According to this theory, the ganglions, formed  of medullary fila-
ments and of a gray substance, are so many small brains from whence
the sympathetic  nerve  arises.   Some of the ganglions  which  form
the centres  of  this  system are  situated, internally upon or  beyond
the median  line  of  the body, and others on its edges.  The nerves of
the organs  of  circulation, of digestion, of the  urinary secretion, and
partly, also, those of generation, come  from the first, as well as those
filaments which  unite these inner ganghons with  those which are
placed on its edge.  The latter extend in a row on each side along
the vertebral column.   They  connect  the internal ganghons and the
filaments which come from them with the  system of animal life, since
they unite with the cerebral and spinal nerves by one or many filaments.
  The  great sympathetic nerve, on the  contrary,  is generally con-
sidered  either as a cerebral nerve, the trunk of  which proceeds along
both sides of the vertebral column, and unites with the spinal nerves
by ganglions, while its branches swell out from space to space to form
other ganglions, or as a nerve formed by all the spinal nerves. Against
this opinion and in favor of the preceding,(l)  we  may adduce the
following arguments :
   1st.  What is termed  the trunk of this  nerve is often interrupted
without  any derangement in  the organs  to which it proceeds.  We
sometimes find a very distinct interval between two or more ganglions.
  2d. Other ganglions,  not belonging to  the sphere of the  sympa-
thetic nerves, are always distinct, and  communicate by their branches
with the cerebral nerves only.(2)
   3d. Its trunk  is  often divided  lengthwise, which never happens
in the other nerves.
  4th.  This nervous trunk becomes evidently  thicker in its passage
downwards,  so that it  cannot come from the  fifth and sixth  pairs of
cerebral nerves.   Nor have we reason to think that it arises from any
of the spinal nerves, since-the branches which spring from the gang-
lions are larger than those which come from the spinal nerves.

  (1) Bichat's General Anatomy, vol. i. p. 250.
  (2) Bichat also- grounds his opinion on the  fact, that in birds the upper cervical
ganglion  is constantly distinct, and never communicates with the  lower.  But
Cuvier has demonstrated that this assertion is erroneous.  Tiedemann (Zoologie,
vol. ii. p. 45-46.) and Emmert (Reil, Archiv, p. 337.) have demonstrated this com-
munication still more circumstantially. We need not observe that by an impartial
comparison of the different passages cited, we may easily judge correctly in respect
to the claims of discovery after Cuvier. 
          OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      179

   5th.  Its texture  is different.  It is softer and grayer than the other
 nerves.
   6th.  Its external form does not resemble that of the nerves of the
 system of animal life, being neither constant nor symmetrical.
   These  arguments prove only that the great sympathetic nerve does
 not arise from the brain or spinal marrow by a single point, and that it is
 distinguished from  the nerves by several peculiarities ;  but it does not
 follow that it forms  a system independent of the  brain and  spinal
 marrow.  Far from it:  recent experiments would  lead us  to  think
 that if it  forms a  separate system, of which the ganglions are the
 centres, while its extremities communicate with the nervous system of
 animal life, this communication is absolutely essential to the integrity
 of its functions, since the motions of the heart, which derives its nerves
 principally from it, are always arrested when  the  spinal marrow is
 destroyed, while only a small portion  of  this organ is necessary for
 their continuance.(l)
   The manner in which the  ganglions placed on the borders of this
 nerve  unite with the spinal nerves, also appears to favor this opinion.
 The filaments of communication  arise principally from the anterior
 cords of the spinal nerves, which are immediately connected with the
 spinal  marrow,  instead  of coming  from  the posterior  cords, along
 which ganglionic enlargements are found.(2)
   The  opinion with  regard  to the  great  sympathetic nerve, when
 thus modified, is admissible,  and  thus the ingenious  Johnstone has
 stated it.(3)
   § 183.  Gall,(4) instead of admitting this  general opposition between
 the nervous  systems of  organic and animal life, considers the system
 of organic life, the nerves of  voluntary motion, of the senses, of the
 proper organs of the intellectual functions  at least in perfect animals,
 as so many distinct and independent systems, which are closely united
 and connected in their action, but which do not come from each other.
 The nervous system of the senses and  of  voluntary motion  is,  how-
 ever, composed of the spinal marrow, the medulla oblongata, and the
 nerves which come from  them:  they may, and even  should, be con-
 sidered  then as one system ;  since, with a  few exceptions, each nerve
 is at the same time a nerve of sensation and a nerve of motion.   Be-
 sides, even when we examine the nervous system of organic life, we
 do not  consider the ganglions and  filaments separately, nor can we
separate the study of the nerves of perception  and of  motion from
 that of the  brain.   The preceding hypothesis is then more probable
 than that  of Gall.
   § 184.  But although it is true that the animal and organic nervous
 systems differ, the  second being subordinate to the first, although the
different parts of the nervous system considered as a whole, are united

          (1) Legallois, Exp. sur le principe de la vie, Paris, 1812.
          (2) Scarpa, Annot. acad, 1, i. § xi, xii.
          (3) Loc. cit p. 80.
          (4) Gall, p. 467. 
180
GENERAL ANATOMY.
in many different ways, so that they  are always in a state of reac-
tion and mutual dependence, we cannot deny but that each part is to
a certain extent independent of  the rest.  Each part of the nervous
system preserves itself in virtue of a peculiar activity,  and  reproduces
itself constantly  from  the  blood  which flows  to it.   Hence when a
nerve is divided it remains as large below as above the  cut.
   We sometimes find nerves when there is no trace of a brain or spi-
nal marrow, and the spinal  marrow is often perfect, although there is
not the least appearance of  a brain.(l)   Even when the development
is perfect, we have instances where considerable injuries of the brain
and spinal marrow do not diminish sensation or the power  of motion,
especially when  they  are  not  sudden,  but slow and  gradual.  The
limbs, when detached from the body, are agitated if their nerves  be irri-
tated.
   § 185.  Hence some late writers have opposed the  opinion  of the
ancients, that the nerves and  even the spinal marrow come from the
brain, and it is admitted that these parts  do not arise from the encepha-
lon, but are merely connected with it.   It  is even pretended that the
nervous system  of organic life is formed before that  of the nervous
system of animal life. (2)
   They appear however to have gone too far on this side; for, 1st.
The history of  the development of the nervous  system in the animal
series, and in the fetuses of the superior mammalia, proves that the
central part of  the nervous  system of animal life in fact exists before
its radiations, and before the nervous system of organic life.  In seve-
ral worms we find in the  place of  a spinal marrow, only a" simple cord
destitute of filaments.(3)  The spinal marrow is  the first part  which
appears in the chicken,  so that this organ in some measure appears
to be the origin of  the whole nervous system.   In fact  we find the
spinal marrow without the brain,(4) but never find  the brain without
the spinal marrow, neither in animals nor in human monsters.   When
'the nerves are  seen without the brain and spinal marrow, these two
organs existed previously, or the defect is but partial.   Hence why
the whole brain  may be extirpated.   A small portion  of the  spinal
marrow is sufficient to  sustain life in  that part of the trunk with
which it communicates ;  but if the whole spinal marrow be destroyed,
the phenomena of life cease.(5)
  2d. The ordinary results, even of those experiments which are
alledged to prove that  the different parts of the nervous system are
independent of  each other, demonstrate that the nervous activity ema-
nates, at least partially and perhaps entirely, from central  parts.  A
limb,  if its nerve be divided, becomes  feeble and often wastes.   The
functions of  all these parts cease when  the continuity of their nerves

        (1) Monroe, On the nervous system, p. 20, 21.
        (2) Ackermann, De system, nerveis primordiis, Heidelburg, 1813.
        (3) Cuvier, Anatomie comp. vol. ii. p. 330.
        (4) Cuvier, Anatomie comparee, vol. ii. § 339.
        (5) Malpighi, loc. cit.
        <6) Legallois, loc. cit. p. 32-3-4-131. 
           OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      181


 is interrupted, even when these nerves are connected with  them in all
 their extent.   Hence, in order that the nerve should perform its func-
 tions, it must communicate with the brain and spinal marrow—a fact
 from which we deduce at the same time a powerful argument against
 the opinion that the nerves possess gray substance in every part.
   The nerve has then the power of vegetating or of nourishing itself
 independent of  the central part;  but it proceeds from this  center, and
 must communicate with it, to animate the organs to which it goes.
   § 186. What is the function(l) of the nervous system?  What is
 the relation between its whole structure, and that of its parts, and this
 function ?
   The function of the nervous  system is to produce the actions cor-
 responding to the activity of mind, the phenomena of sensibility or of
 intelligence.  Consequently,  it is the system of  sensibility.  Hence


  (1)  See on this subject, Lobstein, Discours sur la preeminence du systeme nerveux
 dans Veconomie animate et Vimportance d'une etude approfondic de ce systeme, Stras-
 burg, 1821.—Charles Bell, On the nerves—Memoir on the respiratory nerves.—Shaw,
 Experiments on the nervous system, in the London med. and phys. journal, Decem-
 ber, 1822, June, 1823.—See also, Journal dephys. exp., vol. ii. p. 77; Archiv.gen. de
 med., August, 1823, p. 511.—Desmoulins, Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques
 sur le systeme nerveux des poissons; in the Journ. de phys. exp. vol. ii. p. 348; Id.
 Exposition succincte du developpement et des fonctions "du systeme cerebrospinal,
 in the Archiv. gen. de med., June, 1823, p. 223;  Id. Exposition succincte du deve-
 loppement et des fonctions des systemes nerveux lateraux des organes des sens et de
 ceux des mouvemens dans les animaux vertebres,  same journal, December, 1823, p.
 571.—Magendie, Experiences sur les fonctions des racines des nerfs qui naissent de
 la moelle epiniere; in the Journ. de phys. exp., vol. ii. p. 276-366.—Rolando, Exp.
 sur lesfonct. du syst. nerv., same journal, vol. iii. p. 95.—Coster, Experiences sur le
 syst nerv., publiees en ltalie en 1819, et repetees en France en 1823; in the Archiv.
gen. de mid., March, 1823, p. 359.—Fodera, Recherches experim. sur le syst nerv.;
 in the Journ. dephys. exp., vol. iii. p. 191, and in  the Journ. compl. du Diet des sc.
 med.,  vol. xvi. p. 290, vol. xvii. p. 97.—Treviranus, Essai d'une determination du
 rapport des difif. org. cerebraux aux. div. manifestations de la vie intellectuelle, same
journal, vol. xvii.  p. 13.—Id. Sur les organes cerebraux, les nerfs de la vie vegeta-
tive et sensitive, et leurs connexions naturelles, same journal, vol.  xvi. p. 113.—Id.
 Sur les differences qui existent, relativement a la forme et a la situation du cer-
veau dans les differentes  classes du regne animal, same journal, vol. xvii. p. 216,
vol. xviii. p. 235.—Desmoulins, Memoire sur le defaut d'unite de composition du
 systeme nerveux, et sur la concordance de ce  defaut  avec Virrcgularite des facultes
 des animaux, same journal, vol. xviii. p.  79.—Wilson Philip, On the influence of
galvanism on digestion and  respiration, fyc, London—Humboldt,  Resultats d
exper.faites sur les actions galvaniques, et sur les effets de la section longitudinale et
de la ligature des nerfs,  in the Archiv. gen. de med., October, 1823, p. 292.—
Breschet, M. Edwards, and Vavasseur, De J'influence du syst. nerv. sur la digestion
stomacale, same journal, August, 1823,  p.  179. The last three memoirs establish
the  identity between the effects of galvanism and certain  phenomena dependent
on the action of the nervous system. Wilson Philip was the first who attempted
to re-establish the action of the stomach suspended by the division of the parvagum
nerve, by passing a continual current of galvanism  across this organ, which was
transmitted by the lower extremity of the  divided nerve.  Charles Bell's observa-
tions on the simple and compound nerves, and those of Magendie on the different
functions of the two roots of the spinal nerves,  are, with those of W. Philip, the
most important additions to the science of Physiology, since the commencement of
this century.   We must, however, admit that C. Bell's theory was indicated, and
even developed, to a certain extent, in the  different works of Lamarck;  among
others, in his Philosophic zoologique.—See also Vavasseur, De V influence  du sys-
teme nerveux sur la digestion stomacale, Paris,  1823.—Foville and  Pinel Grand-
champ, Recherches sur le siege special des differentes fonctions du systeme nerveux,
Paris, 1823.—Flourens, Recherches experimentales sur les fonctions et les proprietes
du systeme nerveux dans les animaux vertebres, Paris, 1824.             F. T. 
I
 182                    GENERAL ANATOMY.

 why a perfectly nonnal state of this system is indispensable to produce
 these phenomena normally.
   But its different parts have different functions.  The function of the
 nerves is to convey the impressions to their opposite extremities, and
 thus produce changes in those organs which receive these impressions.
 These changes depend  on the nature  of the organs.   They are sen-
 sations in the central part, and changes of volume or motions, and  modi-
 fications of the form in the organs different from the nervous system.
   § 187. The nerves are conductors.   This is proved  by the following
 facts:
   1st. The propagation of the external or internal impressions ceases,
 when  their continuity or connections with the central part  and the
 organs in general are interrupted.   Hence the loss of motion, secretion,
 and sensation, when the nerve of an organ is cut, or compressed by a liga-
 or tumor in its course, at its origin, or at its entrance into an organ.
 Hence the loss  of smell  when a schirrhous tumor compresses the
 olfactory nerve ;(1) and deafness in another case, where the auditory
 nerve was  compressed in the same manner ;(2) and squinting in a sub-
ject, where the origin of the nerve of  the  sixth cerebral pair(3) was
 also compressed by a tumor, blindness in a case  of compression of the
 optic nerve by  an aneurism of the carotid artery within the skull ;(4)
 complete paralysis of the arm by the swelling of the lymphatic gang-
lions in the axilla, thus  forcibly pressing upon the brachial plexus.(5)
Hence the  derangement and  even the  complete suspension of diges-
tion, and the loss  of voice from tying or dividing the par vagum nerve,
which goes to the organs of these functions.(6)
   Hence, too, excruciating pain is often cured by dividing the nerves
of the diseased part;  and sometimes it ceases for a time, even when
those nerves are compressed.  Hence, finally, the happy use made of
this  resource against tic douleureux and similar fixed pains in other
parts of  the body.
   The number  of parts, then, which lose  their sensibility and motivity,is
always much greater in proportion as the nerve is tied or divided near
its origin.  When the loss of these two powers  depends on  a ligature
or on compression, they  reappear when these cease to act.
   2d. The  propagation of the external or internal  impressions con-
tinues to take place on one side between the point compressed and the
central part, on the other between this same part  and the organ to
which the nerve goes.   When we touch the parts of a limb  above the
place where its nerve has been cut or tied, a sensation is excited, the
intensity  of which depends on the manner in which the contact is
made, and the degree of force given to it.   Motion takes place even in

  (1^ Loder, De tumore scirrhoso et organo olfactus, Jena, 1779.
  (2) Sandifort, Obs. anatpathol. lib. i. c. ix. p. 117.
  (3) Yelloly, in the  Med. chirurg. trans., vol. i. xvi.
  (4) Blane, in the Trans, of a soc. for impr. of med. and chir. knowl., vol. ii. p. 193.
  (5) Van-Swieten, Comm. in Bocrhaav. Aphor. vol. i. p.  222.
  (6) Legallois has collected all the ancient and modern  references to experiments
on this subject, (loc. cit. p. 164.) 
         OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      183

a limb detached from the body, when the nerve is irritated; although
the irritation of the parts of the nerve above this division, of the brain,
or the changes which supervene in the encephalon, have no effect on
the motion of a limb, the nerve of which is only tied.
   3d. Other things being equal, the degree of sensibility and of moti-
vity of an organ depends on the size of its nerves.  Hence the large
size of the nerves  of the organs of the senses, which probably contri-
butes to render them more susceptible of being affected by certain qua-
lities  of bodies, although the structure of the organs  to which they
go, their mode of distribution, and the differences in the internal struc-
ture of the nerves themselves, are the principal sources of this faculty.
Hence why those muscles of the  eye which move continually receive
the most and largest nerves.  The nerves  of the  heart are neither so
large nor so numerous  as those of the other muscles,  but they come
from ganghons which communicate directly with the spinal marrow,
and they have more  medullary substance in proportion to the neuri-
lemma, than the other nerves.
   4th. The central part of the nervous system experiences no change
from  internal  impressions made on the organs which do not receive
nerves.   These organs are insensible (p. 79).
   § 188.  The external and internal impressions are generally con-
ducted always in the same direction.   It rarely or never happens that
when we touch a nerve, we produce motions in those muscles, which are
supplied with  nervous filaments from  the  trunk, between the point of
contact and the central part.  Thus the nervous influence which is to
act on the external organs goes directly to  the periphery.
   § 189. As the phenomena which result  from the conducting  power
of the nerves  are finally reduced  to sensation and motion, the nerves
have been "divided into nerves of motion, nerves of sensation, and mixt
nerves.  But this  classification is valueless; for  although there are
some nerves intended exclusively for sensation, (as the olfactory, optic,
and auditory nerves,) there are none which  are  designed  simply for
motion.  Those which go to the muscles have in fact  only the power
of propagating impressions from their periphery inward.
   § 190. The same nerves convey external and internal impressions,
since  the section of one of these cords destroys both sensation and mo-
tion.  The divisions of these organs into nerves of sensation and nerves
of motion, is then incorrect in this second respect.
  On the contrary, the phenomena above  mentioned (§ 188) lead us
to conjecture, with some probability, that there are in the same nerve,
different fibres, some designed to convey impressions inward, and others
to carry them externally: at least these phenomena are explained very
satisfactory by this hypothesis.  In fact, the fibres do  not apparently
differ  in arrangement, but the variation may, however, be so slight as
to escape us ;  hence we draw no conclusions.
  This hypothesis is, besides,  more probable than  that which  sup-
poses that the transmission of impressions internally differs from that of
conveying them externally,  and that it requires  less  energy to con- 
184                    GENERAL ANATOMY.
duct external  than internal impressions.   The  partisans of the last
theory found it on the circumstance, that the loss of motivity is observed
oftener than that of sensibility.  Still the  contrary case is not rare;
some physiologists believe, even, that it requires more energy to propa-
gate external impressions.  And again, the sensibility almost entirely
disappears in raphania, although motivity is but slightly diminished.
   Finally, the loss of one of the two faculties, with the continuance of
the other, demonstrates neither the existence of nervous fibres differ-
ing in their conducting power, nor the necessity of greater energy to
propagate  either internal  or external impressions,  since the cause of
the loss of sensation and motion unquestionably depends on the abnor-
mal state,  not of the conducting  nerve, but of the centre to which it
extends, or of the organ in which its periphery is expanded.
   Still less  can we admit, that the conducting power of external and
internal impressions resides in different substances, viz. that of internal
impressions in the medullary substance, and of the former in the neu-
rilemma.   All the  arguments adduced in support of this improbable
hypothesis are easily refuted.(l)
   Considering all things, it is probable, 1st, that the conducting power
resides  in the medullary substance alone, and not in the neurilemma.
   2d. That all the fasciculi and all  the fibres of the nerves  equally
fulfill the function of transmitting the external and internal impressions,
even as the same muscular fibres  contract sometimes in one direction,
and sometimes in the opposite.
   § 191. The following facts demonstrate that the nerves possess only
the conducting power ;  that is, they are only  the necessary means
of  producing intellectual phenomena, in  accordance  with the im-
pressions transmitted by them to the centre  of  the nervous system,
and that, in man at least, the brain is the only organ in which changes
corresponding with the phenomena of intelligence occur.
   1st.  The only portion of the nerves which  is not sensitive, and
which loses  the power of exciting voluntary motion, is that which is
separated from the rest  of the  nervous  system by compression or
division.
   2d. The  intellectual acts remain  entire when the communication
between the brain and the rest of  the nervous system is interrupted,
and there is paralysis of all those parts of the body which are situated
below the parts injured, as, for  instance, in dislocations, or fractures of
the cervical vertebrae accompanied by compression of the spinal mar-
row.(2)

  (1) Treviranus, On the nervous influence andits effects, in Phys. Fragmenta vol
i. Hanover, 1797, vol. ii. 1799.  .                                     '
  (2) Vicq d' Azyr has seen the paralysis ofthe extremities and of the sphincters of the
anus and bladder, with an insensibility of the whole body,  except the head, from an
injury of the cervical portion of the spinal marrow.  (Encyc. method. Med Anat.
pathol, p. 264.)  Ludwig has known loss of motion and sensation in the whole body
after a fracture of the fourth and fifth cervical vertebra;; the patient continued per-
fectly sensible for sixteen days.  (Advers. med. prop. vol. iii, p. 507.) 
          OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     185

  3d. The intellectual functions are more or less injured by the compres-
sion, irritation,destruction,violent concussion ofthe brain,and bychanges
in its physical qualities; by the too great or too little flow of blood to
this organ ;  in a word,  by all anomalies which can exist in it, although
the structure ofthe other parts ofthe nervous system is perfectly normal.
  4th. These lesions disappear when the cause which acts on the brain
is removed or when the action of this organ returns to its normal ry thm.
  5th. The development of the intellectual faculties is parallel with
that of the brain, in regard  to  its mass,  form, chemical composition,
and distinction of its two substances, both in the fetus and in animals.
But we should not forget that  the increase of the encephalon in size
is not exactly ascertained by comparing the brain and nerves together.
The large animals have, 1st, a brain positively larger than the small ani-
mals, and sometimes larger than that of man : 2dly, in many, also, it is
larger, in proportion to the body, than in others, without a correspond-
ing development of intellect.  On the contrary, there is constantly a
direct relation between the development of intelligence and the increase
of the brain, when compared to that of the nerves.   This relation is no
where more favorable than in man.
  6th. Even from the sense  of effort and fatigue  in thinking, which
very evidently has its seat in the head,at least in preference to other parts.
  7th. The brain, although united to the rest of  the nervous system,
forms a separate and perfectly distinct organ, which  fulfills special
functions.
  8th. After a painful limb has been amputated, the patient thinks he
still feels pains at the stump.
  § 192. Most of these facts, especially the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and
7th, prove at the same time that, at least in man and the superior ani-
mals, the brain is the only central part of the nervous system which co-
operates with the phenomena of inteUigence, and that the spinal mar-
row takes no direct part in them.
  § 193. Does the whole brain take part in all acts'of  intelligence, or
do certain intellectual phenomena occur in some particular parts 1  In
one or the other case, is there, or not, some more or less extensive part
of the encephalon where the primitive source of all spiritual or corporeal
hfe resides, in this respect, that the local or general changes which take
place in the brain are reflected in  it, and that it is the point of de-
parture of all cerebral influence to the nerves 1
  Observation and experiment can alone assist in resolving  these ques-
tions.
  The arguments in favor of the first opinion, are, 1st, that  most of the
brain may be destroyed without a sensible diminution of the  intellectual
faculties ; 2d,  that the destruction of the same part of the brain does
not always necessarily involve  that  of the same intellectual faculty;
3d, that the complication of the brain remains the same, while its mass
and volume increase in proportion to the development of intelligence.
   We may conclude fijom this, that the whole cerebral mass acts in all
intellectual operations, and that a part of this organ, by increasing its
activity, can well replace those which may be  destroyed.
  Vol. I.                       24 
186
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  The following are the facts in favor of the second hypothesis:
  1st.  The difference of the intellectual  operations, and of the moral
quahties which appear to  correspond to the  complicated and constant
structure of the brain.
  2d. The development of certain parts of the brain corresponding with
that of certain intellectual faculties, and reciprocally.
  The arguments favorable to the first hypothesis may be adduced
against the second.  But we must remark,
  1st.  That it is very difficult for two injuries of one and the same part
to be perfectly similar.
  2d. That from the symmetry and  doubleness of the cerebral parts
of the brain, the lesion of  one of its two  portions  may be  unattended
with inconvenience.
  3d.  That those parts even which do not exactly correspond may
supply them, since we see organs formed very differently, as the skin,
the kidneys, the lungs, the  intestinal  canal, the  mammae, the perito-
neum, &c, replace each other.
  It is, then, not improbable that the different faculties of the soul have
different organs in the brain, even as the different corporeal functions,
and the different acts of one and the  same function, are performed in
the body by different organs, but it is difficult to assign the  seat of
these faculties ; we can only say that those of a secondary order re-
side in  the lower and posterior parts of the brain, while the most noble
faculties exist in the upper and anterior.  In fact,
  1st.  The inferior parts  are found in all  vertebrated animals com-
mencing with the lowest in the scale.
  2d. They do not differ much in different animals.
  3d. As the intellectual faculties perfect themselves in the animal se-
ries, and in different individuals of the same species, the cerebral mass
increases upward, forward, and on the sides ; the hemispheres enlarge
in respect to the inferior parts of the brain, which have a definite  out-
ward form, and appear as distinct organs ; and the cerebrum is larger
in proportion to the cerebellum.
  § 194.  The nervous system is not  only  the organ of the mind ; it
animates also all the  other organs, because it probably exists before
them, and because the vital energy of these organs is proportional to the
size and number of the nerves they receive, and the destruction  of their
nerves deranges more or less the fulfillment of  all their functions.  Is
there a common source of this vivifying and preservative power of the
nervous system, or is it diffused through the  whole of  it 1
  That the periphery of the nervous system takes no part in the pre-
servative influence exerted upon the whole organism,  is proved by the
fact that all the limbs may be amputated without destroying life. The
source  of this  faculty undoubtedly resides in the central part.  But
is it diffused through all  the central  mass,  or confined to a particular
part 1   The former is not true ;  of this we may be convinced by com-
paring the degree of  tenacity of life in  those animals in which the brain
is considerable, and  those in which it is small.  The difference in this
respect must undoubtedly be ascribed to  this,  that the two conditions 
          OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      187

 are directly opposed to each other.  Experiments seem to demonstrate
 that the source of the preservative power, which exerts an influence on
 the whole organism,  resides in the medulla oblongata; since if  this
 part be injured, life is  destroyed sooner than from wounds of any other
 part of the brain or spinal marrow ; and  farther, the latter have been
 found changed, and the vital functions have not been affected.  This
 part is principally important because the  par vagum nerve arises here
 and  goes to the organs of respiration ;  for when that is injured, the se-
 cond condition,  which  is essential to maintain life, the change of
 venous into arterial blood in the lungs, no longer takes  place, and the
 vital energies cannot be produced.  Thus, after destroying the medulla
 oblongata, and even separating the head from the body, if artificial respi-
 ration is carried on, the trunk continues to live during a certain period,
 if the spinal marrow be uninjured, and the vessels are carefully tied to
 prevent the loss of arterial blood;  but if the spinal marrow be destroyed,
 all the vital  phenomena  cease,  although respiration is  continued.
 If a  portion of it only be  destroyed, life  ceases only in those organs
 which receive their nerves from this part.  The medulla oblongata is
 then not so important to all the organism, except as a medium.  The
 true source ofthe preservative power of the nervous system resides in
 the posterior and inferior part ofthe encephalon and in the spinal marrow,
 and the integrity of all these parts is absolutely necessary to maintain
 life.  This is farther proved by the fact, that although when part of  the
 spinal marrow is destroyed, the vital phenomena cease instantaneously
 only in those organs to which it sends nerves, yet the other organs also
 soon perish, and at the same time as when the heart is removed and
 the spinal marrow uninjured.  The destruction of the nervous system
 appears then to cause death by checking the circulation of  the blood.
 Hence why the motions of the heart become much weaker when a part
 of the spinal marrow is destroyed  ; and the reason  too that when a
 considerable part of this cord is destroyed, life remains so much longer
 if the  circulation be  carefully restricted  to  a  few  organs,  and  the
 relation between the extent of  the circulation and the force which re-
 mains  in  the heart after the lesion of the  spinal "marrow, be more
 favorable.
   §  195.  The nervous  system is also the medium between all  the
 organs.  It unites them all, and changes  in one are felt not only in  the
 central mass, but also produce changes in the other parts of the body.
 It is  then the organ of sympathies.
   §  196.  The texture ofthe nervous system and the numberless com-
 munications of its different parts, greatly favor the development of sym-
pathies.  The plexuses of the nerves seem to be the medium of these
sympathies, since they unite the filaments of  the different nerves ; so
that the branches given off by them, are always composed of filaments
from two or more of these different nerves.
  The nervous filaments separate and unite in the ganghons also.
 Hence they have been regarded in the same light as the plexuses, and
their uses  have been considered— 
188
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
   1st. To increase the ramifications of the nerves, and to render them
 more minute, since on entering them,  the  nerves abandon their  neu-
 rilemma, and are reduced to  their constituent filaments, which receive
 a thinner and softer envelop when they emerge.
   2d. To facilitate the passage of the branches of the same nerve to
 different organs, and to guard them against the dangers which might
 attend them in a long course.
   3d. To unite in a single trunk several filaments of one, or of different
 nerves, or the different roots of the same nerve.(l)
   But, then, we cannot conceive why the  ganglions  differ so much
 from the plexuses, or even why they exist;  it seems, then, more natural
 to think, that these organs increase in some  manner the action  of
 the nerves, an opinion which  many ancient and modern  physiologists
 have sustained with different modifications.
   § 197.  The ancient anatomists were more strenuous  to prove the
 existence of these ganglions than to determine their uses ; still, Galen's
 opinion seems to  have  been, that they increased the action of the
 nerves. He says, " Ubi enim aut longo itinere nervum est (natura) due-
 turum, exiguum aut motui musculi vehementi ministraturum, ibi substan-
 tiam ejus corpore crassiori quidem, cstera autem simili, intercipit."(2)
 Willis,(3) and Vieussens,(4) that they prepared, perfected, or modified in
 some manner the active principle ofthe nerves. We may consider as mo-
 difications of this theory the opinion of Lancisi,(5) that they possessed
 muscular fibres to quicken the course ofthe active principle ofthe nerves,
 to render this principle  more prompt in  obeying the impulse of the will,
 and  that of Gorter,(6) who believed them designed to concentrate the
 blood vessels,which, by their action,favor the passage of the nervous fluid.
 Lancisi, Winslow, Lecat, Winterl, Johnstone, Pfeffinger, Monro, Bichat,
 Gall, and Reil, have considered them as small brains, secondary brains,
 sources to increase the nervous power, because they are, like the brain,
 composed of a white and a  gray substance,  and because  the  latter
 is as vascular as in the  encephalon;  and farther, in the fetuses  des-
 titute of a brain by primitive formation, or where the brain has been ac-
 cidentally compressed, the substance which  replaces it very much re-
 sembles, in color and consistence, the nervous ganglions ; and  finally,
 because the nerves given off  by the ganglions are larger and more nu-
 merous than those they receive.   Even the analogy between the struc-
 ture of the nervous ganglions, and that of the lymphatic glands has

  (1) Meckel, Obs. anat sur unnceud ou ganglion du second rameau de la cinquieme
paire des nerfs du cerveau, nouvellement decouvert, avec Vexamen physiologique du
veritable usage des ganglions des nerfs, in Mem. de I'Ac. de Berlin, 1749, p. 85-102.
 Zinn, ibid. p. 753 ; De Venveloppe  des nerfs, p. 144.—Scarpa, Ann. Acad. Mutinee,
 1799, B. i.—Haase, De gangl. struct, p. 32-35.
  (2) De usu part. corp. hum.B. xvi. c. v.  The nervous ganglions were discovered
by Galen.  F.T.
  (3) Descript nerv., in Opp. omn., Geneva, 1695, p. 120.
  (4) Neurogr. p. 193. _
  (5) Diss, de structurd usuque gangliorum annex. Morgagni advers. an. V.
  (6) Chirurgia repurgata, Ley den, 1742, p. 184. 
         OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       189

 been adduced in support of this hypothesis, because it  has been con-
 cluded that their functions ought also to be analogous.
   This opinion is far from being contradicted by asserting, that the ex-
 istence ofthe animal spirits is not demonstrated, which, according to the
 ancient physiologists, were  produced, elaborated, kept in reserve, and
 rapidly propelled by the ganglions,(l) or that the structure of the  or-
 gans which secrete them ought to be much more delicate, and that the
 mass of nervous substance does not increase in the ganglions, but that
 in them the filaments of the nerves are  only divided into smaller fila-
 ments ;(2) and finally, that the structure of these ganglions is not simi-
 lar to that of the brain.(3)  The imponderable principle which acts in
 the nerves is not what the ancients termed vital or animal spirits, and
 although we are now better acquainted with its laws, although we sus-
 pect it extends throughout all nature, this knowledge does not affect
 the state of  the question  in the least.   We know of no other organ
 which can secrete it, except the gray and white substance, and both of
 these exist in the ganglions.   But the  ganglions  are similar even in
 this respect to the brains, and although the anatomy ofthe superior ani-
 mals does not prove this identity, we cannot doubt it, when we compare
 the ganglions and the brain of the inferior animals ; in fact, it often hap-
 pens in these animals, that the different  ganglions have the same inner
 and outer structure, and the same volume, as the brain.
   We may, then, consider this opinion as  demonstrated generally,  al-
 though its.different modifications are somewhat erroneous.  Thus,  for
 instance, Lancisi's assertion is untrue, that the  function of the gang-
 hons is to determine the flow of the vital spirits into the voluntary mus-
 cles ;  for the organs which receive  their nerves  from these  enlarge-
 ments are in fact the involuntary,  such as the heart, viscera, &c,  al-
 though he maintains the contrary.  It is, then, much more correct to
 say with Johnstone, that the ganghons interrupt the influence of the ce-
 rebral action on the organs, and to admit,  with Haller and Metzger, that
 they blunt the sensations, in short, that the organs to which they send
 their nerves are more insulated than  the others from the rest of the
 nervous system.  In fact, the nerves of  several  of  the voluntary mus-
 cles also have  ganglions; but they are formed  from their posterior
 roots alone, and these do not unite to the  anterior, till after the gang-
lions are produced.  Finally, from what has been stated above(§ 182),
 it is wrong to say that the ganglions are situated in the course of the
nerves to interrupt the cerebral influence ;  the  nerves  emerge  from
 the ganglions and are connected with the rest of the nervous system
 only by intermediate filaments ; the ganglions are  centres, and hence
the organs which they animate are insulated.
  It follows, then, that several functions which have been considered
 as so many principal functions of the ganghons, are merely subordinate

                  (1) Scemmerring, Nervenlehre, p. 130.
                  f2) Haase, loc. cit. p. 19, 20.
                  (3) Haase, loc. cit. p. 25. 
190                     GENERAL ANATOMY.
 and  inferior,  or rest only on  false suppositions.  Thus, according to
 Zinn, the ganglions are designed to give  a cellular envelop to the
 nerves which come from them.  But the relation of the cellular tunic
 of the nerves with the ganglions, does not differ from that of the neuri-
 lemma with the pia mater of the brain or spinal marrow.   It appears
 wherever a nerve is formed.  Nor is the use of the ganghons to unite
 the different filaments of the nerves  in  a  single trunk, as Meckel has
 pretended.   This anatomist rested his opinion principally on the fact of
 the ganghons of the spinal marrow ; but Haase has demonstrated the
 incorrectness of the  pretended fact.  It is  true that the nervous fila-
 ments ramify and interlace in a thousand ways in the compound gang-
 lions ] but the same is the case in the brain  and spinal marrow.  We
 then have more reason to say, that the ganglions establish a contrast
 between the nerves which they give off and those which they receive;
 since the former are reddish and soft, and they are easily distinguished
 by their color and degree of solidity from those with which they anas-
 tomose.
   *§ 198. The nervous system differs considerably during life, both in
 itself and in its relations with other organs.(l)
   The following are the most remarkable  peculiarities  in this respect:
   We have already observed (p. 45) that the nervous system is one
 of the first, if not the very first, which appears.   Are all its parts seen
 at once, or successively 1  If they arise in succession, in what order do
 they appear %   This is, perhaps, no place to decide whether the nerves
 appear in those  regions of the body which are formed after the others,
 later than in those parts which show themselves the first;  if,  conse-
 quently, they develop  themselves first or last in the extremities.  The
 problem reduces itself to determine if the central and peripheral parts
 do or do not arise at the same time, and if the latter be true, which ap-
 pears first.  As the nervous and vascular systems,  and the intesti-
 nal canal, are formed entirely or almost entirely together, the smallness
 of the' objects renders it  almost impossible to determine if  the part3
 which are first seen, be the central  parts of the' nervous system, or if
 they belong to the  vessels, or to the intestines.  Analogy favors the
 first hypothesis ; for in many worms we find only a single cord extend-
ing the whole length of the body, which does not give off any nerves; (2)
and also different organs, particularly the heart, the intestinal canal in
the animal series, and even the whole body of the fetus, form in this
manner, that is,  we see the trunk first, and then the branches which
proceed from it.


  (1) J. and C. Wenzel, loc. cit. chap. 27, 28, 29, 31, 34.—Dsellingerrs, Beitrcege zur
Entwicklungsgeschichte des menschlichen Gehirns, Fvant, 1814.—Ackerman, De sys-
tematis nervei primordiis, Heidelberg, 1813.—Carus, loc. cit. p. 262-265 and 277-297.
Meckel, in the Deutchcs Archiv fur die Physiologie, 1815, vol. i. chap. 1 and 3.
  (2) Cuvier, Anatomie compared, vol. ii. 
         OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      191

  But which of the central parts  appears first ?  There are two cen-
tral masses, formed one by the encephalon and the spinal marrow, the
other by the ganglions ofthe grand sympathetic nerve (p. 177).  Does
the former appear before the latter; and are certain parts of these two
masses formed before the others 1
  The most probable  opinion is that which attributes priority of origin
to the encephalon and spinal marrow.  This is supported,
  1. By observations on the fetus ;(l)  and,
  2. By the analogy of the development of the nervous system in the
animal  series;  for that part  of the system found in imperfect animals
corresponds to this portion.
  The same reasons should apparently lead us to think that the spinal
marrow is formed before the  brain.  We may add  to these the fol-
lowing :
   a. The  size of the brain in proportion to that of the spinal marrow
always diminishes as we  descend the animal scale,  b. The spinal
marrow  is perfected long before the brain,   c. We sometimes see
deformed fetuses in which the upper part of the body, and consequently
the brain, is deficient, but never those in which  the brain and upper
part of the body are alone formed.
   Other arguments have also been adduced to favor the priority of the
spinal marrow.'  Some  have thought to demonstrate that it was indis-
pensable, by saying that " the central organ of sensitive  life  ought
necessary to develop itself at the same time with the heart, the central
organ of vegetative life."(2)  But, as the spinal marrow appears before
the heart, as in the fetus ; and, as in some animals, (insects,) we  find
nerves and even a spinal marrow, but no real heart; and,  as in the
invertebral animals, the  position of the heart is not constant, although
that of the  central  part  of the  nervous system never varies,  this
explanation, imagined to establish that the spinal- marrow necessarily
precedes the brain, is as little plausible as  most explanations of the
same kind.
   Ackermann has  advanced another opinion, to which it may be
objected  that  it  does  not rest on observation.  He thinks  that
the  sympathetic nerve  is  formed  first,  and  that its  priority  is
equally necessary, because the  heart,  the   organ  possessing the
highest  degree  of  vital  energy,  is  the  centre  of vegetative  life.
According to  Ackermann, in  fact, the globules of the blood pass
through the substance of the heart, and arrange themselves in a series,
to produce the fibres  of  the  nerves, the  softness  and transparency of
which he considers as another proof of this  priority.   He admits  that
the  nervous  system reaches the  skull along the  large vessels which
arise from the heart, and that its mass gradually increases, to form the
encephalon and spinal marrow ;  that the latter is formed by the brain,
and is a prolongation of  the cerebrum and cerebellum.   Against this

  (1) Malpighi, De ovo incubato,  Op. anat, London, 1686, p. 4.  Post diem  inte-
  frum—tres ampliores vesicular, cumproductd spinalimedulla; and in the Appendix :
  Uabcnte die—spinali medullas—cui vesicular cerebri appendebantur.
  (2) Carus, loc. cit, p. 78. 
192
GENERAL ANATOMY.
hypothesis may be adduced most of the objections to that ofthe nervous
system necessarily appearing at the same time as the heart, to contrast
with it, and also the arguments which demonstrate the priority of the
spinal marrow.(l)  In truth, Ackermann admits this priority of the
spinal marrow, which he construes favorably to his hypothesis, saying
that the nervous system of the invertebral animals corresponds to the
great sympathetic nerve of the superior animals, but not to their ence-
phalon nor to their  spinal marrow;  but  this comparison is  not cor-
rect.^)  In fact, the arrangement of these systems in the invertebral
animals proves that it may be compared to the  cerebro-spinal system,
since, 1st, .the nerves come from its  centre, and they are seen to arise
from the same place in  the  superior animals;  2d, some  parts of this
nervous system are developed in the  upper  classes of the invertebral
animals,  as the  cephalopodous mollusca, so as  to resemble the brain;
finally, in these same animals we see a second nervous system, which
corresponds to the sympathetic  nerve, and which communicates with
the other, in the same manner as in the superior animals.   Let us also
add, that if  Ackermann's hypothesis be correct, there  should  be a
period of hfe  when the sympathetic  nerve is  much greater than the
brain and spinal marrow, or at least should be largely developed  in
proportion to  them;  but this is not the case.   Besides, the experiments
of Le Gallois have  proved  that the life ofthe sympathetic nerve and
ofthe organs animated by it depends on the spinal  marrow,(3) which
could not be true if this nerve were formed before all the other parts of
the brain, and if the spinal marrow were only  an expansion from it.
  According to Ackermann's hypothesis, the  spinal marrow is not
formed before the brain.  This  physiologist  thought to  reverse the
argument drawn from  acephalous monsters, by saying  that in this
monstrosity the brain is never primitively deficient, but that it has been
destroyed by  disease; but this  etiology of acephalia is admissible only
when it  is applied to monsters which have the  body  perfectly de-
veloped, but not the skull.   There, in fact, every circumstance induces
us to think that the  brain, developed more or less irregularly according
to the primitive type of the fetus, has been destroyed by an accumula-
tion of serum.  But we must  distinguish these cases  from the true
acephalia, where most of the upper  half of the body is deficient, and
there is no  trace  of its having  been  destroyed:  Besides, even when
this argument in favor of the priority of the spinal marrow is refuted,
all the others retain their weight.
  § 199. It is  then almost demonstrated, that the  spinal marrow is
that part ofthe nervous system which is first seen.  But the brain soon
appears at its upper extremity.   This conjecture seems very probable

  (1) Carus (loc. cit,p. 79) has made good use of these reasons; but, unless we  are
much mistaken, he has collected them against himself.
  (2) At least Ackermann's  reason is incorrect, that the sympathetic nerve, as an
inferior nervous system, must develop itself in the class of animals lower than where
the more exalted brain and spinal marrow are found.
  (3) Le Gallois, Exp. sur le principe de la vie, Paris, 1812, p. 151. 
           OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      193

  from the progressive development of this organ in the fetus and in the
  animal series, since those parts which are situated the farthest forward,
  and are consequently the most distant from the primitive source ofthe
  spinal marrow, are developed the  slowest, that is, they appear and
  enlarge the last.  So too the great sympathetic nerve develops itself
  in front of the spinal marrow, in the form of a series of ganglions, which'
  communicate with it and with each other by medullary cords.  The
  brain and sympathetic nerve retain the distinctive characters of se-
  condary formations longer than  the spinal marrow.   They preserve
  them even through life, since the  different  masses of ganghons which
  form them do not unite in one, but represent a  series of organs more or
  less similar, as in the nervous system of the invertebral animals.  On
  the contrary, the spinal marrow forms a  single  mass, in which we
  distinguish  only two lateral parts,  and which, examined from  one
  extremity to the other, no where resembles a series of ganghons.  The
  great sympathetic nerve, which is only an imperfect repetition  of this
  organ, appears later even than the  brain, if we  may judge from its
  imperfect appearance ;  for its component  masses are still more distinct
  and separate than those of the encephalon.
    § 200.  The nervous system, proportionally speaking, is much larger,
  softer, and moister in the early than in the subsequent periods  of life.
  The reason that the proportion of  the liquids exceeds that of the solids
  is that the parietes of the permanent cavities are much thinner when
  the organism is younger, and because some of its cavities, as that of the
 spinal marrow, are soon  obliterated.
   The texture of the nervous system differs remarkably at different
 periods of life in this respect, that at first there is no distinction between
 the gray and the white substance, and that all the nervous mass has
 at first a grayer tint.
   It whitens in the nerves and in the spinal marrow sooner than in the
 encephalon, within which the medullary substance is darker than the
 gray substance, even sometimes after birth:  this arises from its great
 number of vessels.
   The  lower parts of the brain assume their medullary appearance
 before the upper portions.
   The nervous system differs also in other respects at different periods
 of hfe.  At first, its surface is perfectly smooth, and its proportional
 size and the forms of its different parts do not remain the same.  Thus,
 at first the spinal marrow fills the whole length  of the vertebral canal,
 the cerebellum is smaller than the tubercula  quadrigemina, and  these
are as large as the cerebrum.
   §201.  As the sexual differences,  we shall  mention  that the vo-
lume of the brain is larger in proportion to the nerves and the rest of
the body in females, than in males ; and for  the differences of races,
that the nerves are proportionally larger in  the negro.
Vol. I                        25 
194
GENERAL ANATOMY.
                   ARTICLE  SECOND.

        OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

  § 202.  We shall commence the history of the anomalies ofthe ner-
vous system by that of the accidental injuries with which its form may
be affected, as this will naturally lead us to speak  of its power of re-
generation.
  The changes in the structure of  the nerves, caused by the wounds
of these organs, differ much from those seen in other parts of the body
in similar circumstances.
  When a nerve is divided, its extremities always swell  into a Wer
or smaller tubercle. (1)   The color  of this tubercle is grayish, and it is
often so hard and solid that the scalpel glides off when  cutting it,
and the sound resembles that from cutting cartilage.  The size of this
tubercle is in direct ratio with  the abundance of cellular tissue, and to
the time which has elapsed since the wound.  It not only enlarges in
time, but also becomes harder.
   The tubercle of  the upper  extremity is smaller, but as hard as that
of the lower.   That portion of the nerve below the section, withers and
loses its distinctive color.
   In amputations, this  tubercle seems not to develop itself exactly at
the extremity of the  divided nerve  ; at least, Van Horn(2) has found
that an inch above the wound, the nerves were blended with the granu-
lations of the muscles, and could not be distinguished from the mass.
One  month after the  operation, they were reddish internally and exter-
nally, and the tubercle distinguished from the end of the nerve by its
whiteness, was then situated still higher.   The lower end of the nerve
is wasted more or less, like that of  all other organs.  Finally, the tu-
bercles are seen both in the small and  the large branches of the nerves,
and they remain apparently during life.
   § 203. If the lower part of the nerve has not been removed, it unites
with the upper portion.   But  observers are not agreed on the nature
of  the  uniting substance.   Some think it real  nervous  substance,
while others  consider it simply as a cellular  tissue,  or coagulated
lymph, which can never acquire the peculiar structure of the nerves.
Hence the dispute in regard to the regeneration of these organs.
   There are two ways of ascertaining if an organ be renewed ; these
are, to study its functions, and to investigate the nature of the substance
formed in place of the portion removed.   The first method is very un-
certain, since the mechanical arrangement of the nervous  system is
such, that the nerve which is divided may be replaced by the anasto-
 mosing filaments, and a substance imperfectly analogous to that which

  (1)  Arnemann, Veber die Reproduction der Nerven, Gottingen, 1786,*p.'48.—Id.
 Versuche uber die Regeneration der Nerven, Gottingen, 1787.
   (2)  De iis qum in partibus membri, prcesertim osseis, amputatione vulneratis notan-
 da sunt, Leyden, 1803, p. 33-35. 
         OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.     195

 normally exists, is sufficient to  unite  the two extremities so perfectly,
 that the functions may be performed with perfect regularity.   The se-
 cond method is more certain, but is also liable to deceive.
   Cruikshank,(l) Haighton,(2) Fontana,(3) Monro, Michaelis,(4) and
 Mayer,(5) reasoning from different researches, have admitted that the
 nerves  have the power of perfect  regeneration.   Arnemann, on the
 contrary, thinks himself authorized, by numerous observations, to deny
 it.   He states(6) that the extremities of the nerves are always united
 by cellular tissue, condensed by  inflammation, which sometimes ac-
 quires the hardness of cartilage,  and  fills up the  space more or less
 perfectly, accordingly as the nerve was more or less surrounded with
 cellular tissue, and that it gradually and slowly becomes consolidated
 with the two extremities of the nerve.   Munro(7)  has also found that
 the newly formed substance has always a deeper color.
   Fontana believed  that true nervous substance  was  reproduced in
 some cases where he had removed from the intercostal nerve, a portion
 six lines in length, because  that the nervous filaments passed uninter-
 ruptedly through this substance, in going from one end of the nerve to
 the other.
   Michaelis removed portions  of nerves, nine or ten lines long, and
 found,  after eight weeks, that the  extremities  of these nerves were
 united,  by a substance perfectly similar or  nearly so, to the nervous
 substance.  The transition from  the  old to the new nerve was  but
 slightly perceptible by the microscope.
   Mayer, having removed  portions one or two lines long, found the
 extremities of the nerves reunited by filaments more or less fine, which,
 hke the true nervous substance, did not dissolve in nitric acid ; but, on
 the contrary, became harder, and  consequently possessed  one of  the
 most essential qualities of this substance.
   Haighton divided in a dog the pneumogastric nerve on one side, and six
 weeks after, that of the opposite side; in six months the animal had entire-
 ly recovered.   But  all dogs  in  which the  two par vagum nerves
were cut simultaneously or shortly after each other, died.  Hence he
concluded, that death did not occur in the first case, because the wound
of the  nerve was cicatrized perfectly in six weeks.  Still the function
might have been performed by the other nerves, which, perhaps, had
enlarged.  If this was the case, the animal would continue to live when
the two pneumogastric nerves were  divided simultaneously.   Haigh-
ton repeated this  experiment,  but the animal died :  proving that  the
functions were re-established, because the substance of the nerves was
reproduced.

  (1) Experiments on the nerves, tyc. in Reil, Archiv. vol.  ii. p. 57-81.
  (2) Experiments on the reproduction ofthe nerves, ibid. p. 79.
  (3) Versuche iiber das  Viperngift, part ii.
  (4) Veber die Regeneration der Nerven, Cassel, 1785.
  (S\ Reil, Archiv fur die Physiol, vol. ii. p. 449.
  16) Loc. cit p. 47.
  (7) Veber das Nervensystem, p. 94. 
196                  GENERAL ANATOMY.
  Arnemann has rejected all those experiments in favor of the repro-
duction of the nerves, in which they were merely divided and no
portion of them  was removed, saying, that in  these  cases  there
was no reproduction.  But  the  difference in  the  cicatrization  of
wounds, with or without loss of substance, is only in degree ;  since the
simple wounds do not unite immediately, and the lymph which trans-
udes gives rise to a new substance which joins their two extremities.
The above mentioned experiments  seem to authorize the behef, that
the new substance, which is homogeneous in the wounds of all organs,
may gradually become real nervous tissue.    Farther, we cannot con-
clude that this new substance is not nervous, because its characters differ
from the  old  nervous substance ; for the bones, when newly formed,
also vary in form and structure from those which are old*
   Wounds of the encephalon, when attended with  loss of  substance,
also cicatrize by a new substance there developed, which is unlike the
normal substance of the organ.  It  is more yellowish, and more easily
distinguished from the gray and the medullary substance.  The yellow
substance of the brain resembles it the most.  Its tissue is loose and soft,
and sometimes entirely mucilaginous.   However, the circumvolutions
of the brain are sometimes  formed from it.  It generally closes the
wound entirely,  its edges  approaching the centre.   Another circum-
stance very favorable to the cicatrization of wounds of the brain, is the
enlargement of the ventricle  on the diseased side, while neither life nor
health are affected.   We sometimes find a viscous  or coriaceous  mat-
ter within the new  cerebral substance, which  Arnemann  thinks  is
formed hy the coagulable lymph, thrown out  from the wound  of the
temporal muscle.   It is firmer  and redder  than the new cerebral sub-
stance, and is usually filled with new vessels.(l)
   § 204.  The principal anomalies in the form of the nervous system
are:
   1st. Its absence, totally or partially.  A deficiency of the whole sys-
tem is rare,(2) and is usually attended with an imperfect development
of the whole organism, which is undoubtedly caused by it.
   A partial deficiency is more common.  Usually a greater or less por-
tion of the brain is absent,  and it sometimes happens that  the spinal
marrow does not exist, or that a part of it is wanting.  Sometimes
the whole brain is deficient, while the spinal  marrow is perfectly de-
veloped.  This  state, attended or not with  the  imperfect formation of
the adjacent parts of  the body, is called  acephalia, or more  strictly
anencephalia.  We shall  mention  its principal characters  when we

  * M. Flourens, in a Memoir in the Ann. des Sc. Naturelles, Feb. 1828, states that
having repeated the experiments of Fontana, Montana, Cruikshank, and others on
the reunion of the divided extremities of the same  nerve, he sought to determine
the effects resulting from uniting the ends of different nerves; he therefore kept them
in contact—Union took place in every instance. In some of the cases, the return of the
function was complete; in others, it failed.  In all, the transmission of irritations
by the united nerves was perfect.—Am. Med. Journ. no. vii., May, 1829.
   (1) Arnemann, Versuche iiber das Gehirn, und Ruckenmark, Gottino-en p. 187
  (2) The only case we know is that mentioned by Clarke, Phil. Transact. 1793  p. 
        OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.    197

have described the brain. (1)   We shall only say here, that the absence
of the spinal marrow (at least  such as might be considered original)
has never been observed in a fetus where the brain was  perfectly de-
veloped, and that anencephalia is more frequent in the female than in
the male.
  In regard to  the nerves, they are rarely wanting.  The first degree
of this anomaly is the partial interruption of a nervous trunk ;(2) of this
the nervous system of organic hfe (§ 182) sometimes furnishes exam-
ples.
  The nervous system is never doubled, nor multiplied, at least when
the body is not.
  2d. An excess or deficiency of volume.
  An excess in size is rare when the structure of the nervous system
is otherwise normal.(3)   As to the contrary state, an abnormal small-
ness,  although the nerves never are deficient, this is not more common
than original deviations of formation.   Atrophy or wasting of the ner-
vous system is seen more frequently ;. it may be primitive, as in tabes
dorsalis, or consecutive, and accompanied by the loss of the function of
the organ.  Thus,  when the  eye is destroyed, the optic nerve wastes.
The nerve, however, then becomes not only thinner and finer, but its
texture changes, it hardens, is grayer, and more transparent.
   We may here mention the dropsy of the nervous system, where the
solids have not the  same relation to the fluids, which often accumulate
in enormous quantities.   This state is congenital more frequently than
'it is developed  after birth.  In the first case, the whole nervous system
is generally affected ; in the second, it is confined to some of its parts,
principally  to  the  encephalon; its more intimate  relations  must te
mentioned in the description of.the brain and nervous system.
   3d. Anomalies of situation and form, particularly if congenital, are
very rare.  These  also belong to descriptive anatomy.  Among the
accidental, we should distinguish lacerations, to which the brain is ex-
posed, from an effusion of blood within it.  The changes which occur
in this organ belong to special anatomy.
   § 205. Among the alterations of texture of the nervous system, we
mention:
   1st. Anomalies in the  color.  This is rarely seen, unless accompanied
by other alterations of texture.  The whole  or a part of the nervous
system, however, is more or less tinged with yellow in jaundice.
   2d. The abnormal softness and hardness exist alone or together ; so
that one portion of the nervous system is much "harder and another
much softer than usual.
  Weinhold asserts that the nerves are unusually soft or fluid in persons
affected with typhus. (4)   The brain is sometimes softer and sometimes
harder than usual in maniacs.   Frequently,  too, it is harder in some

             (1) See our Path. Anat vol. i. p. 195.
             (2) See our Path. Anat. vol. i. p. 392.
             (3) See our Path. Anat vol. i. p. 392.
             (4) Hufeland,  Prakt. Bibliothek, vol. xxxi. p. 501. 
198                    GENERAL ANATOMY.
points, and softer in others, in people disposed to epilepsy.   In hydro-
cephalus, its parietes are generally thinner and softer.
   § 206. New formations in the nervous system are not rare.  Repe-
titions of the normal tissue are extremely uncommon.   Bones and fat
are the only  parts, to our  knowledge,  which appear, sometimes  in
the substance of the  brain, more  rarely in  the  nerves around them.
But it is by no means uncommon to find accidental osseous tissue in the
dura mater.
   On the contrary, abnormal formations of different kinds are not rarely
developed either in the substance or on the surface of this system, espe-
cially on that of the brain.
   Encysted tumors connect these repetitions ofthe normal tissues with
the new  formations.  They contain various liquids, and are more rare
in the nerves than  in the encephalon,  particularly  in the ventricles
and choroid plexuses.
   Very hard rounded tumors, of a yellowish white color, perhaps like
the fibro-cartilages, as  they  have a fibrous structure,  are sometimes
found in the nerves,( 1) and  also in  the brain.   When developed  in
the nerves they occupy  the intervals between their fibres.
   The brain is also frequently the seat of white, hard, round tumors,
very analogous to scrofulous  tumors, which would doubtless be found
also in  other  portions of the nervous system, if they were carefully
examined.   They are almost always united to the cerebral substance.
Some other tumors, resembling fungous tumors, and which perhaps are
a repetition of  the  mucous tissue, are more rarely found, but only in
the brain.  They are red, very vascular, soft, and adhere but slightly
to the substance of the brain.
   Finally, loose hydatids develop  themselves both  in the ventricles  of
the brain, especially in the lateral  ventricles, and even in its substance.
In  treating of  the special anatomy of the nervous system, we shall
examine these anomalies more in detail.
        OF THE SPECIAL ORGANIC SYSTEMS.

  § 207. After the description of the general organic systems follows
that of the special (§  16).
  Among these we consider, 1st, The  osseous  system, inasmuch as
several circumstances in  the history of the other systems are to be
fully understood only by an  acquaintance with it, especially with its
external form.

  (1) Cheselden, Anatomy of the human body, p. 256, tab. 28.—Home, An account of
an uncommon tumor found in one of the axillary nerves, in the Trans, for the im-
prov. of med. and surg. knowledge, vol. ii. no. xi.—Spangenberg, Sur les gonfiemens
des nerfs, in Horn, Archiv. fur ined. Erfahrung, vol. v. p. 306.—Alexander, De
tumoribus nervorum, Leyden, 1800.—Wood, On painful subcutaneous tubercle, in
the Edinb. med. and surg. journal, vol. viii. no 31 and 32. 
OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       199
                       SECTION FOURTH.

                       OF TH^i OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

   § 208. The bones(l) are solid parts, of a yellowish white color, con-
nected by different kinds of attachment, and so firmly united as to con-
stitute a whole, representing exactly the form of the body.   They may
be  considered, 1st,  In regard  to themselves;  2d, In relation to their
connections with each other.
                       ARTICLE  FIRST.


           OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.


                         I. OF THE BONES.


                A.  GENERAL REMARKS  ON THE BONES.


   § 209. The bones differ principally from other organs by great hard-
ness and sohdity, which permits them in a measure to form the base of
the whole body.   These quahties render them  susceptible of forming
levers, on which the muscles act to produce motion.   Hence they may
be called the passive organs of locomotion.
   § 210. The great hardness of the bones is the immediate result of
their chemical composition.   In  fact, they contain more of  the phos-
phate of lime than any  of the organic parts.   A chemical analysis of
the bones  proves that they are formed  principally of two substances j
one soft and of an animal nature, the other hard and sohd.   The first
is principally gelatin, hence the  form of the bones, and their shght
degree  of flexibility.   The other consists almost entirely of phosphate


  (1) Most authors, who have written on the bones, have not only described them
  enerally, but also each particular bone. We shall mention here the former only.
  ome treat of tne bones only in their normal state, as A. Monro, Anatomy of the bones
and nerves, Edinburgh, 1726.—Cheselden, Osteography, or the anatomy ofthe bones,
London, 1733.—Bertin, Traite de osteologie, Paris, 1754.—J. Sue, Traite de osteologie,
with plates, Paris, 1759.—Blumenbach, Geschichte der Knochen, Gottingen, 1812. On
the structure of the bones in general we may consult Malpighi, De ossium struc-
turd, in his Opp. posth., Venice, 1743.—D. Gagliardi, Anatome ossium novis inventis
illustrata, Leyden, 1723.—Havers, Osteologia nova, or some new observations on the
bones, London, 1691.—Description exacte des os, comprise en trois traites, by J.-J.
Courtial, J. L. Petit and L. Lemery.—De Lasone, Memoire sur Vorganisation des
os, in the Mem. de Paris, 1751.—J. F. Reichel, De ossium ortu atque structurd,
Leipsic,  1760.—B. S. Albinns, De constructione ossium, in the Annot. acad. lib. vii.
c. 17.—Scarpa, De penitiori  ossium structurd commentarius, Leipsic, 1799.—Mala-
carne,  Auctuarium observationum ad ostcologiam  et ostcopathologiam Ludwigii
et Scarpa, Padua, 1801.—As to the pathological anatomy of the bones, besides the
works of Cheselden, Courtial, and Malacarne, the following are important to con-
sult: A. Bonn, Descriptio thesauri ossium morbosorum Hoviani, Amsterdam, 1783.—
Musaum anatomicum Ac. Lugd. descriptum ab. E.  Sandifort, Leyden, 1793.—C.
T. Clossius, Veber die Krankheiten der Knochen, Tubingen, 1798. 
200
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 of lime.   From the latest and most accurate analysis of Berzelius,(l)
 the bones contain,

    Of gelatin, completely soluble in water,.....32.17
    "  insoluble animal  matter,.........1-1^
    "  phosphate of lime,...........51.04
    "  carbonate of  lime,...........11.30
    "  fluate of lime,    ......,.......2.00
    "  phosphate of magnesia,.........1-16
    "  soda and hydro chlorate of soda,.......1-20

 The proportions of  these constituent  principles, however, vary both in
 the same bones of different men, and in the different bones of the same
 man, to say nothing of the variations dependent on age and the state
 of health.   Thus the petrous portion of the temporal bone  contains in
 general more earthy substance than the other bones.(2)
    § 211.  The color of the bones is yellowish white.  We can make
 no general remarks in regard to  their  form ;  they vary so much in this
 respect we are obliged  to divide them  into at  least  three classes, the
 long bones, the broad bones, and the short bones.  All these bones dif-
 fer from each other, not only in form, but in texture:  this, however,
 presents certain general conditions  in all bones, which should  be first
 studied, more  especially as the three classes  differ  only by  trifling
 shades.
   § 212. All the bones resemble each other in texture, inasmuch as
 they are formed essentially of fibro-cellular tissue, of  which the fibres
 and cells  are  closer,  and  consequently less  apparent at the  cir-
 cumference than internally.   Hence  we  distinguish in the bones a
 cortical  or compact substance, (substantia compacta seu corticalis,) and
 an internal called the spongy, or  cellular substance, or the diploe, (sub-
 stantia spongiosa, cellulosa, s. diploe, s. meditullium).   But this distinc-
 tion is not essential:  for  1st, it does not exist when the  bones are
 formed, nor during  the early periods of their existence, since we find
 only the spongy substance.  2d.  We sometimes see the compact sub-
 stance change into a spongy substance, or at least  all differences be-
 tween them are effaced when their vitality is exalted by disease.  Far-
 ther, if the compact  substance of regularly formed bones be treated by
chemical agents, and the lime be  removed, we recognize  they  are
formed in the same manner as the diploe.   Finally, there is always an
inverse relation between the quantity of the two substances in differ-
ent parts of the same bone ; that is, in thicker parts the compact sub-
stance alone exists, or  at least in greater proportion  than the other,

  (1) See in Gehlen, Journal fur die Chemie, vol. iii. part  1. p. 1.  However ac-
cording to the analysis of Fourcroy and Vauquelin,  (Annates de Chimie, vol.' 47,
no.  141,) of Hildebrandt, (Schweigger, Journal fur Chemie und Physik, vol. viii.
part 1, p. 1,) human bones seem not to contain magnesia.
  (2) Several instances may be seen in  Monro, (Outlines of the anatomy of the hu-
man body.) From the analyses of Davy in a subject, all the bones of the head con-
tain more earthy substance than the long bones. 
          OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      201

■tyhile in the parts which are more extended it forms only a thin layer,
and incloses a considerable portion of the spungy substance.
   § 213.  The fibres  and laminae which compose the bones are not
simply applied one against the other, so as to extend the whole length,
breadth, or thickness of a bone,(l) or to go from its centre to the cir-
cumference.   They incline so many different ways, one against the
other, and unite so  frequently by transverse and  oblique appendages
and processes, that great anatomists have been deceived by this ar-
rangement, and have  doubted the fibrous structure of the bones.  Ne-
vertheless, this conclusion is not  perfectly correct.  Notwithstanding
those curves  and anastomoses  of the fibres,  the fibrous  structure
always remains very apparent, and it is correct to say that the dimen-
sion of length exceeds the other  two in the texture  of many bones.
This  predominance is very well marked  during the first periods of
osteogeny, for at a later  time the fibres are so applied against  each
other that it is difficult  to distinguish them.  But these longitudinal
fibres never exist alone ;(2) there are many oblique and transverse
ones, from the first periods of ossification, and they aire even from the be-
ginning so multiplied, that the number of longitudinal fibres is not so
much  greater as at a subsequent period, when  the  fibres  approach
nearer, so that the  transverse become oblique, until at last, from the
increase of bone, the latter at first view seems composed of longitudinal
fibres only.  The transverse and oblique fibres do not form a separate
system; they continue  uninterruptedly with the longitudinal, which
they unite to each other.
   § 214.  The fibres  and laminae, arranged in  this manner, unite in
several superimposed  layers, and form the thickness of the bones ;(3)
these layers, it is said, are united  only  by fibres and intermediate
laminae, the mechanism of which, according to Gagliardi,, who has im-
perfectly described them,  is very comphcated.   It is true  that con-
tinued maceration, the action of the air, and calcination, reduce the bones
into several thin layers, adjusted to each other: it is also  true that a
part of  a bone affected with necrosis is usually thrown off in a layer,
varying in breadth and thickness; but these three agents  act too vio-
lently and too destructively for us to draw any certain conclusion from
the phenomena they produce. As to necrosis, the form ofthe sequestrum
depends only oh the extent and thickness of the diseased part.
   § 215.  The bones  present eminences and depressions which differ
much in  form and  importance.   The eminences are of  two kinds.
One species serves for the insertion of the muscles or ligaments, and ia
consequently always connected with the fibrous organs, since the  mus-
cles are never attached to the bones but by a  tendon.   The others
relate to the kind of motion performed  by the bones.  The former are
usually rough and irregular, and  are destitute of cartilage;  the latter

  (1) According to Havers, loc. cit p. 33-37.
  (2) Hildebrandt pretends that the transverse or oblique fibres are formed after
them, (Anatomie, vol. i. p. 77, § 54.)
  (3) Gagliardi, Havers, Rcichel.
   Vol. I.                       26 
202
GENERAL ANATOMY.
are smoother, more regular, and surrounded with cartilage.   The emi-
nences which project and are long in proportion to the body of the bone,
are usually called processes, or apophyses (processus, apophysis); the
tuberosities  (tuber),  and tubercles (tubercula), are those which are
shorter, but  broad and uneven ; the styloid process (stylus) is cylindri-
cal and thin,  and the. spinous process (spina) is  small, thin,  sharp,
and pointed; the crest (crista) is more extensive, smooth; and strongly
projecting; rough lines  (lines aspers) are those which are extended,
not very prominent, but so broad that we distinguish in them two lips,
(labia,) as in some of the preceding.
   The apophyses are designated by terms drawn  from certain analo-
gies.   Thus a round articular process is called a head (caput), and a
condyle (condylus) when flatter.   The heads and condyles are usually
supported by  a narrow portion  of bone, called the  neck (collum,
cervix).
   § 216. The depressions serve for the articulations of the bones with
each  other,  for the insertion of muscles  and ligaments,  for  the pas-
sage of vessels and nerves, or for the nervous system hi general.
   The first are supplied with cartilages, the second are roughened, and
the third are always smooth and more or less round.
   The gUnoid cavity  (cavitas glenoidea) is  a  shallow articular ca-
vity ; a deep one is called an acetabulum, or a  cotyloid cavity, (cavitas
cotyloidea.).  The depressions, whether  larger or smaller in the sub-
stance of the bone, and  which have a'narrow orifice, are called sinuses
(antrum, sinus,)  or cells (cellula) according to their size.
   Most  of those which serve  for the attachment of muscles and
ligaments, are called pita, (fovea, sinus.)
   Those which lodge  vessels or nerves are  sometimes narrow, and
Called grooves, (sulcus,  semi-canalis,) sometimes they are broader, and
called notches (incisura) when they occupy  the surface only.   When
they traverse the bone from one part to another they are called fissures
(fissura) or holes,  (foramen,) according to their size : if they extend
some distance they are called channels (canalis) or canals.
   We  must here  remark  generally that  the  arrangement of the
depressions  for the passage  of  the nerves and vessels, is not always
perfectly similar even in two sides of the same subject, since we some-
times find a hole or canal  on one side, while on the other is  only a
foramen.
   The  different eminences and cavities are formed sometimes only by
a  single bone, sometimes by the union of pieces of several bones ; the
first is more common.
   § 217. Most of the important apophyses are  formed by a special
nucleus of  bone which gradually unites with  the rest of the bone,
that is, with its body, and which is not entirely blended with it until the
stages  of its growth are completed.  It is generally believed that the
elevations and the depressions in the bones result from mechanical causes,
from  pressure  and the  traction of the organs which are attached to
them, or which are there inserted.   In fact certain  circumstances 
            OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      203

  seem to justify this explanation.  Thus the corrugations for the inser-
  tion of the muscles are  more apparent in proportion to the power of
  these muscles and their frequency of contraction:  hence they are not
  very distinct in children,  and always less so in the female than in the
  male.   The  origins  of these corrugations are generally explained in
  this manner; but the solidity and hardness of the bones do not allow
  us to admit such a theory;  probably the action of  the muscles contri-
  butes only remotely to this result, increasing the nutrition in the whole
  part, and thus favoring the more perfect development ofthe bone. If these
  corrugations  for the insertion of the muscles arose from a mechanical
  cause, we should not find  depressions:  but when examined with atten-
  tion we often  find  a cavity in which the' tendon lies, as is seen for ex-
  ample in the humerus, the radius, and the fibula. The depressions ofthe
  bones are produced immediately by the muscles opposing the develop-
  ment of the osseous substance in the place where they are inserted, so
  that when their activity is  increased and their size augmented, the
  cavity of insertion becomes greater, because  the development of the
  bone is prevented to a greater extent.
    This is the only  way in which we can admit that the furrows, desti-
 tute  of cartilages,  in which the tendons  glide,  are  partially  pro-
 duced and enlarged by a cause purely mechanical.   The tendon, which
 is  formed at the same time as the bone, prevents the formation of the
 latter in  the part corresponding to it, and opposes its development still
 more, in proportion as its surface is oftener compressed.
   The presence of  a nerve or vessel opposes  the accumulation of car-
 tilaginous or  osseous substance in the part corresponding to it.   The
 channels of the arteries are evidently caused by the pulsations of the
 vessels, which not  only hasten  absorption, but prevent the deposition
 of  new nutritious matter.   In the fetus, where the  bones of the skull
 are united to each other less firmly, and do not inclose the brain so strong-
 ly, so that the vessels of the dura mater cannot press on them with so
 much force, the  arterial channels are scarcely visible ;  they are very
 slight and superficial during the first year ;  but they gradually become
 deeper as the bones of the skull are more closely united, because the
 pulsations of  the arteries  then act on a single point.   This is proved
 especially by  the depressions, and even the openings in the bones of
 the skull, which correspond to the glands of Pacchioni, which must be
 considered as the remote cause of the disappearance of the bone in the
 places on wliich they act.
  But the cavities  developed within the bone and which open exter-
 nally, as also those which communicate with the nasal fossae cannot
 be attributed to mechanical causes, though Ackermann has pretended
 they are produced by the air.   They depend necessarily on the mode
 of development of the bones in which they are observed.  This is de-
 monstrated because we trace them even in the fetus,because they are not
developed in certain parts ofthe body to which the air has free access, and
because their number, extent, and even  existence in different animals, 
204
GENERAL ANATOMY.
have not the least connection with the greater or less exposure to the
air of the bones which contain them.
   §  218.  The organic  tissues which form an  essential  part of the
structure of the bones, are 1st, the periosteum; 2d, the vessels; and 3d,
the medullary system.
   §219.  The periosteum  belongs to the  class  of  fibrous organs.
(§16.)  It covers the bones entirely, and is attached to them by a
very short  cellular tissue, and also by the  vessels which pass into
the bones.   The  only points  to  which it does not extend, are those
where the bones articulate with each other: it there passes from one to
another, either in one piece or in.several distinct fascicuh.  The first
arrangement is seen  in  the immoveable articulations, and the second
in most of  the moveable joints.  In several bones,  but not in all,
the  fibres  of the  periosteum  are parallel to  those  of  the bones
which it surrounds, and the external are more extensive than the inter-
nal.   The vessels ramify in its tissue before they penetrate the  sub-
stance  of  the bones.  It furnishes  prolongations which line  their
course,  but which do not unite to the medullary membrane:  hence it
performs a  certain part in the formation of the bone,  and when
destroyed to a considerable extent, that portion of the bone below it
dies, although generally at the surface.   In fractures, the osseous sub-
stance is never regenerated  until  a new periosteum forms: thus  it
appear* first in parts most remote from the fracture, where the perios-
teum has not been  destroyed.  These  phenomena prove that  the
periosteum and bone are allied in  regard to their mode of formation:
but  they do not  authorize the assertion  that in ossification the peri-
osteum  becomes bone.
   § 220. The opinion that bone is formed by the change of the perios-
teum, and not by the  action of the vessels of this membrane,  has
been sustained by Duhamel,(l) and rests on the following arguments :
   1st. In the fetus the periosteum of the same bone is membranous
in some parts and osseous in others: it presents the first character in
its extremities, and the second in its centre. It is thicker at the extremi-
ties,  and is there composed of several layers.(2)
   2d. Several prolongations of the periosteum penetrate between the
apophyses  and the body^of the  bone: the whole  apophysis is even
formed  by the periosteum, as are also  the adjacent  ligaments   and
tendons.(3)
   3d. In the fetus and during youth the apophysis is attached to the
body of the bone by the periosteum  alone, so that it is only necessary
to remove this membrane to separate them. (4)
   4th.  The different colors of the osseous layers, when the animal has
or has not been fed with madder, demonstrate the same thing.

  (1)  Memoir on the bones, Mem. 1  and 2, in the  Mim. de Vac. des sciences. 1741;
Mem. 3, ibid., 1742; Mem. 4-7, ibid., 1743.
  (2)  Mem., 1743, p. 132-164.
  (3)  Ibid., p. 163.
  (4)  Ibid. 
          OP THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      205

   5lh.  Tho same remark applies to the formation of callus.  There
 the periosteum swells around the fracture and becomes proportionally
 harder,  especially in its inner part:  during the first days, the hardened
 parts above the fracture may be removed with the periosteum; afterward
 this operation is no longer possible, and there then remains a layer of
 bone, while a portion of the tumor may be removed with the periosteum.
 Sometimes the external periosteum unites with the internal to produce
 callus.
   6th.  The periosteum is sometimes hardened in exostosis.
   § 221.  But Is., the statements under the first head are not perfectly
 true, for although in  the fetus we always find a thin, gelatino-carti-
 laginous layer between the periosteum and the bone, this is never con-
 tinuous with  the  periosteum.  We never find the periosteum osseous
 in one part and cartilaginous in another.
   2d. The prolongations sent by the periosteum into the bone, do not
 prove that these two organs are the same, and that the first is changed
 into the second.   In fact, the periosteum  is united more intimately to
 the cartilage than to the bone : but still this does  not demonstrate the
 identity of cartilage with it and with the tendons.
   3d. It is not true that the cartilage is attached to the bone only by the
 periosteum, for even after this membrane is removed, continuity still ex-
 ists between the two organs as before, without any medium.
   4th.  The difference  in color ofthe layers ofthe bone prove only that
 the bone is formed by depositions from without.
   5th. The phenomena of the formation of callus prove only that the
 periosteum inflames from the influence of a mechanical cause which
 has acted in it, and that a new substance forms between it  and  the
 bone, in which the new bone is developed, and which  adheres to the
 latter.  On the contrary, attentive examination of the formation of cal-
 lus demonstrates that in this case, as in that of primitive ossification, a
 cartilage is formed, in which a bone appears afterwards.(l)
   6th. The periosteum does not always thicken in exostosis,  and even
 when this thickening occurs, it proves nothing, as it may be merely a
 new phenomenon.(2)
   Let us add also that bones often form without periosteum as in all ab-
 normal ossifications.
   § 222.  The vessels of the bones are not very large, and are general-
 ly of two kinds.  Some arterial trunks, although few in number, pene-
 trate even the substance of the bones ; others ramify excessively in the
periosteum before entering into their tissue.   The first penetrate farther
forward, and serve principally for the secretion of the marrow, or of a
 fluid analogous to it; for whenever there is a medullary organ, they ex-
pand in this membrane. They serve also to nourish the internal and
looser tissue of the bone.  The others remain in the external compact
substance.  These two orders of vessels, however, frequently anasto-
mose together; so that when the trunks are obliterated, we find their
• (1) Mem. 1741.
 (2) Ibid. 
206
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
 branches and twigs full of blood, as in  the normal  state.   There nre
 as many kinds of veins to correspond to the different kinds of arteries.
 These vessels  have  also special  holes through which they penetrate
 into the bone; those which give passage to the large trunks are called
 foramuia (foraminia nutritia) of nutritions, although this term is not
 exactly applicable.(l)   We do not find lymphatics, except on the sur-
 face of the  bones ; nor  do we distinctly  perceive nerves in these or-
 gans.
   § 223. The marrow(2) (medulla ossium) is inclosed within the bones;
 it is an oily or fatty  substance, aijd its characters vary in different parts.
   In the cavities of the long bones, which are  entirely filled, and hence
 are called the medullary canals,\t is thicker, more solid, more yellow, and

  (1) The arteries enter the bones by three* divisions: 1st,  by ramuscules, which fill
 the capillary holes ofthe surface of ths whole osseous system ; 2d, by branches which
 enter by larger foramina in the surfaces of the short bones and in the extremities of
 the long bones; 3d, by branches called nutritious, which penetrate the bones through
 the foramina of nutrition. The 1st and 2d divisions of these arteries are mostly formed
 of capillary branches;  they penetrate the osseous tissue, pass through it, and termi-
 nate in it  exclusively: these" are truly  its arteries of nutrition.  The 3d is com-
 posed of much larger branches, which proceed into the internal cavities ofthe bones,
 through the canals of nutrition.  The branches which compose it are distributed to
 the medullary membrane, and seem unconnected with the nutrition of the osseous
 tissue, which they do not penetrate.
  The first two divisions are not accompanied with any vein. We observe them,
 on the contrary, around the third, and they correspond exactly to the number and
 volume of the arteries which compose it; but they are not sufficient to return all the
 blood distributed to the bones by the three kinds of arteries, and carry back that
 only which was brought to the vascular membrane.  The proper veins of the osseous
 tissue were discovered byDupuytren (Prop, sur quelques points d'anatomie, dephys.
 et d' anatomie path., Paris, 1803) in  the bones ofthe skull.  They have since been re-
 cognized in all the other bones of the body, whence they emerge by numerous open-
 ings of a diameter sufficiently large, through which we do not observe that any arte-
 rial ramification enters, even after the most successful injection ; they are observed
 particularly in the flat and short bones, and in the extremities of the long bones.  At
 some distance from where they emerge from the bones they terminate in the venous
 system. They arise from the osseous tissue by numerous radicles, which unite, like
 those of common veins, to form twigs, branches, and trunks,  which, after passing
 through the spungy tissue, leave it,  and penetrate the compact tissue to open into the
 adjacent veins, by a canal always smaller than that of which it is the termination.
 The osseous canals, through which they pass, are formed of compact tissue, which ap-
 parently extends from the surface of the bones to their interior.   In these canals, di-
 rectly covered by the membrane of the veins, are numerous channels, through which
the simple veins pour the blood which had existed in the osseous tissue.  As to the
veins themselves, they are composed simply of the internal membrane of the venous
system, folded into numerous valves.  They have no cellular membrane externally.
They resemble,  then, the venous sinuses of the  cerebrum, as  the fibrous envelop
furnished to the latter by the dura mater is replaced by bony walls, on the surface
of which the thin, transparent, and unresisting internal membrane is closely applied,
 so as not to admit of motion, nor to exercise any action on the blood which traverses
 the venous canals.
  There i3 a remarkable analogy between the spungy tissue  of the  bones and ita
venous canals, on one  part, and the corpora cavernosa of the penis and clitoris,
on the other.  In fact, the veins are arranged to form the corpus cavernosum of the
penis exactly in the same manner as the spungy tissue of the bones of the skull, aud
of the extremities of the long bones.  Replace the osseous cells by a fibrous network,
 and line this network by the  inner membrane  of the veins, and we have an exact
idea of the arrangement of the corpora cavernosa. In some anmials, the fibrous tis-
sue does not exist, and  the cavernous tissue is formed only by the veins, which then,
by their numerous communications, resemble the spungy or reticulated tissue of the
 bones.  P. T.
  (2) Grutzmacher, Dc ossium medulla, Leipsic, 1758. 
OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       207
contained in a proper and very thin membrane, which forms numerous
small vesicles.  Like  the fat, it  is composed of round globules, often
varying in size ;  so that the medullary organ seems to be only a por-
tion of mucous tissue.  The membrane  which  contains  the marrow
has been called the internal periosteum; but it is distinguished from the
true periosteum, the fibrous periosteum, although it resembles it in its
great vascularity.   In fact, it is in this that the  nutritious  vessels of
the bones are  expanded. (§ 222.)
   The marrow of the broad, irregular, and short bones, that also in the
ends ofthe long bones, differs much from that contained in the bodies of
the long bones :  1st, because it  is not surrounded with a membrane;
2d, because it has less consistence, and contains less fat;  3d, because
it has a reddish color.   It appears to be in immediate contact with the
osseous tissue, and to arise from the vessels which penetrate within the
bone.
   We have not been able as yet to discover nerves in the medullary
membrane; but, from the experiments of Duverney(l) and Bichat,(2)
confirmed  by us, it seems to be very sensible.   Bichat says  its sensi-
bility is more marked  as we approach the exact centre of the bone.
We have not found this to be the case.(3)
   While the bone is cartilaginous, there is no  appearance of marrow.
We cannot say, with  Bichat, that the medullary organ  exists before
the  canal, and that it is  filled  only with  a cartilaginous substance,
which is afterwards replaced by the marrow.
   The marrow does not develop itself till ossification commences. But
several years after birth it is much redder and more fluid than in the
adult, and not fatty.
   This state reappears hi  disease, especially when nutrition  is inter-
rupted to a great degree, as in patients affected with phthisis.
   The functions of the marrow are very obscure.
   We may consider it as diminishing the brittleness of the bones.
   It is difficult to decide if its uses relate directly to nutrition.  Some
have thought this to be the case, because bones die when the marrow
is destroyed;  but this conclusion is not correct, since this phenomenon
may depend solely on the intimate organic connection between the two
organs.
   We think the existence of the marrow is connected with the whole or-
ganism, rather than with one bone in particular, and, like the fat con-
tained in the rest of the mucous tissue, that it is a provision of nutriment
in reserve.
  (1) De la struct, et du sent de la moelle, in the Mem. de Paris, 1700.
  (2) General anatomy, vol. iii. p. 112.
  (3) Experiments and pathological observations leave us in doubt in regard to the
sensibility of the marrow, which some authors, and Bichat among the rest, have
much exaggerated.  Lebel, while extracting a sequestrum five inches long, most of
which comprised all the thickness and all the circumference ofthe tibia, was obliged
to tear the medulla, the surface of which was flesh-colored.  He did not irritate it to
discover to what extent it was sensible, but held it for some seconds; the sick person
did not complain; and he wa3  unable to determine what part it could take in the
pain of extracting the sequestra.  The medullary membrane was inflamed, and
therefore was more sensible than in the natural state—Journ. compl., vol. v. pp. 312,
313.                                                          F. T. 
208
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  § 224. Although the bones are  hard and solid, they have a certain
degree of elasticity;  this property varies according to circumstances.
They cannot change  their volume  by the  action of irritating sub-
stances,  but have the power of extending and contracting to a certain
degree.  This change, however, is not transient: when  they  extend,
there is almost always  an increase in their mass; and when they con-
tract, there is a diminution in volume.  The first case takes place when
they are mechanically extended, and depends on a  separation of their
constituent molecules.  The other seems to take place even when there
is an increase in  mass; for instance, when a  distended bone collapses, •
and an opening  is obliterated by the wasting  of the nerve or vessel
to which it gave passage.  A similar phenomenon is observed when
the alveolar  processes  are  absorbed after  the extraction of the teeth.
  Tn the normal state the bones have no animal sensibility;  for the in-
juries which affect them cause no pain. Facts which seem to prove the
contrary have been furnished by  bones not entirely formed, or which
are diseased, conditions in which sensibility is highly developed in them.
  § 225. This circumstance  seems  to contribute,  at least in part, to
the slowness with which ossification  takes place.   The  bones are of
all organs the last to appear, and arrive at perfection, either in the anir
mal series or in the fetus; all  their diseases progress slowly, compared
with those of other organs.  But, on the other hand, this  circumstance
contributes to render ossification  the most perfect of all  the formative
acts ofthe body! for no other sohd possesses the power of reproduction
in so great a degree.   Not only is a simple fracture united by a sub-
stance which, in form, chemical composition,  and functions, is almost
identical with the normal osseous substance, but portions of bone and
whole bones, after having been destroyed, are repaired, not in fact in
their form, but in their  volume, their relations  with  the adjacent parts,
and their functions, of which we  shall treat  more  particularly when
speaking of the anomalies of the bones.
   § 226. The bones, both in respect to form and chemical composition,
pass through several periods of formation before attaining their term of
perfection,; and when  they have reached  it,  they descend from  it  by
several  successive changes.(l)  The  changes which occur in them,

  (1) Sue, Sur les proportions du squelette de Vhomme, examine dcpuis Vugc le plus
tendrejusq'd celui de vingt-cinq, soixante ans, et au-deld, in the Mem. pros, a VAc.
des sc, vol. ii., Paris, 1755, p. 572-586.—H. Eysson, Tractatus de  ossibus infantis
cognoscendis,  conservandis, et  curandis, Groningen, 1659.—V. Coiter, Tractatus
anatomicus de ossibus fetus abortivi, et infantis dimidium annum nati, Groningen,
1659.—R. Nesbitt, Human  osteogeny, London, 1753, in 8vo.—J. Baster, De osteogenic^
Leyden,  1731.—A.  Vatcr,  Osteopenia,Wittemberg, 1735.—B. S. Albinus, Icones os-
sium foetus, Leyden, 1737.—J. A. Ungebauer, De ossium trunci corp. hum. epiphysi-
bus sero osseis visis earumdemquc gencsi, Leipsic,  1739.—B. S. Albinus, I. De gene-
ratione ossis.  II. Quwdam de prima ossium natura disceptatio, in Annot acad.,
1. vi.—Idem, De gencratione ossium, in  Ann. acad.,  1. vii. no. 6, 1764 and 1766.—
Perenotti, Memoire sur la construction et sur Vaccroissement dcsos, in Mem. de  Tu-
rin, vol. ii. 1784.—C. F. Senff, Nmnulla  deincremento ossium embryonum imprimis
graviditatis mensibus, Halle, 1731.—J. V. Meckel, Considerations anat. et phys. sur
les pieces osseuses qui enreloppcnt les parties centrales du syst. nerv., in the Journ.
compl., vol. ii.  p. 211.—M.  Troja, Osservazioni ed csperimenli sulle ossa, Naples,
1814.—M. Medici,  Espericnze  intorno  alia tessitura organica delle  ossa, in  the 
           OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE  NORMAL STATE.       209

from their  first appearance to their period of perfection, are remarkable,
because their different periods of development correspond, and often with
surprising exactness, to permanent states in animals.  Like all other or-
gans, the bones are softer the nearer the fetus is to its origin.   At first
they are not firmer than the other parts. In a few weeks they harden;
and are then  cartilaginous,  and become more and more consistent.
The cartilages which at  this period occupy the  future  places of the
bones differ from the latter, as their structure is not fibrous, and as we
can perceive neither cellules nor medullary cavities, and as they con-
stitute a solid and entirely homogeneous mass ;  but this mass possesses
the external form of the bone, and like it is covered with a periosteum.
Towards the eighth week the vessels  of some of  these cartilages com-
mence carrying red blood instead  of  the  colorless liquid they hitherto
contained.   It is then that ossification really commences.   First the
cartilage becomes softer and looser, always at its  middle part;  it disap-
pears finally, and in its place we see a fibro-cellular tissue, composed
of  gelatin and phosphate of lime.  This change into  cartilage  and
bone,  does not  commence in  all the bones  at  once;  but  there  is
this constant relation between  these  two acts, that the bones whose
cartilages  appear first are the first to ossify, and that in each bone in
particular  the first osseous germs  are found  precisely in the points
where the cartilages first show themselves.(l)
  There are but a few bones formed of a single  nucleus.   In most of
them we see different and separate osseous germs, which are connected
together for a longer  or shorter period only by cartilage, and which
are gradually  united;  so that it is only when the  whole body  has
acquired its growth that all traces  of  the primitive  separation are
effaced.  In certain bones, as the sacrum, these traces never disappear.
In regard to the order of ossification for the different parts and for the
whole bone, there are general laws with respect  to the form, size, and
number of the  nuclei of bone, and to the period when ossification com-
mences, either generally or  particularly; but we cannot discover the
general cause of the succession to which entire bones and their different
constituent parts are subjected in their appearance.
  § 227.   The general laws of osteogeny are :

Opusculi scienlifici, Bologna,  1818, p. 93-107.—Medici, Consider-azioni interna alld
tessatura organica delle ossa, in riposta allc oppos.fattc del  S. D. C. Spetartza et dal
S. A. Scarpa, Bologna, 1819.—Rapportde Cuvier surle Traite des loisdet'osteogenic,
by Serres, in the Journ. compl., vol. iii. p. 67.—Lebel, Reflexions sur la regeneration
des os, same journal, vol. v. p. 309.—Schultze, Considerations sur les pretnieres traces
du systeme osseux, same journal, Vol. vi. p. 113.—Beclard,  Memoire sur Vosteose, in
the Nouv. journ.  de medecine, vol. iv. 1819.—Dutrochef, Observations sut Vosteoge-
nic, in the Journ. de physique, 1822, Sept.—See also the first note to this section.
  (1) J. Howship has remarked that in many bones, especially in the diaphyses of the
loner bones and the central portions of the broad  bones, ossification takes place im-
mediately, that is, the osseous state is not preceded by cartilage.  (See his Micro-
scopical observations an the structure of bone, in the Medico-chirurg. trans., vol. vi.-x,
London, 1815-1819.) Beclard,  (Gen. Anat, trans, by Togno,) admits this opinion, and
describes the progress of ossification very precisely in the following passage:  " Ossi-
fication does not every where result from the transformation of cartilage into bone".
The diaphysis ofthe long bones and the  centre of the broad bones, which are de-
veloped at a very ear.ly period, pass immediately from the mucous to the osseous
  Vol. I                        27 
210
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   1st. Ossification  commences in the substance of the cartilage ;  so
that the nucleous of bone is entirely surrounded with cartilage.
   2d. Ossification begins in the centre of the whole bone and of each
nucleus  of bone.  The bones increase from within outward ;  so that
the external layers appear after the  internal.   This arrangement is
demonstrated by experiments made by feeding animals with madder.
When killed after this substance has been mixed  with their blood, the
internal  surface of the bone is always white, the external red.   We
may  in this manner produce a number of layers alternately white and
red, by suspending and resuming the use of madder.(l)  Still the sub-
stance of the internal layers is also  constantly renewed ; for if  we kill
an animal which is at first nourished without madder, but to whom the
coloring matter is afterwards  given, and then  suppressed,  the internal
part of the bone is alone found, red, and the external is white.(2)
   The bones increase in  length and breadth;  so that the new sub-
stance is not only added to their extremities and edges, but penetrates
the mass already  existing.  In  truth, Hunter, having observed that
two holes made in a long bone of a young animal were not separated
from  each other by its growth, has deduced  another  conclusion ;(3)
but Duhamel's experiments,  which were  made  previously and with
greater care, prove that the English anatomist was wrong, and that
the development of the bones at the centre is much slower and ar-
rested much sooner than at their extremities.(4)
   3d. In the successive formation of the different parts of bone, (§  226,)
the largest appear the  first.   We  should hence conclude that the
largest bones  are  those which are first seen.   But although, if we
except the teeth and the small bones of the ear, the small bones appear

state.  The other parts of the system are at first cartilaginous, and in them the suc-
cessive phenomena of ossification may be best observed.  The cartilage, which for a
longer or shorter period takes the place, and performs the functions, of the bone of
which it has the form, and of which it gradually acquires the volume, is at first hol-
lowed  with irregular cavities, then witn canals lined by vascular membranes filled
with a mucilaginous or viscous fluid; it becomes opaque, its canals become red, and
ossification commences towards its  centre.  The first point  of ossification (punctum
ossificationis) always appears in the substance of the cartilage, and never at its sur-
face.  It is surrounded by red  cartilage at the place which is in contact with it,
opaque and full of canals at a little distance from it, and at a still greater  distance
homogeneous and without vessels, but only perforated with canals of blood-vessels
which tend towards the osseous centre.   The osseous point continually increases by
growth at its surface, and also by interstitial addition in its substance.  In proportion
as the  bone increases, the cartilage, successively perforated by cavities and canals
lined by sheaths and blood-vessels, gradually diminishes, and at length disappears.
The canals of the cartilages themselves, which are very wide at the commencement
of ossification, become smaller and smaller, and at length disappear when it is com-
pleted. In the place of a cartilage more or less thick, but at first full or solid, with-
out cavities and without distinct vessels, at a later period perforated with canals
lined by vascular and secreting membranes, there is found a very vascular bone, full
of areolar or spungy cavities, invested with membrane, and filled with adipose mar-
row.  The bone afterwards becomes less vascular as age advances."       F. T.
  (1) Duhamel, Sur le devel. et la crue  des os, in the Mem. de  Paris, 1742. p. 497.
498.                                                            »r    '
  (2) Home,  Exp. and obs. on the growth of bones, in  the Trans, for the imp. of
med.,  vol. ii. xxiii.
  (3)  Trans, for the imp. of med., vol. ii. p. 279.
  (4)  Cinquieme memoire sur les os, in the Mem. de Paris,  1743, p. 187,188. 
           OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      211

  later than the large bones, we also remark that the middle-sized bones
  are usually formed before the largest.  Thus the scapula, the bones of
  the pelvis, and the long bones of the extremities, appear long after the
  clavicle and the lower maxillary bone are formed; and there is a
  penod when the clavicle, which in a full-grown man is scarcely one
  fourth of the size of the humerus, is equal to six times its volume.
    4th. The bones  and their different parts arrive at perfection  in the
  order of their formation.   Thus the two arches of the vertebrae appear
  long before the body, and their posterior extremities are fused together
  long before the anterior unite to the body.
    5th. The cylindrical bones, with few exceptions, form and are per-
  fected before the flat bones, and the latter before the short bones.  Thus
  the clavicle, the  ribs, the lower jaw, and the large bones ofthe extremi-
  ties, are very far advanced when  scarcely any traces appear of the
 occipital and frontal bones, which are flat bones, and the only short
  bone visible is the upper jaw.   This law applies also to the consti-
  tuent parts  of the  different bones.  Several  short bones, especially
  those of the carpus or the tarsus and the patella, contain no nucleus of
 ossification in the full grown fetus, and it is only at the sixth month of
 pregnancy that ossification commences in the sternal cartilage.  The
 body of the cylindrical bones and the arches of the vertebra; are formed
 and developed much sooner than the processes of the former and the
 bodies of the latter: but the parts which are here the last to appear corre-
 spond to the short bones in every  respect.  This law is very remarka-
 ble, because  it is  intimately connected with the power of  reproduction
 in the different bones.  In fact, the bones which are formed and de-
 veloped  the  soonest are  the most easily and  the  most completely
 reproduced when they have  been accidentally destroyed:  the flat
 bones are reproduced with more difficulty than the long bones, and the
 short bones, slower than all the others.  These two conditions seem to
 depend on the law, that the organic formation is founded on a force not
 differing  from that  on  which  the  electrical phenomena depend, and
 which acts principally in the direction ofthe length.
   6th. The  order in which the  bones are  developed  in  the human
 fetus seems to depend on  that  according to which they appear in the
 animal series.  We cannot doubt this in regard to the jaws and clavi-
 cle, which are so  highly developed in the fishes, nor  to the sternum,
 the bones of  the pelvis, and the other bones of the extremities, which
 are developed so imperfectly in the fishes and the cetacea.
  7th. The destination of the bones appears to exert some influence
 on the rapidity of their formation and development.   This is instanced
 in the early appearance  of the jaws, which are so much needed, and
 the slow development of the sternum and bones of the pelvis, which
 are the last to arrive at perfection, because the cavities which they cir-
 cumscribe must necessarily be closed late.
  8th. The same relation does not exist in the development of all the
bones in regard to form and volume.  In certain bones, particularly the
long bones, the different pieces composing them do not unite until  they 
212
GENERAL ANATOMY
begin to increase in length, or even  till  this is  finished.   In others,
such as the shor,t bones, several  flat bones, and some irregular bones,
all the parts are united long before the  bones have  attained their full
growth.   Even at the age of twenty, maceration  detaches  the  epi-
physes from the bodies ofthe long bones, while the pieces of the sphe-
noid, frontal, and occipital bones and of the vertebrae are united in the
early periods of existence.
   9th.  The mode  of  development  of  each  bone,  in  relation  to its
appearance and completion in the form and volume  of its pieces, is in
general subject to laws ; but there are also exceptions to these laws,
and these are more numerous in some  bones than  in others.   ()f all
bones the sternum presents the most numerous and the greatest varia-
tions in regard to the number, size, form, and  situation of the osseous
nuclei which  gradually produce it, and even also in  regard to the time
of their appearance.  This phenomenon is more remarkable, as the ster-
num is the very last bone which appears ; whence these variations in
its formative type seem to occur, because the energy of  the formative
power begins in some measure to be exhausted.  The bones too which
form the arch of the skull are less constant in their development, since
it is not rare that some of their component pieces are developed sepa-
rately, and never unite to the  others, which explains the formation of
.the ossa wormiana.
   10th.  The chemical composition of the bones is not the  same at
all periods of life.   In general we may state as a  principle, that the
earthy substance is less in proportion to the animal parts, the younger
 the bone is.  In a person even fifteen years old the  proportion of the
 earthy to the animal substance was found to be nearly one fifth less
than in an adult.(l)
   11th.  The  structure of the bones is looser, more spungy, and softer
in infancy,  which coincides perfectly with their chemical composition.
Thus, at first appears only a simple tissue of fibres  and layers differ-
ently interlaced, in which there is no hard substance.
   12th. As to the external form, the  bones are rounder  and less hard
 and angular  in infancy than at  a more  advanced  period;  their emi-
 nences and depressions are also much less marked.   In general, there-
fore, their surfaces are smoother and more uniform.
   13th. The bones are more flexible and elastic in  youth than in ad-
 vanced  age.   Hence why external violence  produces  at this  period
 only shght changes, curves, and impressions, while they afterward give
 rise to solutions of continuity.  Hence fractures are more common in
 aged people.
    § 228.  The great difference in every respect between the cartilage
 and the bone has induced anatomists and physiologists to seek out
 the cause of  the change of cartilage into osseous tissue.  To explain

   (1) Davy (in  Munro's Anatomy of the human body, Edinburgh, 1813, vel. i. p. 36.)
 found, for instance, that the femur in a child fifteen years old was composed of .5.3
 of animal substance and .47 of earthy substance, and in an adult, of .375 of animal
 matter and .625 of earthy matter. 
          OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE       213

this phenomenon satisfactorily, two problems must be resolved, viz.
1st. On what ground is there a period when cartilage is changed into
bone 1  2d.  How does  this  change  take place ?   It is  more than
doubtful if the  first question is ever  resolved with  certainty.   The
phenomenon  to  which it relates  belongs to a general law of every
organized formation, that the fluids predominate the  more, the nearer
the fetus is  to  its origin.   We may  attach  to  the  second,  two
different senses, and  ask either a simple statement of the phenomena
presented by the change of cartilage into bone, which  has been treated
of above, or the indication of the means by which this change takes
place.   But we cannot explain this  phenomenon more readily than
that of the successive changes which supervene in all the other organs.
Besides, it is very singular that we should be lost in conjecture only in
regard to the formation of bone, and that all the other organs, which
pre'sent as great differences at different periods of hfe,  are entirely neg-
lected.  The only thing  certain is that all the theories of ossification
are either vague or false ; and that in the latter case, the  more mecha-
nical they are, the farther they are from the truth.  Of this character
are the following : that the arteries are filled with osseous juice, which
obstructs and tears them; that the arteries of the cartilages gradually
ossify ;  that  bone takes the place of cartilage; that the periosteum
gradually changes into bone ;  and  that the cartilage is only penetrated
by the  osseous substance.   Ossification essentially consists in  the
formation of a new organ different from cartilage.   It is then an act
of nutrition of an entirely different character  which acts  upon this
part of the organism.  The existing  matter is taken up more rapidly
in some places than in others; hence the formation of  a medullary
canal and of cellular  and spungy tissue, instead of  a sohd, homoge-
neous, cartilaginous  substance.  But  at the same time the act of nu-
trition  itself changes;  since a medullary organ and  fibres  composed
of gelatin and phosphate of hme are formed.  This change depends on
that which occurs in the activity of  the instruments of  nutrition, the
vessels designed for bringing and carrying away the nutritious fluid.
   § 229.  When  the  bones have  acquired their normal situation, and
the different pieces which gradually unite to form them are fused in a
single mass, they increase more or less in thickness also.
   § 230.  But the  thickness  of the  bones diminishes much in  old
age;(l) so  that  they lose their  weight, and  break  more easily, as
much for this reason as because they have become more fragile.  The
greater fragility depends  principally on an increase of earthy matter;
for dead bones are broken more easily in proportion as they lose their
animal substance.  Davy found in the occipital bone of an adult 64.0
of earthy matter, and 69. in  that  of  an old man.(2)  Still  this  rule
does not seem to apply to all bones; at least Davy found that  the

  (1) P. Chaussard, Recherches sur Vorganisation des vieillanh, Paris, 1822.—Ribes,
Sur les changemens que le tissu osseux subit par les progres de I'age et Vinfiuence de
diverses maladies, in the Bull, de lafac. de med., vol. vi. p. 299.
  (2) Davy, loc. cit., p, 36. 
214
GENERAL ANATOMY
 lower jaw of an old person where the alveolar  processes were entirely
 effaced contained 43.4 of animal substance and 56.6 of earthy matter,
 while the relation between these two  substances was as 42.8 to 57.2
 in a child, and as 40.5 to 59.5 in  an  adult ;(1) but the lower jaw of
 the old person was more fragile.
   § 231. The sexual differences of the bones are generally the greater
 thickness, asperity, and prominence, of the processes in man; the small-
 ness and roundness of their form in woman.  But many ofthe bones differ
 also in the two sexes very strikingly: a change of form coincides with a
 difference of function, as especially in the bones of the pelvis.  But these
 differences can be examined only in  special anatomy.  So  too, and
 with greater reason, it is with the difference of races, as they appear
 principally in the form of the different bones.

         B. PARTICULARS OP THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BONES.

   § 232. The different classes of bones, (§ 210,) beside the  general
 characters of bones,  present certain  peculiarities  which deserve to
 be studied.
   § 233. The long bones are those in which the dimension of length
 much exceeds the  other dimensions.   We find the extremities (apo-
physes)  broader than  the central  part, the body  (diaphysis);  this
 increases their lightness and their articulating surfaces, and  renders
luxations more difficult.   The  body is  generally cylindrical, but we
 can almost always easily distinguish three faces, separated from each
 other by more or less acute edges.   Some of the long bones  form, in a
measure, the transition from this  class to that of the flat bones; for,
although long and narrow, they are not thick ; whence they appear
not round, but flat: such are, for  instance, the  ribs.  The lower jaw
resembles the flat  bones still more.   The bodies of these  bones are
never perfectly straight, or  at least except in  rare cases,  and only
during the early periods of life.  They are usually a little  arched or
curved,  and do not possess the same thickness in every part.  The form
of the extremities of each long bone varies  according to its uses;  it is
in direct relation with the greater or less degree  of mobility in the limb
whose base it constitutes.   As to their internal composition, these
bones are peculiar; as their body is more  or less hollowed, and the
medullary organ exists in their cavities.   These cavities are  not found
towards the extremities of the bone ; but in their place there is a loose
fibro-cellular tissue, which seems developed at the expense of the com-
pact substance ;  since  the latter diminishes, and is insensibly reduced
to a thin layer, in proportion as the spungy substance accumulates ;
while in the centre, where the latter does not exist, it is  very  solid, and
it is  one or two lines  thick  in  the largest long  bones.   The ribs
and lower jaw, which by their external form mark the transition of the
proper long bones to the flat bones, differ also from the real long bones
(1) Davy, loc. cit, p. 36. 
          OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      215

by the absence of a medullary cavity.   They are entirely filled with
spungy tissue.
  The  long bones are principally found in the  limbs, of which they
form the base.  They diminish in volume, and increase in number, as
their distance from the trunk increases.  The number, form, and other
relations of these bones are essentially the same in the corresponding
parts of the  extremities.  The upper parts are the most movable; still
those which form the  first articulation  of the  fingers and toes  are
more movable than those of the middle and anterior.
  The cyhndrical bones are  generally formed of three pieces.  We
however find more in several of them. Of these pieces, one corresponds
to the body, the  other two  to  the extremities.  The central piece
developes itself long before the other two, and  at the exact centre of
the bone, in  the form of a thin straight cylinder.  The extremities do
not ossify till after birth, and are not completely fused with the body
until its growth is perfect.   The spungy substance is not however con-
fined to their inner parts :  it appears also in the extremities of the body
properly so called;  but here  it is finer and longer, and consequently
is more fibrous, than in the extremities.
  § 234.  The flat bones are nearly as broad as long, but they are less
in thickness.  Most of them are more or less convex on one face, and
concave on  the other :  their outer and inner faces are usually parallel.
This form depends on  the functions they fulfill; for they serve espe-
cially to form cavities, which arise from a certain number of flat bones
solidly articulated to each other.  Many of them, especially those of
the cranium, are surrounded with teeth, which, penetrating reciprocally,
form the most solid species of articulation.   These bones are not much
thicker on the edges than elsewhere; the  other flat bones, however,
resemble the long bones, inasmuch as their edges are very thick, par-
ticularly in those points where they articulate to each other, and also in
those where muscles are attached to them.
  The compact and spungy substances are uniformly extended every
where  in the flat bones.   The compact substance forms an internal and
an external  layer or table, (tabula vitrea,) between which the spungy
substance (diplos) is formed.   In a few ofthe flat bones, especially the
smallest, as  the ossa unguis and the lower portion of the septum bone
of the  ethmoid, the spungy substance is deficient; and here the two
tables  are blended together into one.  The proportion between  the
inner and outer substances is  not the same in all.  Thus, for instance,
in the ossa ilia the external is much thinner and feebler,  and the internal
looser,  than  in the bones of the skull.
  Still there are cavities more or less extensive in some flat bones; but
their uses  are not the same as those of the cavities found in the long
bones.   They are not filled  with marrow, but contain air, open  ex-
ternally, and are appendages  or prolongations of the nasal cavity.
  Most of the flat bones arise by several  points of ossification, which
form one after another.  There are at least two  lateral nuclei, which
unite sooner or later on the median line, as we see in the frontal bone, 
216
GENERAL ANATOMi
and even to a certain extent in the parietal bones.  But in some others
also these lateral parts gradually develop themselves by several points,
as in the occipital and sphenoidal bones, the ossa ilia, and the scapula.
Here likewise, as in the long bones, the apophyses, which  correspond to
the short bones also, constitute at first as many distinct pieces of bone.
The flat parts also, which may generally be termed the scaly or squa-
mous portions, (squamms, partes  squammoss,) arise from several se-
parate nuclei.   The different nuclei of these bones almost always join
in the articulations, where ossification takes place last, while when the
pieces touch in other parts, they soon unite.   This arrangement is seen
in the development of the coxal bones (ossa ilia) and of the occipital
bone, where it seems to favor the enlargement of the articular cavities,
and perhaps depends partly on the mechanical action of the bones arti-
culated on this point.  The flat bones are formed not only by the suc-
cessive union of several pieces of a certain extent, which remain sepa-
rate a longer or shorter time: there are developed also at the circum-
ference of the largest nucleus of bone, along its edge, and at various
times, a number of other germs, which are  entirely distinct, and very
different in respect  to  number, size,  and situation,  and   which
gradually fuse with  each other and  with the principal  piece, which
primitively existed.   Sometimes  these small nuclei, and even  larger
pieces, those  which  are formed  after  a  more constant  type, remain
insulated,  abnormally:   thus  we see  different  kinds  of wormian
bones appear, which result for  the most  part from the  development
being suspended, and which occur most frequently in the parts where
several bones come together so as to leave between them vacant spaces
called fontanelles.
   § 235. In the short or thick bones no one dimension much exceeds
the others.   Their form is more or less rounded,  and they are also  dis-
tinguished  from the other bones by their greater irregularity.  In their
tissue  they resemble the flat bones  and Ihe extremities of the long
bones, as they have no cavity, and the compact substance is every
where filled with spungy substance.   These bones are always united
in great numbers, either  lengthwise, as in the vertebral column, or
breadthwise, as in  the tarsus and carpus, and are so disposed that as a
whole they have extensive motions, while they move upon each other
but slightly.   This is in part the ground of their great irregularity of
form ;  for their surfaces present numerous elevations and depressions,
which serve for the attachment of the ligaments.  Some of these bones
have a more complex form than others ; and the same is true of their
functions:  thus  each vertebra  has a  large opening, and resembles a
ring, because  intended not merely as a lever for the attachment of
the muscles which are  there inserted, but also as the reservoir of an
organ, the  spinal marrow. ■"*
   There is a  particular  class of, short bones, the sesamoid bones,
which we  shall mention when speaking of the fibrous system.
   § 236. Besides  these classes of bones there  is still a  fourth, which
may be called the  mixed bones, for they seem produced by the blending 
          OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      217

of bones of several classes, principally of the second and third, being
composed of flat and short portions.  The sphenoid, temporal, and eth-
moid bones are examples of this class ; even the occipital bone belongs
to it.   The vertebrae mark the transition  between it and the class of
short bones.  These bones are always developed by several nuclei, one
of them having the characters of the short bones, and the others those of
the flat bones.  The latter are usually more numerous than the others.
Almost all these bones inclose cavities which communicate with the
nasal fossae.
  Finally, we will remark that comparative anatomy proves that the
same bone changes its form in different animals in such a manner that
it  belongs to another class.   These differences are  not then very
essential, and depend on the whole form.


          II.  OP THE ARTICULATIONS OP THE BONES.

  § 237.  The articulations of the bones differ much in respect to their
modes  of union and to the extent of  motion they permit.  It is a gene-
ral  law, but subject at least to one exception, that the corresponding
portions of bone are covered with cartilages (5th section) or with fibro^
cartilages, (6th section,)  and that  accessory fibrous ligaments (7th
section)  extend  from one bone to another,  which circumscribe and
cover  the points surrounded with cartilage.
  § 238.  Generally we may consider the difference of mobility and
the arrangement of the  modes  of union  as furnishing the base of a
classification of the articulations.  Still they are not perfectly identical,
since the same degree of mobility may be obtained by different means.
Thus,  the bones which articulate by straight and even, or by very un-
even surfaces, but which correspond perfectly, although not united, and
which  are firmly attached by very short and tense ligaments, have as
little motion as  those whose surfaces adhere to each other in all their
extent  by means of a mass of cartilage.
  The best mode of classifying the articulations is according to the
forms of their corresponding surfaces, and also to the arrangement of
the means of union; since on these depends  the difference in their
degree of mobility.
  § 239.  The forms of the  corresponding surfaces, and the arrange-
ment of the means of union,  are  such  that the bones can or cannot
play upon each other,  In the first case, the surfaces not covered with
cartilage are not united except at their circumference, and there is no
mean  of union between  them ; this is  called a movable articulation.
In the  second case,  a cartilaginous or fibro-cartilaginous mass extends
from one surface to the other, and unites them  together ; this is  called
an immovable articulation.
  § 240.  The movable articulation, or  the joint, (articulus,  junc-
tura, diarthrosis,)  presents several  varieties, depending on the form
ofthe  contiguous  surfaces.   These maybe referred to five principal
forms:
  Vol. I.                      28 
218
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   1st.  The loose joint, (arthrodia,) where a large globular extremity,
or a head, fits a plain surface of small extent..  The articulation of this
species possessing the most motion is that of the humerus with the
scapula.   We must refer to the same class those of the fingers and
toes with  the carpus  and tarsus, and  the. radius with the  humerus.
Other things being equal, the motion is more free as this head is larger
in relation to the surface to which it  is applied, and as the  head is
rounder, and this surface is flatter.   Farther, the form of  the articular
surfaces being the same, the degree of motion varies  much, according
to the tension and the greater  or  less number of the ligaments.
   2d. Enarthrosis  is  where a  large  head  corresponds to  a  deep
rounded cavity.   Many anatomists do not consider this species as a
separate articulation, but call it an arthrodia.   The articulation of the
femur with the iliac bone and  of  the lower maxillary bone "With the
temporal bone, are examples.  Here too the motions are freer,  more
capable of being performed in all directions, and more extensive in
each direction, as the contiguous surfaces are rounder.
   3d. The turning joint, ox hinge joint, (ginglymus.)(l)   It consists
in such an arrangement of the articular  surfaces as  will  admit of mo-
tion in only one direction ; so that the bones can only approach and
recede from each other, be flexed or extended.  This  effect is produced
in two modes.   Sometimes a simple surface having  an oblong protu-
berance corresponds to another surface which presents the same form
hollowed,  and from one of the bones a considerable process extends on
each side, which permits no motion except that from before backward:
such is the articulation of the foot.   Sometimes  one of the articular
surfaces has two lateral heads, separated by a large hollow ; and that
which  corresponds to it presents on the sides two hollows, between
which is an elevation:  we see an instance of this in the articulation of
the humerus with the upper extremity of the ulna, and in that of the
femur with the  tibia.   The articulations of  the  first phalanges with
the second, and of the second with the third, of the fingers and toes, are
between these two  forms.  We  see in the first, the middle cavity and
the eminence which corresponds to it  are replaced  by external  pro-
cesses.  Still the articulation  of the first offers a slight and indistinct
index of the second form.
   4th. The rotatory joint, (rotatio, diarthrosis, trochoides.)   The cor-
responding surfaces are small sections of a cylinder, and one of the'
bones turns on its axis, at the same time revolving on that of the bone
with which it articulates. But the motion is never sufficiently free for
one of these bones to turn entirely on  its own axis ;  and even where
the arrangement of the surfaces would permit it, as, for instance where
the articular surface of one of the bones extends all round its extremity,
there are other  arrangements, dependent on the structure of the bone
itself, which permit it to make at most but a semi-revolution on its axis.
We see instances of this joint in the articulation of the upper and lower
extremities of the radius with the ulna, and that of  the first cervical
vertebra with the odontoid process of the second.
          (1) Isenflamm resp. Schmidt, De ginglymo, Erlangen, 1783. 
          OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      219

   5th. The last kind of this movable  articulation is the close jointt
(amphiarthrosis,diarthrosis,s.juncturastricta, ambigua, synarthrotica.)
Two straight or differently formed articular surfaces, having numerous
elevations  and  depressions  which  exactly correspond,  are  forcibly
applied against each other by short ligaments, which go from the cir-
cumference of one to that ofthe other.   The usual consequence of this
arrangement permits only an almost  imperceptible sliding of the con-
nected surfaces.  This kind  of articulation belongs particularly to the
short bones, which unite to form in some measure a single bone flexible
in several parts.   We see it in  the  carpus, the tarsus, the vertebral
column, and the ribs.
   § 241.  The immovable articulation (synarthrosis) also offers several
varieties in its form and degree of immobility.   As the  corresponding
osseous surfaces  are  generally united in all their extent  by  a carti-
laginous or fibro-cartilaginous mass, they can never  glide upon each
other:  still the bones are sometimes slightly displaced, from the length
and elasticity of the mass which unites  them, and the flatness of their
corresponding surfaces.   Several anatomists admit also a third kind of
articulation, between the movable and the immovable joint,  called the
mixed,  or semi-movable, (articulatio mixta, amphiarthrosis, symphysis.)
But, as this articulation is essentially the same as the  immovable in
respect to the  arrangement of the uniting substance, and as the articu-
lations which become immovable by age were at first movable, when,
the intermediate mass being softer and larger, the extremities of the
bones were placed at a  greater  distance from  each other, it appears
more proper to consider the  mixed articulation  only as a species of
synarthrosis.  The different  varieties of  the latter are,
   §242.  1st.  Symphysis.   It consists of two plain surfaces, united by
a mass more or less thick  and elastic, which allows them to separate
and approach  each other insensibly.  When this intermediate  mass is
cartilaginous it is called synchondrosis,  and synneurosis(l) when it is
ligamentous or fibro-cartilaginous.  The articulation of the different
parts of the sternum is  an  instance of the first, and that of the ossa
pubis and of the ossailia with the sacrum, of the second.
   § 243.  2d.  The suture, (sutura,)(2) an articulation found only in the
head.  It consists essentially in  the union of long narrow surfaces or
edges by a very thin layer of cartilage, whence results an entire want
of motion.  The degree of this immobility varies with the arrangement
of the contiguous surfaces.    The principal kinds of sutures are,
   a. The false  suture,  or harmonia, (harmonia,  sutura  spuria,)  in
which  edges perfectly straight, or at least but slightly serrated, are con-
nected : such  are the ossa  unguis and ossa nasi with the adjacent
bones and with each other.

  (1) This is not the usual acceptation of this word ; but we ought not to attach any
other meaning to it when we wish to mark the two kinds of symphysis by the nature
of the mass which unites them.
  (2) Duverney, Lettrc concernant plusieurs nouv. obs. sur Vosteologie, Paris, -1689.—
Bo3C, De suturarum cranii  humani fabricatione et usu, Leipsic, 1755.—Gibson, On
the use ofthe sutures in the skulls  of men and animals, in the Mem. ofthe society of
Manchester, second series, vol. i. 1805, p. 317-328. 
220
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   6.  The true suture, (sutura vera,) which also presents several varie-
 ties, according as the joint becomes more solid from the multiplicity of
 the points of contact.
   Immediately after the harmonia comes,
   1st. The scaly or squamous suture, (sutura squammosa.)  The sur-
 faces of the two adjacent bones are gradually formed like a swallow's
 tail, the one being sloped to receive the other for a considerable extent.
 At the same time the contiguous surfaces are  more or less serrated,
 but the processes are feeble : we will mention as an instance the arti-
 culation of the temporal bones with the'occipital  bone.
   2d. The serrated suture, (sutura serrata.)  Small  and plain pro-
jections and cavities alternate with each other, both from above down-
ward and across, along the perpendicular and narrow edge, and corre-
spond to similar cavities and processes  of another bone ; so that each
bone presents a double range of elevations and depressions.  The upper
part ofthe frontal suture is almost  always formed after  this type.
   c. The dentated suture  (sutura denticulata) also arises by single
processes and cavities, which alternate with each other on a perpendi-
cular edge; but the elevations are higher and the cavites  deeper, and
they form only one series.   We see an instance of this arrangement in
the sagittal suture.
   d.  The margined suture (sutura limbosa) much resembles the pre-
ceding ; but the processes  and cavities are larger, and are  often subdi-
vided. It sometimes happens also that the processes of one  bone are
fitted obliquely to those of another.   Still the first condition is the most
essential, as the second also occurs more or less  in  the preceding
sutures.  The occipital suture belongs to this series.
   Here we must observe that these  four kinds of sutures with teeth pass
from  each other by insensible shades.   Thus, the inferior  part of the
frontal suture generally makes the  transition from the squamous to the
dentated suture, since the frontal bone glides under the parietal bone to
a considerable extent; but the oblique portion by which the two bones
are united is separated from the rest of the surface by a very sensible
prominence, and its internal part is  in fact perpendicular.
   We find also in the same suture different parts, each of which be-
longs to the last three sutures, and  others which  cannot be referred to
any.  We  should  particularly consider that the same suture  does not
belong to the same class  in all skulls.   The sagittal and even the
lambdoidal suture is sometimes only  a dentated suture,  while the
frontal suture is  often a very complex  margined suture  and in
other cases  extends almost in  a straight line.  Even the squamous
suture of the  temporal  bones is sometimes changed into a dentated
suture.  Generally, when  one  suture  is  more  complex and conse-
quently more solid than usual, the others are so in the same proportion
and vice versd; so that the bones of the  skull  are articulated more
firmly in some subjects than in others.   It is also a rule, that  one and
the same suture is far more complex on its outer than on its inner face
where it usually forms nearly a straight line. 
         OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      221

  The sutures are found only in the head, and arise necessarily from
the manner in which the bones of that part  are developed ; for ossifi-
cation commences there in several points at once, and the bones increase
by  the addition  of new  osseous  substance  to their outer circum-
ference.  Hence also they are often effaced in one point or another
when the bones are  entirely developed.  Before this period the dentated
edge which exists in them, and by means of which the parts of bone
are attached to each other, is very impoitant to the solidity of the arti-
culations.   Thus we find similar irregularities on these surfaces of
bone, not provided  with  cartilage, which are joined  so as to glide
slightly on each other: as the bones of the pubis, the iliac bones, &c.
  § 244. 3d. Gomphosis is where a bone implants itself  like a wedge
in the cavity of another, which embraces it closely, envelops it in most
of its length, and retains it very solidly, although they are not united.
This kind of articulation is seen only in the head: the insertion of  the
teeth in the jaws is  an instance.
  § 245. The  movable articulations do not change much during  life,
while those which  are immovable, as  at least the sutures and gom-
phosis, vary considerably.   In the early periods, large spaces, filled by
the internal  and external' periosteum, exist  between the bones which
are separated by a layer  at first thin and  mucilaginous, and after-
ward cartilaginous.   Still their  edges are more  unequal during  the
early periods of uterine  existence than in the adult, because the rays
of bone which leave the point  of ossification to  go there are very
numerous, and  separated  from  each other.  But this form does not
seem to prove  that the tendency to produce  these sutures is mani-
fested  from that  time, since at an earlier  period, when the edges of
the bone are already approximated, they are much straighter, and even
more so than when the development  is  perfect.  The  edges do  not
even touch in a fully grown fetus, and we  observe between them, in
those  parts  where the several  angles of  the bones  are afterwards
united, large spaces called fontanelles,  (fonticuli, fontes pulsatiles.)
Even after the  bones are in contact with each other, we may establish
as a general law, that the sutures gradually become more complex by
age, and acquire still more  solidity, not only by the increase of the
principal processes, but by  the formation of secondary processes on-
their surfaces.
  This union of the bones by sutures, which becomes in time more
and more intimate, finally degenerates into complete  fusion.  There
are general laws for the manner in which this fusion takes place,  and
the greater or  less  frequency with which certain sutures disappear;
but there are none for the period at which it commences.
  The general law relative to the manner in which this fusion occurs
is that the internal  edge  of the sutures disappears before the external
edge.   It is a common thing in young subjects to»find all the sutures
of the head  effaced internally, while they  are perfectly preserved ex-
ternally.  We never observe an  opposite arrangement.   So, too,  one
suture never disappears in all its extent at once; but obliteration usu- 
222
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
ally commences at a single point, whence it gradually extends to the
whole suture.
   In regard to the second general law, the bones ofthe face are blended
together much more rarely than those of the skull.  Even among the
latter there are some which are united much oftener than others.  But
we shall reserve the details on this subject for the section in which we
shall examine the bones of the head particularly.
   What proves the impossibility of assigning any general law in re-
gard to the period when the obliteration of the sutures commences, is
that they are sometimes found entirely effaced  in the fetus at birth,
that they are sometimes though rarely fused during the early years of
hfe, and that they are not unfrequently perfectly preserved in old  sub-
jects ;  generally, however, the suture  disappears only at the latter
periods of life, while they fuse partially on the internal face very soon
after the individual is perfectly developed;  and also in most subjects
who have attained' the age of thirty, the whole suture or some parts of
it disappears on this side.
   Gomphosis changes very much during life; for the teeth are at  first
much smaller than the  cavities which receive them, and which do not
as yet compress them.
                     ARTICLE SECOND.

         OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

                       I. OF THE BONES.

   § 246. The bones not unfrequently vary from the normal state in
respect to all their characteristic qualities.
   The primitive deviations of formation(l) are not equally common in all
the bones.   Those of the cranium, and among them the occipital bone,
are those which offer the most, and the  bones of the extremities those
which present the fewest. These^defects of formation consist generally
in a suspension of the development;  and their frequency must at least
be ascribed  in part to the circumstance, that in many animals, even
those allied  to man, the bones  of the skull seem to stop regularly at
these degrees of evolution.   It is, however, remarkable, on the other
hand, that the bones of the face usually vary little from the normal
state to  produce analogies with  animals: for instance,  the  perfect
development of the intermaxillary bone is very rare.  It is not probable
that such a  difference depends on the high perfection of the brain of
                               /
  (1) Sandefort, De ossibus, diver so modo, c solita conformatione abludentibus, in the
Obs. anat. path., lib. iii. c. 10, lib. iv. c. 10, p. 136-141.—Van Doeveren, Observationes
osteologies, varios natures, lusus in ossibus humanorum corporum exhib., in the Obs.
acad. specim., Leyden, 1765.—Rosenmuller, De ossium varietatibus, Leipsic, 1804. 
         OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.      223


man, since the  anomalies of the skull are generally attended with the
imperfect development of this viscus.(l)
   § 247. The deviationsin formation of thebones which may supervene
at all periods of life are, first, solutions of continuity.
   The bone is broken either by a cutting instrument, when there is a
wound, or by a bruising body, which causes a, fracture, (fractura.)
   The solution of continuity may be total or partial.   The fracture is
transverse,  oblique, which is most common,  or longitudinal.   When
the  development is perfectly complete,  they  supervene with equal
facility in all parts of the bone; but when  the epiphyses are  not yet
united, they are usually detached by mechanical lesion, or by those
diseases which destroy the tissue of the bones. (2)
   The parts may heal in both cases, not merely when there is simply
a solution of continuity, but also a comminuted fracture, when the bone
is broken into  several pieces, and there is a considerable loss of sub-
stance.   The detached fragments sometimes  unite, even when placed
in contact with  healthy portions.
   The progress of formation is exactly the same as in normal ossifica-
tion.^)  A  gelatinous substance is effused around and  between the
fragments,  which gradually hardens,  and becomes cartilage, within
which several nuclei of bone afterwards appear, which fuse with each
other and with  the broken  parts, surrounding those also which have
been perfectly detached. At the same time the fragments and splinters
become round,  so that the adjacent parts may not be wounded by  their
asperities.(4)  To produce this formation of new osseous substance, it

  (1) Most of the principal deviations of formation in the bones are mentioned in the
first volume of our Pathological Anatomy, under the heads Anencephalia, Hydroce-
phalus, Hernia cerebri, &c.
  (2)  Reichel's monograph on this subject is excellent, De epiphysium ab ossium
diaphysi deductione, Leipsic, 1769.
   (3) Boehmer, De ossium callo, Leipsic, 1748.—Id., De callo ossium i rubice tincto-
rum pastu infectorum, Leipsic,  1752.—Haller, De ossium formatura, in the  Opp.
min., vol. ii. p. 460,,—P. Camper, Observationes circa callum ossium fractorum, in
the Essays and observations phys. and liter., vol. iii., Edinburgh, 1771.—Bonn,  De
ossium callo annex, ejusd. descr. thess. oss. morb. Hovian, Amsterdam, 1783.—A. fl.
Macdonald, De necrosi et callo,  Edinburgh, 1799.—Beclard, Propositions sur quel-
ques points de medecine, Paris, 1813.—Breschet, Quelques recherches historiques et
experimentales sur le cat, Paris, 1819.—J. Sanson, Expose de la doctrine de Dupuy-
tren sur le cat, in the Journ. univ. dessc.med., vol. xx. p. 131.
   (4) The most ancient explanation we possess on the mode in which these solutions
of continuity of the bones unite, attributes this consolidation to a kind of viscous
fluid, more lately termed the osseous juice, or the coagulable lymph.  According to
the ancients, this fluid exuded  from  the surfaces of the fracture, gradually  be-
came consistent, and reunited the fragments in the same manner as isinglass unites
two pieces of wood. This opinion prevailed in the schools until the middle  of the
eighteenth century, when it was opposed by Duhamel, who published the results
of his experiments. Haller's opinion was like that of the ancients.   He thought to
gain more knowledge by experiments, which were made by Dethlef under his  direc-
tion, and which confirmed him in his opinion.  He ascribed the callus to a juice
coming from the fractured surfaces and from the marrow, a fluid which is effused
around the  fragments, gradually thickens,  becomes cartilaginous,  and then
osseous, while the periosteum  does not concur to re-establish the continuity of the
broken bone.  Haller, in describing the mode in which callus is formed, says that
this operation resembles ossification; that the effused gluten, coming from the ves-
eels or tissues of the broken surfaces and from the marrow, soon becomes consistent, 
224
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 is not necessary that the  corresponding faces of the layers of bone,

 and assumes the characters of cartilage; that this cartilaginous substance passes to
 the state of bone when its vessels are sufficiently dilated to allow the red blood to
 penetrate its thickness, and brings a saline matter which forms osseous points, which
 successively are increased in extent, and finally pervade all the cartilage.  In ano-
 ther place,  Haller pretends  there is from the commencement  a gelatinous matter,
 and shortly afterwards a cartilage, within which a ring  forms, which  ossifies the
 first, extends to the processes, and breaks the cartilage, which retreats before it, and
 of which it is divested as of an envelop.   This last  mode of considering callus is
 very incorrect, and it will be easy for us to show it.  Macdonald asserts that all the
 authors who have written before Haller, and even this great physiologist himself, are
 deceived when they pretend that the gelatinous matter of callus changes into car-
 tilage. Haller, however, does not exactly say it forms cartilage, but that at a cer-
 tain period we see organic molecules appear, which are not blood, and that when all
 the gelatinous mass has become opaque and elastic, it is then regarded as cartilage.
 Macdonald seems to think that the  gelatinous  substance never changes into carti-
 lage, but that the matter considered  as  cartilaginous is a real, soft, flexible bone,
 which is  afterwards hardened by the phosphate of lime.  He thinks, from his expe-
 riments, that the newly formed bone is originally soft, elastic, easily divided, and
 curved, in a word, that it resembles cartilage.  The proofs brought forward to de-
 monstrate the osseous nature of this substance are that in nourishing an animal with
 madder, the callous substance reddens; but this phenomenon does not appear in the
 cartilages.   He supports his opinion too by the chemical analyses of the cartilages
 made by  Allen.  Finally, he has discovered the error into which Duhamel has fallen
 in attributing the formation of callus to the ossification of the periosteum. John
 Hunter, whose talent has thrown light upon so many points of physiology, considers
 callus as the result of the organic development of extravasated blood, and of its transi-
 tion to the state of bone. J. Howship has lately developed Hunter's ideas mpre fully,
 and  supported them with experiments.   Hunter asserts that at  first the space
 between the fragments  of the bone and the surrounding  parts is filled with blood
 coming from the ruptured vessels, that this blood coagulates, and that by an organiza-
 tion vessels are formed in it. Adhesive inflammation takes place at the ends ofthe frac-
 tured bones, and then a peculiar process commences. Inflammation supervenes also
 in the splinters which are still attached to the bone and the surrounding parts.  It
 produces  in ^hem a disposition to interstitial absorption, by which the angles of the
 Fragments are smoothed down, their extremities soften, and become conical; now
 all these  changes favor the ossification  which  is  about to  commence.  Howship
 admits that Hunter's ideas are more correct than all which has been said in respect
 to callus, and that they agree in several essential points  with his experiments.  The
 conclusions he draws from his own researches are, that the first effect ofthe fracture is
 the extravasation of blood in the thick parts around, and that this varies in quantity
 with the degree of contusion or of complication. This  blood is effused principally
 in the tissue of the periosteum, and  increases its  thickness.   It is  effused also
 in the medullary canal and  between the fragments, where  it is variously changed,
 and becomes the centre in which the ossification of the callus  commences.  1'he
 red  color which pervades the  periosteum gradually disappears;  this membrane
 becomes firmer, and by degrees assumes the appearance of cartilage.  The mode of
 progress in this union of fractures seems to show that the principal object is  to pre-
 vent all possibility of motion between the parts.  The callous matter  is deposited on
 the surfaces of the bones, near the parts where union ought to take place, then on
 the circumference of the ends of the fragments and in  the medullary cavity. The
 deposit of the blood, and the successive degrees through which it passes before it
 becomes an osseous substance, are remarked on the circumference ofthe ends of the
 fragments sooner than in the spaces which separate them.  To give the ideas ofthe
 author better, we shall  say that the fracture by this process becomes  very solid
 before the union or the osseous cicatrix between the fragments is finished.  In this
 respect Howship agrees perfectly with Dupuytren and also with Breschet; and we
would remark that these facts had been published  in France, either by Dupuytren or
Breschet, and after numerous experiments, before the appearance of Howship's me-
moir.  Finally, we  say  that if the fracture be compound, the vital operations to
repair the injury are divided: on one side callus  is  deposited, on the  other we see a
manifest attempt to remove all the parts of the bone which have been separated, and
where the  circulation no longer exists.   This elimination is conducted by the internal
6urface ofthe periosteum, which becomes granulated, extremely vascular, and pos- 
OF  THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.      225
  which  are separated from each  other, should be in  contact;  for the


  Besses a great absorbing power. The analogy between this theory and the ancient
  mode oi considering callus has caused us to speak of it in the same paragraph.  Du-
  hamel believed that the periosteum is to the bone what the bark is to the tree, and
  that fractures are often united by the agency of the membrane of the marrow.  He
  thought it was  the swelling ofthe periosteum and of the membrane ofthe marrow,
  their extension  from one fragment to another in order to join and unite by ossification,
  which produced callus, and formed around the fractured bones  sometimes a single
  sometimes a double ring, which fixed them firmly while it united them.  This opin-
  ion has many advocates and many  critics; still we must acknowledge the exactness
  of many observations of Duhamel,  and admire in his experiments a precision not to
  be expected from a stranger to medicine.   Duhamel's theory,  although false, has
  doubtless been useful to science, as  it has drawn the attention of physiologists to the
  cicatrization of bones, and we owe to it the researches of Haller, Dethlef, Bordenave,
  Troja, &c, on the same subject. Fousreroux adopted, without any restrictions, the
  ideas of Duhamel, and endeavored  by his experiments to reply to the attacks of Hal-
  ler and Bordenave.  The opinion defended by him was no longer quoted, except as
  matter of history, when Dupuytren revived Duhamel's opinion, and extended his
  ingenious theory to observations  on pathological anatomy.  He  has known not
  °u lyflthe  Peri°steum to ossify, but also the laminar tissue, the  ligaments, and  even
  the fleshy part of the muscles, to form a sort of osseous ring, which kept the frag-
  ments together, and preserved their relations.  According to Dupuytren, we must
 admit two distinct epochs in  the formation of callus, or rather two calluses which
  succeed each  other in their formation.  The  first, which he calls the provisional
 callus, is completed when the medullary system of the two fragments is united, and
 a kind of osseous button exists within them which joins them, and the periosteum
  has formed externally, either alone or with the cellular tissue and even  with the
 muscles,  a ring which surrounds the extremities of the fragments, and adheres to
 them.  Hitherto, the surfaces of the fracture are not yet united, nor even altered in the
 midst of the newly formed osseous tissue which constitutes the first callus. The soli-
 dity and  resistance of the latter are less than those of the bone  ; hence if a new frac-
 ture occurrs in the same bone, it will be exactly where the first existed.  When, after
 four or  five months at most, the medullary canal begins to form again in the part
 where it was obliterated; when the accidental osseous substance produced by external
 ossification contracts and diminishes in volume; when the periosteum, the cellular
 tissue, and the muscles, return  to their  natural state, or cease to be ossified, if the
 adaptation be perfect, and if there be no irregularity between the fragments ; finally,
 when the union takes place in the two ends and even on the surfaces ofthe fragments,
 then commences the second callus, or the definitive callus, which is not perfected till
 after eight months.  This last period is characterized by the return of all the parts
 to their primitive state.  This theory, however, which resembles that of Duhamel in
 several respects, since it assigns the periosteum as the seat of callus, differs from it
 much.  In fact,  Duhamel did not consider the osseous state of the periosteum  as a
 provisionary state, while Dupuytren regards it only as a means to oppose the dis-
 placement of the fragments, and to favor the formation of the proper callus.  He ad-
 mits and demonstrates that fractures are united by two successive calluses, the one
 temporary or provisional, occurring on the outside of the bone and in the adjacent
 tissues, the other definitive, and situated in the medullary canal  and at the ends ofthe
 fragments, as well as in the space which separates them.  Dupuytren's theory is of
 the highest importance in its practical application  to surgery, as it throws much
 light on the treatment of fractures.' Bordenave was the first who regarded callus as
 a cicatrix analogous to that of the soft parts, that is, a cicatrix produced by granu-
 lations which proceed from one fragment to meet those of another, unite, and then
 receive the calcareous salt which gives the character of bone to the substance of the
 cicatrix.  At first, the bones pour out from their broken extremities a fluid which is
 the primary matter of their union.  This fluid gradually thickens, assumes the form
 of bone, and when the dilated  vascular tissues furnish vessels which open in it, the
 canal becomes similar to the bone itself.  Some modern authors, as Bichat and Rich-
 erand, have also  regarded callus as a cicatrix analogous to that of the soft parts, and
 depending upon the development of granulations which unite, and receive the phos-
 phate ol lime, to reestablish the continuity of the osseous tissue.   Callisen thought
 that callus was formed by vessels arising from the broken extremities, and extend-
 ing between the  fragments, and by the final deposit of osseous matter, that is, of the
phosphate of lime.  He explained by an enlargement of the vessels  the union  in a

   Vol.  I.                            29 
226
GENERAL ANATOMY.
cure ia as perfect when they are  simply at the side of each other, pro-


single callus of adjacent bones fractured simultaneously, as is sometimes seen in the
leg and  fore-arm.  Bonn rigorously omits all explanation,  and confines himself
to the statement of what he has observed.  His remarks rest entirely  upon dis-
sections of human bodie"s7 and on a large number of wet or dry morbid preparations.
Bonn does not appear to have experimented on animals; but he has sought to en-
lighten himself by analogy and by facts observed by others.  He maintains that cal-
lus while imperfect is ligamentous and  membranous.   Callus, he says, at first resem-
bles flesh; it then acquires the consistence and tenacity of leather.  But its transition
to bone is never preceded by the formation of real cartilage.  Perfect callus is organ-
ized and identified with the bone : sometimes it is found entirely solid, as in diseased
bones, and again it is softened and dissolved by caries.  J. Bell describes callus as
being formed at first by a soft and flexible substance, situated between the fragments
which it unites.  It is the reestablishment of the continuity of the vessels of the bone
which produces It.  Samuel  Cooper, adopting all J. Bell's opinions, defines perfect
callus to be a new bone,  or osseous substance, which  unites the ends of a fractured
bone.  Peter Camper thought  that in the union of fractured bones the fragments
united by a double callus, one external, formed from gelatin furnished by the vessels
and osseous fibres, which condenses below the periosteum, and afterwards becomes
osseods substance ; the other internal,  produced by the lengthening and separation
of the inner layers of bone, or the expansion of the compact tissue ofthe bones, to
obliterate the medullary canal.   Troja has seen the ends of a fracture covered in a
few days with gelatinous matter, which soon became  abundant, and was gradually
converted into cartilage,  then into bone.   He has also observed, a swelling of the
periosteum till a certain period when the thickness of this membrane diminishes, an
internal  ossification filling the medullary cavity near the fracture, and  an external
ossification which always exists.  The facts related by Troja are strictly correct; a
careful observer, he states candidly what he has  seen, and does not, like Duhamel,
follow a favorite and exclusive idea.  The results of his experiments are similar in
many respects to those obtained by Breschet.
  Having thus briefly stated the different opinions of authors with regard to the forma-
tion of callus,  we shall now mention the principal facts established by the numerous ex-
periments of Breschet, premising, however, that the apparent discrepances in the opi-
nions of writers in regard to callus, gradually disappear when its peculiar nature is stu-
died.  We then easily discover the cause of error, and the points where observers have
  fiven too great latitude to isolated facts,  or have admitted them as general.  Per-
  aps, also,  as Beclard says, the differerices of opinion arise from the fact that the
researches have not been  made at every period, or at the same periods of union of the
fractures. Breschet considers callus as depending, 1st, on the extravasation and the
coagulation between the  fragments of a little blood furnished by the ruptured ves-
sels. _ 2d. On a fluid at first viscid, secreted and effused between the periosteum and
coming from the neighboring tissues  more or less connected in the fracture of the
bone, and also from its broken surfaces. This formative lymph, (which may be com-
pared to that exhaled from the edges of a wound of the soft parts, or that produced
from several surfaces by inflammation, and which constitutes the membranous forma-
tions,) is  at first mixed with a little blood ; but afterward it is secreted alone, and when
the periosteum is altered or destroyed, it is effused or filtrates into the irrterstices of
the fibres ofthe soft parts around the fracture, and there thickening, forms a callus
external  to the fracture.  3d.  On the gradual thickening of these fluids, (the blood
and the formative lymph,) they unite gradually, and  form stronger adhesions be-
tween the parts, which inflame and become  real secretory organs.  Considering
abstractly the inflammation  of  the  tissues  near  the fracture, we may  compare
the viscid fluid  mixed  with a little  blood and its successive  changes,  to the
camb of plants, and the changes which this organic principle of vegetables pre-
sents when effused between the bark and the woody  part, or when  secreted to
cicatrize the wounds of vegetables. 4th. On the swelling  and moderate inflam-
mation ©f the periosteum  and  adjacent soft  parts, on the cicatrization of these
parts,  and sometimes on the deposition of matter within their  layers.  5th. On
the contraction  of the central cavity of the  bone, on  the  softening of the ends
of the fragments, and on the deposit of a substance similar to that which collects in the
periosteum, or in the plates of the tissues adjacent,  in  the  medullary "cavity, and
between  the  ends of the fragments.  6th. On  the condensation of this matter, on
its organization by the development of the vessels.  At first it has a granulating ap-
pearance, it then assumes a fibrous consistence, next a cartilaginous appearance, and
finally becomes bone. These changes are observed, first, external to the fragments, 
              OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.      227


   vided no foreign substance is interposed between them, and that they
   are kept in contact  It matters little, too, whether the friirmentewSch
   are approximated belong to the same or to different Ton™   h^ire
   is not less perfect;  only anchylosis exists.(l)                 *

      Inall.these cases, the extremities of the  bones become round  and
   are completely closed..   The bone becomes entirely soli?where it'was
   fractured, and Us medullary cavity is divided into two halves   Helce
   a  single bone  in  fact forms  two.   It  is  more solid in the'place of
    he fracture, than in any other part, so that it is rare that a bone breaks









  th^ o, enn^Tt01 ^l™6^? canal> a«d thia canal is re-established only when
  the osseous substance by which the extremities are joined, is entirely so id  J^en
  netrT^f1 faHU3 W 11Cuh ™tf°rmed first' gradually diminishes, and finally disS
  ^nTffi   eKfrag"^en,tshaVebeen ^urately joined and there  is no displacement
  tetoteS 1*h^ ^ th6 l6ngth °r direCtif)n °f theaxeSthT^wo
  SStabl shedi£ltlf/efAaC\Ure continue closerf> the medullary canal is not
  «™ •   !  . ' th°newl7 formed external osseous matter, instead of beino- absorbed
  wZr^h   s^e^then the callus, and its greatest quantity corresponds to the portion
  Ze the ™t t& m^dlsPlaceme«. and where the efforts to be Listed by t& bone
  ?ht S? ^-re^est-  When we seek  to compare the  development of callus with
  the cicatrization of the soft parts,  we find they  differ greatly, if we admit the
  existence of granulations.  But  these pretended granulations  are only  Zsory
  We can  easily demonstrate  the identity of the process of nature,  to unite all the
  tissues accidentally divided.  One difference seemingly offered by callus, compared
  with the cicatrization of the  soft parts,  is the development of a substance, which
  exists only for a time,  and which is formed externally to  the  fragments, in the
  medullary cavity   This substance is, perhaps, much more marktd in the bones
  only because it is formed by a firmer and  consequently by a more perceptible sub-
  stance, or because it remains a longer time, and its quantity is in relation to the
  resistance it must present to give  the bones all their force and all their solidity
  >\ e may say also, that the duration of its existence depends on the trifling degree of
  vitality of the bones, and on the slowness with which it is re-absorbed, or on its great
  "'''%■  In %ct, it serves not only to cicatrization, but also opposes the displacement
  ofthe parts; it maintains their relations, and lessens, in some measure, the disadvan-
 tages resulting from a want of contact or correspondence between  the ends of the
 fragments. If we could observe fractures when the relations of their fragments were
 unchanged, and the ends of the bones were unmoved, and these bones were pro-
 vided with a power of vitality similar to that of the soft parts, we should probably
 see in the formation and arrangement of the callus, a perfect similarity with the
 cicatrization of the other tissues.  The practical consequences to  be drawn from
 these experimental researches on callus, are,  that the union of the  fracture is not
 real, till the definitive callus is formed,  and that then the organ can fulfill its func-
 tions without danger of unnatural curves.  The provisional callus situated princi-
 pally between the bone and periosteum, is only to retain the parts together, to favor the
 formation of the definitive callus. The first callus once formed, alfapparatus may be
 removed ; but immobility is necessary, and when the second callus is completed the
 organ has regained its firmness, aud can fulfill all its functions.  In the treatment of
 fractures, then, two periods exist:  in the first, we  employ means to reduce it  and to
 hold the fractured parts together; in the second, the affected parts  remain at rest
 and the dressings of the fractures are removed; it coincides with the  definitive
 callus.                                                              p T.
  (1)  H. Park, Account of a new method of treating diseases of the joints ofthe knee
 and elbow,  London, 1783.—Cases of the excision of carious joints, by H. Park and
 P. F. Moreau,with observations by J. Jeffray, Glasgow, 1806.—Wachter, Diss, de
 articul. extirp., Groningen, 1810,—Moreau, De'la resection  des  os,  Paris, 1816.—
Roux, De laresection, %es os, Paris, 1822. 
228
GENERAL ANATOMV
  When the  conditions are  perfectly normal,  the subject is in good
health, and the  fragments of the broken bone are placed in contact,
the osseous substance is never produced in excess.   If a portion of bone
has been entirely removed, as in amputation, (1) the extremity  of the
stump becomes round, shrinks a little, and covers itself with a compact
substance more or less dense.  The fractures and  injuries of the bones,
however, are not always cured  so completely,  nor do we  always
see bones which have been destroyed to a greater or  less extent by
any cause whatever, completely regenerated. The causes of this differ-
ence are dynamical or mechanical.  To the first class belong, 1st, age ;
2d, general weakness; 3d, diseases which affect the bones, as the scurvy
and rickets, especially the former ; 4th, the concentration ofthe forma-
tive power  in some other organ,  which  prevents the union of a frac-
ture^) during pregnancy, and the period of lactation, although it does
not always operate.(3) The same causes, especially the first, dispose the
callus to soften, particularly when the fracture has  not been long united.
   The second  class of causes comprises all that prevent the pieces
of bone from touching, as an absolute defect in fitting them, and the
continual derangement of the  fracture by the motions of the  part.
Hence the  reason that fractures of the ribs and patella are  not often
perfectly healed.
   In these  cases an artificial joint (articulus abnormis s.  artificialis,)
is formed, and the limb is useless,  at  least in  some  measure, since it
is deficient in firmness.
   The state  of  the parts is  not  always the  same in the artificial
joints. (4)
   Sometimes the fragments  adhere by means of a ligamentous  or car-
tilaginous mass.(5)  Sometimes  they remain separate, and are con-
nected like  the moveable joints, by a capsular tissue.(6) Finally, some-
times  muscular or tendinous fibres  are formed between them.   The
first state resembles the symphyses, and the second the synovial joints.

  (1) P. G. Van Hoorn, Diss, de iis, qua  in partibus membri, prasertim osseis, am-
putatione vulneratis, notanda sunt, Leyden, 1803, p. 36-129.—Brachet, Memoire de
phys. pathol.  sur ce que de vient le fragment de Vos, apres une amputation: in the
Bulletin de la soc. med. d'emulation, Paris, 1822.
  (2) Alanson, in the Med. obs. and inq. vol. iv, p. 414.
  (3) Fab. Hildan, Obs. cher. cent. v. obs. 87; cent. vi. obs. 68.—Hertod, in the Eph.
A. C.  D.  I. no. 1,  obs. 25.—Schurig, Syllepsiologia, 1731,  p. 517.—Alanson,  Med.
obs. and inq.,  vol. iv, n. 37.
  (4) Wardrop,  Case where a seton was introduced, etc. ; in the Med. chir. tr. vol.
v. p. 367.—Salzmann, De a.rtic. analogis quce fracturis ossium superreniunt, Stras-
bourg,  1718.—H Kuhnholz,  Considerations sur les fausses  articulations, in  the
Journ. compl., vol. iii, p. 289.
  (5) Van Dcevcren, Spec, obs'.'acad., p. 204.—Walter, Anatom. Museum, vol. ii. no.
650-656.—Morand, Descript. du  cab. du roi, in Buffon, Hist. hat. gen., vol. iii. p..
76. pi. i.—Cooper, in the Med. records and researches, vol. i.—Bonn, TA.es. oss. morb,
clxx, clxxxiii, clxxxiv.—Langenbeck,  On  the formation of false   articulations
consequent to fractures; in the Neue. Bibl.fur Chirurgie, Gottingen,  1815, cah. i, p.
94, 95.
  (6) Koehler, Beschreib. von  Loder's Praparaten, p. 66-105.—Walter, loc. cit. n.
651, 652,  653, 654,  656, 657.—Home,  Trans, of a soc. for the impr. of med. and
surg. knowl. vol. i. p. 233. 
         OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.    229

  In the latter case the .extremities of the bone are rounded, smooth,
and here and there are cartilaginous.   Usually, one is excavated, and
the  other  is elevated, so that they represent, the first the cavity of a
joint, and the other its articulating head.
  The  extremities  of the bones  are  sometimes swelled, but usually
this is not the case.  The  capsule of the joint  secretes synovial fluid.
Sometimes cartilages  and unnatural bones form in these false joints,
similar  to those not unusual in the natural joints.(l)
  When dynamical causes oppose the formation of callus, it is formed
when they cease to act, although its formation  may be very slow ;
for  instance it  may continue during the whole period of pregnancy.
When the obstacles are mechanical, the ends of the bones are almost
always cicatrized, and the cure  takes place by the  efforts  of nature
alone.  The formation of callus,  however, may be stimulated by pro-
per means, which are not the same in all ciroumstances, but all of which
tend to the same  end, that of changing the cicatrized  surfaces into a
recent wound, and of stimulating the vitality of the  bone locally.(2)
  These  phenomena  are seen not only in fractures of a single bone,
(3) but even in those of two adjusted to each other.(4)
  § 248.  The power of reproduction in the bones develops itself with
more energy, when an entirely new bone is formed in the place of an
old one, which  by some means has become dead.  It is not the  re-
production of the bone, but its death, which constitutes the  essence of
the disease necrosis; for, the regeneration is always accidental, and is
never a disease, although it almost always a'ttends the death of bone.
  This power is seen particularly in the cylindrical bones, which pos-
sess it in the highest degree.(5)
  The  principal conditions of their reproduction are as follows :
  When a part of a bone is  dead, which  does not  necessarily imply a

  (1) Home, loc. cit, has given the best description of an artificial capsular joint of
this kind.
  (2) White, Cases in surgery, London, 1770, p. 69-93.—Inglis,  Obs. on the cure of
those unnatural articulations which are sometimes the consequences of fractures in
the extremities; in the Edinb. Med.  Journ., vol. i. p. 419.—Rowlands, A case of an
un-united fracture ofthe thigh cured by sawing off the ends ofthe bone; in the Med.
chir. tr. vol. ii. n. v.—We find an excellent account of the different modes with se-
veral interesting cases in Wardrop's  Memoir mentioned above.—Delpech, art. Cal,
in the Diet des. sc. med., vol; iii. p. 451--453.
  (3) As Boyer thinks, Lecons sur les les malad. des os vol. i. p. 69.
  (4) White, loc. cit, p. 79.—Wardrop. Inglis.
  (5) The principal works on this interesting subject are, Chopart, De necros. ossium
theses anat chir., Paris, 1776.—Louis, Sur la necrose de Vos maxill. inf.; in the Mem.
de chir.  de Paris, 1772, p.  355, Paris, 1782.—Troja, De novorum ossium in integris
aut maximis, ob morbos, deperditionibus, regeneratione experimenta, Paris, 1775.—
David, Observ. sur une maladie connue sous le nom de necrose.—Weidmann, De ne-
crosi ossium, Erfort,  1793.—Russell, Practical essay on a certain disease of the bones
called necrosis, Edinburgh, 1794.—Koeler, Experimenta circa regenerationem ossium,
Gottingen, 1786.—Macdonald,  De necrosi et  callo, Edinburgh, 1799.—Macdonald,
in Crowther, Pract obs. on the diseases of the joints, London, 1808.—Macartney, in
Crowther, Practical observations on thediseases of the joints, London, 1808.—Char-
med, De la regeneration des os, Metz,  1821.—Knox, in the Edin. med. and surg. jour-
nal, 1822, and 1823. 
230                     GENERAL ANATOMY.
 great change in its form, color,(l) or chemical composition,(2) it is de-
 tached from the healthy portion, because nutrition does not extend be-
 yond the hmit which separates it,  and absorption acts more rapidly
 upon it.
   But at the same time the formation of a new bone commences.  It
 results from a considerable development ofthe vessels of the periosteum,
 and ofthe adjacent-cellular tissue, which also becomes softer.  As the
 bone dies, a gelatinous fluid is effused in all the surface between it and the
 periosteum.  This fluid gradually thickens, and is changed into real
 osseous substance.  It first becomes cartilaginous, and afterwards, but
 rarely in less than  twenty-four days after the  commencement of the
 disease, points of bone are seen in the cartilage.   The new bone finally
 unites and fuses with the healthy parts of the old bone.
   As the progress of these two actions, the mortification and the detach-
 ment of  the old portion  of the bone, and  the  formation of the  new
 bone, and its union with the sound extremity of the old bone is nearly
 equal, the patient  does not generally lose the use of his limb, although
 it often  happens  that the body of  the old bone is entirely detached.
 But it is sometimes lost, because the dead bone detaches itself before the
 new bone has time to unite  with the healthy portions.  Besides, since
 when the old bone dies it detaches  itself from the  periosteum, and as
 the new bone forms below thisxmembrane which is usually uninjured,
 to which it unites  by the anastomoses of their respective vessels,  and
 as  the tendons are inserted in the periosteum,  it is natural that these
 latter, when detached frorh the old bone, should be inserted in the new,
 as is usually the case.
   Even when the periosteum dies, these essential conditions are not
 cnanged, for it is replaced by  a new periosteum, formed from the sur-
 rounding cellular tissue.
   The newly formed bone  perfectly resembles the old  one in several
 respects : it also differs in some.
  Its hardness, length, and connections with the neighboring parts are
 the same ; but its  form and  thickness  differ.   It is  generally  larger,
 because it surrounds the old bone, around which it forms.  It is more
 or less shapeless and massive, and its fibres are not so regular. Its  sur-
 face is very uneven and very rough, because not included in the primi-
 tive plan ofthe organization.  It has then, like allaccidental ossifications,
 a form less distinctly marked, and which would be even less so if the
 ancient bone did not serve as a model.  The thickness of the new bone
is sometimes very considerable.  It often exceeds an inch in the large
bones,  as the humerus and femur.  Usually it is increased in this man-
ner ; when  the the dead portion is  thrown off from within the new
bone, in one of the ways we shall mention directly,  the cavity of the
latter is almost always obliterated, by  the  increase  which continues
within, so that no regular medullary canal remains, and the new bone
is entirely sohd.(3)

  (1) Weidmann, De necrosi ossium, p. 19.
  (2) Davy, in Monro, Outlines of the anatomy of the human body, vol. L p. 39.
  (3)  Russell, 60-63.
V 
        OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.     231

  Although this is common, it does not always  take place;  for some-
times a regular medullary canal is  found, extending the whole length
of the bone, but possibly this is formed afterward.(l)
  The old dead bone seldom, in fact never, remains in the cavity of the
new bone.(2)    Sometimes it gradually disappears ; sometimes it comes
out of itself, either in one portion, or in different pieces, or it is removed
by art.  It passes off through several emooth, round openings,  which
penetrate entirely through the new bone into its cavity, and communi-
cate with  the skin by fistulous openings, which do  not close till after
the sequestrum is thrown off, being continued by  its irritation, as a
foreign body.
  We must  remark,  that the commencement of the openings appears
when the  new bone is first formed, for we can perceive in the gelatin
which is  effused, dry  and opaque points, which  soon change  into
them.
   The death and  reproduction of a cylindrical  bone rarely extend be-
yondits body, and its spungy extremities remain unaffected, although the
whole body  perishes.  This phenomenon is seen not  only  in  youth,
when the body and the extremeties form separate and  distinct bones,
but also in the advanced periods of life, at least very often.
  The bone never perishes  in its whole thickness : often and from the
nature ofthe causes, only its internal or its external portion decays. The
first case may be confounded with the mortificatoin  of the *whole bone,
because then it usually happens that the remaining part  swells also,
and openings are  estabhshed for the  separation of  the dead portion.
Still it may be distinguished, not only because the exfoliation is almost
always smaller in every respect, but because the outer surface is very
rough, while  in a bone which has decayed in all its extent, this surface
is very smooth.
  The flat bones not unusually die; but they  are not generally, or
but very imperfectly, reproduced.  If they grow anew, the progress of
nature is essentially the same.   But the new bone does not surround
the old one, as in the cylindrical bones,  and it is in fact formed by the
growth of the edge,  which  has preserved hfe.   The short bones  also
rarely die, and are as rarely regenerated.
  § 249.  The  deviations of formation  of the  bones,  which are de-
veloped at all periods  of life, are in regard to their  mass and volume.
They result  in the unnatural enlargement or  diminution  of these
organs.
  The bones are, perhaps, of all organs, the most subject to  an  unnat-
ural enlargement.   Sometimes they increase in  all their circumference,
which constitutes hyperostosis.  Sometimes only a tumor is  developed
in some part of their extent; this is called exostosis.  Then their struc-
ture is normal, or it is altered: the latter is most common.   The bone,

  (1) Russell, loc. cit. in the appendix, case 1st.
  (2) Voigtel says, (Pathol, anat. vol. i, p. 195) that  " the new bone is seldom hol-
low, covering the remains of the old bone, which are loose withih it, as in a tunnel;"
but in all the cases he reports, the cure wa* not perfect, as the openings ofthe new
bone were not closed. 
232
GENERAL ANATOMY.
when altered, is sometimes looser and more spungy;  sometimes harder,
more solid and heavier than usual.  Swelling of the bones, with diminu-
tion in density, is called spina ventosa.(\)   Swelled bones are at first
more spungy; but when cured, they become harder  and more solid.
Osteosteatoma, or exostosis steatomides, resembles exostosis, and probably
often, if not always,  is an  imperfect  swelling  of the bone, with  a
change in its chemical composition.(2)
   The bone rarely diminishes in size, unless the other organs are simi-
larly changed, as when the process of nutrition is deranged from para-
lysis.  A change in their mass is observed less rarely, and this state  is
almost always accompanied with a change in their chemical composition,
   § 250. The diseases of the  last kind, which cause anomalies by a
spontaneous alteration in nutrition,.lead so much more  naturally to
alterations in texture and chemical composition, that  their influence  is
rarely exerted on the form alone.  On the other hand, the form appears
more or  less changed in the anomalies of the bones, where the preva-
lent character consists in a change in texture and chemical composition.
The principal changes in the  texture of the bones  are as follows :
   1st. Inflammation, and its consequences, which differ from those seen
in other  organs, by their slow progress.  Thickening, often also exos-
tosis, especially the swelling  of the bones, attended with diminution in
their density, (spina ventosa) axe manifestly the results of inflamma-
tion, terminated by exudation.   Suppuration is called caries, and mor-
tification, necrosis.  The principal phenomena of this last have already
been mentioned.(§ 248.)
   2d. Diminution of hardness and  solidity, of which there are different
degrees.   In rachitis, this exists in the slightest degree : the bones are
soft, spungy, flexible, and curved, either in the places where  they are
acted on by muscles,  whose power they  cannot resist,  or  in  those
where they sustain some weight. At the same time they receive more
blood.   The  periosteum undergoes  analogous  changes.   The che-
mical composition is not every where the same.  In fact, we do not al-
ways find the same relations between the respective proportions of phos-
phoric acid and lime, as sometimes there is too much,(3) and sometimes
too little(4) acid;  and again, the proportion between the  animal sub-
stance and the earthy portion varies much. Sometimes the quantity of
animal matter is much enlarged, so that its relations are as 74.26 . and
even as 75.8 : 24.2 :(5) or finally as 79.54 : 20.5.(6) Sometimes it does
not differ from what is found in the  normal state, and is even less, being
as 25.5:  74.5 :(7) although the bones are spungy.  These differences

  (1) Augustin, De spina ventosa ossium, Halle, 1797.
  (2) Hundertmark, Osteosteatomatis casus rarior, Leipsick, 1757.—Herrmann, De
osteatomate, Leipsick, 1767.
  (3) Jager, Diss. acid, phosph. tanquam morb. quorumd, causs. prop., Stuttffardt,
1793.
 .(4) Ackermann, Comment, med.  derachitide, Utrecht, 1794.
  (5) Davy, loc. cit. p. 38.
  (6) Bostock, in the Med. and chir. trans, of London, vol. iv, p. 38.
  (7) Davy, loc. cit p. 39. 
         OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.     233

are probably owing to the degree, and especially to the period, of dis-
ease ;  but they at least prove that rachitis  does not essentially consist
in a deficiency of earthy matter.   This disease is seen in children par-
ticularly.  In rachitis the bones  are generally, proportionally speak-
ing, too  short and too thick :  the head is larger, and the points of
ossification of the bones of the skull are very distinct.
   In softening of the bones (osteomalacia, osteosarcosis)  this state ex-
ists in  a higher degree.  The bones then become still softer, fleshy, or
lardaceous, so that they may be easily cut.  Their cellular structure
disappears, and they become a homogeneous substance.  At the same
time they are more or less swelled.  They  present curves which are
greater in proportion as the bone is softer.    This is  more  frequent in
females.   The teeth are usually but not always free from it.(l)  The
results are  deformity and crookedness of the  extremities, or of the
whole  body,  according as the  disease of the bones is partial or gene-
ral, and according as the bones yield to the efforts of the muscles, and
to the  weight of  the whole body.
   A state  resembling this is the excessive brittleness of the bones,
although it  sometimes  arises  from  an  excess of  earthy matter.
This fragility is often so extensive, that the bones break from the least
exertion, as from turning in bed, &c.  It not unfrequently  attends the
softening of the bones, but it  is usually found alone.  The diseased
bones  do not lose their cellular structure, as in osteosarcosis, but it
often becomes more  distinctly marked.   The principal causes of this
state of the bones are general  diseases which are of long duration,
which  affect to a greater or  less extent all the systems,  as  scurvy,
qancer, and syphilis.
         II. OP THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE BONES.

   §251. The joints vary from  the  normal state in two ways.   The
corresponding ends of the bones may be too loosely or too firmly united
with each other.
   § 252. The too slight union of the bones may result from rupture or
forcible extension, or from the relaxation of the means of union.  These
different states give rise to  luxation, (luxatio,) which consists essen-
tially in the separation of the movable extremities of the bones united
together, and in the contact  of a movable with an immovable bone in
a place which is not. normal, towards which it has been drawn by the
muscles placed near the joint.   Luxation  takes place  more easily,
and consequently is more frequent, as the motions of the bones are more
extensive;  and it  is usually attended with distension of the ligaments
when it happens to the movable articulations, but  they are broken
if  the joints are less movable.
   It always occurs naturally in the direction where the resistance of the
articulating surfaces, the ligaments, and the adjacent parts, is the least,
        (1) J. S. Plank, De osteosarcosi commentatio, Tubingen, 1782.
   Vol. I.                        30 
234                    GENERAL ANATOMY.
  When the bone does not resume its natural place, either by itself or
the assistance of art, a new joint is formed, and the old one disappears.
The bone with which the dislocated bone comes in  contact usually
forms a superficial hollow, which  is covered first with periosteum, and
afterward partially or wholly with cartilage, the edge of which is more
or less turned over.   At the same time the articulating head becomes
flatter and more unequal than before, and often partially  or  wholly
loses its cartilage,  being pressed against the other bone by the mus-
cles.
  Sometimes a cavity is formed in the  bone which was provided with
an articulating head, to which corresponds a proportional head  which
grows on the surface of the other bone.
  The immovable  articulations are  sometimes dislocated,  or are less
firm from an original deviation of formation.
  The  latter is seen in hydrocephalus, and when  the bones of the
pubis are not joined.  The former, if we except the symphysis pubis
at the end of  pregnancy, arises  only from mechanical violence, the
action of which is sudden and strong, or slow and gradually increasing.
  In congenital and normal  separation, the uniting medium is dis-
tended  or lengthened;  it is  ruptured  when they are  separated ac-
cidentally.
  § 253.  An unnatural solidity in the joints constitutes  anchylosis: (1)
this is false (JL. spuria) when the  means of union are  only contracted
or too stiff, and true (A. vera)  when the bones which were sepa-
rated in the healthy state are joined together by osseous matter.   The
consequence of anchylosis is the immobility of parts once movable.
  In this case, either the fibrous ligaments are ossified, or osseous sub-
stance is deposited  below them, and unites the surfaces of the  two
bones hke a  bridge, or  the  two bones are  fused together  in the
whole extent of their corresponding surfaces, so that the cartilage
which  incrusts them  and the  compact substance  disappear,  and
we  find only a spungy substance, uniformly extending the  whole
length of the bone.  The first two forms  are found  naturally  in old
age.   The last is seen after inflammation and suppuration of the ends
of the bones.
   Sometimes, without any known  cause,  a tendency to ossification
shows itself in several, and even  in all  the joints;  which is attended
with stiffness of the whole body.


                     ARTICLE  THIRD.

                   OF ACCIDENTAL OSSIFICATION.

   § 254. The accidental devolopment of bone is a very frequent phe-
 nomenon,^) and  is seen principally in certain systems, but is not ge-
        (1} J. T. van de Wynpersse, De ancylosi, Leyden, 1783.
        (2) J. van Heckeren, De osteogenesi prceternaturali, Leyden, 1797. 
OF ACCIDENTAL OSSIFICATION.
235
 nerally manifested till the latter periods of life.  It appears especially in
 the left side of the heart, and in the system of the aorta, particularly its
 inner  membrane  (p. 151).   It  is not much  more  unfrequent in  the
 serous membranes.   It is  seen less frequently in  the  fibrous organs,
 among which the periosteum furnishes  the most examples.   Acci-
 dental bones often form also  in  the internal genital organs, especially
 the uterus, in some fibrous bodies, in the thyroid gland, and in the ovaries.
   Accidental ossifications present themselves under two different forms.
 Sometimes the  osseous substance forms a connected whole with  the
 parts in the midst of which it is developed, a part of the substance in
 which the bone forms, is changed into it.   Sometimes it forms a sepa-
 rate body, a new formation, which is connected with the part in which it
 is rooted only by the relation of nutrition, and sooner or later is insulated
 when this relation ceases.
   Accidental ossifications of the first kind are developed principally in
 the vascular system, and in several  parts of the serous system.   The
 second species  is usually seen in the  synovial capsules, and in the
 natural and the accidental mucous bursse ;  and  also  in several serous
 membranes, especially the tunica vaginalis testis.
   The latter forms more or less extensive layers  which  project  but
 little or not  at all above the surface of  the parts in  which they  are
 developed.  The former have the form of round bodies with peduncles,
 and are developed most frequently in those joints exposed to frequent
 concussions : they are  sometimes single, sometimes very numerous, and
 always communicate at one time or another with the  synovial mem-
 brane.
   Finally, these accidental osseous  productions pass through the same
 periods as the normal bones.(l)

  (1) Broussais, in his Histoire des phlegmas. chron., Paris, 1808, vol. i., attributes
 these accidental substances, both osseous and calcareous, to a chronic inflammation
 of the lymphatics.  This  opinion was revived by him  in 1816, in his Examen,
 Boisseau,admitting inflammation as the most common cause of accidental ossification,
 thinks that it occurs only when inflammation is followed by a diminution in nutrition,
 and that we cannot admit the continuance ofthe inflammatory state in atissue which
 is accidentally ossified.  (Reflexions sur la nouvelle doctrine medicale, in the Journ.
 univers. des sc. med., vol. vii., 1817, p. 43.)   In answer, Broussais distinguishes two
 kinds of accidental ossifications :  1st, the inorganic osseous concretions, the secon-
 dary results of a low degree of irritation, which form in the extravasated lymphatic
 fluids, or in tissues partly disposed to vital inflammation; 2ndly, the pure and sim-
 ple ossifications without previous alteration of the organization, consisting in those
 anomalies of nutrition consequent upon the progress of age. (Journ.univ.des sc.medic.,
 vol. viii., p.  156.)  Gimelle afterward established that these accidental osseous sub-
 stances never have the form nor the structure of the primitive bones, and that occt-
 dental  ossification is always the result of a chronic inflammation, which, using the
 vital properties of an organ to exalt them above their  natural type, changes the
 intimate nature of the affected part, and communicates to it the power of incrusting
 itself with phosphate of lime.  (Memoire sur les ossifications morbides, in the Journ,
univ. des sc. med., vol. xviii., 1820,  p. 5.)  Rayer has since advocated the opinion that
 morbid ossification is always the result of an inflammatory process.  He divides it,
 1st, into that which occurs in a tissue ofthe primary formation, where the form and
structure are not changed, so that it cannot be mistaken ; 2d, into that  develpeod
in an accidental tissue which has experienced no change ; and 3d, into that which
supervenes in a primitive or accidental tissue, which has been changed most fre« 
236
GENERAL ANATOMY
                             SECTION V.

                 OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

                       ARTICLE  FIRST.

              OF THE CARTILAGES IN THE NORMAL STATE.

   § 255. The cartilages (cartilago)(\) are sohd, hard, smooth, slip-
 pery, very elastic, whitish, and apparently homogeneous  bodies, pos-
 sessing neither fibres nor lamina?.
   § 256. They form an organic system, which does not exert the same
 influence in the organism at all periods of hfe, since in the early periods,
 we  find them in the  places pf the bones, but they gradually disappear.
 Hence the cartilages are divided into the permanent (C.permanentes)
 and the temporary, (C. temporaris,) a distinction which is not exact, as
 many cartilages which are included in the first series, become bone in
 most subjects, although in fact much later than the others, and always
 incompletely.  The  term temporary  cartilage is usually  applied to
 those only  which are replaced by bones, and which thus  disappear
 completely  at about the same period in all  individuals.   When the
 temporary cartilages are changed into bone, the permanent cartilages
 are  found principally,  1st,  at the ends of those bones which  touch
 each other,  whether movably or immovably  articulated ;  2d, in the
 parietes of certain canals.
   We  can  make no general remarks in regard  to  the forms of the
 temporary cartilages, as  they assume those of the bones, which after-
 wards take their places.  But  the permanent  cartilages, except the
 arytenoid and those small ones found between the thyroid cartilage and
 the  hyoid bone, are very thin in proportion to their breadth and length,
 or at least in respect to one of these dimensions.

 quently  into a fibrous or a cartilaginous substance.  (Memoire sur Vossification
 morbiae consider ee comme une terminaison des phlegmasies, in the Archives gene-
 rales de Medicine, vol. i., 1823, p.  313 and 489.)  Hence we may judge that the
 history of abnormal ossifications is still very obscure. This name very probably
 comprises numerous  accidental  productions, which should be considered only as
 calculous concretions.  In order  that an abnormal formation should justly come
 within the osseous system, it must possess life, that is,  it must be attached at least
 by vessels to the rest of the organism, and its structure must perfectly resemble that
 of the normal bones.  But these two conditions are found, perhaps, only in the forma-
 tion  of callus, the regeneration of the bodies of  the long bones, and  the ossification
 of certain parts of the fibrous tissue.                                 p. T.
  (1) G.  Hunter, Of the structure and diseases of articulating cartilages,  in the
 Phil, trans, n. 470, vi., p. 514-521.—Herissant, Sur la structure des cartilages des
 cotes de  Vhomme et du cheval, in the Mem. de Paris, 1748; p. 355.—Delassone, Sur
 Vorganisation  des os, in the  Mem. de Paris, 1752, p.  253-258.—J.  G. Haase, De
fabricd cartilaginum, Leipsic, 1767.—C. F. Doorner,  De gravioribus quibusdam
 cartilaginum mutationibus, Tubingen, 1798.—B. C. Brodie, Pathological researches
 respecting the diseases of the joints, in the Med. chir. tr.,\o\. iv., no. xiii., § 5.—Laennec,
 Sur  les cartilages accidentels, in the Diet, des sc. med., vol. iv., p. 123-133. 
THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.    237
     §257. The outer surface of the cartilages situated on the ends of
  the bones,  ,s sometimes unattached; they  are  then called articular
  cartilages, (C. articulares.)  Sometimes these cartilages form a  layer,
  the two faces of  which  are  united with  the bones.   They are then
  called the cartilages of the sutures, (C. suturarum.)
    § 258. The articular cartilages are found in all" the movable ioints •
  they hue the  corresponding  extremities  ofthe bones, imitating their
  forms  perfectly, and  are united with them so closely, that  one can
  break  the bone sooner than separate them.  The  cartilage, which
  exists  at first in the place  of bone,  is  perfectly homogeneous, yet
  when the latter is entirely developed, the articular cartilage is not a pro-
  longation of it, since there is no continuity of tissue between them
  even after the gelatin and the earthy salts have  been liberated  from
  the bones by  acids.  The loose surface of these  cartilages is smooth
  because it is  connected  with the internal layer of the articular mem-
  brane.   Ihis  arrangement diminishes remarkably the friction conse-
  quent upon motion.
   The articular cartilages  are generally a little  thinner on their cir-
 cumference ;  this is particularly seen in those attached to the extremi-
 ties of the bones which  project very much, as the heads of the hu-
 merus  and femur.  On the contrary, the articular cartilages of the
 cavities which receive these heads are thickest on their edges  and are
 often strengthened m that part by a  cartilaginous band.  The carti-
 lage has a uniform thickness in all other points of its surface.
   § 259. The second kind ofthe cartilages which are  placed between
 the  bones, form a  simple, very  thin  band,  situated between  two
 adjacent  bones, which they unite to  each other  so as not to permit
 the least motion.  These  cartilages have usually a conical shape, and
 are  broader on their external than on their internal face.  This ar-
 rangement explains,  at  least in part, why the sutures of  the bones
 of the head, in which the cartilages  we  speak of are found, always
 disappear on the inner sooner than on the outer face of the skull.
   The costal cartilages form in some measure an intermediate section
 between these cartilages and those ofthe second class; for their posterior
 extremities are connected with the ribs, hke the  artiaular cartilages
 while their anterior ends articulate with  the  sternum, which is itself
covered with an incrustation of cartilage.  Some  are  even united to
this bone by an articular  capsule  also.  Besides,  they differ from all
the others, because their length much exceeds their breadth and thick-
ness.
   § 260. The cartilages of the second class'are much more independent
than those of the first, for they constitute the base of certain organs
which are almost entirely formed by them.  Thus the larynx is chiefly
composed of cartilages, and the form of the trachea depends principally
on that of the cartilaginous rings which form its parietes.   The same
may be said of the cartilages ofthe nose and the ear. Hence the forms
of these cartilages differ more than those of the preceding.  In fact they
form sometimes layers, sometimes rings, and sometimes thick masses. 
238
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 They vary also in tissue; some,  as those of the larynx,  the trachea,
 and the septum of the nose, are much harder than those of the alae of
 the nose, ofthe ear, and of the eyelids.  They are generally more flex-
 ible than  the cartilages which are connected with the bones.  Many
 of them, which articulate together so as to admit motion, as for instance
 in the larynx, present articular  processes  lined with  capsular  liga-
 ments and retained in place by  fibrous  layers which are continuous
 with the perichondrium: but most, of them are united only by this mem-
 brane, by mucous tissue, and the membranous expansions which extend
 from one to another.
   § 261.  Although  at first view the  cartilages  do not seem  to
 have an organic tissue, (§ 255,)  nevertheless,  by having recourse to
 different processes, such as continued maceration and  the action of
 acids, we can demonstrate more or less clearly, that they are formed of
 fibres  and of  layers.   This tissue is slightly flexible, so that it breaks
 if we  endeavor to  bend it.   The cartilage putrifies with  difficulty:
 it is one of those substances which resists decomposition the longest.
   All  the cartilages, however,  have not the  same tissue; among
 those  which  are attached to the bones, the articular  cartilages are
 formed of a multitude of short fibres,  which are implanted in the cir-
 cumference of the  bones, and become  softer  towards their unattached
 extremity.  The costal cartilages are composed of oval laminae, ad-
 justed  to  each  other  from within outward,  and kept in place by
 the transverse fibres.  Morgagni(l) pretends that the cartilages ofthe
 larynx, or at least the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages, often  have a
 cellular structure, and inclose marrow,  even although they are not
 ossified. We have never observed any thing hke this.
   § 262. The chemical composition ofthe cartilages resembles that of
 bone:  they are formed of an animal  substance  and of  phosphate of
 lime ; but the proportions of these two principal constituents, perhaps
 also the nature of the  animal material, are different.  In fact, from the
 latest researches of Davy,(2) the articular cartilages contain,
     Of albumen,.......44,5
     "  water,      -......55.0
     "  phosphate of  lime,.....0.5
   According  to Allen,(3) on the contrary, the animal matter is also of
a gelatinous nature,  and the earthy material, mostly a carbonate of lime,
forms only one hundredth part of the whole mass.  Hatchett says,
they are formed of coagulated albumen, containing some  traces of
phosphate of lime.
   § 263. The cartilages have no vessels which carry  red blood, al-
though in  cutting them we often  perceive vessels distinct from their
substance.  Lymphatics have not as yet been discovered  in them.
They are destitute of nerves.
   § 264. All the cartilages, if we except the articular, are enveloped
with a fibrous membrane called the perichondrium.  This membrane
        (1) Advers. anat, i., an. 23.
        (2) In Monro, Outlines of anatomy, vol. i.,  p. 68.
        (3) Macdonald,  De necrosi et callo, Edinburgh, 1799, p. 104, 105. 
    OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.    239

is connected with them in a mechanical or dynamical relation, less in-
timately than the periosteum is  with the bones.   The articular carti-
lages are destitute of this perichondrium, and  their unattached  face i3
blended with the synovial membrane.
  § 265. The cartilages are  very elastic: hence  they  are  found  in
those places where  this property is required ;  for instance, in the ends
of the  long bones, in the parietes of those cavities which change their
size and which should never collapse, as the nose, the organs of voice
and of respiration.   They possess, however,  but a slight  degree of
contractility and dilatability.   Their want of nerves explains  their
entire insensibility in the normal state.  The phenomena of life pro-
gress in them with extreme slowness.
  § 266.  During the early periods  of existence the cartilages are
mucous and soft.   They gradually become consistent, and are finally
very brittle.  Towards the middle of hfe they are more elastic, because
then they are more distant from the two opposite states in which they
are met with at the beginning and end of existence.
  As certain cartilages, those called temporary, ossify regularly and very
early,  so too some of the permanent  cartilages are totally or partially
changed into osseous pieces: at least this happens very often in regard
to some of them; but they generally ossify much later than the others.
Those which present this phenomenon most frequently are the carti-
lages of the larynx, and less frequently those of the ribs, and the rings
of the  trachea.  It is never seen in those of the nose, the ears, or the
eyehds.   This change is  very rare in  the articular  cartilages.  Still
we must mention here those uncommon cases where all the joints are
fused in a greater or less degree at an  advanced age, and where, con-
sequently, all  the articular  cartilages are ossified.  Between the per-
manent and the temporary cartilages, we may rank to a  certain extent
those  which unite two bones together in such  a manner  as  not to
allow  motion, for they also  change into osseous substance, and hence
the sutures disappear, although the change occurs almost always long
after  that of the  temporary cartilages.   The form  of  the connected
surfaces of the bones appears  to  influence this change to  a  certain
extent, although it occurs where the points of contact  are more nu-
merous and closer, as in the dentated sutures, or within the skull, sooner
than between smooth faces, as around  the unguiform bones, between
the upper maxillary bones, &c.   But this law is evidently obedient to
other laws also: for  on  one side the two  portions of the lower jaw,
whose surfaces touch in the same manner as  those of the upper jaw,
always unite early ; so on the other side, we often see  superficial su-
tures,  as the squamous,  disappear, while others  which  are very deep
and supplied with numerous indentations are permanent.
   The proportional size of the cartilages remains about the same at all
periods of life: those of the sutures are  the only exceptions to this rule.
In fact,  during the early periods of existence, while the bones of the
head play on each other, and while their teeth are not  inserted into each
other, these cartilages are  broader than they are afterwards. 
240
GENERAL ANATOMY.
                    ARTICLE SECOND.

      OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

   § 267. The cartilages rarely present anomalies(l) in regard to their
 external or internal form : their deviations of formation are rarely con-
 genital and usually result from anomalies presented by the  bones and
 ligaments.
   We may consider as congenital deviations of formation  the defi-
 ciency of certain cartilages,  for instance those of the ribs.
   § 268. The slowness of the vital phenomena which marks the carti-
 lages generally (§ 265) is seen also in the manner of their action on ex-
 ternal morbific causes, and the degree of their power of repairing  a
 loss of substance, their reproductive power.   The wounds of the carti-
 lages do not heal, like those  of other parts, by the union of their divided
 surfaces. Long after the accident, these surfaces present no change which
 indicates the  least tendency to union: they are smooth and  level;
 but the parts which cover the cartilage, especially the perichondrium
 when it exists, adhere, and form the new substance which is deposited
 between the lips of the wound.  Hence why it so often happens that a
 cartilage destroyed in any manner is never reproduced, although layers
 of cartilage are sometimes developed on the  surfaces of the false arti-
 culations.  But this last phenomenon is not common.   Articular car-
 tilages are rarely or never formed  in the new articular  cavities which
 appear  after luxations.   In fact  in  the  false joints consecutive to
 fractures, we sometimes find cartilages between the disunited ends of
 the bones, and farther the artificial joint is  formed because they are not
 ossified: but, in this case, it is not  a cartilage which is reproduced, nor
 even a permanent cartilage  which forms, but only a temporary carti-
 lage,  or rather a new bone, the development of which has been ar-
 rested.
   When the articular cartilages  are  destroyed, the  most favorable
occurrence is the fusion of the  contiguous surfaces of the two bones,
 and the formation of anchylosis.
   For these reasons, inflammation of the cartilages is unfrequent, and
very slow: they resist the action  of deleterious causes  longer  even
than the bones ; and the changes which occur in them seem to be pas-
sive and chemical, rather than active and  vital, since cartilages,  when
separated from the body and exposed to the same agents, are affected
in the same manner.
   We shall not here discuss the opinion of Laennec, who admits that
destroyed cartilages  may be regenerated.  We consider those thin
points of articular cartilage  usually found in several  articulations at

  (1) Doerner, De gravicribus quibusdam cartilaginum mutationibus, Tubingen,
 1798.—Cruveilhier, Observations sur les cartilages  diarthrodiaux et les maladies des
articulations diarthrodiales, in the Archiv. gener. de med., Feb.  1824, p. 161. 
     OF THE CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.  241

 once in the same subject, as new productions of cartilage, as real cica-
 trices, which are  never as thick as the old cartilage.  • But it is not
 proved, that these thin points do not  arise from a wasting of the carti-
 lage ; and  the circumstances  in which we have sometimes observed
 this  phenomenon, render this last opinion not improbable.
   § 269. Active changes also  occur in the  cartilages.   These take
 place particularly in those which do not concur in forming the articula-
 tions, because they receive more vessels, and enjoy a more active exist-
 ence.  In fact the cartilages not unfrequently inflame, and  this in-
 flammation terminates in ossification.  The articular cartilages rarely
 experience  these alterations, but  they are not always exempt from
 them: thus in. diseases of the joints, they become red, partly lose their
 density, soften, and swell.  Inflammation most generally terminates in
 suppuration and the destruction of the cartilages, which it is  remark-
 able does not necessarily produce the formation of pus.    It is probably
 from these changes that the wasting of the articular cartilages takes
 place.
   The cartilages are exposed to induration and ossification, anomalies
 of which we have spoken above, (§ 266.)   When in this state they
 become subject to the  usual  diseases of the bones.   They inflame,
 become carious, die, and are thrown off.  This phenomenon occurs not
 unfrequently in some cartilages of the larynx, particularly in the aryte-
 noid cartilages.  We must not confound this with  the formation of a
 white substance, probably urate of soda,  which develops itself in the
 place of the articular cartilages, when the latter  disappear from the
 effects of gout
   § 270.  The cartilages not  unfrequently develop themselves acci-
 dentally.  In general, when this anomalous formation is seen, we may
 admit a tendency to accidental ossification.   The solidity, form, and
 situation of  these accidental cartilages  vary much.   They differ so
 much from  each  other in the  first respect, that Laennec thought to
 make two classes, the perfect and the imperfect.   But this classifica-
 tion hardly seems admissible;  for the difference is purely gradual and
 accidental, and every thing would induce us to think that it depends en-
 tirely upon the period when the observation is made.  Farther, the acci-
 dental cartilages are presented under three principal forms :
   1st. As broad layers adhering more or less strongly by their two faces
 to the parts in which they are found. This form is the most common. Ac-
 cidental cartilages of this kind are developed principally between the in-
 ternal and the fibrous tunics ofthe arteries, generally on the external face
 of the internal membrane of the system of red blood, and on the outer
 face of the serous membranes, so that as this resembles  very much the
 internal membrane of the vessels, the formation of the cartilaginous
 layers may be considered one  of the  most usual  morbid alterations.
   2d. In the form  of  more or  less round, irregiilar, and more or less
solid masses, which are imbedded  in the substance of the different
organs, especially the  uterus, the thyroid gland, and  the ovaries.
   Vol. I                       31 
242
GENERAL ANATOMY
  3d, As rounded, t flat, smooth concretions attached to fine filaments,
and  which are often separated from the parts whence they arise, so
that they seem perfectly loose.   This kind of  accidental cartilage
occurs particularly in the internal face of the synovial membranes.
They are more rare in the serous membranes.  It is the first degree of
the formation of accidental articular bones.  (§ 254.)


                         SECTION VI.

            OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

                     ARTICLE FIRST.

         OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGES IN THE NORMAL STATE.

   § 271. By  cartilages we usually understand all those hard sub>-
stances found  between the bones which cover their surfaces, and some
other parts mentioned before, (§260.)   But the substances placed  bei-
tween the bones differ much from  each other.  Hence  we  early per-
ceived the necessity of dividing the cartilages into several classes,  ac-
cording to their texture, or at least we did not forget to remark that all
have not exactly the same texture. Haase divides them into three classes:
1, the cartilages formed entirely of a dense cellular tissue; 2, the liga-
mentous cartilages,  (C.  ligamentoss) ; 3,  the  mixed  cartilages, (C.
mixts.)   Bichat considers  the second class as a distinct system,
and  he has given to it the  name of fibro-cartilage—and  has made
three subdivisions of it, viz. 1. The membranous fibro-cartilages,  as
those of the nose, the ear, and  the trachea.  2.  The articular fibro-
cartilages, comprehending the loose interarticular cartilages, and those
which adhere intimately to the bones by their two faces, as those found
between the vertebrae and the ossa pubis.  3. The fibro-cartilages ofthe
tendinous sheaths, which cover the bones in those places  where the
tendons glide over them.  But it is unquestionably more exact to refer
the first division to the cartilages properly so  called, as  they have the
same structure.  We ought also to add to the two subdivisions a third,
that ofthe annular fibro-cartilages, which Bichat has not mentioned.
  The best classification of the  fibro-cartilages is one in respect to their
form and situation, and which admits of their being divided into three
classes:  1st.  Those fibro-cartilages the two faces of which are either
wholly  or at least in a great part loose, and the edges of which  are
united to synovial capsules, the movable articular fibro-cartilages.
  2d. Those which have one of their faces loose, and adhere to the bone
by the other.   These are, a. long and grooved,  as the fibro-cartilages
of the tendinous sheaths ; and b. or circular, as those which border  the
edges of the joints, and which may be  termed the annular fibro-carti-
lages.
  3d. Those which have both faces entirely attached to the bones  be-
tween which they are placed. 
OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.  243
  § 272. The intermediate  fibro-cartilages are  found principally  in
those joints which are exposed  to  frequent and extensive friction,  as
that of the knee, of the clavicle, and of the lower jaw.  They divide the
articulation more or less completely into two parts, because they are
parallel to the two articular  faces between which they are extended.
They are united more or less distinctly by fibrous parts to the circum-
ference of the capsule or to the articular cartilages.  Still they always
remain movable,  so that they can change their situation in  the dif-
ferent motions of the joints ; hence they diminish compression and the
concussion experienced by the articular cartilages in  motion.   They
are usually circular and bi-concave, that is thicker at the circumference
than the centre.   But the semilunar fibro-cartilages of the  knee-joint
are hollowed, and extremely thin on one  of their edges.  Only one is
usually found in each articulation; but that of the knee is an exception
in this respect, as it sometimes contains two.
  § 273. The fibro-cartilages of the tendinous sheaths  cover the  bones
in those places where the tendons glide  over them; hence they gene-
rally have a long grooved form.  They are developed in the periosteum,
and  are usually composed of interlaced fibres, the direction of which
is contrary to that of the sheath itself and  of the  tendon.  They are
generally thin, but become much thicker in certain points, and vary in
this respect in all parts of the same sheath.   Where they are unusually
thick,  we observe a corresponding development of a fibro-cartilaginous
or osseous tissue  in the  tendon which  glides upon them.  We may
easily be convinced of this in the place where the tendon of the tibialis
posticus passes under the head of the artragalus to  be inserted into
the scaphoid bone.  This arrangement, then, forms real articulations
in those parts  where  considerable  friction takes  place.   Something
similar is seen in the crucial  ligament of the first and  second cervical
vertebrae, whefe it passes behind the odontoid process of the second.
  § 274. The annular fibro-cartilages are  composed of circular  fibres,
arranged around the circumference  of the  rounded articular cavities
which admit of extensive motions, as those of  the ossa ilia and the
scapula.   They always  grow thinner from their base to their  loose
edge : they confine the motions of the joint by deepening its cavity, but
not so much as an edge of bone would.
  § 275. These fibro-cartilages, which  adhere on both sides  to the
adjacent bones, are formed of fibres, the  direction of which is perpen-
dicular to the surfaces  between  which  they are  extended, «*nd  form
the articulations called  symphyses, (§ 242.)   Their form <fepends_upon
that  of the osseous surfaces which they are intended to umte-. Hence
they are  almost circular  between the bodies of the vertebrae, irregular
between the sacrum and ossa ilia, and oblong and square between the
ossa  pubis.  They are inserted in the first two c*ses by broad surfaces,
and in the third by narrow edges.                           .
  $ 276. The texture ofthe fibro-cartilages is composed, as their  name
indicates,of a cartilaginous and of afibroi* substance. These two masses
are easily distinguished from  each other, and form more or less regular 
244
GENERAL ANATOMY.
alternate layers.   This arrangement is particularly well marked in the
intervertebral fibro-cartilages.  Here in fact there is much more of
fibrous substance than in the other fibro-cartilages, and it forms white,
concentric, and  solid layers, between which a  brownish cartilaginous
substance seems deposited principally in the middle, while externally it
is converted into real crucial ligaments.   On the contrary, in the inter-
articular cartilages and in the cartilages of the tendinous sheaths, the
cartilaginous substance exceeds the fibrous so much, that  this latter is
hardly perceptible, and we might say that it has been injected  into the
other, so that it does not  seem so regularly arranged.  These fibro-
cartilages then are allied still more closely with proper cartilages.
   It is a general law that the fibrous substance in a given portion of
the fibro-cartilage  exceeds in a greater pr less degree the cartilaginous
substance.   Thus in the fibro-cartilages of the vertebrae, as also those
of the pubic and sacro-iliac symphyses, the cartilaginous substance
gradually diminishes towards the circumference, and finally gives place
entirely  to the fibrous substance.   Several interarticular cartilages, as
those of the knee, are attached to the adjacent bones by fibres evidently
ligamentous.
   § 277. The tissue of  the  fibro-cartilages, in  relation to the  organic
systems which form it, does not materially differ from that of the carti-
lages and of the fibrous organs.
   § 278. The same remark may be made in regard to their proper-
ties, as they combine those of the two  systems.   The fibro-cartilages
are as elastic, but  less hard and more flexible, and less brittle than the
true cartilages.  Their extreme solidity causes them to tear with great
difficulty.  They retain the  bones  to which they are attached very
firmly together, and favor  the gliding of the tendons.  This  circum-
stance, added to this  that they are but slightly sensible to outward
impressions, renders them capable of resisting the influence of external
agents  longer than  the  bones.   Thus  we sometimes see the bodies of
the vertebrae almost  wholly destroyed by chemical or mechanical
causes,  as  for  instance by an aneurism of the aorta, while the inter-
mediate  fibro-cartilages  which unite them  remain almost untouched.
  xSome fibro-cartilages undergo periodical changes not seen in the real
cartilages:  they become less  dense, softer, and  moister,  and hence
allowmore motion in the parts which they unite.   This is seen parti-
cularly^ the fibro-cartilages of the pelvis during pregnancy.
   § 279.^he fibro-cartilages in the early periods of life, notwithstand-
 ing their sdrmess, resemble  the  cartilages  which appear at a  later
 period,  because at this time  the gelatinous substance much  exceeds
 the fibrous  subst%nCe in all parts of the body.   This is proved by the
 intervertebral fibro-cartilages and that of the symphysis pubis.   As
 the age progresses on i^e contrary, the  fibrous substance predominates
 more and more over the cartilaginous.  Hence, partly on this account,
 the fibro-cartilages are mucK softer  and more flexible in  infants than
 in old  men,  and hence  too, in  great part, the stiffness  attendant
 upon old age. 
THE FIBROCARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL
   The ossification of the fibro-cartilages in advanced  age is not rare.
In fact the vertebra* are often united  with each other by means of an
osseous substance; but this union depends more rarely on the ossifica-
tion of the fibro-cartilages than on the formation of layers of bone on
the circumference  of the two faces .which look towards the bodies
of the vertebrae    But we have sometimes  observed  ossification of
the intervertebral fibro-cartilages, and  have then found on  dividing
the vertebral column longitudinally, that several vertebra? were fused
together, and were blended in one mass.   The  same is true of the
symphysis pubis, and the sacrum is often united with the ossa ilia
                     ARTICLE  SECOND.

         OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGES IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

   § 280. In respect to morbid alterations, the fibro-cartilages resemble
 the cartilages and fibrous, organs, in the nature of which they equally
 participate.  They are but slightly subject to disease : yet the observa-
 tions of Palletta(l) and Brodie(2) establish that inflammation and sup-
 puration sometimes  affect them, even before attacking the bones with
 which they are connected.
   §281. We not unfrequently see a  substance perfectly resembling
 the  fibro-cartilaginous  tissue formed  in some  parts  of the animal
 economy.   This substance most generally assumes the form of round
 masses, very distinct from the surrounding mucous tissue and the sub-
 stance of the organs.   Such are the  substances which  grow in the
 internal genital  organs of the female, and especially in the uterus, in
 old maidens; these formations, usually termed schirrous, but wrongly,
 adhere  but shghtly to the  substance  of the uterus, generally pro-'
ject above  its surface,  and are easily extirpated ;  when cut across,
 they are seen to be composed of different layers and always of  two
 substances irregularly intermixed, the  cartilaginous and the  fibrous.
 These accidental productions have more tendency to ossify than the
 normal  fibro-cartilages  : but  this  tendency to become bone does not
 depend entirely upon their size.   Bodies  similar  to them in every res-
pect are met with, between the vagina and the rectum, in the ovaries,
the bones, the thyroid  and the thymus glands, and more rarely under
the skin.
(1) Advcrs. chirurg. prima, p. 189.
(2) In the Med. chir. trans., vol. iv., p. 258. 
246
GENERAL ANATOMY.
                        SECTION VII.

                  OF THE  FIBROUS  SYSTEM.

                     ARTICLE  FIRST.

          OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.

  § 282.  The fibrous system (systernafibrosum) was first considered
generally  and separately by Bichat.  The term  "fibrous system11  is
not sufficiently distinctive, as the fibrous structure is at least as well
marked in many other systems, especially in the muscles  and nerves ;
but as these are already named, and it would be difficult to imagine a
better term, and as it expresses  the  principal character  of the system,
it may be preserved without inconvenience.
                       A.  GENERAL REMARKS.

   § 283. The peculiar characters of the fibrous system are,  a struc-
 ture evidently fibrous, and a white silvery and brilliant color. It receives
few vessels, and probably has no nerves.  It is but slightly  elastic,  and
 is entirely destitute of contractility and of sensibility.
   § 284. This system is expanded generally through the body,  but
 nevertheless does not form an entire whole ;  for although a communi-
 cation may be demonstrated between those of/ts portions immediately
 continuous with the bones and muscles, those which are connected to
 some glandular organs are on the contrary entirely separated from the
 others.
   § 285. The  external form  of  this system is not the same in all the
 parts  which it embraces, but these  may be referred to two.  In one,
 the  dimensions in length and breadth are almost equal,  and much
 greater than the thickness.   This is the form of the fibrous membranes,
 (membrans fibross.)   The organs which present it are, 1, the peri-
osteum ; 2, the dura mater of the brain and spinal marrow; 3,  the
fibrous capsules;  4,  the fibrous  sheaths of the  tendons;  5,  the
aponeuroses ;  6, the tunica  sclerotica;  7, the capsule of the cor-
pora cavernosa of the penis and clitoris, and that of the urethra; 8,
that of the testicles ;  9, that of the spleen; 10,  that of the kidneys.
   § 286. In the second class of fibrous organs, the thickness is greater in
regard to the other two dimensions, and these fibrous organs are called
fascicular, (Organa  fibrosa fascicularia.)   This class  comprehends
only the parts  connected with the bones or the muscles, viz.  1st, the
tendons, and 2d, the ligaments.
   § 287.  If we except the fibrous membranes of some of the glandular
organs, we  may easily demonstrate that all the fibrous  organs  are 
         OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       247

closely connected together.   The different parts of the system com-
municate  by the periosteum (§ 285):  hence it may be considered  as
its common centre.  In  fact, 1. The cerebral and spinal dura-mater
fulfills also the functions of  a periosteum to the bones of the cranium,
and  to the vertebrae, as it lines their internal  faces,  and the canals it
furnishes  to the nerves  are  continuous  with the periosteum which
covers the external face of these bones.  2. The tunica sclerotica
communicates with the dura mater by means of the fibrous sheath of
the optic nerve which is furnished by it.   3.  Thefibrous membrane of
the penis and  chtoris interlace with the periosteum of the ossa ischia.
4. The fibrous  capsules, ligaments,  sheaths, and tendons, are also
united with the  periosteum.  It is even by means  of this membrane
alone they hold to  the bones,  from which they are entirely detached
if it  be removed, especially during the early periods of life.
  This explanation of the fibrous system, the idea of which belongs to
Bichat,(l) is more natural than that of Clarus,(2) who  pretends the
envelop of the muscles is its centre.  According to this anatomist, the
entire muscular system  is surrounded by a common, shining, fibrous
envelop, the internal face of which gives  off prolongations whieh cir-
cumscribe each bone and muscle, and are called the  periosteum, the
perichondrium, and  the  perimysion, or  which (as the intermuscular
ligaments) form only layers  and extend from the bones to the muscles.
Clarus pretends that his  opinion is preferable to that of Bichat, because
it considers all the envelops of the different organs as so many pro-
longations of one single  envelop.  But it is evident, that this general
external  layer does not exist, for although  all the muscles have a.
mucous envelop, this by no means possesses the characters of fibrous
tissue, so  that the  communication which Clarus admits between the
real  fibrous sheaths, which  circumscribe  for instance  the muscles of
the  upper and lower extremities,  and the mucous sheaths of several
muscles, as those  of the abdomen, the latissimus dorsi, the trapezius,
&c,  and  those too of the  deeper muscles,  or even  between these
sheaths and those  of the  different fasciculi and the fibres of each mus-
cle, is entirely forced, and cannot  be admitted from ocular demonstra-
tion.
  §  288.  The peculiarities of fibrous tissue consist in its being formed
of very apparent fibres which have different directions, in its grayish or
whitish color, and  silvery lustre ;  they are very solid and  powerfully
resist external  mechanical impressions.   In several parts of the body
their fibres are irregular, and cross each other in different directions.
They are arranged thus in the dura mater, the anterior periosteum of
the sternum, and in many of the posterior  ligaments the  ossacrum
and  the  ossa ilia.   But they are generally regular, and  their direc-
tion  is that ofthe motions performed by the parts, to the union of which
they contribute  more than any  other organ ; consequently also in the
same direction as they are contracted and relaxed.

       (1) Gen. Anat vol. ii., p. 263.
       (2) Annalen des klinischen Instituts zu Leipzig, vol. i., p. ii, p. 156. 
248
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   § 289. Besides these peculiar fibres, the fibrous organs contain also
 mucous tissue  and vessels.  The mucous tissue forms a layer which
 envelops them  externally,  and exists also more or less abundantly be-
 tween their fibres.  If we judge from what exudes from these organs
 while drying, this tissue contains also fat, although it is not perceptible in
 their recent state. The number of the blood-vessels is not the same in all
 places: in some parts of the system they are numerous, while in others
 but few exist.  We cannot clearly demonstrate the presence of nerves.
   In regard to  chemical composition, the  fibrous system is formed en-
 tirely of gelatin.
   §.  290.  The fibrous tissue is but slightly elastic in the recent state,
 but becomes very much so when dried.  It does not admit of great
 and sudden extension.  Hence,  1, the strangulation which results when
 parts which are more or less completely surrounded by fibrous organs
 are distended ;  2, the fibrous organs tear when suddenly or forcibly dis-
 tended ; on the contrary, they yield very much to a slow and gradual
 extension without tearing, as is seen in dropsies, pregnancy, luxations,
 which take place gradually, &c. In these instances,they become thin to
 a greater or less extent.  But we must not confound with this state an
 increase in their mass, their thickening, which arises from a morbid in-
 crease of nutrition ; this sometimes exists  alone,  and is sometimes at-
 tended with distension, and almost always succeeds  diseases of the
 adjacent organs, of the synovial membranes, of the eye, testicle, &c.
  Nor  are the  fibrous organs capable of a sudden contraction :  they
 however gradually contract after unusual distension.
  These organs are very solid, and it requires great force to tear them.
 They tear on account of their slight degree of extension, for when rup-
 tured they are not, or but slightly elongated. They do not extend more
 than they contract under the influence of stimulants.  In the normal
 state, they  are sensible not to chemical, but to mechanical irritations.
  The fibrous system serves, in great measure, to protect, to envelop,
 and to unite the organs it embraces.  Its properties are perfectly in ac-
 cordance with this function. It intimately adheres to the parts it covers
 and unites ; thus  the  tendons  are firmly fixed  to the bones and the
 muscles, and the ligaments to the bones.  But this  adhesion is not
 equally strong in every part.   Thus the periosteum is attached to the
 bones less intimately than the above-mentioned organs are to each other.
  § 291.  In the early periods of life,  the fibrous  system  is soft, very
 flexible,  extensible,  of a  pearly lustre,  and  homogeneous,  and its
 fibrous structure  is not  developed till  towards the  end of uterine
 existence ;  its fibres are fewer and more  separated in the beginning.
 Some fibrous organs  are proportionally thinner than they afterwards
are, as the dura mater, the tunica sclerotica and the periosteum. Others
on the contrary are smaller, as the tendons. The parts which unite it to
 the adjacent parts are much less sohd in the early periods of hfe than
at an advanced age;  thus the periosteum is more easily detached
 from  the bones, and the  tendons  are  less firmly  united with the
 muscles and the bones.   They gradually become hard, sohd, dry, and 
          OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      249

yellowish.  The stiffness and immobility  which characterize  old age
depend principally on this state of the membrane.  Does the fibrous
system ever change into other organs ?   It  has been thought that
this was the case with some of its parts, and that the periosteum among
others changed to bone, ( §220, 221.)  On the other side, it has been
thought that  other  fibrous  organs, for  instance the tendons,  were
formed from the muscular  substance.  But this last opinion is as un-
founded as the other, as we shall demonstrate, when speaking of the
muscular system.  Although the fibrous  system becomes more con-
sistent in old age, still it does not regularly ossify, and in man espe-
cially it does not tend much to this change.   The fibrous organs most
often found ossified, are several ligaments, especially those of the verte-
bral column.   We have some  xyphoid cartilages  of old men, where
all the ligaments of the vertebral column and ribs are ossified.  Some-
times all the articulations are united in this manner, so that the whole
body becomes incapable of motion.  We  may adduce too the ossifica-
tion of the proper ligaments of the scapula, which are not unfrequent.
Accidental depositions of bone in the dura mater are more frequent;
but they depend less on the ossification of the fibrous substance than on
a real production of bone on  its surface, and appear in fact less adhe-
rent to the dura mater than to the arachnoid membrane which lines it.
The falx is the place where they most frequently occur. It is remarka-
ble that ossification of  the tendons is so  rare, because,  in the animal
kingdom, for instance, in many birds, insects, crustaceous animals, and
to a certain extent in fishes,  the change is connected with the normal
development.
                   B.  SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS.
  § 292.  The fibrous  organs form, 1, envelops ; 2, they unite cer-
tain organs ;  or 3, they fulfill both these functions at once.  The fibrous
organs of the first kind are  membranous;  the second, on the  con-
trary, sometimes assume this form, and sometimes that of fasciculi, ac-
cording as the form of the organs with which they are related demands.
   § 293.  I. The fibrous envelops are, 1, the  dura mater of the brain
and spinal marrow ;  2, the periosteum and the perichondrium; 3, the
tunica sclerotica; 4, the tunica albuginea, and the membrane of the
ovaries ;  5, the envelop of the corpus cavernosum; 6, the capsule of
the kidneys ;  and 7, that of  the spleen.
   The most remarkable properties of these envelops  are, 1, they have
the form of sacs, which surround the organs placed under  them. These
sacs are not entirely closed, like those of  the serous membranes, but
have openings in points, which correspond to the entrance or departure
of vessels, nerves, and excretory ducts.
   2d. If the organ they cover is composed of several layers, or if other
membranous  expansions exist which are necessary to the performance
of its functions  and its  preservation, the fibrous envelops  form  the
most  external layer.  In this manner the dura mater and the tunica
sclerotica are disposed.   They determine then, more or less, the form of
the organs they surround.
  Vol. I.                       32 
250
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   3d.  Their form and their relations with the organs placed below them
 are not always the same in every part. Some appear as simple sacs, as
 the tunica sclerotica, the capsule  of the kidneys, and the periosteum.
 Others form compound sacs.   These last in their turn are divided into
 two series :  sometimes in fact they give off from their internal face pro-
 longations which do not penetrate even the interior of the organ, as is
 the case with the fakes and the tentorium ofthe cerebellum. Sometimes
 they send through the substance of the whole organ a reticular tissue,
 which forms to a certain extent its base, as is seen in the corpus ca-
 vernosum of the penis and the clitoris, and in the spleen and the testicle.
   4th. They have not a uniform thickness.  There isno constantrelation
 between it and the volume of the organs.   Thus the fibrous coat of the
 eye, of the testicle, and of the ovary, is much thicker than that of the
 spleen or  the kidney, and almost as thick as that of  the brain and the
 spinal marrow.
   5th.  All the fibrous membranes have not exactly  the same internal
 structure.   In  some, as the periosteum,  the dura mater  of  the  brain
 and the spinal marrow, and the envelop of the corpus cavernosum, the
 fibres  are more distinct than in others.   Most of them are formed of
 but one layer, but the dura mater has two, which may easily be en-
 tirely separated in the early periods of hfe.
   6th.  Nor  is  their mode of union with  the  parts they  surround
 every  where  the same.   The dura mater of the brain and spinal
 marrow have no connection with the organs which they envelop ;  on
 the contrary, the tunica sclerotica, the renal capsules, and the  tunica al-
 buginea are  more or less intimately united to the subjacent organs  by
 mucous tissue.  In the corpus cavernosum,  the spleen, and the ovaries,
 the union is  still more intimate, as the capsule sends prolongations into
 the very tissue of these organs.  This is the case too with the perios-
 teum, although its fibres have no part in  the composition of the bones.
   But we observe in respect to this, periodical differences, which may
 generally  be referred to the greater proportional thickness of the fibrous
 envelops, during the early periods of life, and to the greater looseness of
 their attachments to  the parts below.
   § 294.  II. The fibrous parts which serve at the same time as envelops
 and means of union, form the transition of the fibrous organs of the first
to those of the third series. They usually have the form of membranes.
   These are, 1, The aponeuroses ;  2, the sheaths of the tendons ; 3,
all the fibrous ligaments ; 4, the fibrous capsules of  the serous  mem-
branes ; 5, the  fibrous  capsules of the mucous membranes.
   § 295.  a. The  aponeuroses are of two kinds.   They serve as a
covering to the muscles.  They are almost always united   to these
organs, but some surround other muscles besides these, and many form,
in concert with the muscles to which they adhere, envelops for other or-
gans,  and make the parietes of certain cavities.
   § 296,  The aponeuroses of the  first kind may be called  muscular
bands, (fascis musculares.)   Their principal characters are as follows :
   a.  They sometimes form canal3, or sacs,  which inclose one or more 
         OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       251

muscles.  From their internal faces are detached  fibrous sheaths
which extend to the bone, separate  the muscles from each other, are
often  of considerable  thickness, almost  always give origin  to  mus-
cular  fibres, and are termed intermuscular ligaments, (ligamenta inter-
muscularia.)   Sometimes they cover the muscles on one side  only.
The aponeuroses of the extremities,  of the deep muscles of the back,
of the recti muscles of the abdomen,  are examples  of the first arrange-
ment  ; the second occurs in several muscles, where the tendons which
are inserted into the bones extend to a part of their surface, gradually
becoming thinner.
  6. They form general envelops  only in the extremities.   But spe-
cial envelops  exist in many parts,  as the aponeuroses of the  deep
muscles of the  back,  and the sheath  of the recti  muscles of the
abdomen.
  c. These muscular bands are more or less evidently formed of seve-
ral layers  of fibres  which vary in direction, or are even formed of seve-
ral  folds,  as  for instance the sheath  of the recti  muscles of the
abdomen.
  d.  Their thickness is not uniform ; but it is relative not to the vol-
ume of the muscles they cover,  but to  the greater or less freedom of
motion required.   They are much thicker and firmer in those places
where the motions  must be more limited, and where the parts require
to be  maintained more  firmly in their respective positions.  Thus the
aponeuroses of the palm of the hand and the sole of the foot, are the
strongest of all the muscular bands. We may consider too as accessory
means, certain ligaments which cannot be separated but by destroying
their fibres with a scalpel, as the ligaments of the wrist, &c.
  We ought in fact to arrange here  the fibrous sheaths of the tendons,
for they do not differ from the ligaments, and communicate with the
muscular envelops.
  e. Usually they  have special tensor muscles, or  the tendons of the
muscles, which serve for other functions, and which are attached to the
bones, adhere to them, and are even blended with them.  Thus the
crural aponeurosis  has a proper tensor muscle, and the palmar apo-
neurosis has two.  The tendon ofthe glutoeus maximus is continuous-
with  the crural  aponeurosis,  that of the biceps flexor cubiti with the
aponeurosis of the  fore-arm—that of several muscles of the thigh,
with the fascia of the leg.   The plantar aponeurosis is the only excep-
tion to this rule in man. The functions of these muscles are to make
tense  the aponeurotic expansions in which they are inserted, and thus
fix more solidly the muscles situated below them.
  / They are generally united to  the subjacent muscles very loosely;
we must however except their tendinous upper extremities, which are
usually blended with them, and which even seem to arise from them, an
arrangement which increases the extent of the surfaces to which these
latter  are attached.
  § 297. The aponeuroses of the second kind, are attached  like the
preceding  by their  circumference  to the tensor muscles.  They are 
252
GENERAL ANATOMY.
distinguished from the latter by the relations between them and the parts
below them.  We shall take as an example the aponeurotic expansion
on the anterior face of the abdomen and that on the external face of the
cranium.   The first is  made tense  by the broad muscles of the abdo-
men, of which  it forms the anterior tendon, and by the pyramidal
muscles, and the second by the frontal and occipital muscles.  All these
muscles may be considered as digastric, having two bellies  separated
by a large central tendon.
   §  298. B.  The fibrous sheaths ofthe tendons (vagins tendinum fibro-
as) are membranous expansions forming semi-canals, the loose edges
of which attach themselves  to corresponding edges  of one or several
bones which are slightly turned over, so as to produce  entire channels
in which the tendons glide.   These tendons are very  long in proportion
to the muscles to which  they belong, and are kept firmly in place by
these sheaths.
   Their general characters are :
   o. They are very thick and solid,  and are formed of very apparent
transverse fibres, except  near the joints, where  they  are extremely
thin  and interrupted, and are formed of oblique fibres which cross.
   6. They and that  portion  Of bone to  the  edges of which they are
attached, are always lined by the synovial membranes,  which, on their
outer surface, are reflected on the tendons.
   c.  They allow a passage to one or several tendons ; most generally
to several, but this presents two  different modifications.   Sometimes
the canal is subdivided by intermediate  fibrous partitions, which  are
attached to separate processes  of bone, so  that  there are in fact as
many sheaths as there are tendons ; this is  seen  on the back of the
hand.   Sometimes there are  no subdivisions,  and the different tendons
are attached  to each other by the  projection of synovial  membrane,
and are, in fact, inclosed  in the same sheath.  This is the arrange-
ment of the tendons  of the palm of the hand  and  phalanges.  We
call the sheaths  of the first kind compound,  and  those of the  second
kind simple.
   We have already remarked that these two kinds of sheaths are con-
tinuous with the aponeurosis  of the extremities.
   The tendinous sheaths and the fibrous agents of union are usually
developed in  the direction in  which the hand  and foot are flexed, more
than in any other.  The former are observed only in the extremities of
the limbs.   The  extensor muscles of the toes and fingers are retained
in place in the carpus and tarsus, only by compound tendinous sheaths.
In the palm of the hand, on  the  contrary, besides the  strong  fibrous
sheath  under which the  tendons of all the flexor  muscles pass,
there is a proper sheath for the two flexor tendons of each finger or toe.
   This difference depends, 1st, on the difference in the  number of the
flexor and extensor tendons ;  for each finger or toe has  two of the for-
mer  and only one of the latter;  2d, this arrangement of the extensor
tendons is compensated by the union with them of the interosseous and 
OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.
253
  the lumbricales muscles ; 3d, ruptures ofthe flexor tendons occur more
  easily than those  of the extensor tendons, and their consequences are
  more serious.
    § 299. c. The  fibrous ligaments  have sometimes the membranous
  and sometimes the fascicular form.  The former constitute the fibrous
  capsules, while  the second form the proper fibrous ligaments.   All
  these organs have this in common, that their two  extremities extend
  from one part of the osseous system to another, and both unite with
  the periosteum; that  they are formed in great part  of longitudinal
  fibres; and that  they  are usually strengthened by their  union with
  other tissues.
    § 300. Thefibrous capsules are always placed outside the synovial
  capsules, and extend from one bone to another.   They are rarely per-
  fect : such are only found in the shoulder-joint and hip-joint. But certani
  synovial capsules, as that at the articulation of the elbow, are strength-
  ened by fibres which arise from their edges, and  expand in their central
  portions.  The  fibrous capsules  adhere very strongly to the synovial
  capsules ; we must, however, except the places where the latter are
  reflected on the  cartilages, and where they are  united only by an
  abundant and loose cellular tissue.   They form sacs open at their two
  extremities.
    § 301. The fascicular fibrous ligaments go from one bone to another,
  or, which is more  rare, they are extended between two different points
  of the same bone.  They expand,  1, on  some parts of  the  syno-
  vial capsules, with which they are more or less intimately united ; or,
  2, they pass over the fibro-cartilages which connect two bones,  or
  extend from one process of bone to  another, passing  directly on the
  symphyses or at some distance from them ; or, 3, they are only ex-
  tended between two bones, and do not strengthen the synovial capsules.
  To this last species belong several ligaments of the vertebral column,
  those  which unite the sacrum  and ischium, &c.  They  make the
  transition from those of the first species to those which go only from
  one point to another of the same bone ; and the more, as the  bones
  between which similar ligaments exist  are entirely motionless  or
  nearly so.  These last ligaments serve also to multiply the surfaces of
  attachment for the muscles, as well as to unite  the bones.   The liga-
  ments which  attach themselves to different parts  of the same  bone,
  sometimes turn  all around another bone, hke a ring, as is seen in the
  annular ligament  of the radius and the transverse ligament of the atlas,
  and they unite two adjacent bones, and at the same time confine their
  motions.  Sometimes they proceed only from one eminence to another,
  as those situated between  the coracoid and acromion processes ; an
  arrangement which affords attachments to muscles, and protection to
  vessels and nerves.
    The  relations between the  ligaments' and  synovial capsules are
  generally such as we have  stated f/ that is, the ligaments  cover the
  capsules externally; but sometimes they exist within them,  which
  generally happens when the weight to be  supported requires great
" solidity, as in the hip- and knee-joint.  These two articulations are, 
254
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 however, the only instances where internal and external ligaments are
 found.   Internal ligaments never exist  without external  ligaments;
 while the existence of the latter does not necessarily imply that of the
 former.  The external  ligaments being almost always situated on the
 sides of the joints, so as not to prevent their  motions, and to be neither
 compressed nor stretched, they are called lateral ligaments  (ligamenta
 lateralia) and also accessory ligaments (ligamenta accessoria): but
 this latter term is nothing ; for the strength of the articulations depends
 on them, and the synovial membranes is only to facilitate the gliding of
 the surfaces.
   The general form of the ligaments is oblong ;  they are rarely trian-
 gular.   Their length generally exceeds their breadth, which in turn
 is more than their thickness.   Usually they extend in a straight line ;
 sometimes they are annular, and turn on the  bone as around an axis.
   § 302. d. Among the proper serous membranes, the pericardium and
 tunica vaginalis  testis  are  the only ones on which a special fibrous
 layer is distributed, although others  also, as the peritoneum, are co-
 vered in several parts by the aponeuroses of the muscles which sur-
 round them.   The fibrous layer of  the  pericardium is very thin, and
 is continuous below with the fibres of the tendinous centre of the dia-
 phragm.  These are the serofibrous membranes.(l)
   § 303. e.  We may class among the capsules  of the mucous mem-
 branes the fibrous tissue which descends along the external face of the
 mucous membrane of the trachea, uniting its cartilaginous rings ; but
 we do not think a similar  tissue may be admitted in the ureters, the
 vasa deferentia, and the Fallopian tubes.
   § 304. III. The fibrous agents of union are  those fibrous parts
 which unite organs separated from each other. Many ligaments which
 do not serve to strengthen and to protect the serous membranes, those
 for instance observed in different parts of  the vertebral column, or be-
 tween the sacrum and ossa ilia, make the transition from the fibrous
 capsules to the .fibrous organs which only serve as a means of union,
 and in reality belong to this class, formed principally by the tendons.
   § 305.  The tendons(2) are that portion of the fibrous system which
 unites with  the muscular system.  We  ought to refer to  it several
 muscular aponeuroses,  and the  aponeuroses of  the second  kind,
 (§ 296, 297,) which are only broad  tendons.  We could then divide
 the tendons into long, and broad or flat.
   The tendons are always united to the muscles by one point at least,
 and sometimes by two opposite points of their surface. In the first case,
 their other extremity is attached to a  solid and  hard part, usually to a
 bone, rarely to a cartilage.  When their two extremities are united to
 the muscular substance, they are called tendinous intersections, or inter-
 mediate  tendons,  (intertendines, tendines  intermedii.)   From this ar-
 rangement digastric or polygastric muscles are  formed, or, to speak
                                 i
  (1) Bichat, On the membranes.
  (2) Isenflamm, Bemerkungen iiber die Flcchsen, in the Beytrdgefur die Zerglie-
dtrungskunst, vol. i., Lesp3ic, 1800. 
          OF THE FIBROU8 SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     255

more precisely, as many separate muscles as there are bellies.  This is
observed particularly when, as often happens, the tendinous intersec-
tions, are intimately united with the adjacent parts, be it either to bone
or to other tendinous organs.
   The tendons always extend much beyond the point where they are
entirely disengaged from the  muscular substance.  They not only
cover a part of the outer surface of the muscle and extend, gradually
growing thinner, and terminate by an edge more or less broken or by
a kind of pyramid, but they go still deeper into the organ, in the middle
of which they are seen for some  distance after they have become in-
visible  on the surface.  It is thus  that often, in the penniform or semi-
penniform muscles, the tendons  which  appear very short externally
pass almost through the length of the muscle.
   These  two circumstances increase the extent  of the surfaces  in
which  the muscles are inserted, and consequently their firmness.
   One part of the tendon which covers a portion of the muscle is usu-
ally situated on its external face.  This arrangement belongs not less to
the common than to the intermediate tendons.  Hence the muscular
fibres which are attached to them almost always proceed from within
outward.
   The direction of their fibres corresponds perfectly to that of the fibres
of the muscles, or it is between that of the latter, whether the muscular
fibres are attached to the two sides of the tendon or only to one.
   Usually the tendons are a  little flat, and are rarely round.   They
enlarge at their two extremities, not only on the side where they par-
tially cover  the muscles, but also where they are attached  to the
bones.
   Most of them are single in their whole extent, and  are rarely di-
vided.   The latter arrangement offers several peculiarities :
   1st.  The tendon presents an opening through which  pass other
tendons belonging to the deeper muscles, which go to be attached to a
part situated before the perforated tendon.   This arrangement serves
principallyto preventthe perforating tendonsfromdeviating: an instance
is seen in the superficial flexor muscles of the fingers and toes.-
   2d.  The tendon divides at its extremities, and is attached by several
slips.
   This arrangement  occurs at both  extremities, but it is much more
common in the end next  the muscle  than in the  other.  When met
with at the  extremity towards the  bone, this end  sometimes divides
into two equal parts, which are  attached to the same  bone, as is seen
at the anterior extremity of the common superficial flexor tendon of the
fingers and toes; sometimes it divides into several slips,  which are
attached either to different parts of the same bone, or to the adjacent
bones, or to the bones of the adjacent parts.
   The  superior tendon of the rectus femoris muscle, and  the infe-
rior extremity of the anterior tendon of the external oblique abdominal
muscle, offer examples of the  first arrangement;  the  tendons  of the
tibiahs  posticus and ofthe peronaeus longus muscles are instances ofthe 
256
GENERAL ANATOMY.
second;  and finally, examples of the third are seen in the tendons of
the common flexors and extensors of the fingers  and toes.   But we
must observe that here the muscles rather than the tendons divide, and
that each muscular belly produced by this divison has  its proper ten-
don.  In the flexor digitorum communis longus and in the flexor hallucis
longus we see the contrary arrangement.
   Usually this division causes several bones which have little motion
on each other to be moved  by a single muscle.   Sometimes  also, as
the tendon of the external oblique muscle of the abdomen, it serves for
the passage of certain organs ; so that it approaches in every respect
the perforation of the tendons.
   On the other hand, we sometimes see the tendons of several muscles
unite in one, and attach themselves  together to a movable point.  For
instance, in the biceps flexor  and triceps extensor muscles of the arm,
the quadriceps extensor and the biceps femoris muscles,  and finally the
long and short common extensors of the toes.
   § 306.  The fibrous system contains in several  parts fibro-cartilages
and bones, which resemble each other much, as fibres penetrate more
or less the tissue pf the latter.  They are  especially common in
the tendons, but are not rare in other parts of the fibrous system; and
we may refer to them even the fibro-cartilages to a certain extent.
   We have no better  name for these than tendinous cartilages and
bones.(1)   The most constant is that met with high up  in the knee, in
the tendon ofthe extensor muscle of the leg, the patella.   They are
found also in the hand  and  foot, in the articulation  of  the first  pha-
langes of the thumb and the large toe with the carpus and tarsus, and
in the tendons of the tibialis posticus and of the peronaeus longus.
They are sometimes found in  the tendons of the other fingers and toes,
even in  the anterior  joints.   They are observed less  frequently in
the upper tendons of the gastrocnemii  muscles, or at the articulation
of the  elbow, in  the  tendon of the triceps extensor.   Their form is
flat and  slightly  rounded.  The  distance  which separates  them
from the insertion of  the tendons is very slight.  Their external and
lateral faces are intimately blended with the substance ofthe tendons ;
the internal is incrusted with  cartilage, and  turned towards one of the
two  bones which move on each other, or is connected with both at
once.  In the carpus  and tarsus they are almost always arranged in
pairs one at the side of the other, while in the knee and in other places,
even in the anterior joints of the toes, they are unmated,  and their form
is more or less broad.   They  are generally situated in the joints, oppo-
site the contiguous ends ofthe bones, in the  tendons which correspond
to the movable part in which the muscle is inserted  by means of
these, and on the side of which flexion takes place, excepting always
the patella and  the corresponding  bone which is sometimes found in
the elbow.

  (1) Bichat calls them sesamoid  bones; but this term is improper, because  it has
long been applied to other bones of a different character. 
       OF THE tlBROUS SYSTEM IN THE ALNORMAL STATE.       257

  Hence it is easy to see that these bodies serve in part to prevent the
compression of the tendons,  especially in rapid motions.  But their  -
principal use  is to change the direction of these same tendons and to
enlarge their angle of insertion, which adds very  much  to the power
of their muscles.
                     ARTICLE  SECOND.

       OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM IN  THE ABNORMAL STATE.(1)

   § 307. With regard to the reproductive power of the fibrous tissue,
 we would observe that wounds and lacerations, with  or without loss
 of substance, do not heal by  the formation of an analogous substance,
 but by the formation of a less firm, less solid, and whitish tissue, which
 is neither brilliant nor perceptibly fibrous.   Hence fibrous ligaments
 are not produced in unreduced dislocations.  Nevertheless, a condensed
 Cellular tissue replaces more or less  perfectly the destroyed fibrous sub-
 stance, and its properties differ little from those of the latter.
   § 308. Among the deviations from the  normal state, primitive de-
 viations of the external form are rare, and usually attend anomalies
 of the other tissues.   Among these we arrange, for instance, the ab-
 sence of the tendons of the abdominal muscles, that of the ligaments
 of the vertebral column, and that of the dura mater of the brain and
 spinal marrow, &c^in a congenital fissure of the abdomen, of the verte-
 bral column, and of the skull, and that of the tendons and the muscles
 of a finger, when the finger itself  is  wanting.   But  the fibrous organs
 are seldom deficient, when the other tissues with which they combine to
 form a  part are present—for instance, the tendon alone of a muscle is
 rarely absent, or the tunica sclerotica, when the other membranes of the
 eye exist.   Perhaps we should refer to this anomaly the absence of the
 round ligament in the ilio-femoral  articulation, although  it is almost
 always remarked in  circumstances  which render it very probable that
 this part has been destroyed.
   The  consecutive or accidental deviations of formation, are,  1st,
lacerations  which are seen  particularly  in  the ligaments  and ten-
 dons.   The  hgaments of the joints which have  dittle motion are
 more  exposed to them than any  other,  when  these  joints are  dis-
 located.  Lacerations  of the  tendons  supervene  principally  after
 violent and sudden efforts of  the muscles  to which they are attached,
 especially when the tendon itself is firmly fixed: they  are sometimes
 incomplete  when they do not comprehend the whole thickness of the
 tendon.   The other deviations of form are,  2d, rigidity, and 3d, relaxa-
 tion, which like the preceding state  may become the cause of disloca-
 tion.

  (1) Gotz, De morbis ligamentorum  ex mutata materiei animalis forma et mix>
turd cognosccndis, Halle, 1798.
   Vol  I                        33 
258                    '• GENERAL ANATOMY.
   § 309.  The alterations in  the texture of the  fibrous organs  are,
1st. Inflammation, which rarely terminates in suppuration or gangrene,
but more  frequently in the thickening of the  substance of the organs.
Thus the fibrous hgaments alter in white swellings, although they are
not by any means the Only seat of this affection,(l) in which they lose
their  silvery  lustre and  their fibrous  structure ;  when the disease is
advanced, the mucous tissue which surrounds the capsule of the joint,
the capsule even,  and the cartilages and bones, are inflamed  and  sup-
purate ; new  formations  of different kinds are  developed around and
■within the capsule: finally the fat  and the synovial fluid of  the joint
are hardened  and thickened.  Still, notwithstanding these changes, the
disease seems often to affect the fibrous ligaments primarily,  for these
organs are the  only ones which are  found  altered  at its commence-
ment.
   2d.  The production of heterogeneous substances within them or on
their surface.  Under  this head we comprise the soft gelatinous tumors,
and the hard, solid, and cartilaginous tumors  of the periosteum, and the
fungous tumors of the dura mater—a name  which comprehends very
different  diseases.(2)  In  osteo-steatoma, another term which com-
prises  morbid states of different characters, the periosteum is sometimes
affected primarily,  often alone, and always when the bone is diseased ;
the  first   undoubtedly happens when fibro-cartilaginous  bodies are
developed around the cartilages and the bones.
   § 310.  Is the  fibrous substance produced accidentally in the  body 1
In fact there are accidental formations in which they occur: those for in-
stance developed in the uterus, ovaries, thyroid gland, &c; and Bichat
states  that which is sometimes found in the uterus and fallopian tubes
is an anomalous repetition of the fibrous structure, because composed
of yellow fibres.   But we have  never  observed  that  these  accidental
productions perfectly resembled fibrous organs, and they seem to be
more .closely connected  with the fibro-cartilages—hence  why their
history is placed  after that of the latter.


   (1) A Monro,  A white swelling of the knee,  in the Edinb. med. essays and obs.,
vol. iv.  p. 242.—T. Simpson, Remarks  on the white swellings of the joints,  ibid.  p.
246.—J. A. H. Reimarus, De tumore ligamentorum circa articulos,fungo articu-
lorum dicto, Leyden,  1757.—B. Bell,  Treatise on  the-theory and management of
ulcers, with a dissertation on white swellings of the joints, Edinburgh, 1778.__J. Rus-
sell, Treatise on the morbid affections  ofthe knee-joint, Edinburgh, 1802.—C. Crow-
ther, On the disease of the joints, commonly called white swelling, London, 1808.
   (2) Louis, Memoire sur les  tumeurs fong. de la dure-mere,  in the Mem.  de PAc.
de chirurg., vol. v.  p. 1.—Wenzel,  Ueber die schwammigen Geschwulste  auf der
dussern Hirnhaut, Erfort, 1811.—Walther, Essai sur les fongus de la dure-mere,
in the Journ. compl. du Diet des sc. med.,  vol. vii. p. 118. 
OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE      259
SECTION VIII
OFTHE MUSCULAR SYSTKItf.(l)


     ARTICLE  FIRST.
OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.
             A. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM.


    § 311.  The muscular system is composed of bundles of reddish soft
 fibres, which of all organs change their volume and form with the most
 facility, and thus produce motion, and  occasion  the displacement  of
 the body or of some of its parts.
    § 312.  All the muscles possess these characters, whatever maybe
 their difference in form.  They may, however, be  divided into two
 principal classes,  which are founded on  the connection between their
 activity and the actions of the intellect.   These classes are the volun-
 tary muscles, such as obey the will, and the involuntary muscles, which
 do not recognise its  power.   The muscles  of these  respective classes
 differ much in their external and internal forms ; but  these  differences
 do not exclude general considerations, as Bichat thought.(2)
    § 313.  The muscles are composed of fasciculi, placed at  the side of
 and upon each other;  and whatever the form of  the muscle may be,



   (1) The principal works  on the general  history of the muscles are:
   1. On their structure  and  their functions—Barclay, On muscular motion of the
 human body, Edinburgh, 1808.
   2. On their normal structure—Muys, Artificiosa musculorum fabrica, Leyden, 1741.
 —Prochaska, De came musculari, Vienna, 1778.—Prevost et Dumas, Memoire sur
 les phenomenes qui accompagnent la contraction de la fibre musculaire, in the Journ.
 de physiol. exper. vol. iii. p. 301-339.—Dutrochet,  Observations sur la structure intime
 des systemes nerveux et  musculaire, et sur le mecanisme de la contraction chez les
 animaux, in his Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur la  structure intime
 des animaux et des vegetaux et surleur mobilite, Paris, 1824.
   3. On their abnormal structure—Schallhammer, De morbisflbra muscularis, Halle,
 1799.
   4. On their irritability—Zimmermann, De irritabilitate, Gottingen, 1751.—Haller,
 Mem. sur la nat sens, et irrit. despart. du corps hum., Lausanne, 1756-1759.—Weber,
 De initiis ac. progr. doctr. irritab., Halle, 1783.—Gautier, De irritabilitatis notione,
 natura et morbis, Halle,  1793.— Croonian lectures on muscular motion, in the Phil.
 trans., ann.1738,  1745, 1747, 1751, 1788, 1795, 1805, 1810,1818, etc.—J. C. A. Clarus,
 Der Krampf, Leipsic, 1822.—Lucse, Grundlinien einer Physiologie der Irritabili-
 tat des menschlichen Orgdnismus, in Meckel, Deutches Archiv. fur die Physiologie,
 vol. iii. p. 325.—G. Blane, On muscular motion, London, 1788; and in Select, dissert.,
 London, 1822.—Barzelotti, Esame di alcune teorie sulla causa prossima delta contra-
 zione moscolare, Sienna,  1796.—H. Mayo, Anatom. and Physiological commentaries,
 London, 1822.
  5. On their mechanical laws of motion—Borelli, De motu animalium, Leyden, 1710*
 —Barthez, Nouvelle mecan. des mouv. de  Vhomme et des animaux, Carcassonne,
 1798.—Roulin, Recherches sur les mouv. et les attitudes de Vhomme, in the Journal
 de physiol. exp., vol. i. and ii.
  (2) Gen. Anat. vol.  ii.  p. 327.  " The general muscular  system very evidently
forms two great divisions—. We shall not then consider them together." 
260
GENERAL ANATOMY.
its length exceeds any other dimension.  These fasciculi are themselves
composed of fibres, which result from an aggregation of filaments, called
muscular filaments.  The fibres and filaments are as long  as  the fas-
ciculi, so that in them the length exceeds  the  other dimensions.   As
to the fasciculi,  they do  not  usually extend the  whole length of the
muscles, but go more or less obliquely from one edge to another, or from
the two edges towards the centre.   The fasciculi, fibres, and filaments
are angular rather than  round, and at the  same time, particularly the
fibres and filaments,  are a little flat.
   The whole muscle,  or its  smallest filament,  is composed  of  two
substances, the muscular substance properly so called, and an envelop
of mucous tissue.    The latter, which is termed  the muscular sheath,
(vagina  muscularis,) surrounds  the whole  muscle and afterwards di-
vides into large  tubes,  which  circumscribe the fasciculi, and again di-
vide anew into other smaller tubes for the  fibres  and filaments.
   § 314. Opinions in regard to the texture ofthe muscles vary much
The formation of these organs is doubtless such as has been described
but we wish to know,  1st, if there are more subdivisions than we have
mentioned ; and 2d, to determine what is  the formation of the finest
filaments in respect  to  size and mechanical texture.
   § 315. In regard  to the first,  very artificial systems have been im-
agined.  Muys, for instance, states, the  fasciculi are composed of
fibres,  these  of  fibrils, and these last of filaments.  There are three
orders of fibres, the large, middle, and small.  The large are composed
of the middle,  and  these of the small fibres.    There are also three
classes of fibrils, the  large, which unite to form the fibres ;  the middle,
which produce the preceding ; and  the  small, which  are composed of
filaments.  Finally we have large filaments to give rise to small fibrils,
and others which are smaller and of which the  preceding are formed.
According to this system,  each fasciculus will be formed of eight sub-
divisions.
   But this description  is unnatural.   True, we can usually divide the
larger fasciculi into others which are smaller: but these can be reduced
only to fibres, as  the  fibres  can only to filaments, so that we have
only three subdivisions.  A fasciculus is each subdivision of a  muscle
visible to the naked  eye, and it rarely varies in the same muscle.  The
fibres which form it become visible by boiling.  They are not all of the
same thickness, as  some are three or four times as  large as others.
The filaments, on  the contrary, are  about the same thickness in all the
muscles, so  that  their number in the fibres varies  considerably.
   Authors do not agree in estimating the  thickness of the filaments.
They  usually  make it  considerable.   Some(l) consider  it  l-7th or

  (1) Prevost and Dumas  subdivide the muscular fibre into three orders, calling
ternary fibres those which arc seen on dividing the muscle lengthwise ; secondary
fibres, those which are  obtained by dividing the ternary; while the primary fibres
are produced by mechanical alterations ofthe secondary.  Dutrochet, to avoid con-
fusion, proposes to confine the term muscular fibre, to those filiform organs which
immediately compose the muscles; to give the name of  muscular fibrils, to those
smaller filiform organs  which are obseryed in  Hie intimate tissue of the muscular 
OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      261
l-8th, some(l) l-5th, some(2)  a little  more than l-3d  of that of a
globule of blood.   Others, on the contrary,(3) suppose it even greater
than  that of these same globules, stating it to be l-40th of a line, while
a globule of blood is estimated at 1-3000th of a hne.  We can account
for these differences only by supposing that  the  filaments have not the
same size in every part,  (although observers generally assert the con-
trary,)  and by supposing that the observations have not  been made
upon one separate filament.
  § 316. What is the texture of the filaments 1   Opinions vary per-
haps  more upon this subject than in regard to their volume.   We may
ask:
  1st. Are these filaments the primary elements  of  form,  or are they
composed of other elements %  The fasciculi,  fibres, and filaments often
appear wrinkled  transversely, and to a  greater  or less depth.   Very
different explanations have been given  of this circumstance.   Some
authors attribute it to the crisping of the mucous tissue,  the vessels,
and the nerves surrounding the  muscular fibres, and which in certain
circumstances, especially when  boiled, contract  so much  from place to
place, that they seem jointed, although we cannot  really divide  the
filaments into smaller parts placed lengthwise.(4)   Others consider this
phenomenon as dependent on this, that  the filaments are strangulated
from  place to place and articulated, or because they are formed from an
assemblage of globules or  small cells, disposed longitudinally and im-
bedded in mucous tissue.


fibres, and the organization of which we cannot distinguish; and finally to term
those  rectilinear collections of globular corpuscles observed in the intimate tissue of
muscular organs, the articular muscular corpuscles.  These last  corpuscles corres-
pond to the primary fibres of Prevost and Dumas.                      F. T.
  (1) Prochaska, loc. cit, p. 198.
  (2) Autenrieth, Physiologie, vol. iii. p. 335.
  (3) Sprengel, lnstitut. physiol., vol. ii. p. 125.
  (4) The Wenzels have determined that each  fibre  is composed of round and ex-
tremely small corpuscles.  The microscopical observations of Home and Bauer
represent the muscular fibre  as identical with the particles of the blood deprived oi
their  coloring matter, the central globules of which are united in filaments. Pre-
vost and Dumas have  obtained the same result.  These globules are united by a
hard  jelly or  mucus,  invisible from  its want of color and transparency.   They
are united, like  a rosary, and form the primary fibre, while  a fasciculus of such
formations arranged in a similar or nearly similar manner, produces, according to
them, secondary fibres.  This arrangement, noticed for the first time by Leuwen-
hoek and Hook,  has been observed also by Milne Edwards, and Dutrochet.  The
latter, while examining'the muscular fibres of the crab, observed that they are com-
posed of transparent fibrils arranged  longitudinally, with numerous globules hi
their  spaces: these globules are filled with a transparent fluid, which penetrates
between their surface of fibrils, to which they seem to adhere but slightly; for we
see fibrils entirely destitute  of  them.  The union of these fibrils and corpuscules,
which he calls muscular, constitutes in his opinion the tissue ofthe muscular fibre,
termed by him the fibro-corpuscular muscular  tissue. He adds  that we often per-
ceive  corpuscules without fibrils : this he terms the corpuscular muscular tissue :
his opinion is also, that very probably the fibrils, the intimate structure of which we
cannot observe, are composed of this corpuscular muscular tissue, either articulated
or homogeneous, but so small that it  escapes the eye aided even by a  microscope. 
262
GENERAL ANATOMY
   We have often observed this appearance, which causes the muscular
 filaments to appear jointed.   We have especially remarked in several
 insects, that the muscular fibres were contracted from part to part  so
 regularly, that they resembled rosaries.  But, we have usually recog-
 nised that in  men they were united,  were equally thick and slightly
 flattened.  As to their component substance, we have never found it
 perfectly homogeneous;  but it always appears  formed of  darker
 globules  or points, contained in a clearer medium ; these must not be
 blended with  those large swellings produced by coagulation.
   2d.  Whether these filaments are  or  are  not formed  of  globules,
 are they hollow or solid 1 This question has been answered, sometimes
 in one way, and sometimes in another, and always in accordance with
 some theory, but it is hardly susceptible of a  satisfactory solution from
 the smallness of the objects.   Most probably they are solid.(l)
   § 317. The muscles  receive  numerous large  vessels.  They  are
 generally supplied by several arterial branches,  which arise  from one
 adjacent trunk.  These vessels do not penetrate into the muscle con-
 stantly in one place, and generally they enter nearer the centre than
 the  extremeties, and on the inside rather  than  on the outside.  The
 branches at first proceed in the mucous tissue along the fasciculi; they
 soon divide into an ascending and a descending branch, which continue
 to ramify to its smallest subdivisions ; but the smallest vessels percep-
 tible by  the  microscope,  are  larger than the muscular filaments.(2)
 The several twigs, and even  the branches, frequently anastomose to-
 gether.  The veins form two  systems; the deep seated  veins, which
 accompany the arteries,  and  the  superficial veins,  which proceed
 alone.   They seem to have fewer valves here than in other organs, for
 they are easily injected  from their trunks.
  Although the muscles contain large vessels, their red color does not
depend on the blood  which circulates in them, but on their peculiar
substance.  In fact:
  1st.  The muscular  substance is paler in the fetus, and also in reptiles
and fishes, and even in the different muscles of the same  animal, espe-
cially in birds, and hkewise in man, when we compare the muscles of
vegetative with those of animal  life,  although in both the vessels are
the same in size and number, and even although they are larger,
and the blood  which they contain is redder in  the former.
  2d. The muscles of the cold-blooded animals have a reddish tint.
  3d. This color changes in diseases, while the  number and the capa-
city of the vessels remains the same.
  4th. The color of the muscles does not change in those experiments,
where that of  the-blood varies much.  If respiration be suspended so
as to prevent the change of venous into arterial blood, or if venous blood
be injected into the arteries,  the  muscle  preserves its  reddish tint,
although the color of  its blood is altered.

 (1) This is also the opinion of Rudolphi. Link thinks differently, because he believes
the muscular fibre to be hollow.  Mascagni considers it formed of small cylinders,
the walls of which are composed of absorbents filled  with a  glutinous substance.
                                                           FT
  (2)  Fontana, Veber das  Viperngift, p. 392. 
OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THK NORMAL STATE.      263
 . 5th.  The truth of this  proposition  is supported by analogies drawn
from other organs.
  §318. The  nerves(l) of  the muscles are also very large.   Most
of the  nerves of the  cerebral system go to these organs.   Usually
the large  muscles  receive  several branches, while the small muscles
have only  one.   The nerves of all the muscles are not of a proportional
size. (§ 174.)   The vessels and  the nerves generally proceed together.
The latter ramify like the vessels between the fascicuh and the fibres,
but they cease to be visible before them, doubtless  because it is impos-
sible to fill then extreme branches, so as to make them apparent.
  § 319.  The forms ofthe muscles are very different.   Usually they
are solid or holloiv,  that is rolled on themselves.   We may say that of
all the  organic systems, these parts differ the most from each other in
size, although otherwise similar in  structure.   In fact, in no other do
we observe a difference like that existing between the almost invisible
muscles of the small bones of the ear, and the gluteeus maximus.
  § 320.  In  regard to chemical composition, the muscles are formed
principally of fibres ;  but they  contain also albumen,  gelatin,  osma-
zome, the phosphate of soda, of ammonia, and of lime, the carbonate of
lime, and an uncombined acid, which Berzelius calls  the  lactic acid.
  § 321. The muscles are soft, but slightly elastic, and are easily torn
after  death, so that then they are but slightly solid;  but they are dis-
tinguished from all other organs by the  extraordinary development of  -
their power to change their volume and form, to contract and to extend.
This property is  termed irritability  (irritabilitas), and it is brought
into action by agents which  have no  effect on other organs.  It is
more convenient to call it with Chaussier motility (vis musculi insita,
vis propria, agilitas, motilitas.(2)
  § 322. The particulars of muscular motion which belong to general
anatomy are,
   1st. The phenomena, the changes of the muscles ivhile  in  action.
  (1) Prevost and Dumas have observed that when a nerve enters a muscle, it
appears to ramify very irregularly, unless it discovers a marked tendency to direct
its branches perpendicularly to the muscular fibres, although they cut them also at
right angles.  As the nerve thus ramifies, it enlarges, and its secondary fibres sepa-
rate, and are distributed exactly as when deprived of their neurilemma.   It then re-
sembles a net of fibres, from which other filaments are separated and enter the mus-
cle perpendicularly to its proper fibres.  But here sometimes there are two nervous
trunks parallel to the fibres of the muscle which pursue their course at some distance
from each other, and mutually transmit small filaments which pass across the space
of the muscle  between  them,  intersecting it at  right angles.  Sometimes the
trunk of. the nerve is itself perpendicular to the muscular fibres, and the filaments
which it gives off expand in thi3 direction, pass through the organ and return, form-
ing a kind of web.  In  all these cases the branches of the nerves are parallel to each
other, and perpendicular to the fibres of the muscle: they either return to the trunk
which furnishes them, or go to anastamose with an adjacent trunk, so that they have
no termination, and their relations are the same as those of the blood vessels. This
last fact contradicts all previous opinions.                           F. T.
  (2) Some  modern writers, among others Gruithuisen, (Anthropologic, p". 230-236,
p. 361-364) and Lenhosseck (Medicinische Jahrbucher des Oesterreichischen Staates,
»ol. v. part. i. p. 97-122, part ii. p. 41-64), have attributed to the muscles a particular
sense, called by them the muscular sense, or ili<: dense of motion but this evidently
depends on the general perception.termed by Reil ccenaesthesis. In all the sensations
we experience during muscular action, there is nothing peculiar which maybe com-
pared with what we experience from the senses.                     .  F. T, 
264
GENERAL ANATOMY
   2d. The conditions  necessary to produce this  action.
   § 323.  I. The phenomena of  muscular action are, 1st, the muscle
shortens or lengthens.(l)   For a long time the shortening of the mus-
cle was thought to be its only change when in an active state.   When
it acts, its fibres perform in a single place, or at several points  at once
an oscillatory motion which causes the surface to appear wrinkled: this
gradually extends to all its parts, and its  usual effect is to bring  the
two  extremities nearer each  other, and to diminish the distance be-
tween the parts to  which it is attached.   It is difficult to determine if
there takes place an alternate motion from the extremities to the  centre,
and from the centre to.the extremities,until the latter predominates,(2) or
if, as is more probable, there is only a motion from the extremities towards
the centre, so that the  alternative mentioned by authors is purely  ap-
parent, and depends on a  momentary contraction of the fibres which
resembles a kind of oscillation.(3)

   (1)  Prevost and Dumas, who think that when the muscle contracts it is  unaltered
except in the direction of its fibres, attribute its shortening to the sudden flexion oi
these  fibres in a zigzag form; in other words, to  the curves of its constituent parts.
They have observed that the summits of these curves are always situated in those
parts where the nervous and muscular fibres intersect each other at right angles. Du-
trochet made the same remark at the same time, but he has gone farther. Prevost and
Dumas understood by contraction only the sinuous curve of the muscular fibre con-
sidered in its mass.  They have remarked that it shortens without any flexion,  but
they consider this shortening as the result of what Bichat calls contractility of tissue;
they have not attempted to state the mechanism by means of which this last property
is brought into action.   They admit in the muscular fibre a state of rest, which it
assumes whenever no cause tends to lengthen it, and  think that is only  when the
fibre is in this state in its elastic shortening, that  it becomes susceptible of curving,
to shorten again, or in other words, to contract.  Dutrochet's observations relate
principally to this pretended state of rest.  He has  observed that the shortening of
the fibre without any flexion depends upon the sinuous curve, upon the very minute
folds of the internal tissue of this fibre, which lengthens by the  unfolding of this
tissue, and shortens preserving its straightness  by  the twisting or folding of
this same internal tissue;  that the  fibre exists in what Prevost and  Dumas
improperly term  a stale of rest, when this inner folding is at its maximum ; and
that then only begins the development of a second phenomenon, that of the sinu-
ous curve of the fibre;  which shortens, and becomes curved by a mechanism simi-
lar to that which had effected its shortening, while its straightness was preserved;
the difference is this, that, in the first case, the phenomenon presented by the fibre is
internal, while in the latter  it is external. Thus Prevost and Dumas considered one
part of the phenomenon of muscular contraction, that which preserves the straight-
ness of the fibre, as resulting from a simple elasticity foreign in some measure to
life; while Dutrochet represents the curve of the intimate tissue of this fibre as being
as vital as its curve in  the mass, since the latter is the result of a fixed and perma-
nent elastic state, of the elasticity with which the intimate parts of the fibre tend to
preserve a certain curve which they have assumed by  the fact of the immediate
cause  of life, but  the vital  contraction of  the fibre while straight results from an
elastic state, which varies in degree, and even ceases to exist to a certain extent, by
the fact of its relaxation. Prevost and Dumas think that it is by means of this short-
ening without a curve in the fibre, that the contraction of the membranous muscular
organs, such as those which exist in the parietes of the intestinal canal, takes place,
whence they conclude that the contraction of these organs differs entirely from that
of the muscles of locomotion.   Dutrochet  deduces on the contrary from his obser-
vations, and the usual  course of nature which constantly unites simplicity and uni-
formity of cause, with  variety and fruitfulness of result, that this difference does
not exist, and that in both cases contraction depends on the curve of the musculai
tissue, on an elastic state the cause of which is vital.  As to the cause  itself,  ne
differs from Prevost and Dumas, as wc shall mention hereafter.             F T
   (2)  Haller, Elem. phys. vol. iv. p. 471.
   (3)  Barthez, Nouv. El. de la sc. de Vhomme; 1706, vol. i, p. 117. 
         OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     263

   Probably also when it has contracted as much as possible, the mus-
cle does not remain perfectly still and motionless, but this apparently
permanent state,  is in fact  a  rapid succession of small contractions
and extensions.(l)
   In shortening, the muscle swells and becomes thicker.
   Its color when in a state of contraction and of relaxation remains
the same ;  it would seem then that its vessels contain as much blood
in one case as in the other.  Rapidity and power of action are both
very great in the muscles.   Speaking, singing, running, &c, prove the
quickness with which they act.   The weight  they can raise, notwith-
standing their force is diminished by different circumstances, proves
their power to be great.
   But the phenomena of muscular contraction are not the only ones
which are active. The muscles possess also an active power of elonga-
tion or extension.
   The  phenomena which  prove this proposition  are, for  instance,
the motions of the iris,  the firmness of muscles spasmodically con-
tracted, which almost always remains even  after death, while if con-
traction was the only vital act, it would cease  at death, and relaxation
would follow ; the different states of  the iris  which is usually closed
after death, but is  sometimes much  dilated;  the stomach is always
flabby, but often also  contracted in its whole extent, or in some points
only,  with  so  much power that it  is distended with difficulty, and
finally, the force with which the heart dilates.   All these facts are ex-
plained in a forced and unsatisfactory  manner,  if we suppose that elas-
ticity alone contributes to extension.
   This  opinion is still more  probable,  because the contractions of the
muscles  cease or diminish from the influence of the will, and we can-
not admit this effect has been produced solely  by  the action of the an-
tagonist  muscles, which have counterbalanced the efforts of those to
which they are opposed.
   But we cannot demonstrate  that  extension is the only vital act
which the  muscles perform, and that they contract  simply because
they are elastic ;  for contraction is their  first  change, when they are
acted on by a stimulus.
  The muscles have then the power of active extension and contraction.
Barthez(2) has attributed to them a third, called the fixed power of loca-
tion, which consists in the power of remaining a greater or less length
of time in a state of contraction ; but  this power  is  illusory, for con-
traction is the essence of all the phenomena on which this is founded.
   § 324.  It is asked now, if when the muscle has  changed its form, as
has been stated, it changes also in mass and volume, that is, if  it loses
in thickness as much as it  gains in' length, and  in case the loss is
real, in what manner the change in mass or volume is  effected %

  (1) Swammerdam, Bibl. nat, p. 845.—Roger, De perpetual fibr. muse, palp.—
Woollaston, Croonian lecture, in the Phil, trans., 1810.
  (2) Nouv. elemcns de la sc. de Vhomme, 1806, vol. i. p. 131.
   Vol. I.                       34 
266                    GENERAL ANATOMY.
The muscles may augment or diminish in mass.  Each of these two
theories has its supporters.
  Glisson,(l)  Goddard,(2) Swammerdam,(3)  and Erman,(4) bring
forward the following experiments in support of the hypothesis, that
when the  muscle contracts it diminishes in volume.   They take  a
hollow muscle, for instance, the heart of a frog : it is inflated, tied, and
then introduced into a syringe, terminating in a narrow canal, and con-
taining a colored liquid.   The liquid lowers during the contractions of
the muscle, and on the contrary rises  when they cease.   The heart
of the frog, filled with blood, and torn from the body of the animal, be-
comes smaller during contractions, and larger when it is dilated.  The
same phenomena present themselves, but  less sensibly, when a heart is
deprived of blood, and without a ligature is introduced into the  pipe.
But in these experiments made on hollow organs, it might happen also
that the cavity only experienced this alternate  enlargement and con-
traction, or that the fluid contained was compressed or expanded.
  Other experiments have been  made  to arrive at the same  results
with the solid muscles, either with some of these single organs, or with
entire hmbs.  A muscle is introduced  into a tube, and to its nerve is
attached a small silver wire, which passes out through an opening in
the cork, or the nerve is preserved sufficiently long to pass out of the
tube.   Now if the nerve be irritated directly, or  by a metallic  con-
ductor, the fluid is depressed when the muscle is convulsed.  But from
the avowal of Swammerdam, the level of the water does not often vary
in this experiment., and the change which sometimes occurs may be
satisfactorily explained by thp. attraction exerted  upon the liquid by
the silver wire, or by the nerve.
  The experiments with entire, limbs are: a man plunges his arm into
a large funnel-shaped tube ; the orifice is completely closed, filled with
water, and the arm is moved, the level of the water is depressed during
the motion, and rises when the arm is at  rest.   But these phenomena
do not prove what the experimenters intended in making them ;  for the
size of the limb ought to  diminish, because the veins are empty, and
blood is expelled from them by the action  of the muscles. Besides, the
contraction of some muscles is attended with the relaxation of others
so that it is always doubtful whether the diminution in size is owing to
one or the other of these two states.  On the other hand, the level of the
hquid did not vary in a vessel filled with water,  into which the half of
the body of an  eel had been plunged, and made to execute the most
lively motions.(5)  The same phenomenon has been observed when
the experiment has been repeated with the lower portion of the body of
frogs. (6)

  (1) Opp. omnia, 1691, vol. iii. p. 191.
  (2) Phil, trans., vol. ii. p. 356.
  (3) Bibl. nat, p. 846, 847.
  (4) In the Abhandlungen der Aakademis der  Wissenschaften von  Berlin  1812
1813, p. 155170.                                                '    '
  (5) G. Blane, Lecture on muscular motion, p. 253.
  (6) Barzellotti, Esame di alcune moderne theorie intorno alia causa prossima delta
tonirazione muscolare, Sienna, 1796. 
         OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     267

   Neither is  the increase in the size of a muscle proved by the pains
which arise in the  arm surrounded by a cord,(l)  as this phenome'
non only proves that the muscle which contracts becomes thicker
   As the experiments which are adduced in support of the  first two
opinions  demonstrate nothing evidently, but  far from it, and as they
often furnish  no  result from whence we could  conclude either that the
muscle diminishes or increases, it remains probable at present that the
change in the form of the muscle is not connected with a change in its
mass.(2)  But  this law is not proved  by the experiment in which the
motion of the legs of a  man, placed  on the  edge of a beam, do  not
cause his body to lean to  the side of the leg which moves, (3) nor by
the assertions of physiologists, who pretend that there is no alterna-
tive, because the muscle shortens in proportion as it becomes thick.(4)
Experiment in fact demonstrates nothing, because  certain muscles re-
lax in the  proportion  as others  contract.   The assertion supposes a
demonstration of what is yet doubtful.   The recent experiments of
Erman(5) seem in fact to favor the hypothesis, that the muscles dimi-
nish during contraction ; for when  parts of eels were put into a cylin-
der filled with  water, and having at its upper part a glass tube, the
contractions produced by a chain communicating by one pole with the
spinal marrow, and by the other with the muscles  of the part, caused
the hquid  to sink  evidently in  the tube;  and when they ceased, the
hquid  again ascended as much as it had sunk.   One objection only
can be made to  this experiment, which is, that some muscles relax,
while others  contract; but the structure of the fish permits us to say,
if the muscles of one side of the body only are contracted, all those of
the separated portion are truly contracted, and this portion may be con-
sidered as forming but one muscle.
   The color of the muscles  is  absolutely the  same  in action  and
repose.  Some think it  more pale  when they act, because the heart,
which is transparent,  when the  blood  it  contains  is emptied, is
naturally more pale than when dilated and full of blood.
   But as  the  quantity  of the  blood usually increases in  an organ
acting with more power, and as this increase of itself renders the action
more energetic, we ought to presume  that a muscle  contains more
blood when in a state of contraction, that when it is at rest.   Many
physiologists are also of this opinion.(6)  Prochaska likewise believes
that when the muscle contracts, fluids flow in greater abundance be-
tween its fascicuh and its fibres, and that this greater afflux causes con-

  (1) Hamberger, Phys. med., Jena, p. 581.
  (2) This is the  opinion also of  Prevost and Dumas. By putting into the glass
larger muscular masses in order to increase the effect of a change in volume, whe-
the'r real or supposed, there was no manifest alteration  of the level of the small tube,
whence they concluded, with Blane and Barzeliotti, that if the muscle  changed in
the least, it was to a slight degree only.                             F- T-
  (3) Borelli, De motu animal, vol. ii. prop. 18.
  (4) Sprengel, lnstit physiol.; vol. ii. p. 149.
  (5) Gilbert, Annalenfiir die Physik, vol. x. 1812, p.  1.
  (6) Particularly Cowper, Stuart,  and Baglivi. See Haller, El. phys. vol. iv. p. 544. 
268
GENERAL ANATOMY
traction, and obliges  the  fibres to assume a more  tortuous direction.
The volume of the muscle then really increases a little on contraction,
but as its vessels are  full  previously, this increase is so slight, that its
change is not appreciable.
   The arguments  adduced by Haller against this theory, viz. that the
motion of the heart is involuntary, that we know not why blood should
flow in a greater quantity to one muscle than to another, that the mus-
cle is very irritable, and that the artery is not,(l) these arguments are
of no weight, for irritation of the muscle would  cause a more abund-
ant flow of blood  to it, independently of the energy of the vascular
system, and the relations of the muscle with the will.  Besides, it is
certain from experiments made with this view, that the contractions of
the muscles are not at least necessarily attended  with a greater afflux
of blood, and that they do not result from this afflux, since on examin-
ing the section of a muscle with a microscope there is no liquid exuding
from the wound, neither  during nor after the contractions.(2)  Con-
tractions take place even  when the blood is coagulated in the vessels.
The quantity of this fluid has no influence  upon them in any manner,
and although entirely destitute of blood, they contract with as  much
vivacity as when the muscle contains its usual quantity.(3)
   Paralysis from the  ligature of  the arteries has been considered as a
powerful argument,  that  muscular contraction depends on the  afflux
of blood.  But this paralysis does not  supervene  immediately, and
even when it occurs soon after  the ligature of the arteries, it serves to
prove only that the blood is necessary to preserve  the normal  state of
the muscle, and to maintain  its fitness for contraction.   We have  no
right to deduce from it any conclusion in respect to the cause  of con-
traction.
   § 325. II. The conditions for the activity of the  phenomena of mus-
cular irritability are :(4)
   1st.  The muscle must be  living.  At death it loses the power of
changing  its form by contraction, although its  elasticity  continues
longer, and ceases only when putrefaction  commences.   The life of
the muscle depends upon  its uninterrupted communication with the
nervous and vascular systems.   When  this  communication has been
interrupted, the muscle  still preserves its irritability for sometime, even

  (1) Haller, loc. cit, p. 545.
  (2) Ibid. exp. 1-4.
  (3) Barzellotti, loc. cit, exp. 10-12.
  (4) Nasse has concluded from some experiments that the irritability of the mus-
cles is diminished and even  destroyed by water, and has also pointed out the influ-
ence of this opinion on the theory of various physiological and pathological pheno-
mena.  (Deutsches Archiv. fiir die Physiologie, vol. ii. p. 78.)  This fact had been
noticed previously by Humboldt, (Veber diegereiztc Muskel-und Nervenfascr, vol.
ii. p. 221, 222,) Carlisle (Philos. trans. 1805, p. 23,) and Pierson (in  Bradley, Med.
and phys. journal, 1807, vol. xvii. p. 93.) It was also demonstrated by Edwards, (Sur
Vasphyxie des batraciens, in the Annates de chimie et de physique, vol. v. p. 356-380,)
and again brought forward in his  important treatise, De Vinfluence des agens phy-
fiques sur la vie, Paris, 1224.)                                     F. T. 
        OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      269

when removed from the body, because it contains nerves and  vessels ;
this power however is soon lost.
  Probably then the part taken  by the nerves and their power as ex-
erted in the contraction of muscles is merely secondary, and the rela-
tions between the  nervous and  the muscular systems are the  same
as those between the systems ofthe muscles and vessels, viz. the simple
relations of  formation and of nutrition.  The contractility of  the mus-
cles is situated undoubtedly in their peculiar substance, but to call this
power into  action, a more active life is  necessary.   This is derived
from the nerves and vessels with which the muscles are  so liberally pro-
vided, probably for this very purpose.   This view of the influence of
the nerves is confirmed by the circumstance, that in  many muscles, it
seems to be supplied in some measure by the blood.  Thus the nerves
of the heart are proportionally smaller than those of the other muscles,
while its  blood-vessels  are much larger ; and farther, the extensive
surface presented by the reticulated structure of its internal face is wet
with blood which  is constantly rushing to it.  Hence too  the reason
that the derangements of the nervous system do not affect all the mus-
cles in an equal degree, and that the  paralysis, and even the lesion of
this system by poisons,  the removal of considerable portions of it, as of
the  brain, the spinal  marrow, &c, do not derange the motions of the
heart, at least so quickly and to such a degree, as the actions of the
voluntary muscles,  whose nerves are proportionally larger.(l)-  But
these lesions of  the  nervous system  are not without their effect upon
the irritability of the heart, and the total destruction of the central parts
of this  system  soon  arrest its  motion entirely,(2)  hence these and
similar phenomena cannot be considered as proving that this  muscle is
entirely independent of the nervous system.
  But we have  no right to assert with Legallois,that this difference be-
tween the heart and the voluntary muscles depends on this, that the
heart receives the  vivifying principle necessary to manifest its activity
from the whole spinal marrow, by the sympathetic nerve.(§ 182.) But
we ought certainly to explain it as we have, from the  differences rela-
tive to the age at which these observations on the influence exercised by
the destruction of  the spinal marrow are  made, for the older the ani-
mal, the more of this cord may be destroyed without a suspension of
the activity ofthe heart.(3)
  Muscular irritability has then no relation with the activity of the
nerves,  except by reason of the formative acts necessary for its con-
tinuance in general, and for its more energetic manifestation.
  But the influence of  the nervous system and the power it  possesses
upon the irritability of the muscles is very inferior to that of the  blood.
This seems to be demonstrated by the facts in the experiments made to
enhghten us on this obscure point.  The  force and duration ofthe con-

  (I) Wilson, Account of some experimens relating to some experiments of Bichat;
inthe Edinb. med. and chir. journ. vol. v. no. 9. xiii. p. 301.
  (i) Legallois, Exper. sur leprincipede la vie, 1812, p. 83-105.
  (3) Legallois, loc. cit, p. 89,90, 95, 97, 98, 101, 102. 
270
GENERAL ANATOMY.
tractions is always considerably diminished in the muscles the arteries
of which have been tied, while a division of their nerves does not pro-
duce the same results.(l)  But these experiments perhaps only prove
that the influence  of the nerve on the continuance of the irritability in
the  muscles does  not depend upon its communication with the centre
of the nervous system, but it  possesses a sufficient power independently
of this same centre,  and that consequently it can exercise  sufficient
influence on the blood ofthe  part submitted to the experiment.
   The importance of the blood  to  the exercise  of muscular action
is demonstrated by the deleterious influence of an anomaly in sangui-
fication, particularly upon the irritability. This power suffers generally
before all the others in  the  morbid  states  of the circulatory and the
respiratory systems which renders the change of venous into arterial
blood imperfect.   In the  same manner it is extinguished so suddenly
in the bodies of those persons who  die by respiring gases  which are
unfit for the normal  formation of  the arterial  blood, such as the car-
bonic acid gas,  and usually after asphyxia.
   In fact we cannot demonstrate that the nervous system is not affected
simultaneously in  these  cases, and that irritability is not extinguished
by paralysis: an opinion, the less improbable, inasmuch as the ner-
vous power itself then appears to be more or less enfeebled.
   2d. The living muscle must be in its normal  state, not only as  re-
spects form, but its chemical composition, and its power of receiving
impressions.  It will not contract  if it has  remained inactive too  long,
been  too much distended, if compressed or  changed into fat, or if ex-
hausted by too frequent or too violent contractions.
  3d. A stimulus  must  act  upon the muscle which must  be propor-
tional with its  power of receiving impressions.(2)
  § 326. The phenomena of irritability are not the same in all muscles.
They vary in regard, 1,  to  their duration; 2,  to their extent;  3, to
their  rapidity of motion;  4, to the nature of the  stimulus which  calls
them into action.  Usually  the same muscles present the same phe-

  (1) Fowler, Experiments and observations relative to the influence of the fluid lately
discovered by Galvani, London, 1793.
  (2) As the extremities of the nerves meet the muscular fibres at right angles, Pre-
vost and Dumas conclude that the galvanic current excited in passing over these ner-
vous filaments causes them to approximate, and that these filaments bring with them
the fasciculi of the muscles to which they are attached, which produces the folding
of these fibres.  Thus, according  to their theory, the nerves are the only organs of
contraction, and the  muscular fibres are  inert parts, designed only to obey the
nervous filaments.  Dutrochet, on the contrary, maintains, that the contraction  or
curve  of the muscular fibre depends on the development of an elastic force which is
itself caused by certain  molecular phenomena, so that the muscles act as springs.
He considers the muscular fibres as solids, which, from the influence of certain  ex-
ternal or internal causes, assume either in their mass or intimate parts a curved po-
sition, attended with an elastic force which tends to cause this position to be retained.
From his view of the  subject, it follows  that muscular contraction is a real pheno-
menon of elasticity, but of an elasticity which appears and disappears successively
with the curve which  attends it, so that as elasticity is, in final analysis, a phenome-
non of molecular action, contraction also is found in final analysis, to depend on a
certain mode of action in the molecules or the corpuscles which compose the organ-
ized solids.  One may see that this theory is directly opposite to that of Prevost and
Dumas.                                                        F. T. 
        OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     271

nomena in all individuals, and the action of the whole muscular sys-
tem is brought into play in the same manner by the same circumstances,
so that  the exceptions  we sometimes find are  much less proper  to
overturn general laws, since the exact knowledge ofthe causes which
produce them will demonstrate that they depend precisely on these
laws.
  § 327.  1st. There is not a  single muscle  which does not pos-
sess the power of  contracting some time after the intellectual  pheno-
mena, and consequently voluntary motion have ceased, even when it
has been separated from the body.  The circumstances are rare where
irritability is  extinct in the whole muscular system  of a man  before
one hour  is  elapsed: but this faculty is lost in some muscles much
sooner than in others.
  It is  generally  admitted that it remains longer in the involuntary
than in  the voluntary muscles.  The following has been established as
the scale of its duration in  the  different organs, viz. the heart, the
intestinal  canal, the stomach,  the  diaphragm, and the voluntary mus-
cles ;  it remaining longest in the first.(l)
  But this rule is often subject to exceptions.  Haller himself, to whom
we owe the scale just mentioned, has frequently known irritability re-
main in the intestinal canal longer than in the heart.(2) Zimmermann
has found it remain longer in the diaphragm, and (Eder in the other
voluntary muscles.  Froriep  and Nysten assert that  irritability  dis-
appears soonest in the bladder, the intestinal  canal, the stomach, and
the esophagus, and continues longer in the muscles of animal  life.(3)
   Some experiments might induce us to suspect that the difference in
the duration of irritability depends on that ofthe stimulus employed : for
several  naturalists have found, that although the heart contracts longer
than any  other organ under the influence of mechanical agents, it be-
comes insensible to galvanism  sooner than the voluntary muscles.(4)
These phenomena are very remarkable, as they imply that irritability is
modified by the nature and the mode of action  of the natural exciting
causes, in this  respect, that during life the natural stimulus  of the
heart is also  a mechanical impulse, while the  muscles are excited to
contract by an  agent very similar to the galvanic  principle,  if not
identical  with it.  This hypothesis seems  more probable, as in other
experiments,  the  voluntary muscles when they  were covered by
the skin, preserved in fact their power of contraction  longer than the
heart, even under  the influence of galvanism, but still they  became in-
sensible to the  action of this stimulus much sooner than  this organ
when they were exposed hke it, and  when their temperature was re-
duced to the same level(5) because the presence of a fluid capable of
being vaporized, contributes to produce the phenomena of  galvanism..

  (1) Haller, Mem. sur les parties sensibles et irritables, vol. ii., p. 257.
  (2) Ibid., p. 340.
  (3) Voigt's Magazin, vol. vi., p. 336.
  (A) Giulio in Voigt's Magazin, vol. v., p. 161.
  (5) In Voigt'a Magazin, vol. vi-, p. 337. 
272
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  But more recent experiments made with the utmost care on man and
animals seem to demonstrate tttfyt the difference in the duration of irrita-
bility does not depend on the nature of  the stimulus.(l)   The  scale
established by them is not the same as that mentioned by Haller.
  According to these experiments, irritability is lost, 1st, in the left ven-
tricle of the heaft; 2d, in the large  intestines; 3d, in  the small in-
testines ; 4th, in the  stomach ; 5th, in the bladder ; 6th, in  the right
ventricle, the esophagus, and the iris; 7th, in the voluntary muscles^ 1 st,
in the muscles of the trunk ;  2nd in those of the lower and those of the
upper extremities, and finally in the two auricles, the right auricle
preserving its irritability the longest.
  That irritability remains  longer  in the voluntary muscles, is also
demonstrated by the circumstance,  that water  distilled  from  the
laurel or from bitter almonds, and placed in contact with the stomach
and the brain, renders the heart insensible to the most powerful stimu-
lants  in ten minutes, while the voluntary muscles move several hours
after. (2)
  2d. The extent of motion is not the same in all irritable parts.  In
general, we may admit that  the  irides, the lymphatic vessels, and the
intestinal  canal,  experience  the  most considerable changes in their
volume, for they are susceptible of dilatation and of contraction to an
almost incredible extent.
  3d. These parts too are extended and contracted with the greatest
rapidity.
  4th. The nature ofthe stimulus to motion is not  the same for  all the
muscles.   Thus light is the specific stimulus of the iris; the heart con-
tracts with more power from a mechanical irritation, and its motions
continue much longer and with greater energy when the irritant acts
on its internal face, than when in relation with its external face.  In
general, the stimuli are internal or external.   The first arise from the
nervous system,  the  others  are applied directly to the muscles.   The
former may be termed immaterial, the latter  material.  All the mus-
cles are susceptible of receiving impressions from these two  orders of
stimulants,  but there are several  immaterial agents which have no
action upon certain muscles ;  such as particularly the stimulus of the
will, whence arises the division into the voluntary and the involuntary
muscles (§312).   Still the changes in the activity of the brain produce
analogous phenomena in  all muscles, even in the involuntary.   The
passions modify  the  action of all the muscles in the same manner:
anger quickens the motions of the heart and of the  intestinal canal,
even without the aid of the will; it heightens the activity and  increases
the power of  the voluntary muscles.  The opposite effects  of fright
and fear are  experienced also in all the muscular system.
   § 328. The  degree of muscular activity is modified in many ways
by different circumstances.   Generally its power is in direct ratio with

         (1) Nysten,Rech. dephys. et de chimiepathol., 1811, p. 321.
         (2) Himly, Commentatio de morte, Gottingen, 1794, p. 57. 
         OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAi STATE.      273

the perfection of the organization of the muscles.  In fact the power
of the contractions may be increased even in those muscles which are
less perfectly organized and not so well nourished;  but, other things
being equal, the  muscle which  receives more  nutrition always con-
tracts with more power than that which is less developed.   We have
before spoken of the influence of the blood and the nerves upon irrita-
bility (§ 327).
   The duration of the irritability after death,  or the cessation of the
intellectual phenomena, depends much  upon the  kind of death, the
state of health during life, and the circumstances in which the muscle
is  placed after death.
   Usually irritability continues a longer time in proportion to the good
health of the subject,  and to the rapidity of death.   In a robust man,
the right auricle contracted nine hours after the head was severed from
the trunk,(l)  while, when the  disease has lingered a long time, it  is
entirely extinct at the end of the first hour.(2)  It disappears very soon
in the bodies of those individuals who have died from chronic diseases,
where the process of nutrition was affected.  The diseases which pass
through their periods rapidly, have no influence on the duration of irri-
tability; so that it remains even a whole day in those patients who have
died from inflammation of the lungs, aneurism of the heart, apoplexy,
and even nervous fevers.
   But there are certain circumstances where irritability disappears im-
mediately, even in those who have enjoyed the best  health  ; as in
death caused by lightning,by certain poisons, by violent blows on the ab-
domen, by great efforts, &c.   Different external agents acting on the
body, also cause it  to disappear promptly after death :  thus hydrogen
gas, carbonic acid gas, and more especially,sulphureted hydrogen gas,
paralyze the muscles with which they are in contact.
   § 329.  Besides  the  vital faculty  of entering into action  from the
power of stimulants, the muscle possesses still another, which is not
necessarily connected with hfe, and which may be termed with Bichat
extensibility, contractility of tissue, or with Haller, dead force.   It is by
this property that the muscle distends itself when mechanical forces
act upon it.  Thus the muscles of the abdomen  are distended during
pregnancy, in  ascites,  and  the muscles  generally by the effect of tu-
mors  which are  developed in the subjacent tissues, the heart by the
accumulation of blood, the bladder by that of urine, the muscular tunic
ofthe intestine by the unnatural retention or by the abnormal develop-
ment of foreign substances, as air or fceces, within it, and finally all the
muscles by the action of their antagonists.
   As soon as  this extending power ceases to act, the muscle returns
to the volume which  it possesses naturally in a state of repose, and
it  is not distended by a strange power. When a dead muscle is  divided,
if it be distended,  the cut portions contract  and separate.  The short-
ening  of  the muscles of the stump after amputations depends on this

                 (1) Nysten, loc. cit, p. 318.
                 (2) Nysten, loc. cit, p. 367-383.
   Vol. I.                        35 
274
GENERAL ANATOMY.
power of contractility, whence the bones  which were  at first  con-
cealed in the soft parts gradually appear.
   These  phenomena do not cease till putrefaction commences.  But
are they not phenomena of life ?  We have seen them even in muscles
which have been soaked for several hours in a strong  solution  of
opium, and in animals killed by electricity, as also in cases where these
organs have not been submitted to similar agents.   Bichat divided the
muscles  of a limb, the nerves of which had been cut  ten  days previ-
ous;  contractions occurred  as forcibly as in  those muscles  whose
nerves had not been divided:  and  farther, a certain retraction  of the
muscles is always observed in the amputation  of a paralyzed hmb.
But we do not consider these facts as demonstrating that the phenomena
of which we treat are not the results of life ; they only prove that they
are the results of  a vitality much slower than that which exists when
the phenomena of irritability are produced; besides, the duration and
the force of the  phenomena of irritability do not differ  when ex-
amined comparatively in the healthy and the paralyzed muscles of the
same subject.(l)   Probably all the changes in the form of  the muscle
depend upon the same force which only acts with more energy while
the hfe of the nerves is not extinct, but is preserved for some time after-
ward, although it does not seem to us probable that the stiffness of the
cadaver is a vital  phenomenon ofthe muscles, as Nysten thinks.(2)
   § 330.  The muscles  are not very sensible,  although they receive
numerous nerves.
   § 331.  The principal differences presented by the muscular system
at different periods of life are as follows :
   During the  earliest periods of "uterine existence  this system is not
distinct from the fibrous, with which it forms a whitish mucous mass,
   The muscles are at first very soft, have no apparent fibrous struc-
ture, and are much paler than they are afterwards.  The fibrous struc-
ture does not develop itself in them till toward the beginning of the
third  month, and is not visible then unless they are immersed  in
alcohol.   From our researches it seems that the large divisions of the
muscles, the fasciculi, form before  the smaller ones, a remarkable phe-
nomenon, because we observe also in the animals of the inferior classes,
that the final subdivisions of the muscles in which length predominates
are proportionally and even absolutely larger than in the superior ani-
mals, and we see  only globules or small points in  the  centre of those
large fasciculi into which the muscle is divided.   They are also thinner
and more feeble.  The heart alone is an exception to this rule: for it ia
proportionally much larger in the early than in the subsequent periods
of hfe.
   It follows, from the great difference in the respective proportions of
the regions of  the body, that the same muscles have not at all times
the same proportional volume in regard to each other or to the whole
body; those of the upper half of the body,  of the head, the neck, and

                    (1) Nysten, toe. cit., p. 369.
                    (2) Loc. cit, p. 384-420. 
        OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      275

the back, are much more developed than those of the lower extremities.
Thus, for instance, some small muscles of the neck are much larger
than the gluteus maximus, which finally exceeds all others in volume.
  The loose part  of the tendons is already proportionally as long and
as strong as it is  afterwards, but these organs  are less apparent and
less developed in the interior of the muscles.
  According to some writers, the muscles of the fetus are less irritable
than those of the adult; and the degree of facility with which they con-
tract,  and the duration of contractions is much less, the nearer the  fetus
is to the period of its formation.   But these assertions are contradicted
by several  facts:
  1st. By the  greater tenacity of life in the fetus and the newly born
animal, and the entirely opposite phenomena  that irritability presents
in similar animals, as  the  cold-blooded and  the hibernating  animals
during their period of hibernation.
  2d. By the general  law, that  the  power and degree of  effort  .with
which muscles are endowed during hfe, is usually in an inverse  ratio
to the facility with which  irritability is called into  action and to its
duration, so that the newly born animal resists longer and more easily
the action of cold,(l) of the irrespirable gases and anomalies in respira-
tion. (2)  Experiments carefully made have convinced us, times  with-
out number, that irritability remains  after death in the  newly born
animal  longer  at least  than  in the .adult.  We have further found no
trace of it at the end of an hour and thirty minutes in an old hamster,
while the  muscle of  a hamster killed immediately  after birth con-
tracted  eight hours after death by merely touching it.  Irritability was
also extinct in  an hour and forty-five minutes in an old rabbit, while it
remained  two  hours and thirty minutes  in  a rabbit  three days old.
We have  almost always found its duration equally lon'g in the newly
born animal; often longer, rarely shorter.
  The  contractions always  appeared to us to be  made with  more
energy  in the young than in the old animal.   In fact, in the latter we
even  perceived that slight convulsions only took place, while in  the
other the muscles always  shortened sufficiently to produce for a long
time a sensible motion in the lirnb to which they belonged.
  Some time after birth the muscles become redder and stronger, but
they remain for a long time round, soft, and with more of gelatin than
of fibrin.   It is only when the  growth is finished, that they become
thick, angular, have more  cohesion, more solidity, that the red color is
well marked, and  that they act with  all their  power.   They acquire

  (1) W. Alexander, in Physiological and experimental essay on the effect of opium
on the living system, in the Memoirs of the Manchester Society, vol. i., London, 1815,
  (2) Here we refer to a multitude of facts proving that young animals have perished
less quickly under water and in the irrespirable gases: that newly born infants who
have been immersed for several days,  have been taken out alive; and that the ab-
sence, the obliteration, or the  contraction of the pulmonary artery has been sup-
ported without inconvenience, or at least with slight trouble, for weeks, months, and
even years. 
276
GENERAL ANATOMY.
these qualities more perfectly, as the subject enjoys better health, and
they are more exercised.   Their redness, as well as their cohesion and
force, gradually diminish, while, on the contrary, they become harder.
Their motions are less extensive and less certain.
   § 332.  The muscles present also  differences dependent on the sex.
Other things being equal, they are rounder and feebler, less solid and
less vigorous in the female than in the male. We cannot, in the actual
state of our knowledge, resolve even probably the question if there are
differences relative to the  races of men.   However, it is possible that
the anomalies which degrade us to the class of animals are  more com-
mon in the inferior than in the superior races.
                B.  OF THE MUSCEES OF ANIMAL LIFE._

   § 333.  The muscles of vegetative and those of animal life differ so
essentially in all points, that,  notwithstanding the general considera-
tions into  which we have entered in regard to the muscular system in
general, it is indispensable to study the two series separately.   We
commence with the muscles of animal life.
   § 334.  The muscles of animal hfe form a great part of the m°ss of
the body, in fact nearly as much as all the other organs united.  They
are generally inserted around the bones and represent the forces which
move these  levers.   They  are particularly numerous and powerful in
the extremities.  Their formation is more or less confined in all parts
where the principal functions  of life are developed, that is, in the  cra-
nium, the  abdomen, and the chest.
   § 335.  These muscles form solid masses, the fasciculi  of  which,
having a straight direction, attach themselves by their two extremities
to certain  parts of the fibrous system, the  tendons, by means of which
they adhere to the periosteum which unites them to the bones: at least
this is their usual arrangement.   It is  seldom that a muscle is not at-
tached to a bone, or that it is inserted by one extremity only, and  that
its fasciculi  by folding on themselves give origin to  rings.  Most of
the sphincters,  the orbicularis palpebrarum, the orbicularis oris,  the
sphincter ani, and the constrictores pharyngis do not adhere to the solid
parts on which they act; they  take a point of support from them.  The
muscles which are attached to the bones by only one extremity,  and
which are designed  to move the soft parts only, are found principally
in the face, in the buccal cavity, and in the organs of generation.  The
annular muscles offer no appearance of tendinous structure, or at least
present it  only in those narrow points where they unite to the adjacent
solid parts, or in those where  they arise from the bones, and never in
the places where they are continuous with those soft parts which they
put in motion.
   § 336.  The tendons are always much thinner than  the muscular
substance.  The muscular and  tendinous substances never separate
suddenly, but we see them alternating together constantly for a greater 
/
       OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      277

or less extent.  When the tendon is broad but short, it almost alwaya
sends upon  the two faces of the muscle, and  between its  fascicuh
small bands  which gradually grow  thinner and  thinner:  when it is
long and narrow, it plunges between the muscular fibres in the form
of a pyramid which gradually diminishes in  thickness.   The relation
between  the tendon and the muscle  varies much.  Some  ver}*- large
muscles have small  tendons,  as the gluteeus maximus, while in others,
as the palmaris longus, the soleus, &c, the tendon is much larger than
the muscle.
   § 337. Generally the tendons are found only at the two extremities
of the muscles, and they may be considered as their integral parts.
The central fleshy portion of a muscle is called its belly (venter); we
term the upper tendon, or in general the tendon attached to  the most
fixed point, the head (caput), and the opposite extremity the tail (cauda)
of the muscle.  We  term  the fixed  point (Punctum  adhesionis, P.
fixum) that to which the head is attached; while the opposite point is
termed the movable point (Punctum insertionis, P. mobile.) The muscle
usually contracts towards the former.  The muscles are almost always
fixed by an  upper and a lower tendon to two bones, one of  which is
more movable than the other.   In the rarest cases,
   1st. They are attached to. the bones by one of their extremities only,
the other being fixed on the soft parts, either that they may  unite  by
this extremity with other muscles which act  in an opposite  direction,
as is seen in the muscles of  the anus and most of those of the genital
organs, or, as in many muscles which pass upon the capsules  of the
joints, that they may be attached to other organs which they are  de-
signed to move.
   2d. Their  two extremities are loose, and  when they contract they
move only the skin situated  upon them, and to which  they adhere in-
timately, as for instance the  platysma myoides muscle.
   But it sometimes  happens that we find tendons in  one or several
parts of  the extent  of the muscle which then  is divided into several
bellies.  We usually find  only one of these  intermediate  tendons,
termed tendinous intersections (irdcrsectio tendinia.)    The  muscles
which present this  arrangement are  called digastric (biventres, digas-
trici.)  Such are seen in the lower jaw, in the neck, and nucha, as the
biventer  maxills inferioris, the biventer cervicis, the complexus cervicis,
the sterno-hyoideus, and the  omo-hyoideus.
   The recti muscles of the  abdomen present several tendinous inter-
sections, which  are sometimes four  in  number.  These intersections
usually extend the  breadth  of the muscle, but sometimes, (as the up-
per one of the  rectus muscle)  they occupy only a part of it.  They
are almost always  short in proportion  to the  length of the muscle,
while their breadth  equals that of the muscle.  The dividing tendon
of the digastricus is an exception to this rule.
   These tendinous intersections, in fact, divide one muscle into several.
They furnish several fixed points, towards which the fibres  contract,
and between which they can extend. 
278
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   This arrangement then increases the contractile power of the muscle
and its force of resistance, no fibre of which has an extent equal to its
whole length.  Hence why tendinous intersections are found particu-
larly in those muscles which  are thin and long in proportion to their
other dimensions.  Generally they do not change the direction of mo-
tion ;  they however produce this change in the digastricus, the ante-
rior and posterior bellies being united at an obtuse angle,  by means of
an intermediate tendon which is itself attached to the hyoid bone.
   § 338. Generally, many  muscles act in  the same  direction, and
produce the same change in the parts they move, and almost always
contract simultaneously: hence they are called congenitals.  Others act
in opposite directions, and are called antagonists (antagonists).  The
first occupy the same region, are attached to almost the  same points,
and are placed more or less internally or externally, above or below,
at the side of, or over each other.   The antagonists are  situated in op-
posite regions.  All the motions of the different parts of the body may
be referred to two, whether they are removed from  or approach each
other.  One part receding from another approaches a  third.   These
two effects are produced by the same muscles,  but  the different mo-
tions  receive other  names, according  as   the  synonymous parts
placed at the side of or opposite to each other are approximated or
separated, or according as the parts of a whole which move in the same
direction, but which, although  united, are still movable on each other,
experience a similar change in  their respective situations.
   The first is abduction and adduction, produced by the abductor and
the adductor muscles; the second, flexion and  extension, performed  by
the flexor and the extensor muscles.  Abduction and extension do  not
essentially differ, since the result of  both is to  displace, in  the same or
nearly the same direction, two parts which at first are situated near or
at the side of each other, as are for instance two synonymous limbs,
the fingers of the same hand, or the toes of the  same foot, and which
in the second case, succeed from above downward, as the different di-
vision's of a limb.  Adduction and flexion are also the same phenomena
at bottom, since both  diminish the  distance between adjacent parts,
and establish a difference in the  direction of parts  which are united.
In both cases, the faces of the part which changes its form preserve
the same relative situation, because the same points of its circumference
continue  to face or to be opposite  to each other,  although they are
moved from or towards each other.  But there is a second kind of mo-
tion, in which the part turns around its axis, so  as to present  succes-
sively to the adjacent parts different points of its circumference.   This
is called rotation, and comprises two kinds : rotation inivard, and  ro-
tation outward, according as parts at the side  of each other are ap-
proximated or separated ; hence a third kind of antagonist muscles,
rotators inivard and rotators outward.  These motions are rarely  ex-
ecuted by a single muscle.  The motion of a part in a given direction
results almost always from the contraction of several congenital mus-
cles :  hence we have, at least in parts of any  magnitude,  several flex- 
OF THB MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.
279
  ors and  extensors, several adductors and abductors, several  rotators
  inward and rotators outward.
     § 339. The antagonist muscles, and using this denomination in its
  most general sense, the flexors and the extensors, differ not only in the
  characters which divide the muscles into several sections, but also in
  other different circumstances, so  that  we  may consider these two
  classes as the most important.
     Their  principal distinctive characters are,
     1st. The flexors, generally speaking, are  stronger than the exten-
  sors^ 1 )   Hence the limbs are more or less flexed when the will ceases
  to act, or when in a state of entire freedom, in paralysis, in sleep, in the
  softening of the bones, in subjects where the muscular system is debili-
  tated.  The flexors are attached to the bones which they move, far-
  ther from the centre of motion, than the extensors are: their direction
  is less  parallel to that of the bones, so that  their insertion takes place
  at a more obtuse  angle, and is  consequently more  favorable.  This
  angle enlarges as the muscle acts, on the contrary it decreases when
  the extensors contract.  The nerves of the  flexor muscles are larger
  than those of the extensors.
    2d. A difference  is said to exist between the extensor and the flexor
  muscles, in regard  to their excitability; that they contract only under
  the influence of one pole  of the galvanic  chain, and this pole dif-
  fers for each class  of muscles.(2)  Thus it is asserted that the flexors
  contract only when the silver pole is in contact with  the central extre-
  mity of the nerve, and the zinc pole with its  muscular extremity,
  while the  contrary is the case  with the extensors, and that both re-
  main still when the poles are reversed.
   Still the experiments adduced in support  of this proposition do not
 seem to establish its truth, and are well explained by the greater power
 of the flexor muscles, so that Ritter's law does not differ from it.   At
 least it is not correct to say, that the flexor and the extensor muscles
 contract only in the circumstances which have been mentioned for
 even when these circumstances are unfavorable, the greater force  of
 the flexor  muscles allows  them to contract sensibly, while the ex-
 tensors do not  contract.
   § 340. The external form of the muscles varies much, 1st, in regard
 to their complexity.  Many, and almost all, arise by a single head, and
 terminate by a single tail fixed to a single point:  these are the  simple
 muscles (musculi simplices)  : others divide at one of their extremities
 into several bellies ; these  are the compound muscles (musculi com-
positi).   The division exists sometimes at the movable  extremity, as in
 the common flexors  and the common extensors of the fingers and of
 the toes, the muscles of the abdomen, those  of the  back, &c.; and
 sometimes at the opposite extremity, as in  the biceps flexor cubiti,  the

  (1) Richerand, in the Mem. de la soc. med. d'emulalion, vol. iii., p. 161, 1799.—
 Elem. de physiol., vol. ii., p. 213.
  (2) Ritter, Beytrage zur nahern Kenntniss des Galvanismus, Jena, 1805, vol. ii. pt.
3, 4. no. ii. p. 65.367.                                               l 
280                    GENERAL ANATOMY.
biceps femoris, the extensors of the fore-arm and of the leg, &c.  The
result of the first  arrangement is that a simultaneous motion is im-
pressed upon different parts of the same muscle.  In the second kind,
1st, the effect is increased ; 2d, when all the different bellies act, the
motion  produced  by them is modified;  as, for instance, the leg is at
once extended and drawn  outward or inward ; finally, it follows that
when the muscle  acts in a direction opposite to what is usual, that, is,
when its bellies contract towards the most movable point, several parts
are put in motion at the same time.
  Among the simple muscles are some which in some measure form
the transition from the .simple to the compound muscles.   In fact there
are several which, although  arising by a single belly,  and terminating
by a single  tail, are still  composed of a greater or  less number of
smaller muscles, the fibres of which are extended in different directions,
and are inserted into the common  tendon by small tendons: such arc
the deltoides and the subscapularis muscles.
  As to the compound muscles, those which are the least so consist in
two layers of fibres,  terminating by a more or less acute angle in a com-
mon tendon situated between them.  These are called the penniform
muscles (musculi pennati).  The rectus femoris anticus and the flexor
pollicis longus are examples of this arrangement.
  Another kind of compound muscles comprehends those of two or
more bellies, which  we have mentioned before (§ 337).
  In the most simple muscles the fasciculi have  exactly the same
direction.  But the direction, and the relation between the length of the
fasciculi and the filaments with the length  of the muscle, are not the
same in all  the  simple  muscles.   Sometimes  the direction of the
fibres agrees with that ofthe whole muscle and of its tendon.   In this
case the length of the muscular fibres is the  same as that of the whole
muscle, and it is straight.  This  is  seen in the sartorius and in the bi-
ceps flexor cubiti.  This arrangement is rare. The direction of the fas-
ciculi more commonly differs  from that of the whole mass, and they
descend more or less obliquely from one of  the  two tendons  between
which the belly exists to the  other.  We do not consider here if, as in
the semi-penniform muscles  (musculi semipennati, pennati simplices),
for instance  in the flexors of the hand and of the foot, of the fingers and
ofthe toes, one of the tendons, usually the upper, be attached to the
bone all its length and all that of the muscle ; or if, fixed by a point
only at its  upper extremity, and descending along the belly to the
fibres to which it  gives rise, it be  loose in  all its extent, as is seen in
the semi-membranosus muscle.  In both cases most of the muscular
mass is placed on both sides between two tendons.  In the first case,
however, the direction of the fibres of  the upper tendon is the same as
that of the muscular fibres, while in the second case it is different.
   § 341. The forms of the muscles, in regard to the proportion of the
three dimensions, differ much from each other, giving  rise to a division
of the muscles into  the long, the broad, and the short, 
          OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     281

    § 342.  The long muscles  are  found  principally in the extremities,
 and are more or less cylindrical.   Usually their tendons are large, and
 often much longer than their fleshy portion.  Sometimes, however, the
 contrary is the case: thus, the tendons of  the lumbricales  are very
 short.   In their course they often  pass over several bones placed after
 one  another.   They form several layers, of which the superficial are
 the longest,  and  the deep muscles  the  shortest; usually, these  last
 are  not extended except between  two  adjacent bones.  Thus, for
 instance, the biceps cubiti is longer than the brachialis  internus; it
 extends from the scapula to the fore-arm, while the latter reaches only
 from the humerus to the fore-arm.   It is among these muscles that the
 division into several belhes and the insertion by several tendons are the
 most frequent and apparent.   They are even, especially at their upper
 part, so closely united in some regions, particularly the fore-arm, either
 by the aponeuroses which are extended over them, or because  the
 fibres of one are inserted into the  tendon of another, that they cannot
 be separated except by cutting them.  Usually they are more bulging
 in the  centre  than at their  extremities, because their fibres almost
 always extend obliquely from the upper to the lower tendon, so that
 their extremities do not contain all their fasciculi, but only the upper
 and the lower, while in the centre we find not only all the central but
 also a part of the upper and of the lower fasciculi.
   § 343. The broad muscles are usually thin;  they are found around
 the cavities of which they alone constitute the parietes, at least in great
 part, or which  they cover, and of which they take  the form.   Among
 the first are classed the broad muscles of the abdomen, and among the
 second, several  muscles  of the cranium, the frontal muscle, the tem-
 poral muscle, and most  of the sphincters.   Generally these muscles
 preserve a uniform breadth and thickness in all their course.  They
 are usually simple ;  they never terminate in long tendons, but in slips
 (dentationes), which attach them to different parts.  In some parts, as
 the chest and  the abdomen,  the broad muscles are placed over each
 other, and are  somewhat  alike in form  and  size;  sometimes  the
 broad cover the long muscles, as in the back.
   There are muscles which very evidently make the transition from
 the broad to the long muscles, either because they unite the two forms
 in all their extent, or because they are broad in one point and elongated
 in another.  Among the former are  the  sterno-hyoideus,  the  thyro-
 hyoideus, and the  recti muscles of the abdomen;  among the second,
 the pectoralis major muscle and the latissimus dorsi muscle, which  are
 narrower at their extremities, but at the same time increase very much
 in thickness.
   § 343. The  short muscles  are  usually as thick as they are broad
 and long.  They are generally triangular or square, and are undoubt-
 edly the strongest of all, since none contain a greater number of fibres
 in a  given space.  They are  found  principally in the  points where
great force must be employed, because the general arrangement ofthe
parts is  unfavorable to their motions ;  as in the temporo-maxillary arti-
   Vol.  I.                        36 
282
GENERAL anatomy.
culation, in the hip-joint, in the vertebral column, and even partially in
the hand and the foot.  The gluteeus maximus muscle and the deltoid
muscle make the transition from this  to  the  preceding class, as the
muscles of the hand and of the foot lead to the first.
   § 345.  In regard to texture, the muscles of animal life appear formed
of fasciculi and of fibres, which are situated close to each other, but do
not interlace.    Their  fibres   generally extend from  one tendon to
another; sometimes,  however, they disappear sooner, and we are then
unable to demonstrate that  they are blended with the adjacent parts.
Mucous tissue is very abundant in these muscles, and it is often so
loose that it makes a compound muscle  of a  simple  one, because it
divides it into several heads, which are implanted in a common tendon,
and which are united by a large layer of  mucous  tissue, as is seen in
the pectoralis major muscle.   The  mucous tissue usually exists more
abundantly in the broad muscles ; hence  their fasciculi are less com-
pact than those of the other muscles.   Almost all the nerves of these
muscles arise from the brain and the spinal marrow only ;  and even
where there are  filaments of the great sympathetic  nerve, as in the
neck, nerves are  received also  from the nervous system of animal life.
The nerves often  come from remote  parts  of the  spinal marrow,
although the great sympathetic nerve is the nearest source, as is seen
in the diaphragm.  The muscular system of animal life generally  re-
ceives more nerves but fewer blood-vessels than that of vegetative life.
   § 346.  The muscles are the  powers which act upon the bones or
analogous organs, to remove weights.   The bones  are  levers, and
usually simple levers of the second class, in which the  power, viz. the
muscle, is placed  between  the  point of rest, one extremity of the
bone, and the resistance, the other extremity of the bone with the parts
which are attached to it.  The arrangement is not the same in all; but
generally speaking, it is in a manner more or less unfavorable ; so that
to produce their effect, the muscles have to employ a force greater than
would be required if the relation between the power and the  resistance
were more favorable.  Hence the muscular force is very considerable.
This law may be called the law of Borelli, because until the time of
this physiologist, the  contrary  opinion was admitted, and it was main-
tained that the muscles are arranged to raise  the heaviest burdens by
employing the least possible force.
   The circumstances which demonstrate  that in general the arrange-
ment of the muscles is unfavorable are,
   1st. Thcyare inserted nearthe fixed point. Almost all the muscles are
attached nearer  to this point  than  to the resistance.   When then a
weight is raised which is farther from the resistance than the insertion
of the muscle, power employed by the muscle is greater  in propor-
tion to the difference  between  its distance  from the fixed point and the
distance between the latter and the weight: it is always greater than
the weight of  the burden.
   2d.  The obliquity  of the muscles in  regard lo  the  bones, or of the
muscular fibres in regard to the tendon.   Few muscles are attached to 
E MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     283
   the bones at right angles, the most favorable of all for the employment
   of force ; most of them are inserted at very acute angles.  On the other
   hand, in almost all the muscles the direction of the fleshy fibres varies
   more or less from that of the tendinous  fibres.   In regard to the first
   circumstance, the loss offeree is  greater in proportion to the obliquity
   of the angle  of  the  insertion  of the muscle in  the bone-  as  to  the
   second,  the loss which results  from  it is proportioned to the obliquity
   ot the muscular with the tendinous fibres.
    3d. The resistance which the muscle opposes to the bone on which it
   takes its fixed point.   This bone, in fact, tends to extend it as  much
  as does  the weight  raised by its  effort, because the muscle  contracts
  from its  two extremities towards its centre.
    4th.  The resistance ofthe antagonists over which it must prevail.
    5th.  The friction  caused by the parts which surround the muscle
  although it is diminished by the looseness of the mucous tissue which
  envelops it in all parts.
    But, notwithstanding all these circumstances usually unfavorable to
  the muscle m relation to the weight it ought to raise, there are others
  which diminish the loss of force occasioned by them.
    Thus, the angle by which the muscle is attached to the bone is con-
  siderably increased,
    1st. By the  swelling of the extremities  of the bone on which  the
  muscle passes.
    2d. By the extension of the ridges  in which they are inserted.
    3d. By the formation of special small  bones, which develop them-
  selves in the substance of the tendons, at a little distance from  their
  insertion  (§ 306).
   4th. By the direction that the parts give to the muscles, or  only
 their  tendons,  near  their termination ; they change  their direction
 from oblique to perpendicular.   It often happens that the angle of
 insertion  ofthe muscle enlarges during the motion itself, and  that from
 a very acute it becomes almost a right angle.  This is  observed  both
 in the muscles which act and in their antagonists.  As to the friction
 it is diminished by the  fat which accumulates between the muscles and
 between  their fasciculi, and  by the presence of fibrous organs, the
 sheaths, which  give  to  the  muscles and  their  tendons a determinate
 situation and a fixed direction.
   The loss of force which necessarily  results from the obliquity of the
 fibres  is  amply compensated by their great increase in number; for,
 in equal spaces, the more oblique the direction, the more numerous are
 the fibres, and, other things being equal, the power of  the muscle is  in
 direct ratio with the number of its fibres.
   Besides, in contracting, the  oblique fibres shorten the muscle much
 more than the .straight fibres.   It requires less effort then to  bring to-
 gether two fixed points by oblique muscles than it does by straight
 muscles, more particularly  as often, for instance between the ribs,  two
 oblique muscular layers which intercross, by acting diagonally, take
 the place of a single straight layer.  This arrangement of the force
diminishes the lassitude arising from muscular motion. 
284
GENERAL ANATOMY
  For the same reason, when the muscular fibres are oblique, motion
takes place more quickly than when they are straight.
  Finally, when two intercrossing layers of oblique muscular fibres act
on the same part, the motions admit of greater variety, since possibly
the two layers contract at a time or only one of the two acts, and both
employ an equal or different force.

              C.  OF THE MUSCLES OF VEGETATIVE LIFE.

  § 347.  The muscles  of vegetative life differ from those of animal
hfe.
  1st. In respect to their mass.  This is less, for they form but a trifling
part of the organism even when we refer to them all the parts which
have a slightly muscular structure.
  2d. In respect to their external form.   This is much more  simple.
They always form cavities which are lined by the internal membrane
of the organs which they tend  to compose.   They  are found in the
vascular system, the digestive  apparatus, the uterus, and the bladder,
of which they form the muscular coat.  Except in the heart, they have
no appearance of tendons, because their action does not tend to displace
the solid parts  of  the  organism, but  to expel fluids contained in the
cavities  they circumscribe.   When tendons are seen, as in the heart,
they are attached to parts which change their position by the contrac-
tion of the portions of the organ to which the  opposite extremities are
attached.  The annular muscles of animal life also present something
analogous, for we  can always figure them as the commencement of a
canal, or rather as a dilated canal, the fibres of which would pass, not
behind, but over each other.   But these latter, both by their situation
and their functions, make the transition from  the  muscles of animal
to those of vegetative life : for  the sphincters  of the mouth and anus
are placed on the limit of vegetative and of animal life, and the orbicu-
laris palpebrarum  muscle is  less subject  to  the will than  the other
muscles of animal  life.
  3d. In regard to their texture, they differ in several ways :
  a. In the general arrangement of their fasciculi,  fibres, and filaments.
These  are not distinct and parallel to  each other, as in the  muscles of
animal  life,  but interlace continually, and for this reason are much
shorter than the fibres of the voluntary muscles.
  6. Their fibres are arranged in several superimpopod layers not only
in those parts where  nearly the same direction is followed, but where
they proceed in opposite directions.
  These  layers are most generally transverse or oblique,  and form
rings around the cavities they circumscribe.   These rings are  always
stronger than the  fibres which  extend in other directions: they are
nearest each other at  the orifices of the cavities and  form internal
layers:  they constantly surround the internal cavities, while frequently
the other layers are evident only in some parts of their circumference,
as  for instance in the  large intestine,  and  are  deficient  in a con- 
        OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      285

siderable extent, as in most of the venous system.  Sometimes longi-
tudinal fibres are  found without annular fibres, as in the large veins.
These two directions are the most usual, and also exist together most
frequently.
  c. There is less of mucous tissue in the muscles of vegetative life.
  d. Their  texture  presents  greater  differences in  different  parts.
There is more difference in color, cohesion, and situation, between the
fibres of the heart, the arteries, the veins, the intestinal  canal, and even
between  the different parts of the intestinal canal, the uterus, and the
bladder, than is found in regard to size and external form between those
muscles of animal hfe which differ the most from each  other.
  The heart is very red, redder than the muscles of animal life, as solid
as  they  are, but more compact, and very thick in proportion  to its
cavity :  its internal face is very unequal and reticulated, and it is com-
posed of several superimposed layers.  The fibres of  the arteries are
hard, brittle, flat,  and yellowish, and all follow precisely the same di-
rection.   Those ofthe veins are redder, softer, and directed the contrary
way, and are visible only in the large trunks.
  The muscular  fibres of the intestinal canal are  of  a pale red, and
very soft.
  In the esophagus and in most of the alimentary canal, we find only
two layers of fibres;  in the stomach are three.   Their thickness is not
proportional to the size of the cavity.
  The fibres of the bladder  are pale and form a much more complex
tissue than in the  other organs.
  The fibres ofthe uterus are very indistinct, except during pregnancy,
and even then they are pale and hardly visible ; and, with the arterial
fibres, are, of all we have mentioned, the  most unlike the muscles of
animal life, to which the fibres of the heart bear the greatest resem-
blance.
  e. Have the  fibres of the muscles of vegetative life more power of
resistance than those of animal  life, as Bichat  asserts, because that
ruptures of the hollow muscles are rare, however greatly they may be
distended, while many examples have occurred of ruptuxes of the volun-
tary muscles ?  Is it a fact that the muscles of vegetative life are rarely
ruptured, while this often occurs in those of animal life ?  We think
precisely the contrary.   Bichat states that we find many instances on
record of ruptures of the diaphragm, while rupture of the stomach, the
intestines, and the heart, are not known.   If  we wish to arrive at an
exact result, we must not compare a muscle, which, from its situation,
form, and functions, is unable to support  a violent shock, with other
muscles on which this cause cannot act directly ; we should consider
the  two systems in the same  circumstances.  But—will a  volun-
tary muscle tear more readily than a muscle of vegetative life, when
slowly and gradually distended ?  We think not. The muscles of animal
life frequently become  thin membranes from the  pressure of large tu-
mors without being ruptured ; they  resist the  powerful efforts of their 
286
GENERAL ANATOMY.
antagonists, while a mechanical obstacle not unfrequently causes the
rupture of the muscles of vegetative life.
   4th.  In the arrangement of their nerves and vessels.   They receive
fewer nerves but more vessels than the muscles of animal life.   Their
nerves except those of the esophagus, the stomach,  and the bladder,
are derived  for the most part from the great sympathetic nerve.
   5th. The muscles of vegetative life have no antagonists.  Their function
is to contract and shorten the canals and cavities they surround.  Hence
the substances within these cavities are usually considered as their
antagonists.   The different layers, of which they are composed are not
opposed in action, but on the contrary by acting in concert, they execute
their function  better, viz. that of diminishing the size of their cavities.
The action of some layers does not interfere with  and prevent that of
others :  a kind of opposition is, however, more or less evident between
the different regions of the muscular layer of the same organ of vege-
tative life.   Thus the fibres of  the ventricles of the heart always con-
tract alternately with those of  the auricles, as those of the arteries
alternate with those of the ventricles: the greatest activity of the fibres
of the auricles is attended  with the  greatest degree  of inaction  in the
ventricles, exactly as  is seen between the antagonist muscles of animal
life.  There are regions in the intestinal canal where the antagonism
is but temporary, between which are no distinct limits, and which are
not marked  by differences of structure, for they are  adjacent portions
which alternately dilate and contract to expel the substances contained
in this-tube.
   6th.   The  muscles of vegetative life act, at least part of them, sooner
than those  of animal life.  This is  true, especially in regard  to the
heart and the alimentary canal.  As certain parts, at least of the  heart,
preserve their irritability  longer  than all the other muscles, after the
extinction of the mind, (§ 327,) we may say, in general, that irritability
continues longest in the muscles of vegetative life, although there are
some of the muscles of animal life which remain irritable longer than
some of the involuntary muscles.
   7th.  The muscles of vegetative  differ from those of animal life in the
relation between them and the  stimulus which causes  them to act.
This relation is of two kinds :
   a. The muscles of which it treats are more or less influenced by the
modifications of the spiritual principle.  The will has rarely any influ-
ence upon many  of  them, as  the heart,(l) and perhaps never has
any if we except some cases which may be otherwise explained.  Its
influence on others, as the bladder and the rectum, is very feeble, and
their actions as caused by the will are very slow.  On the contrary,
the changes which take place  involuntarily in these muscles cannot
be arrested by the will. Hence why their motions are not changed, or
but in a slight degree, in states which are marked by a total inaction

  (1) This, however is the case in an Englishman, mentioned  by Cheyne, and that
of Bayle, as reported by Ribes, who could at pleasure relax or suspend the motions
of the heart (?)                                               F. T. 
       OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.    287

of the intellectual  principle, and during which  the  muscles of animal
life  are at rest.
  b. The stimuli  which act on them are always separated from the
muscles  by an intermediate substance, as in the intestinal canal and
the  bladder  by the mucous  membrane, in the vascular system by the
internal membrane of the vessels, &c.   But this difference is not en-
tirely absolute, for  we find an arrangement very analogous to it in the
voluntary muscles, inasmuch as their nerves which are the conductors
of the different changes supervening in the central parts of the nervous
system, in virtue of which the muscles contract, are also  separated
from the proper muscular substance  by the  mucous tissue which en-
velops them.
                   ARTICLE  SECOND.

       OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THR ABNORMAL STATE.

  §348. The muscular substance when once destroyed is never re-
produced, and  wounds of the muscles, where there is no loss of sub-
stance, heal in the same manner as those where the substance is  de-
stroyed.  These two states are very similar, from the separation which
the contractions of the two portions of the muscle cause between the
edges of the wound.   In both  cases the opening is always a deep
point, around which the edges of the wound in the muscle are some-
times swelled.   It fills at first with a vascular, reddish,"soft, and gelati-
nous mass,  which  afterwards loses its vessels and becomes yellowish
white, harder, and horny, and always insensible to the action of stimu-
lants, whatever  they  may be.   We sometimes,  but not often, find in
this mass, several months after the wound, traces  of  irregular fibres,
but slightly analogous to muscular substance, and when the muscle has
been entirely divided, its portions are so completely separated that  the
irritation of one part causes no contraction in the other.(l)  Still, how-
ever, notwithstanding this insulation, both continue to  be nourished,
and they do  not waste, as happens to a nerve which has been cut;
doubtless because the muscles, unlike the nerves, do not form an unin-
terrupted organized system.   A muscle which has been transversely
divided and has cicatrized, is in fact changed into a double-bellied mus-
cle, and resembles those which have tendinous intersections.
  § 349. The muscles present anomalies in form,  chemical  composi-
tion, and in action.   We shall here examine only the first two.

  (1) Kleemann, Diss, sistens qucedam circa productionem partium corporis humani,
Halle, 1786, exp. ii.—Murray, Commentatio de redintegratione partium  corporis
humani nexu suo solutarum vel amissarum, Gottingen, 1787, exp. i-x.—Huhn, De
regeneratione partium, Gottingen, 1787.—SchnelJ, De natural reunionis musculorum
vulneratorum, Tubingen, 1804. 
288
GENBRAL ANATOMY.
   § 350.  Among the  deviations of formation,( 1) which are  usually
 primitive, we class:
   1st. Anomaly in  number.    This  is  almost  always  congenital.
 Sometimes all the muscles of the whole body or  of a whole limb are
 deficient,  although the other  parts  are formed; but  this occurs only
 when the whole body is incompletely developed, and particularly when
 its upper  part is not formed and there exists in its place a gelatinous
 mass.  In many cases of this kind some  mistake may have arisen in
 regard to  the  muscles, because they are  then usually very white, and
 an enormous quantity of liquid is found  accumulated under the skin.
 It is more frequent  that some muscles are either wholly or  partially
 deficient, so that for instance they are not attached to the solid parts as
 extensively as  usual.   The muscles most frequently absent are those
 of small size, the functions of which are trivial and may be supplied
 more  or  less by others, as the palmaris brevis, the plantaris, the pyra-
 midalis,  and the zygomaticus  minor muscle, and some fasciculi or
 heads of the flexors of the fingers or toes.
   Supernumerary muscles are rarely found.(2)  The enlargement and
 the multiplication of  slips of insertion gradually leads to this anomaly,
 which exists in some muscles rather than in others: thus we see it often
 in the recti muscles of the abdomen,  the small muscles of the head, the
 biceps femoris,  and less frequently in  the biceps flexor cubiti.   It is not
 uncommon in the latissimus dorsi, the  pectoral muscles, the indicator
 muscles, and the extensor proprius minimi digiti.  Among the  su-
 pernumary muscles thus developed, we distinguish the sternalis mus-
cle, a proper extensor of the third toe, &c.   We must here remark, that
 one limb resenjbles another in this respect,  that the anterior portion of
 the body is regulated by the posterior, and  that these anomalies almost
always are analogous with the structure of some animal.(3)
  2d.  An unusual largeness or smallness in the size of the muscles is
seldom congenital; they commonly develop themselves  accidentally.
When muscles are abnormally small, it results from the want of exer-
cise.  Compression even destroys some muscles entirely.  An unusual
degree of power in these organs, often but not always, results from
their being used.   It becomes morbid only when a muscle, for instance
the heart, performs its functions so powerfully as to injure the general
health.

  (1) Heymann,  Varietates prac. corp. hum.  muscul., Utrecht,  1784.—Brugnone
Observations myologiques, in the M&m. de Turin, vol. vii. p. 157-191.—Roscnmuller,
De nonnullis muse. corp. hum. varietat, Leipsic, 1804.—Gantzer, Diss. anat. mus-
cid. variet. sistens, Berlin, 1813.
  (2)  Tiedemann having found the pectoralis, major and minor, the glutei and the
trapezii muscles double in the same subject, concludes,  that great power in man is
not always the result of exercise, but sometimes depends on the congenital redun-
dancy of several large muscles.  (Deutsches Archiv fur die Physiologie.) The author
of this treatise was led to  form the same opinion from another example of the same
kind, and he concludes from sufficient facts, that contrary to the opinion of Tiede-
mann, this anomaly of the muscular system happens usually on both sides at once,
as Bichat has said.
  (3)  J. F. Meckel, De duplicitate monstrosa, Halle, 1715, § 42. 
       OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.     289

   3d.  The muscles sometimes present primitive anomalies in their at-
tachments.   Not reaching then their accustomed points, they remain
powerless, or act contrary to what they ought naturally.
  4th. Anomalies .in connection are usually accidental.  They are
either confined  to the muscle or extend to its relations with the adja-
cent parts.  We have already described (§348) the phenomena which
attend wounds of the  muscles.  We not unfrequently find a rupture
of whole  muscles or more commonly of some muscular fasciculi, an
effusion of blood around the rent, and. this although there is no exter-
nal injury.  These ruptures(l) probably depend on the spasmodic con-
tractions which supervene in the late moments of life.  But sometimes
the loss of substance is consecutive to the effusion of blood.  Continual
pressure may also destroy some part of a muscle,  and in this manner
interrupt the connection which exists between it and the others.(2)
   The displacements of the muscles in regard to the adjacent parts,
usually result from adhesions which the organs contract after violent
inflammation.  This inflammation may also cause the adhesion of the
muscular fasciculi to each other, which is accompanied with a greater
or less degree of rigidity.  The  luxation of the muscles may also be
referred to this cause. (3) .
   § 351.  Among the alterations in the texture of the muscles we must
place first the anomalies they offer in their degree of cohesion ; they
are  sometimes  extremely flabby and  brittle, and again on  the  con-
trary more  elastic and firmer than usual.  The former  state is ob-
served in feeble men and in asthenic diseases  ; the second is independent
of every other morbid state, and  occurs most frequently  in the hollow
muscles, as  the bladder, and  especially the  heart.   The color  of the
muscles sometimes varies from its natural shade, although their texture
in  other  respects is not sensibly altered.   Thus in certain cases the
muscles  are unusually  pale.   This state  most frequently attends
paralysis, brittleness, and flaccidity of the muscles.  The same anomaly
of color is observed also in dropsy, where the interstices of their fasci-
cuh are filled with serum and not with fat.   Under these circumstances
the substance of the muscle wastes considerably.
   So hkewise in rheumatism, which generally attacks the sheaths of
the muscles, we almost always find a gelatinous fluid effused between
these sheaths and the surface of the muscle.
   The paleness and softness of the muscles form the transition to an
altered texture of these organs which is unfrequent,  and which some-
times constitutes  a primitive deviation of formation in supernumerary
hmbs,  and sometimes supervenes to inaction  of the  muscles  : we mean
their change into fat, either preserving their texture or losing it entirely,

  (1) J. Sedillot, Memoire sur la rupture musculaire; in the  Mem. et Prix de la soc.
med. de Paris, 1817.
  (2) Lieutaud, Hist. anat. med., Paris, 1767, vol. ii., p. 329.
  (3) J. Hausbrand, Diss, luxationis sic dictee muscularis refutationem sistens, Ber-
lin, 1814.  This dislocation admitted by Pouteau, Portal, and others, can take place
only when the enveloping aponeuroses are divided; but Hausbrand has gone too far in
Baying it was  absolutely impossible.                               F. T.
   Vol. I.                      37 
290
GENERAL ANATOMY.
and finding in them cellular tissue filled with fat.(l)  All the parts of
the muscles then generally become smaller than they are in the normal
Btate.(2)
   The steatomatous tumors are developed  between the fascicuh of the
muscles less frequently.
   The accidental formation of bone(3) and the tuberculous, schirrous,
or fungous formations in the muscles are still more rare.
   The appearance of hydatids in the  mucous tissue which separates
the fasciculi of the muscles is a phenomenon a little less  rare.   We
have found it in the voluntary and involuntary muscles, and among the
last principally in the heart.
   §  352.  It rarely or never  happens that  the muscular substance is
accidentally developed.  In fact, sarcoma has been placed in parallel
with themuscle,(4)it has been pretended that the serous membranes,(5)
and even the bones(6) have been changed into muscular substance,
and finally, that this substance has been found in the ovaries. (7)   But,
undoubtedly in pointing out alterations of texture, the distinctive cha-
racters have been neglected to attend only to their  analogies.


                          SECTION IX.

                    OP THE  SEROUS  SYSTEM.

           GENERAL  REMARKS ON  THE SEROUS  SYSTEM.

                       A.  ITS NORMAL STATE.

   § 353.  The serous system is very well marked both in form and tex-
ture, although in more than one respect it seems to be but a slight mo-
dification of the cellular tissue.  It is not  a connected system,  but it
exists in all parts  of  the frame and  assists in uniting different organs.
We may refer to  it the synovial  membranes,  or the articular capsules,
which in structure and functions do not differ from it, and hence  divide
it into the proper  serous system and the synovial  system.

   (1) Beclard doe3 not admit this change into fat, and thinks that the error arises
from simple appearances, and that the muscular fibres  are only discolored.  This
opinion is contradicted by well established facts.                      F. T.
   (2) Gay Lussac in the Annates de chimie et de physique, vol. iv., p. 71.
   (3) Tiedemann relates a case of accidental  bony concretions which were very
abundant in several muscles of a man affected with gout, (Deutsches Archiv fur die
 Physiologie, vol. v., p. 355.)  These concretions were attended with the ossification
 of several arteries.  They were composed of the phosphate and a small portion of the
 carbonate of lime, and of one fifth of animal matter, without any appearance of pro-
per organization.  F. T.
   (4) Fleischmann, Leichenoeffnungen, 1815, p. 112.
   (5) Dumas, in Sedillot, Rccueil periodique, vol. xxv., p. 74.
   (6) Colomb, QSuvres chirurg., p. 72.
   (7) Dumas, Med. eclair., vol. ii.
   (8) Bichat,  Traite des membranes, Paria, an viii., p. 78-111 and 202-292. 
           OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.      291

   § 354. This system always assumes the membranous form.  It is
 composed of a certain number of round sacs, which are entirely distinct
 from each other, and are usually perfectly closed.
   The form of these sacs is not every where the same.  They may
 be divided,  in this respect, into two large sections.  The first compre-
 hends the simple sacs, which present in all parts a rounded surface. The
 serous membranes, which in part compose this  section belong to the
 synovial system; they are always placed between the tendons and
 the  bones,  and are  badly termed the burss mucoss.  These bursae
 cover  only one part of the tendon under which they are found.  The
 serous membranes of the  second  division are more complex in their
 forms, and seem composed of two sacs,  one  of which is found within
 the other.   It appears like a simple sac, folded on itself in a portion
 of its  circumference, or strengthened in part in its  proper cavity by
 the action of a foreign body ;  if this body be removed, or, what may be
 done in some places, if the turned portion of the serous membrane be
 detached and the latter be thus insulated, we obtain a single round sac.
 In the normal state,  the external  and the internal sacs do not commu-
 nicate nor touch, except where the sac seems to be reflected on itself.
 Further, the external sac always forms a much larger cavity than the
 internal,  although, in several serous membranes, the latter is more ca-
 pacious than the former, because the membrane has so many folds. The
 following are all the proper serous membranes, which are found in the
 normal state, viz. the tunica arachnoidea, the pericardium, the pleura,
 the peritoneum, the tunica vaginalis testis, the synovial membranes, and
 several burss mucoss.  All  these  membranes  form perfectly closed
 sacs ;  the part turned in always incloses an organ to which it adheres
 intimately;  in the serous membranes this organ is generally a viscus ;
 the synovial capsules generally inclose the extremities of two adjacent
 bones  which move upon each other;  and finally, the bursa? mucosae
 which belong to this  section contain a part of a tendon.   The adhesion,
 which is slight where the membrane is reflected upon itself,  becomes
 more  and more intimate, and often increases so  much that, as in the
 testicles, the spleen, the lungs, and all the articular extremities of the
 bones, it is impossible to separate the serous coat from the parts be-
 low, except to a slight  extent; while, in all the other parts the inner
 sac is  in fact blended with them.
   This adhesion is not equally intimate in every part.   Thus, for in-
 stance, the  peritoneum adheres but feebly to those parts ofthe bladder,
 ofthe  duodenum and of the pancreas which are covered by it,  rather
 more to the  viscera of the  digestive apparatus, and very firmly to the
 internal organs of generation in the female.  Generally the harder the
 parts to which the serous membrane is connected, the more firm is its
 union.  This proposition applies to the  external portion of the  serous
membrane as well as to its reflected portion.  The glands and mus-
 cles  are separated from it with facility, but the fibrous organs and the
 cartilages with great difficulty.
   §  355.  The serous membranes are reflected directly upon them-
selves, so that the internal sac is  closely applied upon the organ it 
292
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
covers;  and between it and this organ there is a depression of variable
length formed by two folds, between which the vessels and the nervea
proceed to the organs contained in the sac.   We may mention, as in-
stances ofthe former arrangement, several portions of the large intes-
tine, particularly the ascending and the descending colon, a part ofthe
liver and the heart; all  the small intestine, and the spleen are exam-
ples of the second.   In the former case a portion of the organ is most
usually uncovered by the serous sac ; this is the case  in the ascending
and the descending colon, the upper and posterior portions of the liver.
In the latter, but a small portion of the organ, the  point where its ves-
sels enter, is destitute of the serous membrane.  These  two arrange-
ments are  generally found in the same organ, as is the case with the
peritoneum, where it covers the liver.
  Besides these folds which exist between  the external and the inter-
nal sac, and the organs covered by the latter, the serous membranes form
others of a different character.   They always extend bej^ond the or-
gan covered by the  internal sac;  but then sometimes they hang
loosely and  are again reflected on themselves; sometimes they  pass
from one of the parts contained  in  the  common external sac  to an-
other.  The former arrangement is seen in the epiploon, the second in
the external envelop of the round ligament in the ilio-femoral articu-
lation, in the similar bands contained in the knee-joint, and in the second
class of the tendinous bursae.  However, when closely examined, all
these processes are essentially  the same, that is, they are all produced
by  the transition of the internal serous sac from one organ to another.
In fact,  the omenta differ from the tendinous bursae only in being more
extensive, so that they are  obliged to fold upon themselves, when pass-
ing from one organ to another.
   We however find in some places folds  which  are perfectly loose,
and which arise from the  surfaces of the organs lined by the internal
sac ;  such are  the appendices epiploicae of the large intestine, and the
prolongations which in many capsules of the joints, for instance, those
ofthe knee- and hip-joints, cover the glands of Havers.
   § 356.  The  folds  and prolongations of the serous membranes are
usually connected with the respective situation of these membranes, and
ofthe organs which they cover.  In fact, in  certain  circumstances they
cover organs,  which they do not  cover when these circumstances
vary.   Thus, the intestines, when filled and distended, are imbedded in
the mesentery, the stomach in  the omentum, and  the  impregnated
uterus in the broad ligaments.
   The serous membranes differ, in fact, from the structure ofthe organs
they cover,  and they must be considered only as drawing a more exact
line of distinction between these other organs, in respect either to situa-
tion alone, or to their mode of existence.  Thus they envelop the most
important organs: the brain, the spinal marrow, the  lungs, the heart,
the intestinal canal, and the principal parts of the genital apparatus.
   Hence why their diseases have less effect upon the organs covered
by them than  those of other membranes.   In dropsies, in thickening, 
          OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       293

and ossifications of the serous membranes,  the subjacent  organs are
perfectly healthy, even when they adhere intimately, as in the testicle.
Still, whenever the union is such that the membrane and the organ are
one, as in the capsules of the joints,  the diseases of the former soon
affect the latter.  For  the same reason, a part of the the peritoneum
not only abandons certain organs in the circumstances above mentioned,
but leaves without inconvenience the parietes of the abdomen either ab-
normally, as in hernia, or naturally, as in the descent of the testicles
into the scrotum.  We must not forget  however that, in the cases
above examined, there  is  an alternate -separation and  reunion of the
organs with the serous membranes, but also a distension and contrac-
tion of the same organs.
   § 357.  The  serous membranes, even those which have a complex
form,  are perfectly closed, although at first view they seem to be per-
forated, yet they only fold upon themselves and are perfectly closed.
There is but one exception to this rule, viz. the  abdominal orifice of the
fallopian tubes, which open into the peritoneal cavity on each  side.
This too is the  only instance where a serous membrane is  continuous
with a membrane of a different class, which, in this case, is a mucous
membrane ;  for we cannot mention as such the communications which
exist between the different parts of a serous membrane, as the external
arachnoid membrane and that which lines the cerebral ventricles, be-
tween the great cavity of the peritoneum and that of the omenta, &c.
This complete closure of the serous membranes explains why the con-
gestions of serum never extend beyond  the limits of their cavities  in
dropsy of the pericardium, of the pleura, of the peritoneum, and of the
tunica vaginalis testis.
   § 358. The internal face of these sacs in the normal state is always
smooth, the external is  rough, and united  to the adjacent parts by mu-
cous tissue,  at least most generally,  although there are  several excep-
tions ;  for instance, both  faces of the lower portion of the arachnoid
membrane are loose.   In fact, in the serous membranes of the second
class,  the external  face of the internal sac which looks toward the
inner  face of the external sac is smooth and loose, while the internal
face is uneven and attached  ; but this arrangement does not contradict
the law we  have established, since the internal sac is only a reflected
portion of the external.   The smoothness of all the organs which exist
in serous membranes comes only from the internal sac ; when detached,
they seem rough and covered with mucous tissue, and their surfaces
are never smooth in those  parts where, in  the normal state, the serous
membranes do  not cover them : such is the liver in several places, the
posterior face of the ascending and descending  colon, most of the pos-
terior  part of  the rectum, a large portion of the uterus, of the blad-
der, &c.
   These sacs  are always thin in proportion to their other dimensions,
but there is never a direct and constant relation between their thickness
and their capacity.  They are always more or less transparent, white,
and shining, but less so than the fibrous organs with which they are inti- 
294                     GENERAL ANATOMY.
 mately connected.  Thus the arachnoid membrane lines the internal
 face of the cerebral and of the spinal dura mater;  the pericardium is
 covered by a fibrous membrane, and when this is deficient it is supplied
 by the tendinous part of the diaphragm: the pleura is situated under
 the periosteum of the ribs and the tendons ofthe intercostal muscles ;
 the tunica vaginalis testis is  placed under the tendon of  the cremaster
 muscle ; the synovial membranes under the fibrous ligaments and upon
 the periosteum of the bones.
   § 359. The whole serous system appears to be but a slight modifi-
 cation of mucous tissue, but of a mucous tissue more dense than usual,
 and coagulated in larger layers.   This is seen from the following con-
 siderations :
   1st. From its external appearance.   Both have the same color.  If
 the mucous tissue be inflated with air, cells are produced  which cannot
 be distinguished from the serous tissue, especially from its thin portion,
 as the peritoneal coat of the intestines, the  epiploon,  the arachnoid
 membrane, &c.  So too the fibrous membranes may be converted into
 mucous  tissue by maceration, and by inflating air into the subjacent
 cellular tissue.
   2d. It is not unfrequent to find simply mucous  tissue filled  with
 synovial fluid in the place of certain parts of the synovial system.
   3d. The serous membranes, like the mucous tissue, present  a homo-
 geneous mass.: we see no trace of fibres.
   4th. Like the mucous tissue, they receive few blood-vessels, so  that
 they are  composed almost  entirely  of absorbent  and exhalent  ves-
 sels^ 1)   Mascagni thinks them formed only of  absorbents,  because
 mercury  injected  into the lymphatic system converts them into a tissue
 of these vessels;  but when the blood-vessels are injected, or when in-
 flammation, attacking the serous membranes, fills the capillaries with
 blood, the serous system becomes a tissue of blood-vessels.   In fact we
 find  numerous and considerable blood-vessels on the external surface
 of these  membranes,  but they do not enter into their  composition.
 The arachnoid membrane is entirely destitute of vessels.   The serous
membranes when exposed in  a living animal  are  colorless, and blood
does not issue from them when they are divided after death.
   5th. Like the mucous tissue they are destitute of nerves.
   6th. 'The functions  of  the mucous tissue and of the  serous mem-
branes are the same, viz. exhalation and absorption.(2) Like the mucous
tissue, the  serous membranes form around the parts  they envelop a
perfect limit, and which is more marked in them on account of the great

  (1) This is not the opinion of Rudolphi.  He says that the serous membranes have
no vessels, and that they may be easily detached from the organs which they cover,
 especially when there is a dropsical state.  If we then examine them with a micro-
scope there are no traces of vessels.  They are formed only of cellular tissue, of which
they constitute the bounds to free surfaces.  Ribes has ascertained the same fact by
 numerous dissections.                                         F. T.
  (2) According to Rudolphi they do not secrete, but only allow the perspiration
 furnished by the cellular tissue to pass through them, fulfilling in respect to it the
 same duty performed by the epidermis in regard to the perspiration ofthe skin.  Nor
 does he admit that they are porous.                               F-  T. 
          OF THE 8EROUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.       295

importance of these organs.  As all the organs are imbedded in mucous
tissue, which is  the common organ of nutrition and formation, so the
envelops of the fetus in structure and functions resemble serous mem-
branes exactly.   We may then call them the formative membranes, as
the mucous tissue has received the term of formative or generative
tissue.*
   § 360. The serous membranes possess a great degree of extensibility
and of contractility : hence they remain uninjured even when  greatly
distended by dropsies or tumors.   We must however remark, that, in
such cases, they are not only distended, but their folds are partially de-
veloped, and are a little displaced from the looseness  of the mucous
tissue which  unites them to  the adjacent  parts,  and that they really
increase in mass. Hence why, in dropsies for instance, instead of being
thinner  in proportion to the enlargement they have acquired, they are
thicker.  That the changes they experience result in great part from
a forced extension is proved by the rapid and great  diminution of their
cavities, when the substances which distend it (for instance, the serum
in dropsies) are removed; and  this diminution  takes place  without
wrinkles or folds.
   The serous membranes, properly so called,  possess these properties
in a greater degree than the synovial  capsules.  The latter are torn
when a great force acts upon them, as in dislocations ;  the former are
 distended, as in hernia.   We must not forget, however, that this differ-
 ence is mostly owing to the difference in the mode of connection with
 the subjacent parts.
   In the healthy state the serous membranes are insensible, or sensible
 only in  a slight degree; but they become highly so in diseases,  and
 when they are inflamed the pain is very acute.
    § 361.  The functions of the serous membranes are, to insulate the
 organs they envelop,  and to facilitate their motions, by rendering their
 surfaces smooth, and by exhaling a lubricating fluid, which, perhaps, in
 the normal state of the proper serous membranes, has the form of vapor,
 but is liquid in the synovial system.   Both resemble strongly, in their
 essential  properties, the serum of  the  blood: that of the proper serous
 membranes differs  but little from it:  that of the articular membranes,
 called  synovia, is  very analogous  to it, but differs from it as  we shall
 mention hereafter.  Both contain a large proportion of  water, a little
 albumen, a gelatinous substance, and several salts.(l)
    § 362. The serous membranes themselves differ in  respect to their
 external form and their texture, but more in regard to the former than
 the latter.

   * Another point of resemblance between these tissues is the similarity of the dis-
 eases which affect them. On this point Prof. Horner remarks, (Treatise on Gen.
 and Spec. Anat, vol. ii. p. 7,) " My own experience goes to prove that dropsy seldom
 manifests itself to any extent in the cellular tissue without also going to the serous
 texture and the reverse."
    (1) Hewson, On theproperties ofthe lymph contained in the different cavities ofthe
  body, in Exper. inq., ii. ch. vii.—Bostock, in Nicholson, Journal, vol. xiv. p. 147. 
296
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  Have they originally the form of closed sacs ?  This is probably not
the case with all.  We have every reason to think that the  pericardium
and the  peritoneum are at first open, for, in the early periods of exist-
ence, the heart and the viscera of the abdomen are uncovered, although
it afterwards happens that the latter, exposed as before, are still co-
vered by a prolongation of the peritoneum which accompanies them.
  The form of the serous membranes varies at different periods of life;
they disappear in some parts, and are developed in others ;  these dif-
ferences depend on the changes which supervene in the situation of the
organs within their cavities.   Thus  the fold of the peritoneum which
at first traverses the umbilical ring  disappears in time, while another
forms and engages itself in the inguinal ring, when the testicle begins
to descend from the abdomen into the scrotum.   Even the number of
the serous membranes,  considered as so many distinct sacs,  varies  at
different  periods  of life.   Thus the  tunica vaginalis testis is  at first a
continuation ofthe peritoneum, but sometime after birth the upper part
is obliterated, and two separate cavities are formed, the peritoneal and
the vaginal.
  The tissue of the serous membranes is more uniform ;  except that,
like all the organs,  they are at first more loosely attached to the ad-
jacent parts, whence they  are more easily insulated in the early pe-
riods  of hfe.   This arrangement  is not always applicable, except  to
their external fold: it does not extend,  at least in all cases, to  their
internal and  reflected layer.  Thus we cannot detach the serous mem-
branes from the tunica albuginea and from the articular capsules with
greater facility in the fetus than in the adult.
  The characters ofthe fluid they exhale probably vary as do those of
all others in  the course of life, that is, it is thinner and more watery  in
youth than in advanced age.  This conclusion  is drawn from comparing
the results of analyses made by Bostock and Hewson.   The latter
states the fluid to be albuminous and gelatinous,  the former that it re-
sembles fibrin.

         B.   OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

  § 363. The serous membranes present remarkable anomalies in form
and in texture.  The primitive deviations of formation are somewhat
rare.  They consist usually in ihe suspension of development—such as,
1st, the absence of a portion of these membranes, especially the peri-
cardium, the pleura, and the peritoneum, when the heart, the viscera
of the thorax and abdomen  are exposed ; 2d, the abnormal communi-
cation between different serous membranes,  the  cavities of which are
not properly  united,  except during the earliest periods of life.  To this
we refer  particularly the communication existing between the tunica
vaginalis  and the peritoneum, when the canal  between them is not
effaced, and which  is occasionally the  cause of congenital inguinal
hernia.
  But other primitive deviations of  formation also occur.  As, for in-
stance, the existence of  a  serous sac within the proper sac, communi- 
          OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.      297

 eating with it by a more or less narrow opening,  and inclosing a por-
 tion of viscus which is generally at hberty and which separates it from
 the rest.  This phenomenon has been observed only in the peritoneum,
 and it is curious, as being essentially the abnormal repetition of a nor-
 mal formation.
   The  serous membranes are liable to accidental deviations of forma-
 tion,  as they take  part in  hernia.   Here  a portion  of serous mem-
 brane generally detaches itself from the parietes of the cavity to which
 it adheres, passes across a separation which, is naturally broad, or is
 enlarged by the action of an external cause, and thus forms a sac called
 the  hernial sac, (saccus  hernis,) into which penetrate  some  of the
 viscera lodged in its cavity and covered by its membrane. This latter is
 rarely torn, and the viscera seldom protrude  unless preceded by  it, and
 it is unfrequent for the hernia to have no  sac ; this case happens only
 after great violence, and even then the hernia occurs only in certain
 places,  for instance in the upper wall of the  peritoneum.  The her-
 nial sac also is rarely ruptured or  opened  by the effects of  previous
 disease, so as to  permit the viscera inclosed by it   to be in immediate
 contact with the common integuments.   The  peritoneum only is sub-
 ject to these different accidents, because,  of all the serous membranes,
 it adheres the least to the parietes  of its cavity, and also because the
 parietes of the abdomen are less protected by the  bones than those of
 the other two splanchnic cavities, and cannot resist the efforts  of exter-
 nal agents so powerfully.
   The serous membranes are not unfrequently distended extremely by
 the  fluid they exhale.   This fluid often accumulates in very great
 quantity, and constitutes the different kinds of dropsy (hydrops.)  Here,
 the animal substance is thin,and generally less abundant,so that the fluid
 of dropsy may be regarded as the serum of the blood, which has lost
 from two thirds to four fifths of its albumen ;  however, the proportion of
 this substance is  sometimes very much  increased, doubtless, on ac-
 count ofthe absorption ofthe watery portion.(l)
   § 364.  The other changes  in the forms  of the serous membranes
 are,  the  results  of morbid affections, and especially of inflammation,
 which often affects them.(2)  Inflammation of the serous membranes
 tends to terminate by effusion into their substance  which  results in a
 thickening, or by effusion on their surfaces, which causes a mutual ad-
 hesion of the corresponding faces of the external and internal sacs, al-

  (1) Schreger, Fluidorum  corporis  animalis chemica? ]nosologicce specimen, Er-
 langen, 1800, p. 16-24.—Marcet, A chemical  account of various dropsical fluids ;
 in the Edinb. med. and surg. trans.—Berzelius, On animal fluids; Med. chir.
 trans., vol. ii., p. 251-253.—Bostock, On the nature and analysis of animal fluids,
 ibid., vol. iv., p. 52.
  (2) Rudolphi maintains that  inflammation is not situated in these membranes,
 but in the organs they cover ; that they cannot inflame any more than the epidermis;
 and that  pleuritis,  pericarditis, and peritonitis are inflammations of the surface of
 the lungs, heart, and abdominal viscera, &c.  Chaussier and Ribes entertain simi-
 lar opinions.  If serous inflammations be,  in fact,  only inflammation of the sub-
visceral mucous tissue, we can conceive ofthe rapidity, the intensity, and the danger of
these inflammations, and the  abundant products they furnish.          F. T.
  Vol.  I.                      38 
298
GENERAL ANATOMY.
though the membrane is not destroyed by suppuration.  These adhe-
sions vary much in extent,  solidity, structure, and number.   Some-
times they cover the whole  surface of the serous membrane and the
parts it envelops, so that  it  becomes almost impossible to distinguish
the latter from each other, and one is induced to believe there is no ex-
ternal sac; sometimes they are confined to one or a few points ofthe ex-
ternal and internal sacs, whence only the organs situated in those places
adhere.  They may, too, become very intimate, even to a degree that
where the united part? seem to make only one,  or very loose and easily
broken.  Finally, the adhesions are sometimes very short, and some-
times  long ;  in the latter case  they form cords, ligaments, and mem-
branes, termed generally false membranes (pseudo-membrans), which
in nature more  or less resemble  that  of the serous membranes, and
which are often attended with fatal results, particularly when they are
developed in very movable points or parts which may glide into  the
rings they produce, as in  the intestines.(l)
   Farther, these  adhesions  probably take place only after inflamma-
tion, and are never primitive, although Bichat admits the contrary in
regard to some perfectly organized ligaments, often found between the
external and the internal sac of the pleura, and which are evidently
composed of two folds fitted to each other, and although Tioch(2) main-
tains this opinion, in regard to some analogous hgaments  situated be-
tween the heart and the pericardium, because they resemble those pre-
sented by the hearts of several reptiles in their normal state.   It is cer-
tain, at least, that the most perfect organization of these  appendages
is not sufficient to justify this opinion, because, parts which have a more
perfect organization, as bones, teeth,  and even whole serous mem-
branes, are often developed by a vital act, which does not differ essen-
tially from inflammation.
   We do not observe the saire form in all the alterations in texture of
the sero' s membranes which result from inflammation, end are charac-
terized by the thickening of their substance.  Thus, in the internal sac
of the pericardium, broad smooth layers  appear,  which are termed
macula cordis, and in the peritoneum numerous small, -hard, round ele-
vation' very analogous with the miliary eruption.
   §  365. The serous system tends much to ossify, and in this relation
presents the same differences as in that of adhesion.   Sometimes, in
fact, the substance of the  membrane ossifies;  sometimes  smooth anl
usually round bodies, varying  in number and size,  form on its sur-
face,  these are more or less loose, and are often entirely detached
from the membrane and float  freely in  its cavity.   These phenomena
are common to all the serous membranes, although found in some more
frequently than in others.  Tin s, that portion of the peritoneum which
covers the spleen, is, of  all others, the most  disposed to ossify; next
comes the internal sac of the tunica vaginalis testis ; the others, except

          (1) Villerme, Vraite desfausses membranes.  Paris, 1814..
          (2) Mem. de Montpellier, vol. ii, p. 351. 
OF THE SEROUS SYSTEM IN THB ABNORMAL STATE.
299
   the  tunica arachnoidea which rarely ossifies, differ little from each
   other in this respect.
     These accidental ossifications almost always have the form of broad
   layers and often become,  especially in  the spleen, very large so that
   even the proper substance is frequently entirely concealed   The syno
   vial  membranes ossify less frequently; still, however, as their internal
   sac identifies itself with the articular cartilages, we may say that they
   become cartilagmous even in their normal slate, and that ossificalion of
   the proper serous membrane is only an abnormal repetition ofthe nor-
   mal  state of the synovial membrane.
    It  is not uncommon to see developed in the substance ofthe synovial
  membranes different osseous concretions, which are often found in con-
  siderable number in these organs, and  more frequently in the bursas
  mucosae.   These concretions do not, however, belong  to them exclu-
  sively, for they occur also in the proper serous membranes, particularly
  m the tunica vaginalis testis, and sometimes, although less frequently,
  in the pentoneum, in the pleura,  and  in  those parts of the arachnoid
  membrane, which are blended with the dura mater.
    Most usually, and even almost always, these loose osseous concre-
  tions  arise as we have  stated.  Sometimes they may be loose  primi-
  tively, and be developed in the blood,  or  in  another fluid effused into
  the articulation by some external  injury, but even then, we have rea-
  son to think that a connection between the effused blood and  the syno-
  vial membrane was established before the bone was developed.   The
  formation of these concretions in the serous membranes, which are not
  m relation with the bones, proves, at least, that the  adjacent extremi-
  ties of the latter have no influence, as Hunter thought, on the change
  ofthe effused fluid into osseous substance.
    Besides these  anomalies, which are somewhat  frequent,  there are
  others more rare ;  such as the development of loose, soft processes
  several lines long on the internal  face of  the  synovial capsule ofthe
  knee-joint, of which we have a  specimen before us ; perhaps, however,
  it is only the first stage leading to the formation of the osseous concre-
 tions which we have already mentioned.
    § 366.  The serous tissue  is  one of those which has the greatest
 tendency to abnormal repetition in the body.  The accidental serous
 membranes are  often the foundations  of other abnormal formations,
 since they are developed before  them,  and give rise to them.  They
 have been  called cysts (cystic),  and encysted tumors  (tumores cystici),
 and have all the essential characters  of  serous  membranes.   They
 constantly form perfectly closed sacs, smooth internally and rough ex-
 ternally.   They are produced by mucous tissue, have but few blood-
 vessels, and fulfill the same functions as the proper serous membranes,
 although the substances within  them are not  always of  the same na-
 ture as the serous fluid, and are  not always liquid.
   Probably these cysts are not developed, as is  generally thought
 mechanically, by an effusion compressing the cellular tissue returning
again on itself, and thus changing into membrane.  Bichat  has al- 
300
fcENERAL ANATOMY.
 ready contested this theory, by stating that the cysts are most analogous
 to the serous membranes :  that the secretion continues  to take  place
 within  them, while  compression  would probably  make them im-
 pervious :  that the cellular tissue does not diminish around them, and
 that we must suppose from the hypothesis admitted,  that the secreted
 fluid exists before  the secretory organ.   He thinks these  organs are
 formed, dike all others, in  the mucous tissue, and that exhalation does
 not commence within them  until their  structure is  completely deve-
 loped.   However, it cannot be denied, that  the formation of the cyst
 has not been preceded by the effusion of a fluid into the mucous tissue ;
 the cyst,  however,  does  not  develop itself, because this  fluid com-
 presses  the  surrounding mucous tissue, but  it is formed at its own ex-
 pense ; because it has the power of organizing itself.   This theory ap-
 pears  very probable on account of the analogy of structure and forma-
 tion existing between the mucous tissue and the serous membranes,
 and because of the pathological phenomena by which the cysts are
 developed.   In fact, we not unusually find either in the cavities of the
 normal serous membranes, or in the accidental cysts, an immense num-
 ber of small  loose cysts which have no trace of former adhesion, and
 which are filled with a serous fluid, which is generally limpid.  These
 small  cysts  called  hydatids(l) (hydatides), are usually surrounded
 with an analogous liquid.   They are  evidently formed only at the ex-
 pense  of the fluid effused in the cavity of the serous membrane, by its
 separation into a solid and a fluid portion.  According as this fluid is
 effused into the mucous tissue, or  into a serous membrane, the cysts
 which arise  from it, unite  to the adjacent  parts  by the surrounding
 cellular  tissue, and  receive blood-vessels or  remain loose and without
 any adhesion. The serous membranes tend more than any other or-
 gan to produce these different kinds of cysts, and even when they seem
 to be developed in the substance of the viscera,  as, for instance in the
 liver, which is sometimes  entirely destroyed, their development pro-
 bably  commences by the  portion  of peritoneum which  covers  them,
 for we always find them on its surface,  and on  some part of their cir-
 cumference.
  (1) These cysts have been termed accphalocysts by  Laennec, who  considers them
 as animals, an opinion which Cuvier and Rudolphi do not adopt.  These naturalists
 and their followers assert, that the accphalocysts exhibit no appearance of vitality ;
 but even when it is granted that they do not enjoy an existence independent of that
 ofthe living bodies in which they occur, they are not the less irritable, like all living
 parts, and we cannot conceive them otherwise. Besides we have no doubt but these
 vesicular productions are produced by inflammation. Veit long ago proposed this
theory, (Einige Anmerkungen uber die Entstehuvg der Hydaiden, in Reil, Archiv fur
 die Physiologie, vol. ii., 1797, p. 436,) which G. Jager has since developed.  (Beo-
 bachtungen iiber H'ultenwiirmer im Menschen und einigen Sdugthieren ; in Meckel,
 Deutsches Archiv fur die Physiologie, vol. vi., p. 495.)  He has thus given an ex-
 perimental base of the doctrine of the spontaneous generation of intestinal worms,
 which Rudolphi and Bremser,assuming reasoning and analogy as guides,have adopt-
 ed as the only one which harmonizes with the present state of our knowledge of animal
 physiology and general physics.  In fact, the accphalocysts lead insensibly to the
proper entozaries by the echinococci, which naturalists no  longer recognize as in-
 testinal worms, notwithstanding the  special organs with which they are provided,
 and which differ but slightly from the ccenurus, which all herminthologists object to
place in their catalogue.                                          F. T. 
OF THE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES IN THE NORMAL STATE.    301
                    ARTICLE  SECOND.

         SPECIAL REMARKS ON THE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES.

       A.  OF THE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES IN THE NORMAL STATE.

  §367. The synovial capsules and the burss mucoss(l) present all
the essential characters  of the proper  serous membranes in  regard to
form and functions, as Munro, Gerlach, and Bichat  had already re-
marked.  But they differ in certain respects so much as  to deserve to
be studied  separately ; and they are  so similar to each other,  that
we had better embrace them all in a general description. They may be
termed, collectively, the synovial membranes. The principal characters
which belong to them all, and in which they  differ from the  serous
membranes, are as follows :
   1st. Their relations with the adjacent parts.   They  are,, at  least
generally, united to bone in a part of their circumference,  and this bone
is cartilaginous where they adhere.  They are more closely connected
with the cartilage than the serous membranes are with the parts which
they cover.
   2d.  Their  texture.   It  is very common to  see a particular  kind of
corpuscles which project within their cavity.   In fact  these corpuscles
do not exist in all the synovial membranes, nor in all the bursae mucosae,
but they are  found constantly in several.   They are very vascular
masses,  and of course very red,  especially at  the end which is unat-
tached, slightly hard,  of different forms, and they are inclosed in the
special folds of the membrane, while  their loose extremity is  almost
always fringed.  Those met with in the articular capsules are usually
protected from all external pressure, being situated in the depressions
of the bones.   These latter however always press slightly upon them
when they  move.   In some joints, as the hip-joint, there is only one,
while several are found in others, as in the knee- and  the elbow-joints,
   These corpuscles are termed  Haver's glands (glandids mucilagi-
noss),  because  Havers  first  called  the  attention of anatomists to
them (2) although Cowper had already mentioned some of them.   He
considered their structure to be glandular, and their function to secrete
synovia.  Beside these bodies which project  into the cavities of the

  (1) Jancke,  De capsulis tendinum articularibus, Leipsic, 1753.—Fourcroy, Six
Memoires pour servir a Vhist  anat. des tendons, dans lesquels on s'occvpe speciale*
mentde leurs capsules muqueuses, in Mem. de Paris,  1785-1788.—A.  Monro De-
scription of all the bursa mucosa of the human body, Edinburgh, 1788.—Koch and
Eysold, De bursis tendinum mucosis, Wittenberg,  1789.—Nurnberger and  Gerlach,
De bursis tendinum mucosis in capite et collo  reperiundis, Wittenberg, 17y.J.-Hoch,
De morbis bursarum tendinum mucosarum, Leipsic, 1790.—Rosenmuller,  Ycones et
descript bursarum mucosarum corporis humani, Leipsic, 1799.—brodie, fat ttoiogxcai
researches respecting the diseases of the joints, in the Lond. med. chir. trans., vol. iv,
and v., 1813,1814.
  (1) Osteologia nova, London, 1691: 
302
GENERAL ANATOMY.
articular capsules, we find others on their external face in the surround-
ing mucous tissue.
   It  is not probable that the glands of Havers are only masses of fat,
and that they  secrete synovia, although Portal(l) still maintains this
opinion.   The great number of vessels they receive, their situation, and
the mucous fluid which exudes from them when they are compressed,
do not authorize us to admit it,  as there are several strong reasons
against it.   In fact:
   a.  Secretion takes  place in the serous membranes, although they
have  no apparatus like that in the glands of Havers.
   b.  These bodies exist  only in a few synovial membranes : they are
very rarely found in the tendinous bursae.  Synovia however is secreted
every where.
   c. Their structure does not differ from that of ordinary mucous tissue
filled  with fat.  They are  not  glandular, and although they have a
considerable volume, we see no  appearance of an excretory duct.
   d.  We find in some parts in the serous membranes analogous pro-
longations which are  only masses of mucous tissue filled with fat or
serum; such are the epiploic appendices of the colon and those of the
upper extremity of the testicle.
   3d. We cannot question the analogy between the articular capsules
and the bursae mucosa, although these organs sometimes open into
each  other.   This appears not  unfrequently in the shoulder-, the hip-,
and the knee-joint, and almost always occurs in the last  two  articula-
tions.   The adjacent  bursa? mucosae also frequently open  into  each
other, and the masses of fat of the articular capsules often project into
the adjacent bursae mucosae.   It is asserted  that this arrangement
occurs more frequently in old subjects, so that this  communication is
attributed to the destruction of the parts which would otherwise serve
as a  barrier  between the two cavities,  but this theory is not correct.
In all cases this  communication  proves that  there is a  resemblance
between the organs, without being attended with inconvenience.  Cer-
tain articular capsules  perform at the same  time the duties of bursa;
mucosa?, as they adhere to  tendons in a part of their circumference, as
do for instance those of the knee and of the shoulder with the tendons of
the triceps femoris and the  biceps  flexor cubiti.
   4th. The nature of the fluid contained in these membranes is always
the same, even when they communicate together.  This fluid is slight-
ly viscous, and its physical properties resemble the white of an  egg.
In man it has not yet been analyzed: but the analyses of that of the
ox  made  by Margueron(2) and  Davy(3) do not agree at all in the
proportions of their constituent elements, but both state that there is a
great proportion of water,  a large quantity of albumen, gelatin, ofthe
hydrochlorates, of the phosphates,  and of soda.
   5th. The same  resemblance exists in regard  to their diseases, viz.
the dropsy, the thickening, and the solidifying of the substance they con-

  (l) Anat Medicate, vol. i. p. 62.
  (2) Annates de Chimie, vol. xiv.
  (3) Monro,  Outlines of anatomy, Edinburgh, 1813, vol. i. p. 79-81. 
        OF THE SYNOVIAL CAPSULES IN TIIE NORMAL STATE.     303

tain.   There is one, especially the formation of cartilage, and of bona
within them, which establishes a greater similarity°between  these
organs than between the serous membianes;  for in regard to the fre-
quency of this anomaly, the  bursae mucosae are more allied to the arti-
cular capsules than are the serous membranes.
  § 368. We have already stated the principal modifications in the
form of the  synovial membranes (§ 354).  Most of the articular cap-
sules form  simple sacs.   However there  are  some  where the
sacs are double, because an intermediate cartilage is found  between
the corresponding extremities of two bones: this is seen in the temporo-
maxillary,  the  sterno-clavicular,  and  the femoro-tibial  joints, &c.
We usually find only one synovial membrane  between two bones.  In
some parts,  as for instance  in  the wrist, they unite a whole series  of
bones blended, if we may so speak, in a single articular surface by
ligaments stretched from one to another.
   § 369.  The  bursae mucosae, with a more complex form  (§ 334),
may be called mucous sheaths  (burss mucoss vaginales), and those of
a simple form, vesicular burss (burss mucoss vesicular es).   A  general
remark in regard to both is, that they adheie in a part of their circum-
ference to a tendon, and by the opposite face to a bone, which in this part
has no  cartilage,  to  another tendon, or finally to a fibrous ligament.
On both sides  they are  intimately united to  the organs below them,
and the rest of their circumference is surrounded by  a loose and abund-
ant cellular tissue.
   The  mucous sheaths are cylindrical, and completely envelop that
portion of the tendon which they touch, and are,  properly speaking,
formed like the serous membranes of two sacs ; the  internal sac which
is smaller surrounds the tendon, while the external sac which is larger
covers the  adjacent parts and  blends, opposite the  tendon, with that
portion of bone not covered by cartilage  on which the tendon  glides.
   They are generally found in the course of long thin tendons, conse-
quently in the extensors and flexors, especially of the fingers and toes.
They surround the circumference of the tendon,  but they extend a
greater or less distance  along these parts, like  the  vesicular bursae.
The tendons of several  muscles  are frequently enveloped,  especially
in the  joints  of the hand and foot, in a common sheath, which often
presents as many folds and divisions as  there  are  tendons, so that
the general sheath is more or less completely  divided into a number of
special  sheaths, from  whence several prolongations are afterwards
detached  to  accompany each tendon.   We also find  in particular
sheaths small prolongations which proceed from that part of their cir-
cumference which is adjusted to the bone, to the tendon, and are called
mucous ligaments  (ligamenta tendinum mucosa).   These processes
serve only to increase that of the exhaling surface.  There are no fatty
masses fringed upon their free extremity which float in the cavity of the
mucous sheaths, although fat  is often collected in their  surrounding
cellular tissue.
   The mucous sheaths are much thinner and more delicate than the
vesicular bursae, but they are always surrounded with dense and solid 
304
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 fibrous  ligaments, called  tendinous sheaths, which are protected  by
 osseous  canals, while  the vesicular bursa?  are exposed, and  only
 strengthened in a few instances by a fibrous substance extended on
 their surface.
    § 370.  The  vesicular bursae are  round.   They never  surround a
 tendon completely, but only cover that face of it which is turned toward
 the bone,  and consequently form simple sacs which  are more easily
 detached without laceration from all  the parts to which they are con-
 nected.  These characters apply particularly to those which are placed
 between two tendons.  These bursae are  most generally placed be-
 tween the tendons and the bones, where the former are applied directly
 to the  latter, consequently almost always near their insertion.   But
 they are sometimes observed on the external  face of the tendon;  as
 happens for instance to the tendons of  the supraspinatus and of the
 infraspinatus muscles.
   These vesicular bursae are not only fixed to the bones and the ten-
 dons, but  they  are found also between two bones which  move on one
 another, between a synovial capsule and an apophysis of bone, between
 two portions of muscles, and even in the substance ofthe tendons: the
 last case is perhaps only an anomaly.  The third  is  sometimes pre-
 sented between the two layers of the masseter muscle.  The vesicular
 bursae placed between the coracoid process of the scapula, and the clavi-
 cle is an example ofthe first.   These bursae are properly speaking only
 articular capsules: they present a peremptory argument in favor of their
 identity  with  the  synovial  capsules,  since they demonstrate that the
 most simple form of the synovial membranes appears also in the articu-
 lar capsules.
   These bursae  are mostly simple : sometimes however  a small  one
 exists within the cavity of a large one,  as is  the case between  the
 tendon of the semi-membranosus and the inner head of the  triceps surae.
 So the tendon of a muscle has usually only one vesicular bursa ;  but  '
 in certain cases,  as in the masseter muscle,  the subscapularis muscle,
 &c, we observe  several.
   The vesicular bursae are found more particularly around the large
 articulations surrounded with short and broad tendons, especially in the
 shoulder-joint, the hip-joint,  the  knee-joint, and  the  elbow-joint.  We
 not only find within many,  as the mucous sheaths,  ligamentous  pro-
 cesses which often form a reticular  tissue on their internal  face ; but
 also we  often see, as occurs in the capsules of the joints, masses of fat
 which float loosely and are more or less fringed  on their edge.
   § 371* The synovial membranes are proportionally more extensive
 in the early than in the later periods of life.   In age they become more
 dry, firm, and hard, and secrete less synovial fluid.  The cellular tissue
 which surrounds them, as occurs in all other parts, is looser in infancy
 and youth, so  that at this  period theyrare more easily  detached from
 the adjacent parts.  The articular capsules and the bursae  mucosae are
not similar in regard to their number at different periods  of life : for the
number  of  the former  remains always the same, if we except the acci- 
     OF THE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES IN THE ABNORMAL 8TA.TE.  305

dental disappearance of  some small capsules, while that of the bursas
mucosae is always greater in young than in old persons.  The com-
munication existing between several of the synovial membranes also
differs at different periods of hfe; for, in the latter periods of life, the
bursae mucosae  seem to  communicate, either with each other or with
the synovial capsules, more frequently than in young subjects, because
continued friction destroys them, directly  or indirectly, in a portion of
their extent.


      B.  OF THE SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE8 IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

   § 372. The  anomalies  of  the synovial membranes are, 1st, their
absence, which is rare, and of which  only the bursas mucosae present
instances.
   These bursae are sometimes deficient in those parts where we are
accustomed to find them in the normal state, and are then replaced by
mucous tissue.
   As to the consecutive and accidental deviations of formation, these
are the lacerations which occur in dislocations.
   Sometimes we find these organs flabby and  distended, either primi-
tively or from too great an accumulation of synovia.  This latter state
constitutes what is termed hydrops articuli, which is never, unless acci-
dentally, complicated with the dropsy of the serous membranes.
   The synovial membranes of the joints often inflame ;(1) but inflamma-
tion in them is  mUch more rare  and its progress is generally slower
than in the serous membranes  Its effect is to increase and to change
the secretion, and  to thicken the membrane so that it sometimes ac-
quires a  cartilaginous hardness which extends to the surrounding
mucous tissue, and is attended with the adhesion of its parietes, while
its cavity is obliterated, although this latter consequence almost always
results from suppuration only.   When an ulcer is formed, the synovial
membrane is early or late protruded.
   We may, in  accordance with Brodie, consider the  change of the
synovial membrane into  a pultaceous mass of a bright brown streaked
with white,  as a disease peculiar to them, which attacks neither the
tendinous sheaths nor the serous membranes.   This is often half an
inch thick, and  gradually extends to all parts of the joint, and becomes
a destructive suppuration.
   Chronic inflammation with suppuration, and the change which we
have  mentioned, are doubtless the most common of what are termed
white swellings.  In the suppurations and morbid changes described
under this term, cysts are not unfrequently developed containing fluids
of different  kinds,  a remarkable phenomenon, as it is a  repetition of
the tissue in which the disease is situated.

  (1) Koch, De morbis bursarum tendinum mucosarum^ Leipsic, 1790.
  (2) Loc. cit., On cases where the synovial membrane has undergone a morbid
change of structure.
   Vol. I.                      39 
306
GENERAL ANATOMT.
   We have already mentioned  the  cartilaginous and osseous concre-
tions accidentally formed in the serous membranes (§254 and§ 270).(1)
The knee-joint is that in which all the changes which have been made
the subject of inquiry occur most frequently.
   The synovial system is  almost the exclusive seat of gouty concre-
tions.   These are hard, uneven, whitish substances, which are effused
in the form of a fluid during or between fits of the gout.  They gra-
dually harden,  and sometimes become large.  They have not always
the same situation, for they are frequently found within  the articular
capsules and the bursa? mucosae;  they appear not unfrequently in the
surrounding mucous tissue, or even between the dermis and the  epi-
dermis.   They are usually  composed of urate of soda.(2)   It would be
well to examine if the white earthy layer which sometimes forms in
the place of cartilage  destroyed by the gout, be not also urate of
spda.(3)
   § 373. Synovial membranes are  sometimes developed accidentally:
this phenomenon is observed in  the articular capsules, particularly,
   1st.  After unreduced dislocations.  In this case, as a new articular
cavity is formed, even when the old capsule is not torn, which almost
always happens, a new capsuleis developed, which is smooth within, ex-
hales synovia, and extends  from  one bone to  another, and is only a
httle thicker, less pellucid, and less brilliant, than usual.
   2d. After fractures.  Here the formation of a new capsule is not a
rare phenomenon.  It takes place particularly when the fractured part
has been moved.   Hence it is observed  so  often after the fracture
of the  ribs ;  then the fragments of  bone  do not reunite ;  they become
round and smooth, like the articular surfaces; and a perfectly close cap-
sule is developed around them, which exhales a fluid very analogous to
synovia.   Sometimes Havers' glands are  formed  in these accidental
capsules.  However, a new capsule is not constantly developed, and
then the synovia comes from the remnant of the old membrane which
has been torn.(4)   Sometimes  also accidental tendinous sheaths are
formed  ; these  are more common than the abnormal articular capsules.
They are real cysts, which  do not differ from the others except in con-
taining a fluid analogous  to synovia and often thicker than it.  They
are called ganglions.(5)   They are generally considered  as abnormal
congestions of the synovia altered in the bursa? mucosae which existed

  (1) See our Pathological Anatomy, vol. ii.
  (2) Wollaston, in Horkel, Archiv fur die thierische Chemie, part i. p. 147.—Four-
croy, Connais. chim., vol. x. p. 267.—Moore, Of gouty concretions or chalk-stones, in
the Med. chir. trans., vol. i. p. 112.  Lambert has also found some urate of lime.
  (3) Brodie, in the Med. chir. trans., vol. iv. p. 276.
  (4) Thomson, Lectures on inflammation, Edinburgh, 1813.
  (5) J. Cloquet says (Note sur les ganglions, in the Archiv. gener. de med., vol. iv.
p. 232) that the walls of these  tumors are  usually very thin, semi-transparent,  and
possess capillary blood-vessels; that the liquid they contain  is usually diaphanous,
sometimes very limpid, and sometimes like a reddish, thick jelly, which runs with
difficulty;  finally, that we not unfrequently find in this liquid a greater or lees num-
ber of foreign bodies, which float loosely,  and appear to be real fibro-cartilaginoui
concretions. These bodies are white, elastic, and variable in figure; some adhere
by a very narrow membranous peduncle, and others are unattached.     F. T. 
        OF THE CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     307

primitively; but they are found so often in those  parts where bursae
mucosae do not normally exist, that they must  be  regarded, in many
cases at least," as real accidental formations.
                          SECTION  X.

                  OF THE CUTANEOUS SYSTEM.

                      ARTICLE  FIRST.

              OF THE CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAL.

                         A. NORMAL STATE.

   §374. The cutaneous  system (sysiema  cutaneum) (1) forms a sac
 which constitutes a general envelop to all the other organs.   It may be
 divided into two large sections, the external and the internal cutaneous
 system.    The former is usually termed the skin (cutis) or the common
 integuments (tegumenta communia).   The second is the system of the
 mucous membranes (membrans mucoss).  Although they differ much,
 they are only modifications of one and the same type, as they are un-
 interruptedly continous with each other and in fact are similar in form,
 in composition, in qualities, and in functions.
   § 375.  The external form of this system is that of a sac turned on
 itself, andconsequently double.   From this arrangement openings are
 formed  both in the upper and in  the  lower  half  of the body, by
 which the external  and the internal cutaneous  systems  communi-
 cate and are  continuous with  each other.(2)   These openings gene-
 rally lead  into the chief portion of the mucous  membranes.   The
 latter form a tube which extends the  whole length  of the head and
 the trunk, and is  called the alimentary canal.  This canal, which has
 appendages in several parts which give rise to most of the viscera, pre-
 sents above the openings of the mouth and nose, and below that of the
 anus.   This part of the internal cutaneous system extends above the
 diaphragm into the cavity of the nose and that of the mouth, and also
 to their appendages, the salivary glands, and continues by the  nasal
 canal, with a small process  in form of cul-de-sac, comprising the  tunica
 conjunctiva and the lachrymal ducts.  The mucous membranes of the
 nose and mouth reunite in  the  pharynx, forming  one, which divides
 lower down into two branches, the anterior for  the  trachea  and the
 lungs, the posterior for the alimentary canal.  -The internal membrane
 of the respiratory system is the  largest cul-de-sac  presented by the
internal  cutaneous system  at its upper part.   The  posterior branch
 gives off another to the internal ear.  Below the diaphragm it furnishes

  (1) Willbrand, Das Hautsystem in alien seinen Verzweigungen, Gieasen, 1813.—
Hebreard, Memoire sur Vanalogic qui existe entre les systemes muqueux et dermoide,
ia the Mem. de lasoc. med. d'emulation, vol. viii. p. 153.
  (2) A.Bonn, Decontinuationibusmembranarum, 1763. 
308
GENERAL ANATOMY.
new culs-de-sac, which ramify, and extend to the liver and pancreas.
Forming then the most internal layer of the alimentary canal, it ter-
minates in the anus, where it^ is continuous with the external cutaneous
system.
  Besides this general internal cutaneous system, we find others also,
both in the upper and the lower parts of the body, which only repre-
sent branches ofthe culs-de-sac : these are, 1st, the internal membrane
ofthe meatus auditorius externus ; 2d, that  which covers the internal
face of the eyelids, the  anterior face of the eye, and the lachrymal
ducts ;  3d, the mammary glands ; 4th, the mucous membranes of the
genital and urinary systems, which commence by a common opening.
  It is impossible to overlook  the gradation which exists from the ab-
solute insulation of some parts of the internal cutaneous system, to its
perfect union  in a single  organ.  The general system of  the mucous
membranes of the upper and lower parts of the body, of which we can
in imagination place the  origin in the mouth and intestinal canal, forms
an uninterrupted cavity.  That of the eye communicates with it only
by a narrow channel, but is not insulated from it, unless after leaving
the class of reptiles.  That of the mouth and of the meatus auditorius
externus are  connected with  each other in the membrane of the tym-
panum,  but  they  do not  form one cavity.   The membrane between
the  orifice of the genital organs and the anus so much resem-
bles a mucous membrane in  its softness and its  abundant secretion
that we are almost authorized to say it unites the  two openings, and
really blends  them in one.   Finally,  the mucous membrane of the
mammary glands is  the only one which is wholly distinct from  the
general internal cutaneous system.
  § 376. The whole cutaneous system is  then formed of two large
canals, one narrow and provided'with appendages inform of culs-de-sac,
the intestinal canal ; the  other broader, the common integuments,
which  also possesses some processes in cul-de-sac, which  proceed
internally.  It every where presents two surfaces,  one  of which is
loose, the other  adherent.  In the common integuments, the loose sur-
face is external, and the  other internal:  the contrary  is the case in the
mucous membranes.  Thence it follows that we may consider the two
sections of the system as two  canals, one of which would be folded on
itself.
  The internal face of  the cutaneous system is attached directly or
indirectly to the muscles  by a short cellular tissue.   With the external
system this union is generally direct; for the aponeuroses  are almost
always interposed between the muscles and  its  internal face, so that
the functions of the muscles it covers are rarely in relation with its own.
With the internal system, on the contrary, it is direct; for the mucous
membrane is separated from the muscular membrane only by cellular
tissue, which  is  the same as itself in regard to structure and functions,
The external  cutaneous  system envelops  the voluntary muscles ;  the
internal circumscribes most of  the involuntary or hollow muscles. 
        OF THE CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     309

  The loose surface of the cutaneous system everywhere forms folds,
projections, and depressions of different kinds, which increase its extent
more or less permanently.
  § 377. In considering the cutaneous system as a sac folded several  -
times on itself, we do not propose to give a history of the origin of the dif-
ferent parts  of the skin, nor to pretend  that the different excavations
are hollowed from without inward, in the midst of a  mass which is at
first sohd and homogeneous, so that the upper and lower cavities  of the
intestinal canal meet half-way, while the others not extending so far
would still preserve their  appearance of cul-de-sac.   There are some
facts which seem to favor this hypothesis.  Thus the openings do not
at first exist, until about the  sixteenth week of uterine existence, and
the upper and lower portions of the intestinal canal which are separated
from each other not unfrequently form a cul-de-sac,  each on its side.
But these phenomena do not  prove that  the  internal portions of the
cutaneous system  arise from the prolongation of the external inward.
We can also explain satisfactorily the non-existence of openings in the
commencement without having recourse to this hypothesis,  and by
admitting that the skin gradually tears in the place where they exist
by the progress of  the formation of  the cavities proceeding from within
outward.   This manner of viewing the subject appears  more accurate
than the other, since in regard to the second argument favorable  to the
latter:  1st. The place where the separation exists between the  upper
and the lower extremities of the intestinal canal is not always the same ;
being often situated in a very distant part; it is usually connected with
one extremity only, most frequently the lower, and consequently in this
case it would follow that  the internal portion of the skin  is not deve-
loped except from a single opening.  2d. The upper and the  lower
extremities not  unfrequently do not exist, and we find several perfora-
tions along the passage  of the internal portion of the skin.   3d. The
same  arrangement is observed in other processes of the skin,  termi-
nating also in cul-de-sac,  as in the urinary apparatus and the genital
system, where,  if we except the closed extremity, the extent of which'
is frequently considerable, it not unfrequently happens that the internal
and the external parts are perfectly developed, while, according  to the
above mentioned hypothesis, their formation should have been arrested
where  the intermediate  partition exists.  It is more correct then to
admit that the internal part of the skin is formed from within outward :
that it  probably takes its departure from several different points; that
these join  as they are developed and then unite to the common integu-
ments, making with them an entire whole.
  § 378. The cutaneous  system is  essentially composed of several
layers which may be  considered as so many separate systems or only
as the different  parts of the same system.  It seems more convenient
to follow this latter method, because by it we  arrive at a better know-
ledge ofthe whole system. These different layers are,  1st, the derma
(derma, corium);  2d,  the  papillary tissue (textus papillaris); 3d, the
fete mucosum (rete J\Ialpighii); and 4th, the epidermis (cuticula.) 
310
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
   Bichat has separated the epidermis from the skin, and has considered
as separate systems several parts described by us (§ 16) as appendages
to the epidermoid system;  but they are so intimately connected with
each other, so identified in different parts, that it does not seem proper
to insulate them.  We may then consider all these layers generally in
the  whole cutaneous system, and then particularly in each of its two
sections.  •
   § 379. The derma is the strongest, the firmest part, and the base
of the whole cutaneous system.   Always united to the adjacent  sys-
tems, it  adheres  to  the  muscles, in the  external  skin  by its  in-
ternal face, and in the internal skin by its external face.  It is white,
soft, of variable thickness, having but few  vessels and nerves, elas-
tic,  capable  of contracting  and  extending to a  considerable  ex-
tent ; it does not possess a high degree of vitality and when destroyed
is not reproduced.   Its consistence and thickness in different parts of
the body vary very much: generally speaking they are greater in the
external than in the internal cutaneous system.
   § 380. The papillary  tissue (textus papillaris) which is applied to
the loose surface of the dermis is in reality only a greater development
of it, being composed of mucous tissue, of vessels, and of nerves: it has
the form of small, regularly arranged tubercles which vary extremely
in the different parts of the  cutaneous system in volume and form.
These tubercles increase  the extent of the system still more than the
folds  (§  377)  which  support  them.  The extreme sensibility  of the
cutaneous tissue depends upon them.
   § 381. The  rete mucosum (rete JVIa\pighii) is  a mucous and semi-
fluid substance having an immense number of capillary blood-vessels.
It is more readily distinguished from the papillary tissue and  the  epi-
dermis in thq external than in the internal cutaneous  tissue.  In  this
tissue and in the preceding the processes of  nutrition take place most
actively.
   § 382. The  epidermis (epidermis, cuticula) is whitish, solid, brittle,
without  vessels or nerves, and entirely insensible.   It receives a perfect
impression of  all  the irregularities  of the layers which it covers.
We cannot  always insulate these latter in the internal cutaneous
sj'stem.  It becomes much thicker by friction, and is reproduced en-
tirely after being destroyed.
   § 383. We also find in several parts of the cutaneous system simple
glands, a species of round bursas, which vary in size and are  called
in the internal cutaneous system,  the mucous glands or crypts  (glan-
duls s. crypts mucoss), and in the skin are termed the sebaceous glands
(glanduls sebaces).
   § 384. In those parts where the external and the internal cutaneous
systems  are continuous with each other, the former becomes thinner,
smoother, finer, and sometimes redder than usual, as in the lips.   The
general characters marking the commencement of the latter are, that
the epidermis is more easily detached from  the subjacent layers than
in the rest of its extent. 
OF THE CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.
31
    § 385. The cutaneous system envelops all the other organs and
 forms an entire  whole; but  at  the  same time it connects  the organ-
 ism directly, with external objects, for it continually absorbs materials
 from without and expels them within; it establishes a hmit, a sort of
 bridge between the individual organism and the rest of nature.   It is
 in fact the  most important part of all the organs of the nutritive life
 Hence the  frequent diseases  in this system and its great influence on
 the general health, and the  part it takes in all the changes which
 supervene in the organization; hence, also, the close sympathy between
 all its parts, both in the healthy and the diseased states.
    § 386.  The cutaneous  system differs in  the sexes: it is much
 thicker, firmer, harder, and less sensible in the male than in the female
 It varies at different periods of hfe, as follows:
    1st  It is less extensive in the early periods of existence, not  only
 from the deficiency  of some parts, as the extremities, but the intestinal
 canal is shorter and narrower, and the folds appear late.
    2d. It varies in form.  At first both the intestinal tube and the ante-
 rior part of the body is open; there are not two  canals opening into
 each other, but only two semi-canals.
   3d. There are at first more vessels and nerves, whence the process
 of nutrition is then carried on more actively.
   4th. It is much thinner in the early periods of life ■
   5th. It is then  more loosely united to the subjacent parts ;  and,
   6th. There is more analogy between the internal and the external
 portion.


        B.  OF THE CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

   § 387. The cutaneous system reproduces itself after having been
 destroyed, but not perfectly:  hence we can always distinguish cica-
 trices from the true skin.   We shall  enter into more details upon this
 subject when treating particularly of the external and the internal cu-
 taneous systems.
   § 388. The congenital deviations of formation in  this system are
 either its total  deficiency or that of some of its layers, and  its super-
 abundance,  as  seen in the  formation of abnormal appendages.  The
 accidental anomalies of  formation, if we except mechanical injuries
 almost always result from alterations in texture, to which the cutane'
 ous  system is  very subject, because of the circumstances mentioned
 above (§ 385).  Beside those diseases in which it participates with
other parts, it is often the seat  of acute or chronic inflammation.  Ac-
cidental tissues are frequently  developed either in its proper substance
or in the subjacent mucous tissue.   Other alterations in its texture, for
instance ossification,  are rare. 
312
GENERAL ANATOMY.
                      ARTICLE  SECOND.

      SPECIAL REMARKS ON THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM.

    A.   OF THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.

            I.  OF THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN GENERAL.

   § 389.  The external cutaneous system(l) or the proper skin (cutis) en-
 velops the external surface ofthe wholebody and forms a close sac which
 possesses  its exact form, and is continuous with the internal cutaneous
 system in those parts previously mentioned (§ 375).  The  skin differs
 from the internal cutaneous system  generally, in being thicker, firmer,
 dryer, and less vascular.   As we have already remarked generally on
 its form  and  composition, we have only  to  describe  its  component
 layers;
   § 390. The derma (corium, derma) is a white, solid, and dense tissue,
 which differs in several respects.
   Generally considered, it is composed in great part of layers which
 are  very  distinctly  seen on its internal  face and  after maceration.
 These layers are produced  by a substance very  analogous  to fibrous
 tissue;(2) their direction is oblique from within  outward: they  are
 also narrower on their  external than on  their internal  face, and  the
 vessels,  the nerves, and the hairs  pass  through the  former.  This
 laminar tissue is continuous in many places, for instance, in  the nucha,
 the back, the abdomen, the sole ofthe foot, the articulation ofthe hand,
 and in that  of the  foot, with  the  subjacent  fibrous tissue which it
 resembles almost entirely, in the palm  of the hand and in  the sole of
 the foot, by its shining and evidently fibrous texture.  But  in most of
 the cutaneous tissue, especially the trunk, and in all parts of the limbs,
 its fibrous structure is less apparent  and  its connections with the sub-
jacent tissue less intimate.   We find no trace of fibres in the derma of

  (1) In addition to the works which have been quoted, we refer to Malpighi, De
 externo tactus organo,  in Epist, London,  1686, p. 21-23.—Hoffmann,  De cuticidcL
 et cute, Leipsic,  1687.—Limmer, De cute simulque insensibili transpiratione, Zerbst,
 1691.—A. Kaaw, Perp. Hipp, sic dicta, Leyden,  1738.—F. D. Riet, De organo tactus,
 Leyden,  1743.—J.  Fantoni, De corp. intcgumentis, in  Diss, anat  VII.  renov.,
 Turin, 1745, n. i.—Lecat, Traite des sens, Amsterdam, 1744.—Cruikshank, Experi-
 ments on the insensible perspiration of the human body showing its affinity to respira-
 tion, London, 1795.—C. F. Wolff, De cute, in N.  C. Petrop., vol. viii.—G. A. Gaul-
 tier, Recherches sur Vorganis. de la peau de Vhomme, et sur les causes de sa coloration,
 Paris, 1809.—Id., Rech. sur Vorg. cutane, Paris,  1811.—rj. F. Schroeter, Das mensch-
 liche Gefuhl oder organ des Getastes nach den Abbildungen mehrerer berumhten
 Anatomen  dargestellt, Leipsic, 1814.—Dutrochet, Observations sur la structure et la
 regeneration des plumes, avec des considerations sur la composition de la peau des
 animaux vertebres, in Journal de physique,  May, 1819.—Id., Observations sur la
 structure de la peau, in  Journal complementaire, vol. v.
  (2) Osiander, from observations on the skin  of the abdomen of women who died
 in child-bed, asserts that the fibre which forms the dermis is distinctly muscular
 on the internal face of the skin.                                     F. T. 
OF THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.  313

the back of the hand, of the sole of the foot, of the forehead, of the
scrotum, of the labia pudenda, and of the penis, when the substance is
perfectly homogeneous.
  The  dermis varies much in thickness.   It is undoubtedly thickest
on the back of the hand and in the sole of the foot, and thinnest on the
eye-lids, in the  mammae of the female, in the scrotum, the labia pu-
denda, and the penis-.  It is thinner  in the upper than in the lower ex-
tremities, and is thicker and firmer on the skull than on the face.
  The dermis under the nails presents a peculiar arrangement, which
we shall mention when speaking of these last, because all the layers
ofthe skin are jointly modified in them.
  § 391. The skin is often wrinkled or folded, which depends on the  »
different states of extension or contraction of the skin and subjacent
parts, or on other causes.
  The folds of the first kind are produced by the action of the muscles
or by the diminution of fat below the skin in aged persons, and because
of its slight degree of elasticity.   In fact they result from the circum-
stance that certain muscles directly beneath the skin, or at least their
tendons, act frequently while the  skin is not sufficiently elastic to con-
tract and to dilate in the same proportion, or because this membrane
becoming still less elastic in advanced age does not contract, while
the fat  which  distended  it is absorbed,  and it  is therefore folded or
wrinkled.
   Other  folds depend  on the papillary  tissue of  the  skin.   They
are very regular, small, compact, and curved.  They are very mani-
fest in the palm of the hand and in the sole of the foot.   Each of these
folds is composed ultimately of two others,  for normally their  upper
face is slightly depressed, and the adjacent folds are separated from
each other by deeper furrows.
  § 392. Below the dermis, in the panniculus adiposus which it covers,
wind a  great  many subcutaneous vessels  (vasa subcutanea): of these
the veins are very considerable, and are always broader than the deep-
seated  veins.   From these cutaneous vessels arise those which are
expanded in the substance and on the surface ofthe dermis, most of
which only pass through  it  to be expanded in the latter, so that the
tissue  of the skin  is not very vascular.  The  same is true of the
nerves.
   § 393. In some places, for instance at the commencement of the
meatus auditorius externus, at the end of the nose, at the edges of the
eyelids,  around the anus, the vulva, and the nipple, are  considerable
openings from  whence comes  an  oleaginous fluid which hardens
quickly. These openings lead into small culs-de-sac called the sebaceous
glands  (glanduls sebaces).   As the whole skin exhales an analogous
substance, we  might be led to  think that  these glands exist every
where;  but it is impossible  to demonstrate this.  Probably the bulbs
of the hairs should be considered  as organs corresponding to them in
structure and in functions (§ 410), or rather we must regard these
glands  as enlarged bulbs  of the hairs which are more developed, since
   Vol. I.                      40 
314                     GENERAL ANATOMY.
no hairs come from them, and they are found exactly on the common
borders of the external and of the internal cutaneous system.  It would
seem also to result from this, that the  development  of mucous crypts
in the internal cutaneous system corresponds to that of the hairs and the
epidermis in the external cutaneous system.
  § 394. The papillary tissue, (textus papillaris) (1) ofthe skin is com-
posed of small processes  situated on the external surface of the dermis,
particularly on the elevations of the second kind which  this latter pre-
sents: these processes are called  papills of touch  (papills tactus).
Each elevation presents two  ranges of these papillae, which however
are so connected with each other that they may be considered as form-
ing but one.   Like the eminences on the  surfaces of which they are
seen, they are very manifest in the palms of the hands,  in the soles of
the feet, in  the hips, in the glans  penis,(2) and in the mammae.(3)
Their surface is villous.  In  all other  parts they are less distinct, even
when the epidermis is  removed.  Even  in the  preceding  regions we
find none  between the elevations  in which the  papillae of touch are
situated.
  The latter are composed of nerves and of fine branches ofthe cutane-
ous  vessels.  According to Gaultier, they principally give the color to
the skin.  But this anatomist  seems  to  have confounded them with
the vascular tissue which covers them.
  § 395.  The external face of the dermis and of the papillary tissue
is covered with a fine vascular network, composed of numerous central
points united by many anastomosing vessels which  are  very apparent
and  regularly arranged.
  § 396.  Proceeding from within outward, we find next to the dermis
the rete mucosum, or the rete JVIalpighii, a mucous homogeneous sub-
stance which maybe divided into two or three separate layers.(4)
It has no openings which allow the-papillae of touch to communicate
with the  epidermis, but only depressions which  correspond to them,
and within  which they are imbedded  as  in so  many sheaths.   This
layer is the principal seat of the color  of the skin, since in  the negro
the dermis is as white  as in the European,(5) while  the rete mucosum
always presents the peculiar color  of each race.   Usually it is consi-
dered single, but we have reason to think it compound. Gaultier assigns
to it three layers, the  first two  of which he calls the internal and  the
external tunica  albuginea  (tunica  albuginea  interna et externa),
because of their color, while he calls the third the brown substance, in
the negro, where it is very apparent.  Of these  three layers the inter-

  (1) Hintze, Depapillis cutis tactui inservientibus, Leyden, 1747.
  (2) B. S. Albinus, De integumentisglandis penis; loc. cit., lib. iii.  c. ix.
  (3) B. S. Albinus, Depapillis mamma etpapillce muliebris; loc. cit, c. xii.
  (4) B. S. Albinus,  Quadam de modis quibus cuticula cum corpore reticulars dt
cuti  abscedit,  in Annot. acad., Leyden, 1754, 1. i., c. i. De cognatione et distinctione
cuticula et reticuli, ibid. c. ii.—De reticuli foveolis vaginisque quibus papilla contir
nentur, ibid. c. iii.—Nonnulla de usu et ratione reticuli et cuticula, ibid. c. v.
  (5) B. S. Albinus, De sede et causa coloris JEthicpum et ceterorum hominum, Ley-
den,  1737. 
otf THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.  315
  nal is the thickest and the external  is thinnest:  both are white • the
  middle is colored but less so than the vascular tissue, so that it cannot
  be regarded as the principal seat of color except in the negro  Cruik-
  shank has found between the dermis and the epidermis of a ne^ro  who
  died from small  pox, four layers besides the papillary tissue; the inter-
  nal very thin, a second in which the variolous pustules were developed
  a third which was thicker, the  proper seat of  color,  finally a fourth
  which was whitish, and which he considered the external layer of the
  third.   This description agrees pretty well with the preceding.
    The layers, situated between the papillary tissue and the epidermis
  which form  this membrane,  usually  remain united to the  epidermis
  when the latter is separated by putrefaction or boiling; but they some-
  times adhere to the dermis.
    § 397.  The epidermis, or cuticle (epidermis, cuticula),(l) is a mem-
  branous, homogeneous, thin,  semi-transparent  expansion, whitish in
  the European, light gray in the negro, forming the most external layer
  of the skin, covering the internal  layers in every part, and adhering
  to them intimately.  It thus presents the  same folds and the same in-
  equalities as the  latter,  and we see  on its internal face round  depres-
  sions which correspond  to the papillae of touch.   Its  external  face is
  smooth, while the  internal is very uneven: it  is firmly united  to  the
  subjacent layers ; but in certain cases this union is entirely destroyed
 either during life or after death : it seems to take place by numerous
 small filaments(2) which are perceived very distinctly in the palms of
 the hands and in the  soles  of the  feet, if  the  skin be immersed into
 boiling water, and  the epidermis be detached from  the dermis. It is
 however difficult  to determine the  nature of these  filaments.   Bichat
 considers them as the extremities of the absorbent and exhalent ves-
 sels ;(3) but we have never been able to fill them, even when the cuta-
 neous vessels had been perfectly injected;  and Hunter has succeeded
 no better than ourselves.  Might they not have been produced from
 the mucous tissue by the process of boiling ?  And if this be false,  are
 they really hollow ?
   The same uncertainty exists whether the epidermis be  filled with
 holes called pores, or whether it be only thinner in those places  where
 these pores seem  to exist.  Many observers, as  Leuwenhoeck(4) and
 Bichat, particularly the former, admit that the epidermis is porous, and
 Bichat asserts that  the oblique direction of these pores alone prevents

  (1) C.G. Ludwig, De cuticula, Leipsic, 1735.—Fabricus ab Aquapendente, De totius
 animalis integumentis, ac primo de cuticula et Us qua supra cuticula sunt, in Opp.
 omn.,  Leipsic, 1687, p. 438-452.—J. F. Meckel, De  la nature de Vepiderme et  du
 reseau qu'on appelle malpighien, in Mem de Berlin, 1753, p. 79-97—Id., Nouv. obs.
 sur Vepiderme et le cerveaudes negres, ibid. 1757, p. 61-71.—B. S. Albinus, De inci-
 sures cuticula et cutis;  he. cit, c. iv.—A. Monro, De cuticula humand, in  Works,
 Edinburgh, 1781, p. 54.—J. T. Klinkosch, De vera natura cuticula et ejus regenera-
 tione, Prague,  1771.—Hermant, De vera  natura cuticula ejusque regeneratione,
Prague, 1775.—Mojon, SulV epidermide, Genoa, 1815.
  (2) Hunter, Med. obs. and inq., vol. ii. p. 52,53, tab. I, fig. 1, 2.
  (3) Gen. Anat. vol. iii. p. 351.
  (4) Arcan. nat ep. phys.,  43. 
316
GENERAL ANATOMY.
them from being  seen.  Others, on the contrary, as Meckel(l)  and
Humboldt,(2) deny the existence of these pores.   We have never been
satisfied of the presence of these openings, and their existence is not
necessary, since the exhaled fluids can  escape very well through the
thinner parts ofthe epidermis.
   The thickness of the epidermis is nearly uniform,  except in the
palms ofthe hands, and particularly in the soles of the feet, where it is
thicker.   In fact, friction increases its thickness, and renders it callous
in those two parts ;(3) but that this difference has not entirely a mecha-
nical origin, is proved by the greater thickness of the epidermis of the
palm of the hand and sole of the foot even in the fetus(4).  This is the
reason that it is more difficult to detach it from the subjacent layers in
these two parts of the body.
   The epidermis is usually formed of one layer  only ; but we observe
several which are very distinct in those parts where  it is  thickest.
We have observed this several times in the  palm of the hand and in
the sole ofthe foot.
   § 398.  The epidermis is essentially only the  rete mucosum coagu-
lated and hardened.  It belongs then properly to the mucous tissue.
It is entirely destitute of nerves and vessels, and is consequently dry
and insensible.  It is completely regenerated by the drying of the rete
mucosum.  The appearance  of the vascular  structure  presented by it
depends either on  some extravasation or on the  adhesion of  a portion
of vascular tissue.  It  has no power of contraction, and but a slight
degree of extensibility
   The epidermis moderates in part the impressions made on the papil-
lae of touch in the skin,  and in part opposes evaporation.   Hence  a
blister not unfrequently  causes all the serum  of the mucous tissue in
dropsy to escape  in a short time.   Hence too the  skin not only dries
rapidly in those parts where  the  epidermis has been removed either
before or  after death,  but it  also adheres intimately to the  subjacent
organs, while that of the adjacent parts which has preserved  its epider-
mis always remains moist.
   That the epidermis arises from  the hardening of the rete  mucosum
is proved by the fact that it is partly the seat  of color in the skin, for it
always presents the same tint  as the rete mucosum, but it is less distinct.
   § 399.  The epidermis appears  early ;  it is already seen distinctly
in  the fetus of two months; it is then even  proportionally thicker.
Besides, the  considerable growth  of hairs and the formation of the
caseous substance (vernix  caseosa) with  which the skin of  the fetus
is covered, prove  the great activity of the epidermoid  system at this
period.
   We may state,  as sexual differences, that  it is softer and thinner in
the female than in the male.

   1) Mem. de Berlin, 1763, p. 63.
   2) Veber die gereizte Muskel- und Nervenfaser, vol. i. p. 156.
   (3) Nurnberger, De cuticulae frictione comprimente callosa, Wittenberg, 1789,
   (4) B. S. Albinus, De sede col. cutis, p. 9. 
OF THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL
    The races of  the  human  species also present  some  differences.
  Although  several anatomists, among others Malpighi(l) andLittre (2)
  affirm it is white in the negro, we now know that it has a ffravish
  brownish tint.   We agree with the opinion of Santorini,(3) Ruysch (4)
  Albinus, (5)Meckel,(6) and So3mmerring.(7)                J^A*;
    It is a little coarser in the negro  than in the European.

  II. OF THE MODIFICATIONS OF THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM, OH OF THE APPEN-
                DAGES OF THE SKIN, THE HAIB, AND THE NAILS.

    § 400.  The hairs and the nails  are  generally considered only as
 appendages of the epidermis.  But in our opinion this is incorrect; for
 the nails and the hairs are in fact modifications of the whole cutaneous
 system, although the epidermoid system and that ofthe rete mucosum
 predominate m the most of  their length.  In fact the dermis below the
 nails is peculiarly  modified,  and  corresponding  variations are  ob-
 served in the other  layers ofthe skin.  We must then consider as be-
 longing to the nail not  only the epidermis which is particularly modi-
 fied, but also the whole  cutaneous texture.  The same is the case with
 the hair, for their bulbs  are evidently analogous to the dermis.

                          1st.  Ofthe nails.
 ■  §401  The epidermoid portions ofthe nails, or  the  proper nails
 (ungues),(8) are broad, hard, slightly convex, and oblong layers formed
 at the ends of the backs  of all the fingers and toes, and which cover the
 anterior part of  the third phalanx,  projecting forward and on the  two
 sides.
   We  distinguish in the nails  three portions, the posterior or the root
 the central or the body, and the anterior or the free extremity.
   The root (radix unguis) is concealed under the  skin,  and is softer
 and thinner than the other two parts.  It gradually becomes thinner
 and terminates in  a  rounded edge.   It is one fifth of one sixth of the
 whole  length of the nail.   The central part, the body, is much larger
 than the other two parts, and its internal face adheres intimately to the
 skin, while the  external face is unattached.  Its posterior  part varies
 proportionally in extent  according  to the  subjects, and almost always
 diminishes from  the  thumb to  the fifth finger :  it is white, convex for-
 ward, and  concave  backward, and is  termed the crescent (lunula).
  (I) Exerc. de externa tactus organo.
  (2) Hist, de Vac. des sc. de Paris, 1702, no. 13, p.  40
  (3) Observ. anat. Venet. 1724, 1. i. p. 1.
  (4) Cur a renovata, no. 59, 87.
  (5) Loc. cit., p. 6.
  (6) Mem. de Berlin,  1753, p. 93.
  (7) Veber die korperlichen  Verschied. des Negers vom Europra, 1785, p. 45.
  (8) Frankenau, De unguibus, Jena, 1696.—Ludwig, De ortu et structural unguium.
Leipsic, 1748.—B. S. Albinus, De ungue humano ejusquc reticulo, itemque de cutis loco
gut ungue tactus ac de loci istius papillis, in Annot. acad. vol.  ii.-xiv.—De naturd
unguis,  ibid. c. xv.—Bose, De unguibus humanis, Leipsic, 1773.—Haase, De nutri-
twne unguium, Leipsic, 1774.—Nurnberger, Meletemata super digitorum unsuibus
Wittenberg, 1786.                                               s     t 
318
GENERAL ANATOMY.
The anterior is much greater, and appears reddish. The free extremity
projects beyond the skin, so that its two faces  are  entirely free.  It i3
the thickest part of the nail, which consequently diminishes gradually
in thickness from behind forward.  The length of this extremity is not
fixed, and depends on the greater or less degree of attention with which
it is cut.  Left to itself, it becomes very long, thick, and pointed.
   § 402. The nails are connected only with the epidermis, and adhere
to it so intimately in all their circumference that they are retained firmly
in place.  The nail is slightly covered behind and on the sides by the epi-
dermis which is reflected forward from below.  Behind, this membrane
projects on the concave and thin edge of the skin which covers the poste-
rior part of the nail, forms a small groove often separated from the skin
by a kind of channel, and which is intimately connected before with
the anterior edge  of the crescent.  Thence the  epidermis goes back-
ward, insinuates itself below the portidn ofthe  skin which slightly pro-
jects above the nail, is reflected on the inferior face ofthe nail, and is con-
tinuous with it forward.  On the sides, the epidermis projects as it does
behind, but  it  is not extended foward,  and is also continuous with the
edge of the nail.  The epidermis having covered the anterior extremity
of the finger leaves the skin, and attaches itself to the anterior convex
edge of its central and adherent part,   and blends  itself with its sub-
stance.
  Thus, the nail (in the common sense of the word) is only a thick-
ened portion of the epidermis, which detaches itself, like this latter, from
the subjacent layers of the skin.
  § 403. But these subjacent  layers present of themselves some modi-
fications. The dermis is thicker, softer,  has no  layers, and is not at-
tached  to the  nail by  any prolongation.   Under the  body of  the
nail, it is very red and more vascular than in the other parts.  Under
the root and the crescent, on the contrary, (if we except the nails ofthe
toes, which usually have no  crescent,) it is white, so that  the white-
ness of this semilunar spot does not depend on the nail, but on the skin.
Its upper face  has very distinct longitudinal  fibres,  especially in its
reddish anterior portion,  which is  the most extensive.   These fibres
may be  compared to the papillce  of touch, and the internal and in-
ferior face of the nail, which is soft and also provided with very distinct
longitudinal fibres, may be compared to the rete mucosum intimately
connected with them.  In the small nails of the toes, which are im-
perfectly developed because they are compressed, we  discover neither
the fibrous structure of the skin nor the rete mucosum, but the projec-
tions and excavations which  correspond to them are irregular and
more similar to papillce.
  § 404. The epidermoid portion of the nail is composed of superim-
posed layers, the external of which extends the whole length, while
the internal  gradually diminish from behind forward, so that the most
anterior are  the shortest; these, too, are also the softest, and become,
at least apparently, more fibrous.   The structure of the nails is homo-
geneous, like  that of  the epidermis;   they have neither vessels nor
nerves. 
OF THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.   319

   § 405. The epidermoid portion of the nails presents no trace of sen-
sibility or contractility.   The vital  phenomena which take place in
them are very slow, except the acts of growth, which proceed rapidly,
as is proved by their continual increase.
   § 406. The nails  begin to appear in the fifth month of fetal exist-
ence, and are very imperfect  at the ninth.

                          2d. Ofthe Hairs.
   § 407. The hairs (pili, crines)(l) are filaments of various  lengths,
always thin in proportion to  their length, about gif of an inch in dia-
meter, more or less cylindrical  and  usually smooth.  We rarely per-
ceive at intervals these swellings, which are  apparently produced by
some disease.   Their attached extremity, called the bulb (bulbus,) is a
little thicker and always soft, the  other is slightly pointed.  In the
normal state, they are seen only on the external cutaneous system, or
the  skin properly so called, covering all its parts, except the  palms of
the  hands and the soles  of the feet, where  it  is very remarkable that
that the epidermis is considerably thick.  We must remark in general,
   1st. That  principally around these  points  where the external cu-
taneous  is  continuous with  the internal  cutaneous system,  we find
numerous hairs, which assume  a  peculiar  arrangement, as on the
edges of the eyelids, in the nostrils, at the entrance of the ears, around
the  mouth, the anus, the vulva, and  the mammae.
   2d. That the law of polarity exists between the parts on which they
grow in abundance; as in the head and the pubis, on the chin and the
anus, on the back and the belly.
   § 408. The hairs  are composed of two substances, an external and
an internal.
   The external, which surrounds the other  hke a sheath, has all the
properties of the epidermis.   It is  always transparent, white, and very
difficult  to destroy ; it is continually reproduced, and in the bulb or fol-
licle is more or less evidently composed of several layers.
   Under this sheath we find a colored substance  formed of about ten
filaments, probably vessels.   The  form of this  substance resembles
that of the  hairs, but it is much thinner than  the internal envelop.  It
is imbedded into the centre of a fluid, which being partially lodged in
  (1) P. Chirac, Lettre ecrite d M. Regis sur la structure des cheveux, Montpellier,
1668.—Malpighi, De pilis observationes; in Opp. posth., London, 1697, p. 93-96.—
M. J. J. Bajerus, De capillis diss., Jena, 1700.—O. Zaunslifer, Diss, cxhibens histo-
riampilorum in hominc, Leyden,1738.—Meibomius, De pilis eorumque morbis, Helm-
stadt, 1740.—G. A. Langguth, Depilo parte corp.  hum. non ignobili, Wittenberg,
1749.—F. Grutzmacher, De humore cutem inungente, Leipsic, 1748.—e. P. L. Withof,
Anatome pili humani, Duisburg, 1750, in 4to.—J. H. Kniphof, De pilorum usu, Er-
ford, 1754.—J. P. Pfaff, De varietatibus pilorum naturalibus et prater naturalibus,
Halle, 1799.—Rudolphi, De pilorum structurd, Gripswald, 1806.—Grellier, Disserta-
tion sur tes cheveux, Paris, 1806.—Rudolphi.  Aufsatz iiber Hornbildung ; in Ab~
handlwngen der Wissenschaften von Berlin, 1818,  p. 180.—Rowland, An historical,
philosophical, and practical essay on the human hair, London, 1818-—Buck, Diss, de
pilis eorumque morbis, Halle, 1819.—Aegidi, Disscrtatio de pilorum anatomid, Ber-
lin, 1819.—Heusinger, Remarques sur la formation des poils, in Journal comple-
mcntaire du Diet des sc. med., vol. xiv., p. 229.—Id., Sur la regeneration des poils,
same journal, vol. xiv., p. 339. 
320
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 the canal formed by the  filaments partly scattered between them  and
 the -external envelop, unites them together, and constitutes, with them,
 the marrow of the hairs.
   This internal substance corresponds undoubtedly to the rete muco-
 sum of the skin, and is the coloring matter of the hairs, which whiten
 when it disappears.
   § 409. The hairs do not seem to receive blood-vessels, at most we
 can perceive but a few, and these very seldom, in the inferior swelled
 portion of the  bulbs, which is provided  with one  or more openings.
 Through these come the blood-vessels, and probably the fine nervous
 filaments.   In fact we cannot plainly distinguish  the  nerves, but the
 analogy derived  from the coarse hairs of animals and the pain occa-
 sioned by their removal, authorize us to suspeot their existence.  It is,
 however, certain  that the nerves do not extend beyond the bulb.(l)
   § 410. The hairs are  situated under the skin in the mucous tissue,
 which is almost always  filled with fat.   The largest are found there,
 (although this arrangement is not so apparent in regard to the smaller
 ones,)in the small,closed,thin,whitish and very vascular envelopswhich
 loosely surround them, pass through the openings in the dermis (§ 390),
 thus arrive at the epidermis, continue with it, remain fixed to its internal
 surface as small hollow prolongations, when it is detached from the der-
 mis. There is  no'adhesion between the hairs and the envelops except at
 the extremity of the bulb, so that in this place the hairs appear more or
 less villous on  their surface.   A thin fluid exists between them and the
 surrounding sac, which in the dense hairs of animals is real blood.
   §411. From the want of nerves, the hairs are insensible.  They
 have no contractile power; but the formative power is much developed.
 They grow constantly, and lengthen even after death,  or when de-
 tached from the body.(2)   Thus  they are reproduced  after having
 been lost from accident,  but not when  vitality is absolutely extinct.
 They possess  great  strength, and  are  with difficulty destroyed,  un-
 doubtedly because of their external envelop.
   § 412. According to the latest researches of Vauquelin,(3) the hairs
 are composed,
   1st.  Of an animal substance  which constitutes their  base, and is
 very similar to dried mucus, and certainly comes from  the external
envelop.
   2d and 3d.  Of two oils, one white and concrete, the other blackish
on which their color depends, at least in  part, and which  undoubtedly
belong to their internal substance, since they vary according to  the
color of the hairs, and are not colored in those which are white.
   4th.  Of iron.
   5th.  Of a little  of the oxide of manganese.

  (1) Rudolphi has followed the nerves into the bulbs ofthe mustaches ofthe seal—as
 has also Andral,  jun. See his note: Sur les nerfs qui se rendent  aux mustaches
 du phoque ; in the Journal de physiologie cxperimentale. vol. i., 1821, p. 73.  F. T.
  (2) Krafft, in Nov. com. Petrop., vol. ii., p. 24.
  (3) Annates de chimie, 1806, vol. lviii. 
 OF THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL 8TATE.  321

   6th. Of the phosphate )   ,,.
   7th. Of the carbonate )
   8th. Ofsilex.
   9th. Of a considerable quantity of sulphur.
   § 413.  The hairs  differ from each other very much in the different
 regions of the body.   The  hairs ofthe head (coma s. capilli s. cssd'
 ries) are the longest, the strongest, the most numerous, and the  closest
 of all.
   Next come those of the beard, the hairs of which are distinguished
 from those of the head in being more distant from eachfother.
   Next come those of the pubis, of the axilla, of the anterior face ofthe
 thorax, and of the abdomen, the eyebrows, the eyelashes, the hairs
 found in  the  nose,  the anus, and those on the limbs, which become
 shorter and thinner as we descend to the lower part of the limb,  and
 finally,, those ofthe cheeks and the forehead.
   The hardest and coarsest are those in the nose, and those on the face
 are, if we except the beard, the softest.  The hairs ofthe pubis are the
 thickest;  next come  those  of the axilla, then the hairs of the head,
 next the eyebrows and the eyelashes.
   The color ofthe hairs is usually the same in all parts ofthe body,
 but to this rule there are many exceptions.   It sometimes happens, but
 it is rate, that a part of the hairs of the head are unlike the rest in color,
 more often, even usually, only some hairs are discolored, while the  rest
 preserve their primitive color.
   All the hairs of the same  subject do not appear at the same time.
 The hairs of  the head exist at birth, while the beard and the hairs on
 the pubis and the axilla do not appear till puberty.
   § 414. The hairs are subject to very considerable periodical changes*
   The skin is entirely smooth,  till  towards the  middle of fetal ex-
 istence.  At this time, however, it is covered with numerous short fine
 hairs,  a kind of down (lanugo).   At  first these  hairs have no color,
 but assume one as  the period of birth approaches.   On certain parts of
 the body, for instance, on the face, they are much longer than the  per-
 manent hairs which afterwards  appear in these same parts.  Their
 length is  at  first  almost equal  in every part, but at birth however,
 those of the head are much  longer and stronger than the rest.
   These downy hairs  of the fetus fall  some before, but  most of
them after, birth.  They are found in the waters of the membranes and
in  the meconium.  Those which replace  them on the body do not be-
 gin to  appear till puberty, when the  beard and the hairs of the  pubis,
of the axilla, and of the trunk are  developed. The hairs of the head, on
the contrary, remain the same and grow much more rapidly after birth
than before.
  The color of the  hairs generally becomes deeper in age : this rule is,
however, subject to exceptions, although they are few.
   Sooner  or later, usually about  the age of thirty, the hair begins to
whiten, by the disappearance of the internal substance.   A little later
when the external  envelop has continued for some time to grow regu-
  Vol. I.                       41 
322
GENERAL ANATOMY.
larly, the attachments existing between it and the follicle in which it is
contained are destroyed, and the hair begins to fall off.
   The white hairs contain a colorless oil and some phosphate of mag-
nesia, which is not found in the colored hair.
   Both of these changes take place first  in the  longest and thickest
hairs, that is, those of the head, and particularly those found on the top
of the head.  The hairs of the extremities change the last.
   The hairs which have fallen off are rarely replaced, and those which
have lost their color seldom resume it;  some examples of this pheno-
menon, however,  have been seen.
   The part which forms  first is the sac which  surrounds the bulb, a
complete ovum, which, either in the primitive hairs or in those after-
wards developed, is  already perfectly formed before  the  bulb, and is
pierced by the hair which lengthens  outwardly,  as the capsule of the
tooth is  by the tooth, or  the  membranes of the ovum by the  fetus.
Probably its decay causes the death of the hairs ;  for in old men whose
hairs have fallen,  we find no traces of these sacs under the skin, while,
when we see them as in the natural state, after those diseases where
the hair has fallen off, a new growth  arises from them.
   § 415.  We may mention as sexual differences, that in the female the
hairs are finer; those of the head are longer, but those in other parts
of the body are shorter.  They are not entirely deficient in any of those
parts where they  exist in the male; and in those places where  they
are largely developed in the  male, they  are also rather longer and
more numerous in the female, especially when the functions and the dif-
ferences dependent upon sex are not perfectly developed.
   § 416.  Besides these differences arising from age and sex,  the hairs
present others also.   In fact they vary according to the individuals,
and in this relation  they present,  in the  different  human  races,
peculiarities, some of which are accidental,, while  others are very con-
stant :
   1st. The color of the hair differs surprisingly in different individuals
of the same  race and of the same family.  It varies from a very bright
yellowish (white)  to the deepest black,between which two extremes we
find every imaginable shade of auburn, red, and brown.   Other colors,
as green for instance, cannot be considered as primitive: they depend
on external influences, such as copper.
  2d. As much may be said in regard to . the thickness, number, and
length of the hairs.   Generally we may admit that the blackest are
the thickest, and that the fighter are finer.   Withof found in one fourth
of a square inch of skin one hundred and  forty-seven black hairs, one
hundred and sixty-two chestnut, and one hundred and eighty-two light
hairs.  This rule, however, is subject to  exceptions, and the more as
the hairs are not at equal distances in all individuals.
   3d. The direction  of the hairs is various.   Usually they  are even
and straight; often, however, they are  more or less curled or frizzled.
   The differences met with in the same nation may be considered as
the differences of  races.   The most important ones have already been 
OP THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM FN THE ABNORMAL STATE. 323

mentioned (§ 33); we shall only remark that these occur in all races:
thus, there are negroes who have straight, long hair.


  B. OF THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

  417.  The external cutaneous system possesses in a great degree
the power of reproducing itself.(1)   All its lasers are reproduced, by
whatsoever cause they may have been destroyed.  But they do not
reappear with characters perfectly similar to those which they have in
the normal state.
  The dermis is less elastic, and adheres more closely to the subjacent
mucous tissue,  than the natural dermis ; it is in fact blended with this
tissue, and cannot be separated from it.  Like all other regenerated
parts, it is. less hard and has less spontaneous activity than the natural
dermis.  This  explains the ease with which even old  cicatrices are
torn, and with which the new integuments of cutaneous  ulcers are
sometimes entirely destroyed.
   The new dermis is at first exceedingly thin,  delicate, and soft, more
vascular, and of course redder, than the natural dermis ; it gradually
becomes less vascular, whiter, firmer, and  harder than the latter, and
acquires almost all the quahties of a ligament.   At the  same time its
aspect  is smooth and shining, which depends  undoubtedly on the
absence of the  papilla? of touch and on that of the hairs, as well as on
the tension of the new integument and its more intimate adhesion  to
the subjacent mucous tissue.
   Its sensibihty is less  than that  of the  primitive  dermis, doubtless
because of the absence ofthe nervous papilla?.  Perhaps also it receives
fewer nerves than the latter.
   These different phenomena are not however seen except when the
dermis has been entirely destroyed;  for when the injury is  only super-
ficial, all marks of difference  disappear with greater or less prompti-
tude.
   The new dermis is covered with a rete mucosum and an epidermis ;
but these latter are reproduced only gradually, as the first formed layers
always fall off.
   The color of the  rete mucosum is  developed the last,  and this is
sometimes  entirely deficient.   Bichat pretends that its color is not
reproduced when it  has  been removed, and that cicatrices are white
in all people ; but this assertion is not perfectly correct, for in the negro
the cicatrices of small pox are black,(2) and those which are developed
after all injuries of the common integuments,  are as black and  some-
times blacker than the rest of the skin.(3)

  (1) Moore,  On the process of nature in the filling up of cavities, healing of wounds,
and restoring parts which have been destroyed in the human body,  London, 1782,
 sect. ii. p. 46.
  (2) Meckel, in Mem. de Berlin, 1753, p. 81.
  (3) Moore, loc.  citn p. 52.—Hunter, On the blood. 
324
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  The nails and the hairs also possess the restorative power to a con-
siderable extent.
  The nails are reproduced not only in  their natural places, but we
have also seen them developed at the end of the second phalanx  of
the fingers when the third has been destroyed.
  The hairs are not regenerated when the dermis has been destroyed
entirely ; but they grow again more or less perfectly when they have
fallen off from  disease.
  § 418.  The diseases of the skin extend to all the layers, or are con-
fined to some only, which remark applies also to the  anomalies of its
form or to the alterations of texture.
  § 419.  The principal deviations of formation are,
  1st.  Its absence.  The whole skin or some of its layers only may be
deficient in one point or another.  The first occurs when the cavities
ofthe viscera are not entirely closed.  But sometimes the epidermis is
primitively deficient without any division or fissure of  the body.  The
same is true of the nails and the hairs.
  2d. Its excess, which is manifested, when the whole skin participates
in it, by the existence  of a  greater or less number of rounded oblong
excrescences in different  parts of the body, almost  always attended
with a want of development in other parts.
  As  to the different parts of the cutaneous system, the most striking
example of their excess  is the extraordinary length of the hairs in
places where they are usually very short.  This deviation of formation
is almost  always  attended with a greater development of fat and a
darker tint of the skin.
  The same deviations of formation may  also be secondary or acci-
dental.
  The epidermis, the hair, and the nails, die after diseases of the skin,
or in other morbid states consisting essentially in extreme weakness of
the vital powers; they are then detached from  the body.   The epi-
dermis is constantly reproduced ; but this is not. the case with the hairs
and the nails.  The albinism of the hairs also results from an imperfect
nutrition, for it depends upcn the slow or rapid death of their internal
substance.(l)
  The skin and its different parts  can  also acquire  an increase of
development.   The dermis  thickens, the papilla? of  touch  become
longer.  Warts arise from an unusual increase of some parts of the
dermis, corns and callus from the thickening of the epidermis ; a con-
siderable  development  and  a  horny hardening of   the epidermis,
forms  also the essence of icthyosis.  There is much  affinity between
these.different states and the excessive growth of the hairs of the head
in plica polonica, which makes the transition from deviations of forma-
tion to alterations of texture.
  § 420. Alterations of texture are very frequent in  the cutaneous
tissue. Among the first we place a want of color in the rete mucosum,

          (1) Wedemeyer, Histor. pathol. pilorum, Gottingen, 1812. 
OP THE EXTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE. 325

the leucethiopia, or leucosis, which  is usually congenital, but which
sometimes develops itself during life.(l)
   Besides the  inflammations, to which we  give  different names,
according as they attack the different layers of the skin or the sub-
jacent cellular tissue, the cutaneous system is subject to a great many
affections which are peculiar to it and known by the term exanthemata,
the history of which belongs to pathology.  Generally in the  exan-
thematous diseases; the  skin becomes like the mucous membranes, for
its vessels receive more blood,  it softens, furnishes  hquid secretions,
and the epidermis  is almost always detached from it.   As to the erup-
tions  themselves,  they are  usually rounded, giving  origin to a local
increase of the peculiar hfe of the tissue which from a central point
extends a greater  or less distance, and  assumes  the  characters of an
inflammation which almost always results in the formation of a pecu-
liar fluid.   They may be  considered as  very imperfect organisms, or
even  as more or less successful  attempts  to  produce ova, which they
resemble in their  round  form, and  from  this circumstance,  that they
never become  otherwise than  fluid.  Besides, the  phenomena they
present in their  progress are in fact  the same which are observed in
entire organisms from their  origin till their death.  The chronic exan-
themata are situated principally in the thickness of  the dermis, while
those which are acute in their progress appear at the external face of
this membrane and in the vascular tissue.
   § 421. Abnormal  formations of another  species   are developed, at
least  primitively, in the  subcutaneous  cellular tissue: such are fatty
tumors, schirrus, cancer, and fungus hematodes, which extend sooner
or later to the skin itself.
   § 422.  Formations ofthe skin sometimes appear in abnormal places;
but this is less common in regard to the dermis than to the epidermoid
portions, particularly the hairs.(2)
   The most remarkable  peculiarities presented by the accidental forma-
tion of the hair are,
   1st. They are developed in the same  circumstances as the regular
hairs, that is, at the same time as the fat, and  in  the parts resembhng
the skin, either those newly formed, as  the cysts,   or those  already
existing, as the  mucous  membranes.
   2d. They perfectly resemble the  normal  hairs, both in their struc-
ture,  their situation, and their changes.   Like them they have roots,
and almost  always are implanted at first  very  firmly ; like them  also
they  usually fall  off after a certain lapse of time,  and  then appear
mixed with fat.  It is possible, however, that sometimes their roots are
implanted in the fat only.
  (1) G. T. L. Sachs,  Historia naturalis duorum leucathiopum auctoris  ipsius et so-
roris ejus, Salzbach, 1812.—Mansfeldt, Reflexions sur la leucopathie consideree comme
le resultat d'un retardement de developpement, in the Journ. compl. des sc. med., vol.
xv. p.  250.
  (1) Meckel, Memoire sur les poils et les dents qui se developpent accidentellement
dans le corps, in the Journ. compl. du Diet des sc. med., vol.  iv. pp. 122 and 217.—
Bn'cheteau, Observation de kystes dermoides etpileux, suivie de quelques remarques
sur ces productions organiques, in the Journ. compl. des sc. mid., vol. xv.  p. 298. 
326
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
   3d. The places in which they oocur  most frequently are those
where the activity of formation is the greatest, as in the ovaries. They
are rarely seen in the testicles, although they have been found in these
organs also.
   The nails, or  horny productions,(l). are developed more rarely in
places differing from those which have been  mentioned as their usual
situations.  The most general conditions of their formation are as fol-
lows : 1st, as far as our knowledge extends, they form only in the skin;
2d, they develop themselves in cysts filled with fluid, which they pierce
from within outward;  3d, when destroyed, they are reproduced  like
the natural parts ;  4th, we generally find several at the same  time in
the same subject;  5th, they are more common than in any other  part
in the loose portion of the skin, and especially in the integuments of the
head, although they are sometimes found in places where this mem-
brane is reflected on itself, for instance in the glans.
                     ARTICLE THIRD.

              OF THE INTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM.

    A. OF THE INTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.

   § 423. We have already mentioned the division of the internal cuta-
neous system, or the system of the mucous membranes (§ 375).  From
the description we have given of it, it follows that this system repre-
sents a large canal extending from the mouth to the anus, presenting
in its passage several prolongations and several  simple  or  complex
culs-de-sac, which communicate directly with the external cutaneous
system.   We observe besides, in all portions of  the system of the mu-
cous membranes, enlargements and contractions, which depend on the
figure ofthe parts which it contributes to form, and the internal face of
which it always lines.
   The internal is much narrower than the external cutaneous system,
but it is much longer and more distributed in the body.
   § 424.  The  external face of the mucous membranes is attached to
the neighboring organs, which are almost always muscles—seldom, as
in the gums, to bones—and sometimes to cartilages and fibrous tissue,
as in the trachea—by a dense and solid layer of cellular tissue, in
which are the large vascular trunks which go to these membranes.
This layer of cellular tissue is called the nervous coat;  and, according
to Bichat, the form of the organ depends on its inner layer of mucous
membrane.

  (1) Caldani, in the Mem. delta societa italiana, vol. xvi. p. 126.—Meckel, Sur les
cornes accidenteUes, et enparticulier sur celles qui viennent au gland, chez Vhomme,
in the Journ. compl. des sc. med., vol iv. p. 91.—Bertrand, Note sur une production
cornee, in the Archives gen. demed., vol. v. p. 534. 
  OF THE INTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.  327

  This assertion, however, is npt well founded ;  for the form of these
organs is determined principally by the muscular tunic: this is proved
particularly in those places where this latter  tunic is very thick, as in
the uterus, the mouth, the pharynx, the esophagus, and the rectum.
  In  fact  Bichat  brings forward  an experiment which he believes
proves his assertion.   If we deprive a portion of intestine of its perito-
neal, muscular, and nervous coats, and afterwards inflate the canal, the
mucous membrane porjects at the place from which these coats have
been removed.  If a fold of the intestine be turned, and the mucous
membrane and the nervous  coat be removed, and it  be inflated, the
muscular and the peritoneal  tunics also pass from the opening.   But
this experiment has always afforded me different results, which settle
beyond a doubt that the form of the organ does not depend on its mus-
cular coat.
  In the former case, in fact, when the intestine remains in its proper
place, the protrusion occurs  when the muscular  coat is removed, al-
though it becomes more considerable after the separation of the nervous
tunic.  If, on the contrary, the intestine be  turned, the removal of the
nervous and mucous  coats is  not followed  by the protrusion  of the
muscular membrane, although when the latter is raised, the peritoneal
coat rises slightly.
  The union  between the  mucous membrane and the surrounding
parts is not every where equally intimate.  Usually, as  in the whole
intestinal canal, the nasal fossa?, the bladder, and  the vasa defer entia,
the adhesion is feebler than in some other parts, as of  the tongue, the
alveolar  processes, and the uterus, where it is so. intimate that the re-
spective limits of the parts can scarcely be distinguished.
  § 425. The internal and loose face of the mucous membranes is not
perfectly smooth, like that of the external cutaneous system.  It pre-
sents inequalities which in some parts are more distinct even than in
the latter.  Sometimes these inequalities depend on the great develop-
ment  of the nervous papilla?,  as in the tongue and the small intestines ;
so that they are produced by these papilla? and by the epidermis, that
is in  fact by all the  layers  of the mucous membrane, but also by it
alone.   Sometimes they give origin to folds, valves (plies  s.  valvuls),
formed either by the nervous coat and the mucous  coat alone, or at
the same time by the muscular coat.  The  former is much more com-
mon than the latter.   Among  these  folds are arranged the  valves of
Kerkring in the intestinal canal, the folds of the internal  face of the
gall-bladder, of the vesicula?  seminales, and  of the neck of the uterus,
the wrinkles of the stomach  and of the vagina.   Among the folds of
the second  kind may be cited the pyloric and ileo-ca?cal valves. These
latter  are found in that part where the function of the organ to which
they belong requires  a barrier or a line of demarkation  between its dif-
ferent sections.  The differences of the first kind are either constant or
not.   Thus, the folds of the intestines are always found, while those of
the  stomach and of the vagina are inconstant.   The first, hke those de-
pendent  on the development  of the  nervous papilla?, arise  from the 
328
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 extent of surface presented by the  development of  the mucous mem-
 brane ;  while, on the contrary, those of the  stomach appear  because
 the mucous membrane is less contractile than the surrounding mus-
 cular tunic.  The wrinkles in the vagina are inconstant for the same
 reason as the folds of the stomach ; for as they are more or less com-
 pletely effaced by repeated distensions of this canal, this  peculiarity
 demonstrates that their existence and their absence depend on the
 same cause.
   § 426. The internal differs but slightly from the external cutaneous
 system in its texture; but, in this respect, it varies more than the external
 in different parts of the body, doubtless because of the greater variety of
 functions it executes, according to the nature of the organs the internal
 face of which it lines.
   The chief differences are,
   1st. The manner in which the mucous membrane is bounded exter-
 nally, or in which it is continuous with the surrounding parts. We have
 already examined this question (§ 424).
   2d. The relations of the layers to each other.   The mucous mem-
 branes differ from the external cutaneous system, as we cannot, in all
 parts, insulate the layers which constitute them.
   In fact, these layers are so  intimately united in almost'every part of
 the internal cutaneous system, that  ordinary means have in vain been
 employed to demonstrate them.   Of this we have proofs in the mucous
 of membranes ofthe urinary apparatus, of the genital organs, and of most
 theintestinal canal, where blisters during life, and maceration after death,
 will not prove the existence of an epidermis, or more especially of several
 superimposed layers.  On the contrary, the  epidermis  may be insu-
 lated in the mouth and the esophagus ; it is also more or less percepti-
 ble on the surface of the glans, in the  meatus  auditorius, in short, as
 before stated (§ 384), in most of those places where  the internal cuta-
 neous system is continuous with the external.  It is however softer,
more brittle, and detached with greater difficulty in a certain  extent,
 than that of the skin, although  in  several parts, for instance  in  the
 tongue, its  thickness exceeds  that of the epidermis which covers most
 of the external regions of the body.
  It is very doubtful if the epidermis exists in those places where  we
cannot by  any means insulate it; and although  Haller, Bichat, and
other physiologists, think its existence is proved by the appearance of
membranes having the form of the canals from which'they are expelled;
still the form of these membranes  may be well  explained in  several
other ways.   In fact,
  a. It is possible that these may be new formations  produced by the
inflammation  of the mucous membranes ;  which is more probable
because they appear when  the organs are  inflamed, and  abnormal
membranous expansions are not only developed very often on the sur-
face of inflamed serous membranes, but also an expansion of  this kind,
the caducal membrane, is normally  produced, in the uterus, either by
coitus followed by impregnation or by a morbid state without coitus. 
  OF THE INTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.  329

  6. The expelled membrane also may be itself a mucous membrane
separated from its connections by gangrene, since we see the skin and
other organs detached in their whole thickness from the same cause.
  The existence of the epidermis as a distinct layer is not proved by
the thickening, the hardening, and the  dryness which the mucous
membranes experience when they have been often irritated, or exposed
for a time to the action of the external air.   Finally, it is not demon-
strated by the facility with which the mucous membranes support these
unusual relations  with external objects ;  for all  we can conclude from
this is, that the mucous membranes have on their free surfaces a tissue
analogous to the epidermis.
  We discover also  fewer traces of a distinct rete mucosum, at least
unless we consider as such a whitish fluid found between the epidermis
of the tongue and its papilla?.
  The dermis  of  the mucous membranes offers  as many  differences ;
and as they are formed in most of their extent of only a single layer,
we must refer  almost exclusively to this  layer the principal variations
they present, and which still remain for us to examine.
  3d. The thickness.  It varies much.   The dermis of  the  urinary
organs, ofthe respiratory organs, and of the genital organs, is usually
very thin ; that of the intestinal canal and of the stomach is thicker;
that of the esophagus still thicker, but always  less  so than that  of
several parts of the mouth, as the palate  and the  gums.  The dermis
of the mucous membrane of  the nose has also considerable thickness.
  4th. The development ofthe capillary tissue.   We may justly com-
pare, as Bichat has  done, the villosities  (villi)  of the  mucous  mem-
branes to the  papilla? of touch (§ 394).  Like the latter, they are
composed of cellular tissue, in the substance  and on the surface of
which blood-vessels and lymphatics are  certainly  distributed, and
which probably receives nerves also, although we are not certain that
the latter exist every where.   The vessels are demonstrated by injec-
tions : this cannot be doubted when the injected parts are examined
with a microscope.   The nerves  are seen distinctly in some parts, as
in the tongue ; but farther, for instance in the intestinal canal, micro-
scopical observations made with the most scrupulous care demonstrate
only a simple granular structure in the villosities.   We have not been
able  to observe openings in them with certainty.
  The size  and development of the papilla? of the mucous membranes
are not everywhere the same.   In several parts, as in the tongue and
the small  intestine, these papilla? are more developed than elsewhere,
and  are visible without any preparation,  for instance without raising
the  epidermis,  as is  necessary  in  the skin.   In the  lips  and penis
they are considerable; but in  those parts the epidermis covers them,
Every where else they are extremely small and even imperceptible.
  We particularly remark that the  degree of their development is in
direct relation  with  the  wants and functions  of the  organs, for their
volume increases in all those parts where a great increase of surface is
necessary.
  Vol. I                         42 
330
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  6th. The glands of the mucous membranes are much more developed
than those of the common integuments.   They always represent culs-
de-sac, and are more distinct in some parts, as around the mouth, than
in others, especially in  most of the extent  of  the  mucous  mem-
branes, where they exist as simple depressions.   Their special proper-
ties will  be mentioned when  treating of the glands.  We shall only
observe in this place that their number and volume are inversely as
those of  the villosities;  of this we may  be convinced by  comparing
the membrane of the palate  and tongue with that  of the  small and
large intestines.
  6th. The continual moisture on the internal and free surface of the
mucous membranes depends  on the mucous glands,  on the peculiar
activity of the vessels of the  mucous membranes, and on their shght
exposure to  the drying action of the air.   The fluid secreted by these
glands and called mucus, varies in  the  different  parts, although  its
essential properties  are  every where the same:(l)  it is insoluble  in
water but absorbs much of it; it  coagulates neither by heat nor cold,
and when dried becomes transparent.
  7th. The color of the mucous membranes is not every where the
same; usually they are light red.
  8th. These membranes are considerably softer than the external skin.
  9th. They are also more vascular.
  But they resemble more or less the common integuments in all these
relations when placed in the  same  circumstances, especially in the
inversion and the prolapsus of parts which they cover.
  § 427. Have the mucous  membranes appendages similar to the
nails and the hairs of the external cutaneous system 1  We discover
in them parts perfectly corresponding to these appendages,  only in the
abnormal state, and even then only hairs (§ 422):  but we  may con-
sider the teeth as organs having many relations with them.   Bonn(2)
pointed out this resemblance, which has since been better developed
by Walther(3) and by Lavagna,(4) and  many  facts might be adduced
in its support; but we  shall  consider this important question  in de-
scriptive anatomy when treating of the teeth.

  (1) Pourcroy and Vauquelin, in Annates du Museum, vol. xii. p. 61, 67.—Berze-
lius, On the mucus of mucous membranes, in, General Views of the properties of ani-
mal fluids, in the Med. chir. trans., vol. iii. p. 245-247.
  (2) De contin. membr., § xvi., in Sandifort, loc. cit, p.  276.  An ergo membranula
hac folliculum constituens, cutis oris propago est, per foramenula limbi producta ?
An testula, qua dein crusta vitrea vacatur continuatio ejus epidcrmidis, et riatura
unguium quodammodo. sed magis indurata ?
  (3) Physiologie, vol. i. p. 174,175.
  (4) Esperienze e rifiessioni sopra  la carie de'' denti umani colV aggiunta di un
nuovo saggio sulla riproduzzione de' denti negli animati rosicanti,  Genoa, 1612, p. 
OP THE INTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE. 331
   B.  OP THE INTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL 8TATH.

   § 428.  We are deficient in observations to enable us to decide, if
 the mucous membranes grow again after having been destroyed, or if,
 where they have appeared to be reproduced, there has been only a
 contraction and reunion of the sound parts.(l)
   § 429.  The mucous membranes present  many anomalies.  Their
 deviations of formation, especially the primitive, coincide almost always
 with analogous states of the whole organ, the internal face of which
 they line:  such are, fissures, prolongations  in form of sacs, contrac-
 tions, inversions,  &c.   In these  different cases all the layers vary in
 the same manner from the  normal state.
   In fact in other circumstances the upper  layers also present simul-
 taneous anomalies: but these are of  a different nature.   Thus when
 the mucous membranes are considerably distended by their passage as
 hernias through the muscular coat, and which are known, particularly
 in the intestinal canal and  the bladder, by the term diverticulum spu-
 rium, the fibres of the muscular tunic are separated from each other.
   We however observe abnormal processes which belong  only to the
 mucous membranes, independently of the other layers.
   § 430. These last anomalies form the transition from deviations of
 formation to changes of texture, since they are sometimes  simple pro-
 longations, such as the valves in the intestinal canal, but much more
 frequently excrescences, new formations, the  texture of which differs
 more or less from that of the normal mucous membranes.   We may
 remark, generally, that they are seen rather more frequently at the  ex-
 tremities of the internal cutaneous system, near its union with the  ex-
 ternal, in the nasal fossa?, the buccal  cavity,  the pharynx, the rectum,
 the uterus, and the vagina.  They are not  however  more common,
 the nearer  they are to the  limits of the external  cutaneous system;
 they are, on the contrary, almost always a little distant  from these
 limits, so that  for instance the excrescences of the nasal fossa?  are
 developed more frequently in the maxillary sinus, those of the buccal
 cavity in the back part ofthe mouth, those ofthe urinary apparatus in
 the bladder, those of the female genital system in the uterus or in  the
 vagina, and we are unable to tell to what  this peculiarity must be
 ascribed.
  The excrescences spoken of are termed polypi.   They are attached
 to the internal  face  of the mucous membranes  by a long or short,
 broad or narrow peduncle, and are loose in  their cavities.  Their struc-
 ture is  not  always the  same.  They are generally formed  of a very
 homogeneous  substance ; sometimes however we  see fibres  perpen-
dicular to  the  substance which supports  thern.   They vary also in
consistence, being sometimes hard, sometimes soft and mucous.  They
sometimes  receive a  great many very irregular vessels which form
     (1) Thomson, Lectures on inflammation, Edinburgh, 1813, p. 421, 422. 
332
GENERAL ANATOMY.
    large sinuses and have no proper parietes, but in others, vessels cannot
    be distinguished.   Sometimes  they are very inconvenient from their
    size and from the compression which they  exercise.   Sometimes they
    injure the health by frequent  hemorrhages from their surfaces or from
    their ruptured vessels.  Sometimes they inflame and suppurate.   The
    place where they are developed usually shows a great tendency to
    reproduce them when they have been extirpated.
       Schirrus and cancer are  also peculiar  to  the mucous membranes
    and to the glandular system;  they may be considered as resulting from
    the  development of these membranes.  These abnormal productions
    appear in some parts more frequently than  in others, and are generally
    seen in those  where polypi are  developed.    The  parts, however,
    most  frequently affected,  are  the female genital organs  and  the
    rectum; they also are  often developed in some  other points, more
    particularly where  polypi rarely grow, as  in the pyloric  orifice of  the
    stomach.
       This  disease is unquestionably situated in  the mucous crypts, and
    arises from the  frequent irritation of the parts  in which it is developed.
    It often contracts the cavity of  the organ, because of the considerable
    thickening usually resulting from it.
       It is rare that the mucous membranes ossify, or that osseous matter is
    deposited on their posterior face ; but round, fatty tumors are often deve-
    loped in several places, among  others in the esophagus and the small
    intestine:  Monro(l)  and Vicq  d'Azyr(2) have  denied the existence of
    these bodies, but  wrongly :  although  other tumors, entirely  different
    in character,  may possibly have been confounded with them.
       The general condition of  all these anomalies is the increase of the
    formative power, inflammation,  which however  often attacks  the  mu-
    cous  membranes  without giving place to them.(3)   One of the most

       (I) Encylc. meth. anat. pathol., p. 343.
       (2) Morbid anat. of the human gullet, Edinburgh, 1815, p. 196.
       (3) As the mucous membranes were not considered in a general manner before the
    time of Pinel and Bichat, we seek in vain in the writings of previous authors for general
    views of diseases of this system ; but if we reflect that, properly speaking, they form
    the lungs, the stomach, the intestines, and the appendages of these viscera, we have
    only to study what has been written on the morbid affections ofthe latter  to have a
    knowledge of their diseases.   The works of Bonnet and of Morgagni contain many
     valuable  fects  upon the pathological anatomy of the mucous membranes. Pinel
    arranges among the inflammations of these membranes all the catarrhal affections
'    ofthe ancients; or rather he has admitted as inflammations of these organs only the
     catarrhs  (flux sereux, muqueux, &c.) of his predecessors.  No  one however  had
     treated particularly ofthe subject when P. A. Prost published his Medecine eclairee
    par Vobservation  et Vourerture des corps,  (Paris, 1804, 2 vol. in 8vo.)  He there es-
     tablishes from a great many facts  the following propositions : irritation ofthe  mu-
     cous membrane  of the intestines extends to  the animal centre without pain: the
     excitement, the agitation, the derangement of its functions are relative to the sus-
     ceptibility of these organs, to the causes which irritate them, to the natural disposi-
     tion, and to the sensibility ofthe individual.  The alterations of these viscera nave
     more influence on the brain in proportion as their arteries are more developed, the
     red blood more abundant in  their extent, and the means of irritation more active.
     The paina of the abdomen depend on the state of inflammation of the peritoneum and
     of the surrounding cellular tissue.  Inflammation of the mucous membrane ofthe
     intestines, when very active, frequently extends to the peritoneal coat, but the latter
     may be inflamed, although the mucous coat is healthy.  The prostration of the ani- 
OP THE INTERNAL CUTANEOUS SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE. 333


usual consequents of this inflammation, especially when it has con-
tinued a long time, is the  thickening of this membrane.  Ulcers are
not unfrequently  developed there ;  but  the  mucous membranes can
suppurate without ulceration, doubtless on  account of the great analo-
gy which exists between their natural secretion  and pus.   The  un-
attached surface  of  the inflamed mucous membranes often secretes a
greater  or less quantity  of coagulable  substance which  gives rise to
solid or  hollow cylinders.   This is seen for instance  in croup, (angina
membranacea  s. polyposa.)    The  parietes of   the  mucous  mem-
branes  very seldom adhere  after exsudations of this matter, but they
often unite after  ulcers,  especially  in  those places  where union  is
not  impeded by motion and.  the  continual  passage  of foreign sub-
stances.


mal centre results from the absence of red blood from the intestinal mucous surface,
whether there be alteration and thickening, hardness, fungosity, infiltration, ulcera-
tion of this membrane, or even if these affections do not exist.  Finally, alterations of
the intestines with or without inflammation, are in relation with the last symptoms of
the animal functions preceding death. Prost could not but deduce from these general
facts a medical theory very different from that taught before his time ; but he did not
draw from his observations definite conclusions: confined as he was by the despotism
of classifications, he made only an indecisive application of them to pathology.
  Broussais has gone  still farther.   After censuring the exaggerations of Prost
he concludes by attributing all essential fevers to the inflammation of the mucous
membranes, especially those ofthe stomach.  Inflammatory, gastric, bilious, mucous,
adynamic, ataxic, and typhoid symptoms  result, in his opinion,  directly or sym-
pathetically,  from this  inflammation:  no inflammation of any  organ  whatever
can give rise to the symptoms of simple acceleration of the circulation, unless the
mucous membranes of the stomach are more or less affected.  He ascribes to the acute,
chronic,  latent, obscure inflammation of these membranes, a host of diseases, as the
exanthemata, gout,  rheumatism,  vesanies.  The danger of most acute or chronic
diseases arises principally from the inflammation of the mucous membranes which
the physician should foresee, prevent, and combat; finally it is the most frequent and
gravest disease, that which affects the rest of the organization in the greatest degree,
and a profound knowledge  of which is  the key to  pathology.  Broussais has also
given a fine history of the inflammation ofthe pulmonary and gastro-intestinal mu-
cous membranesj and important ideas upon the inflammation of the other mucous
membranes.  He thinks that all the  alterations of texture of which they are suscep-
tible depend on acute or chronic inflammation.   However exaggerated these ideas of
inflammation ofthe membranes may be, it is no less true that they are erroneous only
in being too general, and that Broussais has  supplied a great deficiency in pathology,
in pathological anatomy.  His  opinions and their  varieties may be found in the
Histoire des phlegmasies, ou inflammations chroniques,  Paris, 1808, 2 vol. in 8vo.;
id. 1816, 2 vol. in 8vo.;  id. 1821, 3 vol. in  8vo., in his Examen des doctrines medi-
cates generalement adoptees, Paris, 1821, 2 vol. in 8vo., and  in  his Annates de la
medecine physiologique,  Paris, 1822.  Boisseau endeavored in  1817 to prove  that
gastritis did not constitute all essential fevers, and that inflammations ofthe mucous
system were  not the only ones which produced fevers.  See his Reflexions sur la
nouvelle  doctrine medicate, in the Journa' universel des sciences medicates, vol. vii.
p. 1, and vol. viii. p. 257 ; his article, Fievre in the Dictionnaire abregi, des sciences
medicates; his Pyretologie  physiologique, Paris, 1823, in 8vo.; id. 1824, in 8vo.—
See also Roche, Refutation des objections faites  a la nouvelle doctrine desflevros,
Paris, 1822, in 8vo.—Begin,  Physiologie pathologique, Paris, 1821, in 8vo.—J.  Clo-
quet Memoires sur les ulcerations des intestins, in Nouveau journal de medecine, vol.
i. p. 107.—Scoutetten, (De Vanatomie pathologique en general, et de celle de Vappa-
reil digestif en particulier, Paris, 1822,  in 4to.),  and Andral, (Medecine clinique,
Paris, 1823, in 8vo.), have carefully described marks of inflammation of the mucous
tissue.__Goupil,  Exposition des principes de la nouvelle doctrine medicate, avec un
Precis de theses soutenues sur ses differentes parties, Paris, 1824, in 8vo.     F. T. 
334
GENERAL ANATOMY.
   §431.  Do the mucous membranes assist in forming the exanthe-
mata so common in the external cutaneous system, and which appear
under such various forms ?(1)
   Perhaps upon no question in pathology are there so many different
opinions.
   Exanthematous diseases doubtless form in the  external portion of
the mucous  membranes near the places where they are continuous
with the external cutaneous system when the latter  is itself affected.
Besides, these membranes frequently mflame  with  eruptive diseases of
the skin.  But do  the exanthemata assume there the same form as in
the common integuments 1   The great difference in the texture of the
two parts authorizes us to think, that the cutaneous exanthema differs
much from that of  the mucous membranes,  and  experience teaches,
that in  many exanthematous diseases, for  instance in small pox, all
the mucous membranes are often acutely inflamed,  but no pustules are
found in them, although they cover the skin.  Some observations how-
ever, as those of Wrisberg(2)  and Blane,(3) establish incontestably,
contrary to the opinions ofthe  most celebrated physicians, that, when
the variolous pustules exist in  the skin, they sometimes form  also in
the mucous membranes, especially those of the air-passages and  ali-
mentary canal, and differ  but  little from those on the surface of the
common integuments.
   § 432.  The mucous  membranes are not unfrequently developed
abnormally ;  usually, however, after inflammation when it has termi-
nated by suppuration.  We think that every suppurating surface may
be compared to an imperfect mucous membrane.
   After inflammation, the cellular tissue, imbibing the coagulable part
of the blood which  has infiltrated into its texture, changes into  a soft
and whitish membrane, which soon acquires the power of secreting a
peculiar fluid, called pus ;  so analogous to  mucus that we cannot dis-
tinguish them by our reagents.  This membrane is intimately united
to the subjacent cellular tissue and soon receives  numerous vessels.
Its surface, which is at  first smooth becomes uneven,  and numerous
small tubercles, formed of  vessels and cellular tissue, arise ; these are
called granulations : in this state pus is continually secreted, until the
number  of its vessels diminishes, the granulations  waste, and in their
place is developed a substance which resembles more or less the natu-
ral membrane  which previously existed.   The mucous membranes
then suppurate more readily than  all other parts; and what is more
remarkable, they have the  power of forming pus, although there is
no  previous  destruction  of  their  tissue and the formation of  a new
one—indispensable conditions in other organs.  The  same perhaps is
true of the serous membranes: but they then  resemble the mucous
membranes very much, as is  shown by their thickening, softening,
the increased number of vessels in  their  substance, and their  con-
sequent redness.
  (1) Scoutetten, loc. cit—Andral, loc. cit.
  (2) Sylloge comment, p. 52.
  (3) Trans, for impr. of med.  and  surg. knowl., vol. iii., London, 1812, no. 31, p.
425, VI7. 
        OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL 6TATE.     835

  The  accidental cysts are often similar to the mucous  membranes,
both in regard to their structure and the nature of the fluid which they
contain ; and Bichat has gone too far in referring them all to the class
of serous membranes.  We have found more than once, in the ovaries
and in the uterus, large and small cysts which resemble the mucous much
more than the  serous membranes.   We believe also there is an exact
relation between their structure and the nature of the fluid contained by
them, for we have recognized that the cysts filled with serum resemble
much the serous membranes, while others filled with thicker mucilagi-
nous or purulent matter are more similar to the mucous membranes.
  The purulent cysts, which are connected with the surrounding cellu-
lar tissue less intimately than are ordinary abscesses, naturally lead to
the latter.
                          SECTION XL

                 OP THE  GLANDULAR SYSTEM.

                      ARTICLE  FIRST.

        OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.

   §433.  It  is very difficult to  give  a satisfactory definition of the
organs which constitute the glandular system.(l)  They are usually
too extensive, too  narrow, or  false.   The difficulty arises  especially
from the great difference between the organs known as glands.  If we
should conform to custom  and give to the definition all the extent of
which it is susceptible, we should say that the glands are organs which
secrete from their immediate materials and from their proper substance
a fluid different from the blood, a hquid, which, in its relations with the
functions of an organ, has nothing mechanical, and which acts, in a part
different from that  in which it arose ;  that their forms are more or less
rounded; that a considerable number of blood-vessels and of lymphatics
enter into their composition with a pecuhar substance and nerves, and
finally that they are surrounded with one or more envelops,  and are
imbedded in a loose mucous tissue.
   By this definition we exclude from the glandular system  the serous
system, which resembles it in the fluid which its tissue also exhales.   But

  (1) Warton, Adenographia, London, 1656.—Malpighi, De viscerum structurd, in
Opp. omnia, et  seors. ed., Amsterdam, 1669.—Idem, De structurd glandularum con-
globatarum consimiliumque partium, in Opp. posth.—Lossius, Disq. de glandulis in
genere, Wittenberg, 1683.—Nuck, Adenographia curiosa,Leyden,  1691.—C. Mylius,
De glandulis, Leyden, 1698.—L. Terraneus, De glandulis universim et speciatim ad
urethram virilem, Leyden, 1729.—Opuscula anat. defabricd glandularum in corpore
humano continent binas epistolas, quarumprior'est Boerhaavii super hacre adRuys-
ehium, altera Ruyschii ad Boerhaavium qua priori respondetur, Amsterdam, 1733, in
Ruysch, Opp. omn.—A. L. de Hugo, Commentatiode glandulis in genere et speciatim
de thymo, Gottingen, 1746.—Bordeu, Recherches anat. sur la position des glandes et
sur lew action, Paris,  1751.—G. A. Haase,  De glandularum definitione, Leipsic,
1806. 
336
GENERAL ANATOMY.
the serous system has a membranous form ; the liquid it furnishes has
simply a mechanical relation with the organs, and acts only while it is
inclosed in the cavity of the serous membranes.
   This definition also excludes from the glandular system the stomach
and the alimentary canal, for, although they secrete fluids which differ
from the blood, these fluids act within the organs  which have produced
them.
   But on the other hand, it admits into the system, organs, which in
its strictest sense should be excluded.   Thus in adding that the fluids
secreted by the glands escape by proper excretory ducts, we are obhged
either to imitate Bichat, and to exclude the spleen, the thyroid gland,
the thymus  gland, the  renal capsules and  the lymphatic glands,
or to adopt the hypothesis of Haase, and to assign to these organs ex-
cretory canals which have not been demonstrated and probably do not
exist.
   Besides, this addition is entirely useless, for it matters little to the
function of the gland, whether the fluid formed in it escapes by a proper
excretory duct, or is taken up by the lymphatic  vessels.   The above
definition prevents us  from considering the glands as appendages of
the internal  cutaneous  system,(l) although  they are  usually  con-
tinuous with  it by the ramifications which this system sends into their
substance.  It  embraces almost all the  parts termed viscera, and in
fact it is incorrect to apply it only to certain glands, and  to exclude
others(2) which  present all the characters included  in the strictest
sense  of the  definition, since there  is no essential difference between
the glands and most ofthe viscera, as Malpighi(3) has perfectly shown,
contrary to the opinion of Wharton.(4)
   § 434. According to  this  definition  the  glandular system com-
prises,
   1st.  The mucous glands.
   2d. The sebaceous glands.
   3d. The liver, the salivary glands, the amygdals, the testicles, the
ovaries, the prostate gland,  Cowper's glands, the kidneys.
  4th.  The lymphatic glands, the thyroid gland,  the mammary glands,
the thymus gland, the spleen, and the renal capsules.
   § 435.  The most essential general characters of the glands are:
   1st.  The glands have cavities in their substance in which the liquid
they secrete  is deposited.   They  are then more or  less apparently
hollow organs.
   2d.  Their form is  not  generally the same in  every part: they are
usually round, and those which  appear  smooth and  angular in  the
later periods of fife are rounded in the early stages of existence.

  (1) According to Wilbrand, Vom Hautsystem, p. 36.
  (2) As Haase has done : he includes in the glandular system only the lachrymal
glands, the salivary glands, the thyroid gland, the thymus gland, Cowper's glanda,
and the renal capsules.
  (3) De hepate, c. iv.
  (4) Adenog., c. v. 
        OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     337

   3d. They also differ from each other in several respects in respect to
number.
   a. Some are single, others are numerous.   Among the former are,
the liver, the kidneys, the testicles, the ovaries, the prostate gland, the
lachrymal  glands.  On the contrary, the mucous glands are disposed
in the whole course of the mucous membranes.  The salivary glands
make the transition from the first to the second.
   6, The insulated glands are sometimes single, as the liver, the thy-
roid gland, and the prostate gland ; sometimes double, as the kidneys,
the testicles, the ovaries, and the lachrymal glands.   The single glands
differ  in  the greater  or less degree of symmetry existing in their
construction.  The liver is the least symmetrical in situation and form ;
the prostate gland and the thyroid gland are more symmetrical: they
are composed of a right and a left corresponding half, and are situated
on  the median line of the body.  Nor are the double glands perfectly
symmetrical.  The renal capsules and the kidneys of the two sides do
not resemble each other.  There is more similarity between the testi-
cles, the ovaries, and the sahvary glands of  the right and the left side.
   4th. The glands have not a constant type of formation.   The col-
lections of  mucous glands within the intestinal canal vary in almost
every individual.   The kidneys are sometimes united in various ways
in one mass ; they are sometimes very unequal in size, or uncommonly
long,  or situated lower than usual, &c.  This difference in the forma-
tive type is not however equally great in all glands.  The kidneys are
doubtless those which vary the most in this respect.  Next come the
liver, the salivary glands, and the lachrymal glands,  The formation is
most constant in the glands which belong to  the genital organs, at least
in the larger glands, which form the essential parts of this apparatus.
   5th. The glands receive a great many blood-vessels and lymphatic
vessels.  The vessels ramify infinitely and form small skeins.   Thus
the whole gland has more or less an arborescent form.
   6th. The origin and the distribution  of the vessels frequently vary.
These variations depend partly on the situation and form of the glands.
A kidney which is more oblong than usual receives a greater number
of vessels which are proportionally smaller,   When situated lower than
usual,  these vessels,  present the same arrangement.  These different
circumstances however  are frequently independent of  each other.
Thus when there is no change in the form of the kidneys, ofthe thyroid
gland, and of the liver, the origins of the vessels often vary.
   7th. The number  of nerves which enter the glands  is on the con-
trary small.  They are derived either from the central system or from
the great sympathetic nerve, but most frequently from the latter.
   8th. The tissue and the peculiar substance differ in all the glands
which do not belong exactly to the same class.
  9th. The internal tissue of these organs, that in which secretion takes
place, escapes all  our means of  investigation, because of the smallness
   Vol. I                     43 
338
GENERAL ANATOMY.
of the objects.   In regard to this subject opinions are divided between
two hypotheses, that of Malpighi and that of Ruysch.
   According to Malpighi, we find small  membranous vesicles in the
limit between the vessels which bring the blood and those which carry
it, in the parietes of which  the final ramifications of the vessels are dis-
tributed.   According to Ruysch, on  the contrary, these vesicles are
only the undeveloped ramifications ofthe vessels, and the final termina-
tions of the vessels are connected uninterruptedly with the roots of the
excretory ducts.
   But although we cannot deny that good injections and careful mace-
ration demonstrate that the vesicles admitted  by Malpighi are  fine
ramifications of the vessels, still the hypothesis of this anatomist is
preferable to that  of  Ruysch.   In fact  there  are no large vesicles in
the  place where Malpighi asserts their existence.  But the system of
excretory ducts very probably commences by a  multitude of roots in
cul-de-sac, which  insinuate themselves  between the finest ramifica-
tions of the vessels, and form with them the smallest granulations, even
as the gland is generally composed of blood-vessels and of excretory
vessels.  Malpighi has already availed himself with great sagacity of
the  structure of the  liver  in the inferior  animals and in the fetuses
of the superior  animals to support his opinion,(l) and we may add that
the arrangement ofthe whole glandular system in these animals favors
his theory, since all their glands are composed  uniquely of simple or
complex, more or  less numerous, closed canals which float loosely in
the nutritious fluid effused between the organs.
  The least complex mucous glands, which are  only simple sacs, fur-
nish the original of the glandular formation.   Let us suppose this sac
to be extended, to ramify, and to spread its branches  between those of
the vessels, and we shall have a compound gland, without ever arriving
at a direct communication of  the  blood-vessels with the  excretory
ducts.(2)   This  applies also  to the imperfect glands, as within them
we see also  more or less  apparent excavations which are filled with
a secretory fluid.  These  cavities are however closed  in  all parts,
and probably ramify less than in the perfect glands.
  In this manner, the two hypotheses may be reconciled, for the ob-
jections of Ruysch apply only to the large vesicles.
   10th. According to Luca, there is every where a striking analogy
between the color of the secretion, and  that ofthe  substance  of the
gland.(3)  If, however, we except the case where the color is derived
from the fluid contained in the .glands, this assertion is evidently un-

  (1) De viscer. struct, c. ii., and Ep. de gl. conglob., p. 6.
  (2) It follows from this highly philosophical  opinion, which very  much sim-
plifies the theory of secretions, that the lungs themselves are real glands,  even in
the strict sense of the word, since the trachea serves as an excretory duct.  Here
however the secretion requires one more condition than  the other glands, the pre-
sence of the  external air in the excretory duct.  This view, if adopted, will modify
the theory of respiration and will overturn the gratuitous hypotheses on which it
has hitherto been vainly attempted to place it.                      F. T.
  (3) Untersuchung der Thymus,  Erfurt,  1811, p. 39,  1812, p. 28. 
        OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.    339

founded; for we discover not the least analogy between the color of the
salivary glands and that of the  saliva, between  that of  the liver and
the bile, between that of the kidneys and of the urine, that of the testi-
cles and of the semen.
   11th. The  glands are always  imbedded in a loose and abundant
mucous tissue; and most of them  are also covered with one, and
sometimes with several special membranous capsules.
   12th. They accumulate principally towards the internal parts.
   13th. They  are fragile, and  slightly elastic.  They experience  no
transient change in volume, although they often increase and diminish.
In the normal state, their sensibility is, generally speaking, very slight;
there are, however, some exceptions, as the testicles.
   14th. Their  functions are always highly important.  They form
the principal  parts of the apparatus with which they are connected,
and the uses of the other parts of this apparatus are purely mechanical.
   § 436.  The whole glandular  system  may be divided into the perfect
and the imperfect glands.  To  the  former belong those provided with
an excretory canal; the latter comprises those in which the canals are
replaced by the lymphatic vessels.   The first division includes the mu-
cous, the sebaceous, the salivary,  and the lachrymal glands, the liver,
the pancreas, the  amygdalae, the  testicles, the ovaries, the  prostate
gland,the glands of Cowper,and the kidneys; the second,the mammary,
the lymphatic, the thyroid, and the thymus glands, and the renal cap-
sules.

               I.  OF THE  PERFECT  GLANDS.

   § 437.  The  perfect  glands are always connected with the skin, or
with a mucous membrane, and consequently with the cutaneous system,
by the hollow appendages of this system, which penetrate within them.
We divide them into three classes.
   § 438.  1st. To  the  first class  belong  the  simple glands or crypts.
(Glanduls simplices,  crypts.)  They  have the form  of round, flat-
tened, lenticular, hollow bursae,  or small, closed  depressions, which do
not open externally by a duct distinct from their substance, but only by
an orifice situated upon some  portion of their circumference.  They
are not composed of several  lobes, but  their texture is homogeneous ;
they are the smallest of all the  glands.   They line the  posterior face
of the mucous  membranes, in great numbers.   The first modification
of their form, the lenticular, is much more common than that of a sac.
These two kinds of simple glands, differ from each other in their form
and texture; the parietes of the  lenticular glands are thicker in propor-
tion to their cavities than those in  the form of sacs, the walls of which
are very thin.    The lenticular glands are found in all parts of the intes-
tinal canal, in the respiratory system, and in most of the genital organs.
We find the others only hi the  urethra.  Their volume, number, and
situation are not the same in all parts.  Those which exist around  the
mouth, are the largest, and are  generally  more than a line in diameter. 
340
GENERAL ANATOMY.
Those of the small intestine are much smaller, and those of the large
intestine a little larger.  We find similar glands in the skin, but not in so
many  places;  principally in  the  nose and also in the ear.   The
former are called mucous glands (glanduls mucoss); the latter, sebaceous
glands (glanduls sebaces).   Here, too, are found the Meibomian glands
(glanduls mcibomians), situated in the eyelids, on the borders of the
external and the internal cutaneous system.
   § 439. 2d. Nextcome the conglobate glands (glandids agglutinais).
They seem formed by the union of several small simple glands, and open
externally by several orifices.  Here belong the tonsils (tonsills), and the
prostate gland  (prostata).   Their substance seems homogeneous, like
that of the  crypts.   They are round, and have a smooth and uniform
surface.  Among them and the crypts, we find the glands of Peyer
(glanduls Peyerians, agminats) ; these are situated in the ileum, and
consist of distinct collections of mucous glands, the thickness of which
does not increase in proportion to the number of simple organs which
unite to form them.
   § 440.  3d.  The  conglomerate  glands  (glanduls conglomerats),
are more or  less evidently composed of several lobes, and are attached
to the expansions of  the skin, on the surface of which  they open by
canals of various lengths called excretory ducts .(ductus excretorii),
arising by numerous roots, like veins,  and formed of two coats, the
internal mucous coat, and  an external, which  is firmer, and  not the
same in every part.   These  glands have the most complex structure,
and they seem too the most insulated. Many of them have considerable
size, and are classed among the largest organs of the body ; such are
the liver and the kidneys.                           *
   §441. These glands differ from each  other, in several respects.
1st. In regard to their structure: in this respect they may be divided into
two classes.   Some, as the salivary glands, the lachrymal glands, and
the testicles, are composed of several distinct  lobes, which  are also
divided into smaller lobules, and are connected only by a mucous tissue,
which is more or less loose.   These may be called the lobate glands
(glanduls lobuloss).
   Others, on the contrary, do not have  this  lobate structure, at least at
all periods of life, but internally form a connected whole, the outer sur-
face of which is uneven.  The liver and kidneys belong particularly to
this class. We find in this class what we do not in others, viz. a distinc-
tion into an external and an internal substance, which sometimes, as in
the kidneys, are arranged in layers, so that the external covers all the
surface ofthe gland; and sometimes, as in the liver, are of such a nature,
that the external substance extends into all the gland, whence result
numerous small sub-divisions, each formed of the two substances.   We
must however observe,  that this difference does not exist at all periods
of life;  for the  kidneys and the liver, the former longer than the latter,
are at  first  composed  of several  lobes, which are gradually blended
into a single mass. 
       OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL 8TATE.     341

  These are the only glands which have a proper capsule, different
from the mucous tissue, surrounding their substance in all parts, giving
them a smooth, uniform surface, and separating them entirely from the
other organs.   We however observe also some differences among the
glands which  are  provided with a capsule.  Thus, the testicles and
the ovaries have a double  envelop, of which the external belongs to
the class of serous membranes, while the internal,  which is much
stronger, is arranged among the fibrous organs.  The liver has only a
serous  capsule, furnished by the peritoneum.  The mode in which the
kidneys are attached is between that of the testicles and the liver, for
they are imbedded in a mass of mucous tissue, very analogous to the
serous  membranes, and their peculiar capsule allies them to the fibrous
organs.
  When perfectly developed, these latter glands are undoubtedly the
most perfect of all.   They seem the best fitted to constitute separate
organs.  They fulfill special functions, and in many parts of the .body
as for instance the different salivary glands, do not exist in pairs.
  Finally, the texture of those glands which are most similar also varies,
and each gland has peculiar characters.  Thus,  the  salivary glands,
independent of their volume, have lobes of various sizes, with a firmer
or softer tissue.  In most glands of this class, we cannot easily recog-
nize at first view, that they are formed of blood vessels and carrying
vessels, and we are obliged to destroy a portion of their substance by
maceration, and then the structure appears.  In  the  testicles, these
canals are entirely naked,  and they are observed  immediately after the
external envelop is raised.    In almost all, there  are several short and
arborescent vessels.  These are fewer in the testicle, but they are ex-
tremely long, tortuous, and convoluted.
  2d.  The arrangement of their excretory ducts differs in several re-
spects  :
  a. In number: Some glands, as the liver, the kidneys, and several of
the salivary glands, have only one excretory duct, formed by the union
of the excretory ducts from the different lobes.   Others, on the contrary,
as the  lachrymal, the sub-maxillary, and the mammary glands, have
several, which  open at the side of each other.   In both cases, the ca-
vities of  the excretory ducts do not communicate together, and the
lobes of the glands are entirely separate.  This difference is not, how-
ever, constant, for sometimes in the place of one duct we see several,
which  are formed, not by the union of some branches which remained
insulated, as in the liver and kidneys, particularly the latter; while in
other cases, which are more rare and more difficult to demonstrate, the
number of these same canals is diminished.   The transition from unity
to multiplicity is by gradations.  In many glands, as the salivary, the
excretory duct  comes already formed and single from the glandular
substance;  in others, as the liver and the kidneys, two or three large
trunks  emerge, and do not unite  in one, except externally ; finally, in
the testicle, the gland furnishes numerous  ducts which do not unite, 
342
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 for some distance, in one canal.  To these glands  are allied the lach-
 rymal and the mammary glands.
   (3. In the relation of length.  The length  has no relation with the
 volume, but with the  situation of the  gland, and with the distance
 which  separates  it from  the  place  where  the  secreted  fluid is
 emptied.   The testicle, which is so small in volume, has an excretory
 duct of enormous length ;  while  that  of  the  liver,  which  is much
 larger,  is very much shorter.
   y. In the relation of breadth.   Generally, but  not  always, their
 breadth is in direct ratio with the volume  of the gland ;  hence, why
 we  not unfrequently see them enlarged, in proportion  as the gland
 enlarges.   The lactiferous vessels, scarcely visible except at the time
 of lactation, become  several lines broad  during this period.  This ar-
 rangement, however, does not occur strictly in  every part;  thus,  the
 excretory canal of the liver is even positively smaller than that of the
 kidney.  Again,  the increase  in size of  the gland does not necessarily
 imply an  enlargement of the  excretory ducts, and hence it must  de-
 pend on an increase in the secreting power of the organ;  thus  the
 liver, the prostate gland, the kidneys, &c,  often acquire an enormous
 size, while there is no enlargement of their  excretory canals.
   S. In regard to its  degree  of complexity.   Most of the excretory
 ducts arise by roots, which gradually unite in a  single trunk, and
 proceed without any remarkable change in their structure and dimen-
 sions to the place where they open, following a direction more or less
 straight, so that  they carry the  fluid secreted  by the  gland imme-
 diately to its destination.  This takes place in the excretory ducts  of
 the mammary, salivary, and lachrymal  glands.   Those of some other
 glands, on the contrary, are changed into  a large reservoir, within which
 the secreted fluid  remains and  is modified before  it is expelled.   This
 arrangement is seen in the excretory canals of the liver, of the testicle,
 and of the kidney.   These reservoirs, called bladders or vesicles (ve-
sica), from their  proportional size, are usually found nearer the ex-
ternal than the internal extremity of the excretory ducts,  and are
 connected with it by a more  or less narrow portion, which varies in
length, and sometimes constitutes a peculiar canal,  to which a special
 name is given, as happens to the gall-bladder, and sometimes presents
 itself only as a contraction of the bladder, and is called its neck.  These
 bladders are designed  either to mature  the fluid within them, parti-
 cularly  to concentrate it  by absolving its aqueous parts, or to keep it
in reserve,  to  prevent its  continual dribbling.    The  biliary and
seminal vesicles fulfill the first  intention,  while the bladder performs the
second.   The arrangement of the parietes  of the reservoirs is not the
same in both cases:  in the first, the mucous membrane is folded, so as
to increase its  surface; there  are no  folds  in the second, but, on the
 contrary, a muscular coat, which we do not find in the first, is developed,
to expel the accumulated hquid.  The excretory ducts of some glands,
particularly those of the kidney, are  arranged  very differently from
what is usually seen ;  in the  kidney, in fact,  their branches do not
unite gradually in trunks, but open into a common reservoir, the pelvis, 
       OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     343

which afterwards  contracts, to give origin to  a common excretory
duct, the ureter.   However, when  closely regarded, this difference is
since found to be more apparent than real; the excretory ducts which
open into the pelvis by distinct orifices  arise from the anastomoses
of smaller branches, and the pelvis is, in fact, formed by their union.
The difference depends only on the  size and proportional bigness of
the common trunk and its branches, since  the  smaller twigs  dilate
suddenly  into a large trunk,  instead  of  forming branches, which
gradually in volume increase.
  s. In their direction.   Most of the excretory ducts proceed in almost
straight hnes; those of the testicle are, on the contrary, very tortuous,
both within and without the gland.
  £. In regard to the  mode in which  they open externally.   Some-
times the place where they open is not distinguished from the rest of the
surface, except in the orifice of the duct; sometimes we observe a de-
pression ; finally, sometimes the extremity of the duct projects more
or less, like a wart.  The first arrangement is seen in the orifices of
the ducts ofthe parotid and ofthe lachrymal glands; the second in those
of the liver and pancreas ; and the third in those of the mammary and
sub-maxillary glands.
  *). In relation  to their internal structure.  We have already said,
that the most essential tunic of the excretory ducts is a mucous  mem-
brane.  This membrane presents  numerous differences, which seem-
ingly depend  principally  on the nature of the liquid which passes
through  these canals.   In the excretory ducts of the salivary glands
it is smooth, and destitute of mucous follicles, which are found in great
number in the biliary ducts, the  gall  bladder, the bladder,  and the
urethra.   To this membrane  succeeds  one more external, which is
more sohd;  this  is not very thick ;  it is formed of cellular tissue, and is
somewhat extensible, while in the vasa deferentia it is extremely thick,
hard, solid,  and  but shghtly extensible.   In some parts of the body,
the excretory ducts  also  present  a peculiar structure, which admits
of uses which are also special.  Thus there is deyeloped around the
mucous membrane of the urethra a very complicated  venous network
which is surrounded by a fibrous membrane, by means of which, when
the blood remains in  it,  the  penis  acquires the stiffness necessary
to its  introduction into the vagina.
  6. In regard to their continuity.  The  excretory ducts are generally
blended with the substance of the gland, the secretion  of  which they
carry.  But this is not true in regard to  those of the ovaries ; the fal-
lopian tubes are, in fact, in the normal state,  separated from their
glands ;  they open by a large orifice into the  abdominal  cavity, and
are adjusted to the ovaries only in certain circumstances ; but to speak
properly, it begins in the ovary, as the  vesicle of Graaf.  This vesicle
is entirely closed in  virgins, and consequently terminates in cul-de-sac
towards  the tube; it  does not open until after coition followed by
impregnation;  the tube then  applies its  loose  extremity upon the
ovary, to receive the fluid secreted within it; and the relations between
the two organs at this moment are similar to  those of all  the glands: 
844
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
to what they are, very probably, during  the first periods  of fetal
existence.
   § 442. The arrangement of the vessels  is not the same in all the
glands.  The differences they offer in this respect, relate,
   1st. To the kind of vessels, and consequently, to  the nature of the
blood.  All the glands receive blood by the arteries, and it, is car-
ried away by the veins; but the liver receives,  in  addition, a \ larger
quantity of venous blood from the vena-porta,  the arterial portion of
which is distributed in its substance;  the  liver is composed, then, of a
quadruple, and not of a triple tree, like the other glands.  We are still
ignorant, and it is difficult to determine, (and besides it does not belong to
general anatomy,) whether the blood of the vena-porta  serves for the
secretion of bile, or if that *)f the hepatic artery alone furnishes its ma-
terials ; or, finally, if the two do not equally contribute.
   2d.  To the volume and to the number of the vessels.  Some glands do
not receive as much blood as others ; the liver, the kidneys, the salivary
and the mucous glands, receive  vessels  much  larger, in proportion,
than those of the testicles, the  ovaries, and the  prostate  gland.   This
difference depends evidently on the'less secreting power possessed
by these latter glands.  Although the vessels which go to the liver and
the kidneys are not proportionally larger, they receive more blood than
the salivary and the lachrymal  glands;  a  difference which is probably
owing to the same cause, and also, perhaps, depends (especially in the
liver) on the peculiar character of the secreted  fluid, which does not
resemble blood in an}7 respect.
   3d.  To the manner in which  the vessels go to the gland.  In general
they are short, as the  arteries of the liver, of the kidneys, and of the
salivary glands.   Those of the testicles  and the ovaries  are, on the
contrary, long ; these vessels generally go in straight lines;  they enter
some glands by several points of their surface.  This  arrangement is
seen in all those which have no special envelope, distinct from cellular
tissue ; thus they are found in the  lobate glands, the  salivary, the
lachrymal, and the mammary glands.  Others which are enveloped in
a proper membrane' always admit  the vessels by a point of their sur-
faces, where a small depression or fissure (hilus) appears. The vessels
divide into a greater or less number of branches before disappearing.
  4 th. To  the relation between the different  kinds of vessels.   The
veins are not generally as large and numerous in proportion to the
arteries as in those organs which do not secrete,
   There is a great similarity between the arrangement of the different
kinds of vessels,  both  within  and without  the gland.  In several of
these organs  they enter and emerge at the same  point.  Thus the
arteries, the veins, and the excretory ducts  are found  in  the  same
place in the kidneys, the testicles, and the  lungs.  In other glands this
arrangement applies only to one  order of vessels.  Thus the  blood
enters the liver by the same point as that where the bile comes out,
and emerges at a point entirely different.   In the salivary glands the
blood-vessels proceed together, but the direction of the excretory ducts
is different.   However, the  different  vessels  accompany each  othci 
       OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE NORMAL STATE.     345

within the gland to which they unite and give  rise.  The agreement
beween them is often expressed also by the similitude of their anoma-
lies ; the renal arteries, the renal veins,  and  the ureters often but not
always correspond in this respect.   The excretory ducts  generally
have a type  of formation more constant than that of the blood-vessels:
the ureter and the hepatic duct seldom present anomalies, while they
are frequently seen in the blood-vessels, particularly the arteries.
                 II.  OF THE IMPERFECT GLANDS.

  § 443. The imperfect glands (§ 436) have with the lymphatic sys-
tem a relation similar to that which exists between the perfect glands
and the cutaneous  system,  since they are attached to  it by very nu-
merous and large lymphatics.  Perhaps also their functions relate to
the perfection of the nutritious fluid.  There is no doubt of this in regard
to the lymphatic glands,  and it is highly probable of the others from
their  position and their large number of lymphatic vessels.  Besides
all are situated near the thoracic canal, the renal capsules at its lower
part, the thyroid gland and the thymus gland at its upper part, so
that the fluid prepared by them only pass through a short space to go
to be united to that  which it contains already.  We may then compare
the lymphatic glands  to the simple glands which exist in all of the in-
ternal  cutaneous system, as also to the salivary glands, and the others
to the proper and perfect glands ofthe different systems, to the liver, the
testicles,  the ovaries, the mammary glands, and the kidneys.
  § 444. The most remarkable periodical differences of  the glands
relate,
  1st.  To  their size.   The glandular system is generally more deve-
loped in the early periods of  life.  At this time  all the glands receive
more blood and are proportionally larger.   But all  do not present a
similar proportion  in  this  respect.   Some,  especially  the liver,  the
thymus gland, and the renal capsules, are proportionally much larger
at the early periods  of life than at any other epoch.
  2d.  To the duration of their existence. All the glands are not alike
in this respect.  Most of them remain during life.  However, this is
not the case with the thymus gland, of which there is normally no
trace in the twelfth year.   Some lymphatic glands also  disappear,
while others are developed. We rarely see analogous phenomena in the
renal capsulse, the testicles, and the ovaries.
  3d.  To their structure.   This is  not the same in  all periods of  life.
Those glands which are at  a future period to form one mass,  as  the
Uver and  the kidneys, are at first composed of a large or small number
of lobes which gradually unite.
  4th. To  their situation.   This  also varies, and depends partly on a
^rterence in size. m Thus the left lobe of the liver, which is the larger,
occupies at first the whole left hypocondrium, where afterward it does
not even  reach.   We however observe also in  this respect differences
  Vol. I.                        44 
346
GENERAL  ANATOMY.
which do not depend on size.   Thus the testicles exist at first in the
abdorninal cavity, which they afterwards leave and come to the surface
of the body :  the ovaries also in the early periods of hfe are situated
much higher than in the grown female.
                    ARTICLE SECOND.

        OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

   § 445.  The glandular  substance  is  never  reproduced when de-
 stroyed.
   § 446. The glands present many anomalies.  Primitive deviations
 of formation are  not unfrequent, because they  belong  to  the class of
 organs of vegetative life.   The nature of these  deviations  depends on
 their normal form.
   Deviations in quantity may be stated as follows:
   1st.  Their total or partial deficiency.  The partial defect is princi-
 pally seen in the glands, which  exist  in pairs, as  the kidneys and the
 testicles, when one of these synonymous organs does not exist.  In some
 cases  this deviation depends  on certain  conditions.  Thus the renal
 capsules sometimes do not  exist when there is anencephalia.  The
 glands of the sexual organs are those in which defects are most com-
 mon.
  2d.  Their smallness.  This is more rare, but  all the glands present
instances of it.  Some are more particularly subject to it than others.
In the same circumstances where  the renal capsules  are  sometimes
entirely deficient, it is more common to find  them  smaller than usuaL
This abnormal formation appears most frequently in the glands of the
genital organs, although they may be formed very regularly in other re-
spects.
  3d.  Allied to these two states  is the lobate structure, observed in
several glands, which consists  essentially in an imperfect development,
since it is  one of their normal characters during the early periods of
hfe.
  4th. Increase in number.  This generally is only  apparent, and arises
from the subdivision of a part, which, in the normal state, is single.
  5th.  An excess in size.   This is rarely congenital; sometimes how-
ever the liver and the  thyroid  gland are  much  larger  than  usual at
birth.   We may also class here the abnormal continuance of this high
degree of development from birth.   The  hver and the  thymus gland
particularly furnish examples of this in certain cases.
  Deviations in respect to quality are,
  1st.  The division of a simple gland into several: as is seen particu-
larly in  the  spleen,  more  rarely in .the thymus, and in the thyroid
gland, the kidneys, and the liver.
  2d.  The abnormal  union.   This exists to a small or great extent,
and the kidneys furnish examples of it. 
       OF THE GLANDULAR SYSTEM IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.   347

   3d.  Abnormal position.  Some glands from various causes present,
 in this respect, more numerous and considerable differences than others.
 The kidneys,  the testicles, and the liver vary more than all the other
 glands in regard to situation.
   The kind of anomaly in situation is not the same in all glands. The
 kidneys are placed too low, the testicles too high, the liver without the
 cavity of the abdomen, &c.
   The asymmetrical glands are subject to inversion: thus we sometimes
 find the spleen on the right, and the liver on the left side.
   § 447. The accidental deviations of formation which may supervene
 at all periods of life occur in the same respects as the congenital.
   1st. The glands  not  unfrequently  waste  or grow smaller,  as
 happens to the liver, the spleen, the  testicles, and the renal capsules.
 But in this case  the texture is more or less evidently changed.
   2d.  The  glands increase much more  frequently in volume, either
 primitively or  because other organs become inactive.
   In this case also the texture is often but not always modified to a
 greater or less degree: when shght, it consists in an alteration of color,
 and an increase, more rarely a diminution, in consistenee.  In  a  still
 greater degree, the increase depends upon  the effusion of the  serum
 and the fibrin  of the  blood.   In a still higher degree new abnormal
 formations of different kinds are developed.  Increase in volume how-
 ever is sometimes pure and simple.  This occurs particularly when a
 synonymous organ, for instance the kidney, executes the function of its
 congenital when the latter has been destroyed.  The spleen often en-
 larges after intermittent fevers, although it is  not changed in other
 respects.  This  phenomenon is rare in other glands.
   3d.  Accidental displacements are rare, on account of the solidity of
 their  attachments, which  are not however very close.   Still they
 are sometimes seen in hernias.
   § 448. Increase and diminution in cohesion make the transition from
 deviations of formation to alterations in texture.   The glands are often
 too hard, too soft, with too loose a tissue and too easily torn.  In many
 cases  they  present  no other  changes.  When their tissue is too soft,
 they are subject to  ruptures,  of which the spleen and liver furnish
 instances.
   § 449. Alterations of texture in the  glands are still more numerous,
 doubtless because their function is to produce a substance different
 from their own.   These alterations usually consist, in the formation in
 the centre of the glands, of a peculiar  solid substance which accumu-
 lates in their tissue while the secreted fluid is expelled outwardly in the
 normal state.
   The following may be regarded as a series showing the degree of
 frequency of alterations of texture, and of the deviations from the nor-
 mal state: the mammary glands, the renal capsules,  the spleen, the
 testicles, the mucous glands, the lymphatic  glands, the liver, the thy-
roid gland, and the ovaries.   The last are doubtless those which present
 the most frequent anomalies  and produce the  most normal produc- 
348
GENERAL ANATOMY.
tions, such as serous membranes, mucous membranes, fibro-cartilages,
cartilages, hair, bones, teeth, and fat.
   Inflammation of the glands rarely terminates in mortification, more
frequently in effusion, which is principally the cause why the glandu-
lar tissue, hardens, and in  suppuration, which sometimes completely
destroys this tissue.   These different peculiarities seem also to be con-
nected with the functions performed by the glands.
   § 450.  The glandular tissue is never accidentally developed, which
is owing  to its  complexity and the  peculiar characters of its struc-
ture.
                           SECTION XII.


                OF THE ACCIDENTAL FORMATIONS.


   § 451.  The accidental formations(l) are produced sometimes by a
peculiar fluid effused expressly to give rise to them, sometimes by pre-
cipitation and crystalization, in accordance with the laws of chemical
affinity, in a secreted fluid, the chemical composition of which is some-
what changed.   The  calculi  are developed by the second mode; to
the first belong all other formations, whether primitively connected in
their organization with parts already formed, or hot.
   The proximate  cause of all alterations of texture is an anomaly in
nutrition.(2)   However different the productions of this power may

  (1) Besides the treatises on pathological  anatomy which have been before'men-
tioned, consult Ludwig, Prima tinea anatomia pathologica, Leipsic, 1785.—Con-
radi, Handbuch der pathologischen  Anatomie, Hanover, 1796.—A. Ciarus, Quas-
tiones de partibus pseudo-organicis, Leipsic, 1805.—Pinel, La medecine clinique ren-
dueplus precise et plus exacte par Vapplication de Vanalyse, Paris.—Prost, La mede-
cine eclairee par Vobservation et Vouverture des corps, Paris.—I. L. Knoblauch, Dis-
sertatio qua continet phanomenorum hominis agroti expositionem, Leipsic, 1810.—
Otto, Handbuch der pathologischen Anatomie des Menschen und der Thiere, Bres-
lau, 1814.—J. Cruveilhier, Essai sur Vanatomie pathologique en general, et sur les
transformations et productions organiques en particulier, Paris, 1816.—Rayer, Som-
maire d'une histoire abregee de Vanatomie pathologique, Paris, 1810.—Consbruch,
Taschenbuch  der pathologischen Anatomie, Leipsic, 1820.—See also the Note sur
Vanatomie pathologique, by Laennec, in the  Journ. de Corvisart, vol. ix. p. 360, and
his article Anatomie pathologique, in the Dictionnairc des sciences medicates.  See
likewise the articles Anatomie pathologique,  in the same collection, and in the Dic-
tionnaire abrege des sciences medicales, the first by Bayle, the second by Boisseau;
Martin's work on organic diseases in general, in the Memoires de la societe medicale
d'emiUation, vol. vii. and Gruithuisen's researches on the essence of inflammation,
in the  Gazette medico-chirurgicale de Salzbourg (1816, vol. ii. p. 129), in the pre-
face to his Organozoonomie, in his  Beytrage  zur Physiognosie und Eautognosie,
and in his Traite sur le pus et le mucus.
  (2) The nutritive action is doubtless changed in producing every alteration of
texture; but this opinion is  entirely unimportant, because we are totally unac-
quainted with the nutritive action, unless it be with the appearance, the  form, and
the structure, ofthe parts upon which it acts.  To say then that an anomaly innu-
trition is the immediate cause of all alterations in texture, is to say, in conventional
language, that the altered tissues change in their structure, their form, their appear-
ance, and not to resolve, or in  any way to conceal, an insoluble difficulty.  Our au-
thor on this  topic follows his  master Reil, to whom also belongs the merit of
placing in the organization, in the organic matter, the origin of all the physiolo- 
OF THE ACCIDENTAL FORMATIONS.
349
 be when it is deranged, they are very similar in regard to their origin; (1)
 and after a certain time, the differences in several depend either on the
 nature of the parts within or near which  they are developed, or on ex-
 ternal and accidental circumstances.
   All alterations of texture come from an albuminous substance which
 very probably is always fluid  when it is effused.(2)
   Dropsy, that is, the abnormal accumulation  of an albuminous fluid,
 may be regarded as the first step of the organism toward forming new
 substances.

   These  fluids are sometimes clear and limpid.   They often contain
 coagulated  flakes.
   They vary much in regard  to their specific gravity, their degree of co-
 agulability, and the respective proportions of their liquid or solid consti-
 tuent principles, especially in their quantity of albumen.  The  proportion
 ofthe salts  on the contrary is nearly the same  in all.(3)   The serum
 in ascites, hydropericarditis, hydrothorax, hydrocele, &c, which con-
 tains much albumen,  is  easily coagulated by the acids and  by heat.
 That of hydrorachitis and hydrocephalus  is but slightly coagulable,
 from its small quantity of albumen.
   Adhesions sometimes occur between organs  normally separated, as
 those enveloped  by a  serous  membrane, by the  coagulation of the
 effused fluids.                         *
   When the coagulation  exists only to a certain extent, or when the
 congestion of the liquid disappears, the parts only adhere.
   But when the quantity of the effused  liquid is considerable, the
 organs not only adhere, but are imbedded in a thick layer of coagulated
 substance;  so that we cannot distinguish them from each other, and
 are led to believe that some of them, although very large, have entirely
 disappeared.

 gical and pathological phenomena of the living economy. See his fine memoir enti-
 tled  Verandcrte Mischung und Form der thierischen Materie, als Krankheit oder
 nachste Ursache der Krankheitszufdlle betrachtet, in the Archiv fur die Physiologiie.
 vol. iiL 1799, p. 424.                                               F. T.
  (1) This proposition is true,  inasmuch as inflammation is the occasional cause, if
 not the direct creator,  (if we may be allowed this metaphorical expression,) of every
 accidental production.                                             F.  T.
  (2) The ancients attended to accidental formations only to investigate the  proxi-
 mate cause, and to point out their symptoms; some of the moderns have attended
 particularly to describing them, others to determine the morbid  alteration which
 creates them.  Heretofore they have been attributed to alterations of the lymph, the
 blood, or of both of these at the same time; at present they  are considered  as the
 result of a change in the organic texture.   Some endeavor to trace their relations
 of resemblance and of continuity, and their  differences  from the primitive tissues,
 while others attempt to place them in one or another order of vessels. Thus Broussais
 thinks they depend on a change in the organization ofthe white or ofthe red1 vessels,
 or of both.  Meckel goes so far (as we have seen) as to assert that they originate in
 the exhalation and the coagulation of an abnormal albuminous liquid.  The dissec-
 tions and the preparations of the accidental tissues  have not as yet been either nu-
 merous enough or sufficiently delicate for us to adopt any of these opinions.   The
 time has not yet come to establish  on a solid foundation the connections and the
 natural relations of these accidental formations. All that we can do is to investigate
 the composition, the texture, the varieties, and to determine the morbid state which
is the first condition of their formation; so  that pathological anatomy is yet; in its
infancy.                                                          F. T.
  (3) Marcet,'in the Med. chir. trans., vol. ii. p. 380,  381.—Bostock, ibid, vol. v. 
350
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  The  alteration in nutrition which produces this ultimate union is
more serious  than that by which  the fluids  are only  accumulated.
This state is termed inflammation (§ 126).(1)
  The  connecting substance varies in quality and consistence ; it not
unfrequently  ossifies.  This is the origin of most ossifications, espe-
cially those between the corresponding surfaces of the  serous mem-
branes, appearing sometimes in  the form of layers, and much more
rarely as filaments.   The  organs surrounded by this coagulation are
usually healthy, or  at  least if they are sometimes  slightly changed,
we must attribute it to compression.  Very sohd whitish coagulations,
in which we can scarcely trace any texture, are  generally called  stea-
toma or sarcoma.
  Most  probably all tumors originally assume this form.   Analysis
demonstrates  that they are composed almost wholly of albumen.(2)
  The abnormal formations generally adhere more or less intimately
to the parts  near which  they are formed.   This  remark however is
not true of all, for some are perfectly loose ; this is particularly the  case
with the fibrous concretions which appear in the vascular  system, or the
polypi, and also with several cartilaginous or bony substances found in
the  cavities of  the serous membranes, the calculi, and the intestinal
worms.   Most  of these productions  are  at  first connected with the
adjacent parts,  or are excrescences of them;  this is not the case  with
the intestinal  worms and calculi, for they certainly are not formed in
the midst and at the expense of a fluid.
   § 452. If we carefully examine the  relations of situation between
the alterations of texture and the organs, it is proved that they result
from the change of the normal substance of these organs into another
substance more or less different, or that a foreign body forms either
within or without the organ, which sometimes, from its mechanical
influence, destroys the  primitive organ to a greater or  less extent, and
sometimes  causes it to increase more or less in size.   This  difference,
however, is more apparent than real; at least it depends only on the exte-

  (1) We have seen before (p. 137) that Meckel considers inflammation or an ana-
logous act as the principal mode in which all regular or  irregular formations, that
is, all accidental tissues, whether analogous to those in the organism or not, are pro-
duced, and that he considers  inflammation as situated in the capillary system.
Broussais, in his Histoire des phlegmasies chroniques (Paris 1808), considers pain,
swelling, redness,  heat, gangrene, induration, suppuration, ulceration, tubercles,
lardaceous tumors, cancer, marasmus, dropsy, &c. &c. as the effects of inflammation,
In  the second  edition of  his  Examen (Paris, 1821) he asserts  that cartilaginous,
osseous, aud calcareous formations, melanosis, schirrus, tuinors,cancers,encephaloid,
and tubercles, are produced by inflammation. But he thinks that, in order to the pro-
duction of many if not all of these alterations, inflammation ofthe white vessels must
be complicated  with that ofthe red vessels, with inflammation properly so called : he
terms the former sub-inflammatiou ; this, he asserts, attends every chronic inflam-
mation, and  causes all chronic alterations in texture.  This consonance of opinion
between the French pathologist and the German anatomist favors their theory.
                                                               F. T.
  (2) Vauqueliu, in the Journal de medecine, after the history of a steaioma which
filled most ofthe chest.—Dissection of an albuminous concretion which was found in
the cavity of the  thorax, by Wardrop, in the Edin. Med. and surg. Journ. vol. ix.
p. 11. 
OF THE ACCIDENTAL FORMATIONS.
351
 rior, that is, its form.(l)  In fact, in  the second place, the accidental
 substance is uniformly blended with the normal substance, or the latter
 is more or less changed into it; in the former case it forms insulated
 and distinct depositions : but this state essentially consists in the pro-
 duction of a substance different from  the abnormal • tissue, either by an
 alteration,  a  derangement, or  an anomaly of nutrition,  also  under
 whatever form this new substance appears, even when it is inclosed in a
 cyst which separates it from the normal substance, whether this cyst
 has appeared before it, and has secreted it, or whether its formation was
 consecutive to its own and purely accidental.
   § 453.  All  alterations of texture may  then  be regarded  as new
 formations, which are sometimes repetitions of  those  already existing
 in the normal state, and are abnormal only from the place where they
 appear, and sometimes are substances wholly foreign to the organism.
 The latter are somewhat analogous to the normal tissues;  hence for a
 long time they were called  by the same names as  the latter, which
 some moderns still  preserve; but the analogy being very slight, we
 have no right to consider all the new and morbid formations as repeti-
 tions ofthe normal formations.(2)
   We have thought it more convenient to refer the history of the  first
 kind of formations already mentioned (§ 40) to that of the  regular tis-
 sues of which they are repetitions, since there are but trifling shades be-
 tween the phenomena of their production and those ofthe regeneration of
 the organs, especially of some of them, as the bones. We shall here men-
 tion the details ofthe others, although we have briefly considered them
 when treating of each of the regular tissues  in which they can be
 developed.   Farther, these  two kinds of accidental tissues often exist
 together, so that it is very common to  find different abnormal produc-
 tions existing  simultaneously.  There seems to be some regularity in
 this respect, for there are certain accidental productions more frequently
 associated than others ;  in this respect the different substances are
 sometimes  perfectly distinct, and  placed at the side of each other in
 masses  of various sizes, and they are sometimes divided  into such
 small portions, and so  intermixed, that they seem to form a new and
 special tissue.
   § 454. The classification of the perfectly new  tissues is very diffi-
 cult, both from the uncertain marks by which they are recognized, and

  (l)The untility,and the foundation of this distinction between the change of a primi-
 tive into an accidental tisssue and the production of the latter in a primitive tissue,
 have already been mentioned. These two kinds of development seem to occur in
 many cases.  The distinction however is not so important as would seem at first
 view, since it is so difficult to determine it.                           F. T.
  (2) As has been done recently by Fleischmann, (Leichenoffungen, 1815, p. Ill,
 112 ) who certainly goes too far when he contrasts sarcoma with muscle, steato-sar-
 coma with fat and muscle, the pancreatic sarcoma of Abernethy with the pancreas,
 and his medullary sarcoma with the medullary substance of the brain. Dumas
 (Mem. sur les transformations des organes, in the  Journal de Sedillot, vols, xxiii.
 and xxv.) had already considered, in an analogous but more ingenious manner, all
 morbid alterations of the organs as changes of these same organs into each other.
This hypothesis has long been expressed by the names of most tumors and by the
theory imagined to explain them (Plenk, De tumoribus, Vienna, 1767). 
352                     GENERAL ANATOMY.
the distinctions between the different species, and also from the modifi-
cations which they present acccording to the different organs in which
they are developed, and from  the frequent instances in which several
new formations entirely different from each  other co-exist.  In regard
to some tissues, we  cannot positively decide whether they are simple
excrescences, or partial enlargements  of the substance of the organs,
or finally formations entirely new.  Such are particularly the polypi of
the mucous membranes.
   We may, however, admit three kinds of abnormal formations, which
are connected with the  organs in the same manner as the organs them-
selves ; 1st, the tuberculous tissue; 2d, the schirrous tissue; 3d, and
perhaps the fungous tissue.
   Beside these three, Abernethy(l) admits, 1st, a pancreatic sarcoma,
which seems  to be only a modification of accidental fibro-cartilaginous
tissue, determined by the nature of the parts in which it is developed ;
2d, a mammary sarcoma and a medullary sarcoma, which are very
similar to the encephaloid tumor  of Laennec.   The melanosis  of the
latter scarcely differs from his encephaloid  tumor.   The latter may be
united to the tuberculous, tissue, and  the melanosis to  the fungous
tissue, which perhaps is  only a modification of the schirrous tissue.(2)
   § 455. The tuberculous tissue, the tuberculous or scrofulous forma-
tions, and the schirrous, cancerous, or carcinomatous tissue, are similar
in certain respects,(3) and different in  others.(4)   It is on  account of
their  relations with each other and with the  other abnormal forma-
tions, that the terms tubercle and schirrus  are employed in so general
a manner, and often for each other, when  we would designate those
abnormal productions,  which, when  they inclose a liquid, do not ap-
pear in the form of cysts.  It is thus .that many pretended cancers  of
the uterus are nothing but fibrous tumors.
   The common characters of these two alterations are:
   They vary in hardness and have a  grayish color.  They become
harder by the action  of acids  and heat.   In time they soften and be-
come fluid.
   The following are their characteristic marks:
   The tubercles(5) are  homogeneous, pale white, sometimes yellow-
ish, and  opaque.  They change into a  white and  friable  mass, then
  (1) Surg, observ. on tumors, London, 1814.
  (2) Laennec divides those tissues which are unlike those in the normal state into
tubercles, encephaloid tumors, schirrous tumors, melanosis, cirrhosis, sclerosis, and
squamous tissue.  His remarks on these different organic alterations may be found
in the Bulletin de lafaculte de medecine, Corvisart's Journal de medecine, his article
Encephaloide in the Dictionnaire des sciences medicates, and his work on Ausculta-
tion.                                                         F. T.
  (3) Bayle, Sur les indurations blanches des organes, in the Journ. de med. vol. ix.
p. 285.
  (4) Stark, in the Med. communicat, London, 1784, vol. i. no. 24.—Bayle, in the
Journ. de med.
  (5) G. Stark,  Observations clinical and pathological, London, 1784.—Reid, Essay
on the nature and cure of phthisis pulmonalis, London, 1782.—Bayle, Remarques
sur les tubercules ; in Journal de Corvisart, vol. vi. 1803, p. 3.—Id. Remarques sur
la degenerescence tubcrculeuse non enkystee  du tissu des organes, vol. ix. 1805, p.
427, vol. x. p. 32.—Id. Recherches sur la phthisic pulmonaire, Paris, 1801.—J. Baron, 
OF THE ACCIDENTAL FORMATIONS.
353
into an unctuous fluid, in which float small, irregular, grayish, cheese-
like films.   They appear as rounded bodies,  sometimes inclosed in a
cyst, or as irregular masses which pervade most of  the part in which
they are developed.
  The schirrous tumours  are formed of two substances, one white,
fibrous and opaque, which  forms a network, the other semi-transparent,
a little brilliant, bluish or greenish, rarely  white  or red, which is in-
closed in the spaces of the network.   They change into  an ichorous
pus which  corrodes  the skin and gives rise to fungous tumor and
ulcers, the edges of which are turned over.
  The tubercles are situated principally  in  the lungs and in the lym-
phatic glands, particularly those of the mesentery, of the mucous mem-
branes, of the intestinal canal, especially in the last stages of tubercular
phthisis, more rarely in  the liver, the spleen, the testicles, the kidneys,
and the muscles.
  The  schirrous tumors are developed particularly in the glandular
organs, especially  in the mammary glands, the  uterus,  the prostate
gland, the  intestinal canal,  and  the skin, whence  they extend also
to the lymphatic glands, and to all the adjacent parts.
  The fungus hematodes  of Hey, the spongoid inflammation of Burns,
the melanosis of Laennec,(l) are in  fact one and  the same formation,
which differs from the preceding onlyin its greater softness and blackish
color.   It  is however  so allied  to schirrus in  structure  and pro-
gress, that it has been termed soft cancer.(2)
  § 456. The abnormal formations of which we have spoken may be
considered as integral parts  of the organism, as they are so intimately
connected with  the other organs.  Some however are  unconnected
with it and are loose, but derive their nourishment  from it.  These are
the intestinal worms, or the entozoa, some of which live  in separate
cysts, and others in direct  contact with the substance of the organs.
  The lowest formations of this kind are loose vesicles, with thin, .semi-
transparent, and round parietes, which are perfectly homogeneous, and
filled  with a serous, thin  fluid ; they vary much in size and number, and
are developed both in the substance of the organs and in the normal and
abnormal' cavities.   These vesicles probably should be regarded not so
much as animals, but as membranes analogous to those of the  ovum.
They have  been termed hydatids, and by Laennec,  acephalocystes.(3)

An  inquiry illustrating the nature of tuberculated accretions of serous membranes
and the origin of tubercles and tumors in different textures ofthe body, .London, 1819.
  (1) Hey, Onfongushamatodes;  in Obs. on surgery, London, 1814, ch.vi.—Wardrop,
On fungus hamatodes, Edinburgh, 1809.—Burns, Spongoid inflammation; in Lec-
tures on inflammation, Glasgow, 1800, vol. i. p. 302.—Laennec, Sur les  melanoses ;
in Bullet, de Vcc. de med. 1806.—Breschet, Considerations sur  upie alteration orga-
nique, appelee degenerescence noire, Paris, 1821.—Id. Supplement aux considerations
sur la melanose; in Revue medicale, vol. vii. p. 79.—Heusinger, in his  Recherches
sur la production  accidentelle de pigment  et de  carbone  dans le corps humain
Eisenach, 1823, considers the  melanosis, from the  analyses made by Barreul and
Lassaigne, as  a deposition of the coloring matter and of the fibrin of the blood.
  (2) Maunoir, Memoire sur lesfongus medullaire et hematode, Paris, 1820.
  (3) Ludersen, De hydatidibus, Gottingen', 1808.—Laennec, in Bulletin de lafac.
de medecine, 1812, p. 49.—See also Rodet, Observations sur les hydatides; in Journal 
354
GENERAL ANATOMY.
 They occur principally in the liver, whence they perhaps pass into the
 abdominal  cavity, the ovaries, the kidneys,  the brain, the lungs, and
 the testicles.   However they have been found in every organ, although
 rarely.
   After  the  hydatids come the vesicular worms, which are contained
 in  special cysts.   Sometimes there are developed in their vesicle seve-
 ral organs, which perhaps should be considered as parts of one  whole
 (echinococcus), rather than as  separate animals, and to which many
 cases of  acephalocystes are doubtless referred ; .sometimes the vesicle
 almost entirely disappears or is seen only at  the posterior extremity of
 the body in the form of a  caudal pouch (cysticercus), even as in the
 superior animals, the envelops of the  ovum are connected  with  the
 lower region of the body.  The former of these vesicular worms appears
 in  the same places  as the hydatids, and the  second principally in the
 cellular tissue, the muscles, and the brain.
   The other intestinal worms have an existence still more independent.
 They are not inclosed in sacs distinct from their proper substance, and
 we cannot  trace  the organs which have formed  them.  In most of
 them, especially in  the  filaria, the hamularia, the trichocephali,  the
 ascarides, the strongyli, and the tsnis, the greatest dimension is their
 length.   At  the same  time they are also  round, except  the taeniae,
 which are very thin and  flat.   Some  of them, the distomata and  the
 polystomata, are short, broad, and flat.  They  live principally in  the
 intestinal canal;  this at least is the case with the ascarides, the tricho-
 cephali, the taenia?,  and the distomata.   Others are met with in  the
 cellular tissue,  under  the  skin  and  the muscles (filaria), in   the
 bronchial glands  (hamularia), the  ovaries  and the  Fallopian tubes
 polystoma), in the kidneys and the bladder (strongylus).(l)

 compl. du Diet dessc. medic., vol. xvii. p. 123.—G. Jreger, Bcobachtungenuber Hul-
 eenwurmur im  Menschen und einigen Saugthieren; in Meckel, Deutches Archiv
fur die Physiologie, vol, vi. p. 495.—J. F. M. De Olfers, Commentarius de regetativis
 et animatis corporibus in corporibus animatis reperiundis, Berlin, 1816.  H. Cloquet,
 Faune des medecins, vol. i. Paris, 1822.—Rendtorff, De  hydalidiims in corpore hu-
 mano, prasertim in cerebro, repertis, Berlin, 1822.
  (1)  Among the enlozoa peculiar to man, the tricocephalus dispar, the oxyurus vcr-
 micularis, the ascaris lumbricalis, the botryocephalus latus, and the tania solium., are
 the only well-determined species hitherto observed, which live in the intestinal canal.
 Blainville has applied the term nettorhyncus to another  intestinal worm, which has
 been long observed, but which has been neglected by zoologists.  Cloquet has de-
 scribed another as the ophiostoma Ponthieri, which perhaps is only a gordius aquati-
 cus.  Of the entozoa which do not inhabit the intestinal canal, we find the filaria me-
 dinensis under the skin, but perhaps it come from without. The hamularia svbeom-
 pressa has been found in a bronchial gland; it is a doubtful genus, although Cloquet
 states that he has observed a new species of it, which had caused very serious nervous
 affections.  The strongylusgigas lives in the kidneys and perhaps also in the adjacent
 muscles.  The distoma hepaticum inhabits the gall-bladder and perhaps the liver.
 The polystoma pinguicola has been found only once in the fat around the ovary of a
 young peasant girl; it is a doubtful animal.  The cysticercus cellulosus inhabits the
 cellular tissue of the muscles and of the brain ; Rudolphi has remarked that it is very
 common in man, although Bremser averts the contrary.  The cisticercus cellulosus,
 fischerianus, dicystus, and albo-punctatus, have also been found in man.  The echi-
 nococcus hominis occurs in the cysts of hydatids, as do also the accphalocysta oVoidca,
 surculigera, granulosa and racemosa.  All other intestinal worms  mentioned by
 authors are either larva? of hexapodous insects, or worms of rain-water or parts o'f 
OF THE ACCIDENTAE FORMATIONS.
355
   Of  these worms, the echinocci hominis, the tsnia solium, the  tsnia
lata, and some other species,  as yet but little known, the polystoma
pinguicola, the hamularia subcompressa, the ascaris vermicularis, and
the filaria medinensis, are peculiar  to man,  the others are met with
also in most of the mammalia, but only in animals.
   § 457.  The calculi(\)  are formed in  the secreted fluids(2)  by a
chemical process, by precipitation and crystalization.

plants.  Bremser has termed them collectively pseudo-helminthia, which is not very
convenient, because many of these animals, particularly the ditrachyceros rudis of
Sulzer, and perhaps some others, all in fact doubtful, resemble at least the entozoa.
  The history of the animals developed in the bodies of other animals is as  yet not
much advanced, and hitherto has not been considered in a truly philosophical point
of view.  Thus, for example, not to mention the discussion which has continued
since Redi, on the cause of their production, that  is, on their  mode of formation,
although we cannot doubt that they are created, if not by a real inflammation, at
least by a state very similar to it, we have separated from the considerations in
regard to these animals, those which relate to the history of the entozoa, that is, from
the animated parasites which  develop themselves, and live on the surface of living
animals. Even the'history of the latter, although it is so evidently connected with that
of the entozoa, has been neglected.  We wish to speak particularly of the pediculi,
which exist in such numbers that nosologists have formed a disease called phthiri-
asis.  The great multiplication of these parasitic  animals, in  crusta lactea, tinea,
plica, induce us to believe with Bremser, that in certain cases they are formed primi-
tively.  This manner of production is even the  only one which can be  admitted in
certain cases, even when the pediculi alone form the contents of certain tumors, of
which Rust has observed a remarkable instance cited by Bremser (Sur les  vers m-
testinaux de Vhomme, p. 97), and to which may be attached an interesting  note of
Bory of Saint Vincent, on a species of ascarides which lives in the human body
(Journal compl. du diet des. sc. med. vol. xix. p. 182).  Another circumstance favor-
able to this theory is the specific difference which seems to exist between the pediculus
ofthe  white man and that of the negro (Fabricius, Sy sterna antliatorum, p. 340), and
which resembles the difference observed between the kinds of tenias peculiar to the
inhabitants of the north of Europe and those observed in the people of the south.
   Finally, we must adduce together with these  facts the vegetable parasites ol the
class of mushrooms which have been found  in animals, and which arise undoubtedly
from the same source; physiologists  have  never attended to this last phenomenon.
We however have two authentic instances of it, observed one, by A. C. Mayer, (Dcuts-
ches Archiv fur die Physiologie, vol. i. p. 310), the other, by G. F. Jcegcr (same journal.

 V°(i) Walter■'Anatomisches Museum,  Berlin, Hge.-Wendelstaedt, Veber Steine im
menschlichen und thierischen Korper; in his Medicinisch-chirurgische  Uahrneh-
munsen, Osnabruck, 1800, vol. i. p. 156-264.-Fourcroy,  Sur le nombre la nature et
 les cSracteres distinctifs des differens materiaux quiforment les calculs,lesbezoards et
les dicerses concretions des animaux;  in Annates du Museum, vol. i. p. 93.—Marcet,
 On the chemical nature of calculi.—Consult also,  1st. On urinary calculi; Tenon, bur
la nature des calculs; in Mem. de Paris, 1764.  Link, De analyst  urma et origina
calculorum, Gottingen, 1788.-Wollaston,  On gouty and urinary concretions;  in
 Phil  trans., 1797, p. ii. p. 386.-Pearson, Experiments and observations, tending to
 show the composition and properties  of urinary concretions;  same journal, 1798,
 d i d 15 — Brande, On the differences of calculi dependent on their formation in dif-
ferent parts of the body, same journal, 1808,-p.  223-248.-Prout, On calculus disor-
 ders, with notes, by S. Colhoun, Philadelphia, 1828 -2d  On bihary calculi; Morand,
 Sur des pierresdefiel singulieres ; in Mem. de Pans, 1741, p. 355.-Scemmernng, de
 concrementis bilicarus, Erfurt, 1795.-Mosm ius, De scde calculorwn ammalium
 eorumque imprimis biliarium, origine et natura, Berlin, 1812.-3d.  On intestinal cal-
 ruli • J F  Meckel  Veber die Concretionem im menschlichen Darmkanat; in Archiv
fur 'die Physiologie, vol. i. p.  454-467.-4th. On lacrymal calculi; Walter  Sur  es
 dacrvolithes ou calculs lacrymaux ; in Journ. compl. des sc. med  vol. vii. p. 51.-5th.
 O^venous calculi; Tiedmann, Sur les calculs qui se rencontrent dans  Vinterieur

 ^ffir^d^i^'&™<* man see the classical work of Rudolphi,
 Entozoorumhist. nat, Amsterdam, 1808-1810.-Bremser, Traite zoologiquc.etphysi-
 ologi^uTsur les vers intestinaux de Vhomme, trans, by Grundler, with notes by Blam-
 ville, Paris, 1824. 
356
GENERAL ANATOMY.
  Sometimes, but this is very unusual, they are developed accidentally
around  a foreign body, which has been introduced into the organ and
serves as a nucleus.  Sometimes, and most commonly, they form in
consequence of a change in the chemical composition of the liquid, in
the midst of which they are precipitated, probably also in that of  the
common nutritious fluid, and  generally because all  the functions  are
deranged.
  They differ  so  much in form, number, chemical  composition, and
color, that it  is almost impossible to refer their history to any gene-
ral  head.  All that we  say on the subject is reduced  to  the  fol-
lowing  particulars:
  1st. They  are  primitively loose;  they  rarely adhere to the parts
in which they are found.
  2d. Each  liquid has its calculi more or less peculiar in regard to
chemical composition, but which are similar  in some of their consti-
tuent principles.
  3d. Their constituent principles sometimes  do not exist in the liquid
in which they are found.
  4th.  In most of the fluids  at least we find  not only one  but several
kinds of calculi.
  5th.  They are sometimes  single and  sometimes compound, their
different constituent principles  are  sometimes intimately  blended in
all  parts of the calculi, and sometimes form so many different layers.
  6th.  They are  usually developed around a nucleus.
  7th.  Their number is almost always inversely as  their size.
  8th. They are generally solid and rarely hollow.
  9th.  Their structure is radiated or lamellar.
   10th. They  are sometimes  smooth and sometimes rough.
   11th. They generally appear  at  mature age,  which is not inva-
riably the case, for they are sometimes found even in the fetus.
   12th. Certain liquids, as urine and bile, have a greater tendency to
produce them than others, but their formation is favored by external
circumstances so, that the same kind of calculus  is more  common in
some parts ofthe body than in others.(l)

  (1) Here should be referred all those abnormal productions termed by pathologists
accidental ossifications, which, attached to the body by no organic connection, and
presenting none ofthe characters which distinguish the bones, cannot be referred to
the latter unless we listen to the insidious suggestions of a purely external analogy.
                                                            F. T. 
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY. 
 
DESCRIPTIVE   ANATOMY.
                            SOURCES.

  Before treating of general anatomy, we mentioned the principal
sources, which, at the same time, appertain in part to descriptive ana-
tomy :  here we notice the principal general works which are connected
with descriptive anatomy, and which contain general descriptions of
the different organic systems, which are however proportionally shorter.


                  A.  GENERAL WORKS.

                   I. HISTORY OF ANATOMY.

P. J. Hartmann, Disquisitiones histories de  re  anatomica  vclerum,
  Kcenigsberg, 1693.
Portal, Hist de Vanat. et de la chirurgie, Paris, 1770-1773.
Lauth, Hist, de Vanat., Strasburg, 1815.


        II. CATALOGUES OF  BOOKS AND DICTIONARIES.

J. Douglas,  Bibliographis anatomies specimen, s. catalogus omnium
  pene auctorum qui  ab Hippocrate ad Harveum rim  anatomicam ex
  professo vel obiter scriptis  illustrarunt, London, 1718.
Haller, Bibliotheca anatomica, qua scripta ad anatomen et physiologiam
  facientia, a rerum initiis recensentur, Zurich, 1770-1777.
Heister, Anatomisch-chirurgisches Lexikon, Berlin, 1753.
Tarin, Dictionnaire anatomique, suivi d'une bibliolheque anatomique et
  physiologique, Paris, 1753,-


      III. SMALL TREATISES ON DIFFERENT SUBJECTS,

Corvinus, De dignitate, jucunditate, et usu anatomis, Leipsic,  1611.
Fabricius Hildaniis, Anatomis prsstaniia et uiiliias, Berne, 1624.
B. S. Albinus, De necessitate studii secandi, Francfort, 16S3.
E. Stahl, De serie et usu inventionum anatomicarum, Halle, 1705.
Dern, De analomes in praxi  usu, Halle, 1707.
J. J. Rau, De melh. anatomen docendi el discendi, Leyden, 1713.
B. S. Albinus, De vera via qus ad corp. hum. cogniiionem ducat, Ley-
  den, 1721. 
360
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
A. Walther, Dt usu etprsstantia anatomes scientis, Leipsic, 1723.
Coschwitz, De studii anatomis prsstantia et utilitate, Halle, 1727.
Heister, De anatomes necessitate, Helmstadt, 1727.
Hebenstreit, De medici cadavera secantis religione, Leipsic,  1741.
Munnicks, De summis quas anatome habet deliciis, Groningen, 1771.
Bonn, De simplicitate naturs anatomicorum admiratione, chirurgorum
  imitatione digna, Amsterdam, 1771.
S'Grauwen, Oratio de anatomis pathologies utilitate\ et^ necessitate,
  Groningen, 1771.
Sandifort, Oratio de circumspecto cadaverum examine, optimo practice
  medics adminiculo, Leyden, 1772.
M. Girardi, De re anatomica oratio, Parma, 1781.
C. Siebold, Rede von  den Vortheilen, welche der  Staat durch anato-
  mische Lehranstalten gewinnt, Nuremberg, 1788.
Rougemont, Rede ueber die Zergliederungskunst, Bonn, 1789.
D. G. Silbermann, De promovendis anatomis pathologies administra-
•  tionibus, Halle, 1790.
Roeschlaub,£tm'gfcs ueber Anatomie,in the JVIagaz. zur Vervollkommung
  der Medicin, vol. vi. p. 401, Francfort, 1801.
F. Schelling,  Ueber das Sludium  der JMedicin und der organischen
  Naturlehre ueberhaupt, in the Vorlesungen ueber die J\Iethode  des
  akademischen Studiums, Tubingen, 1803.
Index rerum musei Ticinensis; accedit Scarps oratio, Padua, 1804.
Froriep, Einige Worte ueber den Vortrag der Anatomie auf Universi-
  taten, Weimar, 1812.—Idem, Ueber die Anatomie in Beziehung auf
  Chirurgie, Wiemar, 1813.
                IV.  TREATISES AND MANUALS.

   A. THE NORMAL STATE OR THE NORMAL AND THE ABNORMAL STATE.

Galen, De  anat. administrationibus, lib. ix., and De usu partium, lib.
  xvii. in Opp. omn. vol. ii. Vienna, 1597.
Mundinus, Anatomia emendata, Marburg, 1540.
Berengarius,  Carpi,   Commentarii cum  amplissimis adnotationibus
  supra analomiam JVIundini, Bologna,  1521.   Idem, Isagoge in ana-
  tomiam corp. hum., Bologna,  1522.
Riverius, De disseclione partium corp. hum., lib. iii. Paris, 1545.
Vassaeus, In anatomen corporis humani tabuls, iv. Paris, 1553.
J. Sylvius, Isagoge in libros  Hippocratis et Galeni ,anatomicos, Paris,
  1558.
Vesalius, De corp. hum. fabrica, lib. vii.  Basle, 1545.
Gemini, The anat. ofthe inivard parts, London, 1559.
Colombo, De re anatomica, 1. xv., Venice, 1559.
Valverde, Anat. del corpo umano, Rome, 1560.
Coiter, Extern,  et intern, princip. hum.  corp. partium tabuls, Nurem-
  berg, 1573. 
                              SOURCES.                        ogi

  F. Plater, De corp. hum. structura et usu, lib. iii  Basle  1583
  Fiecolomini, Anotomics prslectiones, Rome 1586    '
  Guidi, Opp. omn., Erfort, 1668.

  l^nh^nT^V- der7P-  hu™'redone, 1. iv, Erfort, l&l.'
  Bauhin, Decorp  hum. fabrica, Leyden,  1590.   Idem  Institutiones
    anoiom., Francfort, 1592.  Idem, Theatrum anatomicu^F^Zn,

  Riolan, Anthropographia, Paris, 1618.   Idem,  Enchiridion anatomi-
    cum etpalhologicum, Paris, 1648.                      anaiomi
  Spigelius £>e corp. hum. fabrica, 1. x. Venice, 1627.
  1. Bartholmus, Anatomia reformata, Leyden, 1641
  Veshngius, Syntagma anatom., Padua, 164L
  Highmore, Corp. hum. disquisitio anatomica, Hague, 1651
  Marcnettis, Compendium anatomicum, P,adua, 1652.
  Lyser, Culter anatomicus, Copenhagen, 1653.
  Habicot, La semaine, ou Pratique anatomique, Paris, 1660
  Z-eicUern, Somatotomia anthropologica, Prague, 1686.
  Collins, System of anatomy, London, 1685   '  .
  Diemerbroek, Opp. omn., Utrecht, 1685.
  Taury, Nouv. anat. raisonnte, Paris, 1690.
  Verheyen, Anat. corp.  hum., Louvain, 1693.
 Keil, Anat. ofthe hum. body, London, 1698.
 St. Hilaire, Anat. du corps hum., Paris, 1698.
 Fantoni, Brevis manuductio ad hist,  anat., Turin, 1699.
 Bartholinus, Specimen hist. anaf. part. corp. hum., Copenhagen, 1701
 Cheselden, Anat. ofthe hum. body, London,  1713.
 Dionis, Anat. de Vhomme, Paris, 1716.
 Heister,  Compendium anatomicum, Altdorf, 1717.
 Hellwig, Nosce te ipsum, Erfort, 1720.
 Kulmus,  Tabuls anatomies, Amsterdam,  1732.
 Winslow, Expos, anat. de la struct, du corps hum., Amsterdam 1732
 Palfyn, Anat. chirurg., Paris, 1734.
 Cassebohm, Methodus secandi, d}c,  Halle, 1740.
 Lieutaud, Essais anatomiques, Paris, 1742.
 A. Schaarschmidt, Auatomische  Tabellen,  Berlin, 1746-1750.
 Verdier, Abr^g^ de Vanat. du corps hum., Brussels, 1752.
 Krapff, JYaturspiegel, Basle,  1761.
 Sabatier,  Traite complet de Vanat., Paris,  1772.
 Plenk, Prims lines anatomies, Vienna, 1777.
 Leber, Prslectiones anatomies, Vienna, 1778.
Mayer, Beschreikung des ganzen menschlichen Koerpers, Berlin 1783-
   1794.                    :,                  lit
 Loder, Anatom. Handbuch, vol. i. 1788.
 Hildebrandt, Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen,  Brunswick 1789
  -1792.                                                '
Soemmering, Vom Ban des menschl. Koerpers.
Caldani, Institutiones anatomies, Venice, 1791.
Wiedemann, Hcmdbuch der Anatomie, Brunswick, 1796.
  Vol. I.      '                46 
362
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
J. Bell, The anat. ofthe hum. body, Edinburgh, 1797.
Boyer, Traite complet de Vanat., Paris, 1797.
Bichat, Traite de Vanat. descript., Paris, 1801-1803.
Hempel, Anfangsgriinde der Anatomie, Gottingen, 1802.
Hesselbach, Anleitung zur Zergliederungskunde des Menschen, Rudoi-
   stadt, 1805.                                      q
Fattori, Guida alio studio delV anatomia umana, Pavia, 1807.
Langenbeck, Anatom. Handbuch, Gottingen, 1806.
Mayer, Anatom. Handbuch, Vienna, 1812.
Monro, Outlines ofthe anat. ofthe hum. body, Edinburgh, 1812.
Gordon, A system of human anatomy, Edinburgh, 1815-
H. Cloquet, A system of human anatomy, trans, by R. Knox, Edin-
   burgh, rep. at Boston, 1831.
Marjolin, Manuel d'anatomie, Paris, 1814.
Boek', Handbuch  der praklischen Anat. des menschl. Koerpers, Meis-
   sen, 1820.
J. Cloquet, Anat. de Vhomme, Pans, 1822.
Bayle, Petit manuel d'anat. descript., Paris, 1823.
C. Wistar, A syst. of anatomy, 5th edit, Philadelphia, 1830.
W. E. Horner, A treatise on general and special anatomy, 2d edit.,
   Philadelphia, 1830.
B.  THE ABNORMAL STATE.
Bonetus, Sepulchretum, s. anat.pract., Geneva, 1700.
Morgagni, De causis et sedibus morborum, Venice, 1761.
Lieutaud, Historia anatomica medica, Paris, 1767.
Ludwig, Prims lines anat. path., Leipsic, 1785.
Bailhe,  The morbid anat. of the most imp. parts ofthe hum. body, Lon-
  don, 1793.
Conradi, Handb. der pathol. Anatomie, Hanover, 1799.
Vetter,  Aphorismen aus der pathol. Anatomie, Vienna, 1803.
Voigtel, Handbuch der pathologischen Anatomie, Halle, 1804-1805.
Meckel, Hanb. der pathol. Anatomic, Halle, 1812-1816.
Otto, Handbuch der pathol. Anatomie, Breslau, 1813.
W. E. Horner, A treatise on path. Anatomy, Philadelphia, 1827.
                 COPPERPLATE ENGRAVINGS.

                        I. NORMAL STATE.

                a. In respect to the external form of the body.

A. Durer, Vier  Buecher von menschlicher  Proportion, Nuremberg,
  1528.
Genga and Lancisi, Anatomia per uso et intelligenza del disegno ricer-
  cata non solo sugV ossi e muscoli del  corpo humano, ma dimostralo
  ancora su le statue antiche piu insigni di Roma, Rome, 1691. 
SOURCES.
363
                 b. In. respect to the structure of Ihe whole body.

B. Eustachius, Tabuls anatomies, Rome, 1714.
C. H.'Ryff, Descript. anat. de toutes les parties du corps humain, ex-
  primant au viftaus les membres, redige'e en tables, Paris, 1543.
J. Remmelinus, Catoptrum microscopicum, suis aeri incisis visceribus
  spendens,  Augsburg, 1619.
Casserius Placentinus, Tabuls anat., Venice, 1627.
Bidloo, Anatomia hum. corp., centum  et quinque  tabulis  demonstrata,
  Amsterdam, 1685.
Welchius, Tabuls  anat.,  universam corp.  hum. fabricam perspicue
  atque succincte exhibentes, Leipsic, 1697.
Cowper, Anatomia corporum humanorum, CX.IV tabulis ad vivum ex-
  pressis  illustrata, Leyden, 1739.
Petriolusand Berrettinus, Tabuls anat., Rome, 1741.
Gautier, Exposition anat. de la struct, du corps hum. en vingt planches
  imprimdes avec leur couleur nat., Marseilles, 1759.
Mayer,  Anatomische Kupfertafeln, Berlin and Leipsic, 1783-1794.
J. C. Loder,  Tabuls anatomies, 1794—1803.
Rosenmiiller,  Chirurg.  anatom. Abbildungen fur  Aerzte und Wun-
  daerzte.

                       II. ABNORMAL STATE.

  . A complete work, exhibiting  even  generally all deviations of the
external form and of the texture of the whole and of  the parts of the
human body, is still wanting, although we have excellent figures of
the most abnormal deviations.
  We find a considerable number of the different anomalies figured in
Bailhe, A  series of engravings accompanied with explanations, which
  are intended to Must, the morbid  anat. of some ofthe most imp. parts
  ofthe hum. body, London,  1799.
Sandifort,  Museum anat. academis,heyden.


B.  DIFFERENT ANATOMICAL WORKS, BOTH ON THE

        NORMAL AND  THE  ABNORMAL  STATE.

                    I.  PERIODICAL WORKS.

Reil, Archiv fur die Physiologie, Halle, 1795.
A. F. Heckler, Magazin fur die pathol. Anat.,  Altona, 1796.
Iserflamm and RosenrnuUer, Beitraege fUr  die  Zergliederungskunst,
  Leipsic, 1800.
P. F. Meckel, Journal f. anatom.  Varielaeten, Halle, 1802.
J. F. Meckel, Deutches Archiv f die Physiol, Halle, 1815. 
364
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
     II.  TREATISES WITH AND WITHOUT  ENGRAVINGS.

Eustachius,  Opuscula anatomica, Venice, 1564.
Arantius, Observat. anatomies, Venice, 1578.
Coiter, Anatomies exereitationes  observationesque varis ad calc. Tabid.
  ext. et intern, corp. hum. partium, Nuremberg, 1572.
Plater, Mantissa observationum,  Basle, 1614.
Hyeronimus Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Opp. omnia anat. et physiol,
  Leipsic, 1687.
J. Riolanus,  Opera anatomica, Paris, 1649.
Fallopius, Observations anatomies.  Idem, Institutiones anatomies.
  Idem, In librum  Galeni de ossibus expositio.   In Opp. omn., Franc-
  fort, 1600.
Bartholinus, Hist. anat. Cent. VI., Copenhagen, 1654-1661.
Veslingius, Observationes anatomies, Copenhagen, 1664.
Blasius, Observ. medics rariores, Amsterdam, 1677.
Tulpius, Observ. medics, Amsterdam, 1672.
Le Clerc and Mangetus, Bibliotheca anatomica, Francfort, 1668.
Kerckringius, Specimen  anatomicum, Amsterdam, 1670.  Idem, Opp.
  , omn., Leyden, 1729.
Peyer and Harder, Exercitat. anat. et medic, familiar es, Basle, 1682.
J- J. Harderus, Apiarum observ.  med., fyc, Basle, 1687.
Stalpart v. d. Wiel, Observ. var.  anatom., Leyden,  1687.
Malpighi, Opp. omn., Leyden, 1687.
Pechlinus, Observ. phys. med., Hamburgh, 1691.
F. Ruysch,  Opera anatomico-medica, Amsterdam,  1691-1742.
Bidloo, Opp. omn. anat. chirurg., Leyden, 1715.
Mangetus, Theatr. anat., Geneva, 1718.
Morgagni, Adversaria anatomica, Leyden,  1723.  Idem,  Epistols
   anatomies dus,  Leyden, 1728.  Idem, Epist. anatomies X VIII. ad
   scripta pertinentes celeberrimi  viri A. M. Valsaro:,  Padua, 1764.
Santorinus,  Observ.  anal,  Venice, 1724.   Idem, Tabuls  XVII. a
   Girardi edits, Parma, 1775.
Bassius, Obs. anat.-chirurg.-medics, Halle,  1731.
Trioen, Observ. medico-chirurgics, Leyden, 1743.
Haller, Disputationes anatomical selects, Gottingen, 1746-1751. Idem,
   Opera minora, Lausanne, 1762-1768.
Lambrecht,  Observ. et oblectat. anal, Francfort, 1751.
Bohmer, Observ. anat. rarior.fascic,  Halle, 1752.
Tabarranus, Observ. anal,  Lucca, 1753.
Loseke,  Observ. anat.-chir.  medics novs et rariores, Berlin, 1754.
P. C. Fabricius,  Sylloge observ. anat.,  Helmstadt, 1759.
Duverney, QZuvres anatomiques, Paris, 1761.
B. S. Albinus, Annotationes academics, Leyden, 1754-1768.
P. Camper, Demonstrationes anatomico-pathologics, Amsterdam, 1761.
W. Hunter, Medical commentaries, London. 1762. Supplem., 1764.
G. v. Doveren, Specimen observ. academicarum, Leyden, 1765. 
SOURCES.
365
Blittner, In vielen Jahren gesammelte anat. Wahrnehmunven  Konines-
   berg, 1768.                                      ft  '      6
Eschenbach, Observ. qusdam anal chir. medic., Rotterdam  1769.
Siebold, Coll. observ. med.-chirurg., Wirtember°- 1769.
Forlanus, Rar. observ. med. pr. et anal, Venice, 1769.
Ludwig, abversaria medico-praciica, Leipsic 1769-1773.
Insfeld. De lusibus naturs, Leyden, 1772.
J. G. Walter, Observ. anal, Berlin, 1775.
Meig,  Observ. botan., anat., et physiol, Basle, 1776.
E. Sandifort, Observ.  anatomico-pathologics,  1777-1781.    Idem
   Exerc.  academics, Leyden, 1783.  Idem,  Opusc. anal, Leyden,'
   1784.   Idem, Thesaurus dissertationum, Leyden, 1778.
Azzoguidi,  Pallettae, Brugnoni,  Opusc. anatom. select, edit,  curavit
   E. Sandifort, Leyden, 1788.
Rezia, Specimen observationum anat. et pathol, Padua, 1784,
G. Prochaska, Annotal academicar., Prague, 1784.
Neubauer, Opera anatomica, Francfort, 1786:
J. Hunter, Observ. on certain parts of the animal sconomy, London,
   1786.
F. A. Walter, Annot. academics, Berlin, 1786.
Leveling, Observ. anat. rariores icon, illustr., Nuremberg, 1787.
Monteggia,  Fasciculi pathologici, Turin, 1789.
A. J. van Doveren, Observ. pathologico-anatomics, Leyden, 1789.
Penada,  Saggio  d' osserv.  e memorie sopra  alcuni  riscontrati neW
   esercizio della med. e della anal pratica, Padua, 1793.
Van de Laar,  Observ. chirurg. obstetr. anat. med., Leyden, 1794.
Rohler, Beschreibung der phys. und path. Praeparate, welche in der
   Samml. des Hrn. Hofr. Loder enthalten sind, Jena, 1795.
Portal, Mem. sur la nature et le traitement de plusieurs maladies, avec
   le precis des experiences sur les animaux vivans  et  d'un  cours  de
   physiol. pathologique, Paris, 1800.
Wrisbergiusj Commentationes med., physiol, anal, et obstetr., argumenti
   soc. reg., Gottingen,  1800.
Flachsland, Observ. anatomico-pathologics, Rotterdam, 1800.
Rudolphi, Anal-physiologische Untersuchungen, Berlin, 1802.
Vicqd-Azyr, (Euvres, Paris, 1805.  .
J. F. Meckel, Abbandlungen  aus der vergleichenden und menschlichen
   Anat. und Physiol, Halle, 1806.   Idem, Beitraege zur menschl. und
   vergl. Anatomie, Leipsic, 1808-1812.
Kelch, Beitr. zur pathol. Anal, Berlin, 1813.
Fleischmann, Leichndffnungen, Erlangen, 1815.
Otto, Seltne Beobachtungen zur Anatomie, Physiologie, und Pathologic
   gehdrig, Breslau, 1816.


                          in.  PLATES.

A. Cant, Impetus  primi anatomici ex lustratis cadaveribus nati, Ley-
  den,  1721. 
366
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
Haller, Icon, anatomicar.fasc. VIII, Gottingen, 1743-1756.
Santorinus, Septemdecim tabuls qua  nunc primum edidit  Girardi,
  Parma, 1775,
C. F. Ludwig,  De  quarundam  sgritudinum  hum.  corp. sedibus et
  causis tabuls XVII, Leipsic, 1798.
G. Sandifort, Tabuls anatomies situm viscerum  thoracicorum et abdo-
  minalium ab  utroque  latere, ut et  a posteriori parte  dipingentes.
  Accedit observatio de aneurysmate  arteris iliacs interns, rarioris
  ischiadis nervoss causa, Leyden, 1804.
Cruvelhier, Anatomie pathol. du corps humain, Paris, now publishing. 
DESCRIPTIVE   ANATOMY.
  § 457. Descriptive anatomy, or the topography ofthe human body
is the exact description of the parts which  constitute it.  It considers'
  1st. The human body generally, and its different regions, without
regard to the difference of the systems composing it; it points out the
dimensions of the whole body and  those  of  its parts, and also the
mutual relations of these parts.
 _ 2d. The different systems which compose it, in respect to the situa-
tion, the number, the size, and the forms of its parts. 
DESCRIPTIVE  ANATOMY.
PART I.
             GENERAL REBIARKS ON THE HUMAN BODY.

 1 § 459.  We have already stated the special characters of the human
body:  it only remains to examine,
  1st.  Its height.
  2d.  Its division into different regions.
  § 460.  The height of man is not the same every where.   Like that
of all other  organic formations, it depends in some measure on the cli-
mate :  hence the tallest men are  found in the warmest countries, while
the shortest inhabit  the colder regions.   In considering the normal
differences which belong to whole masses, we find the height varies
from six feet and a half to four feet and a half, so that the mean is between
five and six  feet;  that the male  is a little taller than the female;  and
that we may consider as untrue  all assertions that nations exist in
which  the height generally exceeds or is less than these limits.  But,
although  all nations present a certain fixed height, when considered
generally and  in  the mass, individuals differ much  in  this respect,
sometimes exceeding the common measure, and sometimes falling short
of it.   If we take  individuals into consideration, we find the height of
man varies from eight feet to sixteen inches.(l)
  In both cases the  relations between the different parts of the body
deviate Usually from the  ordinary rule.    Generally the  lower ex-
tremities  of giants are very short;  the superior, on the  contrary, are
very long: the head  also is too small.  In almost all dwarfs, the head
is too large ; but the relation between the upper and lower extremities
is the same  as in giants.   The cause of dwarfishness is general  dis-
ease, especially rachitis.
  Besides those cases in which we  see certain individuals taller than
the rest of the species, it sometimes happens that the body prematurely
acquires all  the development in  regard to height of  which it is  sus-
ceptible.  This  state, which is characterized also by the precocious
appearance  of puberty, is  almost always attended with a proportional

  (1) Haller, in his Physiology, mentions several giants and dwarfs.—Bonn {Thes
morb. oss. Hov., Amsterdam, 1783, p. 134-136) has given the dimensions of the ske-
letons of giants.—Zitterlarid,  De duorum scelectorum prcegrandium rationibus,
Berlin,  1814.—The accounts of men more than eight feet in height are doubtful, or
arrive from considering fossil bones of large animals as human bones, or finally de-
pend upon the extraordinary development of the crania from hydro-cephalus. 
             GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HUMAN BODY.         369

 imperfection in  the development of the intellectual faculties, and a very
 short life.
   § 461. The  human body is composed, a, of a right and a left, an
 upper and a lower, and finally of an anterior and a posterior half:  we
 have already mentioned their principal characters (§ 23—28) in respect
 to the analogies and  discrepancies,  b. It is also divided into three
 parts, the trunk (truncus), the head  (caput), and the limbs (extremi-
 tates).  These are also subdivided into several regions.
   § 462.  The  trunk (truncus) comprises three  parts :  the neck (col-
 lum), the chest (pectus, thorax), and the belly  (abdomen).  Each of
 these parts is composed of some one  of the different organic systems.
 The chest and the belly are hollow, and their cavities (cava) experience
 greater or less changes in their figure  and their dimensions.   These
 cavities contain organs which in the normal state do not adhere to their
 parietes, except  anteriorly  and posteriorly, but are  in close  contact
 with them, and are called for this reason the viscera ofthe chest, ofthe
 abdomen, and ofthe pelvis.   The neck has no cavity: the parts which
 form it are united together,  and with  the  skin which  covers them all,
 by mucous tissue, while in  the thorax and the abdomen, the skin and
 the bones, as well as the muscles  directly united to the integuments,
 are separated from the subjacent parts by a proper serous membrane.
   The vertebral column forms the base of  the whole trunk.  It is a hol-
 low column composed of bones placed one upon another ; these bones
 have the same general form, but this  form is differently modified in the
 different regions.  It extends from above downward, in  the centre of the
 posterior face of the trunk,  and is covered its whole length backward
 and on both sides, also forward in the neck and in the  upper part ofthe
 abdomen, by muscles which move the vertebral column and the parts
 attached to it, the head and the limbs, and finally the organs contained
 in the cavities.
   The parietes  of the abdominal cavity, except the middle of its poste-
 rior face, are formed at their upper part, which is the most extensive, of
 several superimposed  layers of muscles, most of which are broad and
 flat, called the abdominal muscles ;  and it is in this direction also that
 its dimensions and form vary the most.  Its lower portion, on the con-
 trary, the pelvis, admits of the least motion, because  it is  principally
 composed of firmly articulated bones, viz. the sacrum,  a fusion of broad
 vertebrae, and the coxal bones, which  unite with it backward, and with
 each other forward.  The pelvis is also the narrowest visceral cavity of
 the trunk, and the narrower  and more  manifold connections  of the
 organs it contains with its parietes, cause it in some measure to resemble
 the neck.                                     .
   The parietes  of the thoracic cavity, except the lower, which sepa-
 rates it  from  the abdominal cavity, and is formed by a broad muscle,
 the diaphragm, are  composed of  the ribs, which are movable,  lateral
prolongations of that portion of the spine which makes its base,  of the
sternum, which corresponds to the vertebral column forward, and of the
muscles  situated upon, under, and  between the ribs.   Hence  ita
  Vol. I                        47 
370
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
parietes, though movable, are not susceptible of such great changes in
their dimensions as the abdominal parietes ; its  form is more constant,
and normally depends upon these parietes, while that of the abdomen
depends upon the parts contained in its cavity.
   Finally, the neck is the narrowest and shortest portion of the  trunk.
The latter enlarges gradually from  the neck  to the lower part of the
chest and the  upper portion of the abdomen; but after leaving this
point, it gradually contracts to its extremity, and terminates by a very
narrow opening, which is susceptible of enlarging, from the mobihty of
the bones  attached to the extremities of the vertebral column.
   § 463.  The  outer surface of the divisions of the trunk which we
have mentioned is itself divided into several regions.  In this respect
we may imagine the abdomen divided into three parts, situated above
each other, by two transverse lines which partially or wholly encircle it.
   Of these two lines, the upper passes over the lower ribs, and the
lower over the  summit of the coxal bones.  We have now three com-
partments : the first above  the upper line, the second between this and
the lower, and the third below the  lower line: these also are divided
into  several regions by almost perpendicular lines.
   The upper is called  the  epigastric region  (regio epigastrica).  It
does not include the entire circumference of the body, but only its ante-
rior and its lateral faces.  Its form  is triangular, and it is composed of
four other regions, two lateral and two middle regions.  The right and
left lateral regions are called the hypocondriac regions (R. hypocon-
driacs, hypocondria).   They are bounded above by the anterior edge
of the cartilages of the five false  ribs, below by the upper transverse
line, and within by the upper part  of the two  anterior  perpendicular
lines.
   The  two  middle  regions are situated  one above the other.  The
inferior, which  is the most extensive, is called the epigastrium (R. gas-
trica, s. epigastrica stride  sic dicta) ; the  smaller, situated  below the
inferior extremity of the sternum, the cardiac or the prscordial region
(scrobiculus cordis, s. regio cardiaca).
   The middle region is termed the  mesogastric, or  the  umbilical (R.
umbilicalis, s. mesogastric a).   It surrounds the centre  of the  whole
abdomen, like a girdle, and is  divided by perpendicular lines into five
other regions placed at the  side of each other.
   The umbilical region (R. umbilicalis) forms the centre, and is so
called because the umbilicus is in it.  Those next to it, which comprise
the external part of the anterior face and the anterior part of the lateral
faces, are the iliac regions (R. iliacs).  Finally, the posterior parts,
which run into each other in the centre of the posterior wall, are called
the lumbar regions (R. lumbares).
   The inferior region is termed  the hypogastric region (R.hypogas-
trica).  It comprises the upper but only the anterior part of the abdomen,
and is formed of three other regions, the central, the proper hypogas-
tric region  (R. hypogastrica stride sic  dicta), extending from the
upper boundary of this region to the pubis, to the anterior edge of the 
GENERAL  REMARKS ON THE HUMAN BODY.
371
pelvis ; and the two lateral, the inguinal regions (R. inguinales), which
are situated between the preceding and the iliac bones.
   At the lower part of the abdomen, or at the pelvis, we distinguish,
forward, the pubic  region (R. pubis), which includes the external or-
gans of generation, and is continuous below with the mons veneris;
backward and downward, below the pubes, between them, the anus
and the thighs, the  perinsum  (perinsum s.  interfeminsum) ; and
finally, backward, the nates.
 *-  § 464.  The chest is divided forward, on the  sides and upward, into
three mammary regions (R. mamillaries), backward, into the scapular
regions (R. scapulares).  In the neck also we distinguish forward and
downward, the throat (jugulum); backward, the nape  (cervix s. nucha).
   § 465. The head, the bulging upper  extremity  of the trunk, is
generally round.   It cannot in most of its extent change its  form,
because its foundation is a bony case, all the parts  of which, except
the  lower maxillary bone, are  immovably articulated.  It is divided
very naturally into two parts, the skull (cranium), and the face (fades),
the former composed of the brain, the walls ofthe cavity which contain
it, and of the organ of hearing; the latter, of the organ of sight, of
smell, of taste, and of mastication.
   The skull  occupies the upper and posterior part of the head and is
round.   The face is situated downward and forward,  and is irregularly
quadrilateral.   The skull is always much larger than the face.
   We distinguish in the skull, a lower part or base (basis), two lateral
faces, an  anterior or  temporal region (R. temporalis, tempora), and  a
posterior or auricular region (R. auricidaris), an anterior  face, com-
prising an anterior region, the forehead (R. frontalis), of Which the mid-
dle and lower part is termed the glabella, and the upper region is called
the  sincipital or sinciput (R.  sincipitalis s. sinciput) ; finally, an upper
face, the top  of the  head  and  of the whole body,  called the vertex, and
a  posterior  or occipital  region, called the  occiput (R. occipitalis s.
occiput).
   The face comprises the region of the nose (R. nasalis), that of the
mouth (R. oralis),  and the region of the chin (mentum),  which  are
placed above each other on the median line, and  also two other lateral
regions, of which the upper,  called  the  cheeks (gens, regio jugalis),
comprises almost all the breadth of  the face, and the projection caused
by the  malar bones, while the  lower, placed  at the two sides of the
mouth, and called the buccal  region (R. buccalis), forms the parietes of
the buccal cavity (cavum  oris).
   The  three  gieat cavities of the body, the  cavity of the skull, of
the chest, and of the abdomen, are also known by the common name
of splanchnic cavities  (cava,  s. ventres).  In each is situated one or
several of the organs necessary to the preservation of the individual or
of the species.  The abdomen contains the most essential parts of the
digestive apparatus ;  and the genital organs are situated within it and
in the lower part of its circumference, the pelvis.  The heart, and the
organs of respiration are placed in the chest; the vocal apparatus in 
372                 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
               t
the neck ; and the brain, and  the  most noble organs of sense in the
head.
   § 466. The members, limbs (membra)  are  distinguished into the
upper and the lower, or the pectoral, the thoracic, the abdominal, and
the pelvic.   They are  long, composed of several sections which move
upon, and are placed after each other in the trunk, and are articulated so
as to perform motions as a whole or as different parts.  They are formed
essentially of bones which occupy their centre; of muscles and of tendons,
which cover the different bones and direct their motions ;  of fibrous
and of synovial ligaments which  unite the bones together ; of nerves ;
of vessels ; of the skin which covers all these parts, and of cellular
tissue which unites them as a whole, and at the same time separates
them from each other.   The parts composing the limbs become smaller
and more feeble, as the distance from the trunk increases; but all the
systems which compose  them unite in the same proportion, so that
their motions  also are more  extensive.   Farther, the upper  and the
lower limbs correspond perfectly, not  only in  the number and the
volume of their dimensions, but in  the general arrangement of their dif-
ferent systems.
   The parts of the upper limbs, after leaving the trunk, are,
   1st. The shoulder,  the under part of  which is indented,  and is
termed the arm-pit (fovea axillaris).
   2d. Of the  arm (brachium).
   3d. Of the  elbow (cubitus),  the union of  the arm with the next por-
 tion.
   4th.  Of the fore-arm (antibrachium).
   5th. Of the hand (manus).
   The hand is divided into three parts, the upper, the shortest, which
is called the wrist (carpus), the middle, the metacarpus, and the ante-
 rior, which is the longest  and is composed of the fingers  (digiti).
 Each finger comprises three  divisions, termed phalanges;  the thumb
 (pollex), however, has only two.
   We distinguish in  the arm four  faces, the external (regio s. fades
 externa, s. extensoria), the internal (regio s. fades interna, s.flexoria),
 the anterior (regio s. fades anterior, s. abductoria), and the posterior
 (regio s. fades posterior, s. adduetoria) ; in the fore-arm, only two, the
 external, and the internal; four in the hand, the anterior or the radial
 (margo anterior, s. radialis), the  posterior or ulnar (margo posterior,
 s. cubitalis), the external or the upper, called also the back of the hand
 (fades externa, s. superior, s. dorsum),  and the internal or inferior,
 called the palm of the  hand (fades interna, s. inferior, s. void).
   The following are the divisions  of the lower limbs :
    1st.  The thigh (femur).
   2d. The knee (genu), the articulation of the thigh with the leg, the
 under part being called the ham (poples, s. fossa genu).
   3d. The leg (crus), its upper and posterior fleshy part, being called
 the calf (sura). 
GENERAL  REMARKS  ON THE HUMAN BODY.        373
  4th. The foot (pes), which is sub-divided into the tarsus, the meta-
tarsus, and the toes  (digiti pedis) ; these last  are  composed of pha-
langes arranged in the same manner as those of the fingers.
  The inferior limbs are characterized  by firmness and strength, and
the superior by suppleness and mobility ; the former serve to move
and support the body, the  latter to grasp external objects.  The pelvic
are usually much larger than the pectoral limbs ; some of their parts,
however, as the toes, are less developed and smaller than the fingers.
  § 467. The configuration of the body presents remarkable differences
at different periods of hfe, in respect to the forms and sizes of its compo-
nent parts.(l)
  At  first, the anterior and the posterior faces of the body are  divided
longitudinally on the median line.
  In a full grown man, the length of the head is one seventh of that of
the whole body,  measured from the vertex to the toes, and the space
between the extended arms almost equals this length.
  At  first, the head cannot be distinguished from the rest of the body;
hence, it increases very  much in size afterwards.  The neck is not
separate from the trunk.   We see no trace of the limbs.  These do not
appear till the sixteenth week, and then as small stumps, the  superior
being larger than the  inferior.  In the adult, the pelvic  members are
some  inches longer  than the thoracic ; but in the fetus, the pectoral
are longer until the eighth month, so that the want of proportion gradu-
ally diminishes.  Until the age of five years, the four limbs have nearly
the same length ; but at this period, the inferior gradually lengthen, so
that when fully developed, they are as  long as the trunk and the head
together.
  In  the early periods of existence, all the lower half  of the body,
in proportion to the upper, is generally much smaller than in the adult.
  The abdomen projects considerably, not only from  the greater de-
velopment of the hver, but also because the smallness of the cavity of
the pelvis  does  not  allow the  bladder and the internal organs of ge-
neration of the female to descend into the cavity of the pelvis.
  The lumbar portion however is then  much longer in proportion than
in the adult, owing, no doubt, to the great size of  the liver, as also to
the slight development of the respiratory organs, and of the cavity  of
the chest, which is not only lower, but  flatter.
  The principal sexual differences are,(2) besides  those already men-
tioned, the considerable size of  the skull in relation to the face, and  of
the head in proportion to the rest of the body, the smaller size of the
thoracic cavity, the greater uniform breadth of every part of the abdo-
minal cavity in  the  female, while it is narrower upward, and  broader
downward, in man ; the greater length, and finally, the capacity ofthe
pelvis, which is much greater in every respect, hi the female.

  (1) Sue, Sur les proportions du squelette de Vhomme, examine depuisVage leplus
tendre jusqu'd celui de  vingt-cinq, soixante,  et au-deld, in the Mem. presentes de
Paris, vol. ii. p. 572.                          .
  (2) Ackermann, De discrimine sexuum prater genitalia, Mayence, 1788. 
374
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  From this, it happens that when a man lies on his back, the anterior
face of his chest projects above the symphisis pubis, which is not the
case in the female.
  § 468.  Such is the normal form of the human body;  but it offers
numerous anomalies, of which we shall briefly state those only which
are primitive.
  1st. Of the Anomalies in quantity.
  A.  Imperfect development.  This  anomaly is greatest when the
upper part of the body is  deficient to a greater or less extent, consti-
tuting acephalia.(i)
  This monstrosity can exist in an infinite number of degrees, from the
existence of only one inferior limb to a slight defect in the  formation
of the bones of the skull, by which its cavity is imperfectly closed.  It
is divided into true and false acephalia (A. vera et spuria) ; the latter,
however, should  be  called simply acrania, ancncephalia.  Sometimes
more  than the head is deficient in true acephalia.   The reverse of the
imperfect development of the skull is that of the face, distinguished  prin-
cipally by the union  of the  two eyes or ofthe two cavities of the nose,
the smallness or absence of. the lower jaw.
  The reverse of the imperfect development  of the  upper part of the
body  is that of the lower  part, consisting essentially in the union  of
the two legs into one, placed on the median line, at the same time being
bent,  so  that its anterior  face becomes  posterior, and the posterior,
anterior.
  Here we may remark generally, that the  imperfect development of
the lower portion of  the body never exists to so great a degree as  that
of the upper  part, which is probably owing  to the laws of formation;
for in birds, at least, the trunk seems to be formed from below, upward.
  The imperfect development of the anterior and posterior  faces of the
body  is shown by the want of union between  the two lateral halves,and
by  the imperfect formation of the cavities by fissures ; in the head, by
the fissure of the skull in false acephalia, and by the different degrees
of the want of union between the two  portions of the palate ;  in the
trunk, by the spina  bifida  posteriorly, and anteriorly by fissures ofthe
chest and abdomen, through which the different viscera protrude.  These
fissures arise by the  part remaining stationary at some of  the degrees
through which it passes.   We are not  however authorized  by any
phenomenon to admit with  Tiedemann,(2) that they  are caused  by a
want of development in those vessels which in the normal state unite
on the median line.   It is much more correct to consider the deviations

  (1) Mappus. De acephalis.—-Meckel, Beytriige zur vergleichenden Anatomie,  1808,
vol. i. part ii.—Id., Pathologische Anatomie, 1812, vol. i. ch. iii. and iv.—Tiedemann,
Anatomie der kopjlosen  Missgeburten, Landshut, 1814.—P. Hostccks,  J)ixs. de  mon-
strositatum origine, Berlin, 1819.—F. Feiler, Ueber angeborne menschliche Missbil-
dungen, Leipsick, 1820.—Geoflry St. Hilaire, Philosophic anatomique; monstruo-
sites humaines, Paris, 1823.—Scrres, Essai d'une theorie anatomique des monstruo-
sites animales; in the  Bulletin de la soc. med. d'Em., September,  1821.—Duges,
Considerations sur les causes et les differences des monstruosites du crane et du ra-
chis chez le foetus; in the Revue medicate, vol. x. p.  353.
  (2) Anatomic der kopjlosen Missgeburten, p. 105. 
              GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HUMAN BODY.        375

   fffJrtfnf011 °f 5\the Parts Situated near the  fissure as the common
   Wt  ular onrt,an  X* T* T' • ^f ^ °V6r the fissu'es in «>™
   particular organs which coincide with these monstrosities
     Ine imperfect development of the limbs, which presents  so many

   sra^sHithat of the tw?sides of the bod^  SolSn^S
   me hmbs aie totally wanting, and again, one only is deficient, either in
   whole or m part; they often present only some defect in their develop

     § 469.  B. The abnormal redundance in the number of  the organs is
   the reverse of their imperfect  development.  This deviation of forma-
   tion presents numerous varieties.   They relate principally to the man-
   ner in which, the supernumerary parts unite with the others ; this per-
   mits the abnormal redundance to be divided into common and generic
   In the former, the redundant organs are united to  the others in the
   same  manner as the latter are joined together.  In the latter, they are
   united the same as the fetus is with the organism of the mother.
     1 he principal circumstances of the common redundance are :
    1st. The degree varies both in the number and development of the

    a. The redundant parts rarely, perhaps never, are more  than double
  so that it may also be called doubling.                            '
   /?.  This doubling extends to some small part of the body more fre-
  quently than to a greater extent; for the smaller organs are double more
  frequently than those which  are larger.   The fingers  are redundant
  more frequently than an entire limb, a trunk, or a head.
   J. The supernumerary part is often below the standard, in regard to
  the size and number of the parts which compose it.  The  supernume-
  rary fingers are often only fleshy appendages; their bones, simply the
  excresences of a normal bone, &c.  The redundancy, however, extends
  to an entire  region more frequently than to a single system.  If the
  number of vertebrae be increased by one, we find the same increase in
  the nerves, the vessels, and the  muscular slips of the same  region.
   2d. The external parts alone are double much more frequently than
 the  internal, or the central parts present  this anomaly, no  similar
 one being presented externally.  Hence, we find supernumerary fingers
 (digiti) more frequently than  abnormal  vertebrae;  the former exist
 often, even without any increase in the number  of the  corresponding
 parts of the metatarsus, the  metacarpus, the  tarsus, and the carpus,
 while the contrary never occurs.   So likewise  we not unfrequently
 find more than two mammae, while a redundancy of the viscera is very
 extraordinary.
   3d. Those parts which in the normal state are numerous are abnor-
 mal  much  more  frequently than  those which are single,  or at most
 double.   Hence we find supernumerary fingers, toes, or teeth, much
 more frequently than other parts.
   4th.  The most complex parts  are doubled less frequently  than those
 of simpler structure.
   5th.  A multiplication in one part is usually attended with a diminu-
tion in number  or hi development in another part. 
376
DESCRIPTIVE  ANATOMY.
  6th. The multiplication of the whole body takes place, 1st, in the
dimension of thickness, forward or backward ;  2d, in the dimension of
length, upward or downward ;  3d, in the dimension of breadth, on the
right or left  side.
  § 470.  a. Alterations in regard to quality.   This section comprises
two classes of anomalies, those in regard to the form or to the situation,
or to both-at the same. time.
  a. Anomalies in  form are  seen in the division of parts naturally
simple, or in the union of parts generally separated.  The vascular sys-
tem, the osseous system, and the spleen, furnish us with examples of the
first, the same  two systems and the kidneys present instances of the
second.
  /3.  Anomalies in situation alone are rarely primitive, in the  strictest
sense, although often met with as resulting from retarded development.
We however find sometimes a greater or less portion of the intestinal
canal in the chest, the kidneys situated lower than usual, the heart too
low, and sometimes, though very rarely, even in the abdomen.
  y.  The inversion of parts  ought to  be  considered as the union of
anomalies in situation and form, since we not only find in the  left side
parts which should  be in  the  right, and vice  versa, but they  are also
formed of  a  directly opposite type.  This lateral inversion also presents
very different degrees.   The inversion from before backward resembles
that from  one side to the other ; it takes place in the greatest degree,
when the  upper half of the body is turned forward and the lower back-
ward.  Inversion from before  backward is also seen  in the surface of
the body ; the other is not apparent externally, as  it affects only the
asymmetrical organs.
  b.  The second species of anomaly relative to the quality or herma-
phrodism, is seen in the general form,  independently of the genital
organs, either when  the body externally is of a character  contrary to
that of  the sex (viragines et mares  effeminati), or  when a part of the
body is formed  in the type of  the  male, and the other in that of the
female. 
DESCRIPTIVE   ANATQMY.
PART II.
OF  THE TOPOGRAPHY OF THE ORGANIC SYSTEMS.
BOOK  I.
                               OF  OSTEOLOGY.


    § 471.  The topography of the osseous system(l) should precede that
 of all the other organic systems, since  the situation, the direction, and

   (1) Besides the books already mentioned, those most in repute upon osteology are,

                               A.  DESCRIPTIVE.
   Hippocrates, De  articulis liber, in Opp. omn., Venice, 1526.—A. C. Celsus,  De
 re medica hber octavus, editio nova cur ante Fouquier et Ratier, Paris, 1823, 8vo.—
 Galen, De ossibus, Lyons, 1535.—J. Sylvius, In Galenumde ossibus commentarii, Paris,
 1561.—Fallopius, Expositio in librum Galeni de Ossibus, Venice, 1571.—Eustachius,
 Ossium examen, in Opuscul. anat., 1726.—P. Paaw, Primitia anatomia de humani
 corporis ossibus, Leyden, 1615.—Riolan,  Osteologia ex veterum et recentiorum pra-
 ceptis descripta,  Paris, 1614, in 8vo.—Leclerc, Osteologie exactc et complete, Paris,
 1706, in 8vo.—B. S. Albinus, De ossibus corporis humani, Leyden, 1746.—Boehmer
 Institutiones osteologies, Halle, 1751.—Tarin,  Osteographie, or Description des os de
 Vadulte, du foetus, &c, Paris, 1753.—B. S. Albinus, De sceleto humano, Leyden, 1762.
 —J. T. Walter, Abhandlung von trocknen Knochen des menschlichen Kbrpers, Berlin
 1763.—Lecat,  Cours abrege d'osteologie, Rouen, 1763.—Knackstedt, Osteologie oder
 Beschreibung der Knochen des menschlichen Kbrpers, Brunswick, 1781.__C. T. Hoff-
 mann, Succincta descriptio ossium et musculorum, Nuremberg, 1783.—Sandifort De-
 scriptio ossium hominis, Leyden, 1785.—Berholdi, Initia doctrines de ossibus et 'liga-
 mentis  corporis humani, Nuremberg, 1794.—Sonnenburg, Compendium syndesmo-
 osteologicum,  Berlin, 1797, one of  the most  remarkable productions of  medical
 literature.

                                 B. PLATES.

  B. S. Albinus, Tabula sceleti et musculorum, Leyden,  1747; Tabula ossium huma-
 norum, Leyden, 1753.—G. G. Muller, XXIV. Kupfertafeln, uelche die Knochen das
ganzen menschlichen Kbrpers vorstellen, Francfort, 1749.—Trew, Tabula osteolo-
gica, Nuremberg, 1767.—Innes, Eight anatomical tables of the human  body,  Edin-
 burgh,  1776.—Loschge, Die Knochen des menschlichen  Kbrpers und ihre vorzugl.
 Bander, Erlangen,  1789.—E. Mitchell, A series of engravings respecting the bones of
 the human skeleton, Edinburgh, 1820.

                   C. DIFFERENCES IN REGARD TO SEX.

  Ackermann, De discrimine  sexuum prater genitalia, Wurzbourg, 1788.—Scem-v
mcrring, Tabula sceletij'eminini, Francfort, 1797.

                  D.  DIFFERENCES IN REGARD TO  RACES.

  Soemmering, Veber die hbrperlichen  Verschiedenheit des Europaers vom Seger
Francfort, 1785.   Other descriptions  and plates refer solely to the cranium, and will
   Vol. I.                            48 
378                  DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
the forms of the latter, are for the most part determined by those of this
system.
   § 472. The number of the bones in  the  normal state amounts to
two hundred and fifty-six, fifty-six of which belong to the trunk, sixty-
six to the head, sixty-eight to the upper, and sixty-six to the lower ex-
tremities.
   The bones of the trunk are,
   1st. The twenty-four vertebrs.
   2d. The sacrum.
   3d. The four bones of the coccyx.
   4th. The twenty-four ribs.
   5th. The three bones of the sternum.
   The bones of the head are,
   1st. The seven bones of the skull, viz. the sphenooccipital bone, the
two temporal bones,  the two parietal bones, the frontal bone, and
the ethmoid bone.
   2d. The four bones of the ear; the malleus, the incus, the  stapes, and
the os orbicidare.
   3d. The fourteen bones of the face ; the two upper maxillary bones,
the two malar bones,  the  two palate  bones,  the two nasal bones,
the two loioer turbinated bones, the two lachrymal bones, the  vomer, and
the lower maxillary bone.
   4th. The thirty-two teeth.             /
   5th. The five pieces of the hyoid bone, a central and  four lateral
pieces.
   The bones of the upper extremities are,
   1st. The two bones of  the shoulder, the clavicle and the  scapula.
   2d. One  to the arm, the humerus. .
   3d. Two to the fore-arm, the radius and the cubitus ox ulna.
   4th. Eight to the carpus, the scaphoid bone, the semi-lunar bone, the
pyramidal bone, and the pisiform bone, the trapezium, the trapezoides,
the os magnum, and the unciform bone.
   5th. Five to the metacarpus.
   6th. To  the fingers, fourteen phalanges, two of which  are for the
thumb, and three for each of the fingers.  Finally,
   7th.  Two sesamoid bones.
   The bones of the lower extremities are,
   1st. One to the haunch, the coxal or iliac bone (os innominalum).
   2d. One to the thigh, the femur.
   3d. Three to the leg, the tibia, the fibula, and the rotula  or patella.
   4th.  Seven to the  tarsus, the astragalus, the calcaneum, the sca-
 phoides, the cuboides, and the three cuneiform bones.
   5th. Five to the metatarsus.

 be pointed out hereafter.  Some also treat of the differences in the bones during their
 development, and also of their diseases.       '
   e. We have already mentioned the general works in the diseases of the bones.  In
describing each bone we shall mention those in which details of their anomalies may
 be found, • 
OSTEOLOGY                         379
  6th. To the toes, the fourteen phalanges, arranged as in the hand.
 Finally,
  7th. Two sesamoid bones.
  Most of these bones exist in pairs, that is, one on each side.  Thirty-
eight are single  and situated  on the median line, but are, however,
formed of a right and a left similar half; we have as examples, all the
bones of  the vertebral column, the pieces of the sternum, the middle
piece ofthe hyoid bone, the vomer, the spheno-occipital bone, the frontal
bone, the ethmoid bone, and the lower maxillary bone.  We shall leave
the teeth, until we treat of the alimentary canal.
  The order in which the bones are formed calls  our attention, first, to
the bones of the  trunk, not only because this region is first developed,
but because many of the other bones of the body, particularly those
of the head, are formed in their type.
                           SECTION I.

                 OF THE BONES OF THE TRUNK.

   § 473- The bones of the trunk may be divided into two classes; the
essential  or the  jjrimitive  bones, and the accessory or the secondary
bones.   The first comprise those forming  the  vertebral column (co-
lumna vertebralis), the second, those situated opposite this column, and
those which unite these to the spine.   The  first comprehends the ver-
tebrs, the os sacrum, the ossa coccygis; the second, the sternum) and the
ribs.
                           CHAPTER I.

  OF THE PRIMITIVE BONES OF THE TRUNK, OR OF THE VER-
                         TEBRAL COLUMN.


                      ARTICLE  FIRST.

           GENERAL REMARKS ON THE PRIMITIVE BONES.1

   § 474. The vertebral column(l) occupies the centre of the posterior
face of the trunk, and determines its length.  When perfectly developed,
it is  composed of  twenty-nine, rarely of thirty  bones.   The  upper
twenty-four bones  are called  the true  vertebrs  (vertebrs vers), the
twenty-fifth is the sacrum, and the four lower bones belong to the coc-

  (1) For some remarks on the vertebra? considered in the whole animal series, and
for the different osseus parts or organic elements which form them in their state of
perfect development, and before all fusion caused by the rudimentary state of some
one of these elements, see the Considerations generates sur la vertebre, by Geoffroy
St. Hilaire, in the Memoires du Museum, vol. ix. p. 89. 
380
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
cyx.   The first twenty-four vertebrae are called true vertebrae, to distin-
guish them from those pieces of bone composing the sacrum, which
are, at first, so many vertebrae, but become fused into a single bone
when the body is entirely developed, and hence are called false vertebrae.
All the bones which form the vertebral column are arranged one upon
another, covering each other reciprocally and intimately united, so that
the dimension in length is much greater than any other in the column
they form ; each piece possesses but  a slight degree of mobility, and
this degree varies in the different regions.   The vertebral column does
not describe a perfectly straight line but a curve, for its superior or cer-
vical portion (pars cervicalis) is convex forward, and concave backward,
the dorsal, thoracic, or pectoral portion  (pars  dorsalis, s. thoracica, s.
pectoralis) is concave forward,  the lumbar or the abdominal portion
(pars lumbaris, s. abdominalis) is convex forward, and concave back-
ward and, finally, the sacral part (pars sacralis) is very concave forward,
and convex backward. This curve is most marked in the sacral and in
the lumbar regions.

   I. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE BONES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

   § 475.  All bones of the  vertebral  column  present certain general
characters.  If we include the pieces  of the coccyx among them, we
can make no  general remark, except  that they have a rounded form ;
but when the coccyx is not included, we can assign to them characters
much more precise.  The most general condition of all the vertebrae is
their annular form.   This ring, the opening of which is always very
considerable in  proportion to the mass  which forms it, gives support to
several processes.  The annularform is connected with one ofthe usesof
the vertebral column, which is to lodge the spinal marrow. The name of
medullary foramen (foramen pro medulla spinali, foramen medullare) is
applied to the hole in each of the vertebrae, and that of medullary canal
(canalis pro  medulla spinali) to the channel resulting from the union
of all the foramina of the vertebrae placed one upon the other.
   The part of  the vertebral column situated before the spinal marrow,
is, except in one place, the strongest and thickest; hence it is called the
body  of the vertebra (corpus vertebrs).   It is always a little narrower
on its anterior face and its two sides, so that its superior and its inferior
faces project slightly beyond the lateral faces.   The remainder of the
lateral portion and all the posterior part of  the vertebra is  called the
arch(areus).   The body is always straight and transverse, and the
arch very convex.   The processes on one hand contribute to a second
use of the vertebral column, that of giving attachments to the muscles,
which move it,  the ribs and the skull, andTalso  to strengthen the union
of the vertebrae.  They may then be divided into articular and muscular
processes (processus articulares et musculares), according to their prin-
cipal uses, though all seem to  fulfill the.^ two functions at the same
time.   The processes originate only from the arches of the vertebras. 
,  OSTEOLOGY.
381
  There are always seven  processes.  Four are articular, (processus
articulares, condyloidti),  these  are also called the oblique processes
(P. obliqui), and derive their name" from the direction of their cartila-
ginous articular surfaces ;  we find on each side a superior and an in-
ferior,  which arise from the lateral  part of the arch.  Of the  other
three which are muscular, two, one on the right, the other on the left,
arise transversely from the  arch, between the superior and the inferior
articular processes ;  these are called the transverse processes (P. trans-
versa) from their direction.
  The third  is situated on the median line ; it arises from the middle
of the  posterior portion of  the  arch  and proceeds backward.  It has
been called the spinous process (P. spinosus), as  it is very long and
pointed in many of the vertebrae.
  In all the muscular processes we distinguish a base (basis), and a
summit (apex).
   Between the base or the  anterior extremity of the arch of the verte-
brae and the  two articular processes of each side, the upper and the
lower edge of the arch present grooves (incisura vertebralis) ; when the
vertebrae are fitted to each other, these grooves form the  holes of con-
junction, or  the intervertebral foramina (foramina  intervertebralia),
which communicate with the interior of the spinal canal, and through
which the spinal nerves emerge.
   § 476. All the vertebrae  are united, in the main, in the same manner
and at the same points.   The upper and the lower faces of  the bodies
are firmly attached to each other in their whole  extent, by the fibro-
cartilages which admit of but slight  motion.   The arches and spinous
processes are united by fibrous  ligaments, and the articular or oblique
processes are connected together by capsules.

                     II. OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT.

   § 477. Besides these  general characters presented by the vertebrae
when  perfectly formed, they resemble each other  in the essential cha-
racters of their mode of development.  In fact, they are always formed
of  at least three pieces ;  a middle piece corresponding to the body, and
two posterior  and lateral  pieces representing the  two halves of the
arch.   Each probably  arises'  by six or eight pieces, since we find a
small nucleus of bone at the extremities  of the spinous and of the trans-
verse  processes, and also on the upper and  on the  lower  face of the
body.   We have  observed  this in the bodies of several individuals eigh-
teen years old, and the facts mentioned  by Ungebauer(l) accord with
our own experience.  Perhaps by examining  the vertebrae  in young
subjects we shall ascertain that the body is formed by the union of the
two lateral  portions,(2) at least we have found this to be the case in

  (1) Epistola osteologica de ossium trunci corporis humani sero osseis visis earum-
 demque genesi, Leipsic, 1739.
  (2) Beclard thinks differently, he adduces an argument dmvn from the anterior
spina bifida, which very rarely, although sometimes, occurs, and in the neck  only,
because the fore part of the vertebral column  developing itself from the centre to- 
382                    DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.

the  upper pieces of the coccyx, and several times even in the body of
the  first  cervical vertebra, and  also in the  odontoid process  of the
second.   The analogy of the sternum and of the spheno-occipital bone
also leads us to believe that this is the case in all.   Then  the number
of points of  ossification is not three, as is generally asserted, but nine,
or more properly speaking, eight.   The lateral portions begin to appear
at the third month ; the body shows itself later.   The terminal points
of ossification of which we spoke are not visible till long after birth ;
for in the full-grown fetus the  processes  of  the vertebrae  are not  ossi-
fied.   When the child is born, the different osseous points are still per-
fectly distinct.

                  III. OF THE SEXUAL DIFFERENCES.

   § 478. The bodies of the vertebras are flatter, the  transverse  pro-
cesses stronger and straighter in the male.   In  the female, these last
are inclined a little backward so that the groove between them and the
arch is  deeper ; the spinal canal and the  inter-vertebral foramen are
also broader.
                     ARTICLE SECOND.

 OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TRUE AND THE FALSE
                            VERTEBRAE.

   § 479. The  characters  hitherto mentioned apply both to the true
and to the false vertebras.
   The  true vertebrae differ from the false vertebrae of the sacrum, as
they are not fused together when fully developed.   We must however
remark, that, after the  age of fifty, we  often  find the true vertebra
united in one or many parts of the vertebral column.
   The true are also distinguished from the false vertebrae in their mode
of ossification.   In the normal, state, the lateral portions unite on the
median  line, to form one piece before blending with  the body; in the
sacrum, however, they are separated from one another long after they
are united to the  body.

wards the two extremities, while the posterior lateral parts are developed succes-
sively from above downward, this separation ought to occur backward and down-
ward, which is most common, or forward and upward.  He rejects  also analogous
proofs drawn from the anatomy of tetards, of birds, and of rabbits, as resting on er-
roneous observations.  Having studied the commencement of ossification in the
bodies of the  vertebra? of the  tetard  and frog, he "observed  that  it was a single
point; the same occurs also  in, the other batracia, in the mammalia, and in birds.
As to the cause of error, he thinks it arises from making observations upon subjects
too young, and from considering the peduncle of each apophysis as the commence-
ment of the body.  On this subject we must remark, that  in those animals which
have a horizontal position, the body of the vertebra being the least  important part,
is developed the last, by a relatively smaller point, while in  man the reverse is true,
especially in regard to the lumbar, the sacral, and the inferior dorsal vertebrae.  See
Xourcau Journal de medecine, vol. viii. 1820, p. 82.                     F. T. 
OSTEOLOGY.
383
                     ARTICLE  THIRD.

           PARTICULARS OF THE TRUE VERTEBRAE.

  § 480. The true vertebrae are divided into the cervical (vertebrs cer-
vicales), the thoracic, or the dorsal (V. thoracics, dorsales), and the lum-
bar (V. lumbares) vertebrae, according to the region of the trunk which
they occupy.   We number seven cervical, twelve dorsal, and five lum-
bar vertebra?.   They differ very much in  their size  and thickness, in
their form, and the size of the spinal canal, and finally in the form and
proportion of their parts.
  §481. 1st.  The vertebrae gradually increase  very much  in size
from above downward, so  that the cervical are the smallest,  and the
lumbar vertebrae the largest.  The bodies  particularly become broader,
higher, and thicker.  A lumbar vertebra is four times as massive as a
cervical vertebra.
  § 482. 2d. The spinal canal is  smaller  and rounder in the dorsal
vertebrae, particularly in the central; it is largest  in  the upper lumbar
vertebrae.  In fact, that of the  first cervical vertebra is  much larger
than any of the others, but this  canal is  not entirely filled with the
spinal marrow.  This opening is  more oblique  in  the upper lumbar
vertebrae ; in the lower lumbar,  and  in the cervical  vertebrae,  it has a
triangular form, the summit of which is directed backward.
  § 483.  3d. a. The bodies of the different vertebrae differ from each
other in several respects.   In the  cervical vertebrae, this  part is not
only smallest but it is very low in proportion to their depth and breadth.
The upper face is a httle concave from before backward, and especially
from right to left, for the two lateral edges are very much raised above
its level;  it also inclines forward.   The lower face is equally and even
still  more inclined in the same direction,  but a little flattened  towards
its lateral edges.
'  The upper face of the upper dorsal vertebrae offers but slight  traces
of this arrangement of  the body.   In them, the upper and lower faces
are perfectly straight, except in the centre, where they are a little de-
pressed.
  The bodies of the dorsal vertebrae become much thicker from before
backward, and from above downward, less from  one side to the other,
so that the body of the middle is narrower than that of the upper dor-
sal vertebra,and of the lower cervical vertebra, but the inferior are the
largest in every sense.
   The contraction ofthe body mentioned before is marked most strongly
in the dorsal, and least in the cervical vertebrae.
   The bodies of the dorsal vertebrae are particularly distinguished from
those  of all others by having small articular surfaces situated on the
sides,  immediately before the union of these same  bodies with the two
portions of  the posterior arches.  We generally find an upperand  a
lower, on each side of the body  the  former being continuous with the 
384
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
upper edge, and the latter with the lower  edge of the  lateral  face.
Each of these facets is imperfect; they do not become complete  until
they unite to the corresponding  facet of the vertebra below, so as to
form with it only one cavity, composed of the  two portions joined to-
gether at an obtuse angle, the upper being the smaller and the inferior'
the larger,   In the last three vertebrae, we  find on each side only one
of these articulating surfaces.   The tenth has only the  usual upper
semi-facet which unites with the inferior  facet of the ninth.   < hi the
eleventh and twelfth, we see one only, which is straight and separated
with  the  upper edge.   Hence why those of the superior ten dorsal
vertebrae are called common lateral articular facets, and  those of the
last two, the proper lateral articular facets (fades articulares laterales
communes et propris).   They receive the heads of the ribs.
  § 484.  b. The processes of the vertebrae differ  considerably.
  First, of the articular  processes.   The articular processes are less
obhque in the  cervical vertebrae ;  their  direction  in the first two is
almost  horizontal.   In the dorsal vertebrae, especially the lower,  they
are almost perpendicular ; the sameis true also of the lumbar vertebrae.
Their articular surfaces are arranged in the cervical vertebrae,  so that
the superior look upward and backward, the inferior downward  and
forward.  In the dorsal vertebrae the superior are  turned directly back-
ward, the inferior directly forward.  In the lumbar vertebrae the supe-
rior are  directed inward, and the inferior outward.  The last verte-
bra in this region is  the only one which in  some measure  resembles
the formation of the dorsal  vertebrae in this respect.
  The articular facets of the lumbar vertebrae are  the strongest and
highest, and those of the cervical vertebrae are the most feeble.   The
broadest are found in the first vertebra of the neck.
  These surfaces also vary in form.  They are straight in all the cer-
vical  and dorsal vertebrae, while in the  lumbar vertebrae .  the superior
are concave, and the inferior convex.  Those of the first  cervical ver-
tebra  are very deep.
  In the cervical vertebrae, excepting the first, and in the upper dorsal
vertebrae their greatest breadth is from one side to the other, and in the
inferior 'dorsal  and in  the lumbar vertebra  it .is greatest from above
downward.   In the first cervical vertebra, the superior  are broader
from before backward than  from one side to the other, while the  infe-
rior are round, as are also the superior of the second cervical vertebra,
which correspond to them.
  The form and proportions of the articular  processes and of their sur-
faces  admit then of only one movement in the lumbar region, viz. from
above, downward; while they have also a lateral motion in the regions
of the back and the neck.   At the lower part of the dorsal region, the
motion from above downward is  very limited by the height of the  pro-
cesses and by their greater  perpendicular direction, and the lateral mo-
tion by the backward direction ofthe transverse processes which closely
connect the joint.  The  vertebrae of the  neck have the most motion, 
OSTEOLOGY;
385
 because, their surfaces being  more horizontal, their articular processes
 are shorter.
   § 485. The transverse processes present no less remarkable differ-
 ences.
   The longest and strongest  are those of the  upper and middle dorsal
 and the superior lumbar  vertebrae.   Those  of the cervical vertebras
 are shorter, except those of the first, which are long.   The smallest
 are those of the last two dorsal vertebrae.
   Their direction varies.   In the cervical vertebrae  they are directed
 forward; in the  dorsal vertebrae, especially the inferior, backward;
 and in the lumbar vertebrae they are  more transverse, and incline also
 a little backward.
   They differ still more  in their form.  In this  respect the  cervical
 vertebrae are distinguished from the others, as their transverse processes
 are perforated from above  downward, and a round  canal is formed,
 which is sometimes divided by a transverse ridge of bone into an ante-
 rior and a posterior part, the latter being generally the smaller.   This
 canal gives passage to the vertebral artery, and hence has been called
 the vertebral canal (foramen  vertebrate).  Hence why the transverse
 processes are  considerably broader  from before  backward, and why
 their anterior and posterior edges, especially in the lower five cervical
 vertebrae, are more or less curved upward; they form a groove in
 which the nerve from the spinal canal crosses the  direction of the ver-
 tebral artery which passes before it.
   This groove is strongly marked in the sixth  cervical vertebra.  That
 part only of the transverse process which is situated behind the verte-
 bral canal corresponds to the transverse processes of the other vertebrae.
 The anterior corresponds to the ribs ; however, the former is Usually
 called the posterior root, and the latter the anterior root, of  the  trans-
 verse process.
   The  outer part  of the  vertebral  foramen  is sometimes  imperfect.
 The first cervical vertebra is  the  only one in  which the portion of the
 transverse process situated outside of this  opening, and which is consi-
 derably broad from before backward, is at the same time very broad
 from without inward.
  The transverse processes of  the dorsal vertebrae are the mostinassive.
 They are not terminated externally by a point,  as are those ofthe other
 vertebrae, but gradually swell  out, and their thickness  equals or nearly
 equals  their breadth.  The upper ten are distinguished from the others,
 as we perceive on the anterior face of their summits an articular sur-
 face (fades  ariicularis  transversalis) covered with  cartilage, which
 unites to the tubercles of the ribs.  This surface is concave in the upper
 vertebrae, but plane and often  convex in the lower; in the upper it is
 turned forward and upward, in the others its direction becomes more and
more oblique outward and  downward.  Its  extent also diminishes as
it approaches the loins.
  The transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae increase in length
from the first to the third, and  afterwards shorten from the latter to the
  Vol. I,                      49 
386                  DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.

fifth, so that in this last they form only small thin points. They are very
much compressed from before backward, and consequently are much
weaker than those of the dorsal vertebrae.  Their base usually projects
at its posterior part into a small tubercle called the accessory process
(processus accessorius), which is found in these vertebrae only.
   § 486. The spinous processes of the cervical vertebrae are thinner
upward than downward, and broader across than those of all the other
vertebrae; their superior face is convex, and the inferior concave ; their
posterior extremity terminates in two teeth, one on the right, the other
on the left, which diverge, and  are  often  bifurcated.   They increase
much in length from the first cervical vertebra, and are almost horizon-
tal,  although a little  inclined downward.  We  shall mention their
differences in the first, second,  and seventh cervical vertebrae  when
describing these vertebrae.
   The spinous processes of the  dorsal vertebrae are the longest of al?:
they lengthen especially from the first vertebra to the seventh;  at the
same time they are thicker and triangular.  The upper ones are the
broadest in proportion to their height;  but they gradually become thin-
ner,  so that at last their upper edge is sharp.  Slightly contracted in
the middle, they always swell out at their  point, and terminate in a -
single small tubercle.
   The spinous processes of the lumbar vertebrae are a little longer than
those of the last three dorsal, and longer also than those of the cervical
vertebrae.   They are the highest and  most  compressed of all, so that
in this respect they offer an arrangement  contrary to that seen in the
spinous processes  of those of the neck.   Their direction differs from
that of the others : it is not directly backward, or backward and down-
ward, but is from behind forward, and from below upward.
                    ARTICLE  FOURTH.

OF THE  SPECIAL CHARACTERS  OF SOME OF THE TRUE VERTEBRAE,
   VIZ. OF THE FIRST, THE  SECOND, AND  THE  SEVENTH  CERVICAL
   VERTEBRJ3.

   § 487.  The first, second, and seventh cervical vertebrae present some
peculiarities in their forms, and deserve a separate description.

                         A.  NORMAL STATE.

                      I. Of the first cervical vertebra.

   Although all the cervical vertebrae are characterized by a  less differ-
ence between the body and the arch, this is  much more marked in the
first cervical vertebra than in file others.   This vertebra is  called the
atlas.  Its middle and  anterior portion is broader across than in any
other direction, as in all the vertebrae, but it is thinner from before back- 
OSTEOLOGY,
387
ward than the arch itself, which almost equals it in height also. Hence
this part is not called the body, but the anterior arch (arcus anterior).
This vertebra  is distinguished from all others by the thinness of the
superior and inferior edges of its  anterior arch, while in the other ver-
tebrae, except the second, the thickness from before backward exceeds
the height.  These two edges are destitute of cartilage.  On the mid-
dle of the anterior face is a small  tubercle  (tuberculum anlerius), to
which a slightly concave and  cartilaginous  articular facet  (sinus
atlantis, s. medins) on the posterior face corresponds.
   The  posterior arch is  more oblique than in all the other vertebrae.
From its centre arises a tubercle (tuberculum posterius) which frequently
is almost imperceptible, but sometimes it also bifurcated, and goes hori-
zontally backward.
   The anterior parts of the posterior arch, which support the transverse
and articular processes, are much stronger  in  proportion to the other
parts of the atlas than in the other vertebrae; hence they are termed
the lateral masses (masss laterales).  We have already  mentioned the
form and  arrangement of the  articular processes.   Behind each pro-
cess, and not, as in the other vertebrae, before each one  or  between it
and the body, is a slight depression, forming the upper intervertebral
groove (incisura intervertebralis superior, s. sinus lateralis, s. posterior),
which gives passage not only  to the first spinal nerve, but also to  the
vertebral artery and vein.  This groove is sometimes changed into a
canal by a ridge of bone which extends from the posterior extremity of
the upper articular process to its posterior edge.  Sometimes also another
ridge of bone detaches itself from the posterior root ofthe transverse pro-
cess, and extends to the posterior edge ofthe posterior arch, also forming
a small canal.   The upper articular surface is here directly  continuous
with the body, while in the  other vertebrae it is separated from it by a
groove.  In the centre of the internal face of the  lateral masses, we
observe a considerable  depression and asperities which are seen only
in the atlas.
   The  first cervical vertebra is the  broadest of all, if  we except the
third lumbar  vertebra.   This  circumstance is not to be ascribed, as in
the other vertebrae, to the breadth of its body or to the length of its trans-
verse processes, but to the great development of its articular  surfaces,
which depends upon its articulation with the occipital bone.
   The first cervical  vertebra differs from the others in its mode of arti-
culation by the greater looseness in the parts which hold it.  In fact the
upper and lower edges of the posterior arch are not connected with the
occipital foramen and with the body  of the second vertebra by a fibro-
cartilage, but by much weaker fibres.

                     II. Of the second cervical vertebra.

   § 488.  The second cervical  vertebra is distinguished from the others
particularly by the height of  its body, which is  elevated considera-
bly above  its articular parts.   This  projection  is called the odontoid 
388                   DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
 process (processus odonto'ides, s. dens).   It is narrower than the body,
 and rounded.  Above the base (basis) it becomes narrow;  this part is
 called the neck (collum).   Towards its  extremity it bulges again into
 a small head (capitulum), and finally terminates in a  blunt summit
 (apex).
   The anterior face of the head  presents a slightly convex, smooth,
 cartilaginous surface,  which  corresponds  to  the  excavation on the
 anterior arch of the atlas.  A similar one is seen on the posterior face.
 The odontoid process  of  the  second cervical vertebra seems to divide
 the  body of the  first  cervical vertebra,  to a  certain extent,  into  an
 anterior and  a posterior part, of which  the former alone is  ossified,
 while  the other is the transverse ligament of the first cervical vertebra.
 In this vertebra also the upper articular surface is uninterruptedly con-
 tinuous with the body, and sometimes even there is no superior groove
 behind it, while the inferior groove  is found as  usual.   The upper arti-
 cular  process is  not situated above but directly before the lower;  so
 that it is supported  on the body which  is  enlarged laterally, and  its
 weight, consequently  that  also of the atlas and the cranium,  bears
 upon the body, and not on the feeble and more movable lateral portions.
   The anterior face of the body presents  two  lateral  depressions, and
 above, a longitudinal' ridge, which  corresponds to the  anterior tubercle
 of the  atlas.
   The second cervical vertebra is stronger, and its  spinous process is
 longer than those ofthe other cervical vertebrae, except the last.
   The atlas, which articulates with it by means of the odontoid process
 and the upper articular processes, and the head, which in fact is one with
 the atlas, rotate upon  this vertebra, and turn  around its odontoid pro-
 cess as around an axis.   Hence it has been called, the axis (epistro-
pheus,  axis).
   The second cervical vertebra differs from all the others in regard to
 its connections, articulating not only with that which precedes and
 follows it, but also with the occipital  bone, by its upper part; and far-
 ther, the upper part of its  odontoid process is not connected with the
 lower edge of the vertebra situated above it.

                    HI. Of the seventh cervical vertebra.

   §489. The seventh cervical vertebra presents fewer peculiarities  than
the first two,  and is particularly remarkable as uniting the characters of
 the cervical and thoracic vertebrae ; so that it would be more correct to
 call it  one of the latter;  we should then have thirteen dorsal and six
 cervical  vertebrae.(1)   It  resembles  the cervical vertebrae only in the
breadth and lowness of its body, and in  the existence of the vertebral
 foramen.  But the body of the first dorsal vertebra presents the same
form, and the vertebral foramen here loses all its  importance,  since

  (1)  This remark is so just, that were it not in obedience to long usage, we should
not admit seven cervical and twelve dorsal vertebra;. 
OSTEOLOGY.                        389
 the vertebral artery never passes through it,(l) it is frequently defi-
 cient, and it sometimes exists in the dorsal vertebrae.
    This vertebra resembles the dorsal in the great length of its trans-
 verse processes, which on  each side suddenly increase  at  least four
 lines, while from the second to the sixth cervical vertebra they are of
 the same or of nearly the same length.   It also resembles them in be-
 ing thrown back, so that the medullary canal is farther backward than
 in the other vertebrae ; because it has on the lower part of the side of its
 body a small, lateral, articular semi-facet (fades articularis lateralis),
 which forms a complete surface by uniting to the upper  semi-facet of
 of the first dorsal vertebra; and  finally  because its  spinous  process
 suddenly exceeds those of the other cervical vertebrae  very much, and,
 although broader than those of the dorsal vertebrae, is not bifurcated,
 and is thicker than those of the cervical  vertebrae.  It has been called
 the prominent vertebra (vertebra prominens), because the  posterior part
 of its body projects beyond the other cervical vertebrae.

                         B.   DEVELOPMENT.

   § 490. These three vertebrae differ also from the others  in their mode
 of development.
   The atlas is usually formed like the other vertebrae as respects the
 number of its points of ossification, but differs in regard to the time at
 which  they appear.   In the second and seventh cervical vertebrae the
 number of points of ossification is not the same.
   In the other vertebrae  the body  exists long before  the  fetus  is
 matured.  In the atlas, on  the contrary,  we have  rarely found  it
 before the child is six months old.   Of thirty skeletons of full-grown
 fetuses, and even of children, in one only have we seen  a round nucleus
 of bone, two hnes in diameter, in the cartilage  of the anterior arch.
 Even at the age of two or three years, the two lateral masses are fre-
 quently united only by a band of cartilage containing one  or more irre-
 gularly formed osseous nuclei, which are placed one at the side of the
 other.  Some symmetry usually exists between the right and the left
 half of the body in  this respect, so that although ossification  often
 proceeds farther on one side than on the other, it never extends beyond
 the median  line ; but in  some few instances, even when  the cartilage
 has entirely disappeared, we find the body formed of two very unequal
 parts, doubtless because of two or more osseous nuclei which are
 usually found on one side, the internal is  united with that of the oppo-
 site side sooner than with the nucleus next to it on the  same side.  At
 the same time we sometimes perceive a round nucleus of  considerable
 size between the posterior extremities of both sides. This nucleus unites
 with the halves  of the arch much earlier than the anterior, from which
 it is entirely separated, although by a very thin layer of cartilage, long
 after the different parts ofthe other vertebrae are fused in a  single piece.

  (1) Scemmerring (Knochenlehre,  p. 259) has mentioned this, and we  have fre-
quently verified his remark. 
390
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY
  We have  never seen, what Bichat  asserts is the most common
arrangement, that the atlas is developed by five points of ossification,
one for the anterior arch, two for the posterior arch, and one for each of
the lateral masses.
  The second cervical vertebra is developed, leaving  out  of view its
small processes, by at least five points of ossification, and not by four,
as is generally said ; for the odontoid  process is at first formed of two
symmetrical osseous nuclei, which are usually visible at the end of the
seventh and even in the middle of the eighth month of uterine existence;
they are at first united and much smaller than the nucleus of the body,
but exceed it in size in the full-grown fetus, at which period they have
long  been united.  Besides these,  two  other  nuclei probably  exist
which do not belong to all the  other vertebrae;  we refer  to a large,
round, osseous germ, situated forward, between the nucleus of the body,
and that of the odontoid process, and the anterior extremity ofthe lateral
mass, and which is much narrower from before backward than the body.
We have almost always found it in  children less than a year old, and
even till the third year, although lessened in size, and to be seen only
on one side.(l)
   The osseous germs seen first are those of the lateral masses ;  next
we observe that of the  body, and then  those of  the odontoid process;
those which appear last are the  intermediate  germs, which are not
developed till after birth.
   The halves of the arch in the axis and the atlas unite later than in
the other vertebrae, and among  all the atlas  is that in  which they
most frequently do not unite on the median line.  In the second verte-
bra the two osseous germs of the odontoid process are first united, then
the posterior  extremities of the lateral masses fuse.  The intermediate
germs, which are  the last developed, then unite with the body and with
the lateral masses ; the body is fused.with the latter; finally the odon-
toid process unites also with them, so that the  last trace of separation
of the different osseous nuclei is a transverse furrow on  the anterior
face, between the  body and the odontoid process.
   The seventh cervical vertebra is developed by five points of ossifica*
tion.  Besides the three which usually exist, the anterior circumference of
the vertebral canal is already formed in great part in the fetus of seven
months, by a separate oblong osseous nucleus, which extends from the
lateral parts of the body to the posterior root of the transverse process.
The anterior root  is then developed  separately, while in the other cer-
vical vertebrae  it  is merely a prolongation, the anterior and internal
extremity of the transverse apophysis turned outwardly.  Our observa-
tions have satisfied us that this arrangement, which Hunauld(2) con-
siders simply as a variety, ought to be regarded as the normal state, as
Sue(3) and  Nesbitt(4) think, although it is not mentioned in the trea-

  (1) Nesbitt (Osteogenic, p. 66) mentions these osseous particles as existing also in
the fetus at birth; but we nave never seen them.
  (2)  Mem. de Vac. des sc, 1740. p. 537.
  (3)  Mem. pres. d Vac. de Paris, vol. ii. p. 572.
   (4)  Osteogenic, p. 66. 
OSTEOLOGV
391
 tises on osteology.  The union does not take place till after the second
 year.   This peculiarity also demonstrates that it would be more proper
 to regard the last cervical vertebra as  the  first  dorsal;  for the  small
 bone in question is evidently a rudiment of a rib, corresponding only to
 the neck of this rib, but representing it perfectly, and differs from the
 other ribs because it does not unite to the sternum by means of a carti-
 lage, but fuses regularly with the vertebra to which it is united ;(1) but
 it often remains distinct during  life, and elongates itself  hke a rib.(2)
 The seventh cervical vertebra approximates those of the neck and back
 still nearer than they have hitherto  appeared, as the anterior root of
 their transverse process decidedly corresponds to a rib, although  it has
 not been developed by a special point of ossification.
   This transition from the cervical to the dorsal vertebrae would  seem
 still more gradual if, as we think ourselves authorized to conclude from
 facts, the  sixth cervical vertebra  is  also formed by the union of five
 osseous germs.  In a child which  died when nine months old, we  found
 a small rounded nucleus of bone on each side, next to the body, in the
 part corresponding to the anterior  and internal extremity of the anterior
 root.   We have  even seen  traces of  this  bone in another child,  two
 years  old.   This  nucleus,  however,  is  much  smaller than in  the
 seventh vertebra, and there is only a simple layer of cartilage extending
 from it to the-outward extremity of the posterior root, before the verte-
 hral foramen.  Besides, judging from the last instance, it never unites
 just at  the posterior root, but the  internal extremity of the lateral part
 glides forward and outward between them.
   The second, sixth, and seventh cervical vertebrae resemble each other
 then very much in their mode  of  development, so that we are author-
 ized to  consider this intermediate rounded nucleus of bone as the rudi-
 ment of a rib, although in truth it is very imperfect.   We ought also to
 consider the small lateral germs in the  body of the axis as allied to it.
 It is then  somewhat remarkable  that  they are  found exactly in the
 upper and lower cervical vertebrae; in the latter, because the libs arise
 from them ; in the former, because the articular portions of the occipital
 bone and the styloid processes of  the temporal bone result from their
 development and enlargement*

  (1) This peculiarity ofthe seventh cervical vertebra is important in two respects:
 first, it establishes between the skeletons ofthe mammalia and ofthe other vertebrated
 animals a gTeater analogy than has hitherto been admitted ; for an analogy to the
 upper ribs of birds and reptiles had never been found in the mammalia.  Secondly,
 it furnishes a new argument  in support of the law that the formations which are
 transitory in the superior animals become permanent in those ofthe inferior classes.
  (2) Meckel, Handbuch der pathologischen Anatomie, vol. ii.—Deutsches Archiv fur
 die Physiologie, vol. i. part iv. fig. 6.
  * Most anatomists distinguish also,
  1st. The first dorsal vertebra. It presents an articular face above, and a semi-
 facet below, on the sides of its body.
  2d. The tenth dorsal vertebra. It frequently presents an articular face  on  both
sides of its body.
  3d. The eleventh  dorsal vertebra.  Its body is almost  round, and presents an 
392
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
                     ARTICLE  FIFTH.

                     OF THE FALSE  VERTEBRjE.

                      I.  OF THE SACRUM.

   § 491.  The sacrum, or sacral bone (os sacrum, clunium, latum), fob
lows the last lumbar vertebra, with which it is articulated in the same
manner as two vertebrae are united.  Although not the last bone ofthe
vertebral column, it however  supports it, being  the  broadest and the
strongest.
   Its form is irregularly quadrilateral, being larger and thicker upward,
but becomes narrower and thinner downward.  It resembles a large ver-
tebra formed by the fusion of five placed over each other, and combines
all the characters of the true vertebrae.   The  sacral  canal (canalis
sacralis) extends from the upper to the  lower extremity, between a
central and anterior  portion, the body, and a thinner posterior portion,
the arch; this canal  gradually contracts, especially from before back-
ward.   The upper face of the body is slightly concave, and covered
with fibro- cartilage ;  the inferior, to which the first piece ofthe coccyx
is  attached,  is  also  covered  with  cartilage.  On  each side of the
arch  is detached a  transverse process;  in  the  centre  of the  arch
is  a more  or less interrupted series of  elevations, which represent the
spinous processes of  the vertebrae.  Along this  crest we observe  on
each  side, on the posterior face  of the arch, another  series of small
asperities, which correspond  to the  articular  processes.   Finally,
between these and the body we find holes called sacral foramina (fora-
mina sacralia), which correspond to  the intervertebral foramina.
   The differences between the  sacrum and a common vertebra arise
principally because it is composed of several vertebrae fused together,
and because this fusion occurs at points too where there is no union
between the true vertebrae.
   Hence  we find no  simple spinous  processes, but  spines  sometimes
separated and equal  in number to the pieces of the sacrum, and some-
times all or many of them fused together in a crest (crista).
   The articular processes are fused, and instead of them are tubercles
sometimes hardly perceptible.   The  two upper and the two lower
are very distinct, and are called the horns of the sacrum (cornua sacra^
lia).  We usually find, instead of the broad, loose, and cartilaginous
articular surfaces, only sharp and slightly projecting edges ;  sometimes

entire articular surface on each side; its transverse • processes are very short, and
have no articulating surface.
   4th. The twelfth resembles the eleventh; but its lower articular process is convex
and looks outward.
   5th. The fifth lumbar vertebra.  Ita body is flat, and the lower surface is oblique
to articulate with the sacrum. 
OSTEOLOGY.                       393
 however the inferior articular processes of the first false vertebra have
 also, hke the other vertebrae, extensive and loose articular surfaces.
   The foramina from  which the last spinal nerves emerge appear
 double, so that we have an anterior and a posterior series of sacral
 foramina.   But these foramina open into the spinal canal at the same
 place, and are double only because the transverse processes are united
 at their superior and inferior edges, outside of the holes through which
 the  nerves pass.
   These foramina are the anterior and the posterior openings of one
 connected canal, of which the upper are much larger than the lower,
 and diminish much from above downward.
   The halves of the arches of the sacrum are united late ; so that the
 ring of the two lower false vertebrae not unfrequently remains imperfect
 during hfe.
   The anterior face of the sacrum is more  or  less concave,  and the
 posterior more or less convex, according to the  sex.  The former is
 smoother than the latter;  it presents only four transverse ridges, placed
 each between two pairs of sacral foramina,  and which are the traces of
 the  primitive separation of the five vertebrae.  We perceive also four
 pairs of anterior sacral foramina.  The posterior face presents  five
 ranges of eminences:  one  in the middle, which is unmated, formed by
 the spinous processes, and termed the crest ofthe sacrum (crista sacra-
 lis); near it, on each  side, a second, which arises from the fusion of
 the  articular processes  ;  finally,  outward, a  third, which marks the
 fusion  of the transverse processes with each other. Between these two
 pairs of eminences we find the four posterior sacral foramina.
   The lateral face  of this  bone is very broad and thick at its upper
 part.   Its anterior part is smooth, covered with cartilage, and palled
 the auricular surface (fades auricularis) ; the posterior part is very
 rough.   The lower portion of this  surface  is so thin  that it seems
 simply an edge.
   §  492. The sacrum is developed  in the  following manner.   Long
 after the bodies of the  true vertebrae are perceptible, we  see, in the
 fourth month of pregnancy, the bodies, then the lateral massesof the false
 sacral  vertebrae.   The lateral masses  are not all formed of the same
 number of osseous germs,  for there  are two on each side in the three
 upper pieces, while we find only one in the two inferior.  Of these two
 nuclei, one, which forms one half of the arch, is found backward;  the
 other, forward:  both unite, with the body.   The posterior faces of the
 lateral parts of each:y.ertjebra are developed long before the anterior
 parts which form almost] all the articular surfaces for the iliac bones.
 In this manner  the twenty-one  osseous germs which  compose the
 sacrum in the matured fetus are gradually formed.  The first three
 false vertebrae contain five  each ; the other two have  three.   All have
 a central and larger piece,  the nucleus of the body.   The  two inferior
 have on each side only the half of an  arch, composed in the first three
 of two osseous germs—an anterior, which is curved forward, and a
posterior, which is curved  backward.   They  continue separate till the 
394
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
age'of three years.  However, the extremities of the two portions of
the arches which are turned backward and toward one another are
developed, as are those of the inferior vertebrae, which in the full-grown
fetus are directed precisely from before backward.   At the age of three
years, the three pieces of the lower vertebrae begin to unite, and then
the same occurs with the posterior and the anterior pieces ofthe lateral
portions of the three  upper pieces;  finally, these lateral parts also
unite with the body.  We not unfrequently find in subjects  five years
old the first vertebra composed of five  pieces, and even at seven years
of age we can trace this former separation.
   The bodies and  transverse processes of the different vertebrae are
joined together much later, and  only when the growth is terminated ;
the same  remark applies to the posterior extremities of the halves of
the arches.
   § 493.  The  sacrum, before its growth is perfected, is very analogous
to the other vertebrae, inasmuch as its false vertebrae are not yet united.
The latter resemble  the proper vertebrae in regard to their mode of
development, being composed of a body and of lateral parts.   However,
the number of these lateral parts in the upper vertebrae differs from what
occurs in most  of the vertebrae ; but among  the  cervical vertebrae we
find some which arise also from the union of several pieces.  A more
important difference is that of the period at which these osseous pieces
are developed and united.  In fact, in the  true vertebrae the lateral
masses appear  first, while in the false vertebrae the bodies  are seen
first.   In the former, the posterior extremities of the lateral parts unite
before the anterior are joined  to the bodies; in  the latter, they are
fused with the bodies long before they are united to  one another.
   § 494.  The sacrum is articulated, at its upper part, with the body of
the last lumbar vertebra  by means  of a fibro-cartilage, and with its
inferior articular processes by two capsular ligaments ; laterally, with
the os ilium by a fibro-cartilaginous mass and several  fibrous liga-
ments, and with the os ischium  by fibrous ligaments.  Finally, its
lower extremity is articulated by ligaments and cartilage with the first
piece of the coccyx.
   § 495.  The sacrum is wedged in between the iliac bones, and forms
the posterior wall of  the pelvis.  It properly sustains and supports the
vertebral column and the head.  It however projects  backward very
much, and forms, at its point of union with the last  lumbar vertebra, a      !
very prominent angle, called the promontory (promontorium).              i
   § 496.  The sacrum is one of those bones in which the differences of     t
sex are very manifest, as it forms a  constituent part of the pelvis;      a
these depend upon  the difference in the functions of the male and
female. In the female it is much broader and shorter and much less      Ii
curved than in the male.  The promontory also projects more than in      1
the male*                                                             y
                                                                       fc
  * Cloquet states that the dimensions of the sacrum in the  female are generally
from 4 to 4 J inches long; its breadth at the upper part nearly equals its length; at     f,
the lower part it is not more than 6 or 7 lines;  from the middle and projecting part      • 
OSTEOLOGY.                       395
                        OF THE COCCYX.

   § 497.  The coccyx (ossa coccygis) is a collection of the smallest and
 most imperfect vertebrae. As the inferior false vertebrae of the sacrum do
 not form a complete ring, because the two portions of their arch do not
 unite, so those of the coccyx present no trace of the posterior arch ; and
 when we  perceive at its posterior part two projections opposite to one
 another, whioh correspond to the lateral portions of the vertebrae, they
 are never  long enough to touch.
   § 498.  We usually find four bones of the coccyx, rarely five, and
 then  always in  the female.    These pieees are placed one above
 another, like the true vertebrae,  and form a series of bones convex
 backward and concave forward.
   The upper piece, and generally the first only, is much more perfectly
 developed than  the  others.  We can always distinguish in the first,
 and sometimes also  in the second, a middle piece, which is stronger,
 the body,  and two lateral  parts.   The latter become two transverse
 processes, terminated  by  a  blunt summit,  turned a little  forward,
 curved very much from below upward, which are the rudiments of the
 transverse processes, and two posterior, which are those of the articular
 processes.   These latter  are slightly inclined towards each  other, but
 are not very distant from the posterior face of the body.  They are
 always  much elevated above the upper edge of the bone.  Sometimes
they are  extended also beyond its base, but they  never exceed its
 total height by the base, so as to produce a rudiment distinct from an
inferior articular process.   Sometimes we can see the superior horns
 and the transverse processes only in the  second coccygeal bone ; the
inferior horns are never seen, and the superior horns  of the second are
not arched towards each other.
   The last two pieces of the coccyx are only round bones, the breadth
 of which is greater than the other two dimensions.
   All these pieces rapidly  diminish in size and development.  In this
respect they resemble the vertebrae of the sacrum, of which they are a
continuation, and with which the coccyx is often fused in the same
 manner as the false  vertebrae of this bone are united, that  is, by the
body, the  horns  (articular  processes), and the transverse processes, of
 which the last two are in general not directly united, but are attached
 only by fibrous ligaments.   Sometimes only some pieces ofthe coccyx
are fused together, and the others remain separate and distinct.
   & 499.  In the full-grown fetus, the first coccygeal bone generally con-
tains at its centre a very small but distinct rounded nucleus of bone.(l)
The others  do not  ossify till the  seventh year.  In a subject  two
years old, instead of  all the osseous germs, we found the second piece
formed of  two separate lateral halves.

of its base to the first tubercle of its posterior  surface, its thickness is 2 and 2|
 Ul(l)6Albinu9 says that the whole coccyx remains cartilaginous till long after birth.
This assertion however is not correct. 
396
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMT.
                    ARTICLE SIXTH.

      OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN IN THE ABNORMAL STATE.

  § 500. The anomalies of the bones  of  the vertebral column may
affect, 1st, the separate bones,  2d, all of them collectively.
  These two kinds of anomalies may be primitive or consecutive.

                 I. OF THE PRIMITIVE ANOMALIES,

  § 501. Here we must remark generally, that ofthe different regions
of the vertebral column, the  fewest anomalies occur in the cervical
vertebrae, at least as regards number; this depends upon the  circum-
stance that the cervical vertebrae are more constant in number in the
mammalia, proving that the influence of the general law extends even
to the anomalies.
  §502. a.  Anomalies in regard to quantity,  a. Feebleness of forma-
tion.  It is marked in various ways.
  a. By the defect of entire vertebrs.  Of this anomaly there are seve-
ral degrees.  When the  upper half of the body is not completely de-
veloped (§  468), the pectoral or the whole cervical region is sometimes
deficient;  and when the skull  is not perfectly developed, as in acepha-
lia falsa (§ 468), one or more ofthe cervical vertebrae are frequently defi-
cient.   We have instances however of the absence of a vertebra when
the formation is otherwise regular; but this rarely occurs in the neck ;
the regions in which it is most frequent are the lateral regions and that
of the coccyx.  Sometimes also only one half or the opposite halves of
two vertebrae are deficient.   We ought here to distinguish  the real
from the false or apparent defect; in  the latter  case, it happens  only
that a vertebra of one region assumes the characters of those of another
region.  This occurs, for instance,  when there is an excess or defect of
a pair of ribs, when the last lumbar vertebra assumes the form and size
of a sacral vertebra, when it unites with  the  latter on one or both of
its two sides, &c.
  (3.  By the deficiency of some parts ofthe vertebrs.  The most usual
anomaly of this kind is a want of union between the right and the left
halves,  (spina bifida), which  is observed by far the most frequently
in the lumbar region, and exists in several degrees.  The body itself
is rarely divided into two parts. Generally the two halves ofthe arches
are not united on the median line.   This deviation of formation exists
also in  several degrees ; for sometimes one portion of the lateral half
is deficient, while the remainder is turned outward ; sometimes there is
simply a want of fusion between  the  two portions; and sometimes
they  are  separated only by a  small  opening.  Although, when
spina bifida exists in a great degree, and is attended with an imperfect
development of the spinal marrow and with an accumulation of serum 
OSTEOLOGY.
397
within the vertebral column, it is met with in the lumbar region more
frequently than in any other; yet when the osseous system alone is
affected, the first cervical vertebra furnishes  the most numerous in-
stances of this anomaly, and this from  the want of union in its two
lateral halves.   This  deviation of formation  is  symmetrical, and is
rarely confined to one side of the body ; and then one semi-arch only is
deficient.(l)
  y. By the want of union between the posterior part  and the body.
This is the slightest degree ofthe anomaly.(2)
  S. By excess.   This includes the too great  number of the  vertebrae.
One general law of this  relation  is that the superfluous vertebra is
developed between and not at the side of the  others.   Here  then  the
nature of the anomaly is determined by the rule itself.   This  anomahy,
to which all our remarks of the contrary state apply, exists  most  fre-
quently in the dorsal and in the lumbar regions.   'It is  probable, how-
ever, that we cannot divide this into  total and partial,  arid that when
supernumerary  vertebrae  seem  to  exist,  this anomaly  is  generally
included in the class of anomalies in regard to quality.
  § 503. b. Of the anomalies in regard to quality.  We may consider
as such,
  a. An unusual mode of development  in the vertebrs.   Sometimes
certain parts of these bones arise from special nuclei.   This is true, in
certain cases, of the spinous processes ;  we have already remarked it
of the atlas (§ 487).   Bichat also states that he has seen this  anomaly,
but does not refer to any particular vertebra.  Probably we must attri-
bute to it, at least sometimes, those cases  in which the vertebrae  are
composed of an  unusual number of  pieces of bone, united either by a
broad cartilage or by ligaments which permit them to play upon each
other.   Thus we have found  the whole or a part of the spinous pro-
cess^) or of the transverse process(4) forming a distinct bone.  The
former is seen in the second cervical vertebra, and the  second is met
with more particularly in the lumbar region.
  b. The abnormal change of one vertebra into  another.  This head
includes, to a certain extent,  the preceding anomaly, especially the
appearance of the  transverse processes  as separate pieces  of bone;
because it refers the formation of the vertebrae properly so called to the
laws  of the development of the sacrum  (§ 492).  This resemblance
seems more just because  all the examples of this anomaly found in
authors have occurred in the lumbar vertebrae, where it has been seen,
moreover, three times by Ungebauer and twice by RosenrnuUer.
  The  vertebrae may also present characters differing in another man-
ner from those which belong to them in their normal state.  This head
includes the enlargement and the increase in volume of the last lumbar
(1) RosenrnuUer, De singul. et nativ. ossium corp. hum. varietatibus, Leipsic, 1804,
58.
(2) RosenrnuUer, loc. cit.
(3) Kelch, Beitrage zur path. Anat, Berlin, 1813, p. 7.
(4) Unguebauer, loc. cit., p. 257.—RosenrnuUer, loc. cit., p. 58. 
398
DESCRIPTIVE ANAJ.OMY.
vertebra, and particularly of its transverse processes ; its firm articula-
tion with the iliac bones ;(1) its  fusion, with or without this change,
with the sacrum ;(2)  the  fusion (which is sometimes original, and not
produced by an external cause,) of the other vertebrae, for  instance, of
two dorsal, which assimilates them to the false vertebrae of the sacrum;
the change of the first piece of the sacrum into a true (viz. into a lum-
bar) vertebra, by the narrowness  of the transverse processes, the want
of fusion with the second, and its mobility upon the iliac bones ; finally,
the change of true vertebrae into others, for instance, of the last cervical
into a dorsal vertebra, by  the  absence of the  vertebral foramen, the
elongation  of its transverse  processes, and sometimes even the want
of union between  the anterior roots and the  posterior  roots of the
transverse processes and the body.
  A general law in this respect is that the adjacent vertebrs are those
which are most disposed to change into  each  other.  Hence perhaps
why the spina bifida is so often seen  in the lumbar region ; for some
analogy exists between this anomaly and the normal formation of the
sacral vertebrae.
  Another law, which is in fact less general, is that the corresponding
vertebrs at the two extremities of  the  vertebral column tend the most to
change into each other.   This law is supported by the want of union
between the two semi-arches, of which the first cervical vertebra fur-
nishes so many instances, and the numerous cases where the body of
this, of the second, and  even  of the third  cervical vertebra is  found
formed of several pieces, of which the lateral  correspond to the ante-
rior germs of the transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae.
  c. Various other deviations from the normal formation.   Such,  for
instance, as  the obliquity  of the vertebrae, arising from the body being
higher on one side than on the other.   When  this anomaly is not cor
rected by. an inverse arrangement  of the adjacent vertebrae,   there
results from it a greater or less obliquity of the vertebral column.   This'
arrangement is usually the first degree of the partial defect of a verte-
bra ; for the side  of  the  oblique vertebra which is least  elevated is
lower than usual, while the other side is not higher than usual.

         II. OF THE ACCIDENTAL  DEVIATIONS OF FORMATION.

 § 504. a. The most common of all  the accidental deviations of formation,
which are rarely congenital, is the curvature (curvatura) of the  spine,
of which we have  three  species, according as  the column is curved
backward (cyphosis),  forward (lordosis), or laterally (scoliosis).   The
first is the most common, the second the rarest.   We may establish, as
a general law, that a greater or less portion of the deformed vertebrae
is destroyed on the concave side, that they are generally fused together
on this side, and that the different kinds of curvature are most common

  (1) Kelch, loc. cit, p. 7.
  (2) Albinus, Ann. acad., book iv.—Van Doeveren, Obs. acad., p. 206, 7. 
OSTEOLOGY.
399
in those parts where in its normal state the vertebral column is bent in
the same direction (§ 475).   This deformity necessarily shortens  the
trunk in proportion to the loss of substance experienced by the verte-
brae.  We not unfrequently find curves in several directions  at  the
same time, especially in the first and second. The vertebral column also
not uncommonly presents two curves, but in opposite  directions, thus
preventing in some measure the obliquity of the body, which is other-
wise unavoidable.
  b.  The fusion of the vertebrae together, when not congenital and not
dependent upon a curvature,  rarely occurs, except in extreme old age.
The bodies are very rarely fused, or united into one, by the ossification
of the fibrous ligaments.  Most usually they are connected to 9ne ano-
ther externally, on their anterior face, by means of a bony substance
developed between them.  We sometimes find the sacrum united with
one and even with both  of the ossa ilia.
  c.  Fractures of the vertebrae are very rare, and require considerable
force, because the vertebral column is composed of a great many bones
articulated so as to move slightly upon each other. These fractures are
almost always in a transverse direction.
   d.  From  the  same cause  dislocations  are  very rare, unless they
result from caries of  the bones and the destruction of  their ligaments.
Hence why  we often find  dislocations  of  the vertebrae attended with
union in a greater or less extent.  Farther, these  injuries  are  seldom
seen, except  in the  most movable cervical vertebrae, and particularly
in the first.
                          CHAPTER II.

    OF THE ACCESSORY BONES OF THE TRUNK, OR OF THE

                    STERNUM AND THE RIBS.

                      I.  OF THE STERNUM.

                         A.  NORMAL STATE.

  § 505.  The breast-bone (sternum, ossa pectoris, xipho'ides)(\) is situ-
ated, like the vertebral column, on the median line of the body, directly
under the skin, and opposite the spine.   It forms the central anterior
part of the chest, in the same manner as the  spine forms its central
posterior part.  It may then be justly regarded as an anterior vertebral
column.(2)   This anterior vertebral column when perfect is composed

  m See an excellent memoir of G. F. St. Hilaire, on " Le sternum considere dans
lesquatre classes d'animaux vertebres, et sur la determination philosophique des
vieces dontilse compose," in his Philosophic anatomique, vol. l. p.^17, 1818.
  (2) We have collected in our Memoir on the analogy of animal Jorms many argu-
ments drawn from comparative anatomy and from the history of the development of
the fetus which favor this opinion (Beytragc, vol. n. part 2). 
400
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
of three pieces placed perpendicularly, and called, the first, the superior
sternal bone, or the handle; the next, the central, or the body ;  and the
third, the inferior, or the xiphoid or ensiform appendage or process.

                         a. PERFECT STATE.

   § 506.  This  anterior vertebral column, or the  breast-bone, is
elongated, its length exceeding its breadth and also its thickness.  Its
upper end is much broader than its lower  end.   The bone does  not
grow  narrower regularly, but becomes broader in the  middle, after
which it contracts again, and finally terminates in a point.  Its ante-
rior facfis slightly rounded, and the posterior  is also a little concave.'
   § 507. The  sternum  is placed between  the  two clavicles  and the
seven pairs of ribs.  The handle is the broadest and thickest part, the
body the longest, and the xiphoid process the smallest  in every dimen-
sion.
   § 508. The  handle (manubrium) extends from  the upper  edge to
where the cartilage of the second rib unites to the sternum. We remark,
at the upper edge, on each  side, a broad, oblong, cartilaginous  cavity
(cavitas clavicular is), where the sternal extremities of the clavicles are
attached.  Between these two cavities is a much smaller semicircular
fissure (incisura semilunaris).   The lateral edges converge from above
downward ;  they are slightly concave and sharp in almost their whole
extent, except at their  upper and usually  the  thickest  part, where
they are  broad, and  hollowed out  to receive the cartilage of the first
rib.  Hence each of the two edg-es is divided into a superior and an
inferior fissure.
   § 509.  The body (mucro, corpus) extends from the inferior extremity
of the handle to the insertion of the cartilage of the seventh rib.   Its
form is the reverse of that ofthe handle, that is,it is narrower at its upper
than at its lower extremity, and rounds off at  its termination.
   Its lateral edges usually present four semicircular grooves  (incisurs
semilunares laterales).  At each of the places where these grooves are
fitted to each other, we perceive a small cartilaginous articular cavity
(sinus  articularis coslalis), which receives the cartilage  of a rib.  These
grooves approach each  other  as we proceed downward; hence the
articular  cavities approach also.   The  third, fourth, fifth, and sixth
costal cartilages are united to the sides of the body alone ; the second
articulates with it and with the handle ;  the  seventh is also attached
to its lower edge, and slightly to the upper part of the xiphoid process ;
the sixth and seventh are so near each other, that it is  only in  a very
narrow and very elongated sternum that we  can perceive a fifth and
very small semicircular fissure between the articular cavities designed
for them.
   § 510.  The xiphoid appendage  (processus xipho'ides) unites at its
upper edge to the lower  part of the body.   It is usually loose, but ia
sometimes covered by the cartilages of the  sixth and seventh ribs,
which rise before it to go to the body, in which case the last attaches 
OSTEOLOGY.
401
itself to its anterior face.  Its  lateral  edges are free  in  most of their
extent.  Its  inferior extremity remains cartilaginous  (cartilago xipho-
ides) until the most advanced age ; it terminates by  a summit which
is sometimes single, sometimes divided  into  two generally asymme-
trical points.

                         6. DEVELOPMENT.

  § 511.  The three pieces of the sternum(1), the handle, the body, and
the xiphoid process, are usually separate at puberty.  We  have ob-
served the xiphoid process united with the body more frequently than the
body with the handle.   Sometimes however, especially in old subjects,
we  find the three pieces fused into one bone.
  The development of  these bones varies much.   As the trunk does
not close anteriorly till very late, so the  sternal bones do not  appear
early.   From the fifth to the sixth  month  of pregnancy, we cannot
perceive any points  of  bone in their broad cartilages.  At this period
the first germ shows itself usually in the handle, while  the other two
pieces  present as yet no traces of ossification.
  This nucleus  of  bone  is generally single, oblong, and rounded ;
sometimes however we  find two, almost always situated one above the
other, the superior being  much  larger than  the inferior.  When the
single  nucleus is not oblong and rounded in the full-grown fetus or
after birth, but has the form of the figure 8, we have reason to think
that there were two primitive nuclei, one above the  other.  It is much
more rare to find two lateral germs arranged in such a manner that
sometimes one is larger than the other, which then  seems to be only
an  auxiliary piece, or they are both equal in size, and  are  perfectly
symmetrical. (2)
  It is less unfrequent to  find  more than  two osseous nuclei in the
handle.  Albinus has seen three in  one subject situated one above
another, the lowest of which was very small ;(3) he also found in ano-
ther individual four, one superior,  occupying the breadth ofthe handle,
and three  inferior, a middle and two lateral.(4)
  As the osseous nuclei of the handle appear before those of the other
parts of the sternum, they are also of course much  larger than the
others when the other parts of the sternum have begun to ossify.  Of
forty cases now before us,  there is only one exception to this  rule,  a
fetus of eight months, in which the handle presents two nuclei of bone,
situated one above the other; the superior is smaller than the inferior,

  (1) Beclard has sometimes observed in the breast-bone of adults two pisiform
osseous points, placed one on each side, on the tracheal groove of the sternum. He
calls them super-sternal or  pre-sternal.  See Nouv. Journ. de med., vol. viii. 1820,
p. 83.                                                       .F.T.
  (2)  We know of but one instance of this  arrangement, which is described and
figured in our Beytrdge, vol. ii. part i. p. 145, plate 1, fig. 8.
  (3) Loc. cit., p. 87.
  (4) Loc. cit., p. 92.
  Vol. I.                       51 
402
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
(which is another anomaly equally curious,) and both are not so large
as the smallest of the three osseous germs.
   After the seventh month we begin  to  perceive, in the body of the
sternum, osseous nuclei which present  several differences. • In fact
they vary much in number, size,  and  situation.  They are developed
at the side  of each other more frequently than those of the handle, and
almost symmetrically; for of thirty-three sternal bones of  fetuses and
young children, we have  found  only  nineteen in which the nuclei of
bone were  placed one above another.   In eight of them the superior
nuclei are single and unmated, and the inferior  double, forming some-
times only one and sometimes several  pairs.  But in the other six, all
the nuclei  of the body are arranged  in  pairs, not  however perfectly
symmetrical  in  respect to size  or situation; the single are the most
rounded, and  the  pairs  are more elongated  and smaller  than those
which are  single, and hence each of them resembles only one half of a
single one  : on this point our observations agree with those of Albinus.
   The osseous nuclei, whether single or many, are always arranged
so as to fall between  two articular surfaces of the costal cartilages,
whence it follows that one nucleus of bone is always developed be-
tween two ribs.
   Usually, at least in all those cases  we have  now before us, when
the osseous  nuclei are situated  over each other, we find  only one
between two costal cartilages.  The  observations  of  Albinus  lead to
the same result; for this anatomist states that even when he has found
several nuclei in an intercostal space,  they were always placed one at
the side of another.
   The superior nuclei are usually developed before the inferior;  hence
they are larger than the latter, although subsequently the  body of the
sternum is broader at its inferior part.
   We often find, in the fetus at birth, four osseous nuclei in the body of
the sternum, viz. in the intervals  of the second and  third rib, of the
third and the fourth, ofthe fourth and the fifth, and of the fifth and the
sixth ; but sometimes we find three only, and more rarely two. These
differences arise from two causes : sometimes, but least commonly, the
third and fourth osseous nuclei are fused into  one which is  larger;
sometimes, and this  is  much more frequent, the fourth and even the
third do not exist.  In the last two cases, particularly when the  third
osseous nucleus is also wanting, it often happens that those which
exist are  divided—a remarkable coincidence,  as it shows but little
energy in the formative act.
   In the xiphoid appendage a single  rounded osseous particle only  is
generally developed, and we rarely find two(l) which  are not  sym-
metrical.   The  nucleus first appears at the upper part of the appen-
dage ; it gradually extends towards the base, but very seldom through
the whole cartilage.  Sometimes it is found even in the  mature fetus,
but, generally, it is not developed till after birth, sometimes even very
(1) Albinus, loc. cit. p. 80. 
OSTEOLOGY.                       403
late, not  until the age of twelve, which is however abnormal, as in
most subjects it is found before the expiration of the first six months.
  The fusion of the four osseous nuclei, or of the four pairs of nuclei,
of which the body of the sternum is usually composed at birth  com-
mences with those which are placed at the  side of each other.   We
have observed, at least, in examining  the skeletons of old  persons  in
which there  are two lateral nuclei of bone in the same interval, that
all those found above each other  are  still  separate.  The first which
are fused together are the inferior two, so that the seventh, sixth, and
fifth costal cartilages are entirely, and the fourth is partly attached  to
to this piece of bone.   The body is then formed of three pieces of about
the same size, or of which, in old subjects, the inferior is much larger
than the other two; but  the two upper primitive pieces are still en-
tirely distinct from the lower, which is formed by the union of the third
and fourth.   The second unites with the last more late, while the first
continues separated  and is  not fused till puberty, at which time the
sternum  is composed of only three bones, the  handle, the body, and
the xiphoid process, which are not usually joined together till at a very
advanced period.
  The sternum  then  gradually develops  itself by osseous pieces,
which, as long as they are not fused together, have the greatest analogy
with the  last false vertebrae,  those of the coccyx, and which, like the
latter, both in form  and in their mode of articulation with  the ribs,
represent only the bodies  of the vertebrae.   It is easy, especially in the
sternum of several animals, to demonstrate a cervical, dorsal, and lumbar
portion ;  and as the nuclei of its middle portion become a single piece
long before puberty, as all the parts fuse together and form only a single
bone, so,  too, the false vertebrae of the sacrum always, and  the true
vertebrae  frequently unite in a single bone, while on the other hand in
all the mammalia, the  osseous  nuclei, or the vertebrae of the  sternum,
one of which is  always found between two  ribs, remain separate and
distinct through life.
  § 512.  The sternum in the female is generally proportionally longer
and  narrower than in the  male.  The  handle also is often, but not
always proportionally larger and broader in  the  female  than in the
male.
  The sternum is articulated, in the points mentioned, with the  clavi-
cles and with the cartilages of  the seven upper ribs.

                       B. ABNORMAL STATE.

   § 513.  The most abnormal state of the sternum is its entire absence,
with or without a similar deficiency of the common integuments and of the
ribs:  in the former case the heart is seen naked, in the latter it maybe
felt beneath the  skin.(l)   A modification of this state is the existence
of openings which exist most generally at the lower part of  the body
of the bone, or in its xiphoid appendage, or the fissure of this appendage.
       (1) Wiedemann, Leber das fehlcnde Brustbcin, Brunswick, 1794. 
404
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
It is remarkable that these openings are found only at  the  lower part
of the body and in the xiphoid appendage,—another argument in favor
of the parallel between the vertebral column and the sternum, since
spina bifida is seen more frequently in the lower part of the spine, the
lumbar vertebrae, which corresponds to the lower portion of the sternum.
The sternum is sometimes too short.  This defect in formation is gene-
rally attended with  the  imperfect development of the chest.   Then,
generally, the  bone is much broader than  usual and more or less
arched forward.
  It is less common to find the sternum longer than usual, which is
also curious, as furnishing another character of analogy between the
anterior and the posterior vertebral column.
                       II.  OF THE RIBS.

                       A.  NORMAL STATE.

                        I.  PERFECT STATE.
                     a. General characters of the ribs.

   § 514.  The ribs (costs) are twelve pairs of thin bones; their length
exceeds their breadth ;  they are slightly arched, convex  outward, and
concave  inward, and are  situated on the  two sides of the chest, and
form most of its bony parietes ; and they extend from  the vertebral
column to the sternum which they unite,  allowing them to play on
each other.
   § 515.  All the ribs present the following general characters :
   They all  terminate  backward  in a round head (capitulum costs),
which is  faced with cartilage.   They are formed more or less per-
ceptibly by the union of the segments of two different  circles, that to
which the posterior part belongs being much smaller than the anterior,
and both of which  run into each  other very gradually.  The ribs are
broadest where these two circles meet, and their inferior edge often pro-
jects into a line, termed  the angle (cubitus).   Their posterior extremity,
which is  of a rounded square  form, is  thicker, firmer, and narrower
than the anterior, in which direction they become flatter, and evidently
present two faces and two edges.   The upper edge is usually slightly
rounded, and the lower is  sharp.  In most of the ribs, the  internal
face, near the lower edge,  and at the  back part, becomes thinner and
presents a groove, called the costal groove (sulcus costarum).  Towards
their anterior extremity,the ribs gradually become thinner and terminate
by a slight,but not oval prominence.  Most all of thempresent externally,
behind the place where the posterior circle is confounded with the an-
terior, an elevation covered with cartilage  and called the tubercle (tu-
berculum costs).  The part between the head and the tubercle, which
is usually contracted, is called the neck (cervix, collum);  the rest of the
bone, that is, its anterior portion, is called the body. 
OSTEOLOGY.                        4Q5
  The ribs are articulated by their  heads, which are covered with
?fJiof' 71? ^elateral articular facets (fades artieularis lateralis)
(§483) of the bodies of  the twelve dorsal vertebrae,  and by their
tubercles, with thetransverse articular facets (fades artieularis trans-
versa) (§ 485) of the transverse processes of these same vertebrae  At
their anterior extremities, we find the costal cartilages (cartilago costs)
  The direction of the ribs is such that their posterior extremities are
always higher than their anterior.
  The situation of the ribs, and their relations with the dorsal vertebrae
prove, that they maybe regarded only as a greater development ofthe
anterior roots of the transverse processes of these same vertebrae • and
their cartilages may be considered as imperfect ribs of the sternum
6. Of the differences of the ribs.
  • § 516. The nbs differ, 1st, in their  size ; 2d, in their curve ; 3d, in
 their direction; 4th, in their form, and in the relations  of their  con-
 stituent parts; and, 5th, in their attachments*.
   1st. The ribs increase in size after leaving the two extremities of the
 chest   The  first and  the  twelfth are the shortest.  They increase
 from the twelfth to the seventh, and from the first to the sixth.   The
 sixth and the seventh are about equal in length, and are longer than all
 the  others.
   But  although  the  first  and  the  twelfth are almost  equal  in
 in length, the mass of the latter is much less; it is much thinner than
 the  other.  The twelfth rib is much shorter  than  the first:  besides
 its size varies much more than that of  the first.
  2d. The curve diminishes considerably from the first to the twelfth:
 the  second,  however, is  usually  more curved  than the first.   The
 inferior ribs are very flat; the twelfth is sometimes straight.  What-
 ever may be the case in respect to the proportional  size of the curve,
 the first and the twelfth are similar in  their curve as their composition
 by two segments of circles of different areas, is less evident than in the
 others.   This arrangement is seen particularly in the last.
  3d. The ribs descend much less from behind forward according as
 they are more superior.   At the same time, the upper ribs have one of
 their faces turned upward, the other  downward, one of their edges
 turned inward, the other outward; while, in the lower ribs, the edge
 which is internal in the others, is  directed upward, and that which is
 external downward; the  upper  face outward, and the lower face in-
 ward, so  that the ribs seem turned on their axes.
  The direction of the  costal cartilages also varies.  That of the first
 rib follows the direction of the  bone,  and descends obliquely to the
 sternum:  that of the second, is perpendicular to it.   All the  others
ascend, their inclination  upward  increasing as we descend, except the
last,  the anterior extremity of which is  unattached.
  4th. The ribs differ in several respects in respect to their form.'
  a.  The proportion ofthe neck to the body varies.   The neck is  pro-
portionally longer  as the  rib is situated  higher up, although its 
406
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
absolute length increases from the first to the eighth rib.   The heck
of the ninth rib is not generally much longer than that of the first,
although the latter is very short; that ofthe succeeding is still shorter.
The last two which have no tubercle, have hkewise no neck.  At the
same- time, the tubercle projects the more the higher the rib is.  As it
enlarges, we most generally see developed two surfaces  covered with
cartilage, an interior and superior, and a posterior and inferior, which
unite to form an angle,- and which, often, particularly in the upper  ribs,
with the exception of the first, are separated by a depression which has
no cartilage.  In the inferior ribs, this tubercle projects less, and has
only a plane surface  ; and in the last two ribs it is entirely deficient.
  b. The grooves  and  angles (cubiti) formed at the union of   the
anterior  and posterior segments are much more distinct and much
longer from the third rib to the ninth, than in the others; and the length
of the posterior segment, between the head and  the  angle, increases
considerably from above downwards.
  c. The first rib is the strongest, and especially the broadest, not only
in proportion to its length, but positively.   Its upper  surface is more
rough and uneven than any other.
  5th. In respect to their attachments, the ribs vary  in  three  dif-
ferent modes:
  a. They  differ in their manner of articulation with the dorsal
vertebrae; and here we have two  different cases :
  a. The ten, sometimes only the nine upper ribs, or even the first eight,
are attached by their heads  to  a deep  articular surface, forming a
re-entering angle, and hollowed from the two nearest dorsal vertebrae.
The others are .received in  a single round and convex articular
surface of a single vertebra.
  The form of the head  also varies, having two  surfaces united  at a
projecting angle in those ribs which are attached to two vertebrae, while
in the others it has only a slightly convex surface.
  (3.  The ten upper ribs only are articulated by a tubercle, with  the
summits of the transverseprocesses of the corresponding dorsal vertebrae.
The last two  are not arranged  in  this  manner, and their posterior
extremities are not connected, except with the bodies of  the vertebrae.
  b. Neither are all the ribs  united by their anterior extremities with
the sternum, in the same manner.
  Here, also, we have two different cases.
  a,. All  the costal  cartilages do not extend to the sternum.  Those
only of the upper seven ribs are attached to this bone, being fixed in its
articular cavities (§ 509) by ligaments.   The thin cartilages of  the
last  five do not arrive at the sternum, but are only attached to  the
cartilage above.  This is not, however, the case with  all, as is seen in
the twelfth, and sometimes the eleventh ; but their anterior extremities
remain unattached, and  they are connected with the other ribs only
by the intercostal muscles, and by the broad abdominal muscles.   On
this is founded the distinction into true ribs (costs vers) and the false 
OSTEOLOGY.
407
  ribs (costs spuris)   The upper seven are the true ribs, and the other
  five are the false ribs.
    p3. The cartilages of the ribs have not the same length   Like the
  ribs, they increase in length from the first to the 'seventh and then
  diminish from this to the last.
    c  The ribs differ in respect  to their connections with each other
  While the  superior six are not united,  the cartilages  of the sixth
  seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth are joined together.  Of the last  the
  upper are usually united  by the prolongations of the upper cartilage
  which correspond to the depressions in the upper edge of the cartilage
  below, and which are kept in place  by capsular  ligaments.   This is
  not the case with the last, which are simply applied to one another.
    § 517.  The differences between  the  ribs,  principally  the  greater
  length of the neck, the angular form of the articular surface ofthe head
  and of the tubercle, the greater projection of the latter, the diminution
  in length, and increase in breadth of the costal cartilages,  and, finally,
  their connections with the sternum, by its anterior  extremity,' demon-
  strate this important proposition—that the ribs are less  movable  the
  higher they are situated, and that  their mobility diminishes very much
 from above downward.

                     II.  MODE  OP DEVELOPMENT.

   §  518.  The rib3 are among those  bones which are formed  and de-
 veloped the first.  From  the  beginning  of the third month of fetal
 existence, their oseous portion is, proportionally speaking,  as large as
 when fully developed.  They  arise,  however, from three points of
 ossification;  for  the  head and tubercle have each a nucleus, which
 begins to appear at  the  age of sixteen years, and is soon fused with
 the remainder of the bone.  These nuclei do not exist  in the two or
 three lower ribs.

                      III.  SEXUAL DIFFERENCES.

   § 519. The ribsof the femaleare generallystraighter than those ofthe
 male.   The posterior segment  unites sooner with the anterior • its
 curve differs less  from that of the last, and disappears  sooner in the
 female : hence the chest is narrower.   The ribs are usually thinner •
 hence the  edges are  sharper.   Sometimes, however, this is far from
 being true.  Their length is nearly the same : but we are satisfied from
 numerous observations that, in general, the length of the two upper
 ribs is proportionally,  and when the subject is short, absolutely greater
 in the female than in  the male.

           B. OP THE RIBS IN  THE  ABNORMAL  STATE.

   § 520. The ribs present  four different anomalies.
   I. The primitive deviations of formation, which are very interesting
belong, almost all,  to the class of anomalies in regard to quantity. 
408                  DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
      § 521.  The deficiency in formation is seen:
      a. In less than the usual number.  As a general rule, we say, that
   there is seldom or never deficient more than one rib on each side ; that
   this is never the upper, but the last; that one on each side is deficient,
   more commonly, than on one side only: finally, that the absence of a
   rib is attended, or not, with the absence of a vertebra.   Sometimes
   only a costal cartilage is deficient, and then two ribs are inserted in the
   same cartilage.
      b. In their shortness.   The  lower ribs, particularly the twelfth, are
   those which are unusually short, either on one side or on both j so that
   they seem only as small vertebral processes.  Sometimes these bones
   have the usual length, but are very slightly arched, which  establishes
   a resemblance with  most of  the mammalia, and generally, with most
   animals in which the cavity of the thorax is almost always narrower
   than in man.  This deviation of formation is generally confined to some
   ribs.  In some cases this anomaly extends to all, either on one side, or
   on both sides; and then, sometimes, the ribs do not reach the sternum;
   and sometimes they are connected with this bpne, as usual.   When
   the latter case occurs, the cavity of the chest is very much contracted.
      c. By imperfect ossification, whence the ribs are sometimes divided
   in a part of their length by  a  cartilage, as in birds ; or the costal car-
   tilages are more or  less deficient, so that the ribs  are not connected
   with the sternum, as in the lowest reptiles and in the fishes. The least
   and the most common degree  of this anomaly is  that which consists
   in the shortness of the cartilage of the seventh rib j by which arrange-
   ment the number ofthe false and ofthe true ribs is equal.
      § 522.  The excess of the formative power is seen in a still different
   manner in the ribs.
      a. The slightest  degree is an abnormal  length  and height of the
   ribs, or of their cartilages, or of both, which is seen in some ribs only
   more generally than in all,  and exists on one  or on both sides. We
   not  unfrequently find the anterior extremities of these bones much
   broader than usual,  which gradually leads to an increase of their pro-
   per number.  Their enlargement establishes an analogy between man
   and many animals, especially the  pachydermata and the myrmico-
   phaga, among the mammalia,  and the chelonia among the reptiles.
>     The prolongation of the cartilage of the eighth rib increases the
(   number of the true ribs  to eight, as in apes.
      6. A greater degree of this anomaly is a division of the  ribs which
   always commences  at their anterior extremity; we have never seen
   them divided into an internal  and external piece, but always into a
   superior  and an inferior process.  This last arrangement may also
   be construed into a general  rule, the  more important as it seems to
   indicate that nature imitates the fundamental type even in her ano-
   malies, as we have before shown when speaking of the vertebrae.  The
   two processes rarely have the  same length.  When  the deviation of
   formation exists in a slight degree, the ribs close before  the fissure, so
   that only a small opening is seen.  When existing in a greater degree, 
OSTEOLOGY,
409
one of these two prolongations is united with the cartilage, and when
more anomalous, both are connected with it.   The cartilage of the rib
then is sometimes single, and only broader than usual, and sometimes di-
vided partially, or in its whole extent, on the side of its posterior extremity;
this last anomaly may also exist without a division of the ribs, which
may be broader than usual.  In this case, the cartilage is broader than
usual, or an opening penetrates through it;  or  it may be bifurcated at
one or the other extremity, and finally it may be entirely double, and then
its posterior part is unattached or united to a rib.
  Another result of an excess in  the  development of the ribs is the
formation of processes*at  their posterior part,  particularly near the
tubercle.   This anomaly may exist in  several degrees.  Sometimes
the process does not extend to the adjoining rib ; sometimes the  two
ribs  unite either by a single  process of a certain length belonging to
only one  of them, or by the union of a process  from two ribs ; some-
times even there is a distinct  bone between  the  two  prolongations.
This arrangement not unfrequently  causes the  fusion of two or more
ribs,  which fusion takes place  usually  at their posterior part.  The
former case is similar to the formation of birds and  the  latter to that
of the chelonia...  The upper costal cartilages are sometimes united in
a similar  manner by prolongations or unusual processes.
  c.  The redundance  of the ribs, to which their division and increase
in breadth gradually lead, differs in regard to the situation, the number,
the size,  and the attachments of the supernumerary ribs.
  a.  The supernumerary rib usually forms below the twelfth and not
above the first, in which case  the  number and the arrangement of
the upper ribs and the cervical vertebrae are the same as usual, while
there is  one  dorsal vertebra too many, or at least the inferior  ribs
are only  a little more developed.   This supernumerary rib is some-
times found above the first; in  this  case, it generally arises  from the
anterior root of the  transverse process of the seventh  cervical verte-
bra,  which is unusually developed and  which is not united to the rest
of the bone ;  the first  rib is then  generally longer  and thinner than
usual.
  The increase in  the  number of  the  lower  ribs is similar  to  the
formation of the mammalia, and that of the  upper to  what 13  aoen
in birds.
  /3. Number.  1st. The number of the ribs may be increased on one
side  or on both.
  2d. We may find one or more supernumerary ribs on  one side or oh
both  at the same time.   We generally  find a  supernumerary rib on
one side  only, which, by  a double fissure, apparently increases the
whole number of ribs to fifteen ; but we find a supernumerary pair of
ribs more commonly than one supernumerary rib.
  y.  The size  of the supernumerary ribs  varies much.  They are
generally very small, and appear only as impeifect rudiments.  The first
degree of this anomaly at  the top of the chest, is the unusual prolon-
gation and sharpness of the transverse process of the seventh cervicaJ
  Vol.  I.                     52 
410
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
vertebra, below, at the bottom of the thorax, the existence of a move-
able little bone in the transverse process of the first lumbar vertebra.
   8. The mode of union also varies.   The lower supernumerary rib
unites no more than the twelfth with the cartilages of the ribs above
it.  The superior is also almost always free, as are the  upper ribs of
several  birds and  reptiles ; but when it is more developed, its anterior
extremity unites to the  body of the  one next to it, the first properly
speaking, and when still longer, it may extend to the cartilage of the
first rib, or may have a proper  cartilage, going directly to the upper
bone of the sternum.
   § 523. 3d. The anomalies in regard to quality are,
   a. A too slight curve, the straightness of the ribs without any short-
ening.
   b. Being curved in such a manner that their convexity is turned
inward  and their concavity outward.
   c. The insertion of the anterior or  of the posterior extremity of one
or more ribs above or below, before or  behind the usual  point.  This
arrangement sometimes exists on one side only, and sometimes on both
sides at the same time, either in regard to one rib, or several;  but it is
less important and less curious than  the first two kinds of anomalies.
   524.  II. The accidental deviations  of formation of the ribs, offer
nothing peculiar.   From their mobility and the difficulty of fixing them
permanently, it often happens that false joints are formed in them by
fractures.


                         SECTION  II.

                 OF THE  BONES OF  THE HEAD.

                        A. NORMAL  STATE.

   § 525. The series of true vertebrae, those which are movable upon
each other, terminates below in the sacrum, which is composed of five
false vertebrae fused together ;  this column supports,  at its upper part,
the head, which is formed in a similar manner (§ 465).   The cranium
and face, which compose it, include  numerous bones, which usually
may be  easily separated from  each  other  at  the period of puberty,
although, wkh one exception, viz. the lower maxillary bone, they are
articulated by sutures (§ 243) which  admit of no  motion.   At this
period, the skull is formed usually seven, rarely of eight bones.  In
the face we number fourteen bones. 
OSTEOLOGY.
411
                             CHAPTER I.

                            OF THE SKULL.

                A. DESCRIPTION OF THE INDIVIDUAL BONES.

    § 526.  The bones  of the skull, regarded  from below upward and
  from behind forward, are  the basilar bone (os basilare,) the  temporal
  bones (ossa temporum), the parietal bones (ossa parietalia), the frontal
  bone (os frontis),  and the  ethmoid  bone  (os ethmoiedum).   Many of
  these  are  very similar to entire vertebrae, or  to the parts of vertebrae.
  Most  of them are flat altogether or in part (§ 234), concave internally,
  and convex externally.  They unite and inclose a considerable cavity.
  One face presents elevations and depressions (fosss et eminentis, s. juga
  digitalia, cerebralia), similar to those produced by the finger in a soft
  mass, and which resemble the external surface of the brain.  Most of
  them are developed by several points of ossification.

                       I. OP THE BASILAR BONE.

    § 527. The basilar bone  (os basilare) was  first described as a single
 bone by Saemmerring.  Its anterior portion corresponds to the sphenoid
 bone (os cuneiforme, s. sphenoideum,  s.  alatum, pterygoideum, multi-
 forme, polymorphon), and its posterior portion to  the  occipital  bone
 (os occipitis), which are generally described as separate bones, because
 they are separable from each other in  the  skulls  of young subjects ;
 but as  they are found fused together when the other bones of the body
 are perfectly developed, and as the different parts of which  they are
 composed are then united  and blended, Sremmerring's opinion is more
 correct than that of  those who preceded  him.(l)   The basilar bone
 may then be termed also the  spheno-occipital bone  (os spheno-occi-
 pitale).
   § 528. The  basilar bone occupies the inferior, middle, and  posterior
 part of the skull, 'it is so wedged  in  between the other bones of the
 skull, that it articulates with  all.   Although it should be considered as
 one bone, the best way of describing it is to distinguish it, as is gene-
 rally done, into  two  portions, the anterior, or  the  sphenoid bone, and
 the posterior, or the occipital  bone.

  (1) Knochenlehre, p. 109.—Spix attributes this opinion to Mondini, and  blames it
 (Cephalogenesis, Munich, 1815, p. 16);  but we think he is wrong1 in both respects.
 Mondini, it is true, speaks (Anat., Marburg-, 1540, p. 48, 57) of a basilar bone of the
 head; but he expressly considers  the occipital bone as a separate bone, and under-
 stands by the term basilar the sphenoid, i he temporal,  and the ethmoid bones; so
 that he counted only five bones in the skull. On the other hand, as the sphenoid and
 the occipital bones are always fused together, even before all the bones are perfectly
 developed, we cannot consider them as two distinct bones, at least in man, although
they are always distinct in most animals, for then we could not regard the sphenoid
bone as a single bone with any more propriety. 
412                   DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
                    a. OF THE OCCIPITAL BONE.

  § 529. The occipital bone (pars s. os occipitale) forms the lower and
posterior portion of the basilar bone, and appears in every respect as
an enlarged vertebra.  Like  all the vertebrae, it presents a ring com-
posed of a thicker anterior portion and a thinner posterior portion ;  the
latter however is much more developed, is absolutely and relatively
broader and higher than in the other vertebrae, while the anterior is at
least smaller than the bodies of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae.
  § 530. We distinguish, in the occipital bone, the basilar portion (pars
s. processus basilaris), the condyloid parts (partes condyloides, s.jugu-
lares), and the squamous portion (pars squamca).
  § 531. The basilar portion corresponds to  the bodies of the other
vertebrae,  and consequently should  be called the body.   It is  the
most  anterior, the smallest and  the narrowest portion  of the bone.
In form it is an irregular hexagon, broader backward and  downward,
and thinner forward and upward.   The middle part  of its  posterior
edge is jagged, and forms the anterior edge of the occipital  foramen,
The two posterior lateral edges are inclined from behind  forward and
from within outward, and are blended with the anterior  edges of  the
condyloid portions.   The two anterior lateral edges converge towards
each other forward.   Its transverse  anterior face is covered with car-
tilage, and when the basilar bone is perfectly developed, it is fused with
the centre of the sphenoidal portion.
  The upper or posterior face of the body strongly inclines  from before
backward, which depends particularly on the considerable thickness of
the anterior portion.   From one side to the other is a deep  depression,
called the fossa of the medulla oblongata (fossa medulls oblongats).
The line of demarkation which separates it from  the  anterior lateral
edge is  generally marked by the furrow  of the posterior petrous sinus
(sulcus  sinus  petrosi posterioris).   The inferior or anterior  face is
straight in comparison with the preceding.  When, however, the skull
is in its natural situation, it ascends from behind forward.   We remark
there, on the  median line, a projection  from before backward, called
the basilar crest, or spine (crista, s. spina basilaris, s.  pharyngea);
or the  sides,  two  transverse  symmetrical  elevations;  and behind
these, several  depressions.  At its most posterior portion,  it assists a
little in  forming the anterior extremity of the occipital condyles.
  § 532.  The squamous portion forms the  posterior and lateral parts
of the occipital bone.   It is thin, flat, broad, and curved in its upper
and  posterior  portion which is  the most considerable; and in its infe-
rior and anterior part, which is the smallest,—uneven,  thick,  and irre-
gular.  The latter corresponds to the anterior  part of the arch of  the
vertebrae, which supports the transverse and  articular  processes;  the
former,  to the  posterior part of the same arch, in the middle of which
is the spinous process directed backward.  The second is the proper
occipital portion of most anatomists; the other  embraces the condyloid, 
OSTEOLOGY.                       413
articular, or jugular parts (partes condyloides, articulares, jugulares)
of authors.
  § 533. The condyloid or articular portions are narrower and thicker
forward, and backward they are broader and thinner.   Their faces and
edges are very uneven.   On trie upper face, where it  joins the basilar
portion, is a protuberance called the jugular tubercle (tuberculum jugu-
lare).  Backward and  outward is a considerable furrow, which  pro-
ceeds from behind forward, and from without inward ;  this is called the
groove of the transverse sinus (sulcus sinus  transversi).  Between this
furrow and the process is the anterior opening of the posterior condyloid
canal (canalis condyloideus posterior).
  On the inferior face we notice a convex eminence, the condyloid  pro-
cess (processus condyloideus) which is directed from  behind  forward,
and from without inward.  Before, above, and on the outside of this
eminence,  is the external opening  of the anterior  condyloid canal
(foramen  condyloideum anterius).   Directly behind  its posterior ex-
tremity is the posterior  opening of the posterior condyloid canal and
the condyloid fossa (sinus condyloideus).   Behind and on the inside of
this opening, in  the  circumference of  the  posterior part of the lateral
parietes of the large occipital foramen, are well marked muscular im-
pressions.
  Internally, the articular portion is broad before, and presents an
inner surface inclined from above downward and inward.  Its internal
edge  is uneven. It  forms  the lateral wall of the large occipital fora-
men.  Behind and below the jugular tubercle, it presents the internal
orifice of the anterior condyloid canal.
  The external edge commences by the large jugular fissure (sinus
jugularis),  at the extremity ofthe fossa of the longitudinal sinus. Next
comes a small eminence covered with cartilage, and called the jugular
process (spina jugularis), and then  a slightly serrated edge (margo
mamillaris).
  Backward, the condyloid portion is continuous with the proper occi-
pital portion.
  § 534. This last portion, which several  anatomists, as Loder,  con-
trary to all analogy,  have called  the body, curves from below and for-
ward upward and backward.  It is  triangular, and  seems formed  of
two  portions, the inferior  of which is  broader than the  superior,
which un;te at an obtuse angle.
  The upper half of  the external face is smooth, while the muscular
impressions and  the depressions  render  the lower half uneven.   The
upper  circuit of the  latter  is formed by the  upper curved line (linea
semilunaris superior), which is convex above, and  extends  from one
side of the squamous portion to the other.  Towards the middle of the
inferior portion is a second semicircular elevation, the lower curved line
(linea semilunaris inferior), which extends as far as the  preceding.
This inferior half is  itself divided into a right and a  left portion,  by a
longitudinal eminence more  or less distinct according to the individual,
the external occipital  crest (crista occipitalis externa),which always- 
414
HESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
begins with a greater and broader projection, termed the external occi-
pital protuberance (spina occipitalis externa) ; this extends to the poste-
rior edge of the large occipital  foramen.   The enlarged edge of the
latter produces in some measure a third curved line, the occipital crest
(crista occipitalis), concentric with the two preceding, and having the
same uses.
   The internal face of the squamous portion is divided by the crucial
ridge (eminentia  cruciata) into four  nearly equal depressions.  The
upper half of the  longitudinal  branch of this eminence is the fossa of
the termination of the longitudinal sinus of the dura mater (sulcus lon-
gitudinalis).   The  two  transverse  branches are the  lateral fossae
(sinus transversi), which receive  the  lateral sinuses.  The falx cere-
belli is attached to the internal occipital crest (crista occipitalis interna),
which is that part of the  longitudinal branch situated below the inter-
crossing, and so called because it projects more or less, and  is  seldom
grooved.  The fossae  are bounded by two parallel elevations.   They
are rarely symmetrical:  in fact,  the  lower part of  the longitudinal
branch corresponds  exactly to the median line ;  the  upper, however,
rarely presents the same arrangement, so that the two  lateral eleva-
tions, between which the fossa  extends, descend at an equal distance
from this line, and the centre of the fossa falls exactly upon it.   The
fossa more commonly separates to the right and left, and one of the
edges descends along the median line  ; and  not unfrequently the fossa
extends to one side, so that its internal edge passes very far, sometimes
even half an inch, beyond the median line;  hence the defect  in sym-
metry is  much more  evident.   Most frequently, in two of every three
cases, the longitudinal fossa goes to  the right; hence the left trans-
verse fossa is longer, but at the same  time  the right is broader.   The
latter is a direct continuation of the longitudinal fossa, while  the left
joins the two by an oblique fossa.   It  sometimes though rarely hap-
pens that one of the transverse fossae  follows the same direction as the
longitudinal, so  that the  inferior extremity of the latter is uninterrupt-
edly continuous with it; but then the transverse eminence, which is
single, occupies.its usual place, even so that when  the longitudinal
fossa is turned very much to the left, the upper half of the longitudinal
eminences is found, on the median line.
   The cerebellum is  situated  in the  inferior  fossae, which are  hence
called the inferior occipital fosss, or the fosss of the cerebellum (fosss
cerebelli).  The superior fossae receive the posterior portion oT the lobes
ofthe cerebrum ;  hence they are called the cerebral or upper occipital
fosss (fosss cerebrates).  The, former are  often smooth; sometimes,
however, we find alternate elevations and depressions, which are con-
vex above and concave below, forming a concentric, narrow, and plane
series, which proceeds from the median line to the lateral edges,.  The
digital impressions and rnammillary eminences of the inferior fossae are
more rounded, straighter, broader, and more distinct.
   At the place where the fossae cross, the internal face of the squamous
portion has a large projection called the internal occipital protuberance 
OSTEOLOGY.
415
(spina occipitalis interna).  As this protuberance corresponds to one on
the outside, the thickness of the bone is greatest in this place, being
sometimes half an inch.

                    b.  OF THE SPHENOID BONE.

  § 535. The sphenoid bone occupies the  middle and a part of the
anterior region of the base of the skull, and a small part of the lateral
regions.
  It is composed of a central portion, the body, and several processes,
some  of which are oh the sides, and others below.  This arrangement
causes it to resemble a vertebra.
  § 536. The body is continuous posteriorly with the basilar portion of
the occipital bone.  Above this point it curves more or less upward and
forward, so that the upper and unattached portion of its posterior face
succeeds the upper part ofthe basilar portion (§ 530).  This  posterior
face is veryrough, and its upper  edge is  more or  less prolonged,  to
give origin to the posterior clinoid processes  (processus clinoidei poste-
rior es).
   The  upper face is nearly always  distinctly divided  into three suc-
cessive parts. The  posterior part is grooved in a transverse direction,
and forms the sella turcica, in which the pituitary gland is  situated.
The middle, which is smaller, ascends more  or less  obliquely from
behind  forward;  it is  most  generally a little convex  or plane, and is
rarely grooved.  It is  the crossing-place  of the optic nerves.  The
anterior is horizontal.
  The anterior edge of the upper face is serrated, and  forms in its
centre a large projection.
  The lateral faces descend slightly from within outward.   On the
limit which separates them from the superior face is a groove, the caro-
tid groove (sulcus  caroticus), which lodges the internal carotid artery.
Near  their anterior extremity, or on the limit between the inner and the
upper face, we see on each side a more remarkable projection, in which
the line of demarcation betweem the middle and posterior portions of the
superior face terminates ; these are the middle clinoid processes  (pro-
cessus clinoidei medii).  These processes sometimes unite, when largely
developed, with the posterior and the  anterior clinoid  processes ; the
latter union is more common than the former, and is sometimes seen
alone, while the former never occurs without it.
  The anterior face, which is slightly convex, is not always formed by
a plate fused with the rest of the bone, but often by two distinct pieces
of bone,  which  are very thin, and  are called the sphenoidal  horns
{cornua sphenoidea).   It is always  imperfect  at its upper part, and
presents  in its centre a longitudinal  eminence called  the sphenoidal
crest (spina s. crista sphenoidalis).
  The under face  is slightly grooved.   Forward  and  in its  centre it
forms a  small, thin, longer or shorter  eminence, called  the sphenoidal
beak (rostrum sphenoidale) 
416
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
   The crest and the beak of the sphenoid bone are more or less con-
tinuous with each other.
   The body of the sphenoid bone is formed in the adult of very thin
walls, and is hollowed into two large cavities, the sphenoidal sinuses
(sinus s. antra sphenoidalia), a right and a left, which are separated by
a longitudinal partition, of which the crest and the beak are prolonga-
tions, and the surface of which  is  often increased by the projections
which arise  from it.
   § 537.  The processes of the sphenoid bone  are the  large wings
(als magns), or the middle processes (processus medii); the  small
wings (als minores), or  the  superior processes (processus superiores) ;
and the pterygoid or inferior processes (processus pterygoidei s. infe-
rior es).
   § 538.  The large wings arise below from the lateral wall of the body.
At first narrower, they become broader forward and backward, curve
forward and outward, and terminate in an upper and a lower point. Their
form is  triangular.  Their concave face, which  is turned inward, is
uneven  (§  535);   the  anterior, which is  square  and also turned
inward, is almost straight, or  rather slightly concave.  The external
is  convex from above downward, and a little concave from before back-
ward.   The inferior, a continuation of it, is straight.
   § 539.  The upper, or the small ivings, are much smaller than the
preceding, and are lateral projections of the anterior part of the upper
face of the  body.   They arise by two roots, an anterior and superior,
which is  thin;  a posterior  and inferior, which  is thicker.   Their
direction is  forward and upward, but principally outward.   They are
flat and  thin, convex and sharp before, concave and thicker behind,
and terminate outward in a free point.  The  inner circuit of their
posterior edge, is a tubercle, called  the anterior  clinoid process  (pro-
cessus clinoideus anterior).  This  process  is opposite the posterior
clinoid process. It often unites with the middle clinoid process (§536) ;
by which arrangement there is behind  the optic foramen a  second
opening, situated at the anterior extremity of the carotid groove, and
through which the carotid artery passes.
   We less commonly find a third opening which results  from the union
of the middle and posterior clinoid processes.
   It rarely happens that the anterior clinoid processes are united with
the posterior, only by a long slip of bone.
   All these anomalies  occur on both sides  more frequently than  on
one only.
   § 540. The lower, or the pterygoid processes detach themselves from
the boundary which separates the inferior and lateral face of the body
from the origin of  the large wings, where the bone is thickest.   They
direct themselves from above downward,  at  the same time  being
inclined slightly outward.   They divide posteriorly, soon after arising,
and even at the place of origin,  into  two thin layers,  called the
pterygoid wings (lamins pterygoides), which are fused together  in
almost their whole extent forward.  The internal, which separates 
OSTEOLOGY.
417
them behind, is termed the pterygoid fossa  (fossa ptery goidea);  at
their lower  part, they separate also from each  other forward, thus
forming the pterygoid, or the pterygo-palatine notch (Jissura ptery-
goidea, s. pterygo-palatina).
  The inner and longer layer terminates in a rounded  hook turned
outwardly, called the pterygoid hook (hamulus s. uncus pterygoideus).
As  this hook is the continuation of the posterior  edge,  and as  the
anterior edge is  equally prolonged, although a little less so, there  exists
between them a more or less considerable furrow.
  The external  layer, which is the shortest, terminates much higher
than the preceding.  At its summit, it curves inward, under the inferior
face of the body, with which it is often intimately connected.  This
reflected part is termed the vaginal process (processus vaginalis).
  § 541. In  and between the different parts of the sphenoid bone
are deep fissures, notches, and openings, through which  the vessels,
and especially the nerves, pass.
  Between the  two roots of the upper wing, we find the optic foramen,
or more properly the optic  canal  (canalis opticus),  which  is  short,
rounded, and more broad than high.
  Below this hole, between the upper  and  the  middle  process and
the anterior part of the lateral face  of the body, we remark a con-
siderable  irregular space  of an elongated  triangular form,  broader
inward and downward, and extending obliquely from without inward.
This   is   the sphenoidal  fissure  (fissura  sphenoidea  propria s.
spheno-sphenoidea).  It is usually open externally, because the point of
the  small wing  does not touch the upper edge of  the large wing:  but
these two parts  often touch, forming a true foramen.
  The foramen rotundum is found in the root  ofthe great wing, below
this fissure;  and it is separated from its inferior  and posterior  ex-
tremity by a small  bridge of bone.   It is a very short  canal, which
is continuous forward and backward with a semi-canal.
  The posterior semi-canal unites more or less evidently with a  much
larger  opening,  near  the  posterior angle  of the large  wing.   The
direction  of  this is from above downward; it is situated much more
behind and outward, and is called the foramen ovale.
  Between the foramen ovale^and the  foramen rotundum, we  some-
times find a much smaller hole, which also penetrates the large wing
from above downward.
  Directly behind the foramen ovale, and outside of its external  ex-
tremity, the  large wing  is  always pierced from above downward by
another foramen, the spheno-spinous (foramen spinosum).
  Finally, the  vidian or  the pterygoid canal  (canalis vidianus)
passes through the substance of the sphenoid bone to where the large
and small wings are detached from the body, immediately below its
division.  Its direction is from before  backward, from below upward,
and from within outward.
  § 542.  The history of the development of  the basilar bone is very
complex, because each of  its two parts, which are still separate from
  Vol. I.                       53 
418
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
each  other  but a little time before the whole organism is perfectly
developed, are  successively formed by a  considerable number  of
osseous nuclei.
   § 543.  The occipital portion appears  long before  the sphenoidal
portion.   According to our researches, it is usually formed by eleven
points of ossification, which gradually develop themselves ; eight for the
squamous portions, (1) the other three for the articular and basilar por-
tions. The rudiment of the squamous portion begins to show itself at the
second  month, directly behind  the large occipital foramen, in the form
of a  pair of triangular nuclei, separated  in  the middle.  These  two
osseous pieces fuse together.  At the same time, a second pair appears,
situated upward,  corresponding  to  them in  form,  and representing
the upper half of the squamous portion;  these also, at the fourth
month, unite with each other, and also with the inferior pair, except  in
the region of the jugular tubercle, where a sensible opening still remains.
About the same period, we  find a  third pair, situated outward  and
upward, on  the sides of the  second: while this unites to the last, a
fourth forms in the highest part, above the second.  Thus the same
formation is thrice repeated, until all the pieces are united, which most
generally happens  sooner or later,  but sometimes never takes place.
The squamous  portion is  usually  formed at the fifth  month.  We,
however,  remark on  each side of the  fetus  at birth, frequently even
much later,  one suture extending  from the upper  extremity of the
serrated edge, and following the jugular process, inward and upward ;
a second,  which goes directly downward, from the upper extremity of
the bone ; and a third, which  proceeds exactly upward from the lower
edge of the squamous portion.  These three  sutures indicate that the
squamous portion is composed  of several pieces, which often remain
insulated  during hfe, and are  then called the wormian bones (ossa
wormiana s. triquetra).
   The condyloid portions appear a little later than the squamous  portion,
but always  earlier than  its upper part.   They first  show themselves
as small,  single,  oblong  and rounded  osseous nuclei-   The middle
basilar portion is ossified the last.
   These four portions fuse together in the same order as that in which
they were ossified.  The squamous  part is separated from the rest long
after its different nuclei are united in a single bone.   In the full grown
fetus the occipital  portion is still formed  of four pieces, of which the
two  condyloid portions  are  united before with  the basilar  portion,
behind with  the squamous part, but in no place with each other.  This
insulation remains  even  after birth, for we have seen  it in a subject
seven years of age.
   As in all the vertebrae, the posterior part of the ring is developed the
soonest, since the pieces of the  squamous portion are first united, then

  (1) Without doubting the existence of four pairs of germs in the squamous portions
of the occipital, or proral bone, Beclard asserts that this arrangement, far from being1
constant, should be considered a rare variety.  He admits but four points of ossifica-
tion in this portion.                                             F. T. 
                             OSTEOLOGY.                       419

  this portion joins the two condyloid portions, and these last three have
  long been united when the basilar portion is still entirely distinct.   The
  marks of separation between the condyloid and the squamous portions
  disappear internally later than they do externally ; the contrary rarely
  happens.                                                 J     J
    §544. The sphenoid portion ossifies much later than the occipital
  portion.   The osseous nuclei first appear in the third month of preg-
  nancy in its two large wings ;  next, one forms for each internal layer of
  the pterygoid processes.   Afterward, we see a third pair of osseous
  germs in the  circumference of the  small wings; then, at the age of
  eight months, a seventh and eighth nucleus which  are  fitted to one
  another in the body.  At five months, a fifth pair forms near this fourth
  pair, between  it and the large wing. The two middle nuclei of the
  body then fuse with each other.   A sixth pair is soon developed at the
 internal part of the circumference of the optic foramen; finally, a seventh
  appears between this and the fourth.   Thus, towards the beginning of
  the seventh  month,  the sphenoid portion is composed of thirteen distinct
  nuclei, since although seven pairs of nuclei are  formed, the first two
  germs of  the body are already united.
   After this period,  the  number of osseous nuclei continues to  dimi-
 nish  as they  unite.  The nuclei which unite first are those of the
 parts of the sphenoid portion, which still continue, for a long time  to
 form so  many separate  pieces;  thus the  fourth,  the  fifth and the
 seventh pairs become one ; the first and the second become the second
 and third  ; the third and the sixth, a fourth and fifth; whence it fol-
 lows that  at eight  months, the  sphenoid portion is  composed of five
 pieces, the two large wings,  the anterior wings, and the body.   In  a
 short time the  anterior wings unite, and the bone is then formed of four
 pieces only, next the body and anterior piece  unite, so that in the full-
 grown fetus  the sphenoid portion  comprises  three pieces, because the
 large wings  and the pterygoid processes are still separated from those
 of the centre.   These three pieces unite  durine: the first months  after
 birth.
   The body and the large wings  are very rarely united before joining
 with  the  small  wings, already blended with each other; then, the
 sphenoid portion is composed of two parts, an anterior, which is larger,
 and a posterior, which is smaller.  This anomaly is certainly very re-
 markable,  because it coincides perfectly with the arrangement existing
 in most mammalia during the wThole period of existence.
   The body ofthe sphenoid portion is full  and solid for a long time  after
 birth.   The  sphenoid sinuses are however gradually developed, 1st,
 because the  bony substance disappears in the middle ; 2d, because  a
 special  layer of bone, called the sphenoidal horn, forms on each  side,
 and from below upward ;  this seldom remains distinct, but is generally
 fused with the  sphenoid bone, rarely with the ethmoid or palate bone.
   The  sphenoid  bone is thus gradually developed by sixteen, and the
 basilar bone by twenty-seven points of ossification.(l)

  (1) See, on thi*  subject, our Considerations anatomiqucs et physiologiques »wr les
piece* osseuscs qui enveloppent lee parties centrales du systeme nerveux, et sur  leurs 
420
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  § 545. The  occipital portion of the basilar bone articulates back-
ward and  upward with the parietal  bones, in most of its  extent,
which gives  rise to  the  lambdoidal suture.  At the place where the
parietal bones  cease, the articulation  of the mastoid portion of the
temporal bone with the lower extremity of the squamous portion and
the  posterior part of the condyloid  portion of the  occipital bone,  com-
mences ; this produces the mastoid  suture, at  the end of which the
jugular process joins  the  posterior part of the internal edge of the
petrous portion of the temporal bone.  We then find between  this last
and the condyloid portion a  space  for  the sinus of the jugular  vein.
Finally, the external edge of the condyloid and of the basilar portion
unites, by a fibro-cartilage, with the anterior part of the internal face
of the petrous portion of the temporal bone.
   The sphenoid  portion articulates with the summit of the petrous
portion of the temporal bone, by the posterior edge of the large  wing
by a broad layer of fibro-cartilage, and by the sphenoidal  spine by
means of a suture ; with  the anterior  edge of the squamous portion
of the temporal bone, by the internal edge of its large wing ;  with the
frontal bone above, and with  the  malar bone  below, by the anterior
edge of this same wing.   Between the lower edge of the anterior face
of the large wing and the posterior  edge of the upper face of the  body
of the superior maxillary bone, we find the sphenomaxillary or inferior
sphenoidal fissure (fissura spheno-maxillaris, s. sphenoidea inferior),
which is  applied at  an acute angle backward, inward and upward
against the sphenoidal fissure.   The upper edge of the anterior and in-
 ternal face of the sphenoid portion, articulates with the posterior edge of
 the orbital portion of the frontal bone. Where the large wing separates
below to form the inferior  edge of the  upper sphenoidal fissure, the
suture is continuous between the small wing and the frontal bone.
   Where  the frontal bone  terminates, the anterior edge of  the body
 of the sphenoid  portion  articulates with the posterior edge of the cri- -
 briform plate.   The posterior  edge of the perpendicular plate of the
 ethmoid bone lies along  the sphenoidal crest, and the beak of the
 sphenoid bone insinuates itself into  the cleft of the vomer.   Finally, the
 perpendicular  portion of the palate  bone descends, in front, on the
 inside of  the  internal  plate of  the pterygoid process, and its pyrami-
 dal portion insinuates itself into the pterygoid fissure.
    In this  manner the basilar bone articulates with all the bones of the
 skull, and with five of those of the face.
    § 546.  The occipital portion of  the basilar bone presents numerous
 and very various anomalies, while  those of the sphenoid portion are
 rare, and of an  entirely opposite character.  The  original defects  of
 formation of the former consists essentially in its  division into seve-
 ral pieces ; this anomaly is most common in its squamous portion.
 The least anomaly is the existence of a greater or  less number of
 small bones in the lambdoidal suture.   We not unfrequently find one
 of them at the summit of this suture, where it results from a want of
 annexes, in the Journal complementaire du Dictionnaire des sciences medicates, vol.
 i.p.211. Spix has arrived at the same conclusion as ourselves, (Cephalogenesis,p.n.) 
OSTEOLOGY.
421
union of the last pieces of which the squamous portion is composed
with the others.  It is less frequent that the third piece, on one or both
sides, is not united, and forms a large bone, which descends  obliquely
in the lower part ofthe lambdoidal suture.
   More rarely still the  second  pair  remains separated from the first
which is the lowest, by a suture passing obliquely through the middle
ofthe squamous portion.
   Finally, the rarest anomaly is where a longitudinal suture traverses
all the height of  the squamous portion from the angle of the lambdoi-
dal suture to the large occipital hole, and divides  it  into two lateral
portions.
   So, too, the condyloid  portions seldom remain a long time separate
from  the  squamous and  basilar portions:  still  less do  they continue
distinct during life.
   The condyloid portions and the basilar process vary from the normal
state, principally by  the existence  of unusual processes, which are
directed from  above  downwards, and  are  often considerably long ;
these exist most generally near the occipital foramen, either on one  or
both  sides, and are more or less  firmly articulated with  the transverse
processes  ofthe first cervical vertebra. These processes are much more
rarely found before the occipital foramen, between the anterior extre-
mities ofthe two condyles.(l)

                   II. OF THE TEMPORAL BONES.

   § 547.  The  temporal bones  (ossa temporum) (2) are situated on the
sides of the head, and  are separated from each other below by the basi-
lar bone, and above by the parietal  bones.   They occupy part of the
middle region of the base of the skull, and the inferior part of its lateral
faces.   We distinguish in it a part which is more solid and thick, and
which may be compared to the bodies of the vertebrae, and the lateral
parts, or the arches, from whence processes arise. Each of these bones,
however,  only represents the half of a vertebra.  The rock, or petrous
portion [pars petrosa) is the body; and the squamous  portion (pars
squamosa), which reaches above the last, is the arch. Usually, this bone
is divided  into three parts,—the squamous, the petrous, and the mastoid
portion.   The last, however, is only an appendage of the second.
   § 548.  The most important part of the temporal bone is that which
corresponds to the body of the vertebrae,—the petrous portion, and is so
called from the hardness  which  characterizes it when perfectly  deve-
loped.  It is also called the pyramid, from its triangular form.  Its base
is turned outward and backward, its summit forward and inward.  One
of its three faces looks forward and upward, a second backward and
inward, and a third downward. The first and the second are separated

  (1) Meckel, De monstr. duplic. p. 24.—Deutsches Archiv fur die Physiologie, vol.
i. part iv. p. 6.
  (2) We shall not mention here the internal structure of the temporal bone, nor ihe
little bones of the internal ear.  These will be described when speaking of the organ
of hearing. 
422
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
from each other by the upper, the  second and the third by the inner,
the third and the first by the outer angle.
   § 549.  The internal organ of hearing is situated within the petrous
portion.  The internal carotid artery passes through it to penetrate the
skull, and the facial nerve to go to the face.  On its surfaces and edges
we can trace these two passages.  We  see also others which corre-
spond to the anastomoses of the nerves,  and to the venous sinuses of
the dura-mater.
   § 550.  The  most important of  these marks relate to the organ of
hearing.
   Near the centre of the upper face, we find a large transverse ridge,
formed  by the projection of the upper semicircular  canal of the laby-
rinth, which is here naked during the early stages of uterine existence,
at which period it is not yet covered with a plate of bony substance ;
and we remark above it a deep fossa, which receives the dura-mater,
the traces of which are gradually effaced after birth.
   In the middle and forward, we see on the internal face a considerable
rounded opening, depressed from above downward,  in which the audi-
tory and the facial nerves are situated.   This is the internal auditory
foramen (porus acustieus internus). This opening  leads into a cavity,
divided  by a transverse portion into two openings ; a superior, which is
smaller, and an inferior, which is larger ; the former leads into the Fallo-
pian canal (aqueductus Fallopii) by several openings, the  other to  the
labyrinth.
   Below this opening,  on the boundary between  the inner and  the
lower face, we find the triangular orifice ofthe aqueduct of the cochlea;
behind which we see,  at the same height, the orifice of the aqueduct of
the vestibule, which is turned back  and flattened.
   On the limit between the upper and the lower face, are two imper-
fect bony canals,  separated from each other by a bony projection.. The
inferior, which is  also  larger, is  the osseous portion of the Eustachian
tube (tuba Eustachiana ossea).  The upper is smaller, and gives attach-
ment to the tensor muscle of the membrane of the tympanum (musculus
tensor tympani).
   The external portion of the inferior face, which is the most extensive,
forms an elliptical canal, ike  osseous portion of the auditory passage
(meatus auditorius osseus), which  opens externally by a broad orifice,
called the external auditory foramen (foramen s. porus ^acustieus exter-
nus).
   The  Fallopian canal proceeds first obliquely  from above down-
ward, and from within outward ; then from behind forward, and from
below upward,  to arrive at the inferior face, where it terminates in the
stylo-mastoid foramen (foramen stylo-mastoideum).   It gives passage
to the facial nerve.
   On the. upper surface, along and over the canal for the tensor tym-
pani muscle, is a fissure leading to  a canal which opens with the.aque-
duct of Fallopius. 
OSTEOLOGY.
423
  At the anterior extremity of this surface, above and within the ante-
rior orifice of the carotid canal, we observe a semicircular and  super-
ficial depression, which corresponds to the nerve of the fifth pair.
  § 551.  The traces ofthe vessels are,  1st, the canal of the internal
carotid artery (canalis caroticus internus), which  curves from  below
upward and from within forward, of which the external orifice (foramen
caroticum externum inferius) is found in the centre of the inferior face,
while the internal (foramen caroticum anterius  s.  supcrius) is seen at
the summit ofthe superior face, where this canal, deprived of its upper
wall in a considerable extent, forms in reality only a semi-canal.
  2d. On the inferior surface, directly behind the orifice of the aqueduct
of the cochlea and the posterior opening of the carotid canal, is a more
or less extensive fossa (fossa bulbi vens jugularis interns), for the sinus
of the internal jugular vein ;  a fossa which communicates by fissures
with the two aqueducts.
  3d. At the upper  angle, the fissure  of the  superior petrous sinus
(sulcus petrosus superjicialis).
  4th. On the internal surface ofthe mastoid process, the fissure ofthe
transverse sinus (sulcus sinus transversi),  which is generally directed
very far forward and upward, and occupies most of this surface.  Very
rarely, this fissure is very small, or is even entirely deficient, when the
transverse sinus, varying from its usual rout, descends  entirely or
almost entirely on the occipital bone alone, or follows a longitudinal
direction.  Of more than fifty well developed temporal bones before us,
the fissure is entirely deficient in but one,  and extremely small  in two
only.                                               y
  5th. We generally see on  its posterior face, a little above the  centre,
the mastoid  hole (foramen mastoideum), the internal orifice of a canal
which usually extends some  lines within the bone, and commences on
the boundary between the mastoid portion and the  occipital bone, or on
the outer face of the mastoid portion.
  § 552.  The muscular eminences and depressions are,
  1st.  The styloid process (processus styloideus), at the posterior extre-
mity of the  under edge  of the pyramid: this varies much in length,
and sometimes exceeds two inches.  This process is sometimes entirely
free,  and is often composed of several pieces—a curious analogy with
animals.  It arises between two broad, flat, bony processes, called the
vaginal processes (vagins processus styloidei).
  2d. Behind the styloid process is the conical mastoid process (pro-
cessus mastoideus).  The stylo-mastoid foramen (§ 550) (foramen stylo-
mastoideum) is situated between these two eminences.
  3d. Behind the mastoid process is the mastoid fissure (incisura stylo-
mastoidea).
  §  553.  The squamous portion is slightly rough  on its outer face for
the insertion of the  temporal muscle.  Forward  and  downward the
external face extends in a thin process, flattened from without inward,
called  the zygomatic process (processus zygomaticus jugalis), and of
which the external and longer root is placed over the external auditory
foramen, the orifice of which it closes above, while the lower,which is 
421
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
transverse, and called the articular eminence (tuber articulare), is found
before the transverse articular cavity (cavitas artieularis) of the lower
maxillary bone.   Anteriorly, it circumscribes this cavity with which it
is insensibly continuous.  Behind, the cavity is bounded by a transverse
projection, situated before the anterior part of the  osseous auditory
passage, but entirely separate from it, and which varies much in thick
ness and height.
   Advancing from behind forward, the  zygomatic process separates a
little  from the squamous portion, and its  anterior extremity reaches
over the anterior edge of the same.
   The internal surface of this  portion of the temporal bone presents
digital impressions and mamillary eminences, and generally, at its upper
part, a transverse arterial fissure.
   § 554.  In the full-grown fetus, the temporal bone is formed of  four
pieces of bone, the petrous, the mastoid, and the squamous portions, and
the ring of the tympanum (annulus membrans  tympani).  This last is
the only vestige of the osseous auditory canal.   It is elliptical in form,
longer from above downward than from before backward, is not entirely
closed at its upper part, is attached to the petrous portion immediately
before the cavity of the tympanum by almost  its  whole external cir-
cumference, and to the lower part of the squamous portion by its  two
upper extremities, is broader and thicker before than behind, and offers,
at its internal circumference, a deep fissure, in which the membrane of
the tympanum is inserted.
   Some time after birth, these four parts are fused together.   The se-
paration which existed between the upper extremities of the ring of the
tympanum and the squamous portion disappears first.   The  trace of
separation which continues the longest is between the petrous and the
squamous portions, especially on the internal face ; for, although  the
marks of separation  between the squamous and the mastoid portions
disappear entirely on the outside, we see through  life a suture  which
exists, in most of its length, between the internal face of the squamous,
and the upper face of  the petrous  portion.   This  suture,  called
the squamo-pyramidal  suture  (sutura squamoso-pyramidalis), extends
forward, where it is called the fissure of Glaser  (Fissura Glaseri),
passes under the articular cavity, before the bony portion  of the audi-
tory canal, through all  the substance of the bone, and terminates in
the cavity of the tympanum.
   The ring of the tympanum gradually enlarges, and unites with the
petrous  portion on all sides, and, increasing out of proportion with the
other parts of the bone, from a simple ring rounded and flattened from
without inward as at first, it becomes a canal half an  inch long  and
compressed from before backward, the osseous portion of the auditory
canal, which remains however for a long time imperfect and cartilagi-
nous at the lower part of its circumference, backward.
   However, the petrous and squamous portions  increase also very
much, by the development of the mastoid process.  At the same time,
the squamous portion is not only higher, but becomes more convex ex- 
OSTEOLOGY.
425  '
 ternally, instead of being straight as hitherto.  The zygomatic process
 also changes its form ;  it throws itself outward, separates very much
 from the squamous portion, and extends beyond its anterior edge in the
 same proportion.   A remarkable change supervenes also in the situa-
 tion of the  glenoid  cavity and of the  articular process, which, previ-
 ously plain, very broad  from before backward, and very oblique from
 above downward and from without inward, become almost transverse,
 and are considerably developed, which gives more firmness to the tern
 poro-maxillary articulation.
   § 555. The temporal bone articulates, 1st, by its mastoid, petrous,
 and squamous portions, with the basilar bone behind and forward.
 2d. 'By its mastoid and squamous portions above, with the inferior edge
 of the parietal bones.  The first  articulation is by a serrated  suture,
 and the second by the squamous  suture (S. squamosa), the two bones
 gradually becoming thin to  the  extent of from four to six lines, and
 fitting to one another, so that the squamous portion covers the parietal
 bones.  3d. The  temporal bone articulates with the malar bone by a
 dentated suture, and 4th, with the lower maxillary bone which moves
 upon it, by ligaments.

                   III.  OF THE PARIETAL BONES,

   § 556. The parietal bones (ossa bregmatis, s. verticis, s. parietalid),
 are  only portions of a vertebra.   We ought  to consider them as the
 complements  of the lateral parts of the  temporal bones and of the
 sphenoid  bone, between which  they  are  wedged in.  They stand
 together on the median line  and are often  united in a single bone.
 They occupy the upper part of the lateral faces and the summit of the
 skull, have  an almost regular quadrilateral form, and are flat in every
 part.
   § 557.  The edges which circumscribe them are the upper, inner, or
 sagittal edge (margo sagittalis), the anterior, frontal, or coronal edge
 (margo frontalis,?,, coronalis), the inferior or squamous edge (margo
 squamosus), and the posterior or occipital edge (margo occipitalis).
 The angles formed by the union of these  four edges  are called, the
 upper and anterior or the frontal  angle (angulus frontalis), the upper,
 posterior or the occipital angle (angulus occipitalis), the lower and ante-
 rior or the sphenoid, angle (angulus sphenoideus),  and the  lower and
 posterior or the mastoid angle (angulus mastoideus).
  § 558. They appear especially on their outer face, and, more particu-
 larly, in young subjects, formed very distinctly of two portions, united
 at an obtuse angle, the upper, which is larger, and the inferior, which is
 smaller.   The  skull'is  broadest  where these two portions join; this
 part is called the parietal protuberance (tuber parietale).  The upper
 is smooth, the  lower is  slightly uneven, and separated from the other
 by an arched rim, whence it has been called the semi-circular surface
 (planum semi-circulare).
  The internal face, besides the usual cerebral and digital impressions,
presents ascending and branching channels, which lodge arteries and
  Vol. I.                        54 
426
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMV.
veins (sulci meningei), called,  from their  arrangement, the fig-leaf
We also remark, especially in old subjects, along the upper and internal
edge, slight depressions (foves glandulares), which sometimes extend
even  to the external table.   At the inferior  and posterior angle, a
transverse furrow (sidcus transversus), constantly exists and completes
that seen on the occipital and temporal bones (§ 551); along the sagittal
edge is a slight fossa, which, united to that on the opposite  side, form3
the fossa of the upper longitudinal sinus (sulcus sinus longitudinalis).
   Near the sagittal  edge, we usually perceive on one or both of the
parietal bones, the parietal foramen (foramen parietale).
   § 559.  Each parietal bone develops itself by a single point of ossi-
fication, which first appears in the parietal protuberance.
   § 560.  These bones articulate with each other upward and inward,
along their upper edge, by the sagittal suture  (sutura  sagittalis),
which goes directly from before backward on  the median  line ; back-
ward, with the occipital bone(§ 555); downward, with the temporal bone,
by most of  their squamous edge, and with the large wing of the sphe-
noid  bone (§ 555) by the  rest of this edge, as also by the sphenoid
angle ; finally, with  the frontal  bone, by then: anterior edge and by
the coronal suture (sutura coronalis).
   § 561. The sagittal suture is sometimes wholly or partially effaced,
and the two parietal bones become one, although all the other bones
remain separate and distinct.
   On the other  hand, we sometimes, but much more rarely, see one or
both of them divided by a transverse suture into an upper and a lower
portion.  We do not know that they are ever divided by a longitudinal
suture into an anterior and a posterior portion.

                    IV.  OF THE  FRONTAL BONE.

   § 562. The frontal or  the coronal bone  (os frontis) occupies the
 anterior part of the skull.  It corresponds to the squamous  and condy-
 loid portions of the occipital bone.   We observe also, in the place corre-
 sponding to the large occipital foramen, an analogous opening, which
 however is not closed behind, because the frontal bone has no basilar
 process.  Perhaps this last is represented by the body of the sphenoid
 bone.
   § 563.   This bone is divided into a. frontal portion (P. frontalis), an
 orbitar portion (P. orbitalis), and a nasal portion (P. nasalis).
   § 564. The frontal portion is by far the largest.  It corresponds to
 the squamous portion ofthe occipital bone in form and situation.  Like
 that, it is composed of two parts, united at an obtuse angle, the upper
 being more extended than the lower.  Where both of these join is the
 part where the  bone projects the most, and presents on each side the
frontal tubercle (tuber frontale).   Below these eminences, we find on
 each side also, directly above the upper edge of the  orbit, and inward,
 another protuberance separated  from  it by  a depression, called  the
 superciliary ridge (tuber superciliare, supra-orbilalc), where  the  two 
OSTEOLOGY.
427
tables of the bone are separated from each  other to form the frontal
sinuses  (sinus frontales).  The triangular space  on the median line
which separates the two ridges is called the glabella.  But a  small
 extent  of  the region  of the  anterior  face, that which looks a little
outward, and completes  the  semicircular surface of the parietal bone
(§ 558), is rough.
  The inner face is divided into two lateral parts by the frontal crest
(crista frontalis).   This, which is found on the  median line,  forms
sometimes a very considerable projection, and terminates upward by a
furrow, the commencement of the longitudinal fossa (sulcus longitudi-
nalis).  These two portions are uneven, like those  of the internal face
ofthe parietal bones.
  § 565.  The  orbitar portion, which unites with the preceding at a
right angle, is separated  from it externally by a projecting and round
edge called the orbitar arch  (margo  superciliaris, s. supra-orbitalis).
At the internal extremity of this edge passes  the frontal fossa or canal
(sidcus s. canalis frontalis), extending from the under face of the orbitar
portion  to the external face of the frontal portion.  This edge enlarges
outwardly, as does also the  inferior part of the  anterior face of the
frontal  bone,  to  produce  the short  but strong malar protuberance
(tuber jugale).
  The orbitar portion, which forms the arch of the orbit, is contracted
from before backward, convex upward  on the side of the skull, concave
downward on the side of the orbit, and very thin.   At the internal part
the two tables separate from each other (§ 564).
  The  inferior face presents, outward  and  forward, the  lachrymal
fossa, which is usually superficial; inward and forward, a small emi-
nence or depression, called the trochlear  spine or fossa (spina s. fovea
trochlearia).
  § 566.  Between the frontal and orbitar portion  is the  nasal part,
which is properly only the most internal  part of the two others, and is
in the form of a horse-shoe.   It is composed of two portions, which
unite anteriorly in an arch below the middle of the frontal portion, and
the tables of which, very widely separated, especially in front, contain
the access to the frontal  sinuses, and are separated  by the ethmoidal
fissure (incisura ethmoidalis).   The nasal spine (spina nasalis), which
often forms a separate piece of bone, arises from their  place of union.
Between this spine and the inferior  extremity of the frontal crest, we
observe a considerable opening, improperly called the foramen cscum.
  § 567.  The frontal bone  is  developed at the second month in two
lateral  pieces, separated longitudinally on the median line, the union
of which generally begins  during the first year, and  is finished toward
the end of the second.  These two pieces by their mutual articulation
produce the frontal suture (sutura frontalis), which has the same direc-
tion as the sagittal suture, and whose lower part is always effaced the
last.
  §  568.  The frontal portion ofthe frontal bone articulates above, 1st,
with  the  parietal bones,  by  the  coronal suture (sutura  coronalis)
(§560); 2d,  the orbitar  portion articulates downward and backward 
428
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
with the small and large wings, as well as with the body of the sphe-
noid bone (§ 545), by the malar  process; 3d, with the malar bones
(§ 595), by the lateral parts of the nasal portion ;  4th, with the  eth-
moid bone (§ 574), by the anterior  part of  this portion  and  by the
nasal spine ;  5th, with the proper bones of the nose ;  and 6th, on the
outside of these with the upper maxillary bones.
  § 569. The most usual anomaly  presented by the frontal bone, and
which  is not rare, consists in the want of union of its lateral portions.
The frontal suture then remains during hfe.   More rarely the frontal
sinuses are not developed.

                    V. OF THE ETHMOID BONE.

  § 570.  The ethmoid or cribriform bone (os ethmoideum s. cribriforme)
is found at the anterior and middle part of the base of the skull.  It
slightly resembles  a vertebra in its thin  and  perpendicular middle
layer, and in its two lateral portions, which are folded on each other in
different ways. We might rather consider it a bone ofthe face, and more
so  because it is wedged in  between  these bones, among which are
numbered some not more perceptible externally than this, and resem-
bling it in form and functions.
   § 571. We distinguish in the ethmoid bone a central and two lateral
portions.   The first is formed almost wholly by a perpendicular plate
(lamina perpendicularis) much higher in its anterior than in its poste-
rior portion.  Behind, where  the  posterior portion  terminates, we see
detached from its upper edge a horizontal- layer, called  the  cribriform
plate (lamina cribrosa), which extends on both sides.  This plate is
placed along the perpendicular  plate, the upper part of the anterior
portion of which consequently rises  much  above it.  This latter,
called the  crista galli  process,  projects within  the  cranium; it is
much  thicker than  the part below.
   The cribriform plate  presents two series of oblong openings, the
largest  of which are situated inward, along the crista galli  process
and in the same direction from before backward, while the smallest
are found along its external edge.  The anterior and middle are the
largest, and are  oblong, often three or four lines in extent.  Between
these two ranges are others,  which are smaller and irregular.
   All these are the tunnel-shaped orifices of small canals; the internal
 pass several fines along  the lateral faces of the perpendicular plate, and
 then divide into others which are smaller, and degenerate into simple
 fissures, which descend very low in the septum.
   § 572.  The lateral portions of the ethmoid bone, or the labyrinths
 (labyrinthi), are extremely thin and complicated. Each generally
 represents a quadrangular cavity, which is longest from before  back-
 ward, and shortest from within outward.  The upper wall is generally
 partially or wholly deficient, and is covered by the sides of the nasal
 part ofthe frontal bone, which serves as a top to it; the anterior wall is
 also open.   The outer side is sometimes, but more rarely, imperfect:
 it  i8  smooth and  straight,  and is called the os planum,  or lamina 
OSTEOLOGY.
429
papyracea,  because  it  has   the  smoothness  of  parchment.  The
inferior wall is very uneven ;  the posterior is deficient; the internal is
straight, and rendered uneven by the external range of openings found
on the cribriform plate, as also by the descending canals and fissures
which penetrate its substance by  small openings.  Posteriorly, this
internal wall forms two projections placed one over the other, separated
by a  deep space,  convex within  and concave  externally,  called the
upper and middle turbinated bones  (concha superior et media).  The
latter turns on itself anteriorly, hence it is  convex externally.  The
lower turbinated bone forms the inferior wall of the labyrinth.
  Transverse, irregular, and  partly imperfect plates proceed from the
outer to the inner part of the labyrinth, forming a greater or less num-
ber of ethmoidal cellules  (celluls  ethmoidales).   The anterior cells are
also called the orbital  or  lachrymal (C. orbitaris s. lachrymales), the
middle, the frontal (C. frontales), and  the posterior, the palatine (C.
palatins).
  From  the upper edge of the middle turbinated bone a transverse sep-
tum proceeds to the posterior edge  of the os planum,  and closes, but
imperfectly, the  middle cellules.
  This septum  and the os planum are extended backward and down-
ward  at their  anterior and  inferior angle  into a  thin, sometimes a
slightly curved process, called  the small ethmoidal  process (processus
minor).   Another arises farther forward and inward, from the anterior
part of the labyrinth and the transverse septa of the anterior cellules,
between the anterior extremity of the middle turbinated bone and the
os planum.  This varies much in length,  and is called  the large  or
unciform process ofthe ethmoid bone (processus major, s. unciformis, s.
hamulus).
  § 573. The ethmoid bone is not developed till the fifth month.  The
lateral portions appear first, and the middle part is not formed till after
birth.
  In  the full-grown fetus, this middle part is entirely cartilaginous : the
two lateral portions are separated from each other, and but slightly
developed, for the external and the internal Walls  almost touch.   How-
ever,  the  eminences we have mentioned, already exist, .although, even
relatively speaking, much smaller.  The cribriform plate is very broad,
and broader in young children than in adults :  it contracts when the
internal  and external walls of the labyrinth are separated from each
other. Even long after these three parts are fused together,  the middle,
which ossifies  from above downward,  continues to be almost cartila-
ginous.   Its inferior and anterior part, which  belongs to  the cartila-
ginous septum of the nose, always retains this character.
   § 574. The ethmoid bone is articulated ; 1st, forward and upward,
by the anterior edge of its perpendicular plate, with the middle nasal
portion of the frontal bone and the posterior  edge of its nasal spine ;2d,
upward,  on  each side, by the upper wall of the labyrinth, with the
nasal and orbitar portions of the frontal bone ; 3d, before,  and on the
side  with the  unguiform  bone: 4th, by the  posterior  edge of  its
cribriform plate, and  by its perpendicular plate, with the middle edge 
430
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
of the  upper face  of  the body of the sphenoid bone and  with the
sphenoidal spine ;  5th, by the posterior part ofthe labyrinth, with the
palate.bone; 6th,  by the inferior edge of the os planum,  with the
body of the superior maxillary bone in  the orbit, and by the anterior
part of the labyrinth,  with the ascending process of the same bone in
the nasal cavity ;  7th, by the inferior  edge  of the septum, with the
vomer; 8th,- by the anterior part of  the labyrinth,  with the nasal
bone ;  9th, finally, sometimes by its  large process with the inferior
turbinated bone.
   § 575.  The os planum sometimes divides into several distinct la-
minae, which are generally situated one behind another.


                        CHAPTER II.

                OF THE BONES OF THE  FACE.

   §576.  The face is composed of fourteen bones.  We may, however,
oppose, the region of  the upper jaw  to that of  the  lower  jaw ; for,
1st. The different bones which form the first, are  united by the suture
which  admit of no motion, while the lower maxillary bone is articulated
so as to play freely.  2d.  Most of the  bones  of the upper maxillary
region may be considered as the appendages of one large piece, the up-
per maxillary bone.  3d.  The  lower maxillary*bone is not,  in  many
animals, a single bone as in man, but is composed of several, and often
of a great number of bones.
   § 577.  Most ofthe  bones ofthe region ofthe upper maxillary bone,
are in pairs. Of these, there are six, viz. 1st, two upper maxillary bones ;
2d, two palate bones ;  3d, two malar bones ; 4th, two nasal bones ; 5th,
two lachrymal bones; 6th, two turbinated bones; 7th, the vomer is a single
bone.  Both  Lietaud  and Portal  have remarked,  after  the ancient
anatomists, that the vomer usually unites early with the ethmoid bone,
so that connecting these  together we have then only six pairs to
describe with the superior maxillary bone.   The region of the lower
maxillary bone is composed of a single bone.  In the face,  as  in the
skull, the unmated bones are situated  on the median  line, or are com-
posed of two lateral corresponding portions.  •
   § 578 All these bones are not  developed by a single point  of
ossification, but their different osseous  nuclei unite, the lateral portions
of the  lower maxillary bone excepted, long before those of  the skull,
and generally before those of most bones; perhaps, because they are
smaller, and not like  the pieces of the skull and vertebral column,
because immediately connected with an organ, in which the formative
power  exerts all its energy.  #
                           •
               I.  OF  THE UPPER MAXILLARY BONES.

   § 579. The upper maxillary bones (ossa maxillaria, s. mandibularia
superiora, s. maxills  superioris) principally determine the form of the 
OSTEOLOGY.
431
whole face, because they are the largest, and are situated in the centre
of the others,
  Their form is almost quadrilateral.  We usually distinguish a body
and four processes, inclining upward, outward, downward, and inward.
  The upper face of the body is smooth ;  its direction is obliquely
downward, outward, and a little forward.   We generally observe from
before backward, a semi-canal, open at its upper  part, and extending
from the posterior edge to about its centre ;  this  is continuous, after
leaving this point, with a perfect canal called the infra-orbital canal
{sulcus s. canalis infra-orbitalis) which passes below it, to open on its
anterior face.  The track of this canal is generally indicated also at the
upper face of the body of the upper maxillary bone, by a very narrow
fissure, which does not, however, always extend there, although it did
originally.  More  rarely,  this duct forms in its whole length a perfect
canal; and then, sometimes the fissure exists in its whole  extent, and
sometimes.it is entirely deficient, but only in the place where it is found
in the normal formation.  Sometimes also, this fissure is occasionally
interrupted, independent ofthe arrangement ofthe posterior part ofthe
duct. Finally, it often happens that the semi-canal is extended very far,
almost even to the anterior edge of the upper face.  These differences
are worthy of remark, as they indicate the different degrees in the de-
velopment of the bone.
   § 580.  On the upper face, we generally see upward and inward, the
extremity of the fissure described, which leads to the infra-orbital fora-
men.   This hole is rounded, terminates sharply above ; while, below, it
is prolonged into a more or less deep depression, and is not far from the
anterior edge of the upper face.   Sometimes, but rarely,  instead of one
foramen, there are several: we then find, at 9. greater or less distance
from the usual large foramen, another opening, which is  smaller and
situated  more inwardly ;  in which  case,  the canal is  divided sooner or
later  into two branches. In certain cases, the two holes  are more than
half an inch apart, and the canal is divided at its posterior extremity;
differences which are remarkable  as establishing an analogy  with
the formation of the simiae and cetaceae.
   Below the infra-orbital foramen, we find a deep muscular impression,
 the maxillary fossa (fossa maxillaris).
   The posterior part is convex, and presents below the maxillary pro-
tuberance (tuber maxillare).
   The inner part  is  very uneven.   We  remark  anteriorly  and
about its centre, the inferior turbinated spine (spina turbinalis inferior),
an eminence almost straight, which, however, descends a little ob-
liquely forward, and is very rough.  We then see the  lachrymal groove
 (sulcus lachrymalis),  which  goes downward and backward from the
upper edge, and is sometimes changed into  a canal in a small part of
its extent, when its anterior and posterior edges touch.   Further still,
at the upper part of this face, a large hollow occupies a part of it, which
extends  almost to  the  posterior edge,  and  leads  into  the  antrum
Highmorianum. 
432
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
   The body is hollow, and its walls, especially the upper, are  very
thin.   The maxillary sinus, or the antrum  Highmorianum (antrum
maxillare, s. Highmori), which is within it, and opens into the nasal
cavity by  its internal wall, is  often curved with eminences  which
render its surface uneven.
   § 581. The ascending, upper or nasal process (processus ascendens, s.
superior s.nasalis),leaves the anteriorand internal angle of theupper face
of the body, and is flattened from within outward.   The posterior and
smaller part of its external face is  separated  from the anterior by an
eminence sharper below than abovej and  is continuous with the upper
anterior edge of the body.  This part is hollowed out, and forms the
beginning of the lachrymal groove.  Its internal face is a little concave,
and we see on it, near the middle, the ethmoidal spine (spina  ethmoi-
dalis), parallel to the inferior turbinated spine; sometimes when the
nasal process is  very broad,  it is  divided by a sharp  crest into an
anterior  and a posterior  portion, the latter  of which is much more
hollowed, and  assists in  forming the anterior cellules of the ethmoid
bone.
   § 582. The palatine process  (processus palatinus) detaches itself
from most ofthe inferior edge ofthe internal face, at a right angle, and
goes  horizontally inward.   Its  upper face is  smooth, and the under is
rough.   It terminates backward by a serrated edge, inward  by an
uneven and broad  surface, especially at its anterior part.   It is con-
tinuous forward with the alveolar process.   In this place it is traversed
from above downward, and from behind  forward,  by the palatine or
incisory  channel  (canalis  palatinus s. insicior), which usually forms
only a simple semi-canal, because its internal wall is deficient, as is the
entire  length of  the  external wall, from which a fissure  usually pro-
ceeds forward and  outward, and, in this manner becomes apparent
both at the upper and the lower face of the palatine process. Here, par-
ticularly, the fissure is longest and broadest, and goes towards the space
situated between the outer incisorand the canine tooth. Itrarelybifurcates
at its inferior face,  presenting an inner which is smaller, between the
two incisor teeth.  Sometimes, also, a small process is detached which
goes backward.  The fissure, visible at the inferior face, is  the inter-
maxillary suture (sutura intermaxillaris).
   One or more furrows proceed from the posterior edge from behind
forward, to the inferior face.
   § 583. The alveolar process (processus alveolaris), is a prolongation
of the anterior and external face of the body ; it is convex outward and
concave inward, forming a considerable edge, and contains cavities for
the teeth called the  alveolar cavities (alveoli), which are separated  by
thin osseous partitions.   The  alveoli are known  externally by the
projections, and  the intermediate partitions, by the depressions  which
correspond to them.
   § 584. The malar or jugalprocess (processus malaris s. jugalis), is
very short.   It comprises  only the broad rough surface, by which the
posterior, superior, and anterior faces of the body are united.  A portion 
OSTEOLOGY.                       433
of the bony partition of the maxillary sinus is often deficient in this
region.
   § 585.  The  upper maxillary bones articulate, 1st, on  the  median
line, with each other, by the internal face of the palatine portion; 2d,
with the frontal bone (§ 568), by the upper extremity ofthe nasal pro-
cess ;  3d, with the external  edge of the  proper  nasal bones, by their
anterior edge; 4th, with the unguiform bones, by their posterior edge
and the anterior extremity of the internal edge of the upper face of their
body;  5th, with the ethmoid bone (§ 574), by this same edge, and by
the crest of the ethmoid.bone ;  6th, with the palate bones, by the pos-
terior extremity of this edge,  the posterior part of the posterior and inter-
nal face of the body, and the  posterior edge of the  palatine portion; 7th,
with the inferior turbinated bone, by the inferior turbinated spine ; 8th,
with the vomer, by the palatine process.
   § 586.  According to Portal, the upper maxillary bone is developed
by several points of ossification,—two for the body, one below the infra-
orbital foramen, and another in the floor ofthe orbit; a third in the nasal
process, and two or three in the palatine process.
   In several fetuses of three months, we have  found it composed  of
three pieces ; of.these, the  anterior comprises the portion ofthe palatine
and alveolar processes situated before  the palatine duct, with the nasal
process; the middle,  the body and the central part of the palatine pro-
cess ; finally, the third placed externally, the posterior part of this same
process.   The palatine canal, which is still only a simple  hole, the
incisive or anterior palatine foramen (foramen incisivum s. palatinum
anterius),  appears enormous.  The inner, the upper, and the posterior
walls of the body are  not yet  formed.   Then, the anterior portion is
separated from  the posterior, and a real intermaxillary bone exists,—a
curious analogy with what is normally observed in almost all the ani-
mals inferior to man.   Even when the two segments  are not more
entirely distinct, in the full grown fetus and afterwards, the line of sepa-
ration extends much farther, both in breadth and in length, across the
palatine portion, so that it traverses  all the breadth of the upper face.
It often happens that it does  not stop there, but is reflected upward, and
insulates  a part from the internal face of the body as an internal thin
layer, which is only applied against the external part.  Farther, a
branch of this upper fissure goes inward, and passes, behind the lachry-
mal channel, through the antrum Highmorianum, to the posterior face
ofthe body, where it unites with the infra-orbital fissure in the infra-or-
bital canal.  We also find some slight traces of this arrangement in the
adult; it deserves to be remarked, as indicating,  even in man, that the
portion of the upper maxillary bone, in which the incisor teeth are situ-
ated, is separated from  the others during the early periods of life, and
then forms  a real intermaxillary bone (os incisivum, intcrmaxillare),
We always find in the young fetus the internal  branch of the fissure
on the under face of  the palatine portion (§ 582), and this observation,
together with the instances of division of the upper maxillary bona in the
   Vol. I.                       55 
434
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
full grown fetus,(l) seems lo prove the primitive existence of a special
piece of bone for each incisor tooth.
  The maxillary sinus is already very large in the full grown fetus,
but does not extend so much outwardly.
  Considered generally, the maxillary bone in the child, particularly
its  alveolar portion, is much longer and broader  in  proportion to its
height, than in the adult.
  § 587. The anomalies of this bone are, the non-development of the
maxillary sinus, and the shortness of its palatine process, which leaves
a greater or less interval on the median line  between the maxillary
bones, and whence generally results (at least when the division extends
to the anterior extremity, or occupies the anterior part of the length of
the upper jaws) the insulation  of the anterior  portion which supports
the incisores, or of the intermaxillary bone.  On the other hand, it some-
times happens also that the palatine process is prolonged posteriorly to
a great extent, and even forms  the posterior spine.

                     II.  OF THE PALATE BONES.

  § 588. The palate bones (ossa palati)  should be regarded  as  the
posterior appendages of the upper maxillary bone.   They correspond,
from behind forward, to the intermaxillary portion ofthe upper, jaw.
  They are thin layers curved on  themselves, the  upper larger  and
perpendicular part of which  corresponds  to  the inner wall of  the
body of  the upper maxillary bone, and the horizontal to the palatine
process of this same bone, of which  they are the continuation and the
termination.
  § 589. The internal face of  the horizontal portion presents  two pa-
rallel eminences, separated very much from one another, which extend
from the posterior  to the anterior edge, and are called the upper  and
loiver turbinated crests, or  the  transverse  eminences (crista turbinalis
superior et inferior, s. lines eminentes transverss).  The external face
is concave in the points corresponding to these  two eminences, smooth
in its  anterior-portion which is the  most extensive, and hollowed  pos-
teriorly,  by  one or  two longitudinal furrows, called  the pterygopala-
tine fosss (sulci pterygo-palatini), which are continuous with the  fur-
row of the palatine face of the upper maxillary bone.
  The  rough posterior edge presents downward, backward and  out-
ward, where the perpendicular  part unites  to the horizontal portion, a
thick eminence called the pyramidal or pterygoid process  (processus
pyramidalis s. ptery goideus).  The  anterior edge is thin, uneven,  and
extends  below the inferior transverse line, in a small projection called
the nasal process (processus nasalis).  Above,  the  perpendicular  por-
tion divides into two eminences, the anterior called the orbital process
(processus orbitalis), and the posterior the sphenoidal process (proces-
sus sphenoidalis).
(1) Meckel, Path. Anat. vol. i. 
OSTEOLOGY.
435
  The first  is deeply concave inward, convex upward, backward and
outward, straight forward, downward and outward, rough externally,
and smooth  in all other parts of its surface.
  The sphenoidal process is  lower than the  orbital, a continuation of
the posterior edge of the palate bone upward: it is directed toward the
posterior part of the orbital process, but rarely meets it.
  The space which remains between these two processes, and which
is always filled by the dura mater in the recent state, constitutes the
sphenopalatine foramen (foramen spheno-palalinum).
  The horizontal portion is  terminated  forward by a sharp, rough
and thin edge; inward by a broad and uneven edge ; backward  by a
smooth edge.  The last is notched,  and terminates  internally by a
pointed eminence.
  § 590. The palate bones articulate, 1st, with each other by their hori-
zontal portions.  The union of the internal eminences of their posterior
edges gives  origin to the nasal  or the posterior palatine  spine (spina
palatina posterior) ;  2d, with the upper maxillary bones (§ 585)  ; the
anterior part of their perpendicular portion contracts the orifice of the
antrum Highmorianum; the anterior part of  the external face of this
portion applies itself to that ofthe thin wall of the maxillary sinus found
behind its orifice; the posterior remains a httle distance  from it, pro-
ducing the ptery go-palatine canal (canalis ptery go-palatinus) between
it and the edge of the posterior face of the maxillary bone ;  3d, with
the ethmoid bone, by the orbital process,  so that the  internal and con-
cave face of this process covers and enlarges the posterior ethmoid cells,
and  the posterior extremity of the middle turbinated bone meets the
upper process of its internal face ; 4th, with the sphenoid bone ; for the
posterior edge of the perpendicular portion embraces the anterior face
of the pterygoid processes, the pyramidal  process insinuates itself be-
tween the two  wings of these last, and the posterior face of the orbital
processes applies itself to the anterior of the body:  the  horns of the
sphenoid bone frequently make part of the palate bones, and are only
an enlargement ofthe posterior face  ofthe palatine process ;  the  bone,
wedged in between the pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone and the
body of the superior maxillary bone, forms or completes with it the
ptery go-palatine fossa ( F. pterygo-palatina) ; 5th, with the posterior ex-
tremity of the lower turbinated bone, by the lower transverse eminence;
 6th, finally, with the posterior extremity of the lower edge ofthe vomer,
 by the palatine crest.
   § 591.  At first, the palate bone is situated very low, so that its per-
pendicular  portion  is shorter than its horizontal  portion, and consi-
derably large, particularly from before backward, in  proportion  to its
 other dimensions.   We have  found  it in the fetus of three months,
 composed of a single  nucleus of bone, which appeared as a curved
 plate.
   § 592.  The anomalies it offers consist in the separation of the two
 palatine portions, existing either alone or attended with a similar
 division of  the upper maxillary bones.  This anomaly seems  to b& 
436
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
sometimes although rarely occasioned, and sometimes compensated for,
by the extension of  the palatine process of the maxillary bones back-
ward, which is extremely remarkable.

                    III.  OF THE MALAR BONES.

   § 593.  The malar or the cheek bones (ossa jugalia, zygomatica, ma-
laria, mals) have an  irregular quadrilateral form;  they are convex
externally and concave internally.   They are composed of two pieces
united at a right angle, the upper, smaller and internal; the lower,
larger, perpendicular and external.   The first is very much grooved
upward and forward, and forms the anterior part of the anterior wall of
the orbit.  The second is  situated outwardly under the skin of the
cheeks, and forms, by its projection, the broadest region of the face.
   § 594.  The zygomatic  canal (canalis zygomaticus), which is gene-
rally single, sometimes double, or even  multiple, passes  through the
malar bone.   This canal commences by an upper orifice at the ante-
rior face of the  superior portion, and terminates, on one side,.at the
external face of  the perpendicular  portion, by the external zygomatic
foramen (foramen zygomaticum externum) ; on the other, at the internal
face of this same part, by another  opening, called the internal zygo-
matic foramen (foramen zygomaticum internum).
   § 595.  This  bone  articulates, 1st, with the  malar process  of the
upper maxillary bone, by the anterior edge of its external portion, also
by the internal edge of its superior portion, between which is a rough
surface ; 2d, by  the posterior part of the inner rough edge of its hori-
zontal face, with the edge formed outward by the union of the anterior
and external faces of the large wing of the sphenoid bone ;  3d, by its
upper portion with  the malar  process of the frontal bone ; 4th, by its
inferior and posterior parts with the zygomatic process of the  temporal
bone.   We call  those  prolongations by which this bone articulates with
the sphenoid bone,  the upper maxillary bone  and the  temporal bone,
the sphenoidal, the maxillary, and the temporal processes.
   The greater part of its posterior  edge is free.
   The articulation of this bone with the temporal bone forms a bridge
(zygoma, jugum) above the temporal fossa (fossa temporalis) com-
prised between  the anterior part of the  squamous portion, the large
wing of the sphenoid  bone and the posterior face of the malar bone ;
this bridge varies in form, according to the races.
   § 596. The malar bone  appears early, toward the commencement
of the  third month.  We have always found it composed of a single
nucleus of bone.  The numerous  observations and facts on this sub-
ject carefully collected, would lead  us to doubt the assertion of Portal,
that there are three points of ossification.
   § 597. This  bone  is sometimes  entirely deficient ;(1) a striking
resemblance with what is seen in several mammalia, as the tanrec, the

  (1) Meckel, Beytrage, vol. i, p. ii. p. 54.—Dumeril, Bull, de la toe. phil. vol. iii. 
OSTEOLOGY.                       437
 sloth, and the ant-eater.   It is sometimes divided by a suture into two
 portions, an anterior and a posterior,(l) or even into three pieces.(2)

                     IV.  OF THE NASAL BONES.

   § 598. The nasal bones (ossa nasi, nasalia, nasi propria) are small
 bones, of an oblong square form, thick at their upper part, thinner and
 broader  downward, which form the  upper and anterior walls of the
 bony frame  of the nose.  They are  situated  obliquely  from above
 downward and from  behind forward,  between the frontal bone   the
 maxillary bone, and the  perpendicular  plate of  the  ethmoid bone.
 They describe a double curve^ whence they are concave forward and
 convex  backward  in their upper part, while in their lower part they
 are  convex forward and concave backward.   Near  their centre, we
 observe one or more foramina which pass entirely through them.
   § 599. They articulate, 1st, with each  other by a rough and very
 broad  surface, which is  usually extended  into a crest or spine, called
.the nasal crest Or spine (crista, s. spina nasalis) ;  2d, with the ethmoid
 bone, directly, by the nasal spine, or indirectly, by a piece  of bone in-
 terposed between them, which  also represents a spine ; 3d, with  the
 frontal bone  (§ 568) by their upper and thickest  edge; 4th, finally,
 with the anterior edge of the nasal process of the upper maxillary
 bone, by their outer edge.
   § 600. Each of them  is developed by  a single nucleus  of bone
 which begins to appear at the commencement of the third month.
   § 601. Both bones not  unfrequently unite in their whole length, or
 only at their  upper part, which deserves to  be remarked as offering an
 analogy  with the formation of several simiae.

                   V. OF THE UNGUIFORM BONES.

   §  602. The unguiform or the lachrymal  bones! (ossa lachrymalia, s.
 unguis)  are  the  smallest of the bones of the face.  They are only
 thin plates  of an oblong quadrangular form,  situated in the inner
 angle of the eye  between the maxillary, the frontal, and the ethmoid
 bones, and are frequently perforated.
   Their  outer face is divided by a longitudinal crest, to which a depres-
 sion corresponds posteriorly, into two parts, an"anterior and a posterior,
 the proportional extent of which varies much.  The posterior part is
 sometimes very small, and then the papyraceous plate of the ethmoid
 bone is rather extensive.   When, on the contrary, the anterior is nar-
 rower, it  is made up by the greater breadth of the nasal process ofthe
 upper maxillary bone.  The anterior  part is  always  much  thinner
 than the  posterior, concave externally and convex internally.   It forms
 the posterior wall of the nasal channel (sulcus canalis nasalis), the an-
 terior of which belongs to the posterior part of the external face of the
 nasalprocess of the upper maxillary bone (§ 581).

           (1) Sandifort, Obs. anat. pathol., b. iii. p. 113, iv. p. 134.
           (2) Spix, Cephalogenesis, p. 19. 
438                   DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
   § 603.  The unguiform bone articulates, 1st, by its upper edge with
the orbital portion of the frontal bone ;  2d, by its posterior edge, with
the anterior edge of the os planum ; 3d, downward, by its inferior edge,
with the anterior part of the inner edge of the body of the upper maxil-
lary bone ; 4th, forward,  by its anterior edge, with the posterior edge
ofthe nasal process of this bone.  All these edges are thin and smooth.
The posterior face of the  unguiform bone closes the anterior ethmoidal
cells.
   § 604.  The ossification of the unguiform bone begins in the fifth or
sixth month.
   § 605.  The unguiform bone is not unfrequently extremely small or
entirely deficient.  It is then supplied  by the cribriform  plate of the
ethmoid bone, or more frequently by the ascending branch of the upper
maxillary  bone, which becomes broader,  or finally by both these at
once.

             VI. OF THE INFERIOR TURBINATED BONES.

   § 606.  The inferior turbinated bones (conchs, conchs  inferiores,
ossa turbinata s. spongiosa), thus called to distinguish them from the
superior and  middle turbinated portions of the ethmoid bone, form  a
very great part of the base of the olfactory organ.
   In form and structure  they resemble  the ethmoidal turbinated bones,
but are larger than them, and are convex externally.  They are elon-
gated  from before backward, higher in the centre  than  in the other
parts, straight, very thin and smooth in their upper portion, bulging in
the lower portion,  and terminate downward by a rounded edge, which
is reflected from below upward.  Their inferior portion is rough, and
on its external- face are  tubercles, and  small blind depressions  on its
internal.
   § 607. Near the centre, the upper edge, which is sharp, is reflected
outward  and downward, to produce the broad unciform maxillary pro-
cess (processus maxillaris), by which it is joined to the  lower edge of
"the maxillary sinus.  In front of this  process  we perceive  another,
which  varies in length,—the  nasal or lachrymal process (processus
lachrymalis s. nasalis), the direction of which is from below upward;
it articulates with the lower extremity of the unguiform bones.  Be-
tween these two eminences, we sometimes see the ethmoidal processes
 (processus ethmoidales), which go to the large and small processes ofthe
 ethmoid bone (§ 574).
   The anterior and blunter extremity of the bone articulates, 4th, with
 the lower transverse eminence of the upper  maxillary bone (§ 585\
 and the posterior  with the corresponding eminence of the palate bone
 (§ 590).
   § 608.  Ossification appears first in the fifth month, at its centre, where
 there is only one nucleus.  We have never found several. 
OSTEOLOGY.
439
                       VII. OF THE VOMER.

   § 609.  The ploughshare (vomer) is an irregularly quadrilateral
bone, situated on the median line to which it imperfectly corresponds,
and downward and backward divides the nasal cavity into two portions.
Its upper edge, which is the thickest and also the shortest, is divided
into  two lateral processes,  called the wings (als vomeri),  between
which  is a furrow.   These wings  embrace the  spine of the sphe-
noid bone, and are covered by the vaginal processes of this- bone. The
upper and anterior edge, the longest of all, is also cleft, but much thin-
ner ; it is articulated posteriorly with the posterior edge of the perpen-
dicular plate of the -ethmoid  bone, and forward with the inferior edge
of the cartilaginous septum of the nasal fossae.   The inferior,  which is
the third in extent, articulates with the  palatine  crest (§ 585).  The
posterior is free.   Thus the vomer articulates with the ethmoid bone,
the sphenoid bone, the upper maxillary bones and the palate bones.
  § 610. In the fetus of four months, there is already  formed only a
single bone, which is much lower, in proportion  to^ts length, than  in
the adult, and is  composed of two plates, of equal thickness  in every
part, separated in almost all their height, and united only at their lower
part, loose around the cartilage of the septum of the  nasal fossae, and
having the appearance of  a single plate reflected on itself.  It is then
proportionally and absolutely much broader than in the adult.  This
form is found even in the full grown fetus, where the lateral, plates are
no where  turned outwardly.   We have never found several points of
ossification, which Portal asserts exist.
  § 611. When the nose is not completely developed, the vomer  is
some times deficient, or is perforated hy an opening.

              VIII. OF THE LOWER MAXILLARY BONE.

  § 612. The lower maxillary bone (maxilla, s. mandibula inferior,  os
maxillare inferius) is situated opposite the upper.  It has a parabolical
form, resembling a horse-shoe. We may, for the convenience  of study,
divide it into the central, alveolar, or horizontal portion (pars alveoluris,
ramus horizontalis), and the articular, lateral or ascending parts (par-
tes articulares, rami perpendicular es).
  § 613. These  three parts are marked with muscular impressions,
which render the  surface uneven.   In the centre of  the anterior and
posterior faces of the central portion are two longitudinal eminences,
called the external and the internal mental crests (crista mentalis exter-
na et interna). "At some distance on this crest, equally  on both faces,
we  perceive on each side a line, the direction of which is almost the
same as that ofthe upper edge : these are called the external and internal
oblique lines (linea obliqua externa et interna).  This line extends from
before backward, to the second small molar tooth. 
440
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  Below this same tooth, about the centre of the bone, is  the  mental
or anterior maxillary foramen (foramen maxillare anticum,  s. mentale).
   § 614.  The ascending branch is divided upward into two processes,
of which  the anterior, called the coronoid process (processus coronoi-
deus), is greater, thinner, and more  elevated  than  the posterior, flat-
tened from without inward, and pointed.   The second, called the con-
dyloid procsss (processus condyloideus), is broader from one side to the
other than from before backward.   Its direction is a little oblique from
without inward and from before backward, so that the the two articular
surfaces converge  toward each other backward.  Its upper  face is
rounded, and usually divided, by a transverse line, into an anterior and
a posterior part.
  This process, which is the broadest part of the lower maxillary bone,
is about six lines broad from one side to the other; its height and thick-
ness are about three lines. The thick and contracted part which comes
after it is its neck.'  The sigmoid  notch (incisura semilunaris, s. sig-
moidea) is that part of the upper edge which is found between the two
processes and  the angle of the jaw  (angulus maxillaris) is the place
where the posterior and inferior edges are united with  each other.   A
little above the middle ofthe internal face is a large  opening, the pos-
terior maxillary foramen (foramen  maxillare posterius), which le^ids
into the maxillary  canal (canalis maxillaris).  This last penetrates into
the bone nearer its lower than its  upper edge,  opens  externally by the
mental hole, but still continues as far as the median line, and furnishes,
at its upper part, some small canals which go to the roots of the teeth.
A small fissure proceeds from this posterior maxillary foramen along
the internal face, which is called the mylo-hyoid fissure (sulcus maxills
inferioris, s. mylo-hyoideus).   Sometimes, but rarely, this fissure is con-
verted into a real canal, either at its  origin or in one or several parts of
its course : more rarely still, it divides into two branches at the moment
of its origin.
   § 615.  The lower maxillary bone does not articulate, except with
the temporal bones, on which it moves.
   § 616.  We have found  this bone formed, in the  earliest periods, of
but two lateral pieces,  united on  the median line  by a  cartilaginous
substance. In fact, Autenreith pretends that it developes itself by three
or four points of ossification, belonging to the condyle, to  the coronoid
process, to the horizontal portion,  and  to the angle.(l)  Even before
him, Kerkring said he had  found  the coronoid process at least, deve-
loped separately.(2) Very recently still, Spix(3) has admitted not only
the osseous nuclei pointed out by Autenreith, but has also  described
and figured a fifth, a plate which  closes the alveolar edge internally,
and which, according to him, remains separate and distinct until  the
fourth month.   But, however carefully we may have examined even
the youngest fetuses, we have never found, either during or after pre-

       (1) Wiedemann, Archiv fur Zoologie und Zootomic, vol. i. pt. i.  p. 39.
       (2) Opp. omn. anat. p. 233.
       (3) Ccphalogenesis, p. 20. 
OSTEOLOGY.
441
 paratioh, more than a single plate in each portion of the lower maxil-
 lary bone. It is true that the alveolar edge is not closed at first inter-
 nally by the  osseous  substance;  but there is no special nucleus of
 bone formed in this part:  there is  developed a process, the direction of
 which is from before backward,  which becomes  an anterior portion of
 the bone, and is at first separated  from it by a small posterior fissure.
 When it has arrived at the region  of the ascending branch, it unites to
 its internal face by a bridge, and forms the posterior, maxillary foramen.
 In the  commencement, the maxillary canal  is not yet closed at its
 upper part, and is connected with the dental edge.
   We always find, even in the full-grown fetus, two openings at least,
 in the place of the posterior maxillary foramen; one much more ample,
 leads to a furrow which exists at  the bottom of the posterior alveolar
 process, and  which  ceases  at  its  anterior  extremity.   The other,
 smaller and inferior, leads to a canal which  passes under the alveolar
 process, and which  goes to the internal extremity of the half  of  the
 jaw.   The furrow and the canal  communicate by several openings,
 and all  lead to the anterior  maxillary foramen ; but the furrow more
 directly.
   A pretended line of demarkation, pointed out  by Spix, between  the
 plate and the rest of the lower maxillary bone, is only the mylo-hyoid
 fissure (§ 614), which is  extensive in the fetus, because of the great
 development of the mylo-hyoid branch of the fifth pair of nerves.
   We shaU  speak of the development  of  the  alveolar edge,  when
 treating of the teeth.
   The two lateral parts are straighter and nearer to each other, in pro-
 portion  to the youth of the bone.  The ascending branch, especially
 the articular process, is more depressed, so that the alveolar edge does
 not project in the fourth month of pregnancy.  There is  less difference
 between the direction of the posterior  edge  of the ascending branch,
 and the inferior edge of the horizontal portion ; and, also between the
 anterior edge ofthe first and the upper edge ofthe second: and, fourthly,
 the articular process is contracted  from right to left.
   In the full-grown  fetus, the lower maxillary bone does not resemble
 the formation which distinguishes it in the  adult, except in regard to
 the fourth condition.  As to the first, the bone, in the early periods of the
 fetal state, differs more than  the  lower maxillary bone of the adult,
 since its form is then rounder.   This, it is true, depends  partly on the
 greater  projection of the alveoli; but this circumstance is not the only
 cause.   The  maxillary bone,  however, is still much flattened at this
 period ;  its edges are  very round, and the whole bone  is very  broad.
 Finally, it is perfectly developed very  early,  since, in the fetus of three
 months even, it is the largest bone in the whole body.
   The union ofthe two lateral portions commences in the first months
 after birth.  Generally, however, in the course of the second year  we
 observe always at the upper edge  a small fissure,  the  direction of
which is from above downward, whence the fusion  takes  place from
below upward.  This peculiarity is very remarkable, because the bones
  Vol.  I.                       56 
442                   DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
situated below the lower maxillary bone, the sternum, and the hyoid
bone, also often unite in the median line, while those found above it,
the upper  maxillary bone and the other accessory bones  of the face,
remain separate during life ;- and the lower parts of the two pieces of
the frontal bone are also  the last in  which  this fusion  takes place.
   Sometimes the two portions are already united  in  the  full-grown
fetus ; this union, in certain cases, seems to take place_ at the expense
of the formation of the other bones of the head.
   Sometimes, also, there is developed between these two halves, either
a single bone or two small bones, a right and a left, which unite on the
median line: not long since, we observed this anomaly in  a child
three months old; or, this horizontal branch is divided still farther back
into two large  halves: a striking  analogy with the development of the
upper maxillary bone, and with the constant arrangement of the lower
maxillary bone in birds, in reptiles, and in the mammalia.
   §  617. The two  portions ofthe inferior maxillary bone do not, to our
knowledge, ever continue separated, although this arrangement exists,
in the normal state, in many animals, and is a very frequent anomaly
in the superior maxillary bone.
   An unfrequent anomaly is the union of the articular process with the
 temporal bone.  This prevents mastication (1).

                      IX.  OF THE HYOID BONE.

   §  618.  The  hyoid bones  or the hyoid bone (ossa hyoidea, s. os hy-
 oides)(2),  forms an  arch which is convex forward. It is situated behind
 and below the lower maxillary bone, at the root ofthe tongue and at the
 upper part of  the neck.   It is generally considered a single bone, and
 is divided  into a central portion or body, and four horns, two on each
 side.  But, as  these parts remain distinct through life, it is better to
 admit five distinct hyoid bones, a middle and four lateral bones.

                  1. OF THE CENTRAL HYOID BONE.

    § 619.  The central hyoid bone, or the body (os hyoides medium, s.
  basis), the largest of all, is situated transversely.
    Its anterior  face is slightly convex, and the posterior very deeply
  grooved.       ^
    The anterior face is divided into a larger inferior ascending and
 uniformly convex portion, and a smaller superior portion which is
  also arched from right  to left, but more  or  less grooved  from  above
  downward, which is also  divided into  two lateral portions by a small
  eminence between.

   (1) Sandifort,  Obs. Anat. Patho. vol. 1, p. 102. tab. vi. vol. ii. p. 117.
   (2) See,  on the hyoid bone  considered in  all vertebrated animals, the memoir
  on the anterior bones of the chest, by G. F. St. Hilaire, (Philosophic Anatomique, p.
  139). He admits seven  pieces in the hyoid bone of the mammalia, and refers to it alao>
  the styloid processes ofthe temporal bones.                        F. T. 
OSTEOLOGY.                           443
   The upper and lower edges are sharp, the two lateral are somewhat
 broader.
   At  the end of the upper part of the anterior face, there is on each
 side a small plain articular surface covered with cartilage.

                 II. OF THE INFERIOR HYOID BONE.

   § 620. The inferior hyoid bone, called also the inferior horns, the
 large  horns of the hyoid bone (ossa hyoidea  lateratia inferiora, cornua
 inferiora, s. magna), is the direct continuation  of the preceding, and
 forms  the largest posterior part of a horizontal arch.   Each of the two
 pieces of which it is composed, is longer than the central hyoid bone,
 but it is much weaker.  Their anterior part is the broadest. They then
 gradually  contract, and terminate backward by  a  rounded bulging
 edge.   These two  pieces usually diverge from before backward, but
 they rarely incline  a little toward each other posteriorly.
   Their anterior broader  edge is slightly concave and covered with
 cartilage.   The inner end of the upper part of their anterior face has
 also an articular facet, which is  smooth and covered with cartilage.
   They often, in the same subject, vary considerably in form and size
 on-the different sides.
   They articulate with the central piece by a fibro-cartilaginous mass,
 and sometimes unite in the later  periods of life in one bone.

                 III. OF THE SUPERIOR HYOID BONE.

   § 621. The two  pieces of the superior hyoid bone, called  also the
 superior or small horns ofthe hyoidbone (ossa hyoidea,s.cornua superiora
 s.  minima), have a more or  less rounded  and oblong form.  They
 gradually grow thin from one extremity to the other;  are oblique from
 below upward, and from within outward ;  and  are situated in the place
 where the middle and inferior bones unite, being connected with them
 by a loose capsular ligament.
   They are always very thin, and usually much shorter, but some-
 times also much longer, than the inferior bones.   Their length varies
 from two lines to an inch and a half.   In the latter case, it often but
 not always happens, that each is composed of two  separate pieces.
   Of all bones, these present the greatest differences in respect to form
 and length, not only in different individuals, but also in both sides of
 the body in the same individual.  We not  unfrequently find them
 twice  as long on one  side as on the other,  and  this side is almost
 always the left, at least according to our observations. We have never
 found this*o be the case on the right side,  although we have examined
 many  hyoid bones (1).
   § 622. The hyoid bones articulate with one another at the places
 pointed out (§ 619, 620,  621), and farther  upward, with the styloid
  (1) The remark, that this arrangement is constant, is more probable, because
Duvernoy has made the same remark.—(Comm. Petrop., vol- vii. p. 216.) 
444
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
process of the temporal  bone, downward with the centre of the upper
edge and the superior horns of the thyroid cartilage.
  . § 623.  They begin to ossify about the end of pregnancy, and sooner
in the lower lateral hyoid bones than in the central bone.   The upper
lateral hyoid bones do not ossify till several months after birth.
   § 624.  These bones continue on  the  neck,  the chain  of bones
formed in the head by the lower maxillary bone ;  in the chest, by the
ribs and sternum ; in the pelvis, by the symphysis pubis.   We may
then consider them as corresponding to the ribs and sternum, and call
the central part the bone ofthe neck, and the lateral parts the cervical
ribs.

                        CHAPTER III.

       GENERAL REMARKS ON THE BONES OF THE HEAD.

   § 625.  The bones ofthe head (ossa capitis), taken collectively, may
be considered, 1st, in regard to the general form of the whole, and the
differences in respect to age, sexes, and races; 2d,  as regards  the
characteristics of certain parts of the head, to produce which, several
bones  concur, having regard principally to the relations between these
parts and the other organic systems.

         I. REMARKS ON THE GENERAL FORM OF THE HEAD.

   § 626. The head  has, as a whole, a rounded form.   This however
is more evident in the skull than in the face ; for this last resembles,
properly speaking,  an  irregular   square, furnished   however with
numerous  depressions  and elevations,  of which we  see but slight
traces, so long as the  portions  of  the other organic  systems which
cover them are not removed.  Further, the skull itself is not round and
regular.   Its anterior,  superior, posterior, and lateral portions, are,
it is true, plain  and  smooth,  except a few  inconsiderable asperities;
but its lower part, or the base (basis cranii), is  extremely irregular,
because of numerous muscular impressions, and large or small holes,
through which  pass vessels  or  nerves, of which we find but shght
traces in its other regions.
   The skull  contains a  cavity, generally inclosed with very thin walls,
which is convex externally  and  concave internally  in  the different
regions which have been mentioned.   The internal face corresponds
with tolerable exactness to the external.   On the contrary, not only its
lower part is not uniformly concave internally, and convex externally,
but the external and internal faces do not  correspond.      •
   The general differences between the external and the internal faces of
the skull depend on their relations with the organs with which  both
 are connected.
   1st. The greater part of the internal face, especially the anterior part
of the base,  presents numerous digital depressions and mammillary
eminences (§ 526). 
OSTEOLOGY.
445
  2d. On the internal face of the lateral and superior parts, numerous
fissures  (sulci meningei)  arise from  the middle  part of the base, in
which are situated the cerebral arteries.
  3d. This same face presents other fissures for the veins (sulci venosi),
which are broader, and are situated in the upper part of the skull on
the median line;  and in the lower part, on both sides of this line, they
are the traces of the  sinuses of the dura mater.
  4th. The internal wall of  the base presents  several depressions,
which are the largest of any, and which  correspond to the different
divisions of the encephalon.
  The elevations and projections which render the internal face uneven,
serve partly for the attachment of the dura mater.  Others circumscribe
several of the depressions which we have mentioned ;  and others still,
as the petrous portion of the  temporal bone, possess  an independent
existence.
  § 627. The form  of the skull is not exactly round.   If cut perpen-
dicularly and  horizontally, it  represents ellipses, of which the greater
diameter is backward, the smaller forward.   The skull is much longer
from before backward, than from right to left and from above down-
ward.   The proportion between its greatest  length from the glabella
of the frontal bone to the spine  of the occipital bone, its greatest breadth
from the squamous portion of  one temporal bone to that of the other,
and its greatest height, is nearly : : 3.3 : 2.3.
  If we examine the interior of the skull, we perceive that this cavity,
uniform  in parts, divides, especially  downward,  into three  portions
situated successively from before backward, the  anterior, the middle,
and the posterior.
  The anterior, which is the smallest in every dimension, occupies the
most elevated region.  Its sides are formed by the orbital portions of
the frontal bone ; its centre by  the central part of the ethmoid bone, and
its posterior part by the small  wings ofthe  sphenoid bone.   Forwajd,
and on the sides, it is imperceptibly  continuous by a rounded  edge
with the lateral faces of the skull; while backward it is separated from
its central part by a  sharp and grooved edge.   Its form is then almost
semicircular.   Downward, on  both sides, where it forms the roof of the
orbits, it is strongly bulging, and  projects into the cavity of  the skull,
while it  presents a  considerable depression  in almost all its central
portion, which is formed forward principally by the cribriform plate of
the ethmoid bone.   The crista galli process (§ 571) arises  from  its
centre;  before this, the internal frontal crest arises (§564),  between
which and the process is the foramen  cscum (§ 566).
  The anterior extremities of the anterior lobes of the cerebrum and the
olfactory nerves, the "threads  of  which pass through the holes of the
cribriform plate, rest  upon this portion. To  the crista galli process and
to the frontal ridge  is  attached the  lower  anterior extremity of the
large falx of the dura mater.
  The central portion, which  deserves this name both from its situa-
tion  and from its extent, has the form of a figure  8  placed  trans- 
446
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
versely ( oo ), for  it is  much narrower in the centre than on the two
sides.  It is formed by the body the large wings  and the posterior and
inferior portions of the small wings of the sphenoid bone, and by the
squamous and the large anterior part ofthe temporal-bones.   Its ante-
rior edge, formed by the small wings of the sphenoid bone, consists in
two large lateral arches and a central arch which is smaller: the late-
ral is insensibly continuous with the lateral face of the cranium ; the
posterior is composed of a central, smaller, and straight portion, the
uriper edge of the sloping part of the sphenoid bone, and of two much
more extensive, sharp, and  almost straight edges, which proceed from
within outward and from  before backward, the upper angles of the
petrous portion of the temporal bone.  This portion is grooved, but its
central part, the sella turcica, is  much more  elevated than the lateral
portions, which are more extensve than it.
   In its centre is situated the pituitary gland, and on the two sides the
anterior part of the posterior lobes ofthe brain.
   The posterior portion, which is the largest of all, has an almost cir-
cular form.   It is for the most part composed of the occipital  portion
of the basilar bone, forward  and on the  sides  by a small part of the
temporal and of the sphenoid bones.   The posterior edge of the second
portion separates it from the last forward.   In every other direction it
is gradually continuous with the other walls  of the skull.
■   It lodges the cerebellum,-the medulla oblongata, and the  inferior
part of the venous sinuses of the cerebrum.   The anterior edge of the
tentorium is attached  to its  anterior and sharp edge.
   §  628. The base of  the skull, considered in  regard to its external
and its internal  faces, ascends from its posterior to its anterior portion,
which  is the larger.   The  first is formed by the posterior and  inferior
part of the squamous portion of the occipital  bone.  The occipital fora-
men is situated almost horizontally a little behind  the  centre.-  After
leaving this point,  the body of the sphenoid  bone suddenly rises, then
Curves forward above  the sella turcica : this  last is  almost horizontal.
From thence the internal face of the base of the skull divides into an
upper and inner and an outer and lower  portion.   The first elevates
itself again, but slightly, before the anterior edge of the sella turcica ;
the second, which  comprises the wings of the sphenoid bone  and the
lower  part of the ethmoid bone, turns perpendicularly downward, to
assist in forming the nasal fossae.
   §  629. The facial  portion of the head represents a very irregular
square or triangle, which is much higher forward than backward, and
is situated below the anterior half of  the cranium, extending a  little in
front of it.   Of the fourteen bones which  compose  it, thirteen are
firmly united, either with each  other or with the'adjacent bones of the
skull, by broad  dentated surfaces,  by sutures,  or  by smooth, sharp
edges.  One alone, the lower  maxillary bone, is movably articulated
with the temporal bones.
   Instead of a single large  cavity, like  that  of the skull, the bones of
the face, form (not however alone, but with  those of the skull) other 
                          OSTEOLOGY.                       447


"dlati^Tfh?^68 "^ deFeSSifS'' WhiGh are C0MeCted ™* the
radiations  of the nervous system  the organs of  sense  or with  thl
movable organs of mastication.                       '    Wlth  the
  The cavities of the first kind are situated forward- those  of  the
second are found on the side, and are farther backwaid '  The first Se
 he cavities of the orbits, the nasal fossae,and the cavity of the mouth
the second are the temporal fossae.                  *             '
I. OF THE ORBITS.
    § 630  The orbits (orbits) have the form of truncated short m-™
  mids with unequal faces, of which the very broad and alnlt pe p^dT
  cular base looks forward, and is directed a little from before Wk^rd

  ^:zxm Bo7odh-7hile  the  summt corresp°nds t0 ** p-"
  nor extremity    Both orbits  converge  very much backward, so that

  outward.       ra°St ^^ lf n0t emire1^' tUmed for™d «* aS
    The outer and lower faces are straight.  The internal and the upper
  especially the latter, on the contrary, are very concave          PP  '
    The upper face called the vault of the  orbit (lacunar orbits) is
  formed, in most of its anterior part, by the orbrtar portion of the f onta
  bone.  We observe, in a small part of its posterior portion, the infe a
  face of the small wing of the sphenoid bone.  It is insensibly continu-

  orbits  a          gG'     the intemal and the external w^1Is of the
  _ The external wall in the direction of length is oblique from without
 inward and from before backward, in that of height it is directed from
 without inward and from above downward, and its length exceeds its
 height very much   Its anterior  and smaller part is formed by the
 malar bone, and  the posterior and larger portion by the large wine- of
 the sphenoid bone; it is separated backward and upward  from the
 upper by the superior sphenoid fissure, backward  and downward  bv
 the inferior sphenoid fissure.                                    y
   The lower face is irregularly triangular, and mostly formed by the
 upper face of the body of the upper maxillary bone, forward by the
 malar bone, and inward by the orbital portion of the  palate bone   It
 descends a little from behind forward and from within outward
   The inner face is formed at its central part, which is the most exten-
 sive, by the lateral plate of the ethmoid bone, forward by the lacry-
 mal bone, and backward in a.small portion  by the body ofthe splie
 noid bone.   Its direction is a little from before  backward and from
 within outward, and it descends obliquely downward and outward.
   The nasal canal commences at its anterior extremity.
   The anterior opening of the cavity of the orbit is almost quadrilate-
ral ; its breadth however exceeds its height, and it is circumscribed by
rounded, grooved edges, which are  insensibly  continuous with each
other. 
448
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
   This cavity is connected with the cavity of the skull, with the nasal
 cavity, with the pterygoid fossa, and with the anterior part of the face.
   1st. With  the  cavity of the skull, by the  optic foiamen, which is
 found at its posterior extremity, always a little within its axis (§ 541);
 more anteriorly, by the superior sphenoid fissure (§ 541); forward, by
 the  anterior and posterior ethmoid  foramina  (foramina ethmoidalia
 anteriora et posteriora), situated between the orbital part ofthe frontal
 bone and  the upper edge of the os planum of  the ethmoid bone.
   2d. With the. nasal fossa, by the anterior ethmoid foramina and the
 nasal canal.
   3d. With the pterygoid  fossa, by the inferior sphenoidal fissure.
   4th. With the anterior part of the  face, by its large anterior open-
 ing, the infra-orbital canal, and the foramina of the malar bone.
   § 631. Seven bones concur in its formation, viz. the  frontal bone,
 the  sphenoid  bone, the  upper maxillary bone,  the malar bone, the
 palate bone, the ethmoid bone, and the unguiform bone.
   § 632. In youth, the orbits are proportionally deeper, and their walls
 are more concave ;  the internal, which does not even exist in the fetus,
 is much  lower; the inferior  is concave  and almost  straight, or less
 oblique from above downward  and from  behind  forward;  finally, the
 anterior opening is  more or less transversely elongated.   Considered
 as a whole, the breadth  of the orbital fossa exceeds its height very
 much.  Its external edge, formed in a great part by the malar bone,
 projects very much from above downward and from  behind  forward,
 while afterward it descends almost perpendicularly.  These remarka-
 ble differences are greater in proportion as the fetus is younger.  They
 depend on the fact that the  face is at first low, and lengthens gradually.

                      II. OF THE NASAL FOSSJE.

   § 633. The nasal fossa  (cavum nasi, nares  interns)(\)  is situated
 below and between the two cavities of the orbits (§ 624—629); but it
 extends also above them, by some of its prolongations.  It  has a very '
irregular form ; it is however on  the whole quadrangular, and similar
 to the form of the face.  A perpendicular  septum (septum narium),
directed from before backward, divides it in its broadest part into two
halves, a right and a left.   We may divide it into the proper nasal fos-
sa, and into secondary or accessory cavities.
   §634. In the proper nasal fossa we distinguish  an anterior and a
 posterior opening, the floor, the upper wall or the vault, and the lateral
 walls. The accessory cavities comprehend the three nasal sinuses.
   The anterior opening (apertura narium anterior, s. faciei pyrifor mis)
is  elongated and pyriform.   It terminates in a point at its upper part,
 enlarges downward, but again contracts toward its inferior extremity.
It  is single, because the bony septum does not extend entirely forward.
 The lines which circumscribe it are always arched externally.  It is
(1) Ziervogel, Diss, de naribus internis, Upsal, 1760. 
06TE0L0GY.                       449
not exactly perpendicular, but, regarded from above downward, it pro-
jects a little backward.   At its lower part, it projects a little from with-
out inward, and from behind forward, and  in  the middle of the infe-
rior edge we see the anterior nasal spine (spina nasalis anterior). It is
formed above by the inferior edge of the nasal bones, and in  almost all
its lower part by the nasal process and the body of the upper maxillary
bone.
   The  posterior aperture (apertura nasalis posterior) is  lower, but
much broader than the anterior.  It represents a somewhat regular
square, and is always double, because  the septum, which  terminates
by an oblique and serrated edge, extends  to the posterior extremity of
the nasal fossa.  It is formed by the inner plate of the  pterygoid pro-
cesses of the sphenoid  bone, the vomer, and the horizontal portion of
the palate bone.
   The floor of the nasal fossa is almost straight, and slightly concave,
for it is a little elevated on each side, internally and externally, toward
the septum and the lateral walls.  It terminates forward in a triangular
edge, and backward in another edge semicircular on both sides, having
two deep notches.  We observe in  the centre of the first the anterior
nasal spine, and in the centre ofthe second the posterior nasal spine.
The floor is formed by the horizontal part of the upper  maxillary and
palate bortes.
   The upper wall, which is the smallest, is formed upward by the cri-
briform plate of the  ethmoid bone,  downward by the frontal bone and
the nasal bones.
   The posterior wall exists only at  the  summit of the nasal fossa,, and
is formed by  the sphenoid bone.
   The lateral walls of the nasal cavity  are very irregular.  They ele->
vate themselves in an almost straight direction, but generally are a little
convex externally, and  present on  their internal  portion considerable
projections, which render the surface very uneven, and  also openings
which lead into the accessory cavities.
   The direction of the eminences projecting internally  is from before
backward.    They are convex internally, concave externally, and are
situated one above the other.  Their upper edges are attached, and their
lower edges are free.  We  usually count three : 1st, the upper; 2d, the
middle turbinated portion ofthe ethmoid bone (§ 572);  3d, the inferior
turbinated bone (§ 606).  We  Usually remark, besides,  a smaller pro-
cess, situated at the upper and  posterior part,—the upper  turbinated
portion ofthe ethmoid bone.
   The depressions or semi-canals between these projections, which are
directed from before backward, and always ascend from behind forward,
are the superior, the middle, and the inferior meatuses of the nose,which
extend equal distances backward, but not forward.
   The superior meatus is generally found between the upper antf the
middle turbinated bones.  It is the least elevated, the narrowest, and
the shortest,  for it does not  project forward nearly as  far as the two
others.  The sphenoidal sinuses open into  1^  posterior part; the eel-
  Vol.  I                        57 
450
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
lules of the ethmoid bone, of the palate bone, and of the upper maxillary
bone, in its central part.
  The middle meatus is much higher, and is the most uniform of the
three in its height.   It extends between  the  middle and the inferior
turbinated  bones, projects much farther forward than the upper, and
receives in its anterior portion the frontal sinuses, and in its centre the
maxillary sinuses.
  The inferior meatus, the longest of all, is higher in its anterior part,
but much lower in its posterior part than the middle meatus, and is
situated between the inferior turbinated bone and the floor of the nasal
cavity.  It communicates with no accessory cavity; the lachrymal
duct, however, opens in its anterior extremity.
  Besides these  three channels, we always  remark a fourth longitu-
dinal depression, between  the superior turbinated bone and  the whole
internal wall ofthe labyrinth and ofthe cribriform plate ; this depression
extends much farther forward than the superior meatus.   Finally, we
usually discover a fifth, which is much smaller, the most  superficial
and the shortest of all, between the most superior and the upper turbi-
nated portions of the ethmoid bone.
  § 635.  The nasal fossa sends upward, on  the two sides and  back-
ward severalprocesses, prolongations,ox accessory cavities (sinus, antra).
  1st. The upper prolongations are the frontal sinuses (§ 564), which
open into the middle meatus by an orifice, which gradually narrows,
and the direction of which  is from before backward and from  above
downward.
  2d.  The lateral  prolongations are the maxillary sinuses (§ 534), the
largest;  they open by a very narrow orifice, in about the centre of the
middle meatus.
  3d.  The posterior are  the sphenoidal sinuses  (§ 536), which also
open by a narrow orifice into the posterior part of the superior meatus.
  § 636.  The nasal cavities communicate upward with  the orbits and
the cavity of  the skull  by the orbital holes,  and with the cranium by
openings in the cribriform  plate; backward, with the pharynx, by their
posterior  openings; forward, with the  cartilaginous  nasal fossae,  by
their anterior openings; downward, with the oral cavity, by the ante-
rior palatine foramen.
  § 637.  They are formed  by  nine  different  bones: 1st, the upper
maxillary bones ; 2d, the palate bones; 3d, the sphenoid bone ; 4 th, the
ethmoid bone; 5th, the inferior turbinated bone ; 6th, the vomer; 7th,
the nasal bones  ; 8th, the unguiform bones;  and 9th, the frontal bone.
Of all these, the upper maxillary  bones  contribute  the  most to their
formation, as they form most of the floor and of the lateral walls.  The
ethmoid bone belongs to them entirely, forming their upper wall.  The
palate bones complete their floor, and  contribute to form their lateral
walls.  The unguiform bones form part of their lateral  walls, as does
also the inferior turbinated bone.   The sphenoid bone concurs to form
the posterior part of the posterior wall and the lateral walls, by its pte-
rygoid processes and its sinuses.   The frontal bone and the nasal bones 
OSTEOLOGY.
451
   y 638 The nasal fossae are much less spacious, proportionally sneak
ing, in the early periods of life.   From the smallness ^whffice
they are much lower and narrower, so that their anterior and posterior
openings are proportionally much broader and lower;  for the height of
the posterior is one half greater than its breadth, the anterior in the ful
grown fetus is not more than one half as broad as it is hio-h and its
shape is not pynform, but irregularly quadrilateral;  and again, the
ethmoid cellules and the accessory cavities are not entirely developed
at nrst,  but acquire their normal size only at puberty.
   In the  early periods of life, and at the commencement of the third
month of fetal existence, the nasal fossae are not  entirely separated
from the oral cavity at their lower part, for the floor gradually develops
itself from without inward.                                       ^
III. OF THE ORAL CAVITY.
    § 639. The bony oral cavity is a parabolic space, convex forward
  terminated  posteriorly by a straight edge, and  situated below the
  nasal  fossae, from which it is  separated by their floor (§ 631).   The
  lower face of  this last forms  what is called its roof or the bony palate
  (palatum osseum, s. stabile), which is slightly concave and almost quad-
  rangular.   The  anterior and lateral  parts ofthe walls of the oral
  cavity, which are insensibly continuous with it, are formed upward by
  the  alveolar edge of the upper maxillary bone, a small part of their
  posterior portion  by the  broader extremity of the pterygoid processes,
  and  downward, by the  whole inferior maxillary  bone.   A  posterior
  and  inferior  wall does not exist, so that the bony cavity of the mouth
  is entirely open in this direction.   The  lateral walls are separated by a
  large hollow, which divides them into  an upper and a lower part; for
  the lower maxillary bone is not united to the other bones of  the head,
  but is  movably articulated with the temporal bone (§ 533, 615), so that
  the oral  cavity may open and close at different degrees in front, and
 it may vary considerably in height  in all its  extent.   This  pecu-
 liarity distinguishes  it from all the other cavities of the head.
   § 640. This cavity  is formed by four bones, the upper and lower
 maxillary bones, the palate bone, and the sphenoid  bone.  It is con-
 nected  posteriorly with the pharynx, anteriorly with the anterior part
 of the face, by the mouth ; finally upward with the  nasal fossae, by
 the anterior  palatine foramen, and  with the pterygoid fossa by the
 posterior.
   § 641.  Like  the nasal fossae it is lower the younger the subject is, as
the teeth are  not yet developed, and from the shortness of the  ascend-
ing process of the upper  maxillary bone it is proportionally shorter
and broader. 
452
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
                    IV. OF THE TEMPORAL FOSSA.

  § 642, The temporal fossa (fossa temporalis, jugalis, zygomatica)\s
the inferior  and anterior somewhat contracted part of the lateral sur-
face of the skull and the face.
  It is open on all parts upward, backward, and downward, and  also
outward in most of its extent, and even on this point it is but imper-
fectly closed near the centre of its height by an almost transverse  emi-
nence, the direction of which is from  before backward  and slightly
arched outward, which passes over it like a bridge.   This is  the zy-
gomatic arch (zygoma, arcus zygomaticus, jugalis) which extends from
the temporal bone to the face, or, to speak more precisely, to the upper
maxillary bope.
  It is much  flatter at its  upper than at its lower part,  where it is
depressed inward.   Its internal wall descends at first a little obliquely
from without inward, but in its lower portion it is perpendicular.   The
anterior is almost straight and very slightly grooved.  The zygomatic
arch anteriorly is broader than it is posteriorly.
  § 643.  The temporal fossa is formed from four bones, viz.  1st, the
sphenojd bone ; 2d, the temporal bone ; 3d, the upper maxillary bone ;
and 4th, the malar bone.  The larger and under wing of the sphenoid
bone constitutes almost all of its inner wall:  the upper and posterior
part, which is less extensive than the  rest, is formed from the anterior
part of the squamous portion of the temporal bone.   The  zygomatic
arch is formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone, and by
the malar bone.  This last and  the  upper maxillary bone form the
anterior wall of the fossa.
  § 644.  The temporal fossa communicates with the orbit by the  infe-
rior sphenoidal fissure, with the pterygoid fossa by  the  pterygo pala-
tine channel, and with the oral cavity by the posterior palatine foramen.
  § 645.  The temporal fossa, from the greater breadth of the skull and
the lowness of the face in the early periods of life, is much lower,'planer,
and narrower  from  above downward and from within  outward, but
longer on the contrary from before backward than in the'adult,

  II.  COMPARISON OF  THE BONES OP THE HEAD WITH EACH
           OTHER,  AND WITH  THE OTHER BONES.

   § 646.  The bones of the head differ very much from each other,
and from the other bones of the body, in regard to their forms ; there
are however great traits of analogy between them and the latter.   Cer-
tain bones ofthe skull, considered separately, or several together, more
or less evidently resemble the vertebrae.(l)

  (1) J. P. Prank first recognized the analogy between the skull and the vertebra;
(Sammlung auserlesener Abhandlungen, vol. xv. p. 267; Epit. decurandis horn, mor-
bis,  b. ii. p. 42); he deduced it from the relation between the brain and the spinal mar-
row. Burdin (Cours d'eludes medicates, Paris, 1803, vol. i. p, 16) also thought that
the head is only a vertebra more complicated than the others. This was also the 
OSTEOLOGY.                           453
   We must regard the occipital portion of the basilar bone  considered
as one bone, the  sphenoid portion united to the frontal bone, and the
two  temporal  bones  taken  collectively  with the  parietal bones, as
forming  three  systems, each corresponding  to a vertebra, so that the
skull is  composed very evidently of three vertebrae, placed  one  after
another  from behind forward.   It is easy to  demonstrate the justice of


opinion of Keilmeyer (A. L. Ulrich, Annotationcs quadam de scnsu ac significatione
ossium capitis, Berlin, 1816, p. 4).  But as J. F. St. Hilaire remarks it was necessary
to have had as clear an idea of this analogy as we now possess to discover it in the
midst of a ecnes of foreign ideas, among which it was thrown as if  by accident.
Dumeril has developed this idea still farther (Considerations generates sur t'analogie
qui existe entrc tous les os et les muscles du tronc dans les an imaux; in the Magasin
Encyclopedique, 1809, vol. iii).  Having attended to the articular surfaces to which
the muscles of the  spine were attached in man and  the mammalia, he thought he
could perceive that  the posterior parts of their skull presented eminences, processes,
depressions, and cavities like the posterior  parts of the vertebra;, whence he con-
cluded, in his public essay, that the  head is a vertebra immense in its  dimensions.
He established that the occipital hole corresponds to  the spinal canal, of whi,ch it ia
the origin ; that the basilar  process, and very often the body of the sphenoid bone,
correspond, in their structure and uses, to the bodies of the vertebra? ; that the con-
dyles represent their articular facets; that the occipital protuberance and the spaces
below it are analogous to  the spinous processes and their bony plates ; finally, that
the mastoid processes are exactly like the transverse processes.   Thus Dumeril pre-
sented his theory of analogies;  but the exact resemblance which he had perceived
was scarcely remarked or  at least  appeared but trifling, doubtless because it did not
coincide with the exact and consequently too  confined meaning attached  to the
word  vertebra.  At  the same time,  the German anatomists  were led  to the same
views by comparative anatomy. The celebrated Goethe conceived the idea that the
head contained several vertebra (Zur Xaturwisscnschaft, vol. i. p. 250);  he admitted
eix of thom, three of which, the occipital, the anterior and the posterior sphenoid
yertebrse  envelop the brain, and  the other  three, the palatine, the  superior max-
illary, and the intermaxillary vertebra, comprise that portion of the face in which
the organs of sense are situated.  Oken (Veber die Bcdeutung der Schddelknochen,
Jena, 1817) admits three cephalic vertebra;, the auricular, composed of  the occipital
bone, to which is attached  the petrous portion of the  temporal bone, the styloid pro-
cess of which corresponds to the sacrum, and the hyoid, which represents the pelvis ;
the maxiVary, of which the  posterior sphenoid forms the body and also the trans-
verse  and  oblique processes, and the parietal bones the spinous process, which also
represents the upper and lower extremities, since the squamous portion stands in the
place  of the scapula  and the iliac bone, the pterygoid process, of the  clavicle, the
malar bone, ofthe arm and the fore-arm, the upper maxillary bone, ofthe hand and
fingers, the inter-maxillary bone, ofthe thumb, the maxillary condyle, of the femur,
the coronoid process, of the  leg, and the anterior part of the bone, of the foot.  The
ocular, composed  of the anterior sphenoid ; its spinous  process is the frontal bone ;
while the vomer, the ethmoid bone, the inferior turbinated bones, the palate bones,
and the nasal bones unite  to represent the thorax.  These ideas have been brought
forward and modified by Oken (his, 1820, No. 6, p. 552;  Esquisse d'un systeme
d'anatomie, de physiologie et d'histoire naturelle, Paris, 1821,  p. 41).  In this last
treatise the author increases the number of the cephalic vertebrae to four, viz. 1st,
the auricular vertebra, which has for  its body the  basilar process, for transverse
processes  the lateral  occipital,  and for a spinous process the upper occipital pro-
cess;  2d, the Ungual vertebra, having  for a body the posterior sphenoid, and for
a spinous process the parietal bones; 3d, the ocular vertebra,  having  for a body the
anterior sphenoid, for transverse  processes the small wings  of the sphenoid bone,
bone, and for a spinous process the frontal bone ;  4th, the nasal vertebra, having for
a body the vomer, for transverse processes the ethmoid bone,  and for a  spinous pro-
cess the nasal bones.  According to him, the extremities may also be traced in the
head,  to wit, the arms in the upper maxillary bones,  and the feet in the lower max-
illary bone.  All these views have been adopted and the last especially fully developed
by J. B. Spix (Cephalogenesis, seu  capitis osseistruclura, formatio.et significatio per
omnes animalium classes, familias, genera el atatcs  digesta,  Munich, 1815).   Spix,
not content with calling the cranium a prolongation of the  vertebral  system, con- 
454
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
 this analogy in regarding the forms, the mode of development, and the
 functions of these pieces of bones.
    1st.  The analogy is no where  more  evident  than in the occipital
 portion of the basilar bone.   This  bone  forms, hke every vertebra, a
 ring, of which  the central part is thick and spungy, while the lateral

 siders it a second formation representing all its parts, so  that according to him,
 the being is formed by two complete sections, the one anterior and restrained in ita
 development, the  head;  the other posterior, and uninterruptedly  developed, the
 trunk:  and as the latter has its extremities, the limbs, so the skull has similar ex-
 tremities, the component parts of the face.  Farther, he admits but three cephalic
 vertebrae, called the occipital, the parietal, and the frontal vertebrae, from the parts
 which predominate, or the cranial, the  thoracic, and the abdominal vertebra;, from
 the parts of the trunk to which he supposes they correspond, or filially, the anterior,
 the central, and the postei ior vertebrae,  also from the analogies  which  he  admits
 between the  different parts of the head and trunk; so that reserving the face, he
 avails himself of three  corresponding sections, the  anterior, the central, and the
 posterior, to form the appendages or the extremities of the cephalic portion of the
 animal.   According to him the first cephalic vertebra, the occipital, presents all the
 parts of the pelvis in the temporal bones; and all those of  the inferior limbs in
 the lower maxillary bone ; the squamous portion  of the temporal bone is the ilium,
 the small bones of the ear are the pubis, and the ring ofthe tympanum is the ischium j
 the maxillary condyle corresponds to the femur, the coronoid  process to the tibia,
 the angle to the fibula, the tubercle above the posterior dental canal to the tarsus,
 the internal oblique line to the metatarsus, the alveolar process to the phalanges,
 and the teeth to the nails.  In the second cephalic vertebra, the nasal bone corres-
 ponds to the sternum, the malar bone to the scapula and to the clavicle, and  the
 upper mamillary bone contains  all  the parts of the upper extremity; finally, in  the
 third, the ethmoid bone represents the cricoid cartilage, the unguiform bone the
 thyroid cartilage, the palate bone and the internal wing of the pterygoid process the
 hyoid bone.  Ulrich (Loc. cit.) continues these researches, but  does not compare the
jaws except to the upper limbs, and does not trace the inferior extremities in the head.
  Cuvier (Regne animal, vol. i. p. 73) adopts the principle of the  analogy between
 the head and the  spine,  neglecting always the term vertebrae, and  admitting but
 three vertebra?, or, to use his own expression, rings (ceintures), ofthe skull, the an-
 terior of which is formed by the two frontal bones and the ethmoid  bone, the cen-
 tral by the parietal bone3 and the sphenoid bone, the posterior by the occipital bone.
 Blainville also recognizes this  principle of analogy (Bulletin de lasoc.phil., 1816,
 p. Ill, and 1817), and declares himself in iavor even of the accessory comparisons
 established by Oken and  Spix, at least as far as we can judge from the vague man-
 ner in which he expresses himself.  Carus gave a^ new support to the doctrine  of
 the three cranial vertebrae, by dividing the brain itself into three distinct portions
and endeavoring to de:ermine the bones belonging to each of them in the verte-
brated animals.  His work also is one of the most extensive which has been pub-
lished on this subject (Lehrbuch der Zootomie, Leipsic, 1818, p. 164).   Meckel (Bey-
 trage zur vergleichenden Anatomie, vol.  ii. p. 74-82), proposes to consider the whole
sphenoid bone as a second vertebra, to make the third in the ethmoid bone and the
frontal bone, and to regard  the temporal bone as a vertebra  cut in two.  .Schultz
(De primordiis systemalis ossium et de erolutione spina dorsi in animalibus, Halle,
 1818, p.  13) refuses to admit any analogy between the bones of  the face and the ver-
tebra;.   Bojanus (lsis, 1818, p. '-sOl ; 1819,  p.,1364), admits four cephalic vertebrae, the
first or the auricular, the second or the  gustative, the third or the ocular, and the
fourth or the olfactory, the body of which he formed in the vomer, the axis  in the
ethmoid  bone, and the spinous process  in the nasal bones.  At the  same time, he
considers the hyoid bones as the ribs of the first, the pterygoid processes as those of the
second, the external wings of these same processes as those of the third, and the bones
of the palate as those of the fourth.  Finally, he traces the upper extremities in the
mastoid, the tympanal, the squamous, the malar, and the upper  maxillary  bones,
and the lower extremities in the lower jaw.  Burdach ( Vierter Bcricht von der anat-
omischen Anstalt zu Kcenigsberg, Leipsic, 1821) endeavors to prove  there are but
three cephalic vertebra;,  and that the  other bones of the head are only secondary
parts of vertebrae.  Finally, J. F. St. Hilaire, wishing to settle  so  many uncertain-
ties, as«erted that we ought to begin by determining strictly the characters and the
conditions of a vertebra.   Neglecting the conditions founded on adults and assuming 
OSTEOLOGY.
455
 and  posterior portions are thin and extended in  processes ;  a rounded
 opening exists m it through which a portion ofthe central mass of the
 nervous system passes.

    Its squamous portion and its condyloid parts correspond perfectly to
 the semi-arches, and the basilar process to the body of  the vertebra, in

 higher considerations, he demonstrated, that a vertehra ia nr.t ^~^i   *
 section placed against other transverse ^^^^"^^^5^3
 parts to which as a whole the term column is'applied ;  in a*wo?d  thTit fsnot a
 single bone, but an osseous system formed of nine' elements, wWch may or mav not

 teeUDi1netla^-eSS-ntlaJly ?,°ntinue  he same (Consideration gen£l7sZ?ai™e.
 insects  n tbt Tnna,^ flf Uw>/ol: "" P; SS.TSur fe *^™e intra-vertebraTdes
 insectes, in the Annates de la medecine physiologique, vol. ii. p. 2331   These ele

 ™^m -  FP1       a  lower, which  contain the first  a  section of the medullary
 cSmon^d  f f    SC-°"d °Qe °^ the sanguineous system.  Each of these rings Z
 LTrPW i /     P^ces, namely, the upper of two perial and two epial, and the
 SthToll    P7?ul a?ud tW° C?a?L  In &eneral> °"e of tlle *w° increases always
 at the expense of the other, and when the excess  is extreme, the elements of tie
 smaller ring appear as very small processes. .  Like the difference between  the

 trie other, on the contrary, increased  and enlarged like  a ball, this difference not
 ony  requires an increase in the surface ofthe principal pieces,  but aho'aS
 with equal influence the concurrence ot all of them which must then combine u d-
 fortnly, without any dismemberment of external parts or projections, that is, simply
 become pieces of the external septum.  J.  F. St. Hilaire thus explains the defeat of
 projections and  processes, which forms one  of  the distinctive characters of the
 largest skulls.  1 he osseous system  having then only to inclose a medullary mass,
 it maintains as few  external relations  as  possible, while farther  on, having to
 protect only a  very smal  mass, the spinal marrow, it becomes rough exter-
 na ly, and all its  superficial points are formed of strong  processes for  each mus-
 cular part.  Leaving these  general ideas, to which it  was  necessary to arrive
 to determine  this  question,  and  to  deduce true  philosophical conclusions  in
 regard to the cephalic  bones, J. F. St. Hilaire concludes (Composition de la tete
 osseuse de I homme et des animaux, in the Annates des sciences naturelles, vol iii  n
 173) to consider the head, leaving out the lower jaw, as formed of seven vertebrae'
 which are named and composed as follows: 1st, the cerebelloid (cerebelleuse)vertebra
 comprising the basi-sphenal (the  posterior  segment of the basilar bone), two super-
 occipital (the upper occipital bones), two stapedial (the stapes), two ex-occipital (the
 lateral occipital bones), and two incudal pieces (the incudes); 2d, the auricular ver-
 tebra,  comprising the otosphenal (anterior section  of the basilar bone), two parietal
 (the parietal  bones'), two tympanal (the rings of the tympanum), two petrous (the
 petrous portion of the temporal bones), and two malleolar (the mallei); 3d  the optic
 or quadrijumal vertebra,  comprising  the  hyposphenal  (the posterior body of the
 sphenoid bone), two cotyleal, two pterygoid (the large wings of the sphenoid bone)
 two temporal (the squamous portion of the temporal bone), two serrial (the large por-
 tions of the tympanum); 4th, the cerebral vertebra, comprising the ento-sphenal
 (the anterior body of the sphenoid bone), two ingrassial (the wings of ino-rassias)
 two ad-orbital (the orbital portions of the maxillary bone), two jugal (the majar
 bones), two herisseal (the internal pterygoid processes); 5th, the ocular vertebra
 comprising the ethmosplienal (the body of the ethmoid bone), two frontal (the frontal
 bone), two ad-gustal (the external pterygoid processes), two palpebral (the tarsal car-
 tilages), and two ethmophysal (the upper turbinated  bones); 6th, the nasal vertebra
 comprising the rhinosphenal (the plate of the ethmoid bone), two nasal (the bones of
 the nose), two palatal (the palate bones), two lachrymal (the unguiform bones), two
 rhinophysal (the inferior turbinated bones); 7th, the labial vertebra comprising the
 protosphenal, two  ad-nasal (the intermaxillary bone), two vomeral (the vomer) two
 addental (the dental parts of the maxillary bone,) and two protophysal (the cartilage
 of the  nose.  As to the lower jaw J. F. St. Hilaire says, independently of the seven
 cephalic vertebrae, admits in each of these branches seven pieces  at most, viz. the
 subdental, the sublachrymal, the subpalpebral, the subjugal, the subtemporal, the sub-
rupeal,  and the sub-occipital.  Thus, according to him, the head is composed of
Beventy-seven bones, the  skull and face of sixty-three pairs, and  seven which are
unmated, and the lower jaw of seven pairs.                               p# -p 
456                  DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.

regard to form  and situation.  The squamous  part  represents  the
spinous process, and the condyloid portions are analogous to the trans-
verse and articular processes.
   The different  parts of which it is composed are developed like those
of the vertebrae;  the squamous and the condyloid portions appear
before the body,  and the different pieces which form the posterior  and
lateral portions fuse together before they unite to the body.
   The body unites with the  central portion of the  sphenoid bone
forward, audits lateral parts articulate with the cervical vertebra back-
ward, in  the same  manner as do the analogous portions of the vertebrae
with each other.
   Similar muscles are attached to the occipital bone and the different
vertebrae.  So too this bone contains like each vertebra a part of the
central portion of  the nervous system.   Between it the first vertebra
backward and the temporal bone forward we find the same foramina
as between the  other  vertebra, and these holes give passage to he
same nerves and vessels.
   As the bodies of the other vertebra? most generally fuse with each
other in some parts at an  advanced age, so the bodies of the occipital
and the  sphenoid bones always unite in a single bone.   Their fusion
however takes  place sooner.   Finally, as the last lumbar vertebra
often unites to the sacrum, so the  occipital bone tends very much to
unite in different ways  with the first cervical vertebra.
   2d. The sphenoid portion of  the  basilar bone and the frontal bone
taken together, represent the' second of the anterior vertebrae compos-
ing  the  skull.   We may also consider them as composed of several
imperfect vertebra?.
   In regarding them in the first point of view, the body of the sphe-
noid portion corresponds to that of  the vertebra.  Its two wings  and
the frontal bone  represent its lateral portion.   Most of the frontal bone
and the large wing of the sphenoid bone are in fact analogous to the
posterior and superior part of the semi-arches, as the malar process of
the frontal bone  and the inferior  pterygoid process correspond to  the
articular and the transverse processes of the vertebra?.  We must con-
sider the frontal bone as belonging to the anterior vertebra of the skull,
because the lateral parts of the sphenoid portion alone do not curve to
meet one another, and do  not  unite with the body  to  form a ring
inclosing the anterior part of the brain, while this ring is produced by
the assistance of the frontal bone.
   The very complicated ossification of this  vertebra occurs accord-
ing  to the same  laws as that of  the vertebra? of the trunk.Those
pieces which correspond to the lateral parts ossify long before  the
body of the sphenoid portion; and it is a normal condition, that the
two lateral halves of the largest  portion of the  arch of the frontal
bone unite in  the same  manner as the semi-arches of the vertebra?.
If the lower part of these lateral pieces unites earher with the body of
the  sphenoid portion, thus differing from what occurs in the vertebra?,
this difference is made up by another circumstance, viz. that  the body 
OSTEOLOGY.
457
of the sphenoid portion does not completely develop itself, or does not
acquire its sinuses, until the pieces of the frontal bone are fused.
  Several smaller vertebra? may be demonstrated in this large anterior
vertebra of the skull.  In fact, we can imagine the sphenoid portion
formed of two vertebra?; a posterior, which is larger, and represented
by the body and the large wings, and an anterior, which is smaller,
and formed by the small wings ; and we can suppose the frontal bone
either as a portion of this anterior vertebra, which would then be much
larger than the posterior, or as the arch of a vertebra of which the body
is not developed, since the  arches  of the true vertebra? are always
formed before their bodies.
  The central vertebra ofthe skull is formed by the temporal and the
parietal bones.  The temporal bones represent a vertebra divided at its
lower portion into two parts by the.basilar bone.   The  parietal bones
and the squamous  portion with the zygomatic and the mastoid pro-
cesses of the temporal bone, represent the semi-arches and processes;
while the petrous portion ofthe temporal bone corresponds to the body
of the vertebra.   But we may also, as in the anterior vertebra of the
skull, consider the parietal bone only as  the  rudiment of a particular
vertebra, and regard  the temporal  bones as two  halves of vertebrae,
entirely distinct from each other.
  Here also the parts of the arches are developed sooner than that of
the body, and it is remarkable that of all the sutures, the sagittal suture
is most  frequently and the soonest effaced;  so that the semi-arches
unite  on the median line before they blend with the other portions.
  The ethmoid bone differs so strikingly from all the other bones of the
skull, that at first view we cannot  perceive the least relation between
them.  We may, however, represent it as a fourth anterior and inferior
vertebra of the skull, which, pressed in between the others, would not
be developed in a ring, and would be flattened from one side to the other.
We may, however, consider its perpendicular plate  as the body, and
its lateral portions as the semi*arches.
  Here, as in the rest, the lateral portions ossify before the central part.
  § 647. In the hones ofthe face, the analogy with the vertebra? is less
easily demonstrated.  One great point of resemblance is here deficient,
viz., the relation with the central part ofthe nervous system.  We may,
however, consider,  in some measure, the upper maxillary bone as a
large facial vertebra, of which the other bones of the face are  a compli-
ment.   We may also compare the lower maxillary bone with the upper
part of the sternum  and the upper ribs,  and  the styloid processes and
the hyoid apparatus with the lower part of the sternum and the  lower
ribs ; for their semicircular form, their convexity forward, their conca-
vity backward, their movable articulation with the skull, and their situa-
tion before it,  establish a general correspondence with the sternum and
with the ribs, in regard to form and connections ; and more so, because
the upper ribs are united with the upper part of the sternum more inti-
mately  than the lower ribs are with the lower part of this bone; pre-
cisely the same as the lower maxillary bone constitutes a single bone,
  Vol. I.                     58 
458
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
while the hyoid bones and the styloid processes always form several
distinct pieces.
   We may also add, in favor of this analogy, that as the lower maxil-
lary bone and the ribs are among the bones which are developed  the
first, and as the ribs form  long before the sternum, so, too, the lower
maxillary bone generally corresponds to the ribs fused together, and is
composed only of two halves, the intermediate cartilage being gradually
effaced. When two special nuclei are formed in this cartilage, as some-
times but rarely happens, the analogy is still greater; since these nuclei,
which correspond to the pieces ofthe sternum, arise long after the lateral
portions.(l)
   § 648. Finally, we may compare the whole bony head to a large ver-
tebra, composed of several, which are smaller and immovably articulated
with each other, and accompanied by some rudiments of ribs fused to-
gether.   This method of considering it is much more admissible,  be-
cause  the bones of the skull and some of those of the face tend to unite
in a single piece ; and even in young subjects, we not unfrequently find
all the sutures effaced, and then the head is composed of three bones
only, which move on one another,—the lower maxillary bone and  the
hyoid bones anteriorly, and the collection of the bones of the skull and
face posteriorly.
   § 649. The differences ofthe head at different periods of hfe are very
great.(2)
   They regard principally 1st, form; 2d, mass;  3d, number;  4th, the
mode of union of the bones;  5th, the form of the whole; 6th, the pro-
portion between the skull and the face.
   1st.  The form.  The bones  of the  head are much less rough and
uneven, and their eminences project less, the younger the organism is.
But those of the skull, or at least the occipital bone, the parietal bone,
and the frontal bone, differ  at different periods of life, inasmuch as from
the fourth month of pregnancy to the end of the first year of existence,
they are much less uniformly bulging than at anterior and subsequent
periods ;  but they project considerably  at their central part, where  the
point of ossification develops itself;  so  that the  upper and lower por-
tions there unite at an almost right angle.  Before the fourth month, the
bones  of the skull are much flatter than in the rest  of  life, and more so
as they are smaller.
   2d.  The mass.  The bones of the  head  increase in extent, thickness,
and weight, from the commencement till  the termination of their deve-
lopment in the adult age; but after this  time, and till old age, they
always diminish in these three relations.  Hence, in advanced life they
are  thinner, often perforated in several parts, especially where they are

   (1) It seems less proper to compare the jaws to limbs, and the hyoid bones to the
pelvis, as Oken has done; although it is not difficult to trace the cavity of the chest
in the nasal fossae, and that ofthe abdomen in the oral cavity.  It is perhaps from the
considerable development of the cephalic vertebrae and brain, that the other bones of
the head can become only the rudiments of the  ribs and sternum fused together.
   (2) Recherches sur le crane humain, by Tenon ; in Mem. de I'Inslit. sc. phys. et
math., vol. i. p. 221-233.—Spix, Cephalogenesis, Munich, 1815. 
OSTEOLOGY.                       459
naturally thin, as the external and anterior  part of the large wing of
the sphenoid bone, and the orbital portion of the malar bone:  from this
cause, the malar bone is frequently separated from  the sphenoid  bone
in this  place;  the sphenoidal fissure is  often very extensive;  the
maxillary bones are narrower by the entire height ofthe alveolar edges;
and finally, the skull becomes lighter and smaller.
  The difference of weight between the skulls of old men and those in
mature  age is  much greater than that of volume.  The skull of a
female seventy  years old, now before  us, weighs fourteen ounces, and
that of a girl twenty years  of age weighs  twenty-four  ounces; the
first is nearly one half lighter than the second.
  3d. The number of the bones of the head  differs at different periods
of life.  At first the number is smaller, because ossification  does not
commence in all parts at  the same time.   Next, the bones are more
numerous, because some  bones are developed by several points of ossi-
fication, whence result separate pieces, which gradually unite.
  4th. The connection of the bones of the  head is  much looser the
younger the subject is ; because the bony pieces are less extensive and
are separated by larger intermediate  cartilages.  In very old persons,
the bones which are united, during the greater part of hfe, by a simple
immovable cartilaginous substance, almost always fuse together.  This
is the case particularly with the parietal bones which unite with each
other, or with the frontal  and the occipital bones, and it is true also of
the ethmoid bone which joins with the inferior turbinated bone, while the
latter is  fused with the upper maxillary bone.
  5th. In the early periods of life, the whole form of the head is much
rounder than at an advanced age, which is  particularly owing to the
small development of the face which the skull overreaches in every
direction, and which is proportionally much smaller the  younger the
fetus  is.  In fact, the difference between  the greatest length and
breadth  of the head is  much greater  the younger the fetus is, but it
bulges more in  all parts of its circumference,  which makes its general
form more round.   We remark especially, during the early periods of
uterine existence,  that the skull is much broader and less compact in
the region ofthe temples than it is afterward,-and that the frontal bone,
the parietal bone, and the occipital bone, are  much  more bulging.  In
a later period the bones sink remarkably.
  The more rounded form ofthe skull during the early periods of preg-
nancy also results from the slight development of its base. In fact, this
is shorter and narrower, and forms with the lateral and posterior faces
a more obtuse angle.
  § 650. The form of the bones of the head, and consequently of the
whole bony cavity,  varies very considerably in the different  races.(l)
The differences in  this point of view are more or less evident in all di-
rections and in  all  regions.  Hence the facial angle of Camper (§51)

  (1) Blu menbach, Decades collections sua craniorum diversarum gentium illustrata,
Gottingen, 1790-1814. 
460
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
will not measure them exactly, since it indicates only the direction of the
anterior part of the skull and face, and gives only a general idea of the
profile.   We must then, at the same time, employ other means to de-
termine it.   Thus, on the one hand, we practice the method recom-
mended  by Blumenbach,(l) that is,  we embrace as much as possible
all the peculiarities with a single glance, looking from behind forward,
while the head rests on the lower maxillary bone, so that the malar bones
may be horizontal;  2d, we follow Cuvier's  method, which consists in
looking at the head from  above downward and from before backward,
to judge ofthe relations of capacity between the skull and the face.
  We have already mentioned (§ 34)  the results of these measurements,
which furnish the  principal distinctive characteristics of the  human
races.
  The difference between the skull and the face in the relation of their
respective capacities, is most important.  The difference is most favor-
able  to  the skull in  the European race; and most unfavorable to it
in the Ethiopian.  Thus, the skull of  a negro, compared with thirty-
six skulls of Europeans, contained less water than any of them (2).
  Besides these differences of races, there are others which establish a
difference  more or  less remarkable  in the skulls of different people
belonging to the same race.
  The nations ofthe south, in whom we see the purity ofthe Caucasian
race, or  those which  are most allied  to it, as the  Greeks and Turks,
differ from all other nations belonging  to this race by their very round
heads.(3)

                         CHAPTER IV.

    I. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ANOMALIES OF THE BONES
                         OF THE HEAD.

         I. OP THE CONGENITAL DEVIATIONS OF FORMATION.

   § 651. The congenital deviations  in the formation of the bones of
the head, affect their number, form, connection, and size, and are for
the most part more or less dependent on their mode  of development.
These four conditions are almost always united.   We can, however,
refer to one or another of them,  only the essence of every deviation of
formation of a bone of the head, since  the number of these last never.
increases, like those of the trunk and extremities, by the formation of
new pieces, but  by the division of the  primitive bones into several, so
that we remark  proportional differences in the form, connections, and
size of  the bones,  the division of  which has increased the whole
number.

  (1) De variet. gen. hum. nat., Gottingen, 1794, p. 203.
  (2) Saumarez, Principles of Physiology, London, 1798, p. 163.
  (2) For other differences which are less constant, see the work by Blumenbach
already cited, and Soemmering's Osteology. 
OSTEOLOGY.
461
                     I. ABSENCE AND SMALLNESS.

   § 652. The bones of the head are entirely deficient in acephalia vera.
 In those cases of acephalia which are somewhat more perfectly de-
 veloped, we rarely find a slight  rudiment of  a head composed  of
 several bones.(l)
   After this state, comes, as regards its external form, the acephalia
falsa,  in which  the base of the  skull  and  the face  are  generally
 regularly developed ; but in which also the bones, or  the portions ofthe
 bones which form the vault  of the skull, are entirely deficient, or are
 very small.
   Next comes that state of the bones  of  the  skull which exists in
 encephalocele, when several of these bones, or one only, (generally the
 occipital bone,) is but slightly developed ; and a  portion of the brain, or
 serum collected  between it  and  its  envelops, projects through  the
 opening.
   Next follows  the arrangement of  the bones  of the skull in  hydro-
 cephalus, where  they are more or  less  distant  from one another, and
 are often separated by unossified spaces.
   The next state is the permanence of the fontanelles, which some-
 times remain, in  one or several parts, during hfe.
   The state which is the least abnormal, although usually attended
 with some degree of  imperfection in the  intellectual faculties, on
 account ofthe corresponding state ofthe brain, is the smallness of the
 head, characterized by the flatness of the anterior portion ofthe skull,
 and by its narrowness in the transverse direction:  this is principally seen
 in ideots(2).

              I.  SEPARATION OP THE BONES OF THE HEAD.

   § 653. The best name for the abnormal  bones, resulting from this
division is, that of bones ofthe sutures (ossa suturarum).(3)  This in
fact is the only general  character we can assign to them, since they
 are not developed, except at the circumference of the  concave bones;
and never, or at  least but very rarely, within them.   When the latter
is the case, the abnormal bones form only between those parts of bone
which are transiently separated, as between the different pieces of the
occipital bone ; and usually unite when the development is  finished.
The terms triangular bones (ossa triquetra) and wormian  bones (4)
  (1) Curtius, De monstro humano, LeydeD, 1762.—Meckel, Handbuch der patho-
logischen Anatomie, vol. i. p. 151.
  (2) Greding, in Ludwig, Adv. med. pract., vol. ii. and iii.
  (3) Bertin, Traite d'osteologie, vol. ii. p. 470.—Bose, De suturis cranii, Leipsic,
1763.—Monro, A skull uncommon for the number and size of the ossa triquetra, in the
Edin. med. essays, vol. v. no. 16.—Van Doeveren, Spec. obs. acad., ch. viii.—Sandi-
fort, De ossiculis suturarum, in Obs. anat. path, book iii. chap. ix. and book iv. chap.
x. p. 136-141.
  (4) These bones have been called also intercalia or epactalia.  One of them occurs
frequently in the posterior fontanelle ; it is the proper epactal bone, the triangular
bone  of Blaes, the os epactale, s. gathianum of Fischer. (G. Fischer, Observata
quadam de os epactali sen Goethiano palmigradorum, Moscow, 1811.—Adversar. 
462
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
 (ossa wormiana), are less suitable when  considered generally.  The
 first term, however, is not perfectly appropriate, as the division  of the
 frontal  bone into two lateral portions also enters into this anomaly,
 although  the relations of this  bone with those around  it are not
 changed.
   These bones are remarkable in several  respects.   In fact, 1st, their
 formation is governed by very precise laws; 2d, they depend, in great
 part, on the normal development of the bones; 3d, for the most part
 they establish striking analogies with animals.
   1st.  These bones are formed according to constant laws.  The follow-
 ing circumstances prove it:.
   a. They are usually arranged more or less symmetrically, so that wo
 rarely find them on one side ofthe body only ; and when unmated, they
 usually extend as much on one side as on  the other.
   b. They occur more particularly in the cranium, and much more
 rarely in the face.
   c. They are not equally common in all parts of the skull.  They
 are observed  most frequently between the occipital  bone on one side,
 and the parietal and the temporal bones on the other.   They are most
 generally situated in the lambdoid suture, more rarely in the mastoid
 suture.   The parts  in  which they are next  most frequent, are  the
 squamous suture, especially at its anterior extremity, between the large
 wing of the sphenoid bone, the squamous portion of the temporal bone,
 and the frontal  and the parietal bones.   They are  more rare in the
 sagittal suture,   where they are seen principally between  the two
 parietal and the frontal  bones, consequently at the anterior extremity
 of this  suture.   They are least common  between the sphenoid bone
 and the adjacent bones.
   In the face, the bones ofthe sutures are met with principally between
 the os  planun of the  ethmoid bone  and  the frontal, the  unguiform
 and the upper maxillary bones, and also between the  latter and
 the unguiform bones.   They are more rare between the  two upper
 maxillary bones.  It is equally  unusual  to find the lower maxillary
 bone or  the malar bones composed of two parts.
   d. We mav state as a general rule, that they are developed most
 frequently in the places where large cavities are to be filled.   They are
 very frequent  in the fontanelles, and are most common in the posterior,
 and next in the anterior  lateral,  middle lateral and the posterior
lateral fontanelles.
   e. They vary much in size.  Sometimes they are only small pieces
of bone,  and sometimes the whole bone is divided into two equal parts.
Thus, the occipital bone is sometimes divided into an upper and a lower
portion,  and the frontal bone is formed of two lateral portions of equal
size.  There are  numerous degrees intermediate between these two
extremes.
anatomica, Moscow, 1819. Another, almost as common, is situated in the temporal
fossa. Beclard proposes to call it the crotophal bone. The others occupy the occipito-
parietal suture, the place of the posterior and inferior fontanelle and  the parietal
suture.                                                     F. T. 
OSTEOLOGY.
463
  / The cause of the abnormal want  of union  between the parts of
bone,  is not  always  manifest.  Although the  anomaly is usually
attended with an accumulation of serum within the  skull (hydro-
cephalus), and with the distention of the ossifying surfaces ; we cannot,
however, say it is owing to this distention,  and suppose, with Blu-
menbach(l)  that the fetus has been affected with hydrocephalus
which has been cured.
  2d. The formation of these pieces of bone depends, in great part, on
the normal development of the bones of the head.   In fact,
  a. The separation of the frontal bone into two portions is normal
from the origin of this bone till the first year of life.
  b. The occipital portion of the basilar bone forms  gradually by the
union of eleven pieces (§ 543), and these are the pieces which are
abnormally separated.
  c. The  temporal bone is also formed by four nuclei  (§ 554);  and
these are the nuclei which remain more or less sensibly distinct.
  d. The small bones of the sutures are most usually formed by the
natural development of the bones of the head, since new  nuclei always
form on the circumference of the primitive germs of bone, which are
smaller  and  more distinct, and which unite  with them in one mass
when the development proceeds regularly.
  All the'bones  of the sutures however, do not depend upon  the
abnormal division of the separate pieces of bone,  which form only one
piece in the normal state ; and we cannot consider.them all as resulting
from an imperfect development.  In  fact, those in the large and the
anterior lateral fontanelles, and in  the squamous suture, and also the
division of the squamous portion of the temporal bone  and of the frontal
bone into two parts  situated one above the other, are not normal, but
are distinct and special formations.
  3d. It is generally very easy to trace the  analogy between these
abnormal bones and the structure of animals.
  a. In most animals the frontal  bone is composed of  two lateral
halves.
  6. The  separation  of  the  occipital bone in different  osseous pieces
is also an  arrangement which remains in many animals during  life,
and in others until birth.   In many reptiles this bone is  divided during
life into a basilar, an articular, and a squamous portion, and this  last
itself into an  upper and a lower  portion.  It is true that the first three
parts and the squamous portion unite in a single piece in the mamma-
lia ; but in many animals, as also in the fishes, the  squamous portion
is divided into two parts.
  c. The mastoid portion of the temporal bone forms a distinct bone in
the mole.
  d. The primitive arrangement, that is, the insulation of the different
nuclei of bone, remains during hfe in the gecko.(2)
m Jtvnocnemenru, \>. iou.                         . .   .  ....
(2) Carus, Anatomie und Physiologie des Scrvensystcms, Leipsic, 1821. 
464
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
   However, the other bones of the sutures, which constitute posi-
tive anomahes, do not appear in animals.
   From what precedes, it follows that  our views upon  the  origin of
these bones are more extensive than certain anatomists have thought,(l)
since we can say, that most of  them are produced by a development
deficient in energy.
   §  654.  The development of these bones forms an unusual number
of sutures, since its essence consists in increasing the number of pieces
of bone at the expense of the normal bones.
   The slightest deviation from the normal state is  the existence of a
suture called the frontal suture (sutura frontalis) between the disunited
portions of the frontal bone, which sometimes extends  through the
whole bone, and sometimes exists only at its upper or lower part, more
frequently in the former.  As this suture is continuous with the sagit-
tal suture, and cuts the  coronal  suture at a right angle, those heads
which have them  are termed capita cruciata.   The other supernu-
merary  sutures arising from the same source are usually small and
imperfect, and do not extend the whole breadth or height of the bone.
Sometimes,  however, we find the occipital bone and more rarely the
parietal bone entirely divided by  a transverse suture into an upper and
a lower half.
   We must remark, in regard to  this, that the division is most frequent
in the frontal bone; it is  more rare  in  the squamous portion of the
occipital bone, and still less.frequent  in the parietal bones ;  so that its
degree of  frequency is in direct  ratio with the time during which the
bone remains in its  primitive form, or,  more particularly, with the
occurrence of deviations of formation in the primitive pieces.
   If the number and situation of the  bones of the sutures be such as to
form along one of the usual sutures a chain corresponding to the nor-
mal form of the corresponding edges  of the bones, which are wedged
in between them, we then have double sutures (suturs duplices), which
are generally seen between several bones of the same skull, since these
bones are usually developed in several regions of the skull in the same
eubject,  but not in the same number.
   The  unusual  distance between the bones of the skull, which is
caused by hydrocephalus, is allied  to the abnormal  development of
separate bones formed at the expense of the normal bones.   Then we
have developed not  only a greater or  less number of bones of the
sutures, but these are also separated  by large unossified spaces.
   Finally, we must arrange here  the want of union between the
palate-bone  and upper  maxillary bone on the  median line, which
essentially constitutes hare-lip.   Another  anomaly alhed to this, and
dependent on the same proximate cause, is the imperfect ossification of
the skull-bones, which present from space to space hollows  filled with
cartilaginous substance only.   This anomaly is also seen in hydroce-
phalus, and is sometimes primitive and sometimes consecutive.

            (1) Hildebrandt, Lehrbuch der Anatomie,-vol. i. p. 216. 
OSTEOLOGY.
465
          III. OF THE ABNORMAL UNION OF BONES OF THE HEAD.

  , JJ55'  TihG fate °WPoAteJ° that which we have examined super-
  venes usually at an advanced age ;  but it is not rare in young people,
  and is frequently seen in hydrocephalus, in consequence of the disap-
  pearance of the cartilaginous layer  interposed between the adjacent

    These anomalies are also subject to certain laws :
    a. The  pieces of bone which remain separate  and distinct bevond
  the proper periods usually fuse with the adjacent bones sooner "than
  these unite with one another.
    b. Of all the bones of the skull, the parietal bones unite soonest and
  most frequently : their union commences generally, but not always, in
  the centre of the sagittal suture.  The temporal bones and the occi-
  pital bone  unite less frequently, and the frontal bone still  less  so •  in
  regard to which we must observe that the central portion of the coro-
  nal suture  is usually the first to disappear.  The union of the  frontal
  and the temporal bones, tf these latter with the sphenoid bone, and of
  the ethmoid bone with the adjoining bones, is more rare.
   In the face, the inferior  and the middle turbinated bones fuse with
 the upper maxillary bone, the vomer unites with  the sphenoid bone
 and the two nasal bones with each other.
   § 656. The bones of the skull sometimes become unusually large
 This state  generally attends hydrocephalus, and the anomaly becomes
 very striking when we regard the base  of the skull at the same time,
 since we there see more or  less  sensible marks  of the compression
 caused by  a mechanical power acting from within  outward.
   § 657.  The bones of the skull vary also in thickness.  In advanced
 age they are thinner than during the early periods of hfe.  The same
 thing is seen in  hydrocephalus.   However, at the end of life they
 become thicker, but also very spungy.   They are  also  thicker in
 ideots ;(1) although then the relation of causahty between this state of
 the skull and that of the brain probably is not always the same since
 the excessive development of the bones from within may be  a primitive
 anomaly, and  cause a compression of the brain which is injurious or
 their unusual increase may depend upon a want of nutrition and on the
 shrinking of the brain.   Besides, the  thickening of the bones of the
 skull  is attended  sometimes with  an increase and sometimes with  a
 diminution in the density of their tissue.
   § 658. The bones of the skull are sometimes abnormal by a  defect
 in symmetry, so that they, and  consequently the whole head, appear
 oblique.   This  state depends perhaps upon a primitive congestion of
serum in the skull, and upon  the  unequal pressure exercised  by the
fluid.  It sometimes attends mental derangement.

     (1)  Greding, in Ludwig, Adv. med. pract, vol. ii. p. 456, vol. iii. p. 600.
  Vol. I.                        59 
466
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  The bones of the skull present other anomalies, especially in cretin-
ism.(l)   Although  the form of the head in cretins is not always
exactly the same, the  skull however is generally low, less  bulging
particularly in the frontal and the occipital regions, and on the contrary
unusually broad from side to side; the base from before backward is
short and somewhat compressed; the sutures are more or less com-
pletely  effaced, and  filled with  numerous bones of the sutures.   In
regard, to particular bones, the basilar bone differs most from the nor-
mal state :  it is small, flat and even concave  at its upper part, while
its articular parts and  the  occipital foramen are more or less oblique
and sometimes  almost  perpendicular, so that the  articular  portions
look directly forward, and the basilar process and the body ofthe sphe-
noid bone are straight and very elevated.
  It often  happens  also that the skull is more or less oblique, espe-
cially in the moderate degrees of cretinism, which obliquity seems to
depend  upon the existence of the anomalies on one side only.
  § 659. The consecutive or accidental deviations of formation in the
bones of the head are,
  1st. The solutions of continuity.  Sometimes these are fissures (fis-
surs), which are often extremely small, and are then termed capillary
openings.  They differ  from the normal or abnormal sutures  in being
straighter,  in the periosteum not adhering with as much force as usual,
in not having cartilage upon their edges, and in being seen in the
places upon which the wounding cause  has acted.  We  call these
counter-fissures  (contra-fissurs)  when they  supervene on the side
opposite to that on which the blow  has been  struck.  Both extend
from one bone to another, passing over the sutures.   Sometimes there
are depressions  (depressiones), when there is no solution  of continuity,
but a piece, wholly or partly detached, is pressed in.   Depressions can
take place  without a fracture injouth, because of the thinness and the
elasticity of the bones of the head.
  2d. The separation of the connections of the bone (diastasis), which,
if the sutures are perfectly developed, can be caused  only by a very
violent mechanical action.
                         SECTION III.

             OF THE BONES OF THE EXTREMITIES.

   § 660.  The bones of the upper and lower extremities correspond not
only on the right and  left sides, but also upward and downward;  so
that the lower limbs are a repetition ofthe upper, in respect to number

  (1) J. F. Ackermann, Veber die Kretinen, eine besondere Menschenabart in den
Alpen, Gotha, 1790.—Fodere, Essai sur le goitre et le cretinage, Turin,  1792.—Mi-
chaeli3, Veber die Kretinen im Salzburgischen, in Blumenbach, Med. Bibl., vol. iii.
p. 658.—Joseph and Charles Wenzel, Ueber den Krelinismus,  Vienna, 1802.—H.
Reeve, Some account of cretinism, in the Edin. med. journ., vol. v. 1809,  p. 31-36.—
Iphofen, Der Cretinismus,philosophischund medicinisch untcrsucht, Dresden, 1817. 
OSTEOLOGY.
467
and form, and  the mutual relations of the different sections of which
each limb is composed.
  § 6G1   Each is composed of four grand sections : the first is formed
principally by one large bone ;  this is the scapu'ar portion (Portio sza.
pulans) in the upper limb, and the iliac portion (P. iliaca) in the lower;
the second includes  one cylindrical bone, the humerus in the upper ex-
tremity and the femur in the lower; in both, the longest and the next
section is composed  essentially of two bones, which are the radius and
the ulna in the fore-arm, and the tibia and the fibula in the leg; the
fourth comprises, in the  upper extremity, the bones of the hand, and
below, those of the foot, which correspond with each  other almost
perfectly in number, form, and divisions.
                         CHAPTER I.

         OF THE BONES OF THE UPPER EXTREMITIES.

                     ARTICLE  FIRST.

                 OF THE RONES OF THE SHOULDER.

   § 662. We find on each side two bones in the region ofthe shoulder:
the larger is flat, situated backward and a little on the side; the smaller
is cylindrical and is situated at the anterior and  superior part of the
shoulder : the former is termed the scapula, the latter the clavicle.

                       I. OF THE SCAPULA.

   § 663. The scapula (omoplata) has in general the form of an equi-
lateral triangle, the base of which looks upward, and it extends, when
all the muscles  which unite the bones of the trunk  and those of the
superior extremities are inactive, from the second to about the seventh
rib, and its internal edge is nearly an inch distant from the lateral por-
tion of the spinal column.
   § 664. It has three edges ;  the internal is longer than the external,
and hence is called the base (basis scapuls).  In its  upper  fourth, its
direction is from above downward and from without inward, and it is
more or less convex. After leaving this point, it proceeds almost directly
downward and outward, and is parallel to the external.   The  latter,
which unites to it at an acute angle, is most prominent at its lower
part, where it is straight and very thin, while it is slightly concave and
much thicker at its upper portion; so  that the anterior and posterior
faces of the scapula, particularly the latter, pass much beyond it.  The
upper extremity  of this edge enlarges still more, to form a superficial •
oblong cavity, which is narrower upward, and is called the glenoid
cavity  (cavitas  glenoidea),  and  which projects  very  far outward.
The upper  edge is  oblique from within outward  and from  above 
468                  DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
downward, and it is slightly concave at its  upper part.   Toward its
internal extremity, we see a  semicircular grove (incisura semilunaris,
lunula), which is more or less distinct, but always distinguished from
the rest ofthe concavity by a greater depth.  This fissure is sometimes
changed into a foramen by, a slip of bone.
   Where the superior an# external edges unite, the scapula extends
into a process curved upward and forward, the coracoid process (pro-
cessus coracoideus). The upper face of this process is turned inward and
its lower face outward.
   § 665.  The posterior and external face of the scapula is divided into
two portions by an eminence which extends obliquely from the internal
to the external edge, and is called  the spine  of the scapula (spina sca-
puls); the upper is smaller, and is termed the fossa supra-spinata;  the
inferior portion is much larger, and is termed the fossa infra-spinata.
The whole external face of the scapula is a little convex backward,
particularly in the fossa supra-spinata.   The  spine itself begins near
the internal edge, by a small, triangular, broad elevation, which inclines
downward very  much, and  gradually enlarges from  within  outward.
It does not go directly backward, but is  inclined at the same time from
below upward and from before backward, so  that it makes an acute
angle with the supra-spinal portion, and an obtuse angle with the infra-
spinal portion.
   It does not extend as far as the external  edge, but stops at some   %
distance from  the posterior  edge of the articular surface ; so that an
interval exists between this and the last, which is the neck of the sca-
pula (collum  scapuls).   The direction of  the spine  now  changes,
and it enlarges very much from without inward.   This part, which is
found about an inch distant from the glenoid cavity, and which projects
upward  and inward, is called  the acromion process; it is the highest
point of the scapula. It confines the motions of the head of the humerus
inward and upward, as the coracoid  process limits them forward  and
upward.  * Its posterior edge  presents, immediately behind this upper
extremity, a small straight surface which is  covered with cartilage.
   § 666. The anterior face is more uniform.   It presents only a slight
depression, which corresponds to the spine ;  and we can distinguish on
it also a  supra-spinal and an infra-spinal portion.   This latter usualhy
presents three small ridges, which ascend upward and  outward from
the base, and which unite nearly in the centre, and between which are
superficial depressions.  All  the anterior face is slightly concave.
   § 667. The infra-spinal portion of the scapula is the thinnest.  The
bone becomes thicker toward its edges, but principally toward the inter-
nal, and on the side of the articular eminence.  It is a little thinner in
the coracoid process, and still more so in the spine, although  this is
 thicker than the fosss.
   § 668. The scapula first appears toward the end ofthe second month
 of pregnancy, as a flat and irregularly quadrilateral bone, on the sur-
 face of which the spine  is  not yet  visible;  this is developed at the 
OSTEOLOGY.                       469
third month of pregnancy, and extends from its origin beyond the upper
edge.
   In  the full grown fetus the processes appear, but are still almost
entirely  cartilaginous.  The  spine never develops itself by a single
point of ossification, but appears as a prolongation backward ofthe pos-
terior face.  Gradually, however, we see a distinct germ of bone for the
coracoid process, which exists even in the full grown fetus, or at least
appears in the first year.  It is, however, usually united with the rest
of the scapula in subjects fifteen years old.  At the point of union, and
about the  period when it  is finished, there is developed, above and at
the base of the coracoid process, a rounded nucleus of bone,  which
remains separate and distinct  longer than the other processes.   After-
ward, when the coracoid process is united, we see also special nuclei of
bone for the upper part of the acromion process, for the lower angle,
 and for the base:  these do not  unite to the principal portion until the
growth ofthe subject is matured.   The size of the  osseous nucleus of
the acromion process varies much; for  sometimes it is only a  narrow
band, and  sometimes forms most of this process.
   § 669. The deviations of formation  in the scapula are particularly its
continuance in an early stage of development.   Thus, sometimes the
portion of  the acromion process remains  separated during life, being
united to the rest of the bone only by  cartilage.
   Sometimes the process of ossification is not perfect in other points, so
that a greater or less portion of the fossa infra-spinata  remains carti-
laginous, which is singularly analogous with what is observed in many
 mammalia, especially the pachydermala.

                       II. OF THE CLAVICLE.

   § 670.  The clavicle (clavicula, clavis,  os juguli, furcula, ligula) is
 situated on the line of separation between  the neck  and the chest,
 between the sternum and the scapula.  It extends a little obliquely
 from before backward, from  below upward and from within outward.
 It is  turned like an italic  S, so that the  outer half is convex backward
 and  concave forward, while the inner half is concave backward and
 convex forward.
   We  distinguish in this bone a body, a sternal  extremity,  and a sca-
 pular extremity.
   The body is contracted from above downward.   It, however, presents
 more or less distinctly three  faces ; a posterior, smooth and concave
 from above downward; an upper, oblique from above downward, and
 from behind forward, and very rough; finally, a  lower, straight or
 slightly concave, smooth or  slightly rough.   Among  the  angles, the
 upper which forms at the same  time the upper edge, is the only one
 which  is  seen distinctly.  It is also rounded.   We usually find one
 and sometimes two  foramina  of nutntion on its posterior face.
   The anterior or sternal portion (pars sternalis) is the thickest, and
 most evidently triangular portion of the clavicle; it  terminates  by 
470
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
 a mostly triangular, cartilaginous, but  uneven surface,  the base  of
 which looks upward, and sometimes has a more irregular and rounded
 form.   At the beginning of this sternal portion, we often find on its
 anterior face a considerable and rough depression, and further outward
 a rough elevation.
   The  posterior or scapular portion  (pars scapularis)  is the broadest
 portion  ofthe bone, and the flattest from above downward: on its upper
 face are muscular  impressions ;  on the lower, are asperities to which
 the ligaments are attached: and at its external extremity is  a larger or
 smaller cartilaginous articular surface.
   § 671. The  clavicle is very remarkable in the  history  of the de-
 velopment of the organism, because it is one of those parts most proper
 to demonstrate the great difference which is presented in the form, and
 particularly in the proportional volume of one and the same organ at
 different periods of life.  Notwithstanding its smallness, it appears very
 early, if it is not the first of the bones which develops itself.   Towards
 the middle of the second month of pregnancy, its length is about three
 lines, and it is four  times as large as the humerus and the femur.  At
 the  third month of fetal existence, it is nearly twice as long as these
 bones;  and at the end of the month it continues larger than them. The
 humerus is larger in the fourth month ; in the full-grown fetus it is only
 one-fourth longer, while it is twice as long in the adult.  The division
 of the  clavicle into a body, a sternal and  a scapular extremity is
 founded solely on the different dimensions of these regions, and on their
 relations with the adjacent parts, but not on their mode of development:
 for the clavicle arises by a single point of ossification, excepting always
 a very thin nucleus of bone, which forms very late on the anterior face
 of its sternal extremity.
  § 672. This bone is also one of those in which the sexual differences
 of the skeleton are most manifest.  It is generally straighter, and pro-
 portionally smaller in the female than in the male. Its greater straight-
ness depends particularly on the lesser curve of its  external portion,
 while in man it extends far backward and then comes  forward   The
 internal anterior half presents nearly the same curve in  both sexes.
 The clavicle of the female is rounder than that of the male  : we how-
 ever find clavicles  of females perfectly like  those  of males, and vice
 versa.   Sometimes of the two clavicles in the same body, one is con-
structed in the type of the male, and the other in that  of the female.
These two anomalies are a slight degree of hermaphrodism.
  §  673. The clavicle is articulated by its anterior extremity with the
handle  of  the sternum, by its posterior extremity with the  acromion
 process  of the scapula, and also with the scapula and with the first rib
 by fibrous hgaments
  § 674. Sometimes a portion of the clavicle, particularly the external,
is deficient,  even when the upper  extremity is otherwise normally
developed; and it is then replaced by a process  of the scapula, which
 however is always thinner(l).
  (1) Martin, Displacement naturel de la claviculc: in Roux, Journal de Med., vol.
 xxiii., p.  458. 
OSTEOLOGY
471
                   ARTICLE SECOND.

                        OF THE HUMERUS.

                        A. NORMAL STATE.

  § 675. The arm-bone  or the humerus (os humeri, os brachii) the
third in size of the round  bones, forms alone the bony foundation of the
arm.  Its body is slightly twisted ; it gradually becomes thinner from
above downward, but is broader at its lower extremity.   Its three faces
are more marked at the lower than at the upper part, which is rounded
rather than triangular.   These faces are, when the arm  is extended
along the body, an anterior, a posterior, and an external.  The  first
two are almost  straight;  the upper part of the posterior face alone  is
convex, and its lower part is straight.   The  internal edge, which
terminates the anterior and  posterior faces, is very rough in the upper
part of the bone where the  anterior and posterior edges are hardly per-
ceptible, while they are very distinct in the inferior portion, and become
more  so  when  examined still lower.  The upper extremity of the
body enlarges considerably, particularly inward and backward.  The
foramen of  nutrition, which is single, is found at the commencement of
the lower third, on the anterior face near the internal edge, sometimes
even on this or on the posterior edge.
  It is extended into an upper process, the direction of which varies a
little  inward and backward  from that of the body.   Its greater
posterior, inner, and upper  portion forms a semi-spherical  head (caput
humeri), covered with cartilage, which is surrounded with  a slight and
somewhat rough depression.   On the outer and anterior circuit of this
upper process,- are two eminences for the insertion of the muscles, the
tuberosities (tubercula) of the humerus, one of which is three times as
large as the other, is situated outward  and forward, and  is called the
external,  anterior, or  larger tubercle (tuberculum majus, anterius, ex-
ternum) ; while the other,  smaller but  more projecting, is called the
smaller, posterior,  or internal tubercle ( T. minus, posterius, internum).
From each of them proceeds a rough line, of which that  of the large
tubercle (spina tuberculi majoris) terminates  in the internal edge, and
that of the small tubercle (spina tuberculi minoris) is  not  more than a
third or a fourth as long as  the body of the humerus, and disappears at this
height. A groove, which varies in depth, exists between the tubercles ;
this goes downward, forward, and outward, and soon disappears on the
upper extremity of the internal face of the body; this is the bicipital groove.
   The lower extremity is more complex than the upper.  The bone is
here a little broader, but is much thinner than at its upper  end ;  and is
consequently flat.  It terminates downward by an oblong, round, and
cartilaginous projection,  the surface of which  is very uneven from
severaf eminences and depressions.  Its anterior or external portion is
rounded, and extends much higher on the anterior or internal side of 
472
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
      the  bone,  than on the posterior or external: it is the inferior head
      (eminentia capitata).   The posterior or internal  part  is much larger,
      extends as high backward as forward, and  is composed of two semi-
      circular eminences, of which the external or anterior, situated at  the
      side of the former, and separated from it by a fissure, is much smaller
      than the internal or posterior, which is also separated by a considerable
      depression.   These  two  eminences  form the pulley (trochlea ossis
      humeri).   We observe over the inferior head a slight depression, called
      the small  anterior fossa (fossa anterior minor) ;  above the pulley and
      forward, another deeper depression called the great anterior fossa (fossa
      anterior major) ; finally backward, and  also above the pulley a third
      depression, deeper than the other two, called the largest or the posterior
      fossa (sinus  maximus, s. fossa posterior).   The last  two cavities  not
      unfrequently communicate by a large  opening in  the bone, which
      generally exists upon both sides of the body.  The bone, too, is some-
      times perforated with a large rounded  opening over these articular
      eminences.
         Besides these articular processes in which the lower extremity of the hu-
      merus terminates, its anterior and posterior edges present two eminences
      which are not so deep, but serve as attachments to muscles : these are
      the condyles (condyli). The anterior and outer condyle is much smaller,
      and is  termed also  the  epicondyle (condylus flexorus).  Most of the
      flexor muscles ofthe hand  are inserted in it, and also in that part of the
      anterior face of the humerus over  it.   The posterior and internal
      condyle or epitrochleus, (condylus extensorius), which is three times as
*    L Jarge, gives attachment to the extensor muscles of the hand.
         §676.  The humerus begins to form about the middle of the second
      month  of pregnancy.  Toward the end of this month it is still small,
       only about a line  long, and flat.   Perhaps it develops itself by  two
       points of ossification, situated one at the side of the other, which grow
       together rapidly; for in young fetuses we have seen a fissure extending
      from its upper extremity to its central portion.  Even till the last month
       of fetal existence, the body only is ossified;  but at this period ossifica-
       tion commences also in the extremities, and first in the inferior.
         This presents at birth only one nucleus of bone, which is not situated
       in its centre, but in the small head.   Sometimes, and most generally,
       the body gradually extends into the pulley,  or a single nucleus of bone
      is developed in the  pulley, which fuses first with the head, then with
       the body.  Some months  after  birth, we see an osseous germ in the
       upper extremity or in the place of the head, with which a second, in
       the large tubercle, unites afterward, and usually at the end ofthe first
       year:  these two nuclei fuse together before the whole extremity joins
       the body.  Still later, the internal or posterior  condyle develops itself
       by one point of ossification, which fuses sometimes with the body and
       sometimes also with the rest of the inferior extremity. This last unites
       with the body sooner, long before the subject is perfectly grown, while
       the upper remains distinct and  separate until after this, period.  The 
OSTEOLOGY.
473
internal tubercle  fuses  with the body much sooner than the upper,
but much later than the lower.(l)
  § 677. The humerus forms, by its head, with the glenoid cavity of
the scapula, an arthrodia: its lower extremity is united with the two
bones ofthe fore-arm.

                        B. ABNORMAL STATE.

  § 678. The humerus is sometimes entirely deficient, from a primitive
deviation of formation, or in a greater or less portion when  the  upper
limbs are more or  less imperfectly developed.  The degrees  of this
anomaly are very  various; for sometimes  a very small stump only
appears ; sometimes, when the development is more advanced and the
fore-arm and hand only  are deficient, the humerus becomes thin at its
lower extremity, and terminates in one or two processes.(2)
  We have already mentioned (§ 67j|) the union of the larger anterior
and posterior fossae.
                     ARTICLE  THIRD.

                 OF THE BONES OF THE FORE-ARM.

                        A. NORMAL STATE.

  § 679. The bones of the fore-arm are two, the radius and the cubitus
or ulna, which are nearly equal in size, are situated on the same plane,
and are both articulated with the humerus; but which are capable of
executing very  different motions,  on account  of the forms of their
articular surfaces.

                        I. OF  THE ULNA.

  § 680. The ulna (ulna s. cubitus, canna major, focile majus) is longer
than the radius,  and this extra length extends above it.   It deserves
then to be examined  first,  partly on this account and partly because
being less movable, it forms the basis ofthe bony frame ofthe fore-arm.
  Its body gradually diminishes in thickness from above  downward,
and it is slightly curved in the form of an S; for near the centre it ap-
proaches the radius, then separates from it, and again approaches it at
its lower extremity.   Its upper portion, which  is the longest, presents
very distinctly three faces:  these are, when the fore-arm is at rest, a
posterior, an anterior, and an  internal face; but  they disappear at  its
lower portion, where the bone becomes rounder.  The posterior and the
anterior faces are almost straight: sometimes however the anterior is

  (1) Albinus has pointed out, but very imperfectly, the order in which the nuclei of
ossification arc developed and united.
  (2) Bonn, Thcs. oss. morb. Hov., Amsterdam, 1783, p. liO.
  Vol. I.                  ,     60 
474
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
divided by a longitudinal eminence into two broad furrows.  The inter-
nal face is always shghtly grooved.   The anterior edge, which  limits
the external and the anterior faces, and which looks toward the radius,
projects the most and is called the  crest of the ulna (crista ulns).  At
the upper extremity ofthe anterior face is a large eminence, which gives
attachment to certain muscles, and is called the tubercle, or head ofthe
ulna (tuber ulns).
   The foramen of nutrition is usually situated a little above the centre
of the bone, at the side of the crest, on the anterior or on the internal
face.   The upper extremity has the form of a hook, is the largest part
of the bone, and is much thicker than the lower part.   The upper and
posterior part of this hook,  the olecranon  process (olecranon, processus
anconsus), is directed perpendicularly from below upward ; it is slightly
rough, and convex at its upper and posterior  part, and its anterior por-
tion is concave and  faced with  cartilage.  Where  the upper face is
continuous with the lower, is formed the tuberosity of the olecranon
(tuber olecranii).   The anterior part ofthe hook, the coronoid process
(processus coronoideus), has a horizontal direction and is much lower.
It presents an upper cartilaginous and concave surface, which is conti-
nuous at a right  angle with the anterior face of the olecranon process,
and is separated from  it by a transverse fissure, which backward and
inward usually presents no cartilage.   These  two cartilaginous sur-
faces form by their union a very deep cavity, called the large sigmoid
cavity (cavitas semi-lunaris, sinus sigmoideus, sinus lunatus major),which
is divided in its whole extent by a prominent  line into two portions, of
which the posterior is broader.  Next to the anterior horizontal portion of
this articular cavity, and joined to it at a right angle, we find, on the ante-
rior face of the upper end of the ulna, the small semilunar cavity (cavitas
semilunaris, sinus sigmoideus, sinus  lunatus minor), which is  much
flatter, transverse, and also covered with cartilage.
   The lower and rounded extremity of the bone swells out a little, and
hence  is called the head (capitulum ulns).  Its inner and anterior part
is covered with cartilage; the external is extended into a small rounded
process, separated from  the rest of the surface forward and backward
by a groove, which is called the styloid process (processus styloideus).
The inferior face of the head is slightly channeled.
   § 681. The ulna appears as early as the humerus (§ 676"), or shortly
after it.  In the full grown fetus it is  composed of a single uucleus of
bone, which comprises  all  the upper process.   Later, and rarely be-
fore the sixth year, nuclei  of bone are developed above and below it.
We first see the nucleus of the lower extremity which forms the base
of the head, with the lateral faces and  the styloid process.  A little later,
there are are developed in the upper end the  three nuclei of the olecra-
non process.  Two of these are situated  inward, one  at the side of the
other, and extend  transversely from before backward ;  the posterior is
much larger than the anterior;  the third, which is the largest of all, is
found externally, and very much resembles the patella, both in situation
and in its round form;  these three nuclei concur but  slightly to form 
OSTEOLOGY.
475
 the upper extremity of the ulna.   They are not united with the body
 even at puberty; the upper unite with it much sooner than the lower,
 which remains separate until the subject has attained its growth.
   § 682. The ulna articulates at its upper extremity with the posterior
 part of the articulating surface of the lower end of the humerus, or the
 pulley, the elevations and depressions of which correspond perfectly to
 those of the large sigmoid cavity.   In  a  state of extreme flexion, the
 anterior and  most projecting part  of the  internal edge of the coronoid
 process engages itself in the larger anterior fossa of the humerus: when
 the fore-arm is extended, the olecranon process is received into the pos-
 terior fossa of this same bone (§ 675).  The small lateral fissure of the
 upper extremity receives the commencement of the head of the radius,
 the inferior extremity of which turns around the convex and cartilagi-
 nous portion of the head of the  ulna.

                        II.  OF THE RADIUS.

   § 683. The radius (radius, focile minus) is much  shorter than the
 ulna, and differs from it in being much thicker in its lower than in its
 upper part.   It occupies the anterior region of the arm when in a state
 of repose along the body, and the external region when  this limb is
 turned outward.  It is considerably curved; for its central part is con-
 vex forward and concave backward, while the upper and lower portions
 are almost straight.
   We distinguish  in  the  body three faces  and  three edges.   The
 internal  face  is the broadest, slightly concave  upward, and  convex
 downward; the foramen of nutrition is situated a little above the cen-
 tre of the bone.  The  anterior face is very concave, the  external  is
 almost straight.  The  posterior edge, or the crest of the radius (crista
 radii), projects considerably, especially at its central part; the anterior
 and external edges are very round, so that the inner face is insensibly
 continuous with the anterior, and this with the external, wkile there is
 a well defined limit between the external and internal faces.  Near the
 upper extremity of the bone, we see on the internal face the tuberosity
 of the radius (tuberositas  radii), a considerable  rounded, oblong emi-
 nence, which gives attachment to certain muscles and in which the pos-
 terior and the anterior edges unite.  Above thi3 point the bone slightly
contracts, becomes round,  and forms a neck (collum), which is rather
 long, and follows a similar direction.   The neck enlarges  at its upper
 extremity, and with it  is connected the head (caput radii),  which  is
 round, slightly concave above, and covered with cartilage  in every
 part.
  The body gradually increases while descending, and finally becomes
very thick.  It spreads especially  from before backward, and supports
 the lower triangular process, the base of which is  turned backward,
and  the  summit  forward.   The  summit projects a little  beyond the
inferior face, and this forme a small prominence,  called the styloid pro-
cess (processus styloidcus).  The lower cartilaginous face is divided, by 
476
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
a small eminence, the direction of which is from within outward, into a
posterior  portion, which is square, and an anterior and triangular part.
The posterior lateral face is also covered with cartilage, slightly exca-
vated, and  forms  the  semilunar  notch (incisura semilunaris).   The
anterior is almost straight.  The  external is  convex, and has a large
projection in its centre.   On both sides of this projection is a considera-
ble tendinous groove, which extends from above downward, and which
contains another smaller.
   § 684.  The  radius appears at the  same time as the ulna.   It is
already developed  in the full-grown fetus, but is composed  of only one
part, the body.   At this time its lower part does not much exceed that
of the ulna in size, because this last  is much thicker proportionally
than it is afterwards.   The osseous nucleus of the  inferior process
appears in its anterior portions first, but rarely before the  end  of the
second year.  The upper extremity does not begin to develop itself till
towards the age of seven years;  it however fuses with the body long
before the subject is fully grown, while the lower remains  separate
even after this period.
   § 685.  The radius articulates by the upper face of its head with the
small head on the lower articular surface of the humerus ; by the lateral
face of this head, which  is covered  with  cartilage, with the  small
semilunar cavity of the ulna; by  the semilunar  notch of its  lower
extremity with the cartilaginous surface of the head of the  ulna;
finally, by its inferior face, forward with the scaphoid  bone, and back-
ward with the semilunar bone of the wrist.
   § 686. By the arrangement of the corresponding articular surfaces,
the  radius possesses the  motions of flexion and extension with the
ulna, but can also partially turn on its axis, while the ulna changes  its
position very slightly.   It is so connected with the wrist, that the hand
follows all its motions.  If the radius turns from before backward and
inward, crossing the ulna obliquely, the posterior edge being directed
outward and the internal face backward, the  back of the hand is car-
ried forward and the palm backward, the  arm hanging beside the
body : this is called pronation (pronatio). The opposite motion, which
brings the radius and the ulna on the  same plane, carries the back of
the hand backward and brings the palm forward, is called supination
(supinatio).  In both  cases the  upper and lower extremities of the
radius turn  on the corresponding lateral faces of the ulna, which are
faced with cartilage.

                          B.  ANOMALIES.

   § 687. Sometimes one ofthe bones of the fore-arm is deficient, some-
times both.   In the latter case, the  hand is generally deficient;  in the
former, the hand is often well formed. 
OSTEOLOGY.
477
                     ARTICLE  FOURTH.

                  OF THE BONES OF THE HAND.

                        A. NORMAL STATE.

    §688..The  hand  comprises  three regions, the carpus, the meta-
  carpus, and the fingers.  That  face which looks outward when the
  arm is  hanging down  is called the  back (dorsum  manus) and the
  opposite face the palm (palma, vola) : the former is convex, the latter
  slightly concave.   The edge turned forward in the same posture of the
  arm is called the radial edge (margo radialis), and the opposite edffe is
  the ulnar (M. cubitahs).  The faces of the  different bones of the hand
  are then distinguished into dorsal, palmar, radial, and ulnar.

                I.  OF THE BONES OF THE WRIST.

    § 689. The wrist (carpus) is the uppermost and the shortest re<ri0n
  It is composed of eight, sometimes of nine bones, which are very
  irregular, do not ossify till after birth, are very closely united with each
  other, and articulate with the bones of the metacarpus.  Beside the
  four regions which it has in common with all the bones ofthe hand
  we distinguish in it a brachial face (fades  brachialis) and a digital
 Jace  (F digitalis).  The bones which form it are arranged in two rows
 a posterior or upper, and an anterior or lower.

           I. OF THE BONES OF THE FIRST CARPAL RANGE.

   § 690. The posterior range of the carpal bones comprises four, which
 are, counting  from before backward, or from the radial to the ulnar
 side, the scaphoid  bone, the semilunar bone, the pyramidal bone, and
 the pisiform bone.

                     I. OF THE SCAPHOID BONE.

   § 691. The scaphoid bone (os naviculare, s. scaphoideum) does not
 perfectly deserve this name, for its form is very irregular.   In fact it is
 boat-shaped in its upper  and posterior portion ; but forward is a large
 projection, which makes almost one half  of its mass.  It is composed
 of two parts, which are separated  by a narrower portion, and it may be
 compared to the figure 8.  Its upper posterior part is broader but flatter
 than the inferior anterior portion.  Its  brachial-face is convex and
 covered with cartilage.   The digital face is concave and divided by a
 rounded projection into two  semicircular  portions, a posterior, smaller
 and plane, and an anterior,  which is larger and very  concave.   The
 first may be considered the ulnar face ; the second extends to the ante-
rior part.  The brachial and palmar faces of this part are not covered 
 478                   DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.

 with cartilage, although  the  radial and digital faces form a triangular
 surface covered with a cartilage, which is divided by an eminence, tho
 direction  of which is from before  backward, into  two parts, the one
 longer and triangular, which  is found  outward, the other smaller, in
 form an oblong square, and turned downward.
   § 692. Although the scaphoid bone is one of the largest of the car-
 pal bones, it does not begin to ossify till several years after birth.
   § 693. The scaphoid bone articulates, by its upper and cartilaginous
 face, with the anterior triangular portion ofthe lower face of the radius
 (§ 685); by its ulnar face, with  the  semilunar  bone (§ 696) ;  by the
 posterior digital face, with the os magnum (§ 709);  by its radial face,
 with the trapezium;  finally, by the anterior portion of its digital face,
 with the trapezoides (§ 704).

                   II.  OF THE SEMILUNAR BONE.

   § 694.  The semilunar bone (os lunatum s. semilunare) has a convex
 brachial face, which is covered with cartilage.  This face is insensibly
 continuous with the  convex palmar face, which has no cartilage, and
 with the  straight dorsal  face.  The radial face is semicircular and
 entirely covered with' cartilage.  The ulnar face has the same form;
 it is destitute of cartilage except on its upper, posterior, square portion.
 These last faces  are straight.   On the digital face is a deep  cavity,
 which is covered with cartilage.
   § 695.  Ossification commences as late as in the scaphoid bone.
   § 696.  The semilunar bone articulates, by its brachial face, with the
 posterior square portion of the lower cartilaginous face of the radius
 (§ 685);  by its radial face, with the scaphoid bone (§ 693); by its
 ulnar face, with the  pyramidal bone (§  699) ; and by its digital face,
 with  the os magnum.

                  III.  OF THE PYRAMIDAL BONE.

   §  697.  The pyramidal bone (os triquetrum, triangulare, cuneiforme)
 has its base forward and its summit backward.   The internal and an-
 terior smaller portion of its brachial face is covered with cartilage in a
 triangular  space;  its radial face is  straight and plane, and  is every
 where covered with cartilage; most of the digital face is a little con-
 cave, and also mostly covered with cartilage; lastly, the palmar face is
rough and slightly concave in its  inner half;  its outer half is straight
 and covered with cartilage.
  § 698.  It3 ossification advances  equally with that of the  two pre-
 ceding.
  § 699.  It articulates by the cartilaginous portion of its brachial face
 with the triangular intermediate cartilage, by its radial face with the
semilunar bone (§696),by its digital face with the unciform bone(§ 714),
and by the cartilaginous part of the  palmar face with the pisiform bone
 (§ 700). 
OSTEOLOGY.
479
                    IV. OF THE PISIFORM BONE.

  § 700. The pisiform bone (os pisiforme, articulare, subrotundum) is
the smallest bone in the wrist.   Its form is rounded and oblong, and it
is situated entirely above the palmar face of the other bones in the pos-
terior  range, which are almost all on the same level  except the an-
terior part of the scaphoid bone, which also projects considerably into
the palm of the hand.  The dorsal face of this bone  is straight and
covered with  cartilage,  and  is the articulating surface,  uniting it
with the pyramidal bone (§ 699).   It does not begin to ossify till after
the age of six years.  It forms with  the scaphoid bone (§ 690) the
upper eminences ofthe carpus.

  II. OF THE BONES OF THE SECOND, THE INFERIOR OR ANTERIOR,
                         CARPAL RANGE.

  § 701. The second carpal range includes the largest and mosf irre-
gular bones  of this region.  The first three bones of the upper range,
however, are larger than  the two anterior of the second.  The  bones
of the  latter, counting from before backward, are the  trapezium,  the
trapezoides,  the os magnum, and the os unciforme.

                      I. OF THE TRAPEZIUM.

  § 702. The trapezium (os multangulum, majus trapezoides, trapezium,
rhomboides)  has a very irregular quadrilateral form. Its quadrilateral,
transverse, brachial face is divided by a sharp ridge, which extends from
the palm of  the hand to  the palmar edge, into two slightly concave
surfaces, having the form of an irregular square, situated one at the side
of the  other, and covered with cartilage.  The  digital  edge is  trans-
verse, concave from  behind forward, slightly convex from the back of
the hand to the palm, and also covered with cartilage.  The dorsal,
palmar, and  radial faces are very uneven and  rough.
  § 703. This bone is still entirely cartilaginous at the age of six years.
  § 704. It articulates  by the anterior part of its brachial face with the
scaphoid bone (§  693), by the posterior  with  the trapezoides (§ 706),
by its ulnar face with the metacarpal bone of the index finger, by the
digital  face with the  metacarpal bone of the thumb.

                     II.  OF THE TRAPEZOIDES.

  § 705. The trapezoides (os multangulum, s. trapezium minus, s. pyra-
midale) represents a  short and irregular pyramid, the base of which is
toward the back of the hand and the summit toward the palm.   The
dorsal  and palmar faces are  rough, destitute of cartilage, and slightly
concave. 
480
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  § 706.  Ossification always begins in it later than in the trapezium.
  § 707.  It articulates by its brachial face, which is  but slightly con-
cave, with the scaphoid bone (§ 693); by the radial edge which is a
httle convex, with the trapezium (§ 704); by its digital face, which  is
triangular, convex from before  backward, and concave from  above
downward, with the metacarpal bone  of the index finger, and by its
convex ulnar face with the os magnum (§ 710).

                     III.  OF THE OS MAGNUM.

  § 708.  The os magnum (os magnum s. capitatum)  is the  largest of
the carpal bones.   Its form is pyramidal, and  it is so situated that its
greatest diameter extends from its brachial to  its digital face, the latter
representing its  base and the former its summit.   Its brachial face is
covered with cartilage, is rounded, and very convex.  Its radial face
is also covered with cartilage,  and divided by two eminences, which
extend from the back of the hand to the palm, into three parts, of which
the posterior, larger than the other two, is  convex and  rounded; the
central is  also a httle convex  and square; finally,  the anterior, the
highest, is concave.  The anterior face is triangular and a little con-
cave and is also  covered with cartilage.  The ulnar face is rough in
its anterior part, and its posterior is almost straight and covered with
cartilage.   The  dorsal  and palmar faces  are  slightly concave  and
have no cartilage.
  § 709.  In the full grown fetus this bone is  ossified in its centre, but
not very perceptibly; most of it is cartilage.  Its ossification  is not
completed till the tenth year.
  § 710.  It articulates by its brachial face with the semilunar bone
(§ 696), by the  upper part of its radial face  with  the scaphoid bone
(§ 693),  by its central  portion with the trapezoides (§ 707), by its
anterior face with the metacarpal bone of the third finger, by the car-
tilaginous portion of its ulnar face with the os unciforme (§ 714).
  § 711.  A ninth carpal bone sometimes exists between this bone and
the preceding,(l) a curious analogy with the formation of apes, in which
we find, between  the trapezium and the os magnum, a ninth bone,
which seems to  arise from the division  of the trapezoides  into  two
portions.

                    IV. OF THE OS UNCIFORME.

  § 712.  The unciform bone (os  hamatum,  s. os unciforme) has an
irregular triangular form, the base being turned toward the back of the
hand and the summit toward the palm.   The latter portion, which is
fiat from one side to the other, forms the hook.  The  unciform process
causes this bone to project very much inward  beyond the central two,
as the trapezium does outward, and produces,  with the latter, the
(1) Salzmann, Decas. obs. illustr. anat., Strasburg, 1725, p. 3. 
OSTEOLOGY.
481
inferior eminences ofthe carpus, which, united to the superior (§ 700),
foim the walls of a groove, through which pass the tendons ofthe flexor
muscles of the hand and fingers.
   The  brachial face of the unciform bone is covered with cartilage,
and is oblique, convex,  and oblong.  The external portion ofthe radial
face is plain, and covered with cartilage ; the internal is rough.   The
digital faces are slightly concave from without inward, a little convex
from  before backward, and divided  by a slight  ridge, which extends
from  the unciform process to the palmar side, into a small anterior and
a larger posterior portion. The dorsal face is a httle convex and  rough.
The palmar face, which is  almost destitute of cartilage, is continuous
by its external edge with the unciform process.
   § 713.  We discover also in  this bone, in the full grown fetus, an
osseous nucleus, situated near the  centre, larger than that of the os
magnum, although the unciform  bone itself is smaller than this bone.
Ossification is completed at the same time as in the preceding bone.(l)
   § 714.  The unciform bone articulates by its brachial face with the
pyramidal bone (§ 699), by its radial portion with the os magnum
(§ 710), by its digital portion with the metacarpal bones of the fourth
and fifth fingers.

                II. OF THE METACARPAL BONES.

   § 715.  The metacarpus is composed of five cylindrical bones, which
vary in length, but  are all formed after the same model. The bodies are
rounded, or slightly triangular, convex on the dorsal side, concave on
the palmar face, and a little broader  toward the anterior end than  near
the posterior extremity.  We distinguish in  them three faces and three
edges, which,  except  in  the  first  metacarpal bone, in the anterior
and posterior halves  are  situated differently.' In  fact the anterior or
inferior  portion  presents  a dorsal,  a radial,  and an ulnar face;  also
an internal, inferior, or palmar  edge,  a radial, and  an ulnar edge, of
which the first is more prominent.  The posterior or upper half, on the
contrary, presents two lateral faces, but not a superior, which is replaced
by an inferior or palmar face ;  no  palmar edge, but a dorsal, external,
or upper edge ; because the two lateral edges unite at the central part
of the bone, and after leaving this point, a sharp edge extends on  the
back of the latter to its  posterior extremity.
  The posterior extremity or  the base (basis) is  triangular or  irre-
gularly quadrangular,  and covered with cartilage at  its- posterior
portion, which is generally plain.  The lateral parts are  also mostly
covered with cartilage.   Before and between the cartilaginous  points
ofthe lateral faces, are  very considerable rough depressions, which are

  (l) Albinus, followed by all the anatomists, says: « Singula carpi ossa cartilaginea
in&tu^nTnWniHdiuvost nativitatem os inchoant;" which is incorrect, according
to oSnurneVous examinations of full grown fetal skeletons.  We always find nuclei
of bone in the semilunar and unciform  bone.:  they are[ more imperfectthan> those
of the  tarsal bones, proportionally smaller, and not infiltrated with blood, but yel-
lowish.
  Vol.  I                          61 
482
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
succeeded by similar projecting eminences :  these are the vestiges  of
the connections ofthe metacarpal bones with  each other and with those
of the carpus, in such a manner as to admit  of but very slight motion
on account of the arrangement of their articular surfaces, of the number
of means of union, and ofthe substance which forms them.
   The anterior  extremity is rounded, almost entirely  covered with
cartilage, and from its form is called the head (capitulum).  It is a httle
compressed  from one side to the other, and  terminates backward on
each side, both on  the dorsal and palmar faces by two tubercles (luber-
cula), between which, on each side, is a large depression (sinus). These
depressions and tubercles trace the insertion ofthe ligaments.
  § 716. Ossification ofthe metacarpal bones commences at the third
month of pregnancy.  They do not all appear at once: we see the
second, then the third, and then the others appear.   Towards the end
of the third  month each contains an oblong nucleus of bone.   In the
full-grown fetus, the body only is  ossified,  and the two extremities are
still entirely cartilaginous.  They do not begin to ossify till very late ;
we see only one nucleus of bone  in the head towards the end of the
second year.  This nucleus remains separate from the body for a long
time, sometimes until the subject is fully grown.   We have never seen
it in the posterior extremity, except in the metacarpal bone of the thumb,
which seems to have none in its head, at least we have never been able
to see it in this part.   The  posterior or upper nucleus of the first meta-
carpal bone remains  separated from the body as long as the anterior
nuclei in the other  four.
  § 717. The metacarpal  bones articulate by their  posterior cartila-
ginous faces, with the anterior range ofthe carpal bones: by the cartila-
ginous  parts of the lateral wall of their bases, partly  with these
bones, and partly with each other ; by their  heads with the corres-
ponding bones of the posterior phalanges.

               I.  OF THE FIRST METACARPAL BONE.

  § 718. The first bone  of the metacarpus, or the metacarpal bone of
the thumb (os metacarpi pollicis),  varies from the others in size and
in form.  It is much  shorter, but thicker and broader than the others,
and relatively and  absolutely flatter, while the latter are compressed,
that is, are narrower from one side to the other, than from above down-
ward.   The dorsal face, the broadest  of all, extends the whole length
of the bone.  The two lateral faces,  of which the ulnar is the  most
extensive, unite at an angle much  more obtuse  than  in the other
metacarpal bones.   The base is more broad than  high, and has no
cartilage on  its two sides.   Its posterior face is covered with cartilage,
slightly concave from the radial to the ulnar side, a little convex from
the dorsal to the palmar face, open on the two sides, and bounded only
upward and  downward by a slight projection.  These particulars, and
the extreme  looseness of  the capsular ligament, allow this bone much
more motion than the other bones of the metacarpus.   The head also
is broader, but lower than in the others. 
OSTEOLOGY.
483
 tlJllt  t  ^ ^metacarpal bone is one of those which is developed
 other, m!   f f mjnth of pregnancy, it is still, in proportion to the
 SSZ'^ShTr iJT XVS fer™d> smce it is not more than one
 JltT     £ i     ' WhrCh' W^Cn the hody is Perfec% developed
  s only one-seventh  onger.  Its mode of ossification differs from that of
 tne others in a peculiarity mentioned above (§ 716).
    § 720. This bone articulates with the  trapezium (§ 704).

                II.  OF THE SECOND METACARPAL BONE.

    § 721. The second bone ofthe metacarpus, or the metacarpal bone of
 the index finger, is generally the longest of all, and extends backward
 farther than the others.  The next one is seldom as long:  the second is
 thinner than the third. Its posterior extremity has a triangular articular
 face mostly  faced  with cartilage,  which is very concave, and cor-
 responds exactly to the  convex digital face ofthe trapezoides (§ 707)
 On its radial face upward and  backward, is a small plain cartilaginous
 surface.  The ulnar face has another which is larger, occupying all
 the height of the bone, and divided by a slight projection into a smaller
 posterior portion, and an anterior part which is larger.    This bone
 articulates  by the cartilaginous  part of its radial  face, with  the
 trapezium; by the posterior  part of that  of its ulnar face with the os
 magnum (§ 710) ; and  by the anterior part with the third metacarpal
 bone.

               III.  OF THE THIRD METACARPAL BONE.

   § 722. The third bone of the metacarpus articulates with  the  os
 magnum (§ 710) by its posterior face, which is irregularly quadrilateral,
 broader above than below, convex from above downward,  and covered
 with cartilage ; with the second metacarpal bone, by the radial  face of
 its base, which is covered with cartilage at its posterior part: finally,
 with the  fourth, by two flattened cartilaginous  surfaces, situated one
 above the other, as is seen in the ulnar side of the same part.

               IV. OF THE FOURTH METACARPAL BONE.

   § 723.  The fourth bone of the metacarpus is  much  shorter and
 thinner than the third.  Its posterior articular surface is narrow, irre-
 gularly quadrilateral, straight,  and  covered with cartilage, and cor-
 responds to the anterior portion  of the digital face of the unciform bone.
 Two small plane surfaces,  which  are covered with  cartilage, and
 situated one above the other on the radial side ofthe base,  are fitted to
the corresponding surfaces of  the ulnar side of the third  metacarpal
bone  (§ 722).   Another  narrow surface, extending as high as the
bone, is found on the ulnar side, and corresponds to a similar one on
the radial  side of the fifth metacarpal bone (§ 724). 
484
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOM\
                   V. OF THE FIFTH METACARPAL BONE.

      § 724.  The fifth  metacarpal bone is shorter, but thicker than  the
    fourth.  The articular face  of its posterior extremity is quadrangular,
v   convex, and covered with cartilage, and articulates with  the anterior
    portion of the unciform bone.  It. articulates, by a small cartilaginous
    portion of its  radial face, with the ulnar face ofthe fourth metacarpal
    bone (§ 723).   The upper articular face presents, on the ulnar side, a
    blunt and rough tubercle.

                 III. OF  THE BONES OF THE FINGERS.
      § 725. Thefingers contain fourteen bones; each one,exceptthe thumb,
    has threephalanges (phalanges, articuli, internodia). All the bones of the
    fingers are elongated, flattened from their dorsal to their palmar face ;
    consequently more broad than high, convex from before backward on
    their dorsal face, concave on their palmar face,  broader and stronger at
    their posterior than at their anterior extremity ;  and presenting, at least
    in the former, a slightly concave and cartilaginous articular surface.
      § 726.  Ossification begins in the bodies of these bones later than in
    the metacarpal bones, and not until towards the end of the third  month
    of pregnancy.   The osseous nuclei of the  first and third phalanges
    appear before those.of the second.   All these  bones are developed by
    two points of ossification only ; a larger for the body, and the other for
    the posterior extremity.   This last begins to ossify about  the  age of
    five years; it remains separated from the body a long time, often even
    until  the  subject is perfectly developed.   No special  nucleus of bone
    exists in the anterior extremity.(l)

                I. OF  THE PHALANGES OF THE FIRST RANGE.

      § 727.  The phalanges of  the first range are the  longest  and
    strongest.   The dorsal face of their bodies is very convex from one side
    to the other ; the interior or palmar face is less so, but  presents, in its
    centre, especially in the bones of the three middle fingers, a radial  and
    an ulnar edge, which project very much into the centre of the hand,
    and are turned upon themselves.   This projection is seen only in  the
    first phalanx of the thumb.  The posterior extremity presents a rounded
    articular  process which is  almost plain and  covered with cartilage,
    and which articulates  by arthrodia with the heads of the metacarpal
    bones.  On the lateral  parts, and below them, is on each side a very
    projecting edge.  The  upper face is  rounded and  triangular,   and
    covered  with cartilage, having in  its centre  a  longitudinal  furrow
    which gives it the  form of a pulley.  On each side we  observe a
    depression (sinus), behind which is a slight tuberosity.
      (1) Albinus says that the two pieces of bone fuse directly with each other.   (Jr.
    oss. fat, p. 120.)  We have never observed a fact to support this proposition. Loder
    is likewise mistaken (Anatomie, p. 264) in saying- that the anterior extremity also
    develops itself by a single osseous germ.  Albinus had already given a correct
    description of the progress of ossification. 
OSTEOLOGY,
485
    Of these five  bones that of the middle finger is the longest •  those


   to    Itf     t;Jh\ktter h°WeVCr  is a little lo^er than the
  whfcb 21  f a r    -^ 1S ProP°?;tlonaI1J the broadest and flattest,
  winch, serves to distinguish it from that of the little finger.

             II. OF THE BONES OF THE SECOND PHALANX.

  •  ^J2?' T1i6 b°neS in thc second Phalanx very much resemble  those
  in the first, but  they  are flatter and broader in proportion to  their
  length, especially m their posterior portion.  The edges project very
  much in the central part of the second, third, and fourth, but less so
  than in the first phalanx.   The posterior articular face fits into the
  pulley of the first phalanx ; it  is also divided by a projecting line into
  two small and  slightly concave lateral facets ;  the interior has slightly
  the form of a pulley.   In this range of bones that of the middle finger
  is the longest and the strongest;  next come those of the fourth and
  second fingers,  the shortest is that of the fifth finger.

             III. OF THE BONES OF THE THIRD PHALANX.

   § 729. The third phalanx differs from the others, as its  bones pre-
  sent an articular surface faced with  cartilage only in their posterior
  parts.   This face is much broader in proportion than their anterior
  extremity.   The latter is less bulging, rough, rounded, and terminated
 by a tubercular edge.   Besides, the bones  in the third phalanx are
  much shorter  than those of the  other two ranges.   Their posterior
  face is concave, and by a slight edge hollowed into two lateral cavities.
  The upper face is smooth, the inferior very rough, especially near the
 extremities.  The phalangceal bone of  the thumb in this range is much
 longer and thicker than the rest, which are smaller and nearly equal
 in length, but of different thicknesses ;  that of the little finger is much
 smaller than the rest.

          B. OF THE ANOMALIES IN THE BONES OF THE  HAND.

   § 730. The  bones of the hand are sometimes partly or wholly  defi-
 cient, which results from  an  imperfect development.  In the former
 case, there are  sometimes whole  parts of vfhich we  can discover no
 traces, sometimes only portions of these parts are  deficient  as for
 instance one or several bones of the phalanges.
   So too the number of the bones  is sometimes increased, by one or
 more ; this increase takes place in the  number of the fingers, or of the
 other parts of the  hand.
   Sometimes the bones of two or more fingers are fused together.
   A disease, which does not belong exclusively to the bones of the
fingers, but which very  often attacks them, is a swelling, with a dimi-
ution in the density of their  substance.   This disease results from 
486                   DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY
inflammation, and is called pcedarthrocase, because  observed most fre-
quently in children, particularly those whose constitutions are feeble.


                         CHAPTER II

        OF THE BONES OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES.

                     ARTICLE  FIRST.

                       OF THE ILIAC BONES.

             A. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE  ILIAC BONES.

  § 731. The iliac or coxal bones (ossa coxarum, s. pelvis lateralia, s.
innominata) correspond in form and situation to the shoulder-bones of
the upper extremity.   1st. In form; being composed generally of two
parts, one elongated  and smaller, the other broader and larger.  2d.
In their situation ;  they are placed between the abdominal  extremi-
ties and the lower part of the vertebral column, in the same manner
as the bones of  the shoulder are, between  the second  section of the
pectoral limbs and the  upper part  of  the vertebral column ; their
broad portion is situated backward and on the  side, and their long por-
tion forward, where the bones of the two sides meet,  while the ar-
rangement in the posterior face of the trunk is different.  Comparative
anatomy and the history of ossification place this analogy in a still
stronger light.
  § 732. The iliac bone is divided into three parts, the ilium (os ilium),
the ischium (os ischii), and the pubis (os pubis).

                         I.  OF THE  ILIUM.

  § 733. The ilium is the largest of these  three  portions.  It corres-
ponds to the scapula since it constitutes the broadest, the most poste-
rior and the most supeiior part of the whole  bone.  Its form is irre-
gular, more however like a triangle than any other figure.  Its upper
edge is convex;  the anterior is usually straight and is grooved below;
it is continuous with the ischium and the pubis  by the  anterior part
of the latter.
  § 734. The upper convex edge is the largest and the broadest, especi-
ally forward and backward.   It is called, from its form, the crest ofthe
ilium (crista ossis ilii). We distinguish in it an external and an internal
lip, and a middle portion.  It terminates forward by a small eminence
which projects above the anterior edge, and is called the anterior and
superior iliac spine (spina ossis ilii anterior superior); backward, by two
other projections, called the upper and lower posterior iliac spines, which
are separated from each other by a small  semi-lunar notch (incisura
semi-lunaris). 
OSTEOLOGY.
487
  The anterior edge, oblique from above downward, and from behind
forward, presents two superficial notches which are separated by an
eminence, the anterior and inferior iliac spine (spina anterior inferior).
  In  the  inferior edge  is a large notch ; it  forms the posterior and
superior part of the iliac notch (incisura iliaca, s. ilica superior).
  § 735. The  external and the internal faces are slightly concave, be-
cause the bone becomes thicker at its circumference; the internal how-
ever is more concave than the other. The upper part ofthe inner face
is smooth, the  posterior and inferior is very rough.   The anterior and
smaller portion of this rough part is faced with cartilage, elongated, con
vex forward and concave backward ; it is called the auricular surface
(fades auricularis).  The posterior is more uneven and is destitute of
cartilage.
  The lower and by far the smallest part of the plane portion of this
face, curves on the upper at an obtuse angle, and follows an almost
perpendicular direction, while the upper extends obliquely from above
downward and from without inward.
  The angle which separates them  forms, at  the posterior part  both
upward and downward, between the smooth and the rough portions
of the internal face, the curved line (linea arcuata).  It is continuous
forward with the posterior and projecting edge ofthe upper face ofthe
horizontal branch of the  pubis, thus producing all around  the  iliac
bone  a ridge,  called the linea innominata.  Immediately above this
crest is found a large foramen through which  the artery of  nutrition
passes to the bone.
  The external face is smooth in every part, and divided by two semi-
circular lines, which project shghtly, being concave upward and back-
ward, into two portions,  the anterior of which is much greater than the
posterior.
  § 736.  The ilium is thickest downward and forward, where the infe-
rior and anterior edges meet; forward and outward it presents a deep
fissure, which  forms the upper and external smaller portion of the coty-
loid cavity (acetabulum).  Some anatomists term this part ofthe bone
the body.
                       II. OF THE ISCHIUM.

  § 737.  The ischium (os ischii) forms the inferior central part of tfie
iliac bone.   It descends almost perpendicularly from the anterior part
of the lower edge of the latter, but  goes  however a little from above
downward and from without  inward, following the same direction as
the lower part of the internal face of the ilium.  In this place its inter
nal face is slightly convex backward and very concave forward.   The
upper part is the broadest and thickest, and has  also been called the
body.  The anterior portion of its external face forms the larger and
lower part of the cotyloid cavity.
  The posterior edge of the body is sharp ; it forms the  anterior part
of the iliac notch, and runs backward and inward into the sciatic spine
(spina ossis ischii). 
488
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  The descending branch (ramus descendens) begins in this place.  This
branch is shghtly compressed, but is very thick, and swells downward
into the sciatic tuberosity (tuber ischiadicum), which is covered with
cartilage.   A deep furrow is found externally between this tuberosity
and the lower edge of the cotyloid cavity.   We remark also between
it and the spine, on the internal face and posterior edge, the inferior
iliac or ischiatic notch (incisura iliaca inferior, s. ischiadica).
  The ascending branch leaves the tubercle, and goes inward, forward
and upward.   This branch  is much shorter and weaker than the de-
scending, and is compressed from before backward and from without
inward.

                        III. OF THE PUBIS.

  § 738. The pubis (os pubis,  s. peclinis) resembles  the ischium in
form, being also composed of two branches united at an angle.   The
upper or horizontal branch (ramus horizontalis) begins with the bulging
external extremity of the body, by means of which it forms the upper
and internal part of the cotyloid cavity;  and then contracting, it also
forms in its centre and at its origin a triangle.   Toward its inferior ex-
tremity, it becomes considerably broad from within outward, becomes
thinner from before backward, and thus produces its descending branch
(ramus descendens), which  goes downward and outward,  gradually
becomes narrow,  and finally unites with the ascending branch of the
ischium.
   The inferior face of the horizontal branch is  concave from behind
forward and from without inward. The anterior edge, situated between
the upper and anterior faces, is blunt.  The upper, placed between the
posterior and superior faces, forms the crest ofthe pubis (pecten, s. crista).
Both unite, beyond the internal extremity of the horizontal branch and
on the anterior face, in the tubercle ofthe pubis (tuberculum ossis pubis).
   § 739. The ischium and the  pubis  united represent an irregular
ring, which surrounds an opening, closed in great part by a membrane,
and called theobturatoror oval foramen (foramen obturatorium,s. ovale).
This foramen is, however, triangular or irregularly quadrilateral.  It
has an external, an upper, and an internal  edge.
   The external edge, formed by the inner edge of the descending branch
of the ischium and the outer part of the horizontal branch of the pubis,
is longest, and is  often divided into two portions,  an inferior, which
is the smaller, and  a superior.   The upper part is always very broad,
 and forms a channel, the direction of which is from without inward and
 from behind forward, through which  the obturator nerves and vessels
 pass from the pelvis. The abdominal viscera sometimes pass out through
 this opening, forming a hernia through the foramen ovale.
   The upper edge, which is oblique from above downward, from be-
 hind forward, and from without inward, is formed by the inferior edge
 of all the inner part of the horizontal branch of the pubis, and unites at
 an obtuse angle with the internal. 
OSTEOLOGY.
489
   The latter, oblique from above downward and from without inward,
 is formed by the upper edge ofthe descending branch ofthe pubis and
 of the ascending branch of the ischium, and it unites at an acute angle
 with the external.
   § 740.  The cotyloid cavity (acetabulum) is situated on the external
 face Of the iliac bone, in the place where the three pieces which form it
 meet. Its largest inferior portion is formed by the body of the ischium,
 its smallest anterior portion by that of the pubis, and its posterior part
 by that of the ilium, that is, by the thickest portion of the iliac bone.  It
 is round, rather deep, and surrounded by a sharp edge (supercilium ace-
 tabuli), which presents forward and downward, toward the foramen
 ovale, a considerable space, called the cotyloid fissure (incisura aceta-
 buli).    Its central and  anterior  part,  the sinus  (fovea),  terminates
 anteriorly by a notch, and is uneven and rough, is grooved in several
 places, particularly in the upper and anterior region,  and is  destitute of
 cartilage.   The  upper and posterior, on the contrary, which is called
 the  semilunar face (fades lunata),  is smooth and covered with carti-
 lage ; it extends forward, and forms two horns (cornua) which surround
 the  notch, so that the superior  does not always descend entirely to it.
 The inferior is much more prominent, and forms with it a channel.
   § 741.  The iliac bone is developed  by three nuclei of ossification,
 which correspond exactly to the three parts we have described.  These
 three parts are not however formed at the  same time.  First, the nu'
 cleus of the ilium appears in the fourth month, next that of the ischium
 and lastly that ofthe pubis.   Those parts which are most distant from
 the median line and from the anterior face are always developed first;
 so that they enlarge from without toward  the median line.   In the full
 grown fetus, these  three  pieces are not only entirely distinct, but the
 ascending branch  of the ischium and  the descending branch  of the
 pubis are but slightly ossified ; so that there is more than half an inch
 of cartilage between them.'  At two years of age they touch, but the
 cartilage exists till the seventh year. About this period they unite with
 one another, although the three pieces ofthe iliac bone are still perfectly
 distinct, in  the cotyloid cavity, in subjects of fourteen years of age. • In
 the sixteenth year there is developed, in the cartilage which joins them
 in this place, a bone formed like a Y,  which unites with the rest to form
 but a single bone.   The  formation however is not yet completed; for
 afterward,  a single oblong nucleus of bone appears in the crest of the
 ilium, and  a second along the  inferior edge of the ischium.   These do
 not unite till the age of twenty, and it is then only that the iliac bone is
 perfectly developed.
   § 742. The iliac bones articulate with the sacrum, with the coccyx,
 and with each other; viz. the ilium  by its auricular  surface and the
 rough portion behind it, with the sacrum, by synchondrosis; the ischium,
 with the  sacrum the coccyx, and ilium by the two  sacro-sciatic liga-
 ments ; the two descending branches of the pubis articulate together
at their upper part by the intermediate fibro-cartilage.
  Vol. I.                       62 
490
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
   § 743. From the description  given, the iliac bone differs from the
scapula in certain respects; but the analogy is greater than the differ-
ences, and the latter may be easily explained (§731).  In  the  imper-
fect state the analogy is more stiiking, as is always the case: the broad
part and the thin  part do not make one, as in the adult, but they are
separated; and it is still more remarkable in this respect, that although
the pubis and the ischium form after the ilium, they however unite with
each other before they join the last; so that taken together they repre-
sent the  clavicle.  Although the clavicle develops itself before the sca-
pula, while the ischium and the pubis are formed after the ilium, yet this
difference is of little importance.   So too the difference in the manner
in which these bones are articulated with each other and with the ver-
tebral column, as also in the form of this articulation, which always
continues,  does not deserve notice.(l)
   If we place a scapula and  an iliac bone side  by side, so that the
internal edge of the former and the crest of  the latter are directed up-
ward, we recognise, without difficulty, that the inner, the anterior, and
the outer edges of the scapula correspond to the crest, to the anterior
edge, and to the iliac notch of the iliac bone ; the glenoid cavity of the
former, to  the cotyloid cavity ofthe latter; the coracoid process, to the
body of  the  pubis :  finally, the spine of the scapula, to the body and
descending branch of the ischium : the rest of the pubis and of the
ischium represents the clavicle.
   The horizontal portion  of  the pubis may also correspond to the
clavicle, and the descending  branch of the ischium to the coracoid
process ;  since the ascending branch of the latter and the descending
branch of the pubis are the costal cartilages ossified, and  the fibro-
cartilaginous mass between the descending branches of the pubis may
be compared to  the sternum in its unossified state.

B. OF THE  ILIAC BONES ARTICULATED WITH EACH OTHER AND WITH THE
           LOWER BONES OF THE TRUNK, OR OF THE PELVIS.

                         I.  NORMAL STATE.

   §  744.  The pelvis(l) is a  bony cavity  situated at the lower ex-
tremity, forming a part of the trunk, and it is composed of the sacrum
(§ 491), and the coccyx which  form it posteriorly, and by the two
iliac bones (§ 731),  which circumscribe it in the rest of its extent. The
form of  this cavity is very irregular, being much broader from one side
to the other than from before backward, while it is much higher on the
sides and backward than it is forward.

   (1) See on this subject our Beytrage, vol. ii. p.  2.  Comparative anatomy also
demonstrates how unimportant is this difference.
   (2) Ed. Sandifort, De pelvi ejusque in partu dilalatione diss., Leyden, 1753.—J.
Ripping, Diss. sys. quasdam de pelvi animadrcrsiones, Leyden, 1776.—C. C. Creve,
 Vom Baue des weiblichen Bechens, Leipsick, 1794.—J. J. Watt, Anatomico-chirur-
gicalview of the male and female pelvis, London, 1817.—G. Termanini, Dellafguray
ampiezza, altezza, situazione ed osse della cavita  del pelvi, in Ovusculi. scient.
di Bologna, vol. i. 1817. 
OSTEOLOGY.
491
   § 745.  It is divided into the large and upper pelvis, and the small or
lower pelvis.  The large pelvis is the space circumscribed on both sides
by the upper part of the iliac bones, backward by the upper face ofthe
sacrum, and forward  by the upper edge of the pubis, so that it is open
forward and downward.   It is separated from the lower pelvis by the
linea innominata, or more properly the linea  terminalis, the terminal,
marginal, or peripheric line, which follows the anterior edge of the
upper face of the sacrum, and by the promontory (§ 495), the boundary
between the upper and lower parts of the iliac  bones, and by the crest of
the pubis.  The surface  comprised by this line is  called the upper
opening or strait ofthe small pelvis (introitus s.apertura pelvis superior).
The large pelvis is much broader across than from  above  downward,
or from before backward, especially at its upper opening; for after
leaving this point, its lateral  walls which are slightly concave, proceed
obliquely downward and inward towards the inferior opening.
   We distinguish in the large pelvis an anterior and a posterior trans-
verse  diameter  (diameter  transversa posterior et anterior),  indicating
the first, the greatest distance  between the  two iliac crests, and the
second, the distance between the anterior and posterior iliac spines.
   § 746.  The small or loioer pelvis is more rounded and more elevated
than the large.   Although broader  from one side to the other than in
any other  direction, it is however much narrower than the latter ; more
surrounded than it by bony walls in all its circumference.   Its walls
are formed by the greater part of the sacrum,  of the coccyx, of the
ischia, and the  pubes and  the lower part of the ilia.  The hollows
in the walls of the small pelvis are filled by muscles and ligaments.
   We observe in the small pelvis, the entrance or superior strait (§ 745),
the outlet  or inferior strait (exitus,  s. apertura inferior), and the cavity
(cavum), the space comprised between the two straits.
   The upper strait has a rounded and oblong or elliptical form,  and
has a small process forward at its  central part.   We distinguish in it
four diameters, an antero-posterior or sacropubic, the conjugate diameter
(diameter  antero-posterior), which is measured from the centre of the
promontory to the centre ofthe symphysis pubis ; the transverse or iliac
(D. transversa), which extends from one side to the other, falling on the
centre ofthe two sides  ofthe linea innominata;  the two oblique diameters
(D.obliqus,s. diagonales), which extend from the sacro-iliac symphysis
of one side to the union of the pubis and ilium of  the opposite  side,
and are distinguished  into right and left.   The oblique and transverse
diameters  are longer than the conjugate diameter.
   The walls of the cavity of the pelvis are a little oblique  from above
downward.  We distinguish in this cavity a straight diameter, a trans-
verse  and  two oblique diameters.   The  first reaches from  the union
of the second and third sacral vertebrae to the centre of the symphysis
pubis.   The transverse diameter extends from the centre of one coty-
loid cavity to the same  point in the opposite  cotyloid cavity.   The
oblique  is measured  from the  inferior  extremity of  the  sacro-iliac 
492
DESCRITT1VE ANATOMY.
symphysis to the centre of the foramen ovale of the opposite side : they
are the longest, and the straight diameter is longer than the transverse.
   The inferior strait, or the outlet, is narrower than the other regions,
but it can enlarge an inch, as the bones of the coccyx arc movable.
It is formed by the lower edge of the coccyx, the two  sacro-sciatic
ligaments, the ascending branch of the ischium and  the descending
branch of the pubis ; so that is composed of three large arches, viz.
two lateral,  situated between the coccyx and the sciatic tuberosities,
and an anterior, which is larger, and is  found between the two latter
tuberosities.   We distinguish in it only two diameters, a straight and a
transverse. The straight or cocci-pubic diameter extends from the centre
of the lower extremity of the coccyx to that of the lower edge of the
symphysis pubis ;  the second or ischiatic, is  measured from the centre
of the lower edge of one sciatic tuberosity to  the corresponding point of
the other.  When  the coccyx is pushed back  the  straight diameter
increases in  breadth, so that it becomes  greater than  the transverse ;
but otherwise, in the normal state, they are  equally long.
   Besides these imaginary lines, we admit also an axis (axis,  linea
directionis pelvis), (1) that is, a line passing through the centre of the
pelvis from above downward, but which, from the irregular form of this
cavity, is  not exactly parallel to its walls.   This line is convex back-
ward, and concave forward.   We may suppose it produced by two or
three straight lines, which unite at an obtuse angle in the centre of the
straight diameter of the cavity ofthe pelvis: the upper line is the axis of
the superior strait, the lower, that of the inferior strait, and the central
one, ofthe cavity ofthe pelvis.  They are directed, the first from above
downward,  and from  before backward;  the other two from before
backward, and from behind forward.
   The axis  of the pelvis has hot the same direction as that of the body,
and the angle it forms with this last is not the same in all its extent, for
this angle gradually contracts from above downward ; so that it may
be  estimated about thirty degrees upward,  twenty-five in the centre,
and eighteen downward.
   The surface, near the centre  of which  these lines are supposed to
pass, is called the surface of inclination; and the difference between
the direction of the pelvis and 'that of the trunk is termed  the  incli-
nation (inclinatio) ofthe pelvis.(2)
   § 747.  The pelvis is undoubtedly that part of the body which varies
the most in the two sexes on account of its relations with  the function
of generation.   The differences it offers in this respect, are then very
important, and deserve to be examined particularly.
   The general  characters  of the female pelvis are its  breadth and
depth ; those of the male pelvis are its narrowness and height.
   The lateral walls of the superior pelvis in the female  have a more
oblique direction downward:  they are less deeply grooved from  before

  (1) J. G.  Rcederer, De axi pelvis programma,  Gottingen,  1751.—Sommer, Dei
Axe des weiblichen Beckens, Brunswick, 1781.
  (2) G. G.  Stein, De pelvis situ ejusque inclinatione diss., Marburg, 1797. 
                            OSTEOLOGY.                       493

 KS f!™ ^downward, separate very much from behind


    The small, pelvis is more spacious, less elevated, and more uniformly
 broad, thanm the male, especially in  the  transverse dTrection   The
 circumference of the female pelvis is more rounded and elliptical while
 in the male it  is heart-shaped, because its walls first senarateVbt
 from each other from behind forward, they then converg  a^approach
 insensibly  before uniting  forward.  The  upper pan of theSacrum
 in the male projects much more inward than in the female, a difference
 depending principally on  what is  observed in  the  form'of this bone
 (§ 496) and on the greater breadth of  the  central part of the pubis in
 the female.                                               r
    In  the  female  the  iliac bones where their upper and lower por-
 tions  unite  project very  much beyond  the sacro-iliac  symphysis
 while in the male they go almost directly forward.  In the female
 the horizontal portion of the pubis extends almost in a straight line
 from without inward, after leaving  the anterior edge of the cotyloid
 cavity; instead of which, in the male, it goes directly forward.   Hence
 it follows  that  the superior strait of the small pelvis in the female is
 broader, and its  transverse  and oblique  diameters particularly are pro-
 portionally larger than the straight diameter.
   The small pelvis has nearly the same breadth in  every part in the
 female ; that of the  male,  on the contrary, becomes  much narrower
 from above downward, because in the  female pelvis the  ilium and the
 ischium  descend almost  in a straight line, while in the male they
 approach  each other very much while  descending;  and also be-
 cause  the sacrum is  much straighter in the female, not  projecting so
 far backward in its centre, nor so much inward in its lower portion •
 hence the sciatic tuberosities are much nearer each other in the male!
   In the same manner, these bones  and the pubis, and  consequently
 all the small pelvis in the male is much higher than in the female.
   The foramen  ovale is  much higher and narrower in the male, less
 elevated and broader in the female ; it is more oval in the former and
 more triangular  in the latter.
   Finally, the outlet in the male is much narrower than in the female.
 The distance between the two sciatic tuberosities being much greater
 the ascending branches of the  ischia and the descending branches of
 the pubes meet in the female only after describing a large arch (arcus
 ossium pubis), while they unite at an acute angle (angulus ossium pubis)
 in the male.  Besides in the male the descending  branches of the
 pubes are turned, so that one of their faces looks more  forward  and
 the other more  backward, while in the female the arch they describe
 causes their anterior face  to look more outward and the posterior more
inward, an arrangement which  renders  the difference in the  form of
the inferior  strait  still  more  evident.   Thirdly, the branches of the
pubes being much  thinner in the female, the inferior strait of the pelvis
is broader. 
494
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  The most essential difference then between the male pelvis and that
of the female in respect to breadth and form arises principally from the
lower strait, which in the male  is not  only narrower but also heart-
shaped  and terminated forward in a point, while in the female  it is
rounder.
  § 748.  The  important  differences in the form and breadth of the
pelvis in the two sexes will be more evident from a table of the com-
parative measurements of the  diameters of the cavity of the pelvis,
taken from subjects of the same height.(l)
		MALE		FEMALE
Transverse diameter ofthe large pelvis.		PELVIS.		PELVIS.
		inches.	lines.	inches, lines.
1st. Between the anterior and superior iliac spines		7	8	8 6
		8	3	9 4
		4	fi	5 0
Oblique do.	of the superior strait . . .	4	5	4 5
Straight do.		4	n	4 4
		4	i)	4 8
		5	0	5 4
		5	o	4 8
		3	0	4 5
Posterior do. do. [ of the outlet . . .		3	0	4 6
		3	3	4 4 and some-times 5 in.
II. OF THE ANOMALIES OF THE PELVIS.
  § 749.  The  anomalies peculiar to the female pelvis(2) are princi-
pally  deviations of formation, which are congenital  or accidental, and
which affect the bones themselves, or  their connections. - All  these
deviations are very important as they exert a pernicious influence upon
the functions of generation, especially upon parturition.
  § 750.  1st. The anomalies of these bones are seen in the variations
presented in their form and situation, or in their continuity.
  a. Anomalies inform.  The slightest abberration consists generally
in an increase  or a  diminution of capacity, which  causes a  general

  (1) The calculations forming the basis of this table differ a little from those of
Chaussier.  See Mad. Boivin, Mem de Part des accouchemens, p. 26-29.
  (2) C. C. Creve, Von den Krankheilen des weiblichen Bcckens, Berlin, 1795.—Mad.
Boivin, Mem. del'art des accouch. p. 31-34. 
OSTEOLOGY.
495
largeness  or  narrowness of the  pelvis.   These two states however,
more  particularly the second, when existing in a certain  extent, are
more rare than anomalies in the  form of one or more bones, whence
the figure of the whole pelvis varies  more or  less from the ordinary
proportions either because only  one of these regions  is deformed, or
because, even when the anomaly extends to the whole pelvis, a single
diameter is shortened, so  that the  cavity is contracted in only one
direction.  These different kinds of anomalies are by no means equally
common.
   Most usually the antero-posterior or conjugate diameter of the upper
and lower opening of  the  pelvis is  narrower, because the sacrum
describes  too  great a curve, whence its upper  and lower  extremities
project  too much inward.  At  the same  time the pelvis is almost
always oblique, which renders the  oblique diameters  unequal.  The
transverse diameter  generally preserves  its proper proportions, but
is sometimes  unusually broad.  As to the straight diameter of the ca-
vity,it is often unusually and uselessly long, from the great concavity
of the sacrum.
   The  shortening of this straight  diameter however may result also
from an anomaly in the form of the iliac bones, they being either too
short, or because, although large as usual, they describe an  arch which
is too convex.
   The  effect is the same also when the pubes are not properly arched
externally, but go directly inward after leaving the ilium.   A narrow
space is then formed forward which does not assist the passage of the
fetus, although the straight diameters are not really shortened.
   Sometimes only the conjugate diameter of the  outlet of the pelvis
is shortened by the ossification of the hgaments of the coccyx.  The
shortening of the transverse diameter of the superior  strait is rare,
but that of the inferior strait, especially backward, is common, from
the bending inward of the sciatic tuberosities.
   Curvatures of the vertebral column, although  extensive, have no
effect upon the form  of the pelvis, when not resulting from a general
disease, as particularly rachitis.   We have satisfied ourselves of this
by a careful examination of a great many skeletons of hunch-backs.
   b. Anomalies in situation.  They cause a change in the direction or
in the inclination of the pelvis.  This cavity is inclined farther forward,
and its distance  from the horizontal line is greater as its axis is more
perpendicular.   On the contrary, it slopes very much more backward,
and is more oblique as its axis is more horizontal.
   c. Anomalies in the continuity of the  bones.   These consist in frac-
tures which are not  impossible as has sometimes  been thought, but
are observed  in the pelvis even more frequently than in the other parts
of the  trunk.  The part of the walls of the  pelvis most frequently
broken is the  ilium, and the fracture is either transverse or longitudinal;
a fracture of  the descending branch of the ischium is most  unfrequent.
The horizontal and descending branches of the pubis and  the ascend-
ing branch of the ischium almost always break together.   Fractures 
496
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
of the sacrum are for the most part transverse ;  they arc seldom seen
except in the body of this bone.
   § 751. 2d. Anomalies in the arrangement of the connections of the
bones of the pelvis consist in too loose or too firm a union.
   a. Looseness in connection is primitive  or accidental.   The primi-
tive is seen almost, exclusively in the  symphysis  pubis.  It is rarely
met with alone,(l) and is most generally attended with an  analogous
anomaly in the bladder, a fissure of this organ.   The bones are then
always very imperfectly united by a fibrous ligament, which  renders
the gait unsteady, and the more as the pubes are generally separated
some inches.
   Accidental separation results either from external violence or disease,
as inflammation  and suppuration, by which the ligaments are torn  or
destroyed. External violence fractures the bone sooner than it destroys
the ligaments, excepting always the pieces of the coccyx, which are
movably articulated with the sacrum and with each other.
   b. Too great solidity of the connections, the fusion of the bones, is
caused by the ossification of their fibro-cartilages or of their fibrous liga-
ments.
   This is seen most frequently in  the sacro-iliac articulation, especially
in that of the right side, which depends probably on the greater compres-
sion of this joint, from the support afforded to the body by the lower
extremity of the right side.
  It is less common to find a fusion either  of a few, more particularly
the lower of coccygceal bones, or of all, or finally of the first coccygceal
bone with the sacrum.   This anomaly is more  frequent in males, espe-
cially equestrians, than in females.
  The ossification of the sacro-sciatic hgaments is still more rare.  That
ofthe symphysis pubis is still more so.(2)  It generally but not  always
results from  inflammation and destruction of the cartilage, while that
of the other joints supervenes without inflammation, and solely from the
gradual change of their proper substance, and of the fibrous tissues
which surround them.
                    ARTICLE  SECOND.

                        OF THE FEMUR.

  § 752. The femur (os femoris) is not only the largest of all the cylin-
drical bones, but the greatest bone in the body. It is stronger than any
other round bone, and so curved .at its  upper part, that it is convex
forward and concave backward. Its  upper extremity differs much from
that of the body; for the almost spherical head which terminates it

  (1) Walter mentions one case in his work, Von der Spaltung der Schambeine,
Berlin, 1782.
  (2) E. Sandifort, De ancylosi ossium pubis, in the Obs. anat. pathol., book i. chap.
vi. p. 115-125, tab. viii. 
OSTEOLOGY.
497
joins to this last at nearly a right angle, by a short but very manifest
neck.   Near the centre of the cartilaginous surface of this head, but
rather downward than upward,  is a considerable depression, which
marks the insertion of the round ligament-  The neck is shghtly com-
pressed from before backward.  At the place of its union with the body
we remark two large processes, called trochanters (trochanteres). The
large, upper, or outer trochanter arises from the upper and outer extre-
mity of the body, curves very much  backward and downward, and
presents on its internal face a considerable depression, called the fossa
of the large trochanter.   The inner, smaller, or inferior trochanter is
situated lower than the preceding, and arises as a small truncated py-
ramid from the upper extremity of the internal face  of the body, and
inclines inward.   Ridges extend from the large to the small trochanter
on the anterior and posterior faces of the bone, and  give attachments
to certain  muscles.   These are called the anterior and posterior inter-
trochanterian lines (linea intertrochanterica anterior  et posterior) ] the
latter is by far the most distinct.
   The  anterior and  external  faces are so insensibly continuous with
each other on the body, that we cannot trace the hmit between them;
and the bone is here round.  The anterior and the  internal faces are
very distinct, and the external and the internal are  still more so, as a
very projecting ridge, called the rough line of the  thigh bone (linea
aspera ossis femoris), exists between them.  This ridge arises by two
roots from the large and small trochanters, is more  or less evidently
divided into two lips (labia) in almost the whole length of the femur,
and terminates by two branches at the lower sixth of the bone.. The
base of the body is also divided into four faces ;  an anterior, a posterior,
and two lateral faces which are the narrowest.
   The inferior extremity of the body extends into an inferior process.
This, the  broadest and straightest part of the bone, has, generally con-
sidered, the form of a heart.   We notice its two condyles (eondyli ossis
femoris), an external and an internal, the inferior, anterior, and posterior
faces of which are insensibly continuous with each other, and thus form
a broad surface, which is convex from before backward and from within
outward,  and is covered with cartilage.  These  two eminences are
separated in every part by a fissure, which is very deep, especially in
its posterior portion,  where it is not covered with cartilage.   This pos-
terior part is the posterior intercondyloidfossa (fovea intercondyloidea
posterior). The anterior is much flatter, is covered with cartilage, forms
a part of the articular surface, and is called the anterior intercondyloid
fossa (fovea intercondyloidea anterior).   The two  lateral faces of the
condyles,  which are  destitute of cartilage,  present  elevations which
serve for the attachment of the articular ligaments.
   The foramina of nutrition (foramina nutritia), are found upon and at
the side of the linea aspera, but at different heights. _ We usually ob-
serve two, one of which is larger than the other and is always situated
higher.   Sometimes  also there is only one, which is then found near
the centre of the femur.
   Vol. I.                       C3 
498
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  § 753.  The femur appears first toward the end of the second month
of pregnancy, at which time its length but slightly exceeds its breadth
and thickness.   From the third month, however, it not only becomes
longer, but its two  extremities are  evidently broader than  its central
portion: it however remains straight till birth, and its curve is not appa-
rent till toward  the end of the first year, and  afterwards gradually
increases.  In general it is larger in the male than in the  female.  Os-
sification does not commence in the lower extremity till the last month
of pregnancy;  a single rounded osseous nucleus then occupies the
central portion, from whence it gradually  extends to the two condyles.
Some time after birth ossification begins  also  in the upper extremity,
namely, in the head;  but it is not till the third or fourth year that ossi-
fication begins first  in the large and then in the small trochanter. The
neck, which is simply the body prolonged, is indicated but very imper-
fectly in the full grown  fetus,  and only on the inside  by the greater
breadth of the upper part of the bone, as also by the projection of its
upper extremity.  These  five osseous germs, that of the head, of the
body, of the two trochanters, and of the condyles, remain separated a
long time after puberty, and are not all fused, even when the subject
is perfectly developed.   The small trochanter first fuses with the body,
next the head, then the  large trochanter;  the inferior extremity is fused
the last.(l)  This  marked  difference  then exists between the ossi-
fication of the humerus  and femur, that in the latter the lower, and in
the former the upper extremity is the last to unite with the bod}'.
  § 754.  The femur articulates by its upper  extremity with the iliac
bone, and by the lower with the head of the tibia.
  § 755.  The greatest  anomaly presented by it  is a great increase of
its curve forward:  this is  seen principally in subjects affected*with
rachitis.   More  rarely the  groove in the head for the insertion of the
round ligament is deficient (§ 752).  When the  lower extremities are
very imperfectly developed, this bone is sometimes wholly or at least in
great part deficient.


                      ARTICLE  THIRD.

                   OF THE BONES OF THE LEG.

  §  756. The leg,  like  the fore-arm, is composed of two bones, which
differ in their relations with each  other and with the adjacent bones,
from those of the bones of the second section of the pectoral members.
The larger is the tibia, the smaller the fibula.

                         I. OF THE TIBIA.

  § 757.  The tibia  (focile majus) forms the foundation ofthe leg, being
five times as massive as the fibula.  This  bone is next in  size to the

  (1) Albinus mistakes in saying that the two trochanters fuse at the same time, and
does not point out the order in which the different nuclei of bone are developed. 
OSTEOLOGY.                       499
 femur, and is longer even than the humerus.  It is situated on the inside
 of the leg.
    The direction of  its body is almost straight; it is  however slightly
 convex forward and a little concave backward.  Its three faces are per-
 fectly distinguished from each other by projecting edges. The anterior
 edge, which separates the internal from the external face and is directly
 under the skin, is sharp, and has hence been called the crest ofthe tibia
 (crista tibis) ; the external is acute ;  the smoothest and most rounded
 of the three is  the internal.  The  external  face  is concave in its
 upper two thirds, and is called the peronsal cavity (cavitas peronsa)
 from the direction of its  hollow.   The internal and posterior face is
 slightly convex.   Above its central part the body is a little compressed
 from within outward, but gradually enlarges in its  lower fourth  and
 becomes more rounded, because its edges disappear in this portion of it.
   There is generally but one  foramen of nutrition, situated at the infe-
 rior extremity of the first fourth of the posterior face, near the outer
 edge.
   The upper extremity, the thickest and broadest part ofthe bone, ter-
 minates in the condyles of  the tibia (eondyli tibis), which correspond
 to those of the femur.   Both present on their upper faces, which are
 faced with cartilage, a  superficial glenoid cavity (cavitates glenoides,
 externa et  interna).   Their  internal edge alone projects slightly, espe-
 cially in the centre.   Their internal articular face is a little longer from
 before backward, but narrower in the same proportion from within
 outward, than the external face.   They unite  inwardly and  produce
 an unequal elevation (acclivitas intercondyloidea), the direction of which
 is from before backward, but  which is not as  extensive as they are.
 This elevation corresponds  to the posterior intercondyloid fossa of the
 femur.  Before and behind it we  observe an anterior and a posterior
 depression (fovea acclivitatis anterior et posterior), which has no  car-
 tilage.  At the posterior extremity of the  lateral face of the external
 condyle of the tibia is a small, round, smooth  articular surface (fades
 artieularis lateralis, s. peronea), faced with cartilage, the direction of
 which is  obliquely downward and backward, to which is fitted the
 corresponding facet of the upper extremity of the fibula.   The anterior
 face of this upper extremity presents in its centre, at the place where
 it unites with the body, a considerable projection, call the spine or tube-
 rosity of the  tibia  (tuberositas tibis), which is insensibly continuous
 with the crest.
   The lower  extremity forms in its lower convex portion a considerable
 triangular tuberosity, the angles of which  are however rounded ;  this
 is called the internal malleolus (malleolus internus); on its posterior face
 is a groove, more or less deep, and the direction  of which is from  above
 downward and from without inward ; it is the internal malleolar groove
 (sulcus malleoli interni).   The external face of  this  extremity, on the
 contrary, is concave and  receives  the fibula.   The lower face, which
forms a right angle with the external face  of  the internal malleolus, is
faced with cartilage, slightly concave from before backward to lodge 
500
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
the head of the astragalus, and is  sometimes divided into two  lateral
portions by a slight eminence.
   § 758. The tibia developes itself by three points of ossification. The
body appears toward the end of the second month of pregnancy. The
osseous germ of the upper extremity does not appear till towards the
last month, and then is  seen in  its  centre.  The inferior is wholly
cartilaginous in the full-grown fetus, but  begins to ossify immediately
after birth.   The fusion  of these pieces of bone with the body is  not
completed till the subject is perfectly developed.  The lower extremity
fuses with the body before the upper extremity.(l)
   § 759. The tibia articulates by the upper faces of its condyles with
those of the femur; by its lateral articular facet with the head of the
fibula; and by its lower extremity with the astragalus.
   § 760. The anomalies of this bone are its entire or partial deficiency,
which accompanies the imperfect development of the lower extremities,
their curving inward (valgi)  or outward (vari), or  rarely forward in
those affected with rachitis.

                         II.  OF THE FIBULA.

   § 761. The fibula (perone, focile minus cruris) is the second, and
the weaker of the bones of the leg, being situated on its outside.   It is
nearly as long as the tibia, but does not extend so high above, while it
extends  a httle below the tibia.   The  body has an  irregular form,
and it is twisted on itself. We however distinguish in it three faces, which"
are  very sensibly separated by as many edges.   The anterior  is not
simply concave, but  divided, in most of its extent, by  a longitudinal
crest into two parallel furrows.   The external is concave in its upper
part, and slightly concave downward.   The internal is flatter,  but in
its upper part are prominent  asperities  for, the attachments of some
muscles.   The anterior  edge is the  most acute, especially near  the
the central part of the bone, and hence it may be called the crest of the
fibula (crista fibuls). The body of  the fibula is much thicker in its
centre and towards its upper extremity than in the rest  of its extent.
   The foramen of nutrition, which is always single,  is  situated  a little
above the centre of the bone on its internal edge.
   The upper extremity,  the head  of the fibula (capitulum), represents
an irregular square,  the upper face of which is directed obliquely from
above downward, and from  behind forward, and has on its posterior
part an articular surface, which is cartilaginous and a  little concave,
which corresponds to the lateral  articular facet of the tibia (§ 757).
This surface presents asperities, more or less distinct, to which muscles
are attached.
   The lower extremity is triangular, and slightly compressed from
right to left: it  descends backward a little lower than forward, and
forms the external malleolus  (malleolus  externus).  The  upper  and

  _ (I) Albinus has neglected to mention the order in which the nuclei of bone in the
tibia are developed and fused. 
OSTEOLOGY.                        501
interior portion of its internal face unites to the lower face of the inferior
extremity of the tibia, at a right angle,  to form the articular surface
designed to receive the astragalus, and is covered with cartilage.   The
posterior and  inferior half is rough, and very concave: it is called the
fossa of the external malleolus (fovea malleoli externi).  Above and
behind this fossa, and also before and above the articular surface, are
two tubercles, a posterior and an anterior (tubercula malleols externs
posterius et anterius), to which ligaments are attached.   The posterior
face of the external malleolus presents a groove (sulcus malleoli externi),
which is perceptible with difficulty.
   § 762. The body of the fibula appears a little later than that ofthe
tibia.  In  the fetus of ten weeks old, it is only about half as long as
this last; and it is not till the end  of  the third month that both bones
have the same length.   On the contrary, even in the full-grown fetus
and in the child, the tibia is thinner in proportion to the fibula  than at a
later period.  The two single osseous nuclei of the extremities do not
begin to appear till after birth, and fuse  only when the subject is fully
grown. The inferior unites to the body before the superior, and always
sooner on its'external than on its internal edge.
   § 763.  The fibula articulates upward with  the tibia (§ 759), and
downward with the astragalus (§ 772).
   § 764. This bone is sometimes deficient when the lower extremities
are not perfectly developed, although the tibia may exist;  a curious
 analogy with some animals, resembling the fusion of the two bones into
one as it is seen in several.   Its lower part is then generally  deficient;
sometimes  however, although the tibia  and the foot exist, (the latter
being very imperfect) the upper part of the fibula is deficient, and only
a small portion of its lower part exists, which terminates upward in a
point.

                       III. OF THE PATELLA.

   § 765. The patella ox rotula is a shorter bone situated on the anterior
face of the knee joint, between the  femur and the tibia.  It has  an
irregularly quadrilateral form.  The angle produced by the union of its
lower edges is the most acute, and that  by the upper, the most obtuse.
 The anterior face  is convex, and presents  numerous foramina  of
nutrition;   the  posterior is covered with  cartilage in all  its upper
portion, and is divided by a large projection into two slightly concave
surfaces.    This  part  is covered  with cartilage, and is  fitted to the
anterior part ofthe articular surface of the lower extremity of the femur.
The lateral fossae receive the anterior parts  of the  condyles, and
the central eminence is fitted into the anterior fossa.
   The patella is situated in  the  substance of the tendon of the ex-
tensor muscles of the leg, which covers all its anterior face, but extends
only upon  those  parts of its posterior face which have no  cartilage.
This  tendO'i attaches it to the tuberosity of the tibia.   It corresponds
perfectly, both in its situation and in its connection with this tendon, to 
502
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
the olecranon process of the ulna; and hence the tibia has no process
which may be compared with the olecranon.   The patella increases
the analogy between the bones ofthe leg and those ofthe fore-arm.
  § 766.  Ossification of the patella does not commence till after birth.
Portal is mistaken in saying that its posterior face is almost perfect in
the full-grown fetus, and that it is developed  by two  points of ossifica-
tion^ 1)   A nucleus of bone forms  in the centre  of the cartilage and
gradually and slowly enlarges.   We very rarely  find several points of
ossification ; Rudolphi however mentions an instance.(2)
                    ARTICLE  FOURTH.

                  OF THE BONES OF THE FOOT.

   § 767. The foot comprises three divisions, the tarsus, the metatarsus,
 and the toes (digiti pedis).

                        I. OF THE TARSUS.

   § 768. The tarsus is formed like the carpus of short and rounded
 bones very similar to the carpal bones, but differing from them in several
 respects, viz. in number : the bones of the tarsus are only seven ;  they
 are much larger and stronger, their mode of articulation with the bones
 of the leg differ, and they are arranged, not like the bones of the hand,
 in two rows,  most  commonly, but in  three.  On  the  other hand,
 the manner in which they articulate with each other, or with the meta-
 tarsal bones, is almost the same as that of the carpal bones, and it is
 much more exact to  describe them as forming two rows.

        I. OF THE POSTERIOR RANGE OF THE TARSAL BONES.

   § 769. The posterior range of the tarsal bones  comprises the two
 largest, the astragalus, and the os calcis.

                      A. OF THE ASTRAGALUS.

   § 770.  The astragalus (talus, astragalus, os tessers)  has a quad-
rangular but very irregular form.   We distinguish in it a body, a head,
and a neck.
  The body is quadrangular, and is the posterior and largest part of
the bone.  Its upper face is covered with cartilage,  is convex  from
before backward, and slightly concave  from within outward.   The
direction of the upper part of the  external lateral face is obliquely  from
above downward and  from within outward, and, hke the smaller and

                    (1) Anat. Med., vol. i. p. 472.
                    (2) Anat. physiol. Abh., p. 133. 
OSTEOLOGY.
503
upper part of the internal face, it is covered with cartilage.  The infe-
rior parts of these two faces which have no cartilage present numerous
asperities for the attachment of ligaments.  The small posterior face is
also uneven, and extends outward into a  small tubercle.  The inferior
is  covered with cartilage, is  directed a  little obliquely from without
inward and from before backward, and is very concave.  The anterior
is  not free except  in its inferior half, and to a small extent of the out-
side of the superior;  it is continuous.for the most part with the neck,
which is  short and very narrow upward,  downward, and outward.
The head is a little higher than the neck and extends much lower,
but does  not hke  the  neck proceed outward as far as the body.  Its
upper face is rough.   The anterior  is convex from  without inward
and from  above downward, is much more broad than high, and is
covered with cartilage.  The latter is usually divided into two portions
by a slight  eminence,  the direction of which is oblique from  before
backward, and from without  inward.   Sometimes, but rarely, a por-
tion which has no  cartilage divides into two entirely distinct surfaces;
these differences however do not depend on sex, nor is the arrange-
ment on both sides of the same subject exactly the same.
   § 771.  The  rudiments of the astragalus appear first in the seventh
month of  pregnancy.   In the full-grown fetus, it is a round nucleus
of bone, the body and the head being then almost equal in size.
   § 772.  The  astragalus articulates, by the upper and lateral faces
of the body, with the tibia (§ 759) and the fibula (§ 763), forming a
ginglymus joint, which, besides the flexion and extension of the foot,
admits only of  a shght motion inward«and outward.   It articulates by
the lower  face of its body and its neck with the os calcis (§ 775), and
by the anterior face of  its neck with the  scaphoid bone (§ 779).

                       B. OF THE OS CALCIS.

   § 773.  The  os  calcis (calcaneum) is  the largest of the  tarsal and
even of the short bones, and is more than double the size ofthe astraga-
lus.  It is situated below the astragalus  and proceeds equally  as far
forward, but extends much  farther backward.  Its  general form  is
irregularly quadrilateral. Its greatest diameter is from before backward,
and the smallest from within outward.
   We may distinguish in it a body and an internal process.
   The body is  compressed laterally.   It bulges backward and forms a
large  tuberosity (tuber calcanea) to which the  Achilles  tendon  is
attached,  and which terminates downward and forward in two emi-
nences, the internal being larger than  the external.  The external
face is rough;  it usually presents forward two small tubercles which
however  are not constant, and seldom exist in both bones of the same
subject.   These tubercles, one of which is situated directly behind the
other, form a species of groove.  The outer face is generally smooth,
the inner  is a little concave from above  downward  and from  before
backward.  The  upper face forms two  arches, the posterior of which 
504
DE8CRIPT1VE ANATOMY.
 is smaller  and flatter, and extends from  the  upper extremity of the
 tubercle to the posterior extremity of the anterior arch.  This latter is
 larger, and is composed at its anterior face of  a cartilaginous convex
 articular surface, having a direction perpendicularly from behind for-
 ward, and of another portion situated forward, rough, very concave,
 and destitute of cartilage.  In this place, the bone is much lower than
 in its posterior portion.  Its anterior triangular  face is slightly concave
 and covered  with cartilage.
   From the  upper and internal edge of the anterior portion of the os
 calcis proceeds an oblong process, not broad,  but very strong, which
 goes inward, and is called the lateral process (processus lateralis, sus-
 tentaculum tali),  on which the head of the astragalus rests.   This
 process is  separated, backward and upward, from the body, by a deep
 groove (sulcus sustentacidi tali inferior).   The upper face  descends
 obliquely from before backward ;  it  is covered with  cartilage and is
 concave.   Its anterior part is usually narrower than the posterior, and
 most generally there is at the commencement of the anterior third a
 greater or less contraction, which  is sometimes converted into a deep
 furrow, destitute  of cartilage, which seems to divide its  single face
 into two parts.    This face corresponds to  the inferior face  of the body
 of the astragalus.   Its division into two is much more common  than
 the  same  arrangement in the astragalus, and the lower face of the
 head of this  bone is not usually divided, even in those subjects where
 the separation of  the upper face of  the lateral process of the os calcis
 is complete.
  The assertion  that this articular surface  is entire  only in the female
is incorrect ;(1)  on the contrary, its  division into an anterior and a pos-
 terior part is  much more frequent in the female than in the male, where
it is rare and less  perfect.   Farther, in both sexes  we not unfrequently
find the two arrangements in the  two  sides of the  same  subject, so
 that there are no  peculiarities of sex.
  §  774.  The  os calcis is developed the first of all the tarsal bones.
It begins to appear in the  sixth  month  of pregnancy as  a single
 nucleus in  the centre of the cartilage.  In  the  full grown fetus, this
nucleus is nearly  twice as large as   that of the astragalus  and goes
farther forward but very little farther back than  the latter, while in the
adult the posterior forms almost half of the length of  the bone.  This
difference arises from the' fact that three-fourths of the os calcis at least,
 particularly all its posterior part, is still cartilaginous, and its  osseous
 nucleus is situated directly below that of the astragalus.   Afterward,
 that is from the eighth  to  the tenth year, there is developed in the
 tuberosity a single, flat, and  rounded osseous  germ  which  is -much
 thicker downward  than upward,  and which  increases from below
 upward.  The lower part of this nucleus  fuses with  the body much
 sooner than the upper part.   Sometimes also a third point of ossifica-
 tion forms in the upper part of the tuberosity.  The perfect  union  of
(1) Soemmering, Knochenlehre, p. 410. 
OSTEOLOGY.                       505
this nucleus with  the body takes place only when the subject is fully
grown.   The  form of the os calcis, its slow development, and its con-
nexions with the Achilles tendon, are circumstances worthy of remark,
as establishing an analogy between it and the patella, and the olecranon
process of the ulna.
   § 775. The os  calcis unites  to  the bones of the leg but does not
articulate with them, although  attached by strong fibrous ligaments.
It articulates by the upper articular surface of its body, with the body
of the astragalus ; by the upper articular surface of its process, with
the head of the same  bone (§ 772); and  by the anterior  face of its
body, with the cuboid bone (§ 782).

        II. OF THE ANTERIOR RANGE OF THE  TARSAL BONES.

   § 776. The anterior  range of  the  tarsal  bones is formed of five
bones, which  are  smaller  than those of the  posterior range, and of
which four articulate with the latter by  their posterior extremities,
while  the  fifth is situated between the three internal bones of this
range and the posterior range.   Two of these  bones, the  scaphoid
bone and the cuboid bone are usually considered as  the second range
of .tarsal bones, because their posterior faces articulate with the astra-
galus and the calcaneum;  but as the cuboid bone also extends as far
forward as the other three which are usually  considered as the third
range, and as it articulates like the latter with the  metatarsal bones,
it is more proper to regard these five last as forming only one range.

                     A. OF THE SCAPHOID BONE.

   § 777. The scaphoid bone (os  naviculare) is situated before  the
astragalus, behind the three cuneiform bones,  and on the inside of the
cuboid bone.   It makes part of the posterior and internal portion of the
anterior range of  the  tarsal bones.   Its breadth exceeds its height
very much, and its thickness still more.  Its posterior  cartilaginous
face  is concave  and  smooth;  its  anterior is larger and also covered
with  cartilage, convex, and divided by three  eminences which extend
from  above downward, into four compartments, which  diminish in
extent  from  within outward.   The' upper and  convex face is very
rough.  So too with  the  inferior which is straighter.   At the place
where these two faces meet, on the internal edge of the foot, the bone
forms a projecting angle,  called the  tuberosity of  the scaphoid bone
 (tuberositas ossis  navicularis).
   § 778. Ossification of the scaphoid bone  does not commence till
after  birth, and usually towards the end of the first year.
   6 779. This bone articulates by its posterior face with the anterior
face of the head of the astragalus (§  772), and by the four  compart-
ments'of its anterior face with the three cuneiform bones (§ 784, 793),
and also with the cuboid bone (§ 782).
Vol. I
64 
506
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
                      B. OF THE CUBOID BONE.

  § 780.  The  cuboid bone (os cuboideum) derives its name from its
form  which  is  irregularly quadrilateral.  It is longer  from before
backward than from one side to the other, and from above downward.
Its  posterior  triangular face is covered with cartilage, and is slightly
concave;  the internal is rough in most  of its extent; it is  covered
with cartilage at its central and upper portion : this cartilaginous sur-
face is divided into  two halves by a process which goes  from above
downward, of which the external half is the larger.  The anterior face,
situated on a short, slightly contracted  eminence, is square, covered
with cartilage, and also divided by a projection which goes from above
downward into two halves, of which the  external is the larger.  The
upper face is almost plane  and slightly uneven.   The external is  the
smallest, and in the  place where it  is continuous with the inferior, it
forms a tuberosity which also extends across the whole breadth of  the
inferior face and which produces  the obliqite eminence of the cuboid
bone (eminentia obliqua ossis cuboidei).   Between this tuberosity and
the anterior edge of the face, a deep furrow (sulcus ossis cuboidei)  ex-
tends in an oblique direction.   The portion of the external face  situated
behind  the tuberosity is also concave and rough, but less so than  the
other.
  § 781.  Ossification of the  Cuboid bone commences before birth, but
hot till towards the end of  the  eighth month of pregnancy, although
it is far advanced in the full grown fetus.(1)
  § 782.  This bone articulates by its posterior cartilaginous face, with
the anterior face ofthe body of the calcaneum (§ 776); by the poste-
rior half of the portion hf its internal face which is covered with carti-
lage, with the most external and smallest  compartment of the anterior
face ofthe scaphoid bone (§ 779);  by the anterior part of this same por-
tion, with a part of the external  face  of the  third  cuneiform  bone
(§ 792); finally by its anterior face with  the posterior extremities of
the two external metatarsal bones.

                   C. OF THE CUNEIFORM BONES.

  § 783.  The three cuneiform bones (ossa cuneiformia), which have
received this name from their common resemblance to a wedge, are
situated between the  scaphoid, the  cuboid, and the three  inner meta-
tarsal bones.   They are all  triangular, contracted from within out-
ward, and much broader  at one  extremity than at the other, where
they terminate by a more or less sharp edge.   They are not equal in
size.

  (I) Albinus says Maturo (fcetu) etiam nonnisi calceus et talus pertem ossCam  ha-
bent, and every anatomist has followed him.  But this is a mistake as may easily be
seen by examining the skeleton of a full grown fetus. 
OSTEOLOGY.
507
                      a. Of the first cuneiform bone.

   § 784.  The first  cuneiform called also the large or internal cunei-
form bone assists to  form the internal edge of the  sole of the foot.  It
is situated between the inner part of the scaphoid bone and the meta-
tarsal  bone of the large  toe.  It is very much larger than the other
two and, from its position, the sharp edge is directed upward.   Its free
inner larger convex face is very rough.  The external is a little con-
cave, is still more rough.   We remark along its upper and most of its
posterior edge a straight  band, which is  covered with cartilage  and
divided forward by  a small  eminence in two parts ; the anterior is
smaller, and is  directed  a little obliquely from behind forward  and
from within  outward.  The inferior face is slightly convex and very
rough.  The anterior, almost plane, is in the form of an ear, that is,
it is surrounded inward by a convex edge, and outward  by a concave
edge slightly grooved at its central part.  The posterior is triangular,
concave, and entirely covered with cartilage.
   § 785.  In the full grown fetus there is no  nucleus of bone  for the
large cuneiform bone.
  ■ § 786.  It is articulated by its posterior face, with the most internal
compartment of the   anterior  face of the  scaphoid bone ( §779) ; by
the greater posterior part of the cartilaginous portion of the  external
face, with the second cuneiform bone (§ 789); by the small anterior part
of this same  portion, with the second metatarsal bone (§ 799); finally,
by its anterior face, with the posterior face of the first metatarsal bone
(§ 797).
                      b. Of the second cuneiform bone.

   § 787.  The second cuneiform bone called also the smallest cuneiform
bone is about one third  the  size of the preceding.   It is particularly
much  narrower from above  downward and from  before  backward,
so that its extent downward or forward is not so great, although
upward and backward it proceeds as far as that.  It is situated so that
its broad face forms a  part of the back of the foot, while its lower,
sharper, and wedge-shaped edge looks toward the sole.   The upper
face is square, convex, and slightly rough ;  the posterior *md anterior
are triangular, strait, and covered with cartilage.  Most of the internal
edge is also covered with  cartilage ; it is  destitute of it in but two
small slightly concave spaces, the  posterior of which extends  nearly
in a straight line from the centre of the lower edge to the upper, with-
out however reaching it, while the anterior occupies the lower part of
the anterior edge.   The  external  face is covered with cartilage in its
upper  and posterior part, and is uneven and rough in its anterior.
   § 788.  Ossification does not begin in this bone till after birth, and a
httle later even than in the large cuneiform bone.
   § 789.  The second cuneiform bone articulates by its posterior face,
with the second  compartment of the anterior face of the scaphoid 
008                  DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
bone (§ 779); by the interior, with the first cuneiform bone (§ 786);
by the external, with the third cuneiform bone (§ 792) ; and by the
anterior, with the second metatarsal bone (§ 799).

                      c. Of the third cuneiform bone.

   § 790.  The third cuneiform bone is about half the size of the first.
The form and direction of its faces resemble those of the second very
much, but it is a little more contracted from within outward  than  the
last.   It is as long from before backward as the first, so that it  pro-
ceeds equally as  far forward ;  but as it is lower and does not equal it
in height, it does not extend equally as far  downward.
   The larger  and upper portion  of its  triangular  and plane  pos-
terior face is faced with  cartilage; so, too, of  the  upper and posterior
half of the  external face, while its inferior and anterior part, which
is more extensive than the other, is uneven and   rough.   Almost
all the internal face is  very rough and destitute of cartilage.   We
only perceive  a  layer  of cartilage  some  lines broad,  along  the
upper part  of its  posterior edge, and two .others which are smaller
and rounded, situated  one above  tho other,  and occupying nearly
the same extent along the anterior edge.   The anterior face is slightly
concave and triangular, and is every where covered with cartilage.
   §791.  The third cuneiform bone, although much smaller than the
first and the scaphoid bone, ossifies before them, and it appears not in
the full-grown fetus, but at the end of the first month, as an osseous
germ which is very considerable.
   § 792.  It articulates  by its posterior face, with the third compart-
ment of the anterior face of the scaphoid bone  (§ 779); by its anterior
face, with the third metatarsal bone (§ 801);  by the posterior  and
cartilaginous part of  the internal, with  the  second  cuneiform bone
(§ 789);  by the  two anterior  cartilages of the same face, with the
second metatarsal bone  (§ 801);  finally, by the cartilaginous portion
of its external face, with the cuboid bone (§ 782.)

                 II. OF THE METATARSAL  BONES.

   § 793. The metatarsus is  composed, like the metacarpus, of five
 cylindrical bones, which are formed generally after the same type, and
 are nearly  equal in  length ;  but which, independently of several  less
important differences, vary much  in  thickness.   Like all  cylindrical
 bones, the body is thinner than the extremities, and presents three faces
 which are  separated by as  many edges: the inferior is usually the
 sharpest.   Among these faces, one looks more or less upward, and is
 called the superior or dorsal (faces dorsalis): the other two are lateral,
 an  external and  an internal.  The bone  considered as a whole, is
 sightly arched;  hence  it appears slightly convex  above  and more
 strongly concave below.
   The posterior extremities or the bases  (basis), are generally trian-
 gular.   They terminate backward by more or less  plane and cartila- 
OSTEOLOGY.                       509
ginous surfaces, by which  they articulate with the anterior range of
the tarsal bones.   They are also furnished on one or on both sides with
one or more facets, by which they are fitted to each other and to  the
bones of the anterior range of the tarsus.   Besides, part of the lateral
faces of these posterior extremities is rough for the insertion of fibrous
ligaments.
   The anterior extremities or the heads (capilida), are generally thinner
than the posterior, rounded and terminated forward by an articular
convex surface, behind which is a depression (sinus) which surrounds
all the head.  Beyond this depression we observe four tubercles, one at
the upper and tho lower part of each side.
   As the  anterior and posterior extremities of the metatarsal bones
extend beyond the body in every direction, we observe between every
two of the metatarsal bones an interval called an  interosseous space
(interstitium interosseum).
   § 794. The metatarsal bones gradually form by the union  of  two
pieces of bone.   The largest, which represents the body,' appears  first
in the third month of pregnancy, and is perfectly developed in the full-
grown fetus.   The processes do not begin  to ossify until the second
year.  These two pieces  of bone do not fuse entirely till about  the
period when the subject is perfectly developed;  but they do not all unite
at the same time in all the metatarsal  bones.  It is remarkable, that
here, as in the metacarpus, the first bone differs from the four others,
by the development of its second germ in the base, instead of forming in
the head as it does in the latter, which renders  this  and the meta-
carpal bone of the thumb  similar to the first phalanx of the hand  and
foot.
   § 795. The 'metatarsal  bones articulate by their  posterior faces,
with the anterior range of the tarsal bones ;  most of them by their
posterior faces, with each other; and by their anterior extremities, with
the first phalanges of the toes.

                I. OF THE FIRST METATARSAL BONE.

   § 796. The first metatarsal  bone, or the metatarsal bone of the great
toe is much larger, but shorter than the other.  Of the three faces of
its body, the upper is  inclined a little inward, the internal is concave
and inclined downward;  and  the  external is almost  plane, and its
direction is perpendicularly from above downward.  The internal  and
external ed^es unite with each other at an obtuse angle, and with  the
superior edge  at a right  angle.   The base is  very  elevated, in
proportion  to  its breadth, and  backward presents   an  earshaped
surface the convex edge of which looks inward, and the concave edge
outward.   We often, but  not always  find,  at the upper  part of the
external lateral  face of its posterior extremity an oblong, plane or
slightly concave cartilaginous articular facet, which corresponds to an
analao-ous  facet of the second metatarsal  bone. 
510 '                 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  The head is broader than those of the other metatarsal  bones, and
the articular facet is divided by a  strong longitudinal crest into two
depressions, which extend from  the centre to the posterior edge, and
of which the external is deeper than the internal.
  §797. The first metatarsal  bone articulates  by its po.-^erior  ex-
tremity, with the anterior face of the large cuneiform  bone (§ 786);
sometimes  by the external lateral face  of its base with  the second
metatarsal bone (§ 799) ;  by the upper part of its anterior extremity,
with the posterior extremity ofthe first phalanx ofthe great toe ; by the
inferior, with the two sesamoid bones, which are found in the flexor
muscle of the great toe.

              II.  OF THE SECOND METATARSAL BONE.

  § 798.  The second metatarsal bone is the largest of all, and extends
further backward than the others, except the fifth.   Its base has the
form of an equilateral  triangle, the summit  looking  upward':  it is
very concave,  especially  at its upper  part,  and its  external edge
is very much notched.  The internal lateral face presents  a  plain
cartilaginous facet, which varies in  situation, sometimes   existing
directly before the internal,  edge and  at the  highest part of  the
posterior face,  and sometimes  much more forward and  downward,
and separated  from  this edge  by a groove for the attachment  of a
ligament.  The external  facet presents two articular facets, situated
one above the other, and separated by a depression which varies in
size, extent, and form : the upper differs considerably, being sometimes
very long  from before  backward, and divided into two  parts by a
longitudinal eminence; sometimes it is shorter and single, or at least is
divided imperfectly.
   The upper  face of the  body is turned entirely inward, whence the
internal edge is in fact the upper.   The depression situated between
the anterior articular  facet and  the tuberosities, is broader than in the
following bones of the metatarsus.
   § 799. The second metatarsal bone articulates, by its posterior face,
with the second cuneiform bone ; by the internal lateral face of its
posterior  extremity,  in  the formation first described (§ 798) with the
large  cuneiform  bone; and in  the  second mode (§  798),  with the
first metatarsal bone (§ 797):  by the anterior segment of the upper
portion of  the external face of its base, with the third metatarsal bone
(§801): by its  posterior segment,  with the third  cuneiform  bone
(§  792), a connection which is  sometimes perceptible with difficulty,
and is often deficient;  finally, by its lower face, with the third  meta-
tarsal bone (§ 801) and the  third cuneiform bone (§ 792), and some-
times  with only one of them.

               III. OF THE THIRD METATARSAL BONE.

    § 800.  The third metatarsal bone is frequently the shortest of all.
It is compressed laterally in all its length.   Its  posterior extremity 
OSTEOLOGY.                       511
advances a little farther than that ofthe second.   Its posterior articular
face is also triangular, but a little narrower and even.  Directly before
the posterior edge of the internal lateral face we observe, sometimes,
one facet,  and sometimes two, situated one above the other, and sepa-
rated  by a depression which presents no cartilage.   This facet has a
a rounded triangular  form.  The external lateral face presents  one
which is always single, but more extensive, situated exactly opposite
the internal.   The body and the head are formed as in the preceding
bone.
   § 801.  This bone articulates by the  posterior part of its base, with
the third cuneiform bone (§ 793) ; by the internal face, with the second
metatarsal bone (§ 799) ; by the external, with the fourth (§ 803);  and
by the anterior face of its head, with the first phalangeal bone of the
third toe.

              IV. OF THE FOURTH METATARSAL BONE.

   § 802.  The fourth metatarsal bone is  usually a little longer  and
always extends back farther than the third. It is less compressed from
one side to the other than the  second and the third; hence its body is
more rounded  and its upper face is turned directly upward, while  the
other two  are turned to the sides.  The posterior face of the base is
lower than in the second and third metatarsal bones, is oblong, and  a
httle more concave.  ' On the internal lateral face is a surface which is
sometimes single and sometimes divided into two unequal parts by a
perpendicular  eminence, and which is separated from the posterior face
by the attachment of a  ligament.  This surface is oblong and very
extensive, slightly convex, and covered with cartilage ;  it  occupies the
upper half of this face.  The external lateral face presents a  similar
triangular, flat, articular surface, which  extends  to thejfsosterior face,
both before and below which is the attachment of the ligament.
   § 803.  This bone articulates by its posterior face, with the internal
segment ofthe anterior face of the cuboid bone (§ 782); by the internal,
sometimes with the third metatarsal bone alone (§ 801), sometimes as
in the second (§ 802), by the posterior segment of the cartilaginous face
with the third cuneiform bone, which  then presents a small cartilagi-
nous facet at the anterior and upper  part of its external face ;  finally
by the external lateral part of its base, with the fifth metatarsal bone.

               V.  OF THE FIFTH METATARSAL BONE.

   § 804.  The fifth metatarsal bone has the same length as the fourth.
It differs in  form from all the  others.  The body is not compressed
from one side  to the other or rounded, but flattened from  above down-
ward, especially in its external  portion, formed by the upper  and ex-
ternal faces, the last of which has become entirely inferior, and which are
separated  from each other by a sharp edge.  Thebody also is thickerthan
the bodies ofthe second, third and fourth metatarsal bones.  The base is 
512
DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY
triangular and compressed, not from right to left but from above down-
ward, which makes it more broad than high.   Its posterior face is very
oblique from behind forward and from without inward.   Its base is not,
as in the other metatarsal bones, entirely covered with cartilage ; this
is seen only on its internal portion, which is flat, triangular, and almost
rounded, while the external is smaller and separated from the preceding
by a perpendicular fissure, and has a considerable eminence (tuberositas),
which is rounded and turned outward, and which renders the  bone
very broad in this part.   The internal face of the base has on its upper
part a broad, flat facet which is covered with cartilage.   The  head is
more broad than high;  it is also often narrower and lower than the
body.  From the great convexity of the internal face of the fifth meta-
tarsal bone and the slight concavity of the external face of the fourth,
the fourth interosseous space is very narrow.
   § 805.  This bone  articulates by its posterior face, with the external
segment of the anterior face of the cuboid bone ; by the internal face of
its base, with the fourth metatarsal bone; and by its head, with  the first
phalangeal bone of the fifth toe.

               III.  OF THE BONES OF THE TOES.

   § 806.  We count  fourteen bones in the toes, (each one having three
phalanges excepting  the large toe (hallux), which has only two. These
bones of the phalanges belong to the class of long bones, and resemble
perfectly in their most essential characters those ofthe fingers (§ 725,
726.)

                    I. OF THE FIRST PHALANX.

   § 807.  The first or the posterior phalanx is the longest.  The two
extremities of these bones are much thicker than the body, especially
the posterior, which is much higher and broader than the anterior.  The
body on its inferior face is concave from before backward and  straight
from one side to the  other.   The upper is straight in the first direction
and very convex in the second.   These  two faces are separated from
one another by an external and an internal lateral edge.
  The posterior extremity, the base (basis), presents posteriorly a very
concave  articular surface, which is rounded and  broader in the  pha-
langes of the first and fifth toes than in the others.  We  observe on
each side, where the  upper face is continuous with the lower, a very
projecting tubercle  (tuberculum)
   The anterior  extremity, or the head (capihdum), is broad, and forms
before an articular surface, which is slightly concave from above down-
ward and  presents on each side a  rounded depression (sinus), behind
which we see a tubercle.
   Among the phalanges of the first range that of the  large toe is the
largest.  It differs also  from the others in being flat and contracted
from above downward. 
OSTEOLOGY.                       513
     § 608.  Ihese bones are developed much later than th6se ofthe me-
  tatarsus, and generally do not begin to appear till toward the end of the
  fourth month of pregnancy, except in the first phalanx of the large toe
  which appears sooner than the others.   '
     §809.  They articulate posteriorly with  the anterior  extremities of
   he metatarsal bones, and anteriorly with the posterior  extremities of
  tne bones m the second phalanx.

                     II. OF THE SECOND PHALANX.

     § 810. The bones ofthe second phalanx (phalangini) are generally
  constructed after the same type as those of the first; but they differ from
  them: 1st. In their length, which is less, although they are nearly as
  broad ;  hence they are nearly as broad  as they are lon«r  2d Thev
  are much, flatter from above downward.   3d. There is les°s of difference
  in  respect to the thickness of their bodies  and extremities, which
  sometimes do not differ.   4th. The forms of their  articular  surfaces
  vary; in fact the posterior is broader and divided  by a longitudinal
  projection into two slightly concave lateral portions, while the anterior
  which is shghtly concave, does not present the longitudinal groove at
  its  central part.
   §811. Ossification dqes not commence till  after the fifth month of
  pregnancy.
   § 812. These bones articulate by their posterior extremities with the
  heads of those m the first  phalanx, and by their anterior with the pos-
  terior extremities of the third range of bones.

                    III. OF THE THIRD PHALANX.

   § 813. The bones ofthe third phalanx  (phalanx tertia, s. un<ntinis)
 are  composed of a very small body, of an anterior and a posterior^ extre-
 mity, which are  larger.  The posterior extremity on its  posterior face
 is covered with cartilage, rounded, oblong, much more broad  than hio+i
 and simply concave, except in the first, where this  surface is  divided
 by a shght eminence into two lateral  parts.   The edge of the posterior
 face is surrounded by a depression, before which are numerous asperi-
 ties  which extend all round the bone.  The  anterior extremity or the
 summit is rounded and very rough.
   §  814.  This phalanx ossifies before the second;  The anterior pha-
 lanx of the first toe appears sooner than the posterior and  even than all
 the other phalanges.   The point of ossification is not developed first
 in its centre but at its summit.
   §  815.  These  bones  articulate  by their posterior  extremities with
 the anterior extremities of  those in the second range.   They are often
fused with the latter; this must doubtless be ascribed to pressure, since .
the fusion is usually observed in the  external toes,, on which compres  '
sion  acts with most force.
   Vol. 1.                       65 
514                  DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
                         SECTION IV.

COMPARISON OF THE BONES IN THE DIFFERENT REGIONS OF
                          THE BODY.

  § 816. Like all the organs, the bones of the right and left sides are
the most similar: the analogy is even so great between them in this
direction that it is almost equivalent to a perfect resemblance, since the
differences are too slight to be noticed.
  We consider next the longitudinal direction: here we observe,  1st,
that the bones of the upper and lower halves of the trunk correspond.
  The central region of the trunk, that which is formed by the dorsal
vertebrae, the ribs, and the bones of the sternum, divides into an upper
and a lower half; for the ribs diminish very much in length both above
and below the prcecordial region, and  the upper and lower pieces ofthe
sternum may be compared to each other, since both terminate by jagged
edges.
  The lumbar and the cervical vertebrae are analogous in  their want
of ribs.  The greater number of the  cervical vertebree is compensated
for by the greater volume of the lumbar.                    .  #
  The head corresponds to the. sacrum and the coccygseal bones. *
  But the analogy betwen the bones of  the upper and lower extremi-
ties is striking. This  analogy is seen:
  1st. In the number of the divisions  of the limbs.   In fact each extre-
mity is divided into four regions or sections.
  2d. In the form and  the number of the bones which  serve as  the
bases of each of these regions.
  The iliac bone of the lower extrernity corresponds to the scapula and
the clavicle of the  upper.  The  two extremities differ, as  the upper
possesses two bones, while one only is found in the lower; but this dif-
ference is unimportant, and besides it does not exist in the early periods
of hfe.  The iliac bone  is formed by the union of three principal pieces :
the posterior, the largest and broadest, called the ilium, corresponds to
the scapula;  the anterior, narrower, called the pubis,  represents by its
body the coracoid  process, and by its horizontal branch the external
part, of the clavicle ; the inferior, which  is thicker, called the ischium,
corresponds by its body and descending branch, to the acromion process
of the scapula, and by its ascending branch to the anterior  part of the
clavicle.   The crest of the ilium and  the base of the scapula, the cora-
coid process and the pubis, the acromion process and the ischium, are
developed by special nuclei of ossification.
  We find only one bone in the arm  and one in the thigh ;  they corre-
spond perfectly in form and mode of development. Both have a rounded
head, and the tubercles of the humerus represent the trochanters of the
femur. At the lower extremity we see a surface in the form of a pulley,
constituting a ginglymus joint.' 
OSTEOLOGY.
515
  The fore-arm and leg have each two bones which are very analogous.
The upper extremity of the ulna terminates in a pulley like that of the
tibia. These two hmbs present a bone which articulates by ginglymus
with, that of the second division.  True, the upper extremity of the
ulna rises much higher than that of  the  tibia, but  this is owing to a
peculiar piece  of bone which  corresponds to the patella.  This last
ought to be considered as a process of the  tibia, which  never  unites
with the body of that bone; and the olecranon process of the ulna also
sometimes remains, like it, distinct and separate from the ulna through
life.(l)
  The lower extremity of the ulna differs from that of the tibia by its
smallness, but that of the radius is very similar to the inferior extremity
of the fibula, which should be considered as a true compensation, since
in the motion of pronation  the  upper extremity of the radius  comes
below the upper extremity of the ulna.   In fact if we unite the lower
portions of the ulna and radius, we obtain a bone very similar to what
the tibia would be if the patella were joined with it.   This analogy is
rendered still more evident by another circumstance,—that the bones
which succeed  the tibia  correspond  to the anterior extremity  of the
radius; and it is favored also by comparative anatomy.  In most quad-
rupeds, pronation is the proper state of the anterior extremity, so that
the lower extremity of the radius is always situated on the inside.   In
others, the ulna does not extend to the carpus;  and as  for this reason
its  lower extremity does  not articulate directly with any bone  of the
carpus in man, so the tibia unites to the fibula in most quadrupeds, and
only the former bone descends to the tarsus.  The upper and  lower
extremities of the tibia present on their fibular face a cartilaginous facet,
like those on the radial face of the ulna,  by which  the two bones arti-
culate with each other.
  In this manner the analogy between the fore-arm and the leg becomes
much more evident.   The ulna and the tibia however on one side, and
the radius and the fibula on the other, resemble, each other in this point
of view also, that the upper extremity of the first two possesses the
greatest volume, while in the latter two the inferior is the largest.
  Both bones  run on their lower extremities and on the sides which are
opposite to them rounded extremities, constituting the styloid processes
and the malleoli.  The radius is shorter than the ulna, and the fibula
is shorter than the tibia, more especially if the patella be united with it.
   The analogy between the bones of the hand and foot is  very evident.
   Those bones which correspond the least are the bones of the carpus
and tarsus, which differ very much  in size, those of the former being
about a fifth as large as those ofthe latter, and being arranged also in
a different order.  We may however discover great analogies between
them.   The posterior carpal  range corresponds to  the  os calcis, the
astragalus,  and the scaphoid bone.   The anterior part of the scaphoid

  (1) Delachenel, Obs. anat. med.,  Bale 1706. § 28.—RosenrnuUer, De oss. variet,
Leipsic, 1804, p. 62. 
516                  DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY
bone of the hand resembles perfectly that of the foot.  These bones are
situated at the side of, and not over each other; and we find more in the
hand than in the foot, as the former requires more motion and the latter
more solidity.  Hence  why several bones of  the  posterior range arti-
culate with the carpal extremity of the bones in the fore arm and with
the bones of the anterior range.
   The number of the bones in the anterior range  which articulate
directly with the metacarpus and the  metatarsus is  the same.  It is
especially remarkable that both extremities ofthe  last two bones ofthe
middle section (the  metacarpus  and the metatarsus) are supported
by but one bone,  while  each of the other three articulates with two
bones.
   The arrangement ofthe articular faces which unite the bones of the
anterior range with each other,  or with those of the metacarpus and
metatarsus, are very similar.  Thus the trapezium and the first cunei-
form bone present forward a small facet, by which they articulate with
the second metacarpal and second metatarsal bone.   The second me-
tacarpal bone on its  ulnar side  and  the second metatarsal bone on its
fibular side present  an  articular surface, divided into two portions, of
which the anterior articulates with the succeeding metacarpal or meta-
tarsal bone, and the posterior with the third cuneiform bone in the foot
and the os magnum in the wrist.  The third, fourth, and fifth metacar-
pal and metatarsal bones do not articulate, except with the correspond-
ing bones of the carpus by their posterior face, and  rarely articulate
with each other.
   The metatarsal  and metacarpal  bones resemble each other also in
number, form, mode  of development, and connections.  In both, the
first of these bones present analogous proportions, although not entirely
similar in regard to  the others, for they are thicker than these.   The
second is longer both  in the hand  and foot.  The tubercle which in-
creases the size of the fifth metatarsal bone exists at least in a rudi-
mentary state in the  fifth metacarpal bone. The  first metacarpal and
the first metatarsal bones differ from  the others  in their mode of de^
velopment and in the same manner.
   The phalanges of  the fingers and toes are also formed on the same
fundamental  type, and however great may be the difference between
them, they are modifications  of the same formation.
   The differences between the bones of the upper and lower extremities
depend  on the differences of their functions.   They may be referred,
1st, to the greater solidity necessary for the pelvic limbs to sustain the
trunk and the  head, and the greater degree  of mobility necessary to
increase the relations of the organism with external objects ; 2d, to the
greater mass of the inferior extremities.
   Hence  why the  iliac bones are united with  each other and with the
sacrum by a fibro-cartilaginous  mass which admits of no motion, and
why the anteriorand posterior pieces of the iliac bone on each side fuse
into one, while the scapula remains distinct from the clavicle.   Hence
also the reason that  the  scapula is attached  to the vertebral column
only by muscles, and thnt the clavicle is united in front with that of the 
OSTEOLOGY.
517
  opposite side, the sternum and the first rib, only by loose synovial and
  rf^T^?'  ^^ finauy' thG "*™^at ^e infernal  edge
  of the bones of the pelvis is very broad and that of the scapula very thin.




    Hence the head of the femur is much larger than that of the hu-
  merus.   We cannot perceive at all on this last a depression to receive
  the round hgament which strengthens the ilio-femoral joint within the
  capsule.
    The  body of the  humerus is  twisted, that of the femur is almost
  straight and arched in only one direction.
    The  humerus is destitute of a neck, and its tuberosities are not
  distinctly marked.   The trochanters  in the femur are  largely de-
  veloped, and the neck, which is very long, separates from the  body
  to extend the head into the cotyloid cavity.
   The  differences observed in the lower ends of the two bones and  in
  the arrangement of the knee and  elbow joints, produce exactly the
  same  effect.              -
   In the upper extremities the articular surfaces are surmounted on
  each side by large condyles which do  not exist in the lower extremi-
  ties.   In the latter the joint is  a ginglymus, and  deep  depressions
 exist between the two condyles of the femur and asperities between
 those of the tibia.  There we find, beside the ginglymus  articulation
 which is more plane, a rounded head, for the rotatory articulation with
 the radius.
   In the lower extremity one bone only, the  tibia, is connected with
 the  femur; the fibula articulates only with the tibia, of which it in
 some measure forms a part.   In the upper extremity both bones of the
 fore-arm articulate with the humerus, and the radius moves very freely
 The bones of the fore-arm, which are united above and below by loose
 attachments, and which are nearly of the same size, can be displaced
 in  several different  ways in  relation to another, and these changes
 allow  the hand to perform very important motions.   The  firm union
 of the bones of the leg, both at their upper and lower parts, and also
 the fact that the fibula from its small proportional development should
 be considered as a part of the tibia, causes the two bones to be almost
 motionless upon each other, and the motions of the foot to  be simply
 flexion and extension.
  The articulation of the foot is much more firm than that of the hand
 both because the malleoli descend very low, and from the form of the
 articular surfaces ofthe bones  ofthe leg and astragalus, whence these
 bones articulate with only one bone of the tarsus.
  The bones  of the  tarsus are attached to one another by very solid
bands ; the  pisiform bone, which is loosely articulated, is entirely defi-
cient, or  rather this  bone is  represented by the sesamoid bone in  the
tendon of the peroneus longus muscle. 
51H                 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.
  Their mass exceeds that of the bones of the carpus ten times.
  The bones which are situated at the side of each other in the carpus,
are arranged before each other in the tarsus.
  The metatarsal bones are larger, narrower, and more contracted,
jvhile those of the metacarpus are broader, concave, and better dis-
posed to grasp and hold objects.
  The metatarsal bone of the great toe is much stronger and thicker
than  the  metacarpal bone of  the thumb,  and  cannot separate itself
from the others as this can.
  The same differences exist between the phalanges of the fingers and
toes as between the metatacarpal and the metatarsal bones ; only those
of the toes, excepting the first,  are much shorter and more imperfectly
developed.                                             |
  The phalanges of the toes are the only exceptions to the second of
the general differences pointed out between the two limbs, since they
are smaller than those of the corresponding fingers.
  § 817. The resemblances between the anterior portions of the body
and the posterior are in this  as in the other systems the slightest of
all.  We however have already shown that the sternum  corresponds
to the vertebral column, the frontal bone  to the squamous  portion
of the occipital bone, the arches to the bodies of the vertebrae.
END OF VOL. I. 
INDEX  TO  VOLUME  1.
 INTRODUCTION.......        .              J?6*"
 GENERAL ANATOMY,    -......'_   _"     21-356
 PART FIRST.  General laws op formation,     ....     22_ 80
 PART SECOND. Description of the individual organic systems,    80—356
 Ejection l.  Oi the mucous system or cellular tissue,       -    -   -     80— 92
 Section II. Of the vascular system,      ......92__152
   Ah7' ™°!tne vascular system in the normal state,       -    -   -     94—143
     A. Of the vascular system  in general,      -                      94
     B. Arteries,   -----.-.__   1    iiq
     C. Veins,     -------._        .    121
     D. Lymphatics,     ""--------128
   Art. 11 Ofthe vascular system in the abnormal state,     -    -   -    143—152
 Section III.  Of the nervous system,      ......]52_ig8
   Art. 1. Nervous system in the normal state,.....152—194
   Art. ii. Nervous system in the abnormal state,     ....    i94_iQg
 Section IV. Of the osseous system,    ----.._    199__235
   Art. i. Osseous system in the normal state,     -    -     -    -,   .   199—222
     I. Bones,      -----..._        .   jgg__217
       A. General remarks on the bones,    -     -    -     -    '.    -   199
       B. Particulars of the different classes of bones,       -    -    -   214
 -   II. Articulations ofthe bones,      -......   217__222
   Art. 11. Osseous system in the abnormal state,      ....   222—*>36
     I. Bones,.      --------.._   222
     II. Articulations  of the bones,.......   233
   Art. hi. Of accidental ossifications,      ---.._   234
 Section V.  Of the cartilaginous system,    ----„_   236__242
   Art. 1. Cartilaginous system in the normal state,        -    -    .   236
   Art. ii. Cartilaginous system in the abnormal state,     -    -    -   240
Section VI. Of the fibro-cartilaginous system,  -    -    - *       .   242__246
   Art. 1. Fibro-cartilaginous system in the normal state,       -    -    242
   Art. 11. Fibro-cartilaginous system in the abnormal state,    -    .   245
Section VII. Of the fibrous system,    --...__    246—258
   Art. i. Fibrous system in the normal state,.....246
    A. General remarks,     -----..._    246
    B. Special considerations,    ----....    249
  Art. ii. Fibrous system in the abnormal state,    -                 257
Section VIII.  Of the muscular system,     --....    259__290
  Art. 1. Muscular system  in the normal  state,      .....  259
    A. General remarks on the muscular system,    ....    259
    B. Muscles of animal life,    --....._    276
    C. Muscles of vegetative life,     --...._    284
  Art. ii. Muscular system in the abnormal state,   -                 287
Section IX. Of the serous system,     -----__    294
  Art. 1. General remarks on the serous system,      ....    290—300
    A. Normal state,..........290
    B. Abnormal state,      ----.-...    296
  Art. ii. Special remarks on the synovial membranes,    ...    301—307
    A. Normal state,........--    301
    B. Abnormal state,      ---......    3Qg
Section X.  Of the cutaneous system,      ......307—335
  Art. 1. Cutaneous system in general,.....-    307
    A. Normal state,..........3Q7
    B. Abnormal state,      .........310 
 520                              INUEX.

                                                                     PAOES
  Art. ii. Special remarks on the external cutaneous system,    -   -    312
     A. Normal state,    --..-.....    312
      I. External cutaneous system in general,   -    -  * -    -   -    312
      II. Appendages of the skin, the hairs and nails,      ...    317
        i. Nails,       ..........317
        n. Hairs,..........319
    B. Abnormal state,      .......--    323
  Art. in. Internal cutaneous system,      .._---    326—335-
    A. Normal state,       .........    326
    B. Abnormal state,      ..-.-...--    331
 Section XI. Of the glandular system,......335—348
  Art. i. Glandular system in the normal state,       ....    335—346
    I. Perfect glands,.........339
    II. Imperfect glands,    --........    345
  Art. 11. Glandular system in the abnormal state,    ....    346
 Section XII.  Of the accidental formations,     -    .   .    -   -    348—356
 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY.........359—518
 Sources,       ...._.......    359—366
 PART I. General remarks on the human body,       ....    368—376
 PART II. Topography of the organic systems,       ■ -   -    -   -    376
 BOOK I.  Osteology,.......-    -   -    376—518
 Section I. Bones ofthe trunk,  ---------    379—410
 Chapter I. Ofthe vertebral column    -------    379—399
  Art. 1. General remarks on the primitive bones,    ...   -    379—382
    1. General characters of the vertebra?,       -                       380
    2. Development,     ----------    381
  Art. ii. Differences between true and false vertebra?,   -             382—383
  Art. m. Particulars of the true vertebrae,    -                      383—386
  Art. iv.- Special characters on some of the true vertebra?,,     -   -    386—392
    A. Normal state,.........-    386—389
      I. First cervical  vertebra,       -------    386
      II. Second cervical vertebra^    .--_.--    387
      III. Seventh cervical vertebra,       _._..-    388
    B. Development,    --.---_--.    389
  Art.v. False vertebra?,......'•    -   -    392—396
    I. Sacrum,...........392
    II. Coccyx,    -----------    395
  Art. vi. Vertebral column in the abnormal state,       ...    396—399
    1. Primitive anomalies,       -    -    -   -    -   -     --    3fi6
    2. Accidental deviations of formation,       .....    398
 Chap. II. Of the accessory bones of the trunk,   -'    -   -    -  . -    399—410
  I. Sternum,      ......-----    399—404 "
    A. Normal state,..........399—403
      a. Perfect state,       ......_--    400
      b. Development,       -    -    -    -   -,-   -    -   -    401
    B. Abnormal state,      -.'.....-.-    403
  11. Ribs,............404—410
    A. Normal state, .   -    -   . -    -......404—407
     I. Perfect state,       .........404
        a. General characters of the ribs,       -    -    -     -    -    404
        b. Differences ofthe ribs,      ..-_--.    405
      II. Development,.........407
     III. Sexual differences,      -,-     -    -    -    -     -    -    407
    B. Abnormal state,      "     ".   "     ".....407
Section II. Of the bones of the head,        ------    410—465
  A. Normal state,..........410—460
Chap. I. Ofthe skull,        .........411—430
  A. Individual bones,       ---.....-    411
    I. Basilar bone,     -    -     -    -     -   -    -   -     -.-    411
     a. Occipital bone,      ---------    412
      b. Sphenoid bone,     ---------    415
    II. Temporal bones,     -     -    -     -    -    -    -     -    -421
    III.  Parietal bones,      ---------    425
    IV.  Frontal bone,       ........-    426
    V.  EthMioid bone,       .........428 
                                   INDEX.                              521


ChAp II. Ofthe bones ofthe face,.......txiSi
  I. Upper maxillary bones,       ........430
  II. Palate bones,      ....                              %a
  IIL Malar bones,      ....                               ?£?
  IV. Nasal bones!.....'-'.'''    ill
  V. Unguiform bones,.....-   -    -    I    437
  VI. Inferior turbinated bones,   -                                   A%a
  VII. Vomer,     -------".".*"    |lq
  VIU. Lower maxillary bones,   •---.'.'.'.    430
  IX. Hyoid bone,       ----..                      aa% aa?
    1. Central hyoid,       -    .    ....";    J    .*    Jf"443
   2. Inferior hyoid,........    _    44,
   3. Superior hyoid,      ---..._.*    443
Chap. III. General remarks on the bones of the head,     ' -    -    '-    444—452
  I. General form of the head,........444__447
1. Orbits,
447
     2. Nasal fossa?,     .....         ....   448
     3. Oral cavity,     ...    .......   45^
     4. Temporal fossa,      ----..    ...   452
   II- Comparison of the bones ofthe head with each other and with the
      other bones,      ..........452—460
 Chap. IV. On the anomalies ofthe bones ofthe head,      -   -    -   4/9—465
   L Congenital deviations of formation,         .....   460
     1. Absence and smallness,     -    -       .....   451
     2. Separation of the bones of the head,      .....   451
   HL Abnormal union of bones of the head,     .....   465
 Section HI. Of the bones ofthe extremities,     .....   466__518
 Chap. I. Bones of the upper extremities,    -.....467__486
   Art. 1. Bones ofthe shoulder,       ---....    467
     1. Scapula,       -----..-..    467
     2. Clavicle,       ----.-....    459
   Art. 11. Humerus,        --...._    ..   472
    A. Normal state,    -------.._    471
    B. Abnormal state........    .    .    473
   .Art.  hi. Bones of the fore-arm      -----..    473  •
    A. Normal state,    ..........    473
      1- Ulna,...........473
      2. Radius,       ..........475
    B. Anomalies,       ----------    47Q
   Art. iv. Bones of the hand,    ........    477__435
    A. Normal state,    -----.....    477
   I. Bones of the wrist,      -    -    -   --    -    -    -    .    477
    1. First carpal range,    -.---....    477
      1. Scaphoid bone,      ------.-..    477
      2. Semilunar bone,    ---------    478
      3  Pyramidal bone,    ---.--_..    478
      4. Pisiform bone,      ---.-._..    479
    11. Second carpal range,      --_.._..    479
      1. Trapezium,        ----...-..    479
      2. Trapezoides,        .........479
      3. Os magnum,        -   -    --'......480
      4. Os unciforme,      ----.-..-    480
   II. Metacarpal bones,      -   -    -    --    -     -    -    -    481
    1. First metacarpal bone,........482
    11. Second metacarpal bone,       .......    493
    m.  Third metacarpal  bone,       .......483
    iv. Fourth metacarpal bone,       .......483
    v. Fifth metacarpal bone,    -    -   -    -    -    -    -    -    484
  III. Bones of the fingers,..........484
    1. Phalanges of the first range,......-    484
    11. Phalanges of the second range,......485
    in.  Phalanges of the third range,      ......485
    B. Anomalies ofthe bones ofthe hand,      -    -    -   -    -     485—486
Chap. II. Of the bones of the lower extremities,       ....    486—513
  Art. 1. Iliac bones,.....--.?--    486

   Vol  I.                           66 
522
INDEX.
                                                                  pages
  A. General remarks on the iliac bones,.....486
    L Ilium,...........486
    II. Ischium,     -.....-    -   "    "   487
    IH. Pubis,       ..........4°«
  B. The iliac bones articulated, or, of the pelvis,                      '♦yu
    I. Normal state,    *.........490
    II. Anomalies,.........        **^j
Art. ii. Femur,     ...------        4»o
Art. iii. Bones of the leg,       --......j*[°
  I-Tibia,...........498
  II. Fibula,...........°yU
III. Patella,
2. Cuboid bone,
501
Art. iv. Bones of tne foot,........|^2
  I. Tarsus      _--r-------    W*
   ' i. Bones of the posterior tarsal range,.....502
      1. Astragalus,       .........°«*
      2. Os calcis,..........™>
    n. Bones of the anterior tarsal range,      ....    -    &U5
      1.-Scaphoid bone,.........™5
506
       3. Cuneiform bones,........60fa
         a. First cuneiform bone    ..-----    6U7
         6. Second cuneiform bone,       ...---    607
         c. Third cuneiform bone,    .-.-.--    508
   II. Metatarsus,..........™8
      1.  First metatarsal bone,       .......*>UJ
      2. Second metatarsal bone,     -    -    -    -    -    -   -    «1J{
      3. Third metatarsal bone,       .......510
      4. Fourth metatarsal bone,      -.....        511
      5. Fifth metatarsal bone,.......-    5U
   III. Bones of the toes,       ........51^
      1. First phalanx,.........°\*
      2. Second phalanx,......"    '   '    k\i
      3 Third bnalanx     ..-------    o\S
Section IV. Comparison of the bones in the different regions of the body, 514—518 

0
\ 
i 
                HENRY  C.  SLEIGHT


PROPOSES TO PUBLISH BY SUBSCRIPTION AN AMERICAN TRANSLATION

                             CP THE

                        MANUAL
                               OP

        GENERAL, DESCRIPTIVE, AND  PATHOLOGICAL


                    ANATOMY,
                               BY

                       J.  F. MECKEL,
               Professor of Anatomy in the University at Halle.
   Professor Breschet's  preface to the  French translation states
 that " for a long time we have wanted a work which comprised all the
 facts of General, Descriptive, and  Pathological Anatomy and Physio-
 logy.  A work of this character required a knowledge as extensive as
 it was profound, and has been ably executed by Prof. Meckbl."
   The  translation will be from  the French, including the valuable
 notes of Breschet and  Jourdan,  revised from  the original  Ger-
 man, with notes, by A. Sidney Doane, A. M. M. D.
   Subjoined  are  the opinions*of some of the most eminent physicians
 and surgeons of  the United States, in regard to the merits of the ori-
 ginal :

   Dear Sir,                             Boston, Sept. 10, 1830
       I am happy to learn that you propose to translate into English
 the Anatomy of  Prof. Meckel.   This book  has been in my hands for
some years; and I have been so much gratified with its character as a
scientific work, that I proposed to  Prof. G. to translate it, and  offered
him such aid as I was able to afford him.  As you are about to present
it to our  profession in the English language, I shall consider  myself
discharged from the  duty of bringing it forward, and shall very cordi-
ally unite with you in making  known its merits to the American pub-
lic.  I am very faithfully yours,          J. C.  WARREN,
                                   Prof, of Anat. and Sure, in Harvard Un.
  _   _^                                  Cambridge, Mass.
  Dr. Doane. 
11
recommendations.
                                   Philadelphia, Sept. 30, 1830.
   It gives us pleasure to learn the intention of publishing an American
version of the Manual of General, Descriptive,  and Pathological Ana-
tomy of J. F. Meckel, Prof, of Anatomy in the University at Halle.
A frequent reference to this work  has assured  us fully of  its superior
character as an  exact, methodical, and highly scientific  production,
evidently sustained by an immense quantity of practical information on
the part of its author.   We have always considered it as an excellent
digest of the present state of Anatomy, and shall be glad to find so
instructive a guide put within  the reach of the medical men of the
United States.              PHILIP S.  PHYSICK,  M. D.
                         Prof, -of Anat. in the University of Pennsylvania.
                              W. E. HORNER,  M. D,,
                                   Adj. Prof, of Anatomy.
   A. Sidney Doane, M. D.

       Extract of & letter from Benj. H. Coates, JVf. D., dated
                                    Philadelphia, Nov. 5, 1830,
   From the reputation  of  M. Meckel for  learning, practical skill, and
a philosophical mind, a work of the very first class might be depended
upon with safety, from the fact of  its coming from his hands.   Yet for
the purpose of a more particular judgment, I referred to the French
translation, and find it every way worthy of his acknowleged charac-
ter.   It is precisely  such a work, combining  the facts which have
been accumulating for  hundreds of years  with modern philosophical
views, as was best calculated  to give a connected view of the present
state of anatomical knowledge, and to fill a gap very much felt in  the
medical hterature of America.
   Dr. A. S. Doane.

   Dear Doctor,                        JVeie York, Oct. 20, 1830.
       I am pleased to learn that you intend  to favor the lovers of
Anatomy with an English translation of Prof. Meckel's valuable work
on General, Descriptive, and Pathological Anatomy.  For some years
past  I have been in the habit of referring to this work, and have ad-
mired it for accuracy and minuteness.  The students and practitioners
of America will be under great obligations to you for the treat you are
about to give them.
   My best wishes attend the undertaking, and  believe  me to be yours
very faithfully,                      VALENTINE MOTT,
                                Prof, of Surg, in  Col. of Physicians, N. York.
   Dr. Doane.

                                      New  York, Nov.  9, 1830.
   I consider the Anatomy of Meckel as the best treatise on General,
Descriptive, and Pathological  Anatomy that  has ever been written,
and  have no doubt  that the translation and  publication of it in this
country will greatly advance our knowledge of this science.
                          ALEX.  H. STEVENS,  M.  D,
                         Prof, of Surg, in the Col. of Physicians, N. York.
   Dr. A. S. Doane. 
PROSPECTUS.
Ill
  Sir,       Col. of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, Oct. 19.
       I was pleased  to  learn that it is your intention to prepare and
print a translation of Meckel's Anatomy.   It is a work which holds a
higher place in my estimation  than any other  treatise on the same
subject  with which I am acquainted.   This  opinion of its merits
inducing me to make the book one of frequent reference for the pupils
of this University, its publication in English will confer a favor on them
by aiding their researches. Permit me however to caution you against
the numerous errors, doubtless of haste  or of the press, which may be
found in the  French  translation.   These mistakes  are  sometimes
important, and to avoid them it will be necessary  to compare your
version with the original or with some other good authority.
   With my best wishes for your success, I remain yours respectfully,
                                      -J. AUG. SMITH.
                                      Prof, of Anat. and Physiology in
                                       Col. of Physicians, N. York.
   Dr. Doane.

   Dear Sir,                Washington City, D. C, Aug. 2,1830.
       I am highly gratified to learn that you are translating from the
French the Anatomy of J. F. Meckel.
   The work is one of great value, and should be in the hands of every
professor and student of Anatomy in the United States.
   It will prove a valuable acquisition to the profession of our country,
I have no doubt.             THOMAS  SEWALL, M. D.
                             Prof, of Anat. and Physiol., Columb. Col.
   A. S. Doane, M. D.

   Dear Sir,                           Baltimore, Nov. 25, 1830.
       I am gratified to learn that you design to furnish the American
pubhc with a  translation of Meckel's  standard work, the Manual of
General, Descriptive, and Pathological Anatomy.  The merits of the
work have been  known  to  me for some years.  In no work are the
facts which constitute the science of  Human Anatomy embodied with
more judgment.  When faithfully translated, it should be in the hands
of every practitioner and pupil of medicine.
   You have my best wishes for your success.
                           Very respectfully yours,
                                          N. R. SMITH,
                                     Prof, of Surg, in the Un. of Maryland,
                                             at Baltimore
   Sidney Doane, M.  D. 
IV                             PROSPECTUS.


   The above  work will  be comprised  in three  octavo volumes, of

between 500 and 600 pages  each, bound  in first quahty sheep, and

will be dehvered to subscribers at three dollars per volume, payable on

delivery of each volume.

   The first volume  is  now ready  for  delivery.   The  following  are

some of the corrections made  in it by the American translator:


    ERRATA OF  THE FIRST VOLUME OF THE  FRENCH TRANSLATION.

P.   L.                                P.   L.
18,  1,  for fibre, read tissu.             425,  8,  " plus, " moms.
36,  15, " nerveux, " vasculaires.        429,  12, " musculaires, " annulaires.
42,  1,  " vertebre, " colonne vertebrate. 434,  10, after muscles, supply d'un mem-
48,  28, " dix, " douze.                          bre.
52,  16, " cceur, " foie.                  458,  35, for muqueuses, read sereuses.
63,  29, erase de l'ouie.                 467,  3,  " interne, « externe
65,  8,  for suture, read fissure.     •     472,  5,  " moins, " plus.
91,  24, " ivoire,  "  email.               514,  38, " poumon, " vaisseau.
92,  12, " inedullaire, " musculaire.      527,  14, " droite, " gauche.
94,  33,  " nerveux, " osseux.            553,  12, " muscles, " os.
96,  2,  " animale, " organique.         565, 10, " cinquante-trois, " cinquante-
 "'  30, after valvules, supply du cceur.           six.
115, 22, for vasculaire, read musculaire. "   11, " soixante-deux, " soixante-six.
116, 21, ' azote, " carbonne.            574,  24, " cervicales, " dorsales.
145, 3,  " vesicule, " ventricule.        575,  21, " dorsales, " cervicales.
147, 34, " ventricule, " oreillette.        577,  1,  " dorsales, " cervicales.
154, 22, " veine, " artere.              579,  18, " after  apophyses, insert traas-
172, 31, " au, " du.                             verses.
180,7,  " premier, " dernier.            581,  11, for force, read forme.
181, 12, " nerveux, " veineux.           590,  6,  " sacrum, " coccyx.
187, 5,  " femmes, " hommes.           592,  4,  " douze, " dix.
 «   7,  " l'homme, " la femme.         615,  21, " convexite, " coneavite.
207, 21, " les arteres, " les lymphatiques. 642,  11, " occipitaux, " parietaux
227, 33, " sedivisent,"nesedivisentpas. 659,  2,  " posterieur, " superieur.       *
247. 31, " nerfs, " muscles.             688,  6,  " sacrum, " sternum.
249  7,  " olfactif, " auditoire.           718,  33, " cememeos, " le trapeze.
 " ' 21, " huitieme, " cinquieme.        720,  2,  " corps, " carpe.
252, 34, " nerfs, " vaisseaux.            722,  15, " trapezoide, " trapezium.
258, 16, " intercostales, " spinaux.       726,  21, " scaphoide, " os magnum.
259. 12, " intercostaux, "spinaux. '      730,  13, " fetus,"  doigts.
284  13, " refuse, " accorde.             736,  25, " omoplates, " os de  l'epaule.
 « ' 15, " accorder, " refuser.          739,  30, " coccyx, "  pubis.
302, 13, " graisse, " moelle.             746,  21, " gauche, " droite.
342, 31, after interne, insert ou externe,  764,  24, " dc la premiere anncc, " du pre-
368, 6,  for intermaxillaires, read  inter-          mier mois.
          articulaires.                 767,  35, " metacarpiens, " mctatarsiens.
404, 10, " organes, " muscles.           "   37, " metacarpe, " metatarse.
408, 20, " le canal intestinal,"l'csophage. 772,  31, " premiere,  "  seconde.
425, 7,   " moins, " plus.
>5  6#