\
 
                          THE


ANATOMIST'S    MANUAL:

                            O R

                  A   TREATISE


                        ON  THE

 MANNER  OF PREPARING ALL  THE  PARTS
     OF  ANATOMY,  FOLLOWED   BY   A
          COMPLETE  DESCRIPTION
               OF  THESE  PARTS.
IX TWO VOLUMES.
    VOL.  z.
    ------I-
          J. P. ^AYGRIER, M. D. P.
Professor of Anatomy and Physiology ; of Midwifery, and the Diseases of
  Women and Children ; Physician "to the Bureau de Charite of the 10th
  Arrondissement;  Memberof the Medical Society of Emulation of Paris,
  of that of Practical Medicine in the same city ; of the Medical Societies
  of Liese and Toulouse; of those of the Sciences in Mac^n, Marseilles, &c.
    TRANSLATED FROM THE  FOURTH  FRENCH EDITION, BY


       GUNNING S. BEDFORD, A.M., M.D.

Lecturer on Obstetrics, k.c. in the New-York School of Medicine ; Member of the Medical Socie-
      ty of the City and County of New-York ; of the New-York Literary and
             Philosophical Society ; of the Historical So«iety, l»c.
e Historical society, wo.         /



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1832. 
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^
DEDICATION.
      TO   GEORGE    BUSHE,   M.D.

Sir,—
          There is no one to whom I could with more propriety dedi-
 cate the English version of " Maygrier " than to yourself.  Your career
 has been a brilliant  one —and the reputation you enjoy in Europe and
 America  as  a profound anatomist  and accomplished  physician, is  the
 bt.st  test of your merit.   For the many kindnesses  received from  you
 I  beg to return my sincere acknowledgements, and permit me  to express
 the high opinion I  entertain  of your talents and  general erudition.
                           Very respectfully,
                                     Your obedient servant,
                                               G. S. Bedford, M.D. 
 
TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE.
  The opinion of great men is entitled to respect; but
daily observation proves that master minds sometimes
err, and ample evidence of this may be drawn from the
assertion of the  celebrated Hunter that, " Anatomy and
Physiology should  always be taught together."  Had
such an opinion been promulgated before the  time  of
Lord Yerulam, we should the less wonder at it;  but the
great principle so fully insisted on by him, viz. " that the
division of labor facilitates the advancement of science
and art," is so a mply tested by every  day's experience
that we are almost amazed at so sweeping a declaration,
one too, onjso important a topic,  and, above all, carrying 
                            vi
J
    with it the authority of a name so intimately connected
    with the advancement of philosophic  pathology.   But
   on this, as on all other subjects of import, it is a duty we
   owe reason to  control our feelings, and to avoid passing
   unmeasured censure where, on  mature investigation,
   praise should be awarded.

     The mind of Hunter was of a peculiar cast—he could
   not  bear the pure details of a descriptive science, he chose
   rather to make it subservient  to physiology; but whilst
   he  was thus befriending his  fascinating stud}', he little
   thought that he was erecting a  superstructure  for the
   temporary  downfall  of  descriptive Anatomy.    Thus
   while he advanced physiology,  he actually razed from
   the  very foundation the school of Douglass; and so great
   has been the prejudice of his Brittanic successors, that, to
   the  present day, Great Britain has not produced a com-
   plete treatise on descriptive Anatomy.

!     In France, where system appears to be the very life of
   science, Bichat, young, energetic, and eminently gifted, 
                         vii
stepped forward, and, with an " eagle eye," not only per-
ceived the defects of his predecessors, but corrected them
by establishing General  Anatomy.   Then, Winslow's
value was appreciated, and though Bichat seized the gaunt-
lets, and did compete with him on descriptive Anatomy,
still the master was successful.  Thus the friends of
Xavier Bichat must be  content that their beau ideal did
inore than any of his predecessors, and in a shorter time—
he annihilated the  rubbish of antiquity;  he established
general Anatomy the basis of inductive medicine; and
though he did not equal Winslow in descriptive Anato-
 my, he surpassed all others.  He brought to life the work
of Winslow—that which was dead and forgotten became
a new text book, the model which others have imitated.
But for it, would we have had the classic treatises of
Boyer  and  Cloquet ?  Would we  have had, might  I
say with  all propriety, the modern  accurate and well
digested abridgment of Maygrier ?   This is enough in
commendation of  the  work,  and should it ever  pass
through four  editions in America in  the short space of
time that it  has in France, the profession must be bene- 
Vlll
fitted, and  my reward for the labor it has cost n>

times repaid.

                      G.  S.  BEDFORD, M. D.
New-York, 57, White-street,
  Oct. 10, 1832. 
INTRODUCTION.
 I  In the study of anatomy, we should consider, 1st, its
  definition :  2d, its origin; 3d, its progress :  4th, the mode
  of examining and teaching it;  5th. its general and par-
 , ticular divisions.

                     1st, Definition.
    Preparation of  the constituent parts of  animals;  exa-
  mination and knowledge of  these parts ;  science of the
  animal organism.
 (   This triple object is to be attained by  constant and
  attentive dissection of the cadaver, by chemical analyses
 ; of animal substances ; by experiments on living animals ;
f and,  finally,  by the comparison of the same parts  in
\ different animals,  whence is derived a perfect knowledge
  of the laws of nature for the maintenance of life, and the
|  exercise of the  functions which sustain it:  this is the
  special object of anatomy.   Considered in the human
  species, its object is the preservation of man in health.
               •
                     2d, Origin.
    The origin of anatomy, like that of all  the other sci-
  ences, is lost in  the darkness of ages.  This, therefore,
  cannot inspire much interest, in consequence of the ob-
  scurity in which it is enveloped.  It is said that Apis, an
  Egyptian prince,  favored the  study of anatomy ;  but
  that Acmeon, who lived some time before Hippocrates,
  was the first who occupied himself with it in an especial
  manner.  His knowledge of anatomy must have been
  very limited; for he contended that goats respired through 
X
their ears.  However, this opinion, as singular as it may
appear, is not as void of foundation as we may be induced
to imagine.   M. Cuvier very judiciously  observes, that
Acmeon might have  been led into error by the commu-
nication of the eustachian tube in the pharynx ;  in ad-
mitting, it  is  true, the possibility of the  external  air
passing through the different parts of the internal ear.
   Empedocles and Anaxagoras followed him ; but  we
have no accounts of them.  Democritus next succeeded :
an extremely retired life,  and a  profound  study  of
the various branches  of natural science, obtained for him
such celebrity, that his cotemporaries, astounded  at  his
extensive learning, and supposing him to  be mad, con-
sulted  Hippocrates, who replied : He whom you believe
to be mad is the wisest of you all.
  .Aristotle, who lived about this period, was much occu-
pied with the study of animals ; but his investigations,
directed chiefly to  natural  history, did not tend  to  the
advancement of human anatomy, properly so called.   It
is to Diodes that are due the first notions on the art of
dissecting animals, although the works of this physician;
who is believed to have been cotemporary with Plato,
have not reached us.   Such are the men who have fixed,
as it were, the origin of anatomy.   But as it is important
that we should be acquainted with  its progress, I shall
now present a table by which its different advances may
be ascertained.  In order to render this exposition more
perspicuous, and establish a certain order,  I shall assign
to anatomy four memorable epochs; during which, cul-
tivated with  great ardor and  success, its progress  has
been unequivocal.

                    3d,  Progress.
   First Epoch.—This refers to the age of Erasistratus
and Herophylus.  These two celebrated physicians, co-
temporaries of Hippocrates,  but  whom  certain  writers
state were born a long time after the father of medicine, 
XI
were closely engaged in the study of anatomy.  They
were both pursued and persecuted for having  dissected
human bodies.   It is even said that they carried their
boldness, or rather their enthusiasm for anatomy, so far
as to dissect living men.   This is an error, accredited by
the ignorance of the age in which Herophylus and Era-
sistratus lived, and by that love of the marvellous which
is the ordinary partage of the multitude.  How can it be
conceived, that men, so distinguished as Herophylus and
Erasistratus, regardless of every sentiment of humanity,
would have thus exposed themselves to the fury of their
cotemporaries, who  considered the simple  violation of
cadavera a crime, for which death alone could expiate 'I
   They determined  on a visit  to Alexandria, in  order
that they might there practise their profession, and enjoy
the facilities of  dissection, under the  protection of  the
kings of Egypt.
   Hippocrates, who  belongs to the first epoch, likewise
joined to his extensive knowledge the science of anatomy.
We find among his works a treatise, incomplete it is true,
on this science, but which is elaborate  for  the  times in
which he lived.
   If it be true that Hippocrates lived a  long time before
Herophylus and Erasistratus,  he could not have been
awans of the valuable labors  of these last  in anatomy ;
and what  he has left us on this subject, in his writings,
should be still more precious.
   From the time  of these distinguished men to the age
of Galen, that is, during the space of nearly seven hun-
 dred years, the science of anatomy was but little culti-
vated, and its progress was  necessarily retarded.   We
 meet only with a few facts scattered here and there, but
 which were far from giving a new face to the science.
 It was necessary that an individual,  endowed equally
 with an active genius and extensive  knowledge, should
 deliver himself up entirely to the prosecution of anatomy.
 Such was Galen, who was the glory of this science. 
Xll
   Second Epoch.—Physician  to the emperor Marcus
 Aurelius, Galen gave a  new  impetus to the history of
 organized beings.  He travelled considerably,  and thus.
 derived  extensive  knowledge,  by which  he enriched
 his country.   He possessed great address in  dissection,
 and was very skilful in his experiments on  animals: of
 this we may have some idea from the facility with which
 he destroyed the voice, by the neat and prompt section
 of the recurrent nerve.   We should, however, read his
 descriptions with a certain reserve, for he most frequently
 employed  animals in  his  anatomical  researches,  and
 especially monkeys.  We may convince ourselves of this
 fact by recollecting the astonishment he exhibited at the
• sight of a human skeleton.  In  his time, it was usual to
 travel  to  Alexandria, in order  to view  human bones;
 which, as  has  been remarked by Vicq-d'.lzir, it would
 have been easier to prepare at Rome.   But it is wd!l
 known what a religious respect the Romans entertained
 for their-dead, and the attention they paid to the funerals
 of the deceased.   The efforts which Galen made in order
 to increase his knowledge in anatomy are, consequently,
 more commendable.  We will find in his book, entitled
 De usu Partium, the result of his anatomical researches.
   The most distinguished physicians of this epoch were,
 Asclepiades, Theinison, Thessalus, Celsus,  and Oceliug
 Aurelianus.
   After the death of Galen,  a dark veil was thrown over
 all the sciences.  The continual wars among the people
 of the opposite extremities of the globe, the descent of the
 Goths, and of all the inhabitants of the  north, on the
 fertile and temperate plains of the south, and especially
 the pillaging of Rome, produced  the most horrible barba-
 rity, and the sciences were entirely forgotten.  Anatomy,
 especially, more than any of the others, felt the effects of
 this interruption ; and  nearly fourteen  hundred  years
 elapsed before it again  shone forth with any sort of bril-
 liancy. 
Xlll
   Third  Epoch.—This  epoch  commences from  the
sixteenth century.   It is due to Vesalius, who was justly
named  the  great Vesalius,  the father and restorer of
anatomy.   He taught  at Pavia, a city celebrated for its
university.   His attainments  were immense;  and his
great work  was written at  twenty-nine  years  of  age.
All his labors referred to the science of human anatomy.
His  descriptions  are perspicuous and accurate, and, as it
were, complete, at least as regards the bones and  muscles.
His  work  is ornamented with very elegant plates.
   Like Erasistratus, he was accused of having dissected
a living body.  The family of the deceased was powerful;
and the enemies of Vesalius seized this  opportunity  to
inilict upon  him the severest  reproaches.   It is stated
that chagrin- hastened  the termination of his  life,  and
that he died on his return from Palestine, whither he was
^Uigl'W0 »° m 0l'der t0 expiate the pretended crimes
wfcicT^fcumny had generated against him.
   Nearly at the same epoch there arose a number of
great men, who, cultivating anatomy with the greatest
Success, caused  it to make very rapid progress.   The
 iiAst celebrated were, Columbus, Fallopius, Fabricius,
 (Ssserius, Eustachius, Sylvius, &c.
   Fourth Epoch.—The first epochs of anatomy  have
 merely presented us with this science in its cradle, and
 reduced, as it were, to a very small number of facts,
 which it  was easy to fix on the memory, without the aid
 of any method; but in proportion as it became enriched
 with new  discoveries,  and  the  descriptions were  more
 faithful and detailed, authors began to feel the necessity
 of a' method, which would  present the science under a
 general point of view,  and free it from the shackles which
 until then had opposed its  advancement.  It  remained
 for the illustrious Bacon to demonstrate, and convince the
 world  that it was impossible to progress in the sciences,
  and especially  in anatomy, without the aid of a proper
                          2 
XIV
 method.  What he had conceived, Winslow  executed,
 with a success, the glory of which is not  diminished,
 notwithstanding the splendid  productions  of modern
 anatomists.   I date, therefore, the fourth  epoch of ana-
 tomy from the middle of the last century.  The immortal
 work of Winslow  will preserve and render  it forever
 memorable.   No writer,  before him, had presented the
 science of anatomy under such a luminous point of view.
 Beauty and  elegance of  description, ingenious method,
 order, perspicuity, and exactness, are pre-eminent in his
 book ;  and, in this respect, descriptive anatomy, at least,
 has attained perfection.
   During the long interval which  elapsed between the
 tune of Vesalius  and Winslow, several  individuals of
 great merit made anatomy the object of their especial
study, and enriched it with numerous facts and important
discoveries.  The gratitude of posterity will  notjaflmitg,
to pass unnoticed the names of Sanctorius, RiolaiapPfpl,
Harvey, Pecquet, Glisson, Stenon, the two- BaTOiolh«s.
Willis, Vieussens, Ruysch, Malpighi, Morgagrft, Paluin,
Albinus, Heister, Duverney, Lieutaud, Senac, and. nume-jl
rous other learned anatomists, who confer honor'on  tke
science of man.                                   ^
  But a fifth epoch is  at hand,  more extensive, more
philosophic, more majestic in its  march, and more inte-
resting in its  results.  It is,  especially, to the immortal
works of Haller,Buffon,Daubenton, Vicq-d'Azir, Sabatier
and  Desault, that we are indebted for  it; and their
worthy successors, Cuvier, Walter, Boyer, Soemmering-
Chaussier, Blumenbach, Zinn, Scarpa,  Bichat, Dumas
Laumonier, Meckle, Portal, Dumeril, Richeraud, Dupuv-
tren  Ribes,  Larrey,  &c,  justifying the high destinies
which await them, will give to the present age an impe-
tus, the object of which will  be the complete knowledge
of nature.                                        s 
XV
   4th,  Mode of studying and teaching Anatomy.
   In the present  state of  anatomical  science, it is  very
 difficult to say what is the  best mode to pursue, in order
 to cultivate it, and hasten its progress.  This branch of
 medicine takes such a flight, its discoveries are so nume-
 rous, its facts so multiplied, the points  of view under
 which it may be embraced so fruitful, that we can only
 offer some general rules.   The teaching of anatomy
 having for its object the instruction of students, professors
 of this  science should  adopt a plan, a uniform method,
 from which their pupils may derive the  greatest advan-
 tages.  For if modern  anatomists,  in their noble enthu-
 siasm and brilliant conceptions, do not specify some object
 towards  which all their labors  should be  directed, then
 I  am fearful that, of such united  efforts to  arrive at *a
 perfection so much desired, there will only  remain the
, painful certainty of not having  known the  true means
 o£"afoaining it.   I most ardently trust that my  fears in
 this respect may prove chimerical.
   Being no longer able to separate anatomy from physio-
 logy, and this latter being the result  of knowledge derived
 frpm the former, it is absolutely necessary for the professor
 of anatomy, charged with the direction of students*,to tmite
 these two branches of the  same science.   But trfe* facts
 which appertain to both are so  numerous, that it would
 be very  difficult to teach them together.
   This  truth has been experienced  by  all those wljp
 have been occupied in teaching anatomy: it is  for this
 reason  that anatomy and  physiology  each form a  body
 of distinct and separate doctrines, having the same object,
 but  proceeding by different channels.  I  shall not now
 discuss the  question, whether it is more advantageeus for
 science and more useful to students, that physiology be
 taughf separately, or combined with anatomy ; time and
 experience will decide in favor of one or other  of these
 methods, the excellence of which will be justified by its
 success. 
XVI
    As it is not my intention to write a complete treatise
 of anatomy, butmerely a work on anatomical prepara-
 tions, and as, in the description of  the different parts, I
 have pursued a plan different from that adopted by mo-
 dern anatomists, it is quite unimportant what method 1
 myself follow ;  or, rather, I have imagined one  peculiar
 to myself, and adapted, moreover, to the work which I
 now submit to the public.   In a word, I have nothing
 in common with other books on  anatomy, except the
 matter which is treated of in them.  The object is not
 the same.  It  may, howrever, be proper to state in  this
 place, that if I contemplated writing a voluminous wrork,
 in which  I would wish to detail every thing wiiich has
 connection wi^h the  science of man. I should certainly
 prefer the  plan  proposed  by professor  Chaussier,  of
 which he has exhibited such  fine developements in  his
 "  Tables  Synoptiques."   But wishing only to prove
 useful to the student; and  the books, wThich serve him
 as guides in his anatomical labors, having another plan,
 I  have thought it best to adhere to these latter.  I  snail
 follow particularly the  steps of Winslow,  whose  work
 appears to me invaluable.  Desault. who has such ris'ht
 to .ouuratitude, has, in my opinion, failed in his purpose,
 by jdBviating from  the  plan and method  of Winsluw.
 It would have been a very happy idea fox him to  have
 taken Winslow as a model, and to have  issued a  nt>w
 edition of this work, corrected, and augmented with  the
jAuits of his own knowledge, and thus to have united his
 .jaame to a book, wiiich his can never consign to oblivion,
 and  which will  endure as  long  as  anatomy shall be
 cultivated.

         5th, General and particular divisions.
    The ancients divided the study  of anatomy infc) skele-
  tology and sarcology.   Under the  first head, they treated
  especially of the bones, but they likewise embraced the
  examination of  the cartilages, ligaments, periosteum, 
                         xvii

synovia, medullary matter, and juice.  The second com-
prehended the history  of all the  soft parts, which they
divided  into myology, splanchnology, angeology, neuro-
logy,  and adenology.   This division,  abandoned and   j
again adopted by modern anatomists, has been followed,
in part,  by Sabatier: Desault and Bichat have neglected
it;  but  professor Chaussier has  preserved it in all its
purity.  I believe it to be correct and very reasonable ;  it
is  the one which I prefer.  Winslow, in  pursuing ser-
vilely the  plan of Vesalius, has given evidence of a cul-   ■
pable condescension, and the  general  division of his
Anatomy  presents some errors.    But as regards his   j
particular  descriptions,  modern  anatomists have offered   j
nothing better than Winslow.  M. Portal has approached
him very close in his Anatomie Medicate,  and his work
is  indebted to  him for a great part of its  reputation.
Thus, to combine the general modern methods with the
particular  descriptions of Winslow, appears to me to be
the best means  of conveying an  accurate and  precise
idea of the different parts of  anatomy.   We will find in
the Traite clAnatomie, of  M. Boyer,  a model  of this
kind, at the end of the volume  on  myology,  under the
title of Myologie Analytique.
  Although my own dissections have been of great use
to me in my present Treatise, and notwithstanding that
I have  scrupulously seen and verified for  myself every
thing that is contained in it,  yet I have not neglected to
consult the works of modern anatomists, and profited by
the lights with which the)* have furnLhed me.  Moreover,
eighteen years,  employed partly  in the study  of  this
science,  and partly in teaching it, will,  I  think, entitle
me to the confidence of those 'for  whom this work is
intended.
  In the study, as in the teaching of anatomy, there is
science and art.   The first, which aims  at perfection, is
found exposed with the greatest accuracy in works which
enjoy a just celebrity.   The art of dissecting,  on the
                         2* 
xviii
contrary, though recently cultivated with  great  success,
is no where described with sufficient method or detail.
It is true, that persons engaged in anatomical dissections
in' the private amphitheatres, possess this art in a  very
high degree of perfection ;  but the great majority of stu-
dents are ignorant of its principles.  Discouraged by the
difficulties attending  dissection, they often abandon the
study of it, and their progress in  the other branches of
medicine suffer  singularly from this neglect.  It  is for
such, especially, that  I have composed this Treatise.
  I shall dispense with indicating those minute prepara-
tions, the fruit of patience and time, which please the
eye,  and are but little instructive  ; necessary, when wTe
are obliged to present them to the view of a numerous
auditory, or when they are destined  to ornament anato-
mical cabinets,  in  which  they  are to be  preserved.   I
shall, therefore, confine myself to those details which are
indispensable. 
INDEX.
                         VOL.  I.

Introduction.........9
Preliminary Exposition   .     .    .     ...    .     .25
      Division of Anatomy  ...     ....   25
      The bones in general and the manner of preparing them
        in order to form skeletons    .....   25
      General Considerations on the conformation and struc-
        ture of the bones   .     .    .     .     .    .     .29
      Articulations    ........   37

                     SKELETOLOGY.

Bones of the head........39
Bones of the cranium   ........   39
      Anatomical preparation    .    .     .     .    .     .39
      Description      ........   41
Bones of the face  .........   48
      Anatomical preparation    ,    .     .     .    .    ^.   48
      Description      ........   49
Bones of the trunk......            59
      Anatomical preparation    ......   59
      Description      .    .     .    .     .     .    .     .60
Bones of the extremities    .......   69
      Anatomical preparation......69
Bones of the superior extremities     .....   70
      Description........70
Bones of the inferior extremities......78
      Description........78
Connection of bones    ........   85
Ligaments in General  ........   86
      Anatomical preparation    ......   86
Ligaments in particular     .......   87
Temporo-maxillary articulation   .   *.     .     .    .     .87
      Description .........   89
Articulations of the vertebral column.....92
      Anatomical preparation......92
\ 
XX            ^        INDEX.
Special or particular articulations of the vertebral column   •    92
       Occipito-atloidien articulation   .     .     .    •    •    93
       Occipito-axoidien articulation   .     .     •    •    .94
       Atloido-axoidien articulation.....95
Common and general articulations of the vertebrae    .    .    96
      Description      .....•••    99
Articulations of the chest.......106
      Anatomical preparation    ...•••   106
       Description ......•••   108
Articulations of the pelvis.......HI
       Anatomical preparation    .     .     .     •    •    .111
      Description .      .    .     .     .     .     •    •    .113
Articulations of the shoulder......119
       Anatomical preparation    .     .     •     •       ,  •   H9
       Description      ........   120
Articulations of the superior extremities     ....   123
       Anatomical preparation......   123
       Description .........   126
Articulations of the inferior extremities     ....   133
      Anatomical preparation    ......   134
       Description      ........   135
Cartilages in general   ........   146
Fibro-cartilages  .........   148
Periosteum   ..........   148
Marrow and medullary juice     ......  149
Synovia..........151


                         MYOLOGY.

Preliminary exposition  ........  151
Introduction to the art  of dissecting   .    .     .     .    .  157
Particular dissection of myology ......  167
Muscles in particular, and divisions of Myology  .     .    .  169
First region, trachelo-dorso-lumbo-spinal   ....  170
       Anatomical pfeparation    ......  172
       Description .     .    .     .     .     .     .     .    .   181
Second region, Abdominal, cutaneous or superficial    .    '.  194
- Muscles of the  bas-ventre      ......  194
       Anatomical preparation......194
       Description.........  200
Third  region. Thoracic muscles on the anterior part of the chest 204
       Anatomical preparation......205
       Description      ......     .    .  206
Fourth region—Lombo-abdominal.  Profound muscles of the ab-
  domen and generation ........  209
       Anatomical preparation......209
       Description .    .   ,.    .    .    .     .     .    .  21,3
Fifth region, costo-thoracic. Muscles on the sides of the trunk 223 
                           INDEX.                       XXI

      Anatomical preparation......224
      Description........225
Sixth and seventh regions, Epicranial and facial.  Muscles on
  Jhe summit of the head and face.....227
      Anatomical preparation    ......  228
      Description ....•••••  234
Eigth region, Temporo-zygomatic. Muscles on the lateral por-
  tions of the head,  and those which surround the articulation
  of the maxilla  .     .     .     •    •    •     •     •     •  245
      Anatomical preparation......245
      Description .    .    .    •    •    •     •     •       247
Ninth region,  Superficial cervical.  Muscles  on the anterior
  part  of the neck.....•     •     •     •  250
      Anatomical preparation......250
      Description.........253
Tenth  and eleventh regions, Lingual-staphylo-pharyngienne.
  Muscles of the tongue, pharynx, and velum palati   .     .  259
      Anatomical preparation......259
      Description.......•       265
Twelfth region, Laryngean. Muscles of the larynx     .     .2(3
      Anatomical preparation......273
       Description......•       *'4
Thirteenth  region,  Profound cervical.   Deep-seated muscles
  on the- anterior part of the neck.....277
       Anatomical preparation    ......  277
       Description      .     .     .    •    •    •    •     .278
Fourteenth  and fifteenth regions, Scapulo-humeral.  Muscles
  of the  shoulder and arm.......283
      Anatomical preparation......283
       Description     ...-••••  ~°^
Sixteenth region, Radio-cubital.  Muscles of the fore-arm  .  294
       Anatomical preparation......295
       Description........•  "*°~
Seventeenth region, Carpo-metacarpienne.  Muscles on  the
  palmar and dorsal surfaces of the hand  .    .         •  314
       Anatomical preparation......315
       Description.........■  319
Eighteenth region, Coxo-femorale.  Muscles on the posterior
  part of the pelvis, superior and posterior of the thigh     .  326
       Anatomical preparation......326
       Description.......•    • £ 32
Nineteenth and twentieth regions, Anterior and internal femoral J40
       Anatomical preparation     .    .     •     •    •    • 340
       Description.........34b
Twenty-first and twenty-second regions, Anterior and posterior
   tibial.  Muscles on the anterior and posterior part of the leg 352
       Anatomical  preparation......353
       Description.........J5K 
XX11                      INDEX.
Twenty-third region, Tarso-metatarsienne.
  back and sole of the foot
      Anatomical preparation
      Description .....
VOL. II.
                    SPLANCHNOLOGY.

Preliminary exposition  ....
Particular preparation of splanchnology
Digestive  organs
The mouth, and its accessories
      Anatomical preparation
      Description  .
Arriere-bouche
      Anatomical preparation
      Description
Alimentary canal .
      Anatomical preparation
      Description .
Biliary and pancreatic organs
      Anatomical preparation
      Description
Peritoneum, mesentery, and epiploons
Urinary organs
      Anatomical preparation
      Description.
Respiratory and circulatory organs
      Anatomical preparation
      Description .
Organs appertaining especially to the chest
   Mammae   ....
   Thymus   ....
   Lungs     ....
   Heart
 Encephalic organs, organs of sense
   Encephalon
      Anatomical preparation
       Description .
  Meninges or membranes of the brain
  Eye and its appendages
       Anatomical preparation
   Lachrymal organs 
                          ixdex.                       xxiii

  Muscles of the eye   .         ......98
      Description      ........104
Organs of hearing.........115
      Anatomical preparation......116
      Description........121
Nose...........126
Genital organs of the n^ale and female.....129
      Anatomical preparfttipn......130
      Description........134
Skin...........145
      Anatomical preparation......145
      Description      .     •......147

                       ANGEOLOGY.
Preliminary exposition........149
Particular dissection of angeology.....151
Arteries in particular,—carotids  ......   156
      Anatomical preparation......157
      Description........164
Internal carotid.........167
      Anatomical preparation......167
      Description      .     .    .     .     .    .    .    .170
Subclavians      .........171
      Anatomical preparation......171
      Description........177
Descending aorta........182
      Anatomical preparation......182
      Description........188
Arteries which arise from the bifurcation of the aorta as far as
  the crural ..........   195
      Anatomical preparation......195
      Description........199
 \fteries of the inferior extremities.....202
      Anatomical preparation......   203
      Description      ........206

                           VEINS.
Superior vena cava........215
      Anatomical preparation......215
      Description......    .    .   218
Inferior or abdominal vena cava......221
Vena azygos, pulmonary and cardiac vein   ....   225

                       NEUROLOGY.
Preliminary exposition  ........226
Particular dissection of neurology .     .  *,  .    .    .    .   227
Nerves in particular........230 
XXIV                      INDEX.

Nerves of the brain........230
      Anatomical preparation    .......230
      Description     .....•••   252
Intercostal.—Great sympathetic......261
      Anatomical preparation   -.     .     •    •     •     •   262
Nerves of the spinal  marrow.—Cervical,  dorsal, lumbar, and
  sa'cral.....m.  '  .    •     •     -265
      Anatomical preparation    .          .    .     .     .   265
      Description     ........   266
Vertebral nerves   .......     .        268
Brachial  plexus and nerves of the superior extremities       .   271
      Anatomical preparation......271
      Description     ........   273
Lumbar plexus   .........   278
      Anatomical preparation    ......   278
      Description     ........   279
Sciatic plexus, and nerves of the inferior extremities   .     .   280
      Anatomical preparation    ......   280
      Description     .     ,......280

                  LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
General Considerations     .......   283
Summary exposition of the lymphatics.....288
                           ERRATA.
Vol. I. p. 212, line 19, for affected read effected.
  "    p. 227, line 28, for quadratis read quadratus.
Vol. II. p. 150,  line 2, for veins destined read veins are destined.
          "    line 20, the semicolon should be after first.
          "    lines 27 and 28, read arrangements claim. 
THE
ANATOMIST'S   MANUAL.
  The study of man is composed of three distinct branches
of the same science.  The first has for its object, the know-
ledge of the parts constituting the animal economy, and is
properly called anatomy; as a descriptive science,  it ap-
pertains to natural history.   The  second embraces the
study of the  phenomena and  acts of life; these last re-
ceive the name of functions, and the science, which results
from them, is termed physiology.  The third comprehends
the derangements  which occur, either in the exercise of
these functions—this is medical physiology : or in the or-
gans  in which  the  functions  are  found to  occur—this is
pathological anatomy.   Of these three branches, we shall
only treat of the first.
  It is divided  into skeletology and sarcology : this last is
subdivided  into myology, splanchnology, angeology, neu-
rology, and into the history of the lymphatic vessels.   Ske-
letology comprehends the history  of  the bones,  cartilages,
ligaments, periosteum,  and the pretended synovial glands.
  The student who wishes to study anatomy should be
provided  with a skeleton and the bones in their separate
state.  In order to procure these last, he should, if possi-
ble, prepare them himself. The methodical arrangement of
the bones, for the purpose of  forming a skeleton, demands
certain rules, which we shall allude to  hereafter.
                          3 
26            anatomist's  manual.

   All cadavera are not equally fit for the preparation of
bones ; there is a choice to be made, and without this pre-
caution we would employ much time in a very unprofitable
manner.   In order to obtain them such as we desire, we
must select an adult subject, from 23 to 30 years of age,
at least five feet four inches in height, infiltrated if possi-
ble, or one whom a protracted disease has gradually con-
ducted to the grave. We should be careful that no appa-
rent deformities exist, and that the individual has not been
subjected to any particular virus, which may have affected
the integrity of the tissues.  The  preparation of the bones
requires that we detach them, in  the  first place, from the
soft parts, and separate them from their articulations : rub-
bed with a dry and coarse cloth, or with a brush, they are
afterwards to be put into water, which must be renewed from
t.'me to time.  At the end of two or three months they should
be taken  from the water,  and exposed for  some days
to the fresh  air,  and after this,  if possible, to the sun.
The vertebra?, the bones of the pelvis, the ribs and ster-
num should  not remain in the water as long  as the other
bones, for their tissue will become altered and destroyed
by too long maceration.  In order to prepare the  sternum
v.e must detach  it with  the intercostal  cartilages, near
their  union  with  the ribs, and  it  must be dried without
subjecting it to maceration.
   One mode of making  the bones very white in a short
time,  is to allow a portion of the flesh to be destroyed by
worms.   When they are  nearly deprived of the soft parts,
they should be macerated for about one month : then thev
are to be withdrawn from the water, and allowed to dry.
   In our amphitheatres, we  are in the habit of having re-
course to a  process still more expeditious.   After having
partially taken off a portion of the flesh, the whole, with 
anatomist's manual.
27
the exception of the sternum, is placed in a cauldron filled
with water,  which boils  for seven or eight  hours.   The
bones when  withdrawn are in an instant freed from the
soft parts which cover them.   They are afterwards put
into ordinary water for seven or eight days, and then taken
out for the purpose of being dried.
  Besides those just  mentioned there are other modes  of
making the  bones very white,  and with equal rapidity ;
this may  be done  by adding lime,  pure potash,  or soap,
whilst they are boiling: but these preparations demand an
experienced  hand, as likewise a knowledge of the ingredi-
ents and doses, which are necessary to be-employed.  I deem
it my duty not to enter into  any detail*in reference to this
matter, which, without being foreign to my subject,  is at-
least to the  plan which I  have proposed.
   After the bones have  been well  macerated, and suffi-
ciently exposed to the air, we may use  them for the pur-
pose of forming a skeleton, or keep them  in an isolated
state with a  view to  study them separately.'   The art of
putting together a skeleton supposes a perfect knowledge
of the bones, without which we cannot  place them in the
respective relations which nature intended.   This requires
care, patience,  address, and a certain dexterity, which all
students do  not possess:  and for this reason,  I would re-
commend them to have recourse to  those of their compa-
nions,  who are more especially acquainted with  this busi-
ness.
   But  when we wish to study osteology, it is necessary to
have more than one kind of skeleton ; we must, besides the
one of which wo have just spoken, and which  is called
artificial skeleton, possess another of the same  size, the
different bones of which are connected together by na-
tural  bands, and which  is termed natural skeleton.   In 
2S             anatomist's manual.
fine, it will  be requisite, for the  same object, to have the
skeleton of a foetus, child, and aged person.  If there be a
desire to acquire a knowledge of comparative anatomy,  it
will be proper to procure skeletons of animals,  in order to
compare  them with that of man from which great advan-
tage will be derived.  I do not fail, as far as I can, to have
recourse  to this sort of comparison in my lectures on ana-
tomy.  Many facts in physiology would  yet be unknown
were it not for the aid of comparative anatomy.
  The natural skeleton does not require so much care,  nor
does it demand the same time for its preparation as  the
artificial skeleton.   For the first, we select a cadaver pre-
senting the same characters  as when  we wish to macerate  *
the  bones.  It will suffice to free it from the soft parts, be-
ing  careful not to destroy the articulations.   After having
dried it, it must be covered with  several coats  of varnish,
and then preserved for study.
  Young subjects are generally selected  for,the prepara-
tion of natural skeletons.  But whatever may be the  age
of these last,  the mode of evacuating the cranium is diffe-
rent from that employed in the artificial skeleton.  As fhe
foramen  magnum is not exposed  in the natural skeleton,
and as the articulations are to  be preserved  entire,  the
brain  cannot  be discharged by this opening ; but it may
be easily emptied  by removing from the  lateral parts of
the  cranium  two oblong  portions,  from  before  back-
wards, at a distance of two fingers breadth from each other,
in order to protect the covering of the brain.  When  the
cerebral mass is evacuated, it will be proper, in preserving
the  integrity  of the meninges, to employ brass wires for
the  purpose of attaching the two portions,  which have been
removed : this will permit us to uncover at pleasure the in-
terior of  the cranium. 
anatomist's manual.
29
  For the preparation of a natural skeleton in the foetus,
we may effect the discharge of the cerebral  mass, by the
separation of the parietal bones at their suture, or through
one of the fontanelles.

  We are to consider in the bones an external conforma-
tion and an internal structure.
  A' The external conformation embraces :—
  1st.  The name.—Though it does not always correspond
with the object it represents, yet  we must  preserve it, for
otherwise there would be confusion in this science.  It will
suffice to indicate the name of each bone as we treat of it.
  2d. The number.—It is absolute or relative.   The ab-
solute number of bones is composed of all those entering
into the formation of the skeleton : they amount commonly
to 240.   They are enumerated in the following manner:
  In the head.—The frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal,
ethmoidal and sphenoidal, for the cranium ; the maxillary,
malar, bones proper to the nose, unguis, vomer, and infe-
rior maxillary, for the face ;  to these are added thirty-two
teeth and the os hyoides.                              ''■
  In the trunk.—Twenty-four vertebra?, for the spinal co-
lumn :  twenty-four ribs, twelver on each side, and the ster-
num, for the chest;  the two ossa  innominata,  the sacrum,v
and coxcyx, for the pelvis.
  In the superior extremities.—The scapula and clavicle,
for the shoulder ; the  humerus, for the arm ; the cubitus
and radius, for the fore-arm ; the eight carpal bones, sea-
phoides, semilunare, pyramidale, and pisiforme, for the first
range; trapezium, trapezoides, magnum, and unciforme, for
the second range ; five metacarpal  bones, and five fingers,
each composed of three phalanges, except the thumb, which
has but two, for the hand.
                         3* 
30
anatomist's manual.
   In the inferior extremities.—The femur, for the thigh ;
the tibia and peroneus, for the leg; the rotula, for the knee;
the seven tarsal bones, which are:  the calcaneum, astra-
galus, cuboides, scaphoides, and three cuneiformia; the five
metatarsal  bones, and the five toes, each composed of five
phalanges,  except the large toe, which has but two, for the
foot.
  The relative number refers to the place, which the same
bones  occupy  in the  skeleton ;  consequently they are
double or single : the latter  are always  found  situated  in
the centre of the  skeleton; they are regular in their con-
formation and represent perfectly on the  right  the objects
placed on the left : divided in their middle, they are exact-
ly similar to the double bones situated on the lateral parts.
These, which sometimes  are in contact with each other,  as
the parietal, palatine, &c, are most generally separated
by the single bones, and are even situated  at considerable
distance from each other, as the bones of the extremities.
  3d.  The  position.—It is  absolute or relative :  the first
indicates in a general way the place occupied by the bone
in the skeleton: the second determines its relations.   Ex-
ample  of the absolute position: the coronal or frontal  is
situated in  the head.   Example of the relative position :
the frontal  is placed before the parietal, above the superior
maxillary,  &c.   In order to comprehend  perfectly the the-
ory concerning the position of bones, it "will be necessary
to suppose the skeleton surrounded by seven lines or planes,
which  are : the anterior, tue posterior, the  two  lateral," the
superior, the  inferior, and a seventh, which, commencing at
the  sinciput, and passing directly through the  skeleton
from above downwards,  will terminate between the feet.
In proportion as  a bone,  or a part of a  bone,  approaches 
anatomist's manual.
31
nearer to one of these planes, we will add to the part de-
scribed the term of anterior, posterior, &c.
  4th.  The size.—Among the bones, some are large,
some small, and others again possess a medium bulk ;  but
the terms  large and small are" abstractions,  and always
suppose that several objects of a different size, placed in
correspondence, are compared with each other.   Thus,
when we say the femur is a large  bone, it is because, at
the same moment,  we compare it in idea with other bones
of the-skeleton which possess less dimensions, and it is for
this  reason, that we  say bones are of a middle size or
small.
   According to this, the large bones of the skeleton are
the femur, the  tibia, the peroneus, the humerus, and the
haunch bones : the bones of the fore-arm,  the  ribs, the
large bones of  the cranium, the sternum, the scapula, and
clavicle, are of a  middle size: and we rango in  the  class
of small bones all  those not comprised in the two first.
   5th.  The figure.—It is by*the aid of geometry that the
particular  figure of each  bone has been determined;  it
is square, triangular, prismatic, cubic, long, short, flat, &c.
This  figure is likewise modified by the general disposition
of their external conformation, and by the  particular ar-
rangement of the parts  observed upon them :  thus the
single bones are called regular or  symetrical, for the rea-
sons already stated, and  the  contrary is  found to exist in
reference to the double bones
   6d.  The direction.—It is the same with the direction of
bones as with  all other bodies in  nature :  consequently,
they are in a vertical, horizontal or oblique direction.  The
long bones of the extremities are vertical;   the  clavicles
are horizontal ; the ribs, sternum, &c, are oblique.  Each
part of the same bone, isolated and distinct,  may likewise 
32
anatomist's  manual.
 have a particular direction,  independently of that of the
 bone itself.  Example : The inferior maxillary is in a hori-
 zontal direction ;  but its coronoid apophysis is vertical.
   Besides these general  considerations,  the bones present
 on their external surface depressions or cavities, elevations
 or eminences :  the first are articular or not:  the articular
 are profound or superficial.   The profound bear the name
 of cotyloid cavities :  the superficial, that of glenoid.
   The  non-articular  cavities receive the names of fossa-,
 foramina, passages, grooves, sinuses,   furrows,  sinuosi-
 lies, canals, aqueducts, &c,  according as the  cavities of
 the bones' resemble those I have just indicated, rnd some.
 times even according to arbitrary convention,  but conse-
 crated by usage.
   The eminences are also articular or not:  the first  are
 called heads, when their surface is perfectly rounded ; and
 condyles, when they are flattened in one sense and round
 in the other.
   The non-articular  eminences are called spines,  crests,
 coracoids, coronoid, mastoid,  styloid, odontoid, clinoid pro-
jections, &c,  although  very frequently there is not the
 slightest resemblance  between the eminence and  body with
 which it is compared.
  \
   "B.  The internal structure  of bones embraces  :
   1st.  Their color.—It varies in the different ages of life.
 It is reddish  and more marked  in young subjects  on ac-
 count of the superabundance of all the fluids ;  in propor-
 tion as  life advances it turns pale, and in old age becomes
 white.:  it is of  a greyish-white in the adult.   The bones
 of the female are whiter than those of the male.   Innhose
 individuals who have  died inconsequence of a protracted 
                anatomist's manual.             33

disease  the  bones are of a lighter color than in such as
have been carried off by a violent and sudden malady.
  2d. Their density and thickness.—The one is always
in an inverse proportion to the other.  The first is not very
evident in the bones  of young^subjects;  but  the second is
considerable: the contrary  is observed in  old  persons.
The density being the result of the intimate union between
the lamina of bone, is, as it were, entirely wanting in very
young subjects,  since at  this early period their  tissue  is
easily penetrated by an infinity of vessels pouring a quan-
tity of fluid of every kind into it.  With age, the osseous
elements become superabundant.   A  great portion of the
vessels being compressed, and identified with the bone itself,
no longer receives any fluid,  and every thing tends to af-
ford to the bones of aged persons a  remarkable density,
and to diminish their thickness.
  In the long bones, the density  is in the centre, and the
thickness at the  extremities; in the flat  bones the density
has the same situation, but the thickness is at the circum-
ference : in the short bones, this  disposition  is not so uni-
form.   We remark that the greatest density of these bones
is situated in  those portions which sustain the  most weight..
  3d.  Their elements.—We shall allude to  the details of
this article when we  treat of the developement of bones.
  4th.  Their cavities and vessels.—Although the  weak-
ness of our senses, and the imperfection of our instruments
do not permit us to  trace very remotely the  cavities  and
vessels of the bones,  yet we are aware that their tissue, as
compact as it may be imagined, is nothing more than a net-
work, into which an  incalculable  quantity of  blood-vessels
of every sort enters : the sensibility manifested by old per-
sons, even in their most advanced age, when  these organs 
34
vnatdmist's manual.
are affected by disease, or when they are the seat of ope".
rations, removes all doubt as to the truth of this assertion.
  In examining here that only which is known and avowed
by all anatomists, we will find three kinds of cavities for the
bones, and  an equal number of vessels penetrating them.
I except the large cavity of the long bones.  These cavi-
ties receive the names of first,  second, and third classes.
In the large long bones, and in  the flat bones, the cavities
of the first class are perceived without any difficulty : they ,
are situated at a short distance from the centre of the bone:
they give passage to the  vessels of nutrition.  The cavi-
ties of tl>3 second class occupy the extremities of the long
bones, the circumference of the flat bones, and all the ex-
ternal surface of the short bones.   The cavities of the
third class do  not appear to penetrate the interior of the
bone : distributed on their external surface, these cavities
are very numerous, and the vessels entering them exceed.
ingly delicate.

   C.  Developement of the bones.—At first pulpy, and as
it were  mucilaginous,  the bones  are confounded with the
other parts, and cannot be distinguished from them ;  this
continues at least for the first seven  days after conception,
when each system  of organs appears to  isolate itself, and
presents differences as to the  mode of  its developement.
Before becoming  cartilaginous, the bones  are in a  gelati-
nous state,  and they continue so  until  after the twentieth
day of the first  formation of the embryo.   After twenty
days, they pass rapidly from cartilage, and assume an os-
seous character;  and at six weeks the  clavicles and ribs
are already osseous :  the bones of the cranium, and those
of the extremities  follow this rapid developement  of  the
clavicles and ribs.  Some of the bones of the face, the \et- 
anatomist's manual.
35
tebrae, the sternum, those of the pelvis, the short bones of
the hands and feet are the slowest in ossifying, and do not
accomplish this process until after birth.   Between fifteen
and twenty years all the bones are entirely developed ;
but their growth, which does not increase in length nor
thickness, continues until the most advanced old age.  The
mechanism of the developement of  bones is as follows :—
When the embryo has acquired a certain degree of force,
which occurs about the  fortieth or fiftieth day after  preg-
nancy, nature transmits through the vessels  going  to the
bones a solidifying material, to which has been given the
name of lime, and even an impure phosphate of lime. This
earthly material, destined to give  strength and solidity to
the bones, is deposited in a uniform manner  on some de-
terminate  point of cartilage.   To  this first osseous point
there are added fresh quantities of the earthy phosphate
which,  deposited  always in a regular manner, takes  the
place of the cartilage and ultimately causes it to disappear
altogether.  The phosphate of lime  which,  in adult age,
 constitutes the largest portion of each bone, is not deposited
 in the   bones at their commencement;  it is furnished
 in a secondary  manner, and is received  in the interstices
 of the cartilaginous net-work.   This truth is fully demon-
 strated  by the  experiments of Herissant:  he plunged  a
 bone,  or a portion of bone,  into weak nitric acid and al-
 lowed it to remain there until it became  flexible, and, as it
 were, cartilaginous: an earthy substance remained in the
 bottom of the vase, which was nothing else than the phos-
 phate of lime precipitated  by the nitric acid.
   Three substances appear to result from the developement
 of bones and the particular distribution  of the solidifying
 matter;  but  by  attending scrupulously to this point,  we
 shall  discover  but two, namely, a gelatinous and  earthy 
 36             anatomist's manual.

 substance.  The first always preserves the particular form
 and figure of the bone itself; it is the rudiment of the bone:
 the second is merely a deposition, and may, during life or
 after death, be separated from it:  the urine is sometimes
 found to be singularly charged with it.
   In  the natural order,  the solid part identifies itself with
 the gelatinous, then under the form of cartilage, in the fob
 lowing manner :—In the long bones,  it appears at first in
 the centre of the bone,  in the shape of a small ring,  be-
 coming every  day more extended, and eventually it  occu-
 pies^e  place of almost the entire cartilage.   Nearly  the
 same  process takes place at the extremities of the bone ;  the
 osseous points  approach each other, and they  remain for
 some  time at the spot, which unites the head to- the body
 of the bone :  this is what constitutes  the epiphyses.   By
 a new effort in the growth, the epiphyses disappear, and at
 twenty years  of age  there  is not one to be found in  the
 whole osseous system.
  Things go on differently in the flat bones : the first bony
 point  is observed in the centre,  and  it gradually reaches  •
 the circumference by radii.
  In the short bones, the first deposition of ossific matter
 takes place in some indeterminate point of their surface,
 until  it successively covers the entire  bone.
  The compact, spongy, and reticular portions result from
 the particular arrangement  of the  earthy phosphate, and
 from the different degrees of adhesion  exiting  among  its
 molecules.  The first is remarked in  all the bones; it  is
found principally in their exterior:  abundant  in  the mid-
dle portion of  the long bones, it is less so at their  extremi-
ties, where the spongy substance is observed to predomi-
nate.   It forms in the flat bones  two  distinct  tables, be-
tween which  the spongy portion is  found  to  exist, and 
anatomist's manual.             37
which is called diploe in the bones of the cranium.  In the
short bones it presents itself under the character of a very
thin covering, these bones being almost entirely formed of a
spongy substance.  The reticular portion exists only in the
long bones, and occupies their interior.

  D. Connection of bones.—Two  things  constitute  the
connection of bones :  articulation  and symphisis.  The
first is the mode of union; the second, the means.  Ar-
ticulation  is  the approximation of two  or more bones by
surfaces, which  continue  always in relation with each
other: the particular  disposition of these surfaces, their
degree of approximation, and the degree of motion peculiar
to them, determine the kind and species of articulation. In
considering them in their aggregate, two essential points
fix the attention and give rise to two distinct classes of ar-
ticulation :  immobility constitutes the  character  of  the
first: mobility, on the contrary, is peculiar  to the second.
Let us  first examine this latter;  the other will occupy us
afterwards.
  1st. Moveable articulation.—This may be formed by
continuous  or contiguous  surfaces.  The first constitutes
amphiarthrosis or the  mixed articulation of the  ancients.
We will see examples of it in the articulation of the ver-
tebras, and of the  bones of the pelvis with  each other.
This  species of articulation does not admit of any sliding
of the surfaces ; and the motion, although obscure, takes
place irt the  substance  of  the  interarticular  cartilage.
When, in old age, the intermediate cartilage becomes hard
or ossifies,  the motion ceases.
% The articulation by continuity of surface is more varied,
and, according to the extent of the motion permitted by the
                           4 
38             anatomist's manual.
surfaces, it is divided into general  or vague,  and into al-
ternative or gynglimoid articulation.
  The first is called  enarthrosis, when a head is  received
into a cavity, and arthrodia, when the surfaces are nearly
even.  The articulation of the head of the femur with the
cotyloid cavity of the haunch bones is an enarthrosis, and
that of the tibia with the femur, an  arthrodia.
  The gynglimus is  angular  or lateral ; the first is  per-
fect or imperfect,  according as the bones mutually receive
each other or not: the articulation  of the cubitus with the ■
humerus is an instance of a perfect angular gynglimus: and
the inferior maxilla, in its motion upwards and downwards,
presents an example of an imperfect angular gynglimus.
  The second is simple when the bones only touch by one
point; and double when they touch by two.   The articu-
lation of the occiput  with  the first  cervical vertebra fur-
nishes an instance of  a simple lateral gynglimus ; and that
of the radius and cubitus, of a double lateral gynglimus.
  2d.  Immoveable articulation.—This  is termed synar-
throsis.  This species of articulation is found to exist only
in the bones of the cranium.   It is called suture when the
bones  are  united  by profound  engremnes ; harmonia,
when these engrcnures are scarcely  perceptible ;  squa-
mous, when the border of one bone overlaps another, like
the shells of certain bivalves; gomphosis, when one bone
is received into the deep cavity of another.  The ossa pa-
rietalia articulate by suture, the ossa unguis by harmonia,
the large portion of the temporal by the squamous suture,
and the teeth by gomphosis.
  The symphisis may  be cartilaginous, membranous,  li-
gamentous or muscular.  The first is called  synchondrosis;
the second, syneurosis; the third, meningosis; and  the
fourth, syssarcrosis. 
anatomist's manual.
39
                 SKELETOLOGY.

  The skeleton is commonly divided into the head, trunk,
and extremities.                                        '
  The head is divided into the cranium and face.
  M. Chaussier  divides the  skeleton into the trunk and
members.   The  trunk presents a middle  portion and two
extremities; the one superior cephalic,  or the head, the
other inferior  pelvic,  or the  pelvis.   The members are
distinguished into thoracic or superior, and into abdominal
or inferior.  Although we shall not follow this division of
M.  Chaussier, yet  we  have   adopted his nomenclature
through the whole course of this work, in collating it with
the ancient.

                BONES OF THE CRANIUM.
               Anatomical Preparation.
  Notwithstanding the different rules which have been giv-
en  for separating the bones of the Cranium and face with-
out injuring them, it is rare that we  are enabled to pre-
serve them in  all their integrity  ; their quantity, the small
size of most  of them, their  want of thickness, the close
connection which exists among them, will explain   on the
one hand the difficulty of separating them, and  on the
other the facility with which they  may be broken.   If
we desire to detach the bones of the head, we should select
a young subject, from fifteen  to twenty-five years of age.
 Before  commencing  the operation,  we  should examine
 whether the interarticular cartilage  between the  basilar
 apophysis of the occipital bone and the body of the sphenoid
 still exists.   If it be found that the reciprocal ossification 
40             anatomist's manual.
of these two  bones has caused  the  disappearance of the
cartilage, then there will be but little chance of succeeding;
the bones will assuredly be broken.   In the contrary case,
we must proceed to detach the bones, by commencing with
the ossa unguis, the inferior cornets, the vomer and the bones
proper to the nose; the others being more solid will demand
less precaution.   After the malar bones are removed, the
temporal, occipital, &c. may be separated without difficulty.
We should be careful, as much as possible, to preserve the
points of contact, in order that we may at pleasure approxi-
mate the bones, which articulate with each other.   In or-
der to effect this separation quickly it will suffice to fill the
cavity of the cranium with dry peas or beans ;  the occipital
foramen must be closed, and the head then plunged into hot
water.  The beans swell, detach the sutures, and thus sepa-
rate the bones of the cranium.   When the head, of which
we  wish to preserve the separate bones, is taken  from a
young subject from eight to ten  years of age, for example,
it will answer every purpose  to let it simply boil in water.
This will cause the gelatine and other white juices,  so
abundant at this period of life, to disappear.  The separa-
tion of the bones of the cranium and  face will then be very
easily accomplished,  which would not be the case in  the
head of an individual much advanced in age.
   In order  to have  an  exact  idea of the  capacity of
the cranium, it will be necessary  to make two sections of
the head, the one vertical  and the other horizontal.  The
first is made by carrying a saw from above  downwards,
and from before backwards from the frontal to the occipital
protuberance.   In this way,  the head will be divided into
two equal lateral portions.  In the second section, the saw
has a horizontal direction from  one  coronal  protuberance
to the external occipital protuberance, and from  this it  i;> 
anatomist's manual.
41
brought to the coronal protuberance of the  opposite side,
where  it  terminates.  As. regards  the preparation of the
bones of the  head, I have never seen anything more beau-
tiful than the heads of men and animals, arranged in a par-
ticular and quite ingenious manner, in the anatomical mu-
seum at Charenton.
                     Description.
  The bones of the Cranium are eight in number.  The
coronal, two parietal, two temporal, occipital, sphenoid, and
ethmoid.

              THE CORONAL OR  FRONTAL.
   Situation and figure.—A single  symetrical bone, situ-
ated at the anterior portion  of the cranium and superior
part of the face, in front of the parietal, above  the nasal,
maxillary, unguiforme, malar, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones.
   Division.—Anterior, convex surface : it presents in  its
middle, and from below upwards, its  nasal prominence and
spine ; above, the line indicating the primitive separation of
the bones into two equal portions.   On the sides we remark  '
from below upwards, the superciliary arches, covered by a
muscle of the same name; the two coronal protuberances;
and a large smooth and polished surface, on which is spread
the greatest portion of the occipito-frontalis muscle.
    Posterior concave  surface:   it   presents  in the mid-
dle,  and from  below upwards,  the  foramen  coscum;
above, a prominent line, something like a crest, which is
placed at the commencement of the longitudinal sinus :  'di-
minishing gradually, the crest terminates in a fossa, which
is continued along the  parietal bones, and called the longi-
tudinal fossa.   On the  sides, there are two depressions cor-
 responding to the coronal protuberances, and others which
                           4* 
42
anatomist's manual.
are less remarkable,  resulting from the presence of the
brain.
   Inferior surface.—The ethmoidal  cchancrure in the
centre; in front of the echancrure, the transverse suture
and the two frontal sinuses separated by a partition, which
is sometimes more to one side than the other ;  on the sides,
the two orbital fossse terminated in front by an arch of the
same  name.   This presents  inwards the internal orbital
angle, which affords attachment to the great oblique muscle
of the eye ; without, is observed the external orbital angle :
the lachrymal gland is lodged in a small depression situat-
ed in  the internal portion of this angle.
  The circumference offers  two portions ; one superior,
which is united to the parietal bones by a deep suture, and
an inferior  horizontal  portion, thinner than the other,
which articulates with the sphenoid.
   Internal  structure and developement.—The compact
substance is divided into two laminae ; one external and the
other  internal, called  vitreous.   The space between  them
is occupied by the diploe.
  The coronal  is developed by two points of ossification,
which commence at the two coronal protuberances.

                   THE PARIETAL.
   Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, placed at the
superior  and  lateral part of the cranium, behind the coro-
nal, in front of the occipital, above the temporal and sphe-
noid.
  Division.—External, convex surface : the parietal pro'-'
tuberance is  seen in the centre; above and behind,  near
the suture, there  is a small foramen termed parietal; the
oecipito-frontalis muscle covers nearly the entire of the ex-
ternal surface. 
               anatomist's  manual.              43

  Internal,  concave surface, covered with digital impres-
sions, furrows, one of which, more profound than the others,
placed near the anterior angle, lodges the meningeal artery.
In the centre of the parietal fossa, and towards the poste-
rior angle, a portion of the lateral groove is remarked.
  The circumference presents four borders:  the superior,
anterior, and  posterior, articulate by a deep  suture with
the neighbouring bones ; the inferior by a squamous suture
with the temporal.  Four angles are observed at the junc-
tion of the four borders: they are distinguished into anterior,
posterior, superior,  and inferior.
   Internal structure and developement.—The internal
structure of the parietal is the same as the coronal; but it
is developed by one point of ossification commencing at the
parietal protuberance.

                   THE OCCIPITAL.
  Situation and figure.—Single,  regular,  lozenge-shape,
situated at the posterior and inferior part of the cranium;
behind the parietal and sphenoid, between the temporal, and
above the first cervical vertebra.
  Division.—External, or occipital convex  surface.  It
presents, from above downwards, a portion covered by the
occipito-frontalis  muscle;  lower down, and in the centre,
the external occipital  protuberance ; below, a prominent
line,  which is lost  in the great occipital foramen ; on the
sides, two curved lines, distinguished into superior and in-
ferior ;  below, the great occipital foramen; on its sides, the
two. condyles, which articulate with the first cervical ver-
tebra ; behind, and in front of the condyles, the condyloid
fossae and foramina ; in front of the great occipital fora-
men, the basilar process. 
44
anatomist s manual.
   Internal surface.—It  presents four fossse divided by a
 sort of cross,  the three superior hollow branches of which
 form the continuation of the logitudinal fossa.   Below this,
 we remark the great occipital foramen, the internal opening
 of the condyloid foramina, and in front, the internal portion
 of the basilar  process, hollowed in form of a groove.
   The circumference offers four borders : the two superior
 articulate by a deep suture with the parietal bones: the two
 inferior articulate in the same way with the temporal,  and
 likewise aid in forming the posterior foramen lacerum. The
 superior angle articulates with the two parietal; the inferior,
 truncated,  articulates with the body of the sphenoid bone,
 and in old age, becomes ossified with this bone.
   Internal structure  and developement.—The internal
 structure is here the same as in the preceding bones.  The
 occipital  is developed by four points of ossification, one for
 the large  portion, two for  the condyloid region, and a
 fourth for the basilar.

                    THE  TEMPORAL.
   Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, situated at the
 lateral and inferior portions of the cranium, below the pa-
 rietal, in  front of the occipital, behind the sphenoid and ma-
 lar bones.
   Division.—Three  principal  parts :   1st.  A squamous,
 situated above the two others.   It presents an external sur-
 face, which forms part  of the temporal fossar; at its infe-
 rior portion is observed the zygomatic apophysis, which
 articulates  in front with the malar bone, and terminates be-
 hind at  the meatus auditorius  externus ; in front  of the
 glenoid cavity  there is a portion, elongated and prominent,
called the transverse apophysis.  The internal surface cor- 
anatomist's  manual.
45
responds with the middle fossse of the cranium, and presents
nothing remarkable: its circumference articulates with the
parietal by the squamous suture.
  2d.  A mastoid, situated behind the two others.  It pre-
sents an external surface in which is seen the mastoid apo-
physis, below the digastric groove : its internal surface en-
ters into the formation of the posterior fossa of the cranium,
and  lodges a portion of the  lateral groove:  its circumfe-
rence articulates with the occiput.
  3d.  A petrous (petrous apophysis) of a pyramidal form,
triangular, situated between the two first.  It has a superior
surface, in which is observed the  hiatus Fallopii; a pos-
terior, where the meatus auditorius  is remarked ; and an
inferior, on which, from behind forwards, the following ob-
jects are seen: the stylo-mastoid foramen, the styloid apo-
physis, the carotid canal, and a portion of the track of the
jugular vein ; these three surfaces are united by three bor-
ders, which do not offer any thing worthy of attention.
   The base of the petrous portion is turned from without
backwards.  On it we remark  the glenoid cavity, divided
by the fissure of Glaser,  and the meatus  auditorius  ex-
ternus: the summit articulates with the sphenoid and oc
ciput.
   Internal structure and  developement.—The internal
structure  of the temporal is different in the three portions:
similar to that  of the other flat bones of the cranium in
the  squamous, it is compact in the petrous,  and nearly
 altogether cellular in the mastoid portion.   The temporal
 is developed by three points of ossification ;  one for the
 squamous, one for  the mastoid, and  a third for the petrous^
 under the form of an osseous circle. 
46             anatomist's  manual.
                    THE SPHENOID.
   Situation and figure.—Single,  regular, situated at the
 base of the cranium, in front of the occipital and temporal,
 behind the coronal, vomer, ethmoid, and palatine bones, and
 between the parietal and malar bones.
 •  Division.—1st. A body, or middle portion, which pre-
 sents four surfaces; a  superior,  on which, from behind
 forwards, we remark, the square plate, the sella turcica, or
 pituitary fossa, and a surface on which the olfactory nerves
 pass; and on the sides the wings odngrassias, or small wings
 of the sphenoid ;  at the point of their union with the body
 of the bone, is situated the foramen  occipitale.  An inferior,
 articulating with the vomer; an anterior, with the ethmoid.
 It likewia&rpresents two cavities, known as the sphenoidal
 sinuses, formed in great part by two small osseous  lamina?,
 called cornets of Bertin.  The posterior surface is united
 to the occiput.
   2d.   Branches or large wings ;  these present  three
 surfaces.  A superior,  which corresponds  to the middle
 fossae of the cranium;  we observe in it the spinous,  the
superior and inferior maxillary foramina. An external, divid-
ed into the temporal and  zygomatic portions; below, and in
front of this last, originate the pterygoid apophyses, elongat.
ed from above downwards, divided  into external  and inter-
nal surfaces, and into anterior and posterior borders.  Behind
these apophyses, we remark the external orifices of the
spinous  and inferior maxillary  foramina.   The anterior
surface, orbital, forms a portion of the orbit, and aids in
forming the external part of this cavity.
  The circumference of the sphenoid  presents  numerous
articulations.  In front, with the coronal, ethmoid, palatine,
and malar bones; behind, with the occipital and temporal; 
anatomist's manual.
47
on  the  sides, with the  parietal;  and below, with  the
vomer.
  Internal structure and developement.—The structure is in
great part spongy in the body, and compact in the branches.
  The sphenoid is developed by five points of ossification,
one for the body, two for the small wings, and two for the
large wings.

                      ETHMOID.
  Situation and figure.—Single, regular, situated at the
anterior part of the base of the cranium, before the sphe-
noid and palatine bones, before and below the coronal and
ossa unguis, above the superior maxillary, and behind the
bones proper to the nose.
  Divisions.—1st. A middle portion.  It presents below
the perpendicular plate;  above, the apophysis crista-galli
{ethmoidal,) and in the middle, the  cribriform plate.
  2d.  Lateral portions,  elongated,  cuboidal.  They are
divided into a superior or cerebral surface, inferior or max-
illary, external or orbital, and internal or nasal;  this last
presents, from above  downwards, the superior cornet of the
ethmoid  or of Morgagni,  and the os  planum:  below,
the superior meatus,  which  communicates with the poste-
rior cells ;  behind, the middle cornet;  and lower down, a
portion of the middle meatus.  The anterior and posterior
surfaces  articulate by harmonia, the first with the os un-
guis, and the second with the sphenoid.
  Internal structure and developement.—Except the crista
galli apophysis, which has a small portion of cellular sub-
stance, the whole  ethmoid is composed of a compact sub-
stance, arranged in  thin layers, doubled several times on
each other. This bone is developed by three points ofossifi- 
48
anatomist's manual.
 cation ; one for the middle portion ;  and one for each late-
 ral mass.

                  BONES OF THE FACE.
   The bones of the face are the superior maxillary, ma-
 lar, unguis, those proper to  the nose, inferior  cornet, pa-
 latine, vomer, and inferior maxillary.—To these are added
 the teeth and os hyoides.
               Anatomical preparation.
   The anatomical preparation of the face  demands but lit.
 tie care, or rather does not require any, and I should have
 passed over this article in silence, were it  not that I desire
 in this place to make a few general remarks in reference
 to the particular disposition  of the facial angle, and the
 mode of demonstrating it.  The facial angle is  an ideal
 measurement, imagined by anatomists,  and especially by
 painters and sculptors, in order to have the proportions of
 the cerebral mass, and determine in this way the degree of
 intelligence of  each species.   Man is,  of all the known
species, the being whose facial angle is the most developed,
 and, consequently, his intellectual functions have attained
the highest degree of perfection.  In order to  measure
this angle, we will suppose two lines, one  drawn from the
superior dentes incisores to  the forehead, the other from the
same point, along the base  of the cranium.  In proportion
as these two lines, in their respective developement, become
farther distant or nearer to each other, they give the extent
of the facial angle more or less developed.
   Another  mode of measuring the developement of the fa.
eial angle has been proposed; it is to make a vertical sec
tion of the head, so as to separate exactly the cranium from
the face; in this way we have, by the height of the section 
anatomist's manual.
49
of the bones of the face, the exact extent of the facial an-
gle.   This section is also necessary in order to understand
the relative volume and extent, which exist between the
cranium  and face: by comparing  these results in the dif-
ferent periods of life, we will observe that, in infancy, the
volume  and  extent of the  face,  compared  with  those of
the cranium, exceed these last considerably,  and that these
proportions diminish as age advances, without,  however,
including old age; for then they return nearly to  their
original  state, in consequence of the teeth falling out, and
the loss of substance in'the jaws. According to Camper and
M. Cuvier, the facial angle is  from 90° to 85° in the Euro-
pean adult;  it is 77° in the negro; and 67° in the young
ourang-outang.
   The separation of the bones of the face having been men-
tioned when speaking of the head, I shall not recur to it: I will
merely mention that it is very important for  the student, in
the study of these bones, to have them continually before his
eyes, and frequently to place  them in contact, in order to
have an exact knowledge of their respective relations.
   It is likewise important that the maxillary bones should be
filled with teeth ; and it is indispensable to have a number
of the  teeth in  an  isolated  state, in order to study  the
number  and direction of their roots.  In fine, with a view
to a perfect knowledge of their developement, it will be ne-
cessary  to possess the maxillary bones  of the foetus, in
which the germs can be  perceived entire in the alveolar
processes.

    DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONE.
                   (Sus  Maxillaire.)
   Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, situated  in the
middle of  the face, beneath the  coronal,  ethmoid, unguis,
                           5 
50
anatomist's manual.
 vomer, and the bones proper to the nose ;  above the inferior
 maxillary bones and upper teeth ; in front of the palatine
 bones.                   / £  Q '       ,
   Division.—External region: it presents the ascending
 apophysis, which articulates with the coronal; below, the
Canine fossa and infra-orbital foramen; somewhat behind,
the maxillary  protuberance,  which  corresponds to  the
zygomatic fossa, the more prominent as age is less advanced, .
because then the tardy tooth is contained within  its alveolar <
process; above, the orbital surface, called the floor of the p
orbit;  we there perceive the commencement of the infra- ^
orbital canal;  in fine, the malar echanerure, unequal, arti-
culating with the malar bone.
   Internal region: it presents, in the middle, the palatine ^
spine, elongated from behind forwards, making a part of
the nasal fossae above, of which it constitutes the floor or
inferior wall, and forming below the palatine fossa.    The
union of the two spines gives rise, in front, to  the forma-
tion of the foramen  incisivum, or anterior palatine.
   Above the palatine spine there is a large cavity ;  this
is  called the maxillary sinus, the opening of which is
large and spacious in the osseous state, but singularly con-
tracted by the  articulation of  the neighboring  bones, and
the disposition  of  the  soft parts.  There is an irregular
surface behind  this cavity, which articulates with the pala-
tine bone and  assists  in forming the  posterior palatine
canal.
   The circumference of the superior maxillary presents
at its inferior portion the dental border, furnished with six-
teen alveolar cavities, which are deeper in proportion  as
they are examined in front.
   Internal  structure  and  developement.—The superior
maxillary is composed of a compact substance distributed
in an unequal manner, and of a  small quantity of cellular 
anatomist's manual.             51
   matter, except towards its dental border.  It is developed
   by a single point of ossification.

                    OF THE MALAR BONE.
                         (Malaire.)
     Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, situated on the
   lateral  and superior parts of the face, below the coronal,
1  before the temporal, superior maxillary, and sphenoid.
     Division.—External, convex  surface, covered by  the
*  integuments of the cheeks and zygomatic muscles: inter-
>  nal surface, articulating in part with the superior maxillary
""Vand sphenoid, and assisting  to  form  the temporal  and zy-
x^gomatic fossse.
     Four  borders and  four angles.—Of the two anterior
   borders, one  is confounded in  the  articulation  of  this
   bone with the  maxillary, the other forms part of  the cir-
   cumference of the orbit;  this border, by extending back-
   wards, aids in the formation of the  inferior and external
   wall of the orbit.  The two posterior borders limit, in front,
   the superior, the temporal  fossa, the inferior, the zygo-
   matic fossa.
     Of the four angles, the superior articulates with the coro-
   nal ; the inferior and  anterior with  the maxilla, and  the
   posterior with  the  zygomatic apophysis of the temporal
   bone.
     Internal structure and  developement.—The  propor-
   tions of  the  two substances are  nearly the same in  the
   malar bone ;  it is developed  by one point of ossification.

            OF THE  BONE  PROPER  TO  THE NOSE.
                         (Nasal.)
     Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, situated at the
   middle and superior part of the face ; below the coronal, 
52
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
in front of the ethmoid and  ascending apophysis of the
maxillary bone.
   Division.—External surface, slightly concave, covered
by the integuments of the nose:  the internal  forms part
of the superior wall of the nasal fossse : the anterior bor-
der articulates  with its  fellow : the posterior border with
the ascending  apophysis of the maxillary bone;  the su-
perior border,  large and short, with the coronal: the in-
ferior is- free,  and has  the cartilage of the nose attached ^
to it.                                                    *
   Internal structure  and developement.—What has  been ,
said in reference to the malar bone applies to the  bones- jj
proper to the nose.                                     .

                  OF  THE  OS  UNGUIS.
   Division and figure.—Even, irregular, situated in the
orbit, and  aids in forming a  portion of its internal wall;
below the coronal, above and behind the superior  maxilla-
ry, and in front of the ethmoid.
   Division.—External surface:  this corresponds to the
orbit; internal, which  articulates with  the ethmoid; the
superior border articulates with the coronal;  the inferior
border articulates with the superior maxillary bone, and a
small portion of the inferior turbinated bone ;  the anterior
with  the  ascending  apophysis of  the maxillary  bone;
the posterior with the flat  portion  of the ethmoid.
   Internal structure and developement.—The os unguis
is composed altogether of compact substance:  it is deve-
 loped by one point of ossification.

          OF THE INFERIOR TURBINATED BONE.
                  (Cornet inferieur.)
   Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, curved upon 
ANATOMISTS MANUAL.
53
   itself, situated in. the interior of the nasal fossse, at the in
   ternal portion of the maxillary  and palate bones, and  be«
   low the os unguis.
     Division.—Internal, convex surface : it corresponds to
   the nasal  fossse; external  concave surface;  it is placed
   behind  on the palatine  bone; in front, on the maxillary,
•   and  in the middle it assists  in closing partially the open-
   ing  of  the maxillary  sinus;   its superior  border  arti-
   culates  with  the bones just mentioned; its inferior bor-
   der  is free:  it has a  posterior  extremity, united to the
   palatine bone, and an anterior extremity, united .to the os
   unguis and superior maxilla.
     Internal structure and developement.—The inferior tur-
   binated bone is the only one which has the compact sub-
   lance within, and the cellular without; it is developed  by
   one  point of ossification.

                  OF  THE  PALATINE  BONE.
     Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, situated at the
   posterior part of the nasal fossse and palatine arch, behind
   the  superior maxillary  bone, before the sphenoid, and  oh
   the outer side of the ethmoid.
     Division.—1st. A horizontal portion : it presents a su-
   perior surface, which forms part of the  floor of  the nasal
   fossa?;  an inferior, which is a portion of the palatine arch ;
   an anterior border, articulating with the maxilla ;  a poste-
   rior  which is free ;  an internal articulating with its fellow ;
   an external which confounds itself with  the perpendicular
   or vertical portion of the bone.   The union of the internal
   border of the two bones gives origin behind to the posteri-
   or nasal spine, to which is  attached  the palato-staphylin
   muscle.
                             5* 
54             anatomist's manual.

   2d.  A vertical portion, divided into a body and two supe-
rior extremities. The body presents an external surface appli-
ed to the maxillary bone ;  from the union of the two bones
behind the posterior palatine canal is formed:  an internal
surface ; it corresponds to the nasal fossa;, and forms part of
their external wall; an anterior border, articulated  with
the maxillary bone, a posterior border, articulated  with
the pterygoid apophysis of the sphenoid.  The superior ex-
tremities are, one orbital  m front, the other sphenoidal be-
hind.
  At the point of union between the horizontal and verti-
cal portion originates the pyramidal apophysis of the pala-
tine  bone,  which is directed downwards, and articulates
with the sphenoid.
  Internal  structure  and  developement.—Composed  in
great part of compact substance, the pyramidal apophysis
alone offers a medium quantity of cellular substance : the
palatine is developed by one point  of ossification.

                    OF THE VOMER.
   Situation and figure.—Single,  regular,  placed  in the
interior of the nasal fossse, of which it forms, in great  part,
the septum ;  situated below the sphenoid, above the maxil-
lary bones, and behind the perpendicular plate of the eth-
moid.
   Division.—It has two lateral  surfaces,  which corres-
pond to the nasal fossse, and four  borders, the superior of
which articulates with the sphenoid by a species of groove;
the inferior, with the maxillary and palatine  bones ; the
anterior with the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid ; the
posterior is free.
   Internal structure and developement.—Almost entirely 
anatomist's  manual.
55
composed of compact substance, the vomer is developed by
one point of ossification.

          OF THE INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE.
                  (Su us - Maxillaire.)
  Situation and figure.—Single, regular,  situated below
the superior maxillary bone, below and in front of the tem-
poral.
  Division.—The body: this presents an external convex
surface,  covered  by the integuments and muscles of the
inferior  lip;  in the centre  of it, we remark the symphisis
of the chin ;  on the sides, the external oblique lines, which
extend as far as the coronoid apophysis ; on the sides and
in front is situated the mental foramen.
   Internal,  concave face : it  presents in  the middle the
traces of the symphisis; below,  the four  genio-hyoid
andgenio-glossis tubercles (apophysis, &c.;) on the sides, the
digastric fossa? and internal oblique or mylo-hyoidean line;
below, a depression for the  lodgement of the maxillary and
sublingual glands.
   This  bone has a superior dental  and  an  inferior mental,
border.  The first presents sixteen openings called alveoli,
destined to lodge an equal number of  teeth;  the second
 forms the chin properly so called.
   2d.  The branches:  these have an external surface, co.
 vered by the masseter muscle:  an internal surface, by the
 pterygoid;   we likewise observe the orifice  of the  den-
 tal canal ; a posterior  border  which receives the parotid
 gland ; an anterior free border : an inferior border, which
 forms part of the chin,  and a superior which presents two
 eminences, one called  coroniod (myleene,) and the other
 condyloid, separated by a  depression of a crescent shape.
 The coronoid apophysis gives  attachment  to the temporal 
56             anatomist's  manual.
 muscle, and the condyle articulates by double arthrodia with
 the glenoid cavity of the temporal bone.
  Internal structure and developement.—The compact and
 spongy substances are equally abundant, and distributed
 nearly in the same  way as in the bones of the cranium.
 But  the bone is traversed by a canal in the whole of its
 length,  which  bears the name of dental.   The inferior
 maxilla is developed  by two points of ossification, the union
 of which constitutes  the centre of the bone.
  Note.  Here we perceive the first species of moveable
 articulation ;  all  the other bones of the cranium present
 immoveable articulations, including those of the teeth.*

                    OF THE TEETH.
  Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, concealed in
 part within the two maxillary bones, and projecting in part
 from  them, they are in contact  with each other by their
 free extremity, when the mouth is closed.
  Division.—Three kinds: Incisivi, canini, and molares.
  1st. Incisivi :  eight in number ; four  in  each  jaw.
 They have a crown,  which presents an  external  con-
 vex surface, turned in front;  an internal concave surface,
 turned backwards :  two sides ;  a base, called neck, con-
 founded with the rest of the tooth.; a summit  forming a
cutting border; a root flattened on the sides, elongated, and
terminating in a point, pierced at its extremity by a foramen,
which affords  passage to an artery and  nerve into the inte-
 rior of the  tooth.  A neck placed between the  crown and
root;  on this  is situated the free border of the gums.


  * The history  of the ligaments and the mode of preparing them will be
 found at the end of osteology. 
anatomist's manual.
57
  2d. Canini: four  in number, two in each jaw, placled
between the incisivi in front, and the molares behind.  We
remark on  these, as on the  incisivi, a crown: it presents
an external convex surface,  turned in front; an  internal
surface, slightly concave, turned backwards; two sides, a
base confounded with the rest of the bone, and a summit
of a diamond shape; a  long root, flattened on the sides,
terminating in a point, and pierced by a foramen for the
same purposes as in the incisivi.  The neck is embraced
by the free border of the gums.
  3d. Molares: ten in number in each jaw,, five on each
side, distinguished into two small and three large.   They
have a crown flattened on four sides, a base confounded
with the rest of the tooth, and a summit terminating by four
tubercles, separated  by two  small depressions in the form
of grooves.  These tubercles, more elevated without than
within, result from the natural developem'pnt of the teeth:
but  they are worn out  in consequence of mastication, and
ultimately disappear with age.  The root of the molares
is rarely single, but most usually double, triple, and quad-
ruple.   The  extremity of each branch  of  the  same root
is pierced  by a foramen through which the vessels  pass,
which are destined to nourish  it and give it sensibility-
The neck presents the same peculiarities as in the preced-
ing teeth.
   Structure  and developement.—The structure and deve-
lopement of the teeth offer  certain peculiarities, which it
is necessary  to understand.   Of the three known substan-
ces, they only possess the compact; but the portion situat-
ed above the alveoli is covered by a layer of a particular
substance,  called enamel.   Its  organization is but little
known, and  yet  its properties, very numerous,  manifest
themselves in a very energetic manner. 
58             anatomist's  manual.

  Of a shining white appearance, the enamel resists the
action of the air and the greater number of external agents.
If it is once destroyed it does not become regenerated; though
vessels have not been discovered in it, we cannot doubt the
exquisite sensibility of this substance ; we judge of this by
the extreme sensibility produced in it  by odontalgia and the
the immediate contact of certain bodies, such as acids,  ice
water, &c.
  Each tooth is developed by one point of ossification, call-
ed  germ.   By  a singular effect of  this developement,
instead of one germ, there are two in each alveolus, whence
result two dentitions, which occur at different periods, but
attended by similar phenomena.  The following is the pro-
gress of each dentition:
  From six to eight, ten or twelve months, the two middle
incisivi  of the inferior jaw  show themselves first :  thev
are soon followed by the corresponding incisivi of the upper
jaw.  Next in order are the inferior lateral incisivi, the su-
perior lateral, and the  canini of the two  jaws.   Nature
now appears to repose, in order afterwards to commence a
more painful operation  at the eruption of the  molares,
which occurs from the second to the fourth or  fifth year,
always from below upwards.
  At this epoch,  the number of teeth called  milk teeth,
at the first dentition, amounts  to  twenty.four, the whole
number of thirty-two being completed only at the second
dentition.
  The teeth  which have resulted  from the first  dentition
fall out at  the sixth or seventh  year.  One tooth only  re-
sists this species of revolution—it is  the large molar.   At
nine years the jaws are  furnished with twenty-eight teeth,
and at twenty or twenty-five years with thirty-two, in con- 
anatomist's manual.
59
sequence of  the developement of.  the  dentes  sapientise,
which occurs about this age.

                 OF THE OS HYOIDES.
  Situation and figure.—Single, regular, elongated in its
transverse diameter, situated at the anterior and superior
part of the neck.
  Division.—Body and branches.  The body presents an
anterior convex  surface, covered  by some of the muscles
of the neck ; a posterior concave surface, and two borders,
one of which is superior, the other inferior.
  The cornua of the os  hyoides are prolongations of the
extremities of the bone.  They are distinguished, on ac-
count of their extent, into large and small: both lose them-
selves in the soft parts.
   Structure and developement.-—Composed in great part
of compact substance,  the use of the "os hyoides is to afford
attachment  to a great number of muscles ;  it is the only
bone which does not articulate with the  other bones; it is,
as it were, lost in the soft parts of the neck  ; and it is for
this reason that it cannot be preserved except in its isolat-
ed state.

                    OF  THE  TRUNK.
   The trunk is  composed of the  vertebral column, pelvis,
and chest or thorax.

              Anatomical preparation.
   In proportion as we advance in the study of osteology,
 it becomes less  necessary to occupy ourselves with  the
 mode of preparing the  objects  of this study : the trunk
 exacts very little care in the preparation of it; a few ribs
 and vertebrse, together with the  bones of the pelvis, will 
60             anatomist's  Manual.
suffice in order to arrive at the necessary knowledge of
this part of the skeleton ;  however, it will be well not to
confine ourselves  to  this.   It  will be necessary to have
constantly before our eyes  the ribs, vertebrse and bones of
the pelvis united together, and forming a whole.  It is also
indispensable that we have  all the vetebrse placed on aflexi-
ble rod, which we may remove at  pleasure, and incline in
every direction.  We may, in this manner, study the ver-
tebrse successively one after the other, and likewise observe
the different relations existing among them.
  The ribs should be studied separately ;  but  it is also ne.
cessary to examine them  in situ, in order to understand
how their cartilages are connected  to the sternum.   The
bones of the pelvis demand the same attention : we would
have but a faint idea of the numerous uses of this osseous
canal, if we were  to study  the bones only in their isolated
state.

       DESCRIPTION OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
                       (Rachis.)
  A species of pyramid situated between the occiput, to
which its summit corresponds,  and the sacrum, on which
its base reposes.  The  vertebral column is  composed of
twenty-four bones, which bear the name of vertebrae; it
presents two surfaces, a posterior (spinal,) and an anterior
(pre-spinale.)
  It likewise has three regions:
  1st.  A cervical, superior, composed of  seven vertebrse,
which corresponds to the neck.   The anterior part is call-
ed the tracheal surface,  and the posterior, the  cervical.
  2d. A dorsal composed of twelve vertebrae ;  its posterior
part is termed dorsal, the anterior pre-dorsal. 
                anatomist's manual.             61

   3d.  A lumbar, composed of five vertebrae.  Its posterior
part called lumbar, and the anterior, pre-lombaire.

                   OF THE  VERTEBRAE.
   Situation and figure.—Single, regular, twenty-four in
number, placed one above the other, between the occiput
and sacrum.
   Division.—Cervical, dorsal,  and lumbar.  In all  the
regions each vertebra presents a body, the voluminous ,por-
tion of the bone, placed in front, having above and below
two articulating surfaces, encrusted with cartilage ; a spi-
nous apophysis, situated behind, giving  attachment to all
the muscles of the posterior part of the trunk ;  two trans-
verse  apophyses, situated on the sides, affording attach-
ment to the same  muscles  ;  four oblique or  articulating
surfaces, parallel to the cartilaginous surfaces of the body,
encrusted with a diarthrodial  cartilage, which permits the
surfaces to glide mutually on each other; two  posterior
plates; four  echancrures, which form, with those of the
adjoining vertebrae, the foramina through which  pass the
vertebral nerves (rachidiens;) and a foramen, the succes-
sion of which in all the vertebrae constitutes the vertebral
or rachidien  canal, which lodges the  spinal marrow and
a prolongation of the three membranes of the brain.
   1st.   Cervical vertebra :  they are seven  in  number.
The general characters of the vertebra; of this region are :
a small body; a spinous apophysis, bifurcated at its extre-
mity ;  transverse apophyses, but little developed and pier-
ced at their base by a foramen which, by its  continuity
with all  the cervical vertebrae, forms a canal in which  is
lodged  the vertebral artery ; oblique apophyses, placed
horizontally, and almost flat;  and a spinal foramen trian-
gular in its circumference, and very large.  The first, se-
                          6 
62             anatomist's manual.
cond, and seventh vertebrce of this region present certain
peculiarities.
  The first called  atlas (atloide,) has neither body nor
spinous apophysis: these are replaced by two circles.  The
articulating apophyses are very much'developed, and form,
with the transverse, what are called the lateral masses.  It
articulates superiorly with the occiput,  and  inferiorly with
the second cervical vertebra.
  The second, called axis (axoid,)  has  a large body;
from its superior part originates an apophysis, termed odon-
toid, which articulates with the atlas.   Its spinous apo-
physis, large, is considerably bifurcated at its extremity.
  The seventh bears the name of proeminente, on account
of the great length of its spinous apophysis, which sur-
passes that of the other vertebra? in the same region.
  2d. Dorsal vertebra : they are twelve in number.  Their
general characters are a body, which, in size, is interme-
diate to those of  the cervical and lumbar : we perceive on
the sides small demi-articulating facettes  which, united to
similar ones  in the adjoining  vertebrae, form  entire surfa-
ces, which receive the posterior extremity of the ribs; a
long spinous apophysis, terminating in a point, and looking
downwards;  transverse  apophyses, elongated,  tubercular
at  their  extremity, inclined backwards,  and  articulating
with the tuberosity of the ribs  ; articulating apophyses, the
superior inclined backwards, the inferior forwards; a verte-
bral  foramen (rachidien,) rounded in its circumference,
and more  narrow than  in the vertebrae  of the other  re-
gions.  The first, eleventh, and twelfth offer as peculiari-
ties, an entire facette on their  bodies for articulation with
the ribs, and do not present any on their transverse apo-
physes. 
anatomist's  manual.              63
  3d. Lumbar vertebra : they are five in number ; their
general characters are : a large body ; a broad, spinous
apophysis; transvere apophyses, which are long and rather
thin, terminating in a point; extensive articulating apophy-
ses, the superior turned inwards, the inferior outwards ;  a
vertebral  foramen (rachidien) triangular in its circumfe-
rence ;  it is smaller than in the cervical vertebrae, but lar-
ger than in the dorsal.
  The  vertebrae  articulate with each other by  amphiar-
throsis or articulation by continuity, as also the last lumbar
vertebra with the sacrum.   The articulation of  the head
with the first cervical, and of this with the second, as also
the dorsal vertebrae with the ribs, is effected by contiguity
of  surfaces ; it is  a double  arthrodia ; the articulation of
the odontoid apophysis with  the first cervical vertebra,  is
a simple lateral gynglimus.
   Internal structure and  developement.—The compact
substance placed on the'exterior, constitutes but a thin layer
on  the bodies of the vertebra?, which abound in cellular
substance : they are developed by three points of ossifica-
tion, one for the body, and one for each lateral portion.

                    OF THE PELVIS.
   It is composed of the sacrum, coxcyx, and the two haunch
bones.   From the union of these different portions  results
an  osseous cavity, more spacious above than  below, divid-
ed  into large and small pelvis.  They are separated by a
contraction  called  the superior  strait, (abdominal,)  in
order  to  distinguish it from a similar contraction  at the
the bottom of  the small pelvis, called  the  inferior strait
(perineal.) 
64
anatomist's manual.
                     OF THE SACRUM.
    Situation  and figur'e.—Single, regular, situated below
  the last lumbar vertebra, above the os coxcyx, and between
  the haunch bones.
    Division.—A posterior surface : it presents in the mid-
  dle a series of eminences, which correspond to the  spinous
  apophyses of the true vertebra? ;  on the sides, the posterior
  sacral foramina ; more outwards, prominences unequally
  distributed, which correspond to the transverse and artieu-
  lating apophyses of the true vertebrae.   An anterior sur-
  face : it corresponds to the interior of the pelvis, and pre-
  sents, in its middle, surfaces corresponding to the bodies of
  the vertebrae; on the sides, the anterior sacral foramina,
  larger than the posterior, affording passage to the sacral
  nerves.  Lateral borders : thick  above, they articulate
  with the haunch bones, by  a very obscure diarthrosis, and
 give attachment, below, to the large and small sacro-ischi-
 atic  ligaments.   Extremities:  the superior,  called the
 base of the bone, is very thick and articulates, by an ob-
  scure diarthrosis on one part, and  by a double arthrodia
 on the other, with the last vertebra of the loins; the  in-
 ferior, called  the summit, articulates with the coxcyx by a
' species of amphiarthrosis. The intermediate cartilage, unit-
 ing the sacrum and coxcyx, enjoys in the female,  during
 accouchement, a considerable  mobility, which  allows the
 coxcyx to be  pushed backwards.  In this way we can ex-
 plain the facility of certain accouchements, which otherwise
 would prove very laborious.
   A common canal, called sacral, larger above than below,
traverses the whole length of the bone, and terminates the
rachidien canaU
 
anatomist's  manual.             65
  Internal structure  and developement.   The  internal
structure of the sacrum is in every respect similar to that
of the vertebrae;  it is developed by five points of ossifica-
tion, and in infancy by fifteen.

                   OF THE  COXCYX.
  Situation  and  figure.—A  sort  of  appendix  to the
sacrum, to which it bears a strong analogy, although infi-
nitely smaller; single  and regular, it is situated below the
preceding.
  Division.—A posterior surface, covered by the integu-
ments :  an anterior surface, which corresponds to the pel-
vis ; lateral borders, giving attachment to the sacro-ischi-
atic  ligaments ; a base which articulates with the sacrum ;
a free summit lost in the soft parts.
   The structure is the same as in the sacrum : it is deve-
loped by three points of ossification.

      OF THE OSSA INNOMINATA  OR  HAUNCH BONES.
                        (Coxal.)
   Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, placed on the
sides of the pelvis, and above the femur.
   Division.—External femoral surface: it presents above
a  broad surface,  called the  external iliac fossa;  we can
perceive on it traces of the insertion of the three glutei mus-
cles  ; lower down, the cotyloid cavity, which receives the
head of the femur; still lower,  and in front, the obturatory
foramen (sous-pubien.) Internal, abdominal surface; it pre-
sents, above, the internal iliac fossa and a foramen for the pas-
sage of vessels nourishing the bone :  lower down, a portion
of the superior strait;  still lower, a broad surface and the
obturatory foramen. The circumference commences above
and in front by the anterior and superior spinous process of
                         6*
i 
66
anatomist's manual.
 the  ilium;  going backwards we will observe the crest,
 having the form of an italic  S ; behind  this, is the great
 ischiatic notch; below, the spine and small notch of the
 same name ;  at the  lowest  point,  the tuberosity of  the
 ischium is observed, on which we repose when seated; in
 front, we notice a  portion of the bone, called the ascend-
 ing branch of the  ischium, and descending  branch of the
 pubis; higher up,  the symphisis of  the pubis, from 18 to
 20 lines in length, and from 6 to 8  in width; in front, the
 spine and horizontal branch of the  pubis, on which is re-
 marked the pectineal eminence, along which  the crural
 vessels pass;  behind this a surface for the tendons of the
 Psoas and iliacus internus muscles ;  the rest of the circum-
 ference exhibits nothing remarkable.
  Structure   and  internal   developement.—Anatomists
 have agreed to divide the haunch bones into  three portions
 to which are given the names of Ilium above, and ischium
 below and behind, and pubis also below and in front.  This
 division, which is arbitrary and reposes upon no solid basis,
does not merit our  attention.   It may, however, be neces-
 sary to remark that the haunch bones are  developed by
 three points of ossification, the traces of which  are very
 visible within and without the cotyloid cavity in early  age*
 and hence this division appears to be admissible.

                    OF THE  CHEST.
                       (Thorax*)
  It is situated at the  anterior and superior part of  the
 trunk, and is formed, in great part, by the ribs, species of
 osseous, arcs,  placed one above the other, and  united  in
 front to the sternum,  by means of intercostal cartilages.
I 
ANATOMIST'S  MAJSfUAL.             67
                     OF  THE  RIBS.
   Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, twenty-four in
number, twelve on each  side, elongated from  behind for-
wards, and slightly curved in their length, which increases
from the first to the eighth, and diminishes from this to the
twelfth.
   Division.—True ribs (sternal,) the cartilages of which
go directly to the sternum ;  they are seven in number;
false  ribs  (asternal) the cartilages of which go to the
sternum by means only of the  first; they are five in num.
ber ; the ribs, have for their general characters, an exter-
nal and internal surface, two borders and two extremities.
   The External surface is convex, smooth, polished, cover-
ed by the muscles  of  the chest  and the integuments.  The
internal surface is concave, and  covered by  the  pleura.
The borders  afford  attachments  to the  intercostal  mus-
cles ; the inferior  border  has a groove, which  lodges the
intercostal artery and nerve.  The posterior extremity ar-
ticulates, by arthrodia, with the sides- of the bodies of the
dorsal  vertebrae and their "transverse apophyses; the  ante-
rior extremity, also by arthrodia,  with the intercostal car-
tilages.  The first, eleventh, and  twelfth  offer certain pe-.
culiarities.
    The  first is much smaller  than the others, its carti-.
lage is scarcely visible ;  it does  not  articulate with the
transverse apophysis of the-corresponding vertebra; the
eleventh and twelfth, likewise very short, have no cartila-
ges in  front, and for this reason, have been called the float-
ing ribs :  they  do  not  articulate with  the  transverse
apophyses of the corresponding vertebrse.. 
68
anatomist's manual.
   Internal  structure  and developement.—Here common.
 ces the general disposition of. the structure of long bones,
 i. e. it presents a layer of compact substance, abundant in
 the centre, more rare in the extremities, where the spongy
 substance predominates.  Some anatomists pretend that they
 have observed  a  reticulated  substance, but we  may be
 permitted to doubt it.   The ribs begin to  develope them.
 selves at so early a period of intra-uterine  life, and their
 developement is so rapid,  that it  is difficult to say exactly
 whether it commences by one or three points of ossification;
 most anatomists admit only one.

                   OF THE STERNUM.
   Situation and figure.—Single, regular, extending from
 above downwards, situated at the anterior part of the chest,
 in the space between the seven first ribs.
   Division.—Anterior surface covered by the integument
 and aponeurotic expansions of the pectoral muscles.   Pos.
 terior surface corresponding  to the interior of the chest:
 the anterior mediastinum is  attached  to  it  in its whole
 length.    The lateral  borders • present  seven articulat.
 ingfacettes  for the cartilages of the seven first ribs.  On
 the superior extremity or base,  we remark two articulat.
 ing facettes  for  the sternal  extremity of  the clavicle;
the sterno-mastoid, sterno-hyoid, and sterno-thyroid  nius-
cles  are also  attached to it.  Its inferior extremitv is
called xiphoid appendage.
  Structure and developement.—The sternum is composed
of three pieces ; the first and middle have a structure ana-
logous to that of flat bones ; each is developed  by several
points of ossification : the third is  of a cartilaginous nature,
and preserves this structure until  advanced age. 
Anatomist's  manual.              69
          OF THE EXTREMITIES  OR MEMBERS.
  They are divided into superior (thoracic) and into inferior
(abdominal.)
               Anatomical preparation.
  The anatomical preparation of the extremities requires
that  all  the  bones composing them be  placed in their
exact relations by means of artificial attachments, which are
better here, than their proper ligaments; for, besides  the
impossibility  of inspecting and  studying, in  the  natural
skeleton, the external disposition of the articulating surfa-
ces, the stiffness of all the articulations in consequence of
the soft parts, (the ligaments,) which surround them, becom-
ing dry and hard, prevents that freedom of motion in the
joints, which it is necessary to understand with accuracy.
It is for the same reasons that we should  not content our-
selves with a rapid survey of these articulating surfaces in
their dry state: in order to  have a clear idea of  them, ft
will  be necessary, at the same time, to procure bones re-
cently detached, and on the surfaces of which the diarthro-
dial  cartilages  are still  in their integrity.  The study of
the small bones of the hand, and particularly of  those of
the carpus, can only prove profitable  by having them be-
fore our eyes still enveloped by their ligaments : by divid-
ing them in proportion as we wish to study their articulat-
ing surfaces,  we will acquire a knowledge of these parts,
which would  be impossible in studying  the bones  in their
dry state.  What I have just said of the bones of the hand
applies equally to  those of the foot, and especially to the*
tarsus.  These few observations in reference to the anato-
mical preparation of the members will  suffice in order to
pass  to the particular study of the bones, which compose
them. 
70             anatomist's  manual.
     OF THE SUPERIOR  OR THORACIC EXTREMITIES.
  They are composed of the shoulder, arm, fore-arm, and
hand.

                  OF THE SHOULDER.
  Situated on the lateral and superior portions of the trunk,
the shoulder is formed by the omoplate  behind, and clavi-
cle in front.

                  OF THE OStOHfaAJTE.
                     (Scapulum.)
 Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, triangular, situ-
ated at the posterior part of shoulder, corresponding  to
the seven first ribs.
   Division.—Two surfaces,  one posterior, the other ante-
rior ; three borders and three angles.—Posterior surface
presents an eminence called the spine of the omoplate ;
it divides this surface  into'two regions, one superior termed
supra-spinal; the other inferior, infra-spinal; both are cover-
ed by muscles of the  same name.   The spine itself termi-
nates in front by the acromion apophysis, which articulates,
by arthrodia, with the clavicle.  Anterior surface corres-
ponds to the ribs, and receives  the subseapularis muscle.
There are three borders: a superior, winch  is  short and
thin; it gives  attachment to the omo-hyoideus ; an an-
terior, called the rib of  the omoplate, is thick and longer
than the preceding ;  it  affords attachment to the triceps
braehialis, to the teres major and minor : a posterior, long-
er than either of the preceding;  it is  thin and gives at-
tachment  to the rhomboideus and serratus major.   The
omoplate has three angles : a superior, giving attachment 
anatomist's  manual.
71
to the angularis ; an inferior, to the latissimus dorsi; and
an anterior, which is articular and truncated.   We observe
on it an articulating concave surface, called the glenoid ca-
vity, which receives the head of the humerus: above, the co-
racoid apophysis, which affords attachment to the ligaments
and  to the biceps, coraco-brachialis and pectoralis minor
muscles.
   Internal structure and developement.—As in all  the flat
bones, the two substances are unequally distributed in the
omoplate, which is  developed by one point of ossification.

                   OF THE CLAVICLE.
  Situation and figure.—Double, long, irregular, theclavi-
 :le is situated transversely  at the superior part of the tho-
 rax, between the omoplate  and sternum.
   Division.—Body and  extremities : the body presents a
 superior  surface, to  which is attached  the  sterno-cleido
 and  trapezius muscles ;  an inferior surface, which  gives
 attachment behind to the sub-clavian muscle;  and two bor-
 ders, the anterior giving attachment  to  the pectoralis ma-
 jor  and deltoid, the posterior is  free.
 •• Extremities.—One (sternal) is anterior, large, rounded,
 and articulates by arthrodia with  the sternum ; the other
 (acromiale) is  posterior, flattened, and articulates  likewise
 by arthrodia, with the acromion apophysis.
   Structure and developement.—The three substances are
 found  in  the clavicle? which is developed %f three  points
 of  ossification; but the body is already ossified, when the
 extremities are yet in a"cartilaginous state.

                      OF THE  ARM.
    The arm is composed of one bone, called the humerus. 
72
anatomist's  manual.
                    OF THE HUMERUS.
   Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, situated below
 the omoplate, above the cubitus, and on the lateral portions
 of the trunk.
  . -Division.—Body  and extremities.   The  body is pris.
 matic, triangular, and somewhat curved ;  it presents three
 surfaces ; the first, external, is covered above by the deltoid
 muscle, and below by a portion of the triceps-brachialis; it
 also has a groove for the passage of the radial nerve ; the
 second, internal, is covered by the  coraco-brachialis and
 triceps-brachialis;  there is a foramen in  it for the  nutri.
 ent vessel; the third, posterior, is covered in all its length
 by the triceps.  Three borders result from these three sur-
 faces : the anterior presents, above, the bicipital groove, the
 others offer nothing particular.
   Extremities.—One is superior, and presents a  rounded,
 articular eminence, called the head  of the humerus, which
 articulates with the glenoid cavity of the omoplate by enar-
 throsis;  below  and outwards, there are  two non-articu-
 lating eminences, which  bear the names of large and small
 tuberosities (trochiter et trochin;) below,  there is a con-
 traction, called the neck  of the humerus.               '■*
   The  inferior  extremity,  flattened,  elongated  trans-
 versely, presents, without and within, an articular surface
 (troklee,) composed of a rounded eminence, called the small
 head of the humerus, of two condyles and a groove ; on the
 inner and outer portion  are two tuberosities, one internal
 (epitrokite,) the other external (epfcqjidyle,)  which afford
attachment to  the superficial muscles  of the  anterior and
posterior part of the fore-arm.
   Structure and developement.—Three substances enter
into the composition of the humerus.  The compact, very
abundant, is found particularly near the middle of the bone, 
                anatomist's manual.              73

the spongy at the two extremities, and the reticular in the
centre ; this bone is developed by three  points of ossifica-
tion.             ^ .vl ?.., •
                   OF THE FORE-ARM.             UJ&l* <*-'
   It is formed by two bones, the radius without, and Gwfcttti*
within.
                    OF THE RADIUS.
   Situation and figure.—Double,  irregular  and trian-
gular, situated below the humerus, above the hand, and at
the external side of the cubitus.
   Division.—Body and extremities.  The  body presents
three  surfaces.  The  first, anterior, is  covered by  the
 flexor longus pollicis manus; above, is observed the foramen
 for the nutrient  artery; the second, posterior, is  covered
 by the extensor muscles of the hand; and the third, external,
 by the radial muscles.  Three borders  result  from  these
 three surfaces; the anterior and  posterior present nothing
 particular; the  internal  gives attachment  to the inter-
 osseous ligament.
   Extremities.—One is  superior,  rounded, concave;  it
 articulates  by enarthrosis  with the small head of the  hu-
*merus; on  the  side  and  within,  it articulates with  the
 cubitus by  gynglimus; . below, is remarked the  neck of
 the radius;  lower down and in front, the bicipital tuberosity,
 which affords attachment to the tendon of the biceps.
   The inferior  extremity,  larger  than the  preceding,
 slightly flattened in  four opposite directions,  articulates
 below with the bones of the hand ; on the side and within,
 with the cubitus ; on the outside is the  styloid apophysis,
 which gives attachment to the external lateral ligament;
 in front, it gives attachment to  ligaments, and behind it pre-
 sents three surfaces for the passage of certain muscles of the
 fore-arm
                           7 
 74             anatomist's manual.

 ^Structure and developement.—As in all the long bones,
 the radius is composed of three substances, and is developed
 by three points of ossification. tj i    -
  V                OF THE tfVBil'Cs.
,  Situation and figure.—Double, irregular and triangular,
 situated below the humerus, above the os pisiforme, and at
 the internal side of the radius.
   Division.—Body and  extremities.  The body presents
 three surfaces:  the first, anterior, is covered  by the deep
 flexor muscle :  above, is observed the foramen for the pas.
 sage  of the nutrient artery;  the  second,  posterior, is
 covered by the extensors of the fingers ; the third, internal,
 by the internal cubital.
   Extremities.—A superior, which is larger than the infe-
 rior;  it presents the olecranon process, which gives attach-
 ment behind to the triceps  brachialis; in front is the great
 sigmoid  cavity, which articulates by gynglimus with the
 humerus; on  the  side  and without,  the small  sigmoid
 cavity is remarked;  it articulates by  lateral, gynglimus
 with  the radius; below the large  cavity of the  olecra-
 non  is the coronoid  apophysis ;  immediately  below this,
 the bone presents  a slight narrowing,  which is called the**
 neck of the cubitus.
   The inferior extremity is smaller and rounded: within it
 presents  the styloid apophysis, which affords attachment to
 the internal lateral ligament of the articulation of the cubitus
 with the  hand, and without, a small articular surface is ob-
 served, articulating by lateral gynglimus with the radius.
   Internal  structure and developement.—The arrange-
 ment of the three  substances  and  the  developement are
 precisely as in the long bones.
                     OF THE HAND.
   It  is composed of  three parts:  the carpus, metacarpus,
 and fingers. 
               anatomist's manual.             75

  1st.  The carpus.—Placed between the bones of the fore-
arm and metacarpus, the carpus is formed of  eight bones,
disposed in two ranges :  they are called, commencing with
the upper  range,  and from without  inwards, first, second,
third, &c.; they likewise have the following names :
  Scaphoides.—Double, irregular,  situated below the ra-
dius, above the trapezium, and at the  external side of the
pyramidale.
  Simm-lunare.—Double,  irregular, situated  below  the
radius, above the os magnum, at the external side of the
pyramidale, ^datt^ejnternal side of the scaphoides.
  f^rwwrnS«flc!—double,  irregular, situated  below  the
cubitus by the intervention of a ligament, above the unci-
forme, on the internal side of the semi-lunare, at  the  ex-
ternal  and posterior part of the pisiforme.
  Pisiforme.—Double, irregular, situated in front of the
pyramidale.   The rest of the external surface of the bone
gives  attachment to the anterior  cubital muscle, above,
and  to the adductor of the small finger below.
   Trapezium.—This is the first bone of the second range.
Double, irregular, situated below the scaphoides, above the
first metacarpal bone, at  the external side of the trape-
zoides, and of the second bone of the metacarpus.
   Trapezoides.—Double, irregular, situated below the sca-
phoides, above the second bone of  the metacarpus, at the
internal  side  of  the trapezium,  and external to the os
magnum.
   Os  Magnum.—This is the largest of the carpal bones.
Double, irregular, situated below the scaphoides and semi-
lunare, above  the second, third,  and fourth metacarpal
bones, at  the internal side of the trapezoides,  and  external
 to the unciforme.
   Unciforme.—Double, irregular, situated below the semi-
 lunare, above the fourth and fifth metacarpal  bones, at the 
7t>             ANATOLI IST'S MANUAL.
internal side of the os magnum, and  external  to the pyra-
midale.
  The anterior and posterior sides of all the carpal bones
give attachment to ligaments destined to strengthen  their
respective articulations, all  of which are effected by ar-
throdia.
  Structure and developement.—The compact and spongy
substances enter into the composition of the bones of the
carpus : they are all developed, but at a late period, bygone
point of ossification.
  2d. The Metacarpus.—Placed between the .bones of the
carpus and the fingers,  the metacarpus is composed-of five
bones, which are arranged  numerically by the  terms of
first, second, &c, commencing at the thumb.
  Situation  and figure.—They  all have an  elongated
form ; the first is the largest and shortest. The  second is
the longest, and they diminish in length to the fifth.   The
first is situated below the trapezium and above the thumb;
the second, below the trapezium and trapezoid, and above
the index  finger; the third,  below the  os magnum, and
above the middle finger ; the fourth, below the os magnum
and unciforme, and above the ring finger ; the fifth, below
the unciforme, and above the small finger.
  Division.—Body and extremities.  The body is small
in the middle, and slightly rounded ; it presents an anterior
side, which in all the metacarpal bones, is covered by the
numerous short  muscles of the hand ;  a posterior side, on
which pass the tendons of the extensors of the thumb and
fingers;  the external and internal sides  correspond  to the
inter-osseous spaces, and are covered by the muscles of the
same name, except the external side of the first, and the in.
ternal of the fifth, which are free under  the integuments.
  Extremities.—One superior, irregularly disposed,  arti.
culating, as  has been observed, with the bones of the car- 
ANATOMIST 8 MANUAL.
77
  pus ;  the other, inferior,  rounded,  is called the head, and
  articulates in all by enarthrosis with the superior extremity
  of the first phalanges.
     Structure and developement.—As in all the long bone?,
  those of the  metacarpus are  composed of three substances,
  and are developed by three points of ossification;  the re-
  ticulated substance alone is but, little abundant.
     3d. Fingers.—They are  five in number, and bear the
  names of thumb, index finger, middle finger, ring finger,
  and little  finger.   Their relative size' is such,  that  the
^niddle finger is the longest,  the ring finger next, then the
I  index, and the  little finger  and thumb are the  shortest.
  Each is composed of three phalanges, except the thumb,
  which  has only two: they have the numerical names of
  first (phalange), second (phalangine), and third  (phalan-
  gette), commencing from  above.

                   OF THE PHALANGES.
     Situation  and figure.—The first are the longest, and
  the third the shortest: some  are placed below the  others;
  the first are  below the bones of the metacarpus,  and  the
  third below  the  second.  . All have an elongated form,
  slightly concave in front, and convex posteriorly ; their rela-
  tive size is the same as the fingers.
    Division.—Body and extremities. The body, in all the
  phalanges, presents an anterior concave surface ; it lodges
  the tendons of the superficial and  deep-seated flexors; a
  posterior convex surface, on which pass the tendons of the
  extensors of the thumb and fingers.
    Extremities.—The superior are concave and circular
  in the first phalanges ; they articulate with the inferior ex-
  tremities of the metacarpal bones;  in the second, they are
  more prominent  in the middle,  concave on the  sides, and
                           <1* 
78             anatomist's  manual.
articulate with  the inferior extremities of the first pha-
langes; in the third, they offer the same disposition as in
the second.
  The inferior extremities of the first and second phalanges
present two small condyles ; and in the third they are ter-
minated by a rounded, non-articulating border, on the pos-
terior part of which is implanted the nail, and a pulpy sub-
stance on the anterior :  their mutual articulation is effected
by an angular gynglimus.
  Structure and developement.—Except in the third pha-
langes, in which  the developement is very obscure,  they
are all composed of three substances ; they are developed
by three points of ossification.

OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES, OR ABDOMINAL MKMBBRft.
  They are composed of the thigh, knee, leg, and foot.

                    OF THE THIGH.
  If is formed by one bone, called the femur.

                    OF  THE FEMUR.
  Situation  and figure.—Double, irregular, the longest
bone in the skeleton: it is situated below the haunch bone,
above the tibia, above and behind the  rotula.
  Division.—Body and extremities.   The body, prismatie
and triangular,presents an anterior convex surface, covered
by the crural and femoral muscle ; an external and internal
surface,  likewise  covered by  the  same muscle.   Three
borders result from the  disposition  of these  three sur-
faces ; the external  and internal offer nothing particular;
the third, posterior, called  linea aspera  femoris, gives at-
tachment, by its interstice, to the three adductors and to the
short portion of the biceps.   Two foramina are observed on 
anatomist's  manual.             79
this line for the passage of nutrient vessels.  It is divided
above and below into two branches ;  the two superior give
attachment, the  external  to  the vastus externus, gluteus
maximus, and third adductor;  the internal, to the vastus
internus and pectineus.  The two  inferior branches afford
attachment, the external to the vastus externus,  and quite
low down, to the jumellus externus and  plantaris ; the in-
ternal to the vastus internus and third adductor.
  Extremities.—The  superior is composed of the head,
neck, and two  trochanters; the head is nearly sphericaL
smooth, polished, encrusted with a diarthrodial cartilage, and
articulates by enarthrosis with  the cotyloid cavity of the
haunch bone ; the  round ligament is inserted into its middle.
Below the head is the neck, elongated, flattened from before
backwards,  directed  obliquely from within outwards; at
this point are two trochanters, one external (trokanter), the
largest,  covered by the  gluteus  maximus; the  other in-
ternal and posterior (trokantin,) smaller ;  it affords inser-
tion to the united tendons of the psoas  magnus and iliacus
internus.
   The inferior extremity, larger  than  the  superior, pre-
sents two eminences rounded in one sense, and flattened in
the other, called condyles of the femur; both are covered
by a diarthrodial cartilage, and articulate by arthrodia with
the tibia.  Behind the condyles are two eminences, called
tuberosities:  the external gives attachment to the external
lateral  ligament of the articulation, and  to the popliteal
muscle; the  internal, to the internal lateral ligament, and
third adductor.
   Structure  and developement.—The three substances are
found in great quantity in the  femur;  a long canal is re-
marked  in the centre  of the bone, in which the reticular
 substance abounds; the compact  exists in the middle, and 
80
anatomist's  manual.
in this part, the femur presents a retrecissement, which in-
dicates the manner in which the laminae of this substance
are bound together; the spongy substance is uniformly dis-
tributed  in  the extremities, where, though  its volume be
considerable, it does not increase the weight of the bone.
The femur  is developed by three points of ossification.

                     OF THE LEG.
  It is composed of two bones : the tibia within, and pero-
neus without.
                    OF THE TIBIA.
  Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, triangular and
prismatic :  situated below the femur, above the foot, and at
the internal part of the peroneus.
  Division.—Body and extremities!   The body, thick at
its superior part, diminishes in proportion as it approaches
its inferior  extremity.   It  presents  three surfaces; an
internal, slightly convex, covered by the integuments;
an external (pre-tibiale),  slightly concave, which  lodges
the anterior muscle of the leg, the long extensor of the toes,
and proper extensor of the first toe;  a posterior (poplitee)
which lodges, above, the popliteal muscle, and in the rest of
its extent the long flexor of the toes and posterior musck*
of the leg;  these last are covered  by the soleus.   The nu-
trient foramen, the largest of all those of its kind, is re-
marked  a lit-tle above the superior third of this surface.  Of
the three borders,  the external alone is remarkable ; it
gives  attachment to the inter-osseous ligament.
  Extremities.—The superior is very large, and presents
two articulating surfaces, called condyles; they are slightly
concave, and articulate by an angular gynglimus with the
femur; in the centre is a prominence, into which are implant-
ed the cross ligaments; two tuberosities are placed on the 
anatomist's  manual.
81
sides;  the internal affords  insertion to the demi-membra-
nosus muscle.
  The inferior extremity, much smaller than the superior,
presents a concave articular surface, encrusted with a diar-
throdial cartilage, which articulates by an angular gyngli-
mus with the astragalus.    The external side of this extre-
mity offers a small articular surface, on which the peroneus
is sustained, and, within, it presents an elongated and convex
portion called the malleolus internus.
  Structure and developement.—In structure and develope-
ment it is perfectly similar to the  femur..

                  OF THE PERONEUS.
  Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, situated at the
external  side of the tibia and astragalus, curved on  itself,
from within outwards.
  Division.—Body and extremities.   The body is prisma-
tic  and triangular: it presents three surfaces ; one, exter-
nal, covered by the peroneal muscles; the other, internal,
divided in its whole length into two portions by  a promi-
nent line, which gives attachment to the interosseous liga-
ment; in front, the muscles of the anterior part of the leg
are  observed; and behind, those of the posterior.   The
third surface,  posterior, is covered by the soleus and flexor
of the great toe; at  its  superior third is situated the nu-
trient foramen.
  Extremities.—The superior is rounded; on the external
side it has a tubercle for the insertion of the biceps muscle;
on  the inside a small artie-ular surface, which articulates
by  arthrodia with the tibia.   Just below, there is a slight
retrecissement, called the neck of the  peroneus.
  The inferior extremity is somewhat more elongated than.
the  superior; without, it  forms the external malleolus; 
82             anatomist's  manual.

within it offers a surface encrusted with a diarthrodial car-
tilage, for its articulation with the astragalus.
  The structure and developement are the same as have
already been stated to exist in the long bones.

                    OF  THE KNEE.
  In osteology, the rotula alone forms the knee.

                   OF  TnE ROTULA.
  Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, short, situated
below and before the femur.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the integumenta
and tendon  of the anterior rectus.   Posterior surface,
smooth,  polished, and formed by two articular surfaces,
which move on the anterior part of the femoral condyles.
A superior border, to  which is  fixed the tendon of the
anterior rectus ;  an inferior border, a species of angle, af.
fording attachment to the inferior ligament of the rotula,
 (rotulien.)
   Structure and developement.—Like the short bones, the
rotula is composed of two substances; it is developed, but
very late, by one point  of ossification.

                     OF  THE  FOOT.
   Like the  hand, it is composed of three portions : the tar-
 sus, metatarsus, and toes.
   1st.  The tarsus.—Placed at the posterior part of the
 foot, it consists of seven bones, irregularly arranged, and
 named as follows :—
   Calcaneum.—Double irregular, situated below the astra-
 galus, and behind the cuboides : it forms  the heel, and is the
 largest bone of the tarsus.  It presents a superior surface,
 which  articulates by  arthrodia with the astragalus;  an 
anatomist's  manual.             83
inferior,  which reposes upon the ground, giving  attach-
ment posteriorly to the muscles of the sole of the foot; an
external, on which nothing particular is observed ;  an in-
ternal, on which there is a large groove, for the passage of
the long  flexor of the toes, for the arteries and nerves go-
ing to the  sole  of the foot;  a posterior extremity, which
constitutes the heel, properly so called, and  which  gives
attachment to the  tendo Achillis ;  an anterior, which arti-
culates by  arthrodia with  the cuboides.
   The astragalus.—Double, irregular, situ atedbelow the
tibia, above the calcaneum, behind the scaphoides, and at
the  internal side of the peroneus.   It presents a  superior
surface,  which  articulates  by gynglimus with  the tibia ;
an inferior with the calcaneum ;  two sides, the internal of
which articulates with the tibia, and the external with  the
peroneus ; two  extremities, the posterior of  which  offers
nothing  remarkable, ihe  anterior articulates with the sea-
phoides.
    The scaphoides.—Double, irregular, situated before  the
astragalus, and behind the three cuneiforme bones.  Its pos-
terior surface articulates  with the astragalus ; the anterior
with the three cuneiforme bones; the external and inter-
nal sides, the  superior and inferior surfaces present nothing
particular.
    The cuboides.—Double, irregular, situated before the cal-
caneum, behind the fourth and fifth metatarsal bones, at the
external side of the third cuneiforme bone, with which  it
articulates by two reciprocal surfaces; its external, supe-
rior, and inferior  surfaces,  present nothing particular.
    The three cuneiforme  bones.—Double, irregular, placed
by the side of each other, before the scaphoides, behind the
 first, second,  and  third metatarsal bones, and at the inter-
 nal side of the cuboides, by the means of the third. 
84
anatomist's manual.
   Structure and developement.—Although larger than the
 bones of the carpus, those of the tarsus  present the same
 phenomena, relatively to their structure and developement,
 which is effected by one point of ossification.
   2d. Metatarsus.—It is composed of five  bones, arrang.
 ed as in the hand, and which  are counted, commencing
 with the thumb,  by the numerical names of first, second,
 &c.; they all have an elongated  form ; the first is  the
 largest and shortest.
   Situation and figure.—Double, irregular, situated  be-
 tween the cuboides, the three cuneiforme behind, and  the
 toes in  front.
   Division.—A body, which occupies their middle portion,
 and presents nothing particular.  Extremities,  the poste-
 rior of  which, in the first,  second, and  third,  articulates
 with the three  cuneiforme  bones, and in the fourth and
 fifth with the cuboides.  Their anterior, rounded  extremity
 articulates with the first phalanges.
   Structure  and developement.—Like  the bones of the
 carpus, they are composed  of three substances, and are
 developed by three points of ossification.
   3d. The toes.—They are five in number, which are
 called first, second, &c. ; the largest  is called  the great
 toe.   Each is composed of three phalanges.   The first are
 termed phalanges, the second phalangines, and the third
phalangettes.   As in the hand, the great toe is  composed
only of  two.
   The first phalanges.—They are the longest, and are
placed between  the second  in  front, and the metatarsal
bones behind ; their bodies, small, rounded, are covered in
part  by the inter-osseous muscles.  Their posterior extre-
mities articulate with the metatarsal bones, and  the ante-
rior with the second phalanges. 
anatomist's manual.
85
   The second phalanges.—Placed between the first and
third, and articulating with the last, the second phalanges
offer nothing remarkable.
   The third phalanges.—They terminate the point of the
feet, and their  conformation is similar to that of the fingers
in the hand ; articulated with the second behind, they offer
in front a  rounded  border, which receives the  nail above,
and a pulpy substance below.
   Structure and developement.—Precisely the same  as
in the fingers.
         THE CONNECTION  OF BONES.

OF THE  LIGAMENTS OR MEANS OF ARTICULATION, AND OF
            THE MODE OF PREPARING THEM.
  After the example of certain anatomists, I might have
placed the history of the ligaments immediately after the
description of the  bones offering  moveable  articulations.
I have preferred  to present their  general history in this
place.   This method, which offers no inconveniences, pos-
sesses all the advantages of the others from which it  dif-
fers.  It is essential for the student to prepare and study,
with care,  this part of his subject.   It is the only means
by which he will be enabled to understand  any thing in
reference to the  various  articulations, and multiplied phe-
nomena  of the  mechanism of animals, as likewise  the
theory and treatment of luxations.
  The order which I shall follow will  be that of the de-
scription of the bones, commencing with the ligaments of
the articulation of the  inferior  jaw, and terminating with
those of the feet, conforming, in this  respect, to the course
pursued by the best modern anatomists.
                          8 
86
anatomist's manual.
   The classification of the articulations adopted by Bichat,
 appears to me clear and exact, and I shall therefore adopt
 it in preference.
   The cartilages, spinal marrow, medullary juice, the peri.
 osteum, and synovia, forming, with the ligaments, the addi-
 tional part of osteology,  or what was formerly called oste-
 ologie fraiche, there will be found a succinct description
 of each of these objects in their turn.

            OF THE LIGAMENTS IN  GENERAL.
               Anatomical Preparation.
   The preparation of the ligaments exacts in general the
 removal of all the other parts surrounding the articulations;
 it is likewise  necessary  to scrape  the bones, and detach
 the  periosteum by  which they  are enveloped,  so  as to
 leave  nothing but  the ligaments, in order  that these parts
 being  perfectly isolated, we may not confound them with
 the numerous tendons, which are usually inserted in the
 neighborhood of the articulations.  Many of these tendons
 even furnish aponeurotic expansions, which spread over the
 articulations, and become confounded with their proper liga-
 ments, so that we are sometimes obliged to abandon their
 separation.
   It is not, however, necessary, as some recommend,  in
order to  render the ligament  more apparent, to  place the
pieces  from which we prepare them,  in water ; for the
water  removing  the coloring principle,  it will happen
that the remains of muscles, &c, assuming a white color,
will become confounded with the ligament, impede the pro-
gress of the scalpel, and prevent us from distinguishing and
preparing them with that care, which this part of anatomy
requires. 
anatomist's  manual.
87
  The ligaments  surrounding the large articulations, such
as the ilio-femoral, that of the knee, &c, are  rather easy
to prepare;  but the difficulties increase in proportion as
the  articulations are more closely united, and the surfaces
of the bones are in more intimate relations.  Thus, for ex-
ample, the preparation of the  ligaments of the vertebral
column is very difficult;  so, likewise, are those of the hand
and foot.
  The ligaments are in general recognized by their white
color, by a firm and resisting tissue.   Their color  is be-
tween the shining  and silvery aspect of aponeuroses  and
tendons, and the  dull color of the nerves.

             OF  LIGAMENTS IN PARTICULAR.
    Temporo-maSillary articulation.—The mode of union
 between the inferior jaw and temporal bone consists of three
 ligaments, the stylo-maxillary  and two lateral, divided into
 external and internal, a capsule of the articulation (syno-
 vial membrane), and an inter-articular cartilage (fibro car-
 tilage.)   In order to prepare these objects, it will be neces-
 sary in the first place to remove as much as possible, the
 soft parts surrounding the articulation; then, after having
 raised, by a circular section, all the  upper portion of the
 cranium in order to extract the brain, which will render the
 piece lighter and less inconvenient, we  then make a ver-
 tical section of this latter, so-that the saw passes from  right
 to left, behind the  styloid and mastoid apophyses.   To this
 first section we add another, which divides the two maxil-
 lary bones  into two equal parts, passing  through  their
 centre; in this way we have two  pieces precisely similar,
  on which we may  prepare at leisure, the ligaments in  ques-
  tion. 
bS              anatomist's manual.

  Stylo-maxillary ligament.—-It  extends from the  styloid
apophysis to the posterior part of the branches of the in-
ferior maxillary.   It is  very thin, and is covered  by the
parotid gland.  In order not to interfere with the ligament
in the direction of this gland, it will be necessary to seize it
with a hook, we  will then be enabled to detach it more
i-asilyfrom its situation.
  External lateral  ligament.—This preparation likewise
facilitates that of the external lateral ligament, which is in
part covered by the superior extremity of the above gland,
and by the conque of the ear, which we must raise as far
as its insertion on the  contour  of the external auditory
canal.   Like  the  stylo-maxillary, the external lateral is
very thin, and may be  easily raised, when the articulation
is freed from the cellular tissue and  aponeurotic portions,
which cover it.
  This  ligament, extremely short,  extends from  the tu-
bercle, at the base of the zygomatic apophysis, to the adjoin-
ing part  of the condyle of the jaw.   Its flattened form, its
points of insertion into  the parts just indicated will readily
cause it to  be recognized.
  Internal lateral ligament.—In order to have a satisfac-
tory view of it, it will  be necessary in  the first place to
draw outwards the corresponding portion  of the  divided
jaw;  the two pterygoid muscles are observed in  the ex-
posed interval; these are to be raised, but we must cut with
great care on the side of the jaw, for the  ligament in ques-
tion is,  as it  were,  adhering to the external side of the
pterygoideus externus; with this precaution, we will pre-
serve this ligament, which presents itself under the form of
a small band, coming from the posterior part of the glenoid
cavity, and which goes hence to attach itself to the environs
of the dental or inferior maxillary foramen.  The vessels 
anatomist's  manual.
89
of the same name pass between this ligament and the branch
of the jaw, in order to enter the dental canal.   If we do not
lose sight of this disposition of the parts, we will easily dis^
tinguish these vessels from the ligament.
  The two lateral ligaments correspond likewise to  the
capsule, the form and extent of which we can recognize
without any difficulty, by drawing the condyle of the  jaw
in different directions, as if we wished to isolate it from the
glenoid cavity.  Adipose cellular tissue is remarked before
and behind the capsule;  nothing can be easier than to re-
move it, as likewise all that may remain of the pterygoi-
deus  internus, the posterior extremity of which is fixed in
part to the articulation.
  The capsule of the articulation should in the first place
be  studied in situ; then in opening it from without and be-
hind, we will readily discover its interior, in which, besides
the articular surfaces, we remark the cartilage of the same
name, which may be examined without any preparation.

                      Description.
   Stylo-maxillary ligament.  Situation and figure.—Elon-
gated,  thin,  situated between the  temporal  and inferior
maxillary bones.
   Extent.—From the styloid apophysis, to the  posterior
part of the branches of the inferior maxillary bone.
   Division.—It corresponds, without, to the parotid gland
and masseter muscle ; within,  to the pterygoideus.  Its
superior extremity is attached to the styloid apophysis, and
its  inferior to the base of the angle  of the inferior maxil-.
lary, of which it occupies the interstice.
   Structure  and uses.—All the ligaments have a uniform
structure.  This is composed of longitudinal and parallel
                           8* 
90
anatomist's manual.
fibres.  It limits, though feebly, the motion of the jaw in
front.
  External lateral ligament. Situation and figure.—Flat,
very short, and situated at the external side of the artieu-
lation.
  Extent.—From the temporal to the inferior maxillary
bone.
  Division.—Its external side is covered  by the parotid
gland; the  internal corresponds to  the  articulation.  Its
superior extremity  is attached to the tubercle at  the base
of the  zygomatic apophysis; its inferior, to the  external
side of the condyle of the jaw.
  Structure  and  uses.—Composed  of  longitudinal and
parallel fibres, the  external lateral  ligament prevents the
jaw falling too low, and likewise opposes its being drawn
too far from the side opposite its insertion.
  Internal lateral ligament. Situation and figure.—Some-
what elongated, and situated at the internal side of the ar-
ticulation.
  Extent.—From  the temporal to the inferior maxillary
bone.
  Division.—Its internal side  corresponds to the ptery-
goideus exturnus ; its external to the internal  portions of
the branches of the jaw, from; which it is separated by the
inferior dental vessels.
   Internal structure and uses.—Composed of longitudinal
and parallel fibres, it seconds the action  of the preceding
during the descent  of the jaw, and prevents it from being
drawn too.much to the outside.
   Capsule of the articulation.  Situation and figure.—
Around  the articulation, its figure approaches  that of a
small sac with two openings.. 
anatomjst's  manual.
91
  Extent.—From the temporal to the inferior maxillary
bone.
  Division.—Its external relations are with the external
lateral ligament outwardly, and in the rest of its circumfe-
rence with a quantity of cellular tissue.  Within, it corres-
ponds to the inter-articular cartilage, on which it is reflected
in order to form two small  sacs,  without  communica-
tion.*  Superiorly, the capsule is implanted in front of the
fissure of Glaser on the one part, and  on  the transverse
apophysis of the temporal, on the other; inferiorly, it em-
braces the contour of the condyle of  the inferior maxilla.
   Structure and uses.—Composed of fibres intermingled
in every direction,, it retains the condyle in its articulating
relations with the temporal bone, and secretes synovia.
   Inter-articular  cartilage.  Situation  and figure.—Cir-
cular, situated in the  interval of the articulation, below
the glenoid cavity, and above the condyle;  convex above;
concave below ; its circumference touches the interior of
 the capsule on  every  side. '
   Structure and uses.—Composed of concentric fibres, this
 cartilage has for its uses to establish  a more exact relation
 between the condyle and articular surface of the temporal
 bone, to facilitate the motion of these parts on each other,
 and to receive a portion of the efforts exercised by  the con-
 dyle on the glenoid cavity.
   The temporo-maxillary articulation permits the motions
 of descent and elevation of the jaw;  in this respect,  it is a
 simple angular gynglimus ;  it likewise  permits the jaw to
 move forwards and  backwards, and from right to left.
 Here, this articulation furnishes an example of double ar-
 throdia.
   * This disposition is observed in all the capsular articulations, whose use is
 to secrete synovia.. 
92             anatomist's manual.

      ARTICULATIONS OF TnE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
  In all anatomy there is no preparation more-difficult than
that of the different ligaments, which unite the vertebra; to
each other.   The great number of these last, the obscurity
of their motion, the extreme approximation  of t^.eir sur.
faces, the numerous  spines  projecting  from  them will
easily explain the reason of these difficulties.   In order to
overcome them in part, it is necessary to have, besides
considerable patience, a perfect knowledge of the articula*
surfaces, and  to proceed  to  this work with, the book in
hand.
  The articulations of the vertebral column may be dis-
tinguished into general and particular. The first are those
which, repeated on a number of vertebras at the same time,
offer in all the same objects for study. The second are only
observed in  certain vertebra?; different in  each of these
last, they all require to be studied separately.   Thus, the
articulation of the head with  the first cervical vertebra, of
this with the second, and of this last with the head,  are so
many particular and special articulations.    A common or
general articulation is observed in all the other vertebrae,
except  in the last and the one next to it, which offer par*
ticular articulations with the  bones of the pelvis.
    r
               Anatomical Preparation.
         SPECIAL OR PARTICULAR ARTICULATIONS.
  Although the cervical ligament in man is principally in-
tended to serve as a point of support to the muscles of the pos-
terior part of the head and neck, we may also consider it as
the means of maintaining the first in its natural rectitude,
in reference to the trunk, and of opposing, though feebly,
its too great flexion.  For this reason I would recommend
the student  to examine it for a moment before clearing it 
anatomist's  manual.             93
of the soft parts, situated at the posterior part of the neck,
and which it is indispensable to remove before passing to the
preparation of the numerous ligaments appertaining to the
articulations of this series.
  These articulations are that of the occiput with the first ver-
tebra or atlas, that of the same bone with the second vertebra
or axis,  and that of the two first vertebrae with each other.
We may, on  the same vertebral column, prepare not only
the ligaments of the articulations in question, but also those
of all the vertebra?,  as  likewise those between these  last
and the  ribs.
  The trunk  being completely emptied of the thoracic and
abdominal viscera, and, in general, of all  the soft parts
found along  the spinal column, we make a  section of the
ribs about four  fingers breadth from their  articulation
with the column.   This is likewise to be separated from the
pelvis;  then, we make a horizontal section of the head, as
if wei wished  to study its interior, after having removed the
whole of the brain ; we terminate by sawing the whole an-
terior part of the base of the cranium, carrying the saw on
the basilar apophysis, as near as possible to the occipital
foramen, without  injuring its contour.   We then pass with-
out difficulty  to the examination of the articulation between
the occiput and atlas.
   Occipito-atloidien articulation.—The  ligaments which
strengthen this articulation are the two vertebral,  distin-
guished  into anterior and posterior,  and the two capsules.
  The two vertebral  ligaments, called by some anatomists
surtouts ligamenteux, are a species of ligamentous band,
placed, in front and behind, in the interval which separates
the occiput from the first cervical vertebra.   In order to
render them visible, it will suffice to incline the head alter-
nately forwards and backwards ;  but  if we. desire a more 
 94             anatomist's manual.

 perfect knowledge of them, we will be obliged to saw the
 posterior portion of the occiput, as^ncar as possible to the
 foramen of the same  name, as also  its lateral parts; we
 must separate the first cervical vertebra from the third, and
 not be content with studying these ligaments outwardly, but
 likewise examine them within, after having raised carefully
 the portions of the membranes of the brain, which line the
 vertebral canal.  We may also,  by  this preparation, ob.
 serve the  manner  in which  the vertebral  ligaments of
 the  occipito-atloidien articulation comport inwardly with
 each other.  We should likewise  examine the manner in
 which the vertebral arteries enter the cranium.  They are
 received into a sort of canal  furnished  them by the liga-
 mentous portion which,  from  the posterior arc of the first
 cervical vertebra, goes to the neighboring part of the fora-
 men magnum  occipitis.
   The two capsules do not require any  other preparation.
 But in order to see all their  particularities at the same
 time, it will be proper to divide one,  and leave the other
.. entire.  These capsules are extremely compact, and allow
 but  very limited motion.   We should not lose sight of this
 circumstance,  and should remember that the instrument
 can scarcely pass between the osseous surfaces.
   Occipiio-axoidien articulation.—As the  occipital bene
 has  certain articulating relations with the second cervical
 vertebra, we must not hastily destroy  those which the same
 bone presents with the first.  The ligaments, uniting the
 occiput with the second vertebra of the neck, are all placed
 in the interior of the canal;  these are the odontoidien and
 axoidien ligaments.  In order to have a good view of these
 ligaments, we must make a section by means of which all
 the  posterior part of the spinal canal will be exposed, which
 ia also formed by the corresponding portion of the two first 
               anatomist's manual.             95

vertebras which we remove with the saw, guarding carefully
the points of articulation of these vertebras. We can then ob-
serve with facility those parts we may desire to prepare.
The occipito-axoidien  ligament  extends from the basilar
surface of the occiput, as far as the environs of the third cer-
vical vertebra,' passing, in order to arrive there, behind the
odontoid  apophysis.   As  it is intimately connected with
the odontoidien ligaments placed below, we must, in order
to see these last, raise the preceding by lames, which can
easily be done with a hook or the  extremity of a pair  of
pincers.
   Next comes the odontoidien. It extends from the superior
extremity of the odontoid to the two tubercles observed on the
lateral and anterior portions of the circumference of the fora-
men magnum occipitis.  By causing the odontoid apophysis
to execute lateral motions, and similar motions, but in a con-
trary direction, being imparted to the portion of the occiput
preserved for the study of these parts, we will obtain a very
exact idea of the form and extent of the odontoidien ligament.
We can  then separate and raise the portion of the occiput,
which is in contact with the first cervical vertebra, by cut-
ting across the ligaments the preparation of which we have
just indicated.  This is even necessary in order to examine
the articulation of the two vertebrae with each other.
   Atloido-axoidien articulation.—-This articulation is com-
posed of the relations  of the  odontoid apophysis with the
first cervical vertebra, and of those of the two vertebrae with
each other.   The first offers the transverse  ligament, and
 small anterior and posterior capsules ; the second the ante-
rior and posterior ligaments, and the two capsules.
   When we have removed with care, the portions of spinal
 marrow, meninges, and occipito-axoidien ligament, which
 are found at the entrance of the spinal canal, the transverse 
96            anatomist's  manual.
is uncovered.   It will be recognized by its direction, its an-
nular figure, its strength and thickness.   It will be render.
ed still more apparent by imparting a rotatory motion to the
odontoid apophysis.  After having examined it thorough.
ly, we cut  it near one of its attachments, in  order  to turn
it from the opposite side, and see at the same time the small
capsule, which unites it to the odontoid.   This last pre.
sents a second in front, for its articulation with the posterior
part of the anterior arc of the first vertebra of the neck.
We  cut it at its superior portion, and by placing the two
surfaces in a contrary direction, its interior may be very
satisfactorily examined.
  The anterior and posterior ligaments of the  two first
cervical vertebrae do not offer much difficulty in their pre.
paration.   As regards the capsules, it will suffice to divide
one and leave  the other entire in order  to study them to-
gether.

COMMON OR GENERAL ARTICULATIONS OF THE  VEETEBRJE.
  All  the  vertebras articulate with each other:  1st, by
their bodies; 2d, by their articulating apophyses ;  3d, by
plates ; 4th, by their spinous apophyses.
  The study of the ligaments of the vertebral column does
not require that  they should be prepared  in all the ver-
tebrae ; two will suffice, the same mode of articulation be-
ing  repeated  for all the others.   But  as  a ligamentous
band extends  from above downwards on the anterior and
posterior surfaces of the body of each vertebra, so as to
form a sort of chain which connects them  altogether, we
should, before commencing a particular examination of the
ligaments of the vertebrae, look for a moment at this species
of general  envelope.  Nothing is easier  than  to see it on
the exterior, after having completely freed the anterior sur- 
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
97
face of the column of all  the soft parts with which it is
covered.   The ligament in question will be recognized by
its situation and extent.  It presents here and there por-
tions detached from the bodies of the vertebrae, and under
which the point of the scalpel may easily be passed ; this
cannot be done at the  point of the inter-vertebral carti-
lages, on account of the intimate union which it  contracts
with these inter-articular substances.
   As to the analogous band, placed at the posterior part of
the bodies of the  vertebrae, and which  is only seen in the
interior of the spinal canal, we may limit our examination
of it to a few vertebrae, in order not to sacrifice the whole
column, the preparation of which would be long and tedi-
ous.  In the  contrary  case, the saw should remove from
above downwards  the whole posterior part of the vertebrae ;
in this way, we will  have two semi-rachidien canals: the
anterior half will  serve for the study of the posterior liga-
mentous band, the other  half for  the internal part of the
yellow ligaments.
   Articulation of the bodies of the vertebra.—There are
no ligaments  for  the  articulation of  the bodies of the
vertebra?; a cartilage  serves as the bond of union ; it  is
called the inter-articular cartilage, inter-vertebral cartilage,
 or fibro-cartilage.   In viewing  it successively between
all the vertebrae, we perceive that it becomes sensibly thick-
 er from above downwards.  If it be cut across, it will be
 remarked, particularly in the lumbar region, that its centre is
 softer and whiter  than  the circumference.   Its elasticity is
 very remarkable,  and we may be  convinced of this fact by
 plunging the point of a scalpel into the tissue, which will re-
 pel the extremity  of the instrument.  Whiter and softer in
 infancy, it becomes yellow in the adult, hard and compact
 in old age.   It is  detached with difficulty from the bodies of
                             9 
9S             ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
 the vertebras;  and its separation can only be effected by
 considerable efforts, unless we boil several of the vertebrae,
 or allow them to macerate for a long time.   It  is  also
necessary to remark the difference in thickness, which this
cartilage presents in the three regions of the column, whence
result the different curvatures of this part.

ARTICULATION  OF  THE ARTICULAR   APOPHYSES,  OF THB
            PLATES AND  SPINOUS APOPHYSES.
  I embrace in one  article the preparation of all these
parts, because they do not present  any great difficulty.
It is, however, necessary  to know how to distinguish each
object.   The capsules and yellow  ligaments are easy to
recognize, on account of  their extent and situation; such
is not the case with  the  super-spinous and inter-spinous
ligaments.   Authors  do  not agree  as  to  their situation
 or number.   There exists a species  of thick, ligamentous
band, which,  passes  successively over all those of  this
region from the extremity of the   spinous apophysis of
the  last  lumbar  vertebra;   this  band  appears  to pro.
long itself over the same parts in  the dorsal region, but
 there is no  trace of it in the cervical.  It is the same as
 regards  the inter-spinous ligaments placed in the inter-
 val of the  two spinous apophyses.    They are observed
 in the loins  and back  : but certain anatomists do not admit
 them in the neck, and pretend that  they are replaced by
 muscles of  the same  name.   The limited extent  of these
 small ligaments, the facility of confounding them with the
 whitish  fibres  of the muscles immediately around them,
 will prevent us from entering more  in detail in reference
 to them. 
anatomist's  manual.
99
                     Description.
          OCCIPITQ-ATLOIDIEN ARTICULATION.
  Anterior ligament.  Situation and figure.—Flat, thick,
and situated  between the occiput and  first cervical  ver-
tebra.
  Extent.—From the basilar  apophysis to  the anterior
arc of the atlas.
  Division.—The anterior surface is covered by the large
and small  anterior recti muscles of the head ; the poste-
rior corresponds  to the ligaments of the odontoid apophy-
sis.  Its superior border is attached  to  the anterior  part
of the circumference of the foramen magnum occipitale, the
inferior to the superior part of the anterior arc of the atlas.
Its two extremities arc inserted near the capsules.
   Structure and uses.—Composed of two planes of fibres,
which go in  different directions, this ligament strengthens
the articulation of the atlas with the head, and moderates
the movement of extension in this latter.
    Posterior  ligament.    Situation  and  figure.—Flat,
thick, broaderothan the preceding, and situated between the
occiput and atlas.
   Extent.—From the posterior part of the foramen mag-
num to the posterior arc of the atlas.
   Division.—Its posterior surface is covered  by the large
and small posterior recti muscles of the  head ; the anterior
corresponds to the dura mater.  Its superior border is at-
tached  to  the  posterior part  of the circumference of the
foramen magnum ; the inferior  to the superior part of the
posterior arc of the atlas.   Its two extremities correspond
to the capsule.   There is observed on  it a groove for the
 passage of the vertebral artery.
   Structure and uses.—Similar  to the preceding, as re-
 spects its structure and uses, it differs from it only in mo-
 derating the flexion of the head. 
100            anatomist's  manual.
  Capsules.   Situation and figure.—Circular,  situated
between the occiput and atlas.
  Extent.—From the condyles of the occiput to the cor-
responding articular surfaces of the atlas.
  Division.—The superficial surface of each capsule cor-
responds to the lateral recti  muscles of the head, to the
vertebral artery, and sub-occipital nerves;  the deep sur-
face corresponds to the articulation.   The superior border
is attached to the irregular lines on the contour of the oc
cipital condyle, the inferior to those on the corresponding
articular surface of the atlas.
  The structure and uses are the same as in the other cap-
sules.   The articulation of the occiput with the first cer-
vical vertebra permits  movements in every direction; but
the reciprocal surfaces being nearly even, this articulation
is called arthrodia.

           OCCIPITO-AXOIDIEN articulation.
  Odontoidien ligaments.   Situation and figure.—Two in
number, elongated, parallel, and situated in the interior of
the vertebral canal.
  Extent.—From the odontoid apophysis to the occiput.
  Division.—They  correspond, behind,  to the  occipito-
axoidien ligament; in front, to the occiput.   Their inferior
extremity is  attached to the lateral parts of the summit of
the odontoid apophysis, the superior to  the internal part
of the occipital condyles.
  Structure and uses.—Composed of parallel fibres, strong
and firm, they  strengthen  the odontoid  articulation, and
regulate its motions.
  Occipito-axoidien ligament.   Situation and figure.—
Elongated, thin and flat, situated in the interior of the'verte-
bral canal. 
anatomist's  manual.             101
  Extent.—From the second  cervical vertebra to the oc-
ciput.
 ^Division.—Its posterior surface  is applied  to the dura
mater ;  its  anterior corresponds to the axis and odontoid.
Its superior  extremity is fixed to the basilar surface,  the
inferior is lost in the transverse ligament of the odontoid,
and in the posterior vertebral ligament.
   Structure and  uses.—Composed of  parallel fibres, it
strengthens  the articulation of the  occiput with the two
first cervical vertebras of the neck, and that of these last
with each other.

           ATLOIDO-AXOIDIEN  ARTICULATION.
  Transverse ligament.  Situation and figure.—Elongat-
ed  transversely, thick,  nearly semi-circular, and situated.
in the interior of the vertebral canal.
  Extent.—From one of the lateral portions of the atlas to
the other.
  Division.—Its posterior part is immediately  covered by
the occipito-axoidien ligament;  the anterior, smooth and
polished, corresponds to the posterior facette of the odon-
toid apophysis.   Its two extremities  are implanted into ir-
regular lines on the internal part of the  lateral  portions of
the atlas.
   Structure and uses.—Composed of strong transverse
fibres, the force of this  ligament is considerable.  It fur-
nishes a point of solid support to the odontoid apophysis,.
favors its movements of rotation, and prevents this apophy-
sis, when turned backwards, from exercising an injurious
compression on the spinal marrow.
  The two small capsular membranes of the odontoid apo-
physis are, one in front and the other behind.   The first
unites this apophysis to the anterior arc of the atlas, the
                           9* 
102            anatomist's  manual.
second fixes it to the transverse  ligament.   Both are in.
tended to retain the odontoid apophysis in its place, without
interfering with the rotatory movement.
  We likewise find, between the  two first  cervical verte-
bras, two  ligaments destined to maintain the relations of
these vertebrae with each other.  One is placed at the an-
terior part;  the other, more considerable,  is found poste-
riorly.  These two ligaments, of a very loose texture in
order to admit freedom of motion between the two verte-
bra;, are analogous to those which unite the first of these
vertebrae with the occiput.
  Capsules.—These  two capsules, remarkable  for their
extreme laxity, do not differ, as to their  general form, from
those of the first cervical vertebra with the occiput; they
admit of free and extensive motion, without the great  ex-
tension which they enjoy lacerating their tissue.
  The articulation of the  two first cervical vertebras by
their articular apophyses, is a double arthrodia; that of the
odontoid apophysis is  a simple lateral gynglimus.

      GENERAL ARTICULATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE.
  Anterior vertebral ligament.   Situation and figure.—
Elongated, flat, narrow at its superior part, broad in-
feriorly,  situated on all the anterior portion  of the  verte-
bral column.
  Extent.—From the second cervical vertebra to the an-
terior  part of the sacrum.
  Division.—Its anterior  surface corresponds,  above, to
the pharynx, oesophagus, and long muscles of the neck ; in
the chest, to the aorta,  thoracic duct  and  azygos vein;
in the abdomen, to the ventral aorta, to the pillars of the
diaphragm and  psoas muscles.   Its posterior surface  is
applied rather loosely to the anterior part  of the bodies of 
anatomist's  manual.
103
all] the vertebras and to the corresponding inter-vertebral
cartilages, to which  this ligament adheres.   Its superior
extremity is fixed to the second cervical vertebra, and the
inferior in front of the sacrum.
   Structure and uses.—The fibres of this ligament are,
in general,  longitudinal;  but  their length is  not equal to
that of the  whole  of the ligament.  It will  be perceived
that the superficial,  which are the longest, do not exceed
the space of four or five vertebras;  in proportion as they
are deeper seated,  they become short.   The fibres of
this ligament are attached particularly to the inter-verte-
bral cartilages.
   They are intended to bind the  articulations of the verte-
brae with each other.
   Posterior vertebral ligament.   Situation and figure.—
 Elongated, flattened, broad at its superior part,  narrow in-
 feriorly,  situated in the vertebral canal, and lying in its
 whole extent  on  the posterior  part of the  bodies of the
 vertebras.
    Extent.—From the second cervical  to the commence-
 ment of the sacral canal.
    Division.—Posterior, concave surface, united to the dura
 mater by cellular tissue ; anterior  surface  applied  to the
 posterior part of  the bodies of the vertebras and inter-ver-
 tebral cartilages, with which the ligament contracts strong
 adhesions.  Its superior extremity is fixed to the second
 cervical vertebra; the inferior, pointed, to the sacral canal.
    Structure  and uses.—Similar, in  these respects, to the
  vertebral ligament.

     ARTICULATION OF THE BODIES  OF THE  VERTEBRJE.
     Inter-vertebral  cartilages.   Situation  and figure-
  Twenty-three in number, broad, flat, semi-circular, situat- 
104            anatomist's  manual.
 ed between the bodies of the vertebras,  and thicker in
 proportion  as  they are  examined  near the inferior por.
 tion of the spinal column.
   Extent.—The first inter-vertebral cartilage is found be*
 tween the second and third cervical vertebra, and the last
 between the fifth lumbar and sacrum.   The extent of each
 cartilage is always in correspondence with the extent of
 the articular surfaces.
   Division.—The superior and inferior surfaces adhere to
 the corresponding articular surfaces of the vertebras, with
 which they  contract,  as age advances,  an intimate union.
 The circumference  of each cartilage corresponds with the
 vertebral ligaments.
   Structure and uses.—Composed of concentric fibres,
 more firm  and dense without, softer and  more elastic as
 they are  examined near  the centre.   The uses  of these
 cartilages are to unite the vertebras with each other, to as-
 sist these last in the formation  of the vertebral canal, and
 to permit limited motions for each cartilage, but which, re-
 peated in all, are vory extensive for the whole spinal cc
 lumn.
     ARTICULATION OF THE ARTICULAR APOPHYSES.
   Capsules.—These small synovial bags, very firm, em*
 brace  the circumference of each articular surface of the
 vertebras.   They correspond  exteriorly to  the different
 parts,  which cover  the column  in the direction of the ar-
 ticular apophyses; within, they are extended on these sur-
 faces.  Their uses are to maintain  the articulation of the
vertebrae with each  other, in admitting of but very limited
motion.

   ARTICULATION OF THE PLATES OF THE VERTEBRA.
  Yellow ligaments. '^Situation and figure.—Broad, flat,
quadri-lateral,  more apparent  within  than  without the 
anatomist's  manual.            105
 canal, and situated in the interval of the- plates of all the
 vertebrae from the second.
   Division.—The posterior surface is covered by all the
 muscles of the posterior and profound region of the trunk;
 the anterior corresponds to the spinal marrow.  The supe-
 rior and inferior borders are fixed to the  corresponding
 borders of the plates of the vertebrae.  Their internal ex-
 tremity corresponds to the  spinous apophysis of each ver-
 tebra ; the external offers nothing remarkable.
   Structure  and uses.—Composed of transverse, parallel
 fibres, very firm and of a yellow color, they are  intended
 to fix the vertebras; and at the same time permit a mode-
 rate degree of motion in consequence of their elasticity.

       ARTICULATION  OF THE SPINOUS APOPHYSES.
   Super-spinous  and  inter-spinous ligaments. Situation
 and figure.—Elongated, placed in the interval of the spi-
 nous apophyses of  the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae.   The
 super-spinous  are attached to the extremity of these  apo-
 physes;  the  inter-spinous  correspond to their interval.
 These last are double; a small space separates them.
   Their uses are to maintain together the spinous apophy-
 ses of the dorsal and lumbar vertebras, and to oppose a too
 extensive motion of the column forwards.
   The union of the vertebras presents several kinds of arti-
 culation.   That of the articular apophyses is an arthrodia;
 that of the body furnishes the most remarkable example of
the articulation called  amphi-arthrosis by  the ancients,
and articulation by continuity, by the moderns.  Here there
is no motion between the articular  surfaces of the vertebras,
but in the proper  tissue- of the inter-vertebral cartilage,
which, for this reason, offers a degree of elasticity,  greater
in proportion  as the individualisless advanced in years; as 
106           anatomist's manual.

it loses its elasticity  and becomes hard  in  old age, this
motion,  always  more feeble, ultimately  disappears alto.
gether.

            ARTICULATIONS  OF THE CHEST.
  The chest is, in great part, formed by  osseous arcs,
called ribs, presenting  in front  with  the  sternum, and
behind with the  vertebral column, articulations which re-
suit from these different  relations.
  At their posterior articulations, the ribs offer, on the one
hand, an articular surface at their extremity, received into
each of the articular surfaces of the bodies of the vertebras;:
on the other"hand, the tuberosity of each rib likewise pre-
sents an  articular surface, received into a  corresponding
cavity of the transverse apophysis of the vertebra, except
in the first and two last, in which these surfaces do not exist.
   The anterior articulations of the ribs with the sternum
are effected by means nf intermediate cartilages, the supo-
rior of which join  directly with the sternum, whilst the five
lower, united only one with the other, have no direct rela.
tion with this last  bone.

               Anatomical  Preparation.
   The preparation of the articulations at the posterior part
of  the ribs with the  corresponding vertebrae,  composed of
one capsule  and an  anterior ligament,  requires that we
should remove with care the articulated  pieces of all the
soft parts  not connected with their articulation.   It is not
necessary to prepare all those of  the ribs ;  one alone will
suffice.   But, in order to see those of the posterior extremity
of the rib more satisfactorily, it  is necessary  in the first
place to  divide that of the tuberosity, which facilitates the
motions of the rib on  the vertebra, and gives a more exact 
anatomist's  manual.
107
idea of its extent,  and of the dispositions of the  ligament
and capsule.   At this  point, these are the only means of
union.  As  in  this  last, the articulation of the tubero-
shy  with the  transverse apophysis  is extremely firm:
both one and the other require that we move  the rib fre-
quently in different directions, in order to distinguish more
accurately the figure and limited extent of each capsule.
  One costo-vertebral  ligament only, as I have already re-
marked, increases the solidity of the articulation;  it is seen
in the interior of  the chest.   It is recognized by its exact
application over the  articulation, which however it exceeds,
and by the radiated direction of its fibres.
   But the articulation  of the vertebral extremity of the rib
presents a peculiarity not observed in that of the tuberosity;
in a word, except in the first, eleventh, and twelfth, each
rib, articulated  with two vertebras at the same time, is re-
tained in place by  a small cartilaginous prolongation, which
is fixed, on  the one  hand, to the transverse prominence of
the extremity of the rib;  and on the  other,  to the corres-
ponding inter-vertebral  cartilage.  Nothing is more easy
than to observe  this  disposition, by  opening,  from above
downwards,  some of the costo-vertebral capsules.
   The preparation of the articulations on the anterior part
of the ribs is still  less difficult than  the preceding.   Here
the objects are not so concealed.   By cutting the cartilages
in their middle portion, and by moving in different direc
 tions each extremity of  the cut cartilage,  we  may form  a
 very exact  idea  of the extent and manner in which the
 ligaments intended to unite these cartilages with the ribs
 are disposed, on the one  hand with these last, and on the
 other with the sternum.
    In examining the costal extremity  of each cartilage, we
 will observe that  it is received into a small analogous cavity, 
   108            anatomist's manual.

   appertaining to the corresponding rib: two small radiated
   ligaments, strengthen this synchondrotic articulation. One
  is in front, and the other behind.
    The articulation presents the same disposition at the side
  of the sternum, and the same ligaments are observed there.
  We, however, remark that between the  seventh rib and
  xiphoid appendage there  exists  a particular  ligament,
  which  unites these two parts  together.   We  should like-
  wise examine the special articulation of the inter-costal car-
  tilages, for nothing should escape the eye and researches of
  the attentive anatomist.

                       Description*
            COSTO-VERTEBRAL ARTICULATIONS.
   Anterior or internal ligament.  Situation  and figure.
 —Flat, radiated,  situated at the anterior part of the articu-
 lation.
   Extent.—*-From the head of the ribs to  the bodies of the
 vertebras.
   Division.—The superficial  surface  is  covered by  the
 pleura and by the  great inter-costal nerve.   The pro-
 found  surface  is  applied  to  the  capsular  ligament.
 Fixed in front  of the  extremity  of the  rib,  it goes in
 a diverging manner towards  the  spine, and  is  attached
 by three species  of  fibres, the superior to  the  body of
 the vertebra  which is  above, the  inferior to the body of
 the vertebra which is below, and the middle to the inter-ar-
 ticular cartilage.  This disposition is not observed in the
 first, eleventh, and twelfth ribs, which only articulate with
 one vertebra.
   Structure and uses.—Composed of long superficial, and
 short profound fibres, with  rays from the rib to the verte-
bra, this ligament is intended to strengthen the articulation,
and oppose the too extensive motion of the rib outwadlry. 
anatomist's manual.
109
  Capsules.—That of the extremity of each rib and of the
bodies of the vertebras is fixed, on one hand, to the circum-
ference of the head of each rib; and on the other, to the con-
tour of the articular surfaces of the vertebras.  It is in great
part covered on the side of the chest, by the anterior liga-
ment.  In the interior, it corresponds to the inter-articular
cartilage.  The use of this capsule is not  equivocal:  ex-
tremely firm, it connects the rib to the vertebras, and admits
of very obscure and limited motions.
  An inter-articular ligament  is found in the interior of
each costo-vertebral capsule, except in the first, eleventh,
and twelfth.   It  is composed of a fibrous fasciculus, short
and thick, fixed, on the one hand, to the prominent  angle
of the costal extremity ; and on  the other, to the angle of
the cavity which receives it.  This ligament separates, in
the costo-vertebral articulations, provided with it, the cap-
sule, which  appears to be double; and on the other hand,
it is implanted into the corresponding inter-vertebral carti-
lage.
  The costo-vertebral articulations all furnish examples of
arthrodia.

          COSTO-TRANSVERSE  ARTICULATIONS.
  The articulation  of the tuberosity of the rib with the
transverse aposhysis is surrounded by a fibrous fasiculus
extremely short and firm : all the  fibres go, from  above
downwards, from the transverse apophysis  to the neck of
the ribs.  The costo-transverse capsule, covered in part by
the preceding fasciculus, surrounds, on the one hand, the ar-
ticular facette of the tuberosity of each rib ; and, on the
other,  is fixed around the corresponding facette of  the
transverse apophyses of the vertebras.
  These different means of union contribute with the preced-
                          10 
110            anatomist's manual.

ing, to strengthen the costo-vertebral articulations, and op-
pose the too great motion of these articulations.

            COSTO-STERNAL ARTICULATIONS.
  Inter-costal cartilages.  Situation and figure.—Twelve
in number, situated transversely on the anterior part of the
chest.  Elongated,  slightly flattened  from before back.
wards, increasing in length from the first to  the seventh,
and then  diminishing to the twelfth.
  Extent.—From the anterior extremity of each rib to the
sternum, for the seven first.   •
  Division.—Body and extremities.
  The body presents an anterior surface, covered by the
pectoral muscles; a posterior or internal  surface covered
by the pleura;  the  superior and  inferior  borders  give at-
tachment  to the inter-costal muscles.  In addition, the su-
perior border of the first  affords attachment  to the costo-
clavicular, and the inferior border of the last  to the small
oblique muscle.
  The external or costal extremity articulates with the
corresponding extremity of each rib;  the internal, in the
seven first, with the sternum,  and in the five last it is con-
founded with the last cartilage going to the sternum.
  Structure and uses.—Of a dense and firm tissue, ana-
logous to  the general  character  of other  cartilages, they
are intended to increase the length of the ribs and afford
an elasticity favorable  to the  dilatation and contraction of
the chest.
  The articulation of the costal cartilages with the sternum
is effected by means of a capsule, an articular  ligament and
two radiated ligaments, divided into anterior and posterior.
   The capsule, very firm, embraces, on one  side, the ex-
tremity of each sternal cartilage, and on the other, is fixed
to the contour of the articular facette of the sternum.  Its 
               anatomist's manual.            Ill

external  surface adheres in front to the anterior radiated
ligament, and  behind, to the posterior radiated  ligament.
Its internal surface corresponds to the articulation.
  The inter-articular ligament presents the same disposi-
tion as that of the posterior extremity of the ribs.
  The anterior radiated ligaments, situated in front of the
articulation, are covered outwardly by the great pectoral
muscle, and correspond within to the capsule.
  The posterior radiated ligaments,  situated at the poste-
rior part of the articulation, are covered in the interior of
the chest by the pleura, and correspond on the other hand
to the capsule.
   Both, composed of fibres originating from the cartilage,
go in radii to the neighboring part of the sternum.
   The structure, uses, and mode of articulation are the same
 as in the costo-vertebral articulations.

         OF THE  ARTICULATIONS  OF THE PELVIS.
   These articulations consist of the sacrum with the ver-
 tebral  column, of the same bone with the coxcyx  and
 haunch bone, of  this with  the last vertebra and with the
 haunch bone of the opposite side.

                Anatomical preparation.
   Although the means of  union of every kind, which bind
 the bones of the  pelvis to  each  other, are extremely mul-
 tiplied,  yet their preparation does not present any great dif-
 ficulties.  This is owing, on the one hand, to the extent of
 the articular surfaces, and on the other, to the separation
 and superficial situation of the ligaments, if we except the
 ligaments of the posterior part of  the pelvis, which  pre.
 sent, as it were, an inexplicable interlacement.  We should,
 before  the  dissection of  any  particular  ligament of the
  pelvis, perform for the whole of this preparation a long and 
112
anatomist's manual.
fatiguing preliminary operation, but which is indispensa-
ble.  We commence, therefore, by removing the soft parts
surrounding the pelvis;  we do the same for the supe-
rior  part of the thighs and  inferior portion of the trunk;
we then saw the femora about six or eight fingers' breadth
from their  iliac articulation, as likewise the vertebral col.
umn at the same distance; in this way, we shall have a piece
on which, besides  the proper ligaments of the pelvis, we
may likewise  study those  which  unite  the  sacrum with
the last and even the next to the last lumbar  vertebra and
those of the ilio-femoral articulation,  the preparation of
which, however, does not belong to this series.   From the
piece thus isolated, we must remove, rather minutely, all the
remaining soft  parts, which adhere to the different articu-
lar surfaces, without leaving any trace of  them  on the
bones.  We should be careful to have the articular surfaces
well-exposed ; these parts must not, however,  be injured by
the instrument.  Thus, besides the intermediate cartilage of
the symphisis, there is a ligament abo've and below, which it
is essential to preserve. Above the posterior  symphisis we
likewise observe ligaments, which we must preserve; below
these same symphises are the great and small sacro-sciatic
ligaments,  which are not to be touched.   In fine, a ligament
occupies the totality of  the obturator foramen;  it must
not  be removed.   Those of the coxcyx with the sacrum
demand the same attention;  when all the parts have
been examined and studied, we should then  carry the in-
strument into the proper tissue of the inter-pubien carti-
lage, in order to understand its structure, and separate for
the  same purpose, by dividing the two pubes, the cartila-
ges of the posterior symphises.  These are  the most sim-
pie preparations, and the only that are necessary, in order 
               anatomist's  manual.            113

to study the ligaments and other means of union in tho
pelvis.

                     Description.
  Sacro-vertebral articulation.—The means intended to
unite the sacrum with the last lumbar vertebra do not dif-
fer from those which I have already described, when speak-
ing of the articulation of the bodies of the vertebras with
each  other.   The only difference  is, that, in  this  last
articulation, the inter-vertebral cartilage, very  thick in
front, thinner behind, contributes in this way to the forma-
tion of the sacro-vertebral prominence.  This conformation,
which is apparent in all the  lumbar cartilages, is particu-
larly so in the last*
   Sacro-coccygien articulation.—-The  inferior part  of
the sacrum articulates with  the first piece of the coxcyx
by a mode of union similar  to the  preceding, which will
render it unnecessary for me to speak of it, as likewise of
the manner in which  the  other pieces of the coxcyx ar-
ticulate with  each other.   But independently of the inter-
articular cartilages, there are for the coxcyx and sacrum
two  ligaments  called  sacro-coccygien.   They require  a
brief notice.
   Anterior sacro-coccygien  ligament.—This is scarcely
sensible, often it cannot be distinguished.  It is an assem-
blage of ligamentous fibres,  which go from the sacrum to
the pelvic surface of the coxcyx.
   Posterior sacro-coccygien ligament.—This  is much
stronger and more distinct than the preceding:  fixed su-
periorly  to the borders of the notch terminating the sacral
canal, it descends perpendicularly as far as the spinal re-
gion of the coxcyx, and there expands itself.  Its posterior
surface,  sub-cutaneous, is covered by a few fibres from tha,
                          10* 
114
anatomist's manual.
gluteus  maximus muscle;  the  anterior is  applied to the
coxcyx, and contributes to complete posteriorly the end
of the sacral canal.
  The  fibres of this  ligament are  very numerous, and
strengthen the sacro-coccygien articulation.

            VERTEBRO-ILIAC ARTICULATION.
  There is no direct articulation between the last  lumbar
vertebra and iliac bones.  A ligament intended to strength.
en their connection goes from  the  one to the other of
these two  bones.  It is called the ileo-lumbar.
  Ileo-lumbar ligament.    Situation and figure.—In the
lumbar  region,  elongated,  flattened, and triangular.
  Extent.—From the iliac bones to the last lumbar verte-
bra.
  Division.—Its posterior surface is covered by the sacro.
lumbar and longissimus dorsi muscles ; the anterior, by the
psoas and iliac muscles.  It corresponds superiorly to the
quadratus lumborum, and inferiorly to the sacro-iliac sym-
phisis.  Its summit, thick, is implanted  into the internal
part of  the iliac tuberosity.  From this the ligament goes,
spreading in the form of a fan, towards the vertebral co-
lumn, and its  base is attached to the summit of the fifth
and  fourth lumbar  vertebras.
  Structure and uses.—Composed of fibres, which diverge
from the iliac bones to the vertebral column, the ileo-lum-
bar  ligament is  intended to strengthen  the articulation of
the  inferior part of the vertebral column  with the  bones
of the pelvis, and to oppose its falling on the sides.

               SACRO-ILIAC ARTICULATION.
   The  sacrum and haunch bones offer, for  their reciprocal
articulation, an articular surface encrusted  with a diarthro- 
                anatomist's manual,            115

dial  cartilage,  which is double [in youth, but  becomea
more dense and firm in  proportion  as  age advances, and
appears at this period to be formed only of one lame. This
cartilage occupies the articular surface of the sacrum and
haunch bones, to which it adheres so intimately, that it
cannot be separated but by the greatest efforts.
   The other points strengthening the sacro-iliac articula-
tion are two sacro-sciatic ligaments, a sacro-spinous liga-
ment, and a posterior sacro-iliac ligament: some ligamen-
tous fibres,  irregularly disposed around  the articulation,
complete  the union ; but  they do not merit a  particular
description.

     GREAT OR POSTERIOR SACRO-SCIATIC LIGAMENT.
   Situation and figure.—Thin, flattened, triangular, situat-
 ed at the posterior and inferior part of the pelvis.
   Extent.—From  the  tuberosity  of  the ischium to the
 lateral part of the  sacrum.
   Division.—Its posterior surface is  covered  by the glu-
 teus maximus muscle, to which  it gives attachment; its
 anterior  surface corresponds to the small sacro-iliac liga-
 ment with which it contracts adhesions ; it, likewise, cor-
 responds outwardly to the obturator muscle.   Its superior
 border,  oblique from above downwards, and from within
 outwards, aids in forming  the  large sciatic notch, and cor-
 responds, in its extent, to the pyramidal muscle, to  the
 sciatic vessels and large nerve of the same name.  Its in-
 ferior border, oblique  like  the  preceding, contributes to
 form the sides of the inferior strait.  Its internal extremity
 arises from the two posterior iliac spines, and from the la-
 teral parts of the sacrum; this ligament, at first very broad
 and thin, afterwards becomes narrow, and its thickness in-
 creases  in  proportion  as it approaches the tuberosity of 
116            anatomist's manual.
the ischium, to which it fixes itself by again enlarging.  In
this spot it furnishes a small falciforme prolongation, which
is lost in the internal obturator muscle.
   Structure and uses.—The fibres of the great  sacro.
sciatic ligament, parallel to-the  side of-the sacrum, pass
in  a converging  manner to  the tuberosity of the ischium.
This ligament is intended to strengthen the articulation of
the sacrum with the  haunch bones, to present extensive
and solid surfaces for  the attachment of certain muscles,
to  complete the  walls  of the smaller  pelvis, and to sustain
the weight of  the viscera lodged within it.

     SMALL  OR ANTERIOR  SACRO-SCIATIC  LIGAMENT.
   Situation and figure.—Flattened, triangular, situated
in  front of the preceding at the posterior part of the pelvis.
   Extent.—From the  sciatic spine to the sacrum and cox-
cyx.
   Division.—Its posterior  surface adheres to the great
sacro-sciatic  ligament.  The  anterior is  covered  by the
levator ani.   Its superior border  corresponds  in the first
place to the inferior border of the preceding, it then crosses
it, and contributes, in front, to the formation of the large
sciatic notch.   Its internal  extremity, or base, is attached
to  the inferior and laleral part of the sacrum, and to the
superior and lateral portion of the coxcyx : from this, it
goes  outwards and forwards, crosses the direction of the
great sacro-sciatic ligament, and fixes itself to the  summit
of the sciatic  spine.
   Structure and uses.—The  small sacro-sciatic ligament
presents absolutely the same dispositions as the preceding,
as regards its structure and uses. 
anatomist's  manual.            117
               ILIO-SACRAL  LIGAMENTS.
  The name of ilio-sacral ligaments is given to an assem-
blage of ligamentous fibres placed at the superior, inferior,
and posterior part of the sacro-iliac articulation.
  The ligaments of the superior part  cover the sacro-
iliac symphisis.   They extend from the  posterior part
of the internal iliac fossa to the adjoining portions of the
sacrum.   These  fibres  are  very short  and become con-
founded with the periosteum, which covers the  same parts.
  The inferior sacro-iliac ligaments are nothing more than
ligamentous  bands, which extend from  the posterior  and
superior iliac spine  to the last transverse apophysis of the
false vertebra of the sacrum.  This  ligament is covered
behind by the gluteus maximus, and it corresponds in front
to the sacro-iliac symphisis.  The posterior sacro-iliac lig-
aments are the most numerous and strongest.   They con-
sist of a flattened fasciculus, which extends  from the iliac
apophyses to the lateral and posterior parts of the sacrum.
These ligaments are covered behind  by the  longissimus
dorsi and sacro-lumbalis, to which  they furnish attach-
ments.  They are separated  by numerous intervals filled
with adipose and cellular tissue.
   The uses of all these ligaments are  very evident.  The
multiplicity  of their fibres,  their  limited  length, and ap-
proximation, reader them proper to secure, in a firm  and
solid  manner, the. union of the bones of the pelvis with
each other.

                 PUBIO  ARTICULATION.
   The  two haunch bones present in front, for their re-
ciprocal articulation, an articular  surface of an elliptical
form, encrusted with.%  cartilaginous plate, the external
surface of which adheres: to the bone,  and the internal sur- 
118            anatomist's  manual.
face, free and lubricated with synovia, is simply continuous
with the cartilaginous plate  of the opposite side.  In front
and behind, ligamentous fibres are applied  to the articula-
tion, which pass from right to left, and in this way strengthen
the union of the two bones of the pubis.   But, besides these
prolongations, there is observed below the  symphisis a re-
markable ligament, which bears the name of sub-pubien.
   This ligament,  the form of which is  triangular, corres-
ponds in front  to the cavernous bodies in man, and to tho
clitoris in woman; behind, to the neck of the bladder, and
to the prostate in man.
   We observe, at the anterior and superior  part  of the
symphisis pubis,  several ligamentous  fibres, which are
nothing more than the mingling of the aponeurotic fibres
from  the  pillars  of  the ring, with  those  of  the  recti
muscles of the abdomen.
   It may be conceived, that from such numerous means of
strengthening the articulation of the bones of the  pelvis,
there would result a solidity, and, as it were, an absolute
immobility.  This in  fact does  exist in the  ordinary state;
but it is not rare  to observe,  in  certain pregnancies, and
particularly  after laborious accouchemens, the  cartilagi-
nous and ligamentous  substances, which serve as a means of
union, become infiltrated and relaxed by a sort of stagna-
tion of the fluids,  caused by the compression of the vessels.
A separation, more or less  considerable, may then  occur
in the bones of the pelvis; experience and the examination
of females, who have died in consequence of severe labors,
confirm this opinion.
   The articulations of the bones of the pelvis form what is
commonly called an amphiarthrosis or mixed articulation.
It is  the articulation by continuity of the  moderns.  The
motion, in this species of articulation, is not effected by the 
anatomist's  manual.
119
sliding of the surfaces on each other, but in consequence of
the elasticity of some of the inter-articular cartilages.

          ARTICULATIONS  OF THE  SHOULDER.
   The articulations of the shoulder are,  1st, that of the
clavicle  with the  sternum; 2d,  of the scapula with the
clavicle.  In the first of these articulations,  the  sternum
presents on  the one hand, on the lateral portions of its
superior extremity, an  articular facette, encrusted with a
diarthrodial cartilage; on the  other hand, there is on  the
sternal extremity of the clavicle, an articular facette, larger
than the preceding, encrusted like it with a  cartilaginous
plate, separated from that of the opposite side by an inter-
articular ligament.  This articulation is strengthened by
four ligaments, an anterior, posterior, costo-clavicular, inter-
clavicular, and two capsules.
   In the second articulation, the scapular extremity of the
clavicle and the acromion apophysis  present  a narrow ar-
ticular surface encrusted  with a thin cartilage, which is
 united by two ligaments and  a small capsule.
   In addition, the clavicle is united to the coracoid apophy-
 sis,  without contiguity of surfaces, by two ligaments called,
 one conoid, and the other rhomboid.

                Anatomical preparation.
   Fi >r the  preparation of these different means of union,
 after removing the muscles which cover the sterno-clavi-
 cular and scapulo-clavicular articulations, we must separate
 the sternum from  the ribs and one of the arms from the
 trunk;  but  it  will not  be necessary to have the  whole
 member; it will  suffice to saw the humerus in its middle,
 and as much of the clavicle of the opposite side. 
120
anatomist's  manual.
  We should preserve the two sternal extremities of the
two clavicles, in order to examine the inter-clavicular liga.
ment, which would  necessarily  be destroyed if only one
clavicle were  preserved.  The ligaments of the sterno.
clavicular articulation present but little difficulty, on ac-
count of their situation which  is, as it were, sub-cutaneous.
Such, however, is not the case with  the ligaments of the
scapulo-clavicular articulation ; these are more profoundly
seated, particularly the  conoid  and  rhomboid  ligaments,
which go  from the  inferior part of the scapular extremity
of the clavicle, in the environs of the origin of the  coracoid
apophysis, covered  in.part by  the acromion.
  In preserving the two  clavicles in place, we  may open,
on one side only, the articular capsules, which fix this bone
to the sternum and  scapula; this will permit us to  examine
their  interior, and  preserve those of the opposite side in
order to study their general form and extent.

                     Description.
       ANTERIOR STERNO-CLAVICULAR  LIGAMENT.
  Situation and figure.—Flattened, quadri-lateral, situ-
ated in front of the  sterno-clavicular articulation.
  Extent.—From the clavicle to the sternum.
  Division.—Its anterior surface is covered by some fibres
of the great pectoral muscle ;  the posterior adheres to the
capsule.   It is inserted outwardly in front of  the sternal
extremity of the clavicle, within to the irregular lines which
are seen in front of  the articular facette of the sternum.
  Structure and uses.—Composed of radiated fibres which
go from the clavicle to the neighboring portion of the ster-
num ;  it opposes, though feebly, the displacement of the
clavicle in front. 
anatomist's  manual.            121
       POSTERIOR STERNO-CLAVICULAR LIGAMENT.
   Situation and figure.—Flattened, situated at the poste-
rior part of the sterno-clavicular articulation.
   Extent.—From the clavicle to the sternum.
   Division.—It corresponds behind to the sterno-hyoideus
and sterno-thyroideus muscles; in front  it adheres to the
capsule of the articulation.   It is implanted exteriorly into
the posterior part of the sternal extremity of the clavicle,
and interiorly to the adjoining part of the sternum.
   Structure and uses.—Although stronger than the  pre-
ceding, it has the same structure  and disposition.  It op-
poses the displacement of the clavicle behind.

             COSTO-CLAVICULAR LIGAMENT.
   Situation and figure.—Elongated transversely, flatten-
ed from  before backwards, situated between the clavicle
and first rib.
   Extent.—From the sternal extremity  of the clavicle, to
the adjoining part of the first rib.
   Division.—Its anterior surface corresponds to  the great
pectoral muscle, its posterior to the cellular tissue. It fixes
itself exteriorly and below to the posterior part of the  car-
tilage of the first rib: above and within to a surface at
the internal and inferior portion of the clavicle.
   Structure and uses.—Composed of parallel fibres,  the
longest of which are  external; this ligament  fixes  the
clavicle in its sternal articulation, and prevents its separa-
tion when the shoulders are  raised.

             INTER-ARTICULAR LIGAMENT.
   Situation and figure.—Elongated transversely, slightly
flattened from before backwards, situated  in the interval of
the two sterno-clavicular articulations.
11 
122           anatomist's  manual.
   Extent.—From one clavicle to the other.
   Division.—Its anterior surface corresponds to the ster.
 no-cleido mastoid  muscle, the posterior to the sterno-thy-
 roid; superiorly, it is concave and  free;  inferiorly, it cor-
 responds to that depression of the sternum which bears the
 name of fourchette.   Its two extremities are implanted
 into the sternal extremities of the two clavicles.
   Structure and uses.—Composed of parallel fibres, it is
 intended to maintain the two clavicles in place, and to op-
 pose the separation of their extremities in the descent of the
 shoulders.
   Capsule.—It surrounds the articulation.   One of these
 borders is inserted around the articular facette of the cla-
 vicle, the other embraces the  circumference of the corres-
 ponding  facette of the sternum.   The four ligaments, of
 which I have just spoken,  encircle it on all sides.  The
 structure and uses are the same as in the other moveable
 articulations.   We remark in the interior of the clavicle
 a fibro-cartilage,  which possesses a similar structure and
 the same uses as that of the temporo-maxillary articulation.

          SCAPULO-CLAVICULAR ARTICULATION.
   Capsule.—It attaches itself by its two borders to the
 circumference of the two articular facettes.   Exteriorly, it
 is  surrounded by  numerous soft parts.  In the interior,
 there is no inter-articular cartilage.  It has the same uses
 as the other capsules of the same kind.
   Several ligamentous fibres, which do not merit a particu-
 lar description, cover it in all directions,

            CORACO-CLAVICULAR LIGAMENT,
   Situation and figure.—It results from the union of the
conoid and rhomboid ligaments.   It  is thick and nearly
 triangular. 
anatomist's  manual.
123
  Extent.—From the clavicle  to the coracoid apophysis.
  Division.—Two fasciculi, the internal of which is co-
noidal, and corresponds  to  the  trapezius muscle; and the
external, longer and broader, to cellular tissue.   It is fixed,
on the one hand, to the posterior and external part of the
coracoid apophysis; and, on the other, to the inferior part
of the scapular extremity of the clavicle.
  Structure and uses.—The fibres of this double ligament
pass in different directions.   It not only fixes the clavicle
in its scapular articulation, but they likewise oppose the
luxation of this  bone, and retain its fragments in place,.
when it has been fractured  behind.  All these articulations
are so many arthrodial or planiforme articulations.

     ARTICULATIONS OF  THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES.
  These articulations are very multiplied and the ligaments
very numerous, on account of the great variety of motions
which they execute.  These articulations are  those of the
shoulder with the arm, of the arm with the fore-arm, of this
with the hand,  and the articulations of this last.   I shall
examine them  successively from the superior to the infe-
rior parts.

               Anatomical Preparation.
   Scapulo-humeralarticulation.—This articulation is com-
posed of a capsule and  glenoid ligament or cartilaginous
bourrelet.   The frequent luxations of the superior extre-
mity are to be attributed to the  small number of connecting
media," and to  the great laxity of the capsule.  The head
of the humerus surpasses considerably, by its volume, the
surface of the glenoid cavity of the omoplate, into which,
however, it is received.  We may easily be convinced of the
fact by regarding for  a  moment the reciprocal surfaces of 
* 124           anatomist's manual.

 this  articulation.   Before commencing this examination,
 the capsule must be  exposed ; for this purpose, we must
 remove all the 'muscles which surround the  humerus and
 omoplate, detach completely the clavicle, and leave nothing
 but the ligaments which are to constitute the immediate ob-
 jects of attention.  The piece on which the ligaments of the
 scapulo-clavicular articulation have already been prepared,
 will answer very well;  it is even better than a new piece;
 because a part of the preparation is already made, at least
 that which regards the omoplate. It is, however, necessary
 to remark that we should not be too particular in endea-
 voring to remove the tendons of the supra-spinous muscles,
 infra-spinous  and sub-scapularis from the capsule, to which
 they adhere in a very intimate manner.
    When we have  sufficiently exposed the capsule of the
 scapulo-humeral articulation,  and examined it carefully in
 order to understand its different relations, we may remove
 the acromion and coracoid apophyses, which will somewhat
 interfere with  the examination, as also with the preparation
 of what remains to be studied.
    In preparing the ligaments in question on the two  limbs
 at once, the same degree of attention will not be necessary,
 one of the two pieces  being sacrificed for the more  exact
 study of the other.  We may also in this case open entirely
 one of the capsules, in order to examine the interior of the
 articulation, and particularly for the purpose of observing
 the direction of one of the tendons of the biceps which pe-
 netrates  the articulation, by  perforating, as it were, the
 capsule,  and  afterwards attaching itself to  the circumfe-
 rence of the glenoid ligament.
    Cubito-humeral  articulation.—This articulation is com-
 posed of the  relations of the  humerus not only with the
 cubitus, but likewise with the radius.   However, the mode 
anatomist's manual.            125
of union is not the same among these different bones.  In
a word, the humerus articulates, on the one hand, with the
cubitus, on the other, with the radius,  and these two last the
one with the other, without  the means of union of one of
these articulations answering for the  other, and vice versd.
  It will be  necessary to  examine them all separately.—
Their  general  preparation  presents  but  little difficulty,
when we merely wish to  expose them, by separating the
soft parts by which they are surrounded ; but we must also
penete-ate  their interior, in  order to  see its particular ar-
rangement.
  In order to dissect the  capsule, we must displace from
above downwards the common tendon of the extensors, cut
the posterior ligament of the articulation, and free it from a
mass of  subjacent  adipose  matter.   In examining it in
this  place, we will  observe  that it  extends from the ole-
cranon cavity to the superior part of the radius, descends be-
tween the two bones, prolongs itself along the neck of the
radius, remounts afterwards in front  of the artioulation, in
order to return^to the olecranon, from which it is supposed
to take origin.
  Between the two bones of the fore-arm there is a liga-
mentous band, called inter-osseous ligament,  which unites
them, without contiguity of surface, in their whole length.
We should also expose it,  in order  afterwards to pass to
the preparation of the ligaments of the fore-arm with the
hand, and to the mode of union inferiorly between the two
bones of the fore-arm.
  Radio-carpal articulation.—In proportion as we study
the ligaments of the superior extremity, it will be perceiv-
ed that the difficulties increase, on account of the multipli-
city of the means of union, and of the more  intimate ap-
                          11* 
126            ANATOMISTS  MANUAL.
proximation of the surfaces which will be more sensible in
the hand, as we shall presently see.
   The radio-carpal articulation is the result of the relations
of the radius with the  two first bones in the first range of
the carpus.   The radius likewise presents, as has already
been observed, an articulation with the cubitus ; we cannot
separate the preparation nor examination of these two arti-
culations. This rule should also be observed in reference to
all the articulations of the hand, which present,  1st, that of
the first and second ranges of carpal bones with each other;
2d, that of the second range with  the superior  part of the
metacarpal bones ; 3d, that of the head of these bones with
the first phalanges ; 4th, that of the phalanges with  each
other.   We can only give some general precepts as regards
the preparation of those different modes of union,  the stu-
dent continually aiding himself by the description of these
parts in order to have a thorough  knowledge of them.  It
is essential to  remove carefully  all the  soft parts and this
will prove long and tedious, but we must have the courage.
to accomplish  it,

                     Description.
   The  ligaments of the scapulo-humeral  articulation are
a capsule and the glenoid ligament.
   Those of the humero-cubital articulation are an exter-
nal, internal, anterior, and posterior ligament, and a cap-
sule.
   The ligaments of the  two bones  of the fore-arm may be
divided into those of the superior extremity, and  those of
the inferior extremity.
   The first consist of an annular  ligament and portion of
the humero-cubital capsule.  The second are composed of
a capsule and cartilaginous portion intermediate to the two 
anatomist's  manual.            127
bones; in addition, we find, in the interval of the two bones,
from  above downwards, the inter-osseous and round liga-
ments.
  The ligaments of the radius with the hand are an exter-
nal, an internal, an interior, a posterior, and a capsule.
  Those of the bones of the carpus are the dorsal, palmar,
inter-osseous ligaments,  and capsules; for the whole of
the carpal bones, there is an  external and internal lateral
ligament, and  some  anterior and posterior ligamentous
fibres.
  For the bones of the carpus with those of the metacar-
pus, there are dorsal, palmar ligaments, and as many cap-
sules.
  The general articulation of the metacarpal bones  with
the first phalanges, and of all the phalanges with  each
other, presents palmar, dorsal ligaments, and as many cap-
sules ; and for the phalanges, lateral ligaments.

           HUMERO-SCAPULAR ARTICULATION.
  Capsule.   Situation and figure.—Its figure, which is
that of a cone, encircles the  articulation of the humerus
and scapula.
  Extent.—From the circumference of the glenoid cavity,
to the base  of the neck of the humerus.
  Division.—It corresponds exteriorly to all  the muscles
of the shoulder, the tendons of which, in part confounded
with its proper tissue,  increase its thickness and strength.
Interiorly,  it corresponds to the articulation, and to the
ligamentous bourrelet, to which it adheres in its inferior
part.  But  at the bicipital groove, the insertion of the cap-
sule is interrupted by an  opening in which passes the  ten-
don of the  biceps.  A synovial sheath envelopes this ten-
don and accompanies it in the interior of the articulation. 
128
anatomist's manual.
   Structure and uses.—Its structure does not differ from
 other capsules :  we remark only that it is very thin below,
 which circumstance favors luxations at this point.  Very
 different from the capsules, which we have so far seen, it
 admits  of very extensive motion.
   Glenoid ligament.   Situation and figure.—Of an an-
 nular form, and situated in the interior of the articulation.
   Extent.—It encircles the circumference  of the glenoid
 cavity.
   Division.—It adheres, by one of its sides, to the glenoid
 cavity; by the other, it is contiguous to the head of the
 humerus.   Outwardly, it corresponds to the capsule.   This
 ligament, composed of circular fibres,  is intended to in-
 crease  the extent  and depth of the glenoid cavity, and to
 oppose in this  way the displacement of the humerus.   The
 thick synovia which is observed on it gives it a cartila-
 ginous appearance.
   Between the acromion  and coracoid apophysis there is
 a ligament of  a triangular form, covered  by the clavicle
 and deltoid superiorly:  this contributes, with the two pre-
 ceding apophyses, to form the arch,  which furnishes a point
 of support to the head of the humerus, and opposes its
 luxations superiorly.

            CUBITO-HUMERAL  ARTICULATION.
   External lateral ligament.   Situation  and figure.—
 Elongated, somewhat  flattened, and situated on the exter-
 nal side of the articulation.
  Extent.—From the humerus to the radius.
  Division.—Outwardly,  it is covered by the extensor
muscles of the  fore-arm ; within, it is applied to the capsule.
It is fixed above into the external tuberosity of the hume-
rus ;  it  thence passes, in a diverging direction, to the- an- 
anatomist's  manual.            129
nular ligament, and becomes confounded with the capsule.
It sustains the capsule and opposes the motion of the head
of the radius outwardly.
  Internal lateral ligament.   Situation and  figure.—
Stronger than the preceding, it is flattened, triangular, and
situated at the internal side of the articulation.
  Extent.—From the humerus to the cubitus.
  Division.—Its superficial surface corresponds to the
flexor muscles of the fingers ;  its profound surface adheres
to the capsule.   It is fixed superiorly to the extremity  of
the  internal condyle of the humerus ; inferiorly, it  is in-
serted, on the  one hand,  into the coronoid apophysis of
the  cubitus; and, on the other, into its olecranon apophysis.
It strengthens the capsule.
  At the  anterior and posterior part of the articulation, we
likewise observe ligamentous prolongations, which are not
very apparent, and do not merit any particular description;
they are also intended to fortify the capsule.
  Capsule.   Situation and figure.—It surrounds the ar-
ticulation.
  Extent.—From the .cubitus to the humerus and radius.
  Division.-—It is covered within and without by two late-
ral  ligaments ;  in front, by the anterior brachial; and be-
hind, by the triceps, and more immediately by the ligamen-
tous expansions of which I have just  spoken. It is fixed, on
the one hand, into the environs of the olecranon apophysis ;
and, on the other, below the grand sigmoid cavity of the
cubitus.   In this place, it furnishes a prolongation, which
continues with the superior border of the annular ligament
of the radius, in order  afterwards to regain the small sig-
moid cavity, and terminates  at the point from which it
started. 
130
anatomist's manual.
            radio-cubital articulation.
  Annular ligament.  Situation and figure.—Flattened,
curved from without inwards,  and describes  around the
head of the radius three quarters of a circle.
  Extent.—From the radius to the cubitus.
  Division.—Its superficial portion is covered by the ex-
ternal  lateral  ligament;  its deep-seated surface corres-
ponds to the articulation.   Its superior and inferior borders
present nothing remarkable.
  The inferior articulation of the two bones of the fore.
arm offers :  1st, an inter-articular cartilage, thin, and of a
triangular form.  It is fixed, on the one hand, into the de.
pression which separates  the  styloid apophysis from the
articular surface of the cubitus ; in its course it unites with
the fibres of the radio-carpal  articulation, and maintains
the two bones of the fore-awn in constant relation.  2d,
A small capsule, which passes from the radius to the cubi-
tus,  and which permits by its extreme laxity considerable
motion.
  In fine, we remark, between the two bones of the  fore-
arm, the inter-osseous ligament and  also  the round  liga-
ment or ligamentous cord of Weitbrect.  'The first is very
considerable :  it  presents itself under the form of a thin
web, covered in front by the flexor muscles, and behind by
the extensors.   Its two borders adhere, the external to the
radius, the  internal to the cubitus.   It terminates inferi-
orly in a point; above, it corresponds to the round liga-
ment,  and leaves at this part a  free space for the passage
of the  posterior inter-osseous vessels.
   The round ligament is nothing more than a ligamentous
faisceau, which  goes from the external part of the tubero-
sity of the cubitus,  and  descends obliquely beneath the bi- 
anatomist's manual.            131
cipital tuberosity of the radius to which  it becomes at-
tached.
  These two ligaments  maintain the relations between the
the two bones of the fore-arm, and serve as a support to
the muscles of the anterior and posterior part of the fore-
arm.

             RADIO-CARPAL ARTICULATION. "~
  An external lateral  ligament is placed  on the external
side of the articulation  ; above, it is attached to the sum-
mit of the styloid apophysis of the radius;  below,  to the
external part of the scaphoid bone.
  An internal lateral ligament is  situated  on the internal
side of the articulation.   It is attached superiorly to the
styloid apophysis of the cubitus; inferiorly, to  the  pisi,
forme bone.
  These two ligaments are  composed of parallel  fibres,
united to each other by firm cellular tissue.  They limit
the lateral motions of the hand.
  The anterior or palmar ligament covers  all the anterior
part of the articulation of the fore-arm with the hand.  The
posterior or dorsal corresponds behind to the same parts.
  The capsule is spread  on the  articular surface of the
radius, then covers the  internal surface of the  two late-
ral ligaments, passes over the convexity of the carpal bones,
and is fixed to the scaphoides, semilunare, and pyramidale.

                CARPAL ARTICULATIONS.
  The bones of the carpus are united to each other by liga.
ments, which may be divided  into dorsal or posterior, and
into palmar or anterior.  Each space is occupied  by one
of these ligaments; in addition, a small capsule maintains
the relations of these different bones, and ensures their so- 
 132            anatomist's manual.

 lidity.   But besides these general means of union, there
 are, on the sides of the carpus, lateral  ligaments,  the
 structure and uses of which are the same as in the preced-
 ing articulations.   In fine, a general capsule  envelopes
 these small bones,  and  becomes  confounded with all  the
 other ligaments.

          CARPO-METACARPAL articulations.
   The articulation of the first bone of the metacarpus with
 the carpus differs from the four following, which have a uni.
 form mode  of union.  For the first of these articulations,
 there is a capsular ligament,  which attaches itself around
 the reciprocal articular facettesof the first metacarpal bone,
 on the one  part, and trapezium, on the other.
  For the articulation of the four following metacarpal bones,
 there are dorsal and palmar ligaments,  the structure and
 disposition of which are the  same.  They originate from
the inferior part  of the metacarpal  range  of the  carpal
bones, and  fix themselves into the adjoining  part  of  the
 four last bones of the metacarpus.
   The  bones of  the metacarpus likewise  articulate with
 each other.
   There is a ligamentous band placed at their anterior and
 posterior part, which serves to strengthen their union.

 ARTICULATIONS BETWEEN  THE  METACARPUS AND  PHA-
  LANGES AND BETWEEN THE PHALANGES  THEMSELVES.
   There are, for each articulation of the  bones of the me-
tacarpus with the superior extremity of the first phalanges,
 two small lateral  ligaments and  a capsule, which present
the dispositions already mentioned in the  analogous articu-
 lations. 
               anatomist's  manual.            133

  The mode of articulation in  the other phalanges, does
not differ from what has just been said in reference to the
articulation of the superior extremity of the first phalan-
ges with the inferior extremity of the metacarpal bones.
  The different articulations  whose  mode  of union we
have described, vary as to the extent  and kind of motion
they permit.   Thus, the articulation  of  the head of the
humerus  with the glenoid cavity is  an enarthrosis par
excellence.  That of the same bone with those of the fore-
arm offer  two kinds of articulation;  the  first  is a  perfect
angular gynglimus ; the second, a species of enarthrosis.
  The articulation of the  two bones of the fore-arm with
each other presents  two examples of lateral gynglimus,
and that of these two  bones with the carpus, a  sort of
enarthrosis.
  That of the bones of  the carpus  with each other, as
likewise with the metacarpus, is an arthrodia.
  The articulation of the phalanges affords examples in all,,
of a simple or imperfect angular gynglimus.

    ARTICULATIONS OF  THE  INFERIOR EXTREMITIES.
   There  is considerable  analogy between  the different
articulations of the inferior extremities and  those of the
superior.  If we except the extent and width of the surfa-
ces, we shall find in them a perfect resemblance to what
has just been described.
  The articulations of the inferior extremities are composed
of that of the femur with the cotyloid cavity of the haunch
bone.  It  bears the name of ilio femoral.  We find there
a capsule, a cotyloid ligament,  an inter-articular ligament
and  a cartilaginous  bourrelet.  The  articulation of the
femur  with  the bones of  the leg, called femoro-tibial, is
                          12 
134            anatomist's  manual.
composed Of an external lateral ligament, of an internal
lateral ligament, of the rotulien, of the posterior ligament,
of two oblique or cross  ligaments,  and of a capsule,  in
which are observed semi-lumar or fibro-cartilages.
  The peroneo-tibial articulation must be examined above,
below, and in the centre.   Above, we observe an anterior,
a posterior ligament, and a capsule ; below, likewise an
anterior and posterior ligament, and, in addition, an inter-
osseous ligament.
   The middle articulation, or that of the centre, merely
offers an inter-osseous ligament.
  The tibio-tarsal  articulation, as  likewise  those of the
other parts of the foot, differ but little from the articulations
of the hand.

               Anatomical preparation.
  The preparation of the ligaments of the superior extre-
mities, bears so strong  an analogy to that  of the infe-
rior, that this last may be regarded as a repetition of the
preceding.   I  should,  therefore, pass it over  in silence, if
I were not desirous of pointing out certain precautions re-
lative to the particularities, indeed but little important,  of
the preparation of the inferior extremities.   Thus, in the
preparation of the ilio-femoral articulation,  we must not
forget to isolate one of the tendons of  the superior  extre-
mity of the anterior rectus, which  loses itself in  the cap-
sule.   We must likewise observe the manner  in which the
inferior extremity of this muscle disposes itself over the
articulation of  the rotula with the  femur.    We should
not neglect to open the capsule of the great ilio-femoral
articulation,  as  likewise the  femoro-tibial,  in order  to
examine its interior, in which we will observe ligaments
to be found in no other part.  As to  the  preparation  of 
anatomist's  manual.
135
the other ligaments in the rest of the inferior extremities,
I believe it unnecessary to speak of it, for reasons already
stated.

                    Description.
             ilio-femoral articulation.
  Capsule.  Situation and figure.—It encircles the articu-
lation, is the largest and strongest of all those in the hu-
man body, but it does not differ from others of the same
kind as  regards its general form.
 Extent.—From the contourof the cartilaginous bourrelet,
fixed at the  circumference of the cotyloid cavity, to the
base of the neck of tho femur.
   Division.—Its superficial  surface is covered by all the
muscles which surround the  articulation; but the tendons
of the psoas and iliacus, of the anterior rectus and small glu-
teus muscle,  furnish prolongations to  it, with which it con-
tracts strong adhesions.  In the interior it corresponds to the
articulation ; its superior border is attached around the co-
tyloid cavity, on the outside of the cartilaginous bourrelet.
Towards  the anterior notch this border  becomes reflected
by dividing into two portions, the external of which is lost
in the neighboring periosteum, and the internal penetrates
the articulation in order to line the cartilaginous  layer of
the cotyloid  cavity.   Its  inferior  border attaches  itself,
around  the base of the neck of the femur, to a prominence
going from before backwards from the great to the small
trochanter.  Like the preceding, it becomes reflected by
dividing into two portions,  the internal of which is continu-
ous with the cartilaginous covering of the head of the femur.
   Structure  and uses.—Very thick in front, less so below,
 and still less at its posterior part; the ilio-femoral capsule
 is composed of fibres mingling  in every direction,  more 
136            anatomist's  manual.
firm in the interior, more relaxed in the exterior.   Its uses
are the same as  those of all the capsules;  but on  account
of its great thickness, it offers a more powerful resistance
to the efforts proper to distend it, and opposes more effi-
ciently in this way  the displacement of the  head of the
femur, and consequently the luxation of this bone.
  Ligamentous bourreletj or  cotyloid ligament.  Situation
and figure.—Of a circular form, situated around the coty.
loid cavity,  in the interior of the articulation.
  Division.—It corresponds exteriorly to the capsule, and
interiorly to the  cotyloid cavity, passing above the notches,
which are remarked around this cavity, and which it in part
conceals; towards the anterior notch, it passes above the
transverse ligament, which gives it support, and to  which it
strongly adheres.  Its border  is free, cutting, and corres-
ponds to the cavity formed by the capsule.
  Structure and uses.—The cotyloid ligament is composed
of circular  fibres which interlace, the spaces of which,
filled by thick synovia,  give it a cartilaginous  appearance.
It is intended to  augment the  extent and depth of the coty-
loid cavity.   It is not rare to see it ossify  in proportion as
age advances.                               ,
  The anterior notch of the cotyloid cavity is closed by a
ligament, which  has  received .the names of transverse and
inter-articular.   Although this ligament only appears to
extend from one of the borders of the notch to the  other, a
more attentive examination will show that  it is placed on
all the circumference of the cotyloid cavity, and that it
becomes confounded  with the cotyloid ligament.
  We likewise observe, in the interior of  the  articulation,
an elongated fibrous portion, somewhat  of a rounded form
which, from the roughness observed at the summit of the 
anatomist's  manual.
137
head of the femur, where it  is fixed, goes to the bottom of
the cotyloid cavity, in order likewise to fix itself there.

             femoro-tibial articulation.
  Rotulien ligament.  Situation  and figure.—Flattened,
very broad, situated  at the anterior part of the  femoro-
tibial articulation.
   Extent.—From the rotula to the tuberosity of the tibia.
   Division.—Its anterior surface is covered by the skin,
from which it is separated by loose cellular tissue; the pos-
terior corresponds to the articulation: in the interval there is
a mass of fatty tissue, to which anatomists have given the
name of adipose ligament.   It becomes confounded on the
sides with the aponeurosis of the  fascia lata.   Its  superior
extremity is fixed  to the inferior angle of the rotula which
it embraces, becoming confounded at this place with the in-
ferior tendon of the anterior rectus of the thigh.  Inferiorly,
it is attached to the anterior tuberosity of the rotula.
   Structure  and uses.—The rotulien   ligament  is  the
strongest of  all those, which serve for the  connection of
bones.  It is composed of parallel fibres, united by a very
dense cellular tissue.  Its uses are to fix the rotula on the
femur and  tibia, to prevent its displacement,  and to extend
the action of the muscles of the thigh to the tibia.
   External lateral ligament. Situation and figure.—Flat-
tened transversely, situated at the external side of the arti-
culation.
   Extent.—From the femur to the peroneus.
   Division.—Superficially, it is covered  by  the aponeuro-
sis of the fascia lata, and  by some  fibres of the  external
portion of the femoral.   Profoundly, it corresponds to the
articulation from which it is separated by fat and one of the
i*r)icular arteries.   Its superior extremity is  attached to.
                          12? 
138
anatomist's  manual.
"the external tuberosity of the femur, the inferior to the ex.
ternal side of the head of the peroneus.
   Structure and uses.—Its structure gives it a  tendinous
aspect.  Its uses are to oppose the too great extension of the
leg.
   Internal lateral ligament.  Sit iction and figure.—Flat.
tened, thinner than the  preceding, situated at the internal
side of the articulation.
   Extent.—From the femur to the tibia.
   Division.—It is covered superficially by some fibres of
the internal portion  of  the femoral, and by the  species of
patte d'oie formed by the re-union of some of the muscles of
the thigh, and which is observed at the superior and internal
part of the tibia.   Its profound surface is applied to the
articulation, and is separated from it by fat and the internal
articular  vessels.   Its two extremities are implanted into
the internal tuberosity of the two bones, femur and tibia.
   Structure and uses.—It differs from the preceding, as it
is thinner, but it has the same uses.
   Posterior ligament.  Situation and figure.—Flattened,
and of a triangular form, situated obliquely at the posterior
part of the articulation.
   Extent—From the femur to the tibia.
   Division.—Its posterior surface is covered by the plantar
muscle, the external jumellus, and by the  popliteal vessels.
 Its profound or anterior surface corresponds to the articula-
tion, and  posterior cross ligament.  Its inferior extremity,
 pointed, is fixed to the internal  tuberosity of the  tibia, in
 the same  spot with the semi-membranosus muscle, of  which
 it appears to be the continuation.  From this the ligament
 goes, spreading in form of a fan, towards the external con-
 dyle of the femur, where it becomes attached.   It  is in-
 tended  to increase the strength of the capsule. 
anatomist's  manual.             139
  Capsule or capsular ligament. Situation and figure.—
From the circumference of the articular  facettes of the
tibia, to those of the same facettes of the femur.
  Division.—Its superficial surface is covered, in front, by
the inferior tendon of the anterior rectus, and, below the
rotula, by the inferior  ligament of this bone; without, by
the external lateral  ligament; behind, by the oblique or
cross ligaments; within, by the internal lateral ligamentv
Its profound surface is observed in the interior of the arti-
culation.   Superiorly, it takes origin from the anterior part
of the  condyles, covered in this  spot  by the  extensors of
the leg; from thence  it goes to the posterior  part of the
articulation, after being reflected on the condyles, which it
covers in all their extent;  it furnishes a sort of sheath to
the cross ligament, which, without this, would be enclosed
within the articulation ; in fine, it descends on the articular
surface of the tibia, and terminates behind the inferior ten-
don of the rotula, which it embraces in all  its extent.
   The thickness of the capsule is not considerable.   Its
uses are the same as those of the other  ligaments  of the
same kind.
   The oblique or cross ligaments, so  called on account of
their direction, are two  fibrous cords, very strong, placed at
the posterior part of the articulation.   One is anterior ; it
is implanted into the internal side of the external condyle,
thence it goes obliquely to the spine of the tibia, and be-
 comes confounded with the semi-lunar cartilage ; the other,
 posterior, is fixed on the external side of the internal con-
 dyle, and  goes from thence  behind the spine of the tibia,
 where it is implanted, and becomes confounded with the
 semi-lunar cartilage.
    The semi-lunar cartilages, two in number, are placed in
 the interior of the articulation.   Inferiorly, they  are ap- 
140
anatomist's  manual.
 plied one above the other to the corresponding surfaces of
 the tibia, to which they adhere.  Superiorly, they corres.
 pond to the condyles of the femur.  Their large circumfe.
 rence, the thickest, adheres to the lateral ligaments; their
 small circumference, very thin, regards the interior of the
 articulation.  These two fibro-cartilages are united to each
 other, by means of a prolongation of the capsular ligament.
 They are composed  of  fibres, which, passing from  one  of
 their extremities, go, by  describing concentric curves,  to
 that of the opposite side.
   Their uses  are to line the  articular surfaces,  and  to
 prevent the effect of pressure, which the extremities of the
 femur and tibia exert on each other in leaps and falls, and
 even in ordinary progression.

             PERONEO-TIBIAL ARTICULATION.
   There are, for the articulation of the peroneus and tibia,
 ligaments which unite them superiorly,  others which have
 the same uses inferiorly, and finally an  inter-osseous liga-
 ment.
   The superior ligaments are: An anterior, posterior, and
 a capsule.   The first or anterior, of a quadri-lateral form,
 flattened, is placed on the anterior part of the articulation.
 It is fixed, on the one hand, into the external tuberosity  of
 the tibia, and, on the other, into  the corresponding articular
 facette of the 'peroneus.
  The posterior, of a figure similar to the preceding, situ-
 ated at the posterior part of the articulation, is fixed, on the
 one hand, into the tibia, and, on the other, into the corres-
 ponding part of the peroneus.
  The capsule has but  little extent.   It is implanted into
the contour of the diarthrodial facette of the tibia, and into
the corresponding facette of the peroneus.  Superficially* 
anatomist's  manual.             141
it corresponds to the two preceding ligaments, and, on the
other hand, to the interior of the articulation.
  The inferior  articulation of the tibia with the  peroneus
is composed of two ligaments, an anterior and posterior.
  The anterior is extended obliquely on the anterior part
of the inferior articulation  of the two bones of the leg.—
Within, it is fixed to the external and anterior tubercle of
the inferior extremity of the tibia;  without, to the malleo-
lus  externus.
  The posterior has a situation opposite to  the preceding.
It  is attached,' on the one  part, to the external and  poste-
rior tubercle of the inferior extremity of the tibia, and, on
the other, to the posterior portion  of the malleolus ex-
ternus.*
  These four ligaments have  a similar structure, and are
composed of parallel fibresi united by very firm cellular
tissue.  They are intended to strengthen the two bones of
the leg against each other in such way as to give them the
appearance of immobility, and in  this respect,  appear to
form but one bone.
   The inter-osseous ligament,  elongated, flattened,  placed
in the interval of the two bones of the leg,  is broad at its
superior part, and narrow  inferiorly.  On its anterior sur-
face the extensors of the toes are sustained ; on its poste-
rior, the flexors; its two borders are  attached to the pro-
minent lines of the external edge of the  tibia, and internal
surface of the  peroneus.   Superiorly,  it  leaves a  large
opening for the passage of the posterior tibial vessels.  It is
formed of fibres, interlaced in every  direction, originating
equally from the peroneus and tibia.  Its uses are not  only to
unite the tibiaand peroneus, but likewise to serve as apointof
support to the muscles of the anterior and posterior  part of the
leg. 
142            anatomist's  manual.
              TIBIO-TARSAL ARTICULATION.
   This articulation offers a capsule and  four  ligaments,
 distinguished  into  anterior, posterior, external, and in.
 ternal.
   The internal ligament, placed on the internal side of the
 articulation, fixes itself, on the one part, into the malleolus
 internus;  on the other,  it sends prolongations, which are
 implanted into tihe internal side of the astragalus.
   The external  ligament, narrow and thick,  is placed on
 the external side of the articulation,  and  comes  from the
 summit of the malleolus  externus ; from thence, it passes
 downwards in a vertical  direction, and  is inserted into the
 external side of the calcaneum.
   The anterior  ligament is  composed of two  fitsciculi,
 which, from the tibia and  peroneus, fix  themselves into
 the external side of the astragalus.
   The posterior ligament is likewise composed of two fas-
 ciculi, which are fixed, above, into the external and poste-
 rior part of the peroneus, and thence pass to the neighbor-
 ing portion of the astragalus, where they are inserted.
   The capsule, similar to all those of the same class, is, as
it  were, enveloped  by  the different ligaments, which we
have  just examined.  It is fixed, above,  into all the cir-
cumference of the large cavity formed  by the inferior ex.
tremity of the tibia and peroneus.   From this border, there
goes  a prolongation,  which  attaches  itself beneath the
two facettes by  which these two bones articulate.  In its
inferior part, it embraces all the circumference of the ar.
ticular facette of the astragalus.
   This capsule, thin and  very loose, serves to maintain the
union of the bones of the leg with the astralagus, but par,
ticularly to secrete and contain a large quantity of synovia, 
anatomist's  manual.
143
                TARSAL ARTICULATIONS.
  The calcaneum and astralagus articulate with each other
by two and sometimes three articular surfaces.  Each cor-
responding surface  offers  a capsule.  In addition,  there
arises from the  groove,  observed on the inferior surface
of the astragalus, a fibrous faisceau, which passes to the
corresponding groove of  the  calcaneum,  and maintains
these two bones closely in contact.   There also arise from
the posterior part of the  astragalus ligamentous fibres,
which pass within to the neighboring part of the calcaneum.
  Although the calcaneum is not directly articulated with
the scaphoides, there are, however, two  ligaments between
these two bones, one inferior, going from the internal tube-
rosity of the calcaneum to the in ferior part of the scaphoides;
the other, passing from the same tuberosity to the external
portion  of the scaphoides.
  But the calcaneum articulates with the cuboides: for this
articulation, there is  a capsule, which spreads itself over
the two  articular surfaces.  In addition, there are two liga-
ments,  the superior  of which, broad and flattened, ex-
tends from the  anterior  and  superior part  of the cal-
caneum to the cuboides; the inferior, thick and very long,
extends from the inferior and anterior part of the calcaneum,
to the inferior portion of the cuboides.
  The scaphoides and cuboides are united to each other,
without contiguity of  surfaces, by means of two ligaments,
one dorsal, situated  transversely and  quadrilateral, the
other, plantar, stronger than the preceding, and rounded.
  The cuboides articulates immediately with the third cunei-
forme bone by surfaces surrounded by a small capsule and
two  ligaments, one of which is the dorsal, the other the
plantar.
  The scaphoides, for its part, articulates by its anterior sur- 
144
anatomist's  manual.
face, with the three cuneiforme bones.   A common capsule
strengthens the relation of these different bones.   Three
plantar ligaments and as many dorsal  pass  from the  sea-
phoides to the cuneiforme bones, and increase their respec-
tive solidity.
   In fine, the three cuneiforme bones articulate with each
other.   Three superior transverse ligaments, and as many
inferior, extend from one to the other of these bones,  and
strengthen their respective articulation.

          TARSO-METATARSAL  ARTICULATIONS.
   The bones of the metatarsus are articulated with some of
the tarsal bones, viz:  the first  with the first cuneiforme;
the second with the  second  cuneiforme, and likewise with
the first and third, so that it is, as it were, enclosed in this
triple articulation ; the third with the third cuneiforme, and
the two last with cuboides ;  two small cartilaginous plates
facilitate the sliding of the  bones.  We observe, for these
different articulations, a small capsule;  moreover, between
each bone of the metatarsus and the adjoining part of the
bone of the tarsus, there are two ligaments, one dorsal, the
other plantar.   The second bone of the metatarsus alona
receives three of them, one from each cuneiforme bone.

              METATARSAL  ARTICULATIONS.
   The bones of the  metatarsus articulate  with each other
by the lateral portions of their  tarsal  extremity.   All  pre-
sent two articular surfaces, except the first, which has none
at its internal side, and the fifth at  its external.   In order
to strengthen these reciprocal articulations, the correspond-
ing capsules of the bones of the tarsus, are spread in  part
over those of thebones of the  metatarsus.  Moreover, the dor- 
anatomist's manual.            145
sal and plantar ligaments, disposed as in the hand, consoli-
date these articulations.
  Besides the dorsal and plantar ligaments, we find between
the posterior extremities of the metatarsal bones, other in-
ter-osseous fibres,  which  are very  strong,  and serve to
maintain the different relations among the bones.
  Finally, above their anterior extremities, there is a trans-
verse  ligament, which  unites them,  the situation and uses
of which have considerable  analogy  with that of the
bones of the metacarpus.

        METATARSO-PHALANGIEN ARTICULATIONS.
  The concave extremity of the first phalanges articulates
with the corresponding heads of the metatarsal bones.  For
this articulation,  we observe  a small capsule,  similar to
those in the hand, but more loose,  and lateral ligaments
divided  into external and internal.

              PHALANGIEN ARTICULATIONS.
  The phalanges of the toes articulate with  each other in
the same manner as those of the fingers ;  a  small cap-
sule, more extended in the  action of flexion than extension,
is spread over each of the articulations in particular.  Two
lateral  ligaments, smaller  than in the phalanges of the fin-
gers, strengthen the phalangien articulations.
  The articulation of the head of the femur, with the glenoid
cavity,  is an enarthrosis ;  that of the femur with the tibia,
a double arthrodia.
   The  two bones of the leg likewise form  an arthrodia>
notwithstanding the obscurity of the  motion.  .
   The  articulation of the leg with the foot is a perfect an-
gular gynglimus, when we consider merely the movements
of flexion and extension ; but it is  an arthrodia, if we refer
                           13 
146            anatomist's  manual.
to the movements in every direction which this articulation
permits.
  The articulation of the bones of the tarsus, and of those
with the  bones of the  metatarsus, is an arthrodia.
  The bones of the metatarsus articulate with the first pha-
langes by enarthrosis, and the phalanges with  each other
by angular gynglimi.

                CARTILAGES IN GENERAL.
  The cartilages, in general, are hard, whitish substances,
placed in the different parts of the body, and which, by their
situation, structure, and uses, deserve to be distinguished
into different kinds ; some serve for articulations, others to
close or complete certain cavities.
   The cartilages  which serve for the articulations are
those of the moveable articulations, those of the immovea-
ble articulations, and those, in fine, which hold a middle
place between the two first, and which are called mixed, or
articulations by continuity.  The first are  observed at the
extremity of the bones, which enter into these articulations.
They present themselves generally, under the form of a
plate more or less  thick, which lines the articular surfaces
to which they always adhere in a very solid manner.  The
surface, which corresponds to the interior  of the articula-
tion  is smooth and polished,  continually lubricated by a
greater or less quantity of synovia, a greasy and unctuous
humor, which  facilitates the motion on the articular sur-
iaces of bones.  There is  constantly  spread over these
cartilaginous  plates a prolongation of the capsular  liga-
ment.
   The cartilages of the immoveable articulations are only
met with in the bones of the head. Visible only in extreme
youth, they disappear with age, and ultimately become os- 
anatomist's  manual.            147
sified, as we perceive in the  solid connection  of the  flat
bones of the cranium."
  The cartilages of the  mixed articulations are  observed
between the bodies  of the vertebras, between the bones of
the pelvis, and in the interval which separates the ribs from
the sternum.   They are,  in general, of a yellow  color,
hard, thick, elastic ;  these are the cartilages per excellence :
intimately attached  to the surfaces of the bones they keep
in relation, they permit but limited motions,  which are ef-
fected at the expense of their elasticity.  They become
hard with age, and ultimately attain an osseous consistence.
  The cartilages of the second kind, or which do  not serve
for  articulations, are  of two sorts:  they are intended,
either to complete a cavity, as, for instance, the inter-cos-
tal cartilages, or to form it,  as the cartilages of the larynx
and nose.
  The organization of cartilages presents an interlacement
of fibres so very firm, that we can scarcely distinguish the
particular direction they follow.  Although we  cannot per-
ceive sanguineous vesse's in them, and though every thing
induces us to believe that they only receive, in their ordi-
nary state, white juices, yet certain diseases leave no doubt
as to the passage of blood into these substances.
  The properties of cartilages are physical and vital.  Elas-
ticity is the peculiar character of the first, which is mani-
fested by numerous experiments,  whether during life or
after death.
   The  vital  properties  of cartilages are very  obscure ;
they can only be recognized when disease produces  con-
siderable sensibility in them.
   These parts are  developed nearly in the same way as
bones.   More thick and supple in the infant, they harden
with age, and eventually ossify in great part in old age. 
1 iS            anatomist's  manual.

                  fibro-cartilages.
  We give, in general, the name of fibro-cartilages to hard,
clastic, whitish substances, which hold a middle place, as re-
gards force  and thickness, between  cartilage properly so
called, and the greater number of ligaments.  As respects
their uses they may be divided into three classes.  The first
comprehends those which are  found in the  interior of
certain  articulations,  and which  are intermediate to  the
diarthrodial  cartilages.  Those of the second class we ob-
serve without the articulations.  They aid in the formation
of the trachea.   In fine, the fibro-cartilages of the third
class are nothing more than certain fibrous substances met
with under the passage of some tendons, whose friction they
modify.
  As regards structure, properties, and developement,  the
libro-cartilage has considerable analogy  with the cartilage,
but it ossifies both later and more rarely.

                   THE PERIOSTEUM.
  The periosteum is a sort of fibrous  membrane,  which
covers all the  bones, except in  those  places  covered by
cartilages.  This general envelope of the bones is of a dense,
resisting tissue, of a greyish color, possessing greater thick-
ness in infancy, thinner in proportion in  the adult, where it
is also more  dense and firm.
  The  adherence of the periosteum to the bones is incon-
siderable in  infancy;  it becomes greater in proportion as
age advances, and in extreme old age it  can with difficulty
be isolated from the bones.  Placed, on the one hand, on the
superficies of the bones, the  periosteum  corresponds, most
generally, on the other, to  the  muscles which  send ten-
dinous and aponeurotic prolongations to its  proper tissue,
 aid this causes it to appear, in some points, thicker than it
really is. 
anatomist's  manual.
149
  Its organization is very difficult to demonstrate ; we can
only perceive fibres, whose direction is very varied, and
their density is extreme.
  The periosteum, in the foetus, is soft, spongy, and pene-
trated by a large quantity of gelatinous fluid.   In propor-
tion  as age advances, it becomes more firm and dense, and
its fibres are likewise more distinct.
  Its properties, but little apparent in the ordinary state of
life,  are developed with remarkable rapidity and  intensity
in certain affections.
  Its uses are numerous and important.   Applied to all the
external surfaces of the  bones, it protects them from the
changes they would otherwise  undergo by the friction of
the muscles, and the pulsation of the arteries.   It replaces,
under  certain  circumstances, the solid part of the bone,
which  has disappeared in consequence of necrosis; in fine,
it is the means of affording to the smallest vessels  a facility
of penetrating the resisting tissue of the bones.     ^
   The perichondrium, a membrane  of a  fibrous nature,
is applied  to  the  cartilages, as the periosteum  is to  the
bones.
 • The  tendons  and aponeuroses are parts of the fibrous
system, whose presence  serves to increase the force and
extent of the muscles to which they constantly appertain.
  As respects their organization, these parts bear a strong
analogy to membranes in general.

          THE MARROW AND MEDULLARV JUICE.
  The marrow, or, if you prefer it, the medullary system, is
not uniformly spread over the entire animal economy.   It
is, on the contrary, only seen  in certain points of the osse-
ous  system, and especially in the cavities, which  the  dif-
ferent  parts of this system present.   Two kinds of cavities
                         13* 
150            anatomist's  manual.
receive the medullary tissue; hence two modes of viewing
it •  1st, in the large cavity of long bones ; 2d, in the smaller
 avitiesof the extremities of these bones, and in the analo-
gous cavities of the flat and short bones.
  In the large cavity of the long bones, the marrow, or me-
dullary system presents itself under the form of a membrane,
hning ail the cavity of the bone, doubling  on itself a num-
ber of times; it is of a cylindrical figure and  spongy na-
ture.   This portion of the medullary  system does not ap-
l>ear to communicate with  the juice of the same  name,
.''aced at the extremities of the long bones.
  Its organization is but little  known.  Certain  diseases,
ocrophula, for example, furnish some means of developing
iv as likewise  its properties.   Its uses  are  better  under-
stood.   The principal and least equivocal is  to secrete the
medullary juice by exhalation.  It is also known that the
iiiedullary juice serves to nourish the bone, as  may be as-
certained by noticing what  occurs  to this last when the
tnarrow has been destroyed : its death is the inevitable con-
sequence.
  In the numerous cavities  at  the extremity  of  the long
bones, and in the analagous  cavities of the  flat and short
bones, there will be found an oily juice, which bears con-
siderable resemblance to  that  secreted by the medullary
system of the large cavity in long bones,  and  which  is
called  medullary.   It  appears to  result  from  the ex-
halation  furnished by the numerous  vessels,  which pene-
trate these cavities; but  it is very difficult to appreciate
exactly its organization and properties.
  Its  uses  do not s"eem  to differ from the  same  juice,
secreted by the medullary  system in the cavity of long
bones. 
anatomist's manual
151
                       SYNOVIA.
  This  humor, which  until now has been  considered as
furnished by the pretended glands situated in the interior of
the  moveable articulations,  is viewed, with more reason, as
a secretion of the synovial  membranes or capsules of the
articulations.
  When it is examined, separated from the mass of blood, x
it presents itself under the appearance of a viscid, whitish,
transparent fluid.  Its nature, unctuous  and ropy, renders
it very  fit to lubricate the  moveable articular surfaces, to
facilitate their reciprocal motions, and to prevent any bad
effects from their pressure.   Its quantity, which is not the
same in the different articulations, is always in proportion
to the extent and variety of motions, which  these articula-
tions permit.   It is this, which appears to be the cause of
the swelling more or less considerable observed in certain
articulations, and which is termed  dropsy of the artieu-
lations.
                    MYOLOGY.
               Preliminary Exposition.
  Notwithstanding  the  labors  of modern anatomists, the
muscular system has appeared  to me susceptible of being
presented under  a more  methodical arrangement,  and
which, moreover, accords better with the brilliant applica-
tions of modern physiology.
  Anatomists have divided the  muscles after particular
combinations,  which  are  contrary to  nature;   for  it
never  was her intention  to make long, broad, or short
muscles ; but she has distributed, in each region of the body,
organs necessary for the exercise and support of the func- 
152            anatomist's  manual.
tions proper to them, and the form which results appertains
altogether to the conformation of the parts, and not to any
particular arrangement, called natural; in fine, the surfaces
of the body have not  been made to receive such  and such
muscle;  but, on  the contrary, each muscle has  been  or-
ganized and disposed in such way as to accommodate itself
to the figure of the surface on which it is developed, and
particularly to the uses which it is destined to fulfil.
  After this brief exposition,  I think we may divide  the
whole muscular system into three distinct orders of muscles,
which differ essentially by their situation, by their struc-
ture, and especially by their uses.
  First Order.  Muscles  of flexion,  extension and rota-
tion.—They form the most considerable order of the mus-
cular system;  the mass  alone of each  muscle, is  or-
dinarily  very volumirfous.   This  order is found princi-
pally  in  the  extremities:   they  are  the  locomotive
muscles  par excellence; they are  found in every  part
where it  is necessary that extensive movements of flexion
or extension should occur ; they are  observed in the arm,
fore-arm, hand, thigh, leg, at the posterior and lateral part of
the neck ;  in all these places the movements  are extensive
and very manifest.   These are the muscles which have ex-
cited the most research,  and fixed the particular  attention
of anatomists:  those of the face have  singularly embar-
rassed them, and not being able to place them in their
system  of general classification, the greater part have
associated them with the study of splanchnology.
  The elongated form appertains exclusively to the muscles
of the first order:  it is these that anatomists have called
long muscles;  but this  length  differs singularly in  the
various muscles; more considerable in  the muscles of the
thigh, it  is almost reduced to nothing in those of the hand, 
anatomist's  MANUAL.
153
which have been placed among the short or small muscles;
however, they are essentially the same organs, and all have
the same dimension in part, that  is their length ; if they
differ in extent, their structure and uses remain the same.
  Structure.—All the muscles of this order have an analo-
gous structure; composed in great part of red fibres, they
are ordinarily terminated by an elongated, white portion,
called tendon.  By prolonging the  real extent of the muscle,
without increasing the length of its red portion, the tendon
contributes to render its contraction more energetic, since
it is proved that a muscle is stronger, in proportion as its
fibres are shorter and more numerous.
   As the extremities  are  those parts which  execute the
greatest motion, it is on them that we remark all the muscles
of the  first order.  But  we will  observe that their form
always differs from that we have  assigned them, in propor-
tion as they are destined to execute less extensive motions,
but not less  energetic; which will permit us to divide the
first order into two genera.
    1st. Muscles of flexion and  extension.—Almost all of
 them are parallel to the length  of the limbs,  elongated,
 swelled in their  middle, and always terminated by one or
 two tendons, the size and length of which are in proportion
 to  the extent and energy of the motions.
    2d. Rotatory muscles,  and  muscles  of station.—Less
 elongated than the preceding, having all a broad point of
 insertion into the trunk, terminated, however, by a tendon
 which passes to the extremities.
    Second Order. Muscles of the trunk, of limited  and
 concentrated action.—Less numerous and strong than the
 muscles of the preceding order, they still occupy more con-
 siderable spaces.  We  remark  them  exclusively  on the
 trunk ; their principal character consists in their extreme 
154            anatomist's  manual.
breadth and inconsiderable  thickness; stretched over a
very large surface, they would surcharge the body with an
useless and inconvenient weight, if their volume equalled
that of the muscles of extensive motions.
  If the evidence  and  extent of motion especially charac-
terize the muscles of the preceding order, those of the
trunk are  particularly  remarkable on account of the efforts
they manifest in resisting displacements.  We cannot  call
them muscles of locomotion ; for, in progression, far from
precipitating it, their  contraction, on the  contrary, tends
constantly to draw the line of gravity in the centre, and to
maintain  the equilibrium, continually broken by the  dis-
placement of the inferior extremities ; it is true that, in  fix-
ing the  trunk, in a manner, as it were, immoveable, they
add to the security of progression; their numerous points
of insertion  and great breadth, explain the nature of their
uses.
  Structure.—Composed in great part of red, contractile
fibres, the white portion predominates in several  muscles of
this order.  This white portion is spread out under the form
of a thin web, which, not being susceptible of contraction,
deprives the contractile part of the faculty of acting on sur-
faces, which it would have been useless, and even injurious,
to place in motion.  The breadth of these muscles, which
is their  most striking character, is principally intended to
accommodate itself to the figure of the  surfaces, on which
they are  developed.   The ancients admitted  in all  the
muscles a fixed point or origin, and a moveable point or in-
sertion,  which induced them to  compare  them to a  rat
tcorche ;  but where is • this figure found in the  muscles of
the abdomen ?
  Third Order.  Muscles of expression, cutaneous, or those
of limited motions.—The muscles of this order are found, 
anatomist's manual.
155
neither on the extremities, nor trunk : they appear to ap-
pertain more particularly to theiace, to the organs of sense
and deglutition ;  although submitted  in  great part to the
will, we, however, have not always the power of increas-
ing or diminishing their action.
  Their varied action, the vivacity and celerity of their
movements, have placed man  far above other animals.
These last, quadrupeds more particularly, and  especially
the carnivorous class, possess in great perfection the mus-
cles of the two preceding orders :  but it is the privilege of
man alone to convey an idea of the passions that agitate
him, and vary as he pleases  the melody of his voice.   In
this respect,  it has been observed that  animals,  even the
most perfect of them, merely make grimaces, whereas man,
on the contrary,  may, at his will,  exhibit the most violent
passions,  as also  the gentlest sentiments.
   The muscles of this order are, in general, of small size ;
but  as  they are  entirely muscular,  as it were, the  most
varied and prompt movement appears to be their essential
character ;  almost  all of them are lost in  the integuments,
or at least are inserted there in all directions:  here, there
is no tendon, no aponeurosis, no determinate and analogous
figure for all;  their  figure is as varied as their action,
and their action is more rapid than thought.   But  little
 known even  at  the  present day, physiologists  have dis-
 dained to study them, and appear  to have abandoned their
 examination to necromancers, jugglers,  to the pretended
 physiognomists,  to all  those charlatans  in  fine, who,  re-
 lying upon our credulity, dare to  speak of those things, of
 which they are absolutely ignorant.  However, the mus-
 cles of the face  are susceptible of the most ingenious and
 brilliant considerations.  Who could ever imitate the viva- 
156
anatomist's manual.
 city and fineness of expression of the muscles, which move
 the lips!
   Structure.—Entirely fleshy, the muscles of this  order
 are equally susceptible of contracting in all  the points of
 their limited extent; there are no tendinous or aponeurotic
 portions, which would only tend to interfere with the viva-
 city of their action.  Charged with the most detailed  ex-
 pression of the passions, it was necessary that the whole
 muscle should be equally irritable.   In this particular, they
 are, as it were, separated from the rest of the muscular
 system; they have nothing to do with the movements of
 flexion, extension, rotation, &c.  They form for themselves
 a separate and distinct muscular system, by their situation,
 structure, and uses.  The fibre, which composes them,  ap-
 pears  more fine  and delicate, more  perfectly organized,
 than in any of the other muscles, and the number and size
 of the vessels which penetrate them, appear to establish this
 difference in a still more remarkable  manner. Such  are
 the considerations, which  I  have  thought proper to plaoe
 at the  head of Myology.
   I shall now pass to the general and  preliminary remarks
on dissection, which I did not make at the commencement
of Osteology, because  this last exacts but simple prepara-
tions, and  the students  do not really begin to dissect until
on the  subject of myology.   Do  not  let it be said that I
have neglected method : if I have adopted from preference
that which I now submit to the public in this work, it is
because, after much reflection, I am convinced that I could
not adopt any other ; for I have  constantly  had  in view
the interest of the  student,  and prefer  that  which would
prove useful to him, to what might only serve to gratify  my
own imagination. 
anatomist's manual.
157
                INTRO DUCTION

        TO the  art  of  dissecting.

   It does not appear that the art of dissecting  was car-
ried to any perfection among the ancients : every thing,
indeed seems to prove this, and among the causes which
appear to have retarded its progress,  we should consider
especially their limited knowledge of anatomy, the  pusil-
lanimity  so evident in their important surgical  operations,
and the  scarcity of anatomical preparations.  However,
the frequent embalming and opening of animals fit for
sacrifice, announce, at least, that they were not entire stran-
gers to this part  of  anatomy ; for  certain  precepts and
rules were necessary in  order  to  guide  those who were
charged with embalming the dead, and they were not less
scrupulous in  the  autopsical  examination of animals,  in
whose intestines they pretended to fix the destiny of cer-
tain men raised to dignities, or even of  an entire people ;
and this deception often being connected  with the supersti-
tion of the times,  considerable address  was necessary in
order to deceive the eye of the assistants; it is well known
that pretended oracles, founded on falsehood, 'sometimes
destined the lot of  people and empires.
  No matter what might have been the notions acquired by
those, who, every day,  surveyed the entrails of the animals
they had  sacrificed, as also the durable monuments which
the Greek  painters and  statuaries  have left us  of their
knowledge in anatomy, this does not change my opinion in
reference to the little progress of the ancients in the art of
dissecting.
                          14 
158            anatomist's manual.
   In a word, superficial anatomy was alone necessary for
them.   The beauty of external form, and the just propor-
tions which they always had before their eyes, in contem-
plating their cotemporaries, sufficed for their pursuits; and
we know that Praxitellus, in order to form his Venus, de-
lineated a feature of each of the celebrated courtezans of
his time.
   Galen alone, with a view of advancing anatomical sci-
ence,  made  the dissection of animals  a particular study ;
since this celebrated man, several anatomists have pursued
it with much  ardor and success.  What do we not owe to
the works of Willis, Malpighi, and a host of other learned
anatomists, who, embracing the art in its whole  extent, or
confining their researches to some particular points, equal-
ly enriched it with the most precious discoveries !   It will
be perfected, if anatomists, taking as  a guide for their re-
searches and efforts the  plan  and views proposed  by M.
Dumeril, which I  have  already alluded to, would give
them more attention in future.
   Dissection  in anatomy  is nothing else than the methodi-
cal and accurate preparation of the  constituent parts of
animals.  In order  to execute  it with success, we must at-  •
tend to the following considerations :—
   1st.  To employ in our anatomical labors good  instru-
ments, and to have the necessary quantity for all the pre-
parations.    The first, and the  most indispensable, are
Scalpels well tempered, of a convenient form,  and so va-
ried as to suit every kind of preparation.  Those employed
for myology will not answer for angeology, and  much less
for neurology ;  stronger for  the  first,  and, as it were,
stouter, they should be more delicate, finer and smaller for
the two last.   The forceps and scissors do not demand less
attention : the first, long and strong for  myology,  should 
anatomist's manual.
159
be smaller for neurology, and their teeth should cross each
other in an exact manner.   Students will consult neither
their interest nor instruction by  employing,  in their ana-
tomical dissections, instruments as clumsily made,  as they
are badly tempered.  The cutlers Grangeret, Sir Henry,
and the two Lesueurs, are alone in possession of very good
ones.
  2d. To have a general idea of the different regions of
the human body, in order to make the proper sections and
openings.  I shall now present a rapid sketch of them.
  The human body,  like the skeleton, is divided into the
head, trunk, and extremities.   The  head offers  six re-
gions : the first, superior, is called the summit; the  second,
inferior,  the base ; the third, anterior,  the face;  we ob-
serve on it, from above downwards, the regions of the
forehead, eye-brows, eye-lids  and  eyes,  cheeks, nose,
mouth, lips, and chin ; a fourth, posterior:  on it  we re-
mark the neck ; two lateral, which present the region of
the ear, and that of  the  temple.   Below  the  head is the
neck, divided into an anterior, posterior, and  two lateral
portions.
  The trunk offers four surfaces.  An anterior; it ex-
hibits the chest and bas-ventre.   The  first has, on its sides,
the regions  of the mammas.  The second is divided  into
three regions;  a superior,  called epigastric;  a  middle,
umbilical, and an inferior, hypogastric; these three re-
gions are found at equal  distances from the curve of the
stomach to the pubis, and present a middle and two lateral
portions.   The middle of the superior  region, is called epi-
gastrium, and the sides  hypochondria;  the centre of the
middle region is termed  umbilicus, and the sides, flanks,
or loins; the centre of the inferior region is called hypo-
gastrium, and the  sides,  haunches or ilia.  Between thft 
/
160           anatomist's manual.

hypogastrium and pubis, anatomists are in the habit of
considering a fourth and last region, called inferior hypo-
gastric : the middle is termed the region of the bladder or
pubic region, and  the sides, the groins.
  The posterior surface is divided into the region of the
back, and that of the loins:  both are separated in the
whole of their length by the spinous apophyses of the ver-
tebras,  called  vulgarly spine of the back ; on the sides of
the first  surface we observe the region of the  shoulders,
and the buttocks on that of. the second.
  The lateral  surfaces  do  not present  any  particular
divisions
  Some anatomists make an inferior region of the  trunk;
it presents, in  both sexes, the  organs of generation.   In
man we observe, from before backwards, the penis or verge,
terminated in front by the glans, on which there is  a loose
skin, termed prepuce; below the verge, the scrotum;  far-
ther back, the perineum,  which terminates at the anus.
  I  nwoman, we observe, from before backwards, the penil
and  vulva, and,  on  the sides,  the larger lips;  within
these, the smaller lips, and clitoris ; lower down, the mea-
tus urinarius, the  external orifice of the vagina, the hymen
in young girls and virgins,  the  fourchette,  and  behind,
the perineum extending to the anus.
  The superior extremities commence above by the shoul-
der, are continued by the arm, fore-arm, and hand.   At
the superior part  of the arm and below is the axilla.   Be-
tween the arm and fore-arm, we observe in front the folding
of the arm, vulgarly called the saignee  and behind, the
elbow;  the hand  presents internally the palm, and exter-
nally the dorsum of the hand;  it commences  by  the
wrist. 
anatomist's manual.            16J
  The inferior extremities commence above and behind, by
the buttocks, and are continued by the thigh, knee, leg, and
foot.  The posterior part of the knee is called ham,  and
the posterior part of the leg, calf; below,  we  observe
within and  without  the  two malleoli; the superior por-
tion of the foot is called the dorsum, where we remark,
near the articulation with the leg, the bend of the foot; and
the inferior,  the plantar surface, which terminates behind
by the heel.
  3d. To be accustomed to open cadavera; to perform  it
with method and precision.   The following is the manner
of proceeding :
  Opening  the head.—It is, without doubt, the longest and
most difficult; the rounded form of the head, the hardness of
its walls are the ordinary causes  of the difficulty attending
it.  In order, however, to effect it, we must make on the
external  soft parts a circular section, which,  commencing
immediately  above the  region  of  the eyebrows, passes
on  the sides, and from this to the external occipital protu-
berance, and: terminates  at the  same point in front; the
head, then strongly held or placed in the centre of a circu-
lar body and raised on its borders, the saw must be carried
progressively over all the points  of the division, which has
been made in the integuments.   It is essential, in dividing
the bones, not to injure the integrity of the dura mater, and
that of the brain;  this will be  avoided, by sawing slowly
in proportion as the resistance  of the bones becomes  less
considerable.  After this is accomplished, we remove the
portion which has been sawed,  a species of bowl which
serves to receive the brain, or some of. its parts, when
they have been studied.
  Another method, more easy and  prompt, imagined and
constantly employed  by Bichat:, consists in. opening the
                         14* 
162            anatomist's manual.

cranium circularly, by repeated blows with a pointed ham-
mer, properly directed.   The resistance of the dura mater
prevents the concussion being imparted to the  brain, and
rliis organ remains untouched.
  The other sections of the head, more scientific, and per-
fectly foreign to the business of students, are unnecessary
to be mentioned in a work of this nature.
  Opening of  the chest.—Commence by making a crucial
incision on the integuments of the chest; raise the  four
flaps and the   flesh  which cover the  bones; then divide
all the inter-costal cartilages  from above downwards, and
as near as possible to their union with the ribs, being care-
ful not to carry the instrument on the lungs or heart: the
sternum and cartilages must be raised from below upwards,
detaching as we go, the anterior mediastinum ; in this way,
we will have the chest exposed, and we will be enabled to
make the necessary  researches.  In order to render them
more exact and extensive, we may break the ribs near their
articulation with .the vertebras, by cutting at first the flesh,
which is in the inter-costal spaces, and pulling afterwards
strongly upon the ribs, from within outwards; the clavicles
are to be treated in the same way.  We may, by following a
process different from that we have just indicated, commence
by a longitudinal incision j which,  from the superior extre-
mity of the sternum, is prolonged as far as the xiphoid car-
tilage.   From the inferior  part of this  first incision, we
commence  two others, which follow nearly  the inferior
 border of the  chest.   The  two flaps  must be raised from
within  outwards, and from below  upwards, and we ter.
minate as in the preceding case.
   Opening of the bas-ventre.—If this last is not the most
difficult, it is that at least which demands the greatest  at-
tention, either  as relates to the manner of practising it, or 
anatomist's  manual.
163
to the numerous precautions which tire abdominal viscera
require:  free and floating in the cavity of the bas-ventre,
the slightest cause, the most  trifling secousse  is  capable
of changing their  situation  and numerous relations.   To
these first are frequently joined organic derangements, the
consequence of long disease or serious  lesions, occasioned
by external blows, as with  a sword, knife, &c.   A large
quantity of water, air, or a foetus, contained within this cavi-
ty, sometimes gives rise to changes and differences, either in
 the external  form of the walls or  in the internal dispo-
 sition of  the parts,  which  merit  particular attention.
 Too much precipitation in  the  examination  of objects
 leads to error, injures science, and humbles  our amour-
 propre.  I have known individuals represented as skilful
 anatomists, err most grossly in autopsical examinations*
    That of the bas-ventre requires that we make a first in-
  cision, which, from the xiphoid cartilage, is extended to the
  pubis, leaving the umbilicus untouched : a second incision
  cuts the first crosswise in the centre, and embraces the ex-
  tent from one side to the other.  The first strokes of the
  scalpel should comprehend only the skin, cellular tissue,
  muscles and fat, when there is any; the peritoneum should
  be divided the last;  without this precaution, the  intestines
  would be precipitated without, before the completion of the
  operation, and this  must be  avoided, particularly when
  there is an effusion of liquid in the abdomen.   In order to
  attain  this object, it has been proposed to make, at first, a
  very small incision on the peritoneum, in the environs of the
  umbilicus, sufficient to allow two fingers to be placed in it,
  and to pass 1 bistoury or  scalpel, from above downwards,
  and from below upwards, whilst the fingers sustain and raise
  this membrane;  the flaps are separated with precaution
   from right to left, as far backwards as possible,  and in
   this way, the abdominal cavity is entirely exposed. 
164
anatomist's  manual.
    To fulfil the same* object, it has  been recommended to
 carry  the first incision as far as the umbilicus, and from
 thence to carry two others obliquely towards the region of
 the groins;  in this  way, there will be only three flaps,
 two superior, which  are  to be thrown to the sides, and an
 inferior, which is  carried below,  in  order  to cover the or-
 gans of generation.,
    The opening of young infants requires a different pro-
 cess.  It may be executed in two ways.   The first consists
 in making an incision in form of an arcade into the abdo.
 minal parietes, the convexity of  which is placed at the su.
 perior and middle part.  We extend the two branches on
 the sides as far as the groins.   From  this  there results
 a large flap, which  is brought  from above downwards,
 and on its internal part we observe the  umbilical vessels,
 the examination of which should not be neglected at this
 kge.
,t»- The process consists in making two longitudinal incisions
 in the whole extent  of the abdominal parietes, separated
 superiorly by two fingers' breadth,  and inferiorly by six.
 This  flap is  detached above and below, and we  turn it
 towards the  umbilicus, which must  be preserved.   In this
 manner we will likewise have a very good view of the um-
 bilical vessels.
   I shall now pass to some general  considerations in refe-
 rence to the precautions to be observed in the dissection of
 the different parts in anatomy.   The choice of the subject,
 that of the season, the precautions to be  taken by the stu-
 dent himself, form so many essential points, on which I
 shall make a few rapid remarks.
   The choice of the subject for dissection is a thing not to
 be neglected. Such as would be proper for myology, would
 be very unfit for neurology.  But as it is not always in his. 
anatomist's manual.             165
power to make  this choice, the student should select the
best possible part of the cadaver assigned him;  and his
performance will deserve high  commendation,  if, address
and intelligence supplying the want of a subject such as he
would wish to select, he ultimately triumphs over his diffi-
culties.   It is proper that he should use certain precautions
relatively to the cadavera of persons who have died of con-
tagious diseases, or which are in an advanced state of pu-
trefaction ; j.but it is unnecessary to  become alarmed with-
out cause, and imagine that he will contract a fatal disease
from  the  slightest  wound.   It is true, that I have seen
young men fall victims to their zeal;  but I have also seen
a considerable number wound themselves rather profoundly
and  at  several  different times,  without any fatal  conse-
quences ensuing.
   The  season  for dissection is not always very favorable,
and, with good reason, the winter is always selected as the
most proper for anatomical pursuits.   However, there are
certain  days in winter, such as are observed in the months
of November and December, or after a thaw, which are as
unfavorable as  the most beautiful days in summer.  This
latter season is not proper on account of the rapidity with
which the animal parts take on putrefaction.   In seasons
of intense cold, we cannot dissect, without having fire ; but
it is  a bad practice  to warm one's self whilst dissecting,
and still worse  to place the subject before the fire for the
purpose of producing a thaw, nothing destroying if more
quickly.  Besides the choice of the season, it must be re-
membered that  the morning  is more preferable  than the
evening, and that we should not,  if it can be avoided, dis-
sect at  night by a candle, for it is fully demonstrated that
then the greater activity of the surrounding miasmata ren-
ders them more deleterious. 
166            anatomist's  manual.
   It is likewise necessary for the student to regulate the
 time of his dissection, and not to carry it beyond the limits
 prescribed by reason.  Too much mental application, and
 a prolonged stay in the amphitheatres, will injure the health
 of the student, and make him fall a sacrifice to his industry.
 It is unnecessary to recommend cleanliness, for the student
 himself will feel the necessity of it.   This cleanliness refers
 equally to the person who  dissects, to  the  place  and the
 parts under preparation.  Nothing can be more, prejudicial
 to the health than  the neglect of these  precautions.  The
 student should have a dress destined  for the  amphitheatre ;
 without this  precaution he will often carry with him the
 germ of a disease, which would not have been the case if
 he had changed his garments.  His food should be abun-
 dant and substantial, and wine should form part of it.  Ex-
 perience has  convinced me  that the most part of diseases,
 among students,  during winter, is generally  attributable to
 too great  economy in diet, to bad quality of their aliment,
 and to abstinence from wine.  They should never forget to
 wash their hands in fresh and cold water; of all the anti-sep-
 tics it is, without  contradiction, the best and most abundant;
it should be frequently sprinkled over the tables, in the rooms
of the amphitheatre; we should wash the parts contained
in the large  cavities of the human body with a  sponge,
for putrefaction very soon commences in them.
  The aspersion of vinegar and camphorated brandy, fu.
migations  with aromatic  plants, particularly with ginger,
but especially the disengaging of muriatic acid gas, are so
many powerful agents, the frequent use of which will keep
up the salubrity of the amphitheatres, and prevent the con-
tagion of certain diseases.   There  is no need of recom-
mending to the students never to close the windows of the
 apartment in which they dissect, except when the cold is. 
anatomist's  manual.            167
intense.  The best of all ventilators will be found to be the
currents of air,  the free and continual passage of which is
permitted through the open windows.   With these precau-
tions, as wise as they  are easy to  execute, anatomical
amphitheatres, far from inspiring disgust, will become, on
the contrary, agreeable and  salubrious places  of study.

         PARTICULAR DISSECTION OF MYOLOGY.
   Although of all the parts of anatomy, Myology is the
easiest to prepare, as it is the first which students undertake
to study, the dissection of it always appears to them to  be
attended with great difficulty : but this is to be  attributed
to their inexperience and want of skill.  Time  and pa-
tience, joined with  certain  indispensable precepts,  will
soon remove all difficulty, and the student animated with a
desire to learn, and having taste for dissection, will, in a
short time, become a skilful anatomist.
   The muscles being composed of fibres nearly parallel to
each other, seem to indicate, as it were, the manner of dis-
secting them ;  the most  embarrassing  part  is  to  expose
them, and separate them perfectly from the fat and cellular
tissue, under which  they  are concealed.   Certain muscles
of the bas-ventre present in this particular very great diffi-
culty.   It is, therefore, necessary, in the dissection of mus-
cles generally,  that the scalpel follow, as much as possible,
the dissection of the fibres, whilst Jdie integuments which
cover them is strongly pulled in a contrary sense,  so that
the point of the instrument, which should be held in the ma-
jority of cases as a pen, divides exactly the superficial and
very thin layer of cellular tissue, which is found imme-
diately covering the muscle.
   The student must, at an early period, accustom himself 
168            anatomist's manual.

to dissect with confidence and promptitude, to extend the
incisions with the scalpel as far as possible, to survey, from
time to time, the portion of the labor he has accomplished,
in order that he may observe more accurately its distribu-
tion and arrangement.  The muscles  of one layer  being
exposed, he must  proceed to  the dissection of  the  deep.
seated, as he did for the first; that is, he must raise  with
care every  thing  that covers them,  removing  with the
muscles just dissected and studied, the fat, cellular tissue,
and every thing that can possibly interfere with the exami-
nation  of the others.
  Different  rules have been given for removing momen-
tarily a muscle,  which conceals another that we are desir-
ous of studying; some recommend to  detach it  at one of
the points of its insertion ; others advise to cut it in the
centre, and to turn up the  extremities in opposite directions.
I  do not.  think we can follow  exclusively either of these
rules ;  for that which will answer for one muscle cannot
be applied to all indistinctly.   The long muscles of the
extremities should be  divided in their middle,  and the two
points of insertion preserved.  Some of the broad muscles
of the trunk should be detached at their point of insertion ;
others  may  likewise be cut across ; others again, those of
the face,  for example, are to remain in their situation.  All
this, moreover, will depend on the place the muscle  occu-
pies, the  facility of exposing it, and on an infinity of cir-
cumstances  in reference  to  which general  precepts  only
can be given.
  The best  cadavera for the study of  myology are  those
of an elevated stature, strong and vigorous complexion,
somewhat advanced in age, and such as have died in a vio-
lent and prompt manner.   Infiltrated cadavera, too thin or 
anatomist's  manual.            169
too fat; those whose death has been occasioned by a pro-
tracted disease are  not proper :  males are preferable to
females.

               MUSCLES  IN PARTICULAR.
  In the preparation, as  in  the  descrption of muscles, I
will be obliged to depart  somewhat from the arrangement
pursued by modern authors.  This work being consecrated
especially to the instruction of students, I must necessarily
adopt, in the exposition of the different objects of anatomi-
cal study, the method which they are obliged to follow in
their dissections.  On this*  account, for  example, I  will
commence  with  the muscles situated on the posterior part
of the trunk, because I have remarked that students who
have pursued any other  mode for  the study of myology,
scarcely ever dissect these muscles: in a word, of four
students who work together, two  ordinarily commence with
the muscles of the bas-ventre, the other two with those of
the face ; but the first, having completed their task much
sooner, have not patience to wait for the others ;  and in or-
der to be miore at their ease in dissecting the inferior parts
which have been assigned them,  they cut  the cadaver into
two parts; those, who are occupied in dissecting the muscles
of the face, perform, on the second subject, the dissection of
the parts, which were allotted to their companions on the
first.   In this way, the four students will have had an op-
portunity, by the end of  the winter, of examining all the
parts of anatomy, except the muscles on the posterior part
of the trunk.
   No matter what caution an individual  may employ, in
order to have method and arrangement in his pursuits, it
is rare that  he  is not sometimes obliged to depart from
them; the human  mind would in vain attempt  to subject
                          15 
170           anatomist's manual.

the operations of nature to the feebleness of his concep-
tions.  It is especially in descriptive sciences that this im-
perfection is most severely felt; and anatomy presents us
numerous  examples  of it;  every  thing,  in  this science,
gives us an idea  of the most ingenious and wise combina-
tions; but the art which formed them is removed from our
sight, and  the works of anatomists will always acknow-
ledge it.  I desire, and 1 dare hope, that these reasons will
be a sufficient apology for the order I have pursued in the
preparation, as also  in  the examination of the muscles.
The following  is a table of the principal distributions of
myology, such as the dissection of these organs requires.

     first  region.—Trachelo-Dorso-Lombo-spinal.
  Muscles  of the posterior  part of the neck, back, and
loins.

 second region.—Abdominal, cutaneous or superficial.
  Muscles of the bas-ventre.

              third region.—Thoracic.
   Muscles  of the anterior part of  the chest.

          fourth region.—Lombo-akdominal.
   Profound muscles of the abdomen and generation.

           fifth region.—Costo-Thoracic.
   Muscles  of the sides of the trunk.

            sixth  region.—Epicranial.
   Muscles of the summit of the head.

              seventh region.—Facial.
   Muscles of the face. 
ANATOMISES  MANUAL.
171
       eighth region.—Temporo-Zygomatic.
  Muscles of the lateral portions of the head, and those
which surround the articulations of the inferior maxilla.

         ninth region.—Superficial-cervical.
  Muscles of the anterior part of the neck.

             tenth region.—Lingual.
  Muscles of the tongue.

       eleventh region.—Staphylo-pharyngiel.
  Muscles of the pharynx and velum palati.

           twelfth  region.—Laryngiel.
  Muscles of the larynx.

       thirteenth region.—Profound-cervical.
  Profound muscles of the anterior part of the neck.

       fourteenth  region.—Scapulo-humeral.
   Muscles  of the shoulder.

           fifteenth region.—Humeral.
   Muscles of the arm.

           sixteenth region.—Radio-cubital.
   Muscles of the fore-arm.

       seventeenth region.—Carpo-metacarpal.
   Muscles of the  palmar and dorsal surfaces of the hand.

         eighteenth  REGioN.---Coa:o-/emoraZ.
   Muscles of the posterior part of the  pelvis and superior
 part of the thigh. 
172
anatomist's manual.
       nineteenth region.—Posterior-femoral.
  Muscles of the posterior part of the thigh.

twentieth region.—Anterior,  internal, and  external
                      femoral.
  Muscles of the anterior,  external, and internal part of
the thigh.

       twenty-first region.—Anterior-tibial.
  Muscles of the anterior part of the leg.

      twenty-second region.—Posterior-tibial.
  Muscles of the posterior  part of the leg.

      twenty-third region.—Tarso-metatarsal.
   Muscles of the dorsal and plantar surfaces of the foot.

                    first region.
              Trachelo-dorso-lombo-spinal.
   Muscles  of the  posterior part  of the  neck, back,  and
loins.
   The muscles of this  region are : the  trapezius, latissi-
mus dorsi, rhomboideus,  the  two small posterior serrated
muscles,  splenius,  angularis, two complexi, transversalis,
the small and large posterior recti of the head,  the small
and  great  oblique, the  longissimus  dorsi,  sacro-lombalis,
inter-transversi, and inter-spinales.

               Anatomical Preparation.
   This preparation is long and fatiguing on account of the
 great quantity of skin it is necessary to detach, and  the
 continual necessity of isolating exactly the muscles placed
 beneath.   It will be necessary to make an incision which, 
anatomist's  manual.
173
from the external occipital protuberance, extends as far as
the coxcyx, following the direction of the posterior cervi-
cal  ligament, spinous  apophyses of all the vertebras, sa-
crum, and coxcyx.   To this first incision add three trans-
verse :  the first, from the spinous apophysis of the seventh
cervical vertebra to the acromion ;  the second, from the
spinous apophysis of the twelfth dorsal process to the ter^
mination of the false ribs;  and the third, from the spinous.
apophysis of the sacrum to the anterior and superior spine
of the ilium.
   Of the three flaps resulting from these incisions, the supe-
rior must be detached obliquely from within outwards, from
below upwards,  so that the instrument goes continually in
the direction of the fibres  of the trapezius muscle.   The
two inferior flaps should likewise be detached from within
outwards, and from above downwards.  We will follow in
this  manner  the  direction of the fibres  of the  latissimus
dorsi, as we did those of the trapezius.  Both muscles are
easy to recognize; they terminate, without, by a free border,
which furnishes a means of knowing perfectly, their extent,
and of appreciating more exactly their relations.  When
this, which is  very tedious, and which demands patience
and time, is finished, we will then have under our eye the
trapezius and latissimus dorsi muscles accurately exposed,
which occupy almost the whole of the posterior part of the
trunk.   The  portion of the latissimus dorsi, which goes  to
the humerus, is not exposed in this preparation; in pursuing
this last portion, wre must be careful not  to interfere with
the preparation of the muscles of the arm : I will hereafter
describe these last.  The skin of the posterior part  of the
trunk presents this difference, that from the external occi-
pital protuberance, as far as the middle of the back, it is ap-
plied over the muscles, and in the rest of its extent it reposes,
                          15* 
174           anatomist's  manual.
on the  aponeuroses;   its dissection demands more care
above, and at its inferior part we may carry the instrument
with less precaution, for  at  this place there is always a
thick layer of fat and cellular tissue, which must be  re-
moved, before the external surface of the broad aponeuroses
of the muscles of the back can be exposed.   They will be
known by their shining aspect and the great resistance they
present to the instrument.
  Trapezius.—Before commencing the study of one of
these two superficial muscles of the back, it will be proper
to detach one of them from each side, in order to examine
the relations they present on their internal surface.  The
trapezius is the first, since it covers a very small portion,
it is  true, of the latissimus dorsi.   Lauth, and the greater
number of anatomists, recommend to cut it across, which is a
very improper direction, for the rhomboideus, situated imme-
diately  below,  is constantly interfered with by the instru-
ment. It is much better to detach  this muscle, by cutting
very near the  scapula  the tendinous* fibres which are  at-
tached to it; afterwards,  we throw it progressively from
without inwards, following, as much as possible, the  fibres
of the  muscles placed beneath, and which  are  separated
from it only by a thin layer  of cellular tissue.
  Latissimus  dorsi.—It should be raised from  one side
only, from  without inwards.  I  recommend to cut it, in the
first  place, at the point of its insertion into the omoplate;
to abandon consequently  the portion which  goes  to  the
arm, and which, moreover, may be examined on the oppo-
site side.   The dissection of the latissimus dorsi requires us
to separate with care the  muscle situated  beneath, on ac-
count of the firm and  thin layer of cellular tissue, which
divides them.
  The  moment we  perceive this muscle to become aponeu-
 rotic, we should abandon its separation; for its aponeurosis 
anatomist's manual.            175
is so confounded with that of the other muscles of the back,
that we will endeavor in  vain to detach it.   As soon as the
preparation of these two  large muscles (the trapezius and
latissimus dorsi) is completed, we should then study them,
in order to pass to the preparation of the muscles which form
the profound layer, and which  present considerable diffi-
culty.
  In taking" a  rapid  survey of all the objects, which the
separation  of these two  muscles  leaves exposed, we  will
perceive,  from  above downwards,  the  splenius;  lower
down and  without, the angularis; still lower and within,
the rhomboideus;  and in  a triangular space,  circumscribed
by  these three muscles, a portion of the sacro-lumbalis,
longissimus dorsi,  and small superior  serratus;  below the
rhomboideus, the  continuation  of the  sacro  lumbalis and
longissimus dorsi,  covered by the thin aponeurosis of the
two posterior  serrati  muscles; on the last  false ribs, the
small inferior serrati;  between these last and the crest of the
iliac bones, a portion of the great  and small oblique muscles
of the bas-ventre ; in fine, the six last false ribs  are  in part
exposed, in consequence  of the dissection of the latissimus
dorsi.
   Rhomboideus.—It  is the most  superficial, and the  first
which should occupy  us  after the dissection  and examina-
tion of the trapezius  and latissimus dorsi.   After  having
studied its  disposition  and figure,  we must cut it cautiously
through the middle, and turn aside its two flaps, one within
and the other without. I may, perhaps, be reproached here
with falling into the same error, which I  just now objected
to in reference to the manner of isolating the trapezius; the
greater thickness  of the  rhomboideus, its less extent, and
the facility of raising it by placing the handle of a  scalpel
underneath, are the reasons which induce me to pursue this
method. 
176
anatomist's  manual.
   The two serrati muscles.—These do not require much
preparation:  it will, however, be necessary to observe the
common  aponeurosis, which unites them,  but which is
sometimes so thin, that scarcely any traces of it can be
seen.  In order to expose the sacro-lumbalis and longissimus
dorsi, we may either detach the serrati  muscles from their
insertion into the ribs  and turn them within, or cut them
across, like the rhomboideus, after having separated them
from the loose cellular tissue which covers  them,  partial-
larly the inferior.
   Splenius.—It is only after having terminated the prepa-
ration and study of all the muscles of the posterior part of
the neck and superior of the back, that we can pass to those
of the sacro-lumbalis, and  longissimus dorsi, which  are to
be examined the last.  The simple separation of the supe-
rior flaps of the skin has exposed the splenius ; the cellular
tissue, interposed between the skin and this muscle, towards
the mastoid apophysis, is very dense; it becomes also very
abundant on the lateral  parts of the neck; two circumstan-
ces which it is important to bear in mind.   The splenius is
difficult to expose well,  and especially to recognize, on ac-
count of its attachments to  the transverse apophyses of the
cervical vertebras, and the great separation found to exist
between this portion called splenius colli, and that which is
attached to the  head, called splenius capitis.   The anato-
mical study of the parts may  admit this distinction,  but
dissection does not recognize it.   The rest of this prepara-
tion consists in making an oblique incision into the splenius,
which, from its insertion into the superior cervical ligament.
goes to the transverse apophysis of the fourth cervical ver-
tebra, and in placing  the superior flap  upwards and out-
wards, and the  inferior downwards and  inwards ;  this may
be accomplished  with  facility, except  towards the  head, 
anatomist's  manual.             177
where the cellular tissue is more dense and compact. When
the splenius is removed, we observe, in all their extent, the
angularis, great  and small complexus, as also the  trans-
versalis.
  Angularis.—In detaching the  splenius, we will readily
perceive  the  angularis, which is almost bare,  under the
skin of the lateral parts of the neck.   In order to have a
good view of it, it will suffice to detach it, with some atten-
tion, from the neighboring parts, and to remove the cellu-
lar tissue, which surrounds  it in every direction.  Before
separating it entirely, it will be proper to examine it in its
place, in order to observe its absolute  position and its rela-
tions with the adjacent objects.
   The large and small complexus.—The preparation and
study  of these muscles  can  scarcely be separated; they
have nearly the same origin, they are" connected in almost
all their extent, and  their inferior attachments are, as it
were, confounded together.   I have always remarked the
embarrassment of the student in endeavoring to isolate and
get  a good view of the small complexus particularly.  In
order to effect it, it will be necessary in the first  place to
detach accurately and separate  the  splenius, principally
above and outwards ; then follow cautiously the external
border  of the large complexus,  on which is situated the
small complexus, which is attached, it  is true, like the  large,
to the superior curved line of the occiput,  but quite out-
 wards, and it does not descend so low down; it is even use-
 less to cut the small complexus to expose the great one;  it
 will suffice to turn it outwards after having dissected it; both
 of these muscles will be recognized by the white and ten-
 dinous  portions, which traverse and  mingle with their red
 portion.  After this  preparation is terminated, cut  across
 the large complexus, carry the  instrument  somewhat pro* 
178            anatomist's  manual.
foundly,on account of the thickness of the muscle and quan-
tity of cellular tissue, which separates it from the small
muscles of the superior  and posterior  part of the neck.
The two flaps of the complexus should be turned, one up.
wards, and the other downwards, which will very much
facilitate the preparation of the muscles situated beneath.
   Transversalis.—This small muscle, long  and  thin, is
one of the most difficult to prepare ; but this difficulty is to
be attributed more to the complicated disposition of the
parts, than to any want of skill in the student,  Between the
sacro-lumbalis and longissimus dorsi within, and the small
complexus without, the transversalis  is so connected with
these different muscles  at its two extremities, that it is
almost impossible to separate it from them.  I do not even
recommend the student to attempt it.  He must be content
to follow, as much as possible, the prolongation upwards and
downwards, and abandon it as soon as its connections with
the adjacent  muscles render its preparation too difficult.
Many anatomists do not  isolate it  from the large muscles
situated at the posterior part of the trunk, which M. Chaus-
«ier  has confounded under  the common name  of sacro-
spinal.
   The small and large posterior recti muscles of the neck,
and the small and large  oblique of the same region.—The
preparation  of these muscles  does not require  that they
should be detached from the parts on which they are placed;
but as they are covered by a considerable  quantity of cel-
lular tissue, their dissection demands patience and address.
By imparting to the head  a movement of rotation, alternate-
ly to the right and left, we will place the recti and oblique
muscles in a state of elongation and tension very favorable
for their preparation ; for the same reasons it will be ne-
cessary to put the head  in a state of flexion, which may
easily be done by placing it beyond the border of the table, 
anatomist's  manual.            179
 and abandoning  it to its own weight; or by placing the
 anterior portion of the neck on a block, stone, or any other
 elevated and solid body, so as to cause a projection of its
 posterior part:  the large  rectus, the small and  great
 oblique, circumscribe,  by their respective borders, a trian-
 gular space, in which are observed the trunk of the occipi-
 tal artery and first cervical pair.
   Sacro-lumbalimus and longissim.us dorsi.—They ter-
 minate the muscles of the posterior part of the trunk, the
 successive preparation of which will very much facilitate the
 study of these last;  the only thing necessary to do is, to
 separate, above only, the sacro-lumbalis which is without,
 from the longissimus dorsi which is within; for this purpose,
 we carry the scalpel in the direction of a line, which would
 be nearly that of the tranverse apophyses of the dorsal ver-
 tebras ;  but it is unnecessary to extend this separation too
 far, the two muscles being intimately confounded in  their
 inferior half, and forming,  as they descend, a very con-
 siderable common mass.  The division just indicated will
 permit us to turn  the  portions of the sacro-lumbalis out-
 wards ; we will then observe the numerous tendons attached
 to the ribs, and which we must leave in their place.   More
 ample details»in reference to the preparation of these muscles
• would be perfectly useless, because it would be impossible to
 profit by them.  I would recommend to be content  with
 this short  exposition,  and not to engage in  a host of dif-
 ficulties, from which it will not be easy to extricate one's
 self; neither  would  I  recommend the  student to attempt
 the dissection of several muscles of  the  back, mentioned
 in certain  works, but the research of which the most skil-
 ful anatomists are compelled to abandon, on account of the
 confusion resulting from their  number, and especially the
 strong connections and approximation of all their parts. 
180
anatomist's manual.
  It is not with these muscles, as with those of the extre-
mities, for example, where the lines of separation are visi-
ble  and well marked : each of these executing movements
peculiar to them, it is indispensable that they should be iso-
lated.  On the back, on the contrary, the movement, limited
to flexion  and extension, is uniform :  the muscles situated
there are all  placed in a parallel direction, and as it were
the  same ;  the strong and compact union of these muscles
coincides  with their uses and contributes to render them
more perfect.  All this applies especially to the preparation,
as also to  the study, of the sacro-lumbalis and longissimus
dorsi,  a fleshy  mass, the divisions of which  have been
strangely  multiplied by certain anatomists, but which Pro-
fessor Chaussier has wisely comprehended under  one mus-
cle, to which he has given the name of sacrospinal.   In
order, however, not to depart too much  from the division
generally received, I will divide this fleshy mass, which the
dissection of the preceding muscles has left exposed, into
two muscles, known as the sacro-lumbalis and longissimus
dorsi.   The transverse-spinous, the  inter-spinous  of the
neck, back, and loins, are so completely confounded with
the two preceding muscles, that I have thought it unneces-
sary to give a particular description of them.i
  The inter-spinous of the neck, back, and  loins, as also
the inter-transverse,  are,  moreover,  nothing more than
small, fleshy masses, placed, the  first, in the interval of the
spinous apophyses of the vertebras, and the second  in the in-
terval of  the  transverse apophyses.   In  order to expose
them to view, we  must raise all the portions  of the sacro-
lumbalis, longissimus dorsi, and all the muscles imagined by
authors under the names of long-spinous of the neck, long.
spinous of the back, the multifidus of Albinus, &c.  Even 
anatomist's manual.            181
 after this it will be difficult to have a fair view of what are
 called the inter-spinous muscles of the back and loins.

                      Description.
                    TRAPEZIUS.  '
                 (Dorso-sus-acrom ien.)
   Situation and figure.—Broad, flattened, and triangular,
 situated at the posterior part of the head and neck, and su-
 perior of the back.
   Extent.—From the occiput, posterior cervical ligament,
 and spinous-apophyses of the dorsal vertebras, to the clavi-
 cle and omoplate.                              #
   Division.—Posterior surface coveredby the integuments.
 Anterior surface, which covers a portion of the large com-
 plexus, the splenius, supra-spinatus, angularis, rhomboideus,
 the small superior serratus, and a portion of the sacro-lum-
 balis, and longissimus  dorsi.   An internal border : it com-
 mencesat the external occipital protuberance, travels along
 the posterior cervical ligament, and terminates at  the spi-
 nous apophysis of the eleventh or twelfth dorsal vertebra.
 A superior border : it extends obliquely from the  superior
 curved line of the occiput, to the external third of the supe-
 rior border of the clavicle.   An inferior border, which ex-
 tends obliquely from the spinous apophysis of the eleventh
 or twelfth dorsal vertebra, to the spine of the omoplate and
 acromion apophysis, and becomes confounded with the pre-
 ceding.
   Direction.—The superior fibres oblique from within out-
 wards, and from above downwards;  the inferior, from within
outwards, and above downwards; the middle are transverse.
   Structure and uses.—Almost entirely fleshy, aponeuro-
tic only at its attachments.   It draws the head backwards
                           10 
182            ANATOMIST*  MANUAL.
and  outwards,  the shoulder inwards,  and  maintains  the
trunk in a vertical position.

                LATISSIMUS DORSI.
                  ( Lo mbo- Humera I.)
  Situation and figure.—Broad,  flattened, nearly quadri-
lateral, situated at the posterior, lateral, and inferior part
of the trnnk.
  Extent.—From the crest of the ilium, from the spinous
apophyses of the  sacrum and lumbar vertebras, and from
the six last  dorsal, to  the  inferior angle of the omoplate
and  bicipital groove of the humerus.
  Division.—A posterior surface : it  covers a portion of
the large  and small oblique muscles of the bas-ventre,  the
inferior ribs, and  the  corresponding inter-costal muscles,
the small  posterior serratus, the inferior angle of the omo-
plate, the infra-spinatus, the  large serratus, and the teres
major.  An inferior border, attached to the posterior fourth
of the crest of the ilium»  A superior border, free under the
integuments; it extends  from the spinous apophysis of the
sixth or eighth dorsal,  to the bicipital  groove in the hu-
merus.   A posterior border : it is attached to the spinous
apophyses of the last dorsal vertebra?, and to those of the
lumbar and sacrum.   An anterior border which, from the
crest of the ilium, goes directly to the bicipital groove in the
humerus.   At its  inferior portion, this border unites with
the great  oblique of the abdomen by three digitations.
  Direction.—The anterior fibres are almost vertical, the
following  more and  more oblique, and  the superior hori-
zontal.
  Structure and  uses.—Aponeurotic below and within,
tendinous above, and fleshy in the rest  of its  extent;  it
draws the arm downwards and  backwards, and keeps  it 
               anatomist's manual.            183

applied to the trunk ; when we are suspended by the hands
and we wish to raise  ourselves, this muscle elevates the
trunk and approximates it to the arms ; it acts particularly
when ascending a ladder, or in climbing, &c.

                     rhomboideus.
                 (Dorso-Scapulaire.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat, quadrilateral, situated at
the posterior part of the neck, and superior of the back.
  Extent.—From the posterior border of the omoplate to
the spinous apophyses of the last cervical vertebra, and of
the four or five first dorsal.
  Division.—A posterior surface, covered in part by the
integuments, and in part by the trapezius. An anterior sur-
face: it covers the small superior serratus, splenius, sacro-
lumbalis, longissimus  dorsi, several of the superior ribs and
the corresponding inter-costal muscles.   Four borders, the
inferior and superior of which are free:  the external is at-
tached to the base of the omoplate, and  the internal to the
spinous apophyses of the seventh cervical, and four or five
first dorsal vertebras.
   Direction.—All the fibres are slightly oblique from with-
in outwards, and from above  downwards.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic  only at its attach-
ments, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it draws the omoplate
upwards and backwards, in approximating it to that of the
opposite side.

                  SUPERIOR  SERRATUS.
                    (Dorso-Costal.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, thin, quadrilateral, situat-
ed at the superior  part of the back, posterior and inferior
of the neck. 
 184            Anatomist's manual.

   Extent.—From the seventh cervical  and two or three
 first dorsal, to the second, third, fourth, and fifth ribs.
   Division.—Posterior surface, covered by the rhomboid-
 eus, and a  small  portion of the angularis and trapezius.
 Anterior surface: it covers the transversalis, splenius, longis-
 simus dorsi, and sacro-lumbalis.   Its superior and  inferior
 borders are free :  the internal is fixed to the spinous apo-
 physes of the  seventh  cervical, and two or three first dor-
 sal : the external, serrated, is attached to the external and
 posterior surface of the second, third,  fourth, and fifth ribs.
   Direction.—Slightly oblique from within outwards, and
 from above  downwards.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic within, fleshy with-
 out, it raises the ribs to which it is attached.

                  INFERIOR SERRATUS.
                    (Lombo-Costal.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, flat, quadrilateral, situated
 at the inferior part of the  back.
   Extent.—From the  two last dorsal vertebras, and two
 or three lumbar, to the four last ribs.
   Division.—Posterior surface, covered by the latissimus
 dorsi, which is strongly attached to it: anterior surface,
 which covers a portion of the sacro-lumbalis, longissimus
dorsi, the aponeurosis of the transversalis,  and the three or
four last ribs.   Its superior and inferior borders are free :
the internal is fixed to the spinous apophyses of the two last
 dorsal and three first  lumbar vertebras ;  the external to
the posterior part of the four last ribs.
   Direction.—Slightly oblique  from within outwards, and
from below upwards.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic  within,  fleshy with-
 out, it pulls down the last false ribs. 
anatomist's  manual.
185
                      SPLENIUS.
                 (Cervico-mastoidien.)
                  (Dorso-trachelien.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat, elongated, situated at the
posterior part of the head, lateral of the neck, and supe-
rior of the back.
  Extent.—From the occiput, posterior cervical ligament,
and the two first  cervical vertebras, to the seventh of the
neck, and to the five first of the back.
  Division.—Posterior surface, covered  by a  portion of
the sterno-cleido-mastoideus, angularis, superior serratus,
rhomboideus, trapezius,  and integuments.  Anterior sur-
face, which covers the large and small complexus, longissi-
mus dorsi, and transversalis.   Borders : the internal, free
above, is attached below to the posterior cervical ligament,
to the spinous apophyses of the seventh cervical,  and four
or five first dorsal vertebras;  the external is free from the
spinous apophysis of the fifth dorsal, to the transverse apo-
physes of the two first cervical, to which it  is attached.
Extremities: the  superior? broad, is inserted into the mas-
toid region of the temporal bone, and into the environs of
the superior curved line of the occiput;  the inferior,  ter-
minating in a point, is attached to the  spinous apophysis of
the fifth dorsal vertebra.
   Direction.—Oblique from  below  upwards, and from
within outwards.
  Structure and  uses.—Aponeurotico-tendinous  at its at-
tachments, fleshy in the rest  of its extent, it draws the
head from its side, by imparting to it a rotatory movement
in the same sense,
                          16* 
186            anatomist's manual.
                      ANGULARIS.
                (Trachelo-scapulaire.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated on the late-
ral portions of the  neck.
  Extent.—From  the four first cervical  vertebras to the
omoplate.
  Division.—External surface, covered by the trapezius
and  sterno-mastoideus:  internal surface,  applied to  the
splenius, transversalis, and sacro-lumbalis.   Extremities:
the superior,  divided into four portions, is attached to the
transverse  apophyses of the four  first cervical vertebras:
the inferior is fixed to the superior angle of the omoplate.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
before backwards.
  Structure  and  uses.—Tendinous at  its  attachments,
fleshy in the  rest of its extent, it raises the omoplate, and
in some cases,  draws the head  and neck  towards  the
shoulder.

                COMPLEXUS  MAJOR.
                  (Trachelo-ottClpital.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thick superiorly, ter-
minating in a point inferiorly, and situated at the posterior
part of the head and neck, and superior of the back.
  Extent.—From the occiput, to the six last cervical, and
five  first dorsal vertebras.
  Division.—A  posterior surface, covered above  by  a
very small portion of the trapezius, lower  down by the
splenius, small complexus, and  transversalis.  An anterior
surface, which covers the straight and oblique muscles of the
head, and  the posterior branches of the cervical nerves.
Borders :  the internal is  parallel to that of the opposite
side  at its  superior part; it departs  from it in the rest  of 
anatomist's  manual.            187
its extent, and is separated from it by the spinous apophy-
ses of the cervical vertebras : the external, free superiorly,
is attached, in the rest of its extent, to the transverse apo-
physes of the  six last cervical vertebras and five first dor-
sal.  Extremities : the superior is inserted into the space
between  the two curved lines of the occiput, the infe-
rior is fixed  to the transverse apophysis of the fifth dorsal.
   Direction.—Slightly oblique from  above  downwards,
and from within outwards.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotico-tendinous at its at-
tachments ;  the fleshy portion, which is abundant, is often
intersected  by a  species of tendon, but authors  do not
describe  its figure and  distribution:  it  draws the head
backwards,  and maintains its rectitude on the  trunk.

                  COMPLEXUS  MINOR.
                 ( Trachelo-mastoidien.)
   Situation  and  figure.—Elongated, thin and narrow,
situated at the posterior part of the head and neck.
   Extent.—From the mastoid region of the temporal bone,
to the four last cervical vertebras.
   Division.—A posterior surface, covered by the splenius
and transversalis; an  anterior surface, applied in nearly
its whole length to the great complexus.  Borders:  the in-
ternal  is confounded with the great complexus;  the ex-
ternal is confounded above with the  splenius,  and  attach-
ed below to the transverse apophyses of the four last  cer-
vical vertebras.  The superior extremity is fixed to the pos-
terior part  of the mastoid apophysis;  ihe inferior to the
transverse apophysis of the seventh cervical vertebra.
   Direction.—Vertical. 
188
anatomist's manual.
   Structure and uses.—Tendino-aponeurotic at its attach.
ments, fleshy in the rest  of its extent, it draws the head
backwards.

            RECTUS CAPITIS POSTICUS MAJOR.
                   (Axoido-occipital.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated at the  poste-
rior part of the head.
   Division.—A posterior  surface, covered by the  large
complexus; an anterior surface, placed on the small rectus,
and posterior arc of the atlas; borders, which offer nothing
remarkable; a superior extremity attached to  a small de.
pression, which  is  remarked beneath the inferior curved
line of the occiput; an inferior extremity, fixed to the spi-
nous apophysis of the second cervical vertebra.
   Direction.—Oblique from above  downwards, and from
without inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly  tendinous at its attach.
ments, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it carries the head
backwards, and  makes it execute a movement of rotation,

           RECTUS CAPITIS  POSTICUS MINpR.
                   (Alloido-occipital.) '""
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated at  the
posterior part of the head and superior of the neck.
   Extent.—From the  atlas, to the inferior curved line of
the occiput.
   Division.—Posterior surface, covered by the large com-
plexus, and a part of the posterior rectus capitis major;  an-
terior surface, applied to the occiput and vertebral artery ;
borders, which offer nothing remarkable ; superior extremi-
ty,whichis attached below the inferior curved line of the oc- 
anatomist's  manual.
189
 ciput;  inferior  extremity, fixed to the posterior arc of the
 atlas.
   Direction.—Nearly vertical.
   Structure and uses.—But slightly tendinous at its points
 of insertion, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it extends the
 head and maintains it erect on the trunk.

     OBLIQUUS MINOR, OR OBLIQUUS CAPITIS SUPERIOR.
                (Atloido sous-occipital.)
   Situation and figure—Elongated, slightly flat, situated
 at the posterior, superior, and lateral part of the neck.
   Extent.—From the occiput to the transverse apophysis
 of the atlas.
   Division.—A posterior surface, covered by the splenius,
 the  large and small complexus;  an anterior surface,  ap-
 plied to the occiput and vertebral  artery;  borders, which
 offer nothing particular ;  a superior extremity, which  is at-
 tached to the inferior curved  line of the occiput; an infeEioir
 extremity, which is fixed to the transverse apophysis of the
 first cervical vertebra.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and  from
 within  outwards.
   Structure and uses.—Its  structure is similar to that of
 the preceding muscle, and its uses are to extend the  head
 and incline it from the side(

    OBLIQUUS MAJOR, OR OBLIQUUS  CAPITIS INFERIOR.
                   (Axoido-atloidien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated,  slightly rounded,
situated at the superior and lateral part of the neck.
   Extent.—From the first to the second cervical vertebra.
   Division.—A posterior surface covered by the great and
small complexus ;  an anterior surface, applied to  the ver 
1§0            ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
tebral artery and the space between the two first cervical
vertebras; there are no borders to this muscle.   A superior
extremity, which is attached to  the transverse apophysis
of the first cervical vertebra ; an  inferior extremity, to the
spinous apophysis of the second.
  Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards, and from
without inwards.
  Structure and uses.—The structure is the same as that
of the preceding muscles ; its use is to impart to the head
a movement of rotation.

                    TRANSVERSALIS.
            (Comprised in the sacrospinal.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thin at its two extre.
mities, thickest at its middle portion;  situated at the poste-
rior and  lateral  part of  the  neck,  and superior of the
back.
  Extent.—From the five or six cervical vertebras, to the
four or five first dorsal, after the second.
  Division.-—A posterior surface, covered, in part, by the
sacro-lumbalis and longissimus dorsi;  an anterior surface
applied to the large and small complexus; it contracts strong
adhesions with  these muscles,  which renders its exami-
nation and dissection very difficult.   Its superior extremity
is attached to the transverse apophysis of the fifth cervical,
and the inferior  to  the transverse apophysis of the sixth
or seventh dorsal vertebra;  it is likewise  attached to all
the intermediate transverse apophyses.
   Direction,^--OhYicpxe from above downwards, and from
without  inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous at all its  attachments
to the vertebras; fleshy in the interval, it extends the cer- 
anatomist's  MANUAL.            191
vical portion of the vertebral column, and inclines it from
the side.

                   SACRO-LUMBALIS.
           (Comprised in the sacrospinal.)
   Situation and figure.—-Elongated, thick  in its inferior
part, thinner at its  superior, and situated at the posterior
portion of the trunk.
   Extent.—From the sacrum, os ilium, and posterior part
of all the ribs, to the four last cervical vertebras*
   Division.—A posterior surface covered by the latissimus
dorsi, the two  serrati, rhomboideus, trapezius, and aponeu-
roses of the small and great oblique of the abdomen ;  an
anterior surface applied to the  sacrum, the  aponeurosis of
the transversalis, external and posterior surface of the ribs,
and to the  corresponding inter-costal muscles ;  an internal
border, the only one  remarkable,  united in nearly all its
extent to the longissimus dorsi.  Extremities : the inferior is
attached to the posterior fourth of  the  crest  of the ilium,
and to the adjoining portion of the sacrum;  the superior, to
the transverse apophysis of the third  or fourth cervical
vertebra.
   Direction.—Slightly oblique from above downwards, and
from without inwards.
   Structure and  uses.—The aponeurotic and  tendinous
portion is more considerable than the fleshy.   A broad
aponeurosis is remarked below, and  tendons at its attach-
ment to the ribs and transverse  apophyses of the vertebras.
It produces the direct extension of the trunk, which it main-
tains erect; its numerous points of  attachment fit it very
well for this purpose. 
192            Anatomist's manual.
                  LONGISSIMUS DORSI.
            (Comprised in the sacrospinal.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated,  thick at its inferior
part, thinner superiorly ; situated at  theposterior part of
the trunk, and  occupies its whole length.
   Extent.—From the sacrum, to the transverse apophysis
of the first dorsal vertebra.
   Division.—A posterior surface, covered by the aponeu-
roses of the oblique  and transverse muscles of  the bas-
ventre,  the two serrati, rhomboideus, latissimus dorsi, tra-
pezius and splenius;  an anterior surface, applied to the sa-
crum, transverse apophyses of the loins and back, and to the
ribs and corresponding inter-costal muscles.   The internal
border corresponds to the spinous apophyses of all the ver-
tebras ;  the external is united to and confounded with  the
sacro-lumbalis.  The inferior extremity is attached to the
sacrum  and posterior quarter of the crest of the os-ilium;
the superior, to the transverse apophysis of the first dorsal
vertebra.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—A broad aponeurosis, confounded
with that of the sacro-lumbalis, is observed at its inferior
part; tendons at its attachment to the transverse apophyses,
and the fleshy mass in the intervals ;  it produces and main-
tains the direct extension of the trunk.
  These three last muscles form with  the inter-transverse
of the loins, the sacrospinal, which is composed of a eosto-
trachelienne, dorso-trachelienne, and  lombo-cervical por-
tion.
  The muscles, we  have just examined present  various
uses, which  are independent of each other ;  we shall now
consider them successively. 
anatomist's manual.
193
  The trapezius, splenius, two complexus, and even the an-
gularis have more especially for their uses to impart to the
head extensive movements of rotation, to maintain its equi-
librium on the trunk, and to oppose the efforts it continually
makes to incline forward and fall on the chest.   When the
action of these muscles is very weak  or momentarily sus-
pended, as in syncope, intoxication or sleep, then the head,
abandoned to its proper weight, and obedient to the laws of
gravity,  is carried  forward, and even  occasions the fall
of the  individual, if  he be standing,  sitting,  or  on his
knees.
  The rhomboideus acts only upon the shoulder, which it
draws backwards, and fixes to the trunk.
  The small muscles  of the profound region of the neck,
without producing very extensive movements, have never-
theless very important uses. They impart to the head, when
it is perfectly in equilibrio, those numerous and rapid move-
ments of rotation and slight inclination.  Very near the cen-
tre  of action, they have need only of a slight effort in or-
der to make the head roll upon itself,  which obeys with the
more  facility, as the surfaces by which it  reposes on  the
cervical  portion of the vertebral  column are  extremely
smooth and polished.
  As  to the large muscles, which cover almost the whole of
the posterior part of the trunk, their uses being nearly uni-
form,  it is easy  to form a correcl  idea  of them ; they
maintain the trunk  erect,  preserve the centre  of gravity,
which the weight of the  abdominal viscera," and  of the
chest  and head, tends to incline  forward.   When,  in old
age, the dryness and wan', of elasticity of the inter-vertebral
cartilages no longer permit these muscles, whose action is
more  and more exhausted, to support  the vertebral column,
the back becomes rounded, the  trunk is curved in  front,
                         17 
194
anatomist's manual.
and  the individual  can walk only with  the aid of  a
cane or a foreign arm.  Inevitable effect of our  sad des.
tiny—as if nature wished to apprise us that we must soon
return from whence we originated!

                    SECOND  REGION.
         Abdominal, cutaneous, or superficial.
   Muscles of the bas-ventre.
   The muscles of this region are :—the obliquus externus,
obliquus internus, transversalis, rectus, and pyramidalis.

                Anatomical Preparation.
   If the same cadaver, used for the preparation of the mus-
cles of the posterior part of the trunk, serves for the study
of those of  the anterior, we may,  by turning it over,
continue the transverse incisions, so as to expose  the mus-
cles of the bas-ventre,  which we should prepare the first
after those of the  posterior part of the trunk.   This mode
of raising the integuments, has,  for the muscles of the an-
terior part of the trunk, an advantage which does not at-
tend the ancient method.   If we proceed, as has  just been
recommended, it will be necessary, in raising the skin, to
remove the fat and cellular tissue found on the muscles of
the abdomen or their aponeuroses: this error once com-
mitted, cannot be  repaired, so difficult is it  to return to the
 first dissection.  We should, therefore, proceed with  cau-
 tion   and  <?arry the scalpel very  exactly between  the
 great oblique and integuments—being careful to pull strong
 on these last—until we arrive  at the linea  alba, which
 must not be touched.  We  may then, if  we  choose, re-
 tain the flaps in place or remove them, provided a portion
 be preserved in order to cover the parts exposed, when
 we  cease to dissect, for nothing so  soon  destroys the 
anatomist's manual.            195
beauty of a preparation as immediate contact with the air.
In certain subjects the adipose matter is  extremely abun-
dant between the muscles of the abdomen and integuments
covering  them :  this circumstance,  which  renders the
preparation  of the muscles still  more difficult, will  not,
however,  authorise the  student to  allow  it to remain on
these parts.
  If the ordinary method  of dividing the  integuments of
the bas-ventre be preferred, it may be done as was  men-
tioned  in the  article on  opening t'ds  cavity, (page
117,) and which may be consulted ; but I should observe
that, in proceeding in this manner, it will be difficult to re-
move exactly all the fat and cellular tissue found at  the
place of the first  incisions; an  inconvenience, which we
will not meet with in raising the integuments at the poste-
rior part.   In all cases, the superior  flaps are to  be de-
tached very high up, so as to expose a large portion of the
muscles of the chest, for those of the bas-ventre, the  great
oblique particularly, and the rectus, have their superior
points  of insertion as far up as the seventh rib.  When,
on the contrary, the integuments are raised from the pos-
terior part, we have a good view of the muscles of the ab-
domen in their whole extent in  this sense; but when this
is done by the ancient method, it is rare that the student
carries the dissection of the skin far enough backwards, for
it is absolutely necessary to place the cadaver on the side.
Thus the posterior part of  these  muscles is  never well
seen, and the generality of students have but an imperfect
idea of the manner in which the posterior portion of the
external oblique muscle especially, unites and confounds its
digitations with those of the  latissimus dorsi; on the con-
trary, by the process which  I recommend, nothing can be
 more easy.  Be it as it may, the extent of the preparation, 
196           anatomist's manual.
its great difficulty, the constant necessity which  the stu-
dent is under  of carrying his observation  in  front and
backwards, in order to see the muscles in all their extent,
and the intimate union  of their aponeuroses, will always
render the dissection of the muscles of the bas-ventre te-
dious for any one who may wish to prepare them properly.
  I shall now pass to their.particular examination.
  Obliquus Externus.—The dissection of the skin, and the
particular pare taken to remove  all  the fat and  cellular
tissue in raising the integuments of the anterior part of the
abdomen, exposes to view, in its whole extent, the external
or great  oblique muscle.   Independently of the  general
precepts given for the preparation of this muscle, we must
also be careful not to injure the aponeurosis, which forms
a great part of it, and to isolate the cord from the spermatic
vessels, which, from the interior of the belly, goes to the
testis through  an opening of this muscle  at its  inferior
part.   In the female,  there passes through  this opening,
which  is  much  smaller   than  in man, a  small  cord,
which  likewise  requires  considerable attention :  in both
sexes,  it  is important to  preserve the  linea alba, which
extends from the xiphoid appendix to the environs of the
pubis.   About its  centre,  there is observed  the umbilical
cicatrix, which must be left in situ, for those parts are to
be studied in conjunction  with  the   abdominal muscles.
All the  muscles, and  those of the bas-ventre in  particu-
lar, are immediately covered by a thin pellicle, strongly ad.
hering to their external surface : it  is with good reason
that the student  is directed to remove it with  the skin ;  the
dissection of it  is  no where so difficult as in the mus-
cles of the abdomen, which should  make us more care-
ful  in  removing it with  the  skin ;  without this  precau-
tion, the preparation of these muscles  will  always be a 
anatomist's  manual.            197
failure;  it will be vain for  us  to attempt to remove it
afterwards,—this never can be effected entirely, and for
one blunder we shall have ten.
  Obliquus Internus.—In order to expose this muscle, we
must raise the great oblique, which covers it in nearly the
whole of  its  extent.  Lieutaud and other anatomists re-
commend to detach the  great oblique from its points of in-
sertion into the ribs and crest  of the ilium ; a  very  defec-
tive preparation.   What avail will it be to examine a mus-
cle which is separated from its attachments 1   It is, on the
contrary, essentially necessary to preserve its  points  of
insertion in order to examine fully its extent and direction,
and in this way arrive at a more accurate notion of its uses.
A good preparation can never pass as  such, unless it ren-
ders the study of the part more precise and easy; conse-
quently, I recommend the student to raise the external ob-
lique in the following  manner:—Make a transverse in-
cision  from behind forwards,  in the middle  of the space
comprised between the  crest of the os ilium and false  ribs,
as far as  the point at which the aponeuroses of all the ab-
dominal  muscles  become  confounded  with  each  other,
which corresponds to the  external  border of the rectus
muscle;  extend a second incision from the xiphoid appen-
dix to the anterior  superior spinous process of the  ilium,
carrying the instrument in preference over the fleshy fibres.
The two external flaps are turned  outwards, one below and
the other above ;  the internal  is to be detached only as far
as the sheath of the rectus ; in this way we will preserve
all the attachments of the great oblique, expose the inter-
nal oblique, as also the six last ribs and corresponding in-
ter-costal muscles.  The layer of cellular tissue, interposed
between the great and small oblique muscles, is so  thin,
that  we cannot be too cautious  in separating these  two
                          17* 
198
anatomist's manual.
muscles : the greatest difficulty, it is true, is in commencing
this separation, for when we once seize the space between the
the two muscles, the rest of the dissection will be compara-
tively easy, if we do not hurry it.  It is unnecssary to re-
mark, that one of two muscles must always be left  in its
place, and even that the other should not be removed un-
til we  have a  correct idea  of their  respective relations,
particularly for those which are separated  only by very
small intervals, as the muscles of the bas-ventre.
  N. B. In dissecting this muscle  again, I have remarked
that it may be detached, without inconvenience, in the
manner recommended by Lieutaud,   Either of the methods
may be adopted.
   Transversalis.—We cannot have  an exact  knowledge
of this muscle, without exposing at the same time the rectus
muscle, which is  enveloped by  the  aponeuroses  of the
great, and likewise of the small oblique ; but  in order not to
spoil the dissection, we must  expose the fleshy portion of the
transversalis, which may be  done by making a transverse
incision along the  whole extent of the fleshy portion of the
small oblique, and turning over the flap, one above as far as
the false ribs, the other below as far as the crest of the ilium.
I would recommend not to touch the aponeuroses, the dis-
section  of which would only tend to  complicate the work
without imparting any interest to it;  it will suffice to have
an exact knowledge of the  direction  of the fibres  of the
transversalis, and  to defer the preparation of all the apo-
neuroses until after the examination of the rectus muscle.
This perhaps will not  be deemed very methodical, but it is
the only rule that  can be well  followed by the student who
is just commencing dissection.
   Rectus.—This  muscle  cannot  be  properly  examined
without raising the layers of  aponeuroses with which it is 
anatomist's  manual.
199
enveloped; this dissection is always difficult and vexatious,
because these aponeuroses are firmly united to the tendi-
nous intersections, which it is necessary to preserve;  we
should, therefore, be content to raise them in the intervals
of the intersections, and  in this way expose the whole of
the  rectus.   At its inferior part, we ordinarily observe a
very small muscle called  pyramidalis, which  must"remain
in situ, and be studied in connection with the rectus; but it
is proper to mention that the pyramidalis sometimes is want-
ing on one, and even on both sides at the same time ;  the
small size of this muscle renders this circumstance of minor
importance.
  As to the aponeuroses of all the muscles of the bas-ventre,
the preparation of which has been deferred  until  now, I
should remark that they cannot be prepared so as to be
seen in as satisfactory manner as  the  muscles  to which
they appertain.   The posterior part of these aponeuroses
is so entirely confounded with those of the latissimus dorsi,
sacro-lumbalis, and longissimus dorsi, that it is impossible to
separate them; it is only by the aid of long maceration  or
immersion of the parts in hot water, that this can be effected,
and the advantages to  be derived will not  compensate for
the difficulty and labor of the operation.   .Such  is not the
case with the anterior part;  with a  little patience, we may
follow them before and behind the rectus muscle, and have
an exact notion of their distribution.  The aponeurosis of
the great oblique, and the anterior layer of the small, cover
the rectus muscle  in front;  and the posterior part  of this
muscle  is  covered by the  posterior layer of  the small
oblique,  and aponeurosis of the  transversalis  ;  but all
these aponeurosis pass in front of this  muscle  at  its infe-
rior third, and thus leave it exposed on the peritoneum.
By cutting  it at its superior part, and turning it down-
wards,  this  arrangement  will be  very well  seen.    In 
200
anatomist's  manual.
general it is necessary, from time to time, to take a survey
of the parts, in proportion as we dissect them, particularly
when there is any difficulty in understanding the entire of
a preparation.

                     Description.
        of  the obliquus externus  or major.
                  (Costo-abdominal.)
   Situation  and  figure.—Thin,  broad,  quadrilateral,
situated on the anterior  and lateral portions  of the abdo.
men.
   Extent.—From the linea alba to the lumbar region, and
from the seven or eight last ribs  to the os ilium.
   Division.—An external surface,  covered behind by a
very small portion of the latissimus dorsi,  and  by the in-
teguments in the rest  of its extent. Below and within, there
is  observed  an opening  elongated from above downwards,
and  from  without  inwards, called  the inguinal  ring.
Larger in man, this ring affords passage to the  spermatic
cord; considerably reduced in size in the female, it is  tra-
versed by the  round ligament; the internal  surface of the
muscle is in contact with the internal oblique.  Its anterior
border is lost in the linea alba, which it contributes to form;
the posterior is observed in the lumbar region, four fingers'
breadth from the spinous apophyses of the lumbar vertebras;
the superior is attached to the seven or eight last ribs,  and
is united by  digitations with the serratus magnus  and latis-
simus dorsi; the inferior, after being attached to  the three
anterior fourths  of the  crest of the ilium,  becomes free
and forms in part the  ligament of Fallopius, and terminates
at  the spine of the pubis.
  Direction.—Oblique from behind  forwards, and from
above downwards. 
anatomist's manual.
201
  Structure and uses—Aponeurotic in front;  fleshy  in
the rest of its extent, it approximates the pelvis and chest,
and compresses the abdominal cavity.

            OBLIQUUS  internus  or minor.
                   (Ilio-abdominal.)
   Situation  and  figure.—Broad,   flat,  quadrilateral,
situated on the anterior and lateral portions of the  abdo-
men.
   Extent.—From the  linea alba,  to the last lumbar ver-
tebras  and sacrum, and from the last false ribs to the ilium.
   Division.—An external surface covered by  the great
oblique and latissimus dorsi; an internal surface, applied to
the transversalis, and in part to the rectus muscle. Its ante-
ridr border is  lost in the linea alba; the posterior is at-
tached to the spinous apophyses of the two last lumbar ver-
teb r   and two first pieces of the sacrum;  the superior, to
the cartilage of the four last false ribs ;  the inferior, to the
three  anterior fourths  of the crest of the ilium, and termi-
nates  at the pubis by forming  the  greatest portion  of the
crural or Fallopian ligament.
    Direction.— Oblique from  below upwards,  and from
behind forwards.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic behind and in front,
 where the  aponeurosis forms  two layers, which  embrace
 the rectus  abdominis;  fleshy in the rest of its extent, it has
 the same uses as the external oblique.

                    TRANSVERSALIS.
                   (Lombo-abdominal.)
    Situation  and  figure.—-Broad,   flat,  quadrilateral,
 situated on the anterior  and  lateral portions of the  ab-
 domen. 
202
anatomist's manual.
  Extent.—From the linea alba to the lumbar vertebrae
and from the last ribs to the ilium.
  Division.—An external surface, covered by the internal
oblique, sacro-lumbalis and longissimus dorsi; an internal
surface, applied to the peritoneum, quadratus lumborum,and
to a portion of the rectus muscle. Its anterior border is lost
in the linea alba; the posterior is attached to the spinous
apophyses of the four first lumbar vertebras; the superior,
to the internal part of the seven last ribs, in uniting by digi-
tations with the diaphragm ;  the inferior to the three ante-
rior fourths of the crest of the ilium, and terminates at the
pubis.
  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic in front and behind,
where the aponeurosis  forms three layers, and fleshy in the
interval.  It compresses the abdomen.

                  RECTUS ABDOMINIS.
                    ( Stern o-pubien.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat, elongated, situated on the
anterior and middle  portion of the abdomen.
  Extent.—From the  environs of the xiphoid cartilage to
the pubis.
  Division.—The anterior and posterior surfaces are both
covered by the aponeuroses of the other muscles of the ab-
domen, which  enclose it like  a sheath.  Its internal border
corresponds to the linea alba  ; the external, to  the aponeu-
roses  of the  other abdominal muscles.   The superior ex-
tremity is attached to the external surface of the cartilages
of the three last true ribs, and to the adjoining portion of the
sternum ; the inferior, to the  body of the pubis,
   Direction.—Vertical. 
anatomist's  manual.            203
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous at its extremities;  in
addition, it presents in front four or five tendinous intersec-
tions, placed transversely  at  a distance of  four or five
fingers' breadth.  It draws the chest towards  the  pelvis,
and approximates the latter to the chest, by compressing
the abdominal cavity.

                     PYRAMIDALIS.
                (Pubio-sous-umbilical.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated on the
anterior and inferior part of the abdomen.
   Extent.—From the pubis to four or five fingers' breadth
along the linea alba.
   Division.—An anterior surface, covered by the aponeu-
roses of the other muscles of the abdomen;  a posterior sur-
face applied to  the rectus  muscle.   Its internal border is
lost in the  linea alba;  the external is free.  The inferior
extremity is attached to the pubis; the superior  remains ap-
plied upon the rectus.
   Dire tion.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic inferiorly, fleshy in
 the rest of its extent; it aids, in a feeble manner, the uses of
 the rectus abdominis.
   From the general disposition of the muscles of the bas-
 ventre, and the particular  direction of the fibres composing
 them, there results a mechanism by means  of which the ab-
 dominal cavity  is completely closed in every possible point
 of its extent, without the action of one of the muscles inter-
 fering, in the slightest degree, with that of the  other. This
 action occurs especially during the efforts made to evacuate
 the foeces, during the operation of labor, and, in a less de-
 cided manner, during expiration, and the excretion of urine.
 I  do  not speak here  of the uses of the position of these 
 204            anatomist's  manual.

 muscles, which is to form the free and flexible parois of the
 abdominal cavity, and by which they  may, conjoined with
 their alternate motion of slight contraction and relaxation,
 exercise a gentle and constant  pressure on the abdominal
 viscera.
   By an  arrangement as  wise as it is necessary,  and
 which we should understand, we perceive that,  at the point
 at which we observe the aponeuroses of one of the mus-
 cles of the bas-ventre, fleshy portions of another muscle are
 likewise remarked, whence it results that the whole of the
 abdominal parietes is thus provided with an equal quantity of
 fleshy and aponeurotic fibres, so that the same force of ac-
 tion during the contraction of the muscles, and of resistance,
 during their relaxation, exists in all the extent of the abdo-
 minal Covering.  Two remarkable circumstances can alone
 derange this harmony,  which is  so necessary;  these are,
 ascites, or excessive pregnancy,  or  even dropsy of the
 uterus.  The muscles  of the bas-ventre,  in these different
 circumstances, distended  beyond their natural limits, are
 restored to their original condition with great difficulty,
 even  when the causes which distended them have ceased;
 or, not being able to oppose the passage of some of the
 floating particles contained in the abdomen, through their
 fibres, more or less separated, give rise to hernia, the ex-
 tent  and danger of which will be in proportion to the de.
gree of relaxation or resistance  of the fibres of the abdo-
 minal muscles.

                    THIRD REGION.
                       Thoracic.
  Muscles on the anterior part of the chest.
  In this section we comprise the pectorales major and mi-
nor, and subclavius. 
anatomist's manual.
205
               Anatomical Preparation.
   Pectoralis major.—Prolong the incision of the integu.
ments from the xiphoid appendix  to the symphisis  of the
chin ; divide it into two others, by a second transverse in-
cision,  which follows nearly the direction of the clavicles
to the omoplate :  detach the inferior flap from within out-
wards, and from  above downwards, so that the  pectoralis
major,  a large portion of the serratus magnus and  of the
deltoid be exposed.   In order to render this preparation
more easy, turn the arm outwards and detach the skin as
far as the insertion of the tendon of the pectoralis major
into  the  humerus ; but preserve  it in its place, until the
dissection of the muscles of the arm, in order to see in what
manner this tendon,  as likewise  those  of the  latissimus
dorsi and teres major muscles are  fixed in the bicipital
groove of the humerus.  It is  not, however, absolutely
necessary to  delay, until the dissection of the muscles of
the arm, examining the particular disposition of the tendon
of the pectoralis  major,  relatively to the bicipital groove.
But it is indispensable, after having studied this muscle, to
cut it at four or six fingers' breadth from its insertion into
the humerus, in order to leave its tendon in place, until we
shall commence the examination of the muscles of the arm.
   It is  for this reason that I recommend to the student, to
be content, for  the moment, with merely  exposing it as
much as possible; which will be the more easily effected
by moving, fron* time  to  time  during its preparation,
the  arm  upwards  and outwards.   This,  by separating
the clavicle from  the first rib, likewise influences the sub-
clavius by elongating and exposing it sufficiently to permit
an examination of it without breaking the clavicle.
   Pectoralis minor.—Cut  the pectoralis major from the
point at which its superior border ceases to be attached to
                          18 
206
anatomist's  manual.
  the clavicle, as low down as its inferior border ;  turn the
  flaps, the one inwards,  the other outwards;  in this dissec-
  tion we  must remove a large quantity of cellular tissue,
  which is found particularly towards the superior part, in
  order to expose the tendon of the pectoralis minor, which
  is attached to the coracoid apophysis.
    Subclavius—The removal of the pectoralis major is in.
  dispensable, in order to  bring the subclavius into view ; but
  it is not  equally necessary to detach the pectoralis minor.
  To have a perfect view of the subclavius, we should remove
  the loose and  abundant cellular tissue, which  conceals it
  under the clavicle.   Great care must be taken not to open
  the axillary artery and veins of the arm, placed above the
  pectoralis  minor,  if we desire to preserve the relations of
  its different parts.
    As the subclavius is  in great part concealed under the
  clavicle, we may defer  its description until after the  mus-
  cles of the neck, because, in order to see it satisfactorily, it
  will be necessary to saw the clavicle  through its middle.
  It may,  however, rigorously speaking, be studied  in situ.

                      Description.
                of the  pectoralis major.
                     (Sterna-humeral.)
    Situation and figure.—Broad, flat, triangular, situated
  on the anterior and superior part of the chest.
    Extent—From the sternum, clavicle,-and seven first ribs
  to the humerus.
    Division.—An anterior surface,  covered by the integu-
' ments;  a posterior  surface, which covers from within out-
  wards  the seven  first ribs,  the corresponding intercostal
  muscles, pectoralis minor, subclavius, axillary vessels, and
  brachial plexus.  The superior border  is attached to the 
anatomist's  manual.        .    207
inferior side of the  two internal thirds of the clavicle ;  in
the rest of its extent, it is parallel to the anterior border of
the deltoid, from which it is separated only by the cephalic
vein; the inferior border is free, and forms posteriorly the
anterior border of the axilla ; the internal border is attach-
ed to the sternum.   From the superior and inferior borders
there results a tendinous extremity, which is inserted into
the anterior edge of the bicipital groove of the humerus.
   Direction.—The superior fibres are oblique from above
downwards, the inferior from below upwards, and the mid-
dle have a transverse direction.
   Structure and  uses.—Aponeurotic at  its attachments,
except at the  humerus, where it presents a broad tendon,
fleshy in the rest of its extent, it draws the arm towards the
chest, and vice versa.

                PECTORALIS minor.
                  (Costo-coracoidien.)
   Situation and figure.—Broad,  flat, triangular, situated
on the anterior and superior part of the chest.
   Extent.—From  the third, fourth, and  fifth true ribs, to
the coracoid apophysis.
   Division.—An  anterior surface, covered by the pecto-
ralis major; a posterior, applied to the  third,  fourth, and
fifth ribs.   The superior and inferior borders  do not pre-
sent any thing worthy of attention ;  the  internal (base) is
attached to the ribs already named ; the summit to the co-
racoid apophysis.
   Direction.—Similar to that of the pectoralis major.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic at  its attachments to
the ribs, tendinous on the scapula, fleshy in  the rest of its
extent, it draws the shoulder forwards, and elevates the
first ribs. 
208
anatomist's  manual.
                      SUBCLAVIUS.
                   (Costo-claviculaire.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated,  placed under  the
clavicle.
  Extent.—From the cartilage of the first rib to the cla-
vicle.
  Division.—Placed under the clavicle, it is entirely  co-
vered by it, and its figure, slightly rounded, does not admit
of any other relations.  The internal extremity is attached
to the cartilage  of the first rib ; the external, to the infe-
rior part of the humeral extremity of the clavicle.
  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure and uses.—Slightly tendino-aponeurotic at its
extremities, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it draws  the
first rib towards the  clavicle.
  Although the muscles of this region  are not numerous,
their uses,  however, are multiplied and well worthy the at-
tention of the anatomist.   The two pectoral muscles spread
over nearly the  whole of the ribs, place them to a certain
extent beyond  the  danger of  percussion  from  external
agents,  and moreover protect  the viscera  contained  in the
cavity of the thorax.  But it  is on the  arm, a part  essen-
tially moveable  in man, that their action is particularly re-
markable :  when, in fine, the arm is more or less  distant
from the body, they draw it towards the trunk and fix it
firmly to its sides,  aided  in this action by the latissimus
dorsi;  like this last they allow the individual to raise him-
self on his  wrists or elbows,  and act especially when  the
individual draws a heavy body,  ascends a ladder, climbs a
tree, &c.  The pectoralis minor, besides the rotatory mo-
tions it imparts  to the scapula, contributes to increase the
strength of the pectoralis major.
  The pectoralis major,  in the luxation of the arm  down. 
anatomist's manual.
209
wards and forwards, draws the head of the humerus in this
direction, and then conceals it, as it were, in the hollow of
the arm-pit.
  The subclavius does not participate in these different ac-
tions;  it  fixes the first rib-on  the  clavicle,  especially
during inspiration,  and thus becomes the remote  cause
of the  successive elevation of the seven or eight first ribs.
These  are the constant uses of the subclavius which, in the
contest between Amberger and Haller, respecting the uses
of the internal intercostals, have contributed very much to
decide the question in favor of the latter.

                    FOURTH REGION.
                  Lombo-abdominale.
   Profound muscles of the abdomen and generation.
   In this section, we comprise the two psoas muscles, iliacus
internus, quadratus lumborum and diaphragm, for the abdo-
minal  cavity.
  The muscles of generation  are, on the one hand, the ischio-
cavernous, bulbo-cavernous and transversalis; on the other,
the two sphincters, the levator  ani, and ischio-coxcygien.
The three first do not exist in the female.

                Anatomical preparation.
   After having finished the  muscles of the bas-ventre and
 those of the chest, we then penetrate the abdomen :  all the
 viscera and other soft  parts  contained in this cavity must
 be removed.  For this purpose, we place a ligature around
 the oesophagus  about two fingers' breadth below the dia-
 phragm, in pulling upon the stomach ;  it is then cut above
 the ligature, and we detach, from above  downwards,  the
 intestinal canal, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys and ureters,
 so that all make but one mass, which is thus brought down
                           18* 
210           anatomist's  manual.
as far as the environs of the pelvis.   Then the rectum is to
be tied at its origin in two places, and the intestine is cut
between the ligatures, in order to remove entirely all those
objects.
   The two psoas and  quadratus lumborum.—When the
viscera of the abdomen have all been removed, the prepa-
ration of the psoas and quadratus lumborum is, as it were,
accomplished.   It will suffice to expose them  perfectly,
to free them from the peritoneum and loose cellular tissue,
which still cover them.
  Iliacus.—The preparation of the psoas necessarily in-
eludes that of the iliacus, which is even the more easy, as
being attached to the internal iliac fossa, we may limit our-
selves to removing the loose  cellular tissue, which covers
it towards its internal border.   Near the crural arcade, it
is  united  .principally to the two psoas, and  the tendons of
these two muscles, becoming confounded with each other,
are inserted into the trochanter minor.   We may defer the
dissection of these tendons, until we are occupied with exa-
mining the muscles of  the internal part of the thigh; and
it will be  proper to pass  immediately to the preparation of
the diaphragm, which cannot be done at a future time.
   Diaphragm.—We may employ two different methods
for the purpose of preparing this muscle.  The first consists
in doing, for the cavity of the  chest, what has just been
directed for the  abdomen,  namely,  to remove the heart,
lungs, and all the other soft parts contained in the chest,
so as to expose perfectly the thoracic surface of the dia-
phragm ;  but the ribs being necessarily removed in order to
afford abetter view of the convex surfaces of the diaphragm,
it  will be proper to  sustain,  by artificial  means, the por-
tion of the asternal ribs which still continue to be connected
with this muscle, in order to maintain it in situ; this incon- 
ANATOMISTS  MANUAL.
211
venience may be avoided by proceeding in a different man-
ner, which I shall now describe.
  For this purpose, we will open the abdomen, and remove
the viscera  contained in it, as was before directed;  this
preliminary preparation will absolutely suffice, for then the
diaphragm  is  properly  stretched, and  in   its natural
situation; and  moreover, its dissection is then extreme-
ly easy.   When, on the contrary, the chest  is opened,
it is almost  impossible to dissect it properly.   Moreover,
its inferior or abdominal surface is that which  demands the
most care and attention.   In this way, we may defer, until
another time, the  examination of  its  superior or thoracic
surface.
  Muscles of Generation.—The ischio-cavernous, bulbo-
cavernous, and transversalis-perinei, require to be prepared
at the same time, for it would be difficult to dissect one of
the three without exposing the others.   The preparation is
to be made in the following manner:—place the subject on
the back,  bend the thighs upon the abdomen,  and the legs
upon the thighs, separating at the same  time the knees;
raise the scrotum, and make an incision  on each side, in
the direction of the rami of the pubis and ischium ; dissect
the skin from without inwards, as far as the raphe, which,
from the anus, extends to the  scrotum.  The adipose and
cellular tissue abound in  this spot; this must be removed
in order to  bring  into view the deep-seated muscles; the
transversalis demands especially, more than the other two,
great care and attention.   The ischio-cavernous is easiest
to isolate, because it adheres, in nearly all its extent, to the
rami of the pubis and ischium.  The bulbo-cavernous, not
being attached to any solid part, is much less so, on account
of the difficulty of fixing it; it can only be aecomplished
by  raising firmly the scrotum,  and also the penis towards 
212
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
the pubis.   In  order  to render this dissection more easy,
place a piece of linen, or any similar body in the interior
of the pelvis,  for the purpose of protruding the anus and
skin of the perineum.  This is indispensable for the prepara.
tion of the sphincters  and levator ani. Notwithstanding all
these precautions,  it will be difficult to distinguish the bul-
bo-cavernous, on account of the uniformity of its color with
that of the  spongy portion of the urethra and bulb;  this
slight inconvenience may in part be removed, by passing a
sponge several  times over these parts.
   The two sphincters, levator ani, andischio-coccygien.—
The preparation of these four muscles requiring that the situ-
ation  of the  cadaver and the other directions be the same as
in the preceding preparation, I have not thought it neces-
sary to separate their description, as I have done for the mus-
cles of generation.   If for these it is convenient to place
the cadaver on the  back, it is indispensable for the former,
to lay it on the abdomen, and elevate the ieferior part of the
trunk as much  as possible ; this may be affected by placing
a block, stone, or log under the belly of the cadaver, or
even by putting the cadaver in the position necessary for
the operation of fistula, namely, the abdomen and chest flat
upon the table,  the legs and thighs hanging.   It is also ne-
cessary to place in the interior of the  pelvis a body des-
tined to protrude the whole region of the perineum and anus.
The parts being thus stretched, we must remove the thin
skin circumscribing the inferior opening of the rectum, and
some  reddish and circular fibres will be brought into view,
which belong to the cutaneous or external sphincter.  Af-
ter having examined their figure and relations with the bul-
bo-cavernous, we should proceed to the  preparation of the
levator ani,  which is situated much more deeply;  it will be
exposed by  removing cautiously all the adipose substance 
anatomist's  manual.
213
 found in the space circumscribed by the anus, coxcyx and
 ramus of the ischium.  By the same method, we will also
 expose the ischio coccygien,  more  external and less volu-
 minous than the levator ani, and which is situated between
 the coxcyx and neighboring part of the haunch bones. But,
 I  repeat, there  will be an impossibility of preparing pro-
 perly, these different muscles, if the region of the perineum
 and anus is not distended by  pieces of linen, or wet paper
 placed in the interior of the pelvis and rectum, after having
 removed all the soft parts, and leaving nothing in fact but
 the species of floor formed by the  skin, levator ani, and
 ischio-coccygien muscles.
   The internal sphincter is nothing more than the termina-
 tion of the rectum ;  it is placed above the cutaneous sphinc-
 ter, and does not demand any other attention than that in-
 dicated for the  other muscles of the perineum and anus.

                      Description.
                    DIAPHRAGM.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Broad, flat, nearly circular:  it
 separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
   Extent.—From the  xiphoid cartilage to the lumbar ver-
 tebras, and from the six last ribs of the one side to the cor-
 responding ones  on the other.
   Division.—A superior, thoracic, convex surface, cor-
 responding to the heart, lungs, and pleura.   An inferior,
 abdominal, concave surface,  corresponding to the liver,
stomach, spleen, the two kidneys,  pancreas,  and perito-
neum.   Its circumference is attached in front to the xiphoid
 appendix ; on the sides, to the six right  and left ribs, con-
 tracting  adhesions  with the  transversalis  by  reciprocal
digitations.  Behind, the diaphram ie fixed to the first lum* 
214
anatomists manual.
bar vertebras; at this part, it gives rise  to two elongated
portions, called pillars" of the  diaphragm ; the right is the
longest, and is attached to the bodies of the three first lum-
bar vertebras ; the left is shorter,  and is fixed to the bo-
dies of the two preceding.
   Direction.—The  fibres, generally  horizontal, radiate
from the centre towards the circumference.
   Structure and uses.—In  great part  fleshy;  a broad
aponeurosis in  form of a clover leaf,  called tendinous
centre, is  observed on its middle portion, and tendons,at
the extremities of its pillars.
   The  diaphragm is pierced by  three  openings, one of
which is large and in the tendinous centre, for the passage
of the vena cava; the two others are observed between the
pillars : the anterior gives passage to  the oesophagus, and
the posterior to the aorta.
   By the effect of  respiration,  it  enlarges  and  contracts
alternately the pectoral  and  abdominal cavities.

                     PSOAS MAGNUS.
               (Pre-lombo-trochantin ien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, rounded, situated on
the lateral part of the cavity of the abdomen and pelvis.
   Extent,—From  the lumbar vertebras to  the trochanter
minor.
   Division.—An anterior  portion, covered by the dia.
phragm, kidney, and psoas parvus ; a posterior portion, ap-
 plied to the quadratus lumborum, transverse apophyses  of
 the lumbar vertebras, and iliacus internus muscle.  Its su.
 perior extremity is attached  to the  lateral portions of the
 body of the first lumbar vertebrse ;  the inferior,  confound.
 ed with that of the iliacus, is fixed to the trochanter minor.
   Direction .—Vertical. 
               anatomist's  manual.            215

  Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic at its superior
extremity, tendinous at its inferior,  and fleshy in the rest
of its extent, it bends the thigh on the pelvis, the pelvis on
the  thigh, and maintains  the equilibrium of the trunk in
standing and walking.

                    psoas parvus.
                  (Pre-lombo-pubien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated and narrow, situated
on the preceding.
  Extent.—From the last dorsal vertebra to the pubis.
  Division.—An anterior surface, covered by the dia-
phragm, emulgent vessels, and external iliac artery.  An
internal surface, applied to the psoas magnus.   Its superior
extremity is attached to the body of the last dorsal; the
inferior, to the ileo-pectineal  eminence, and body of the
pubis.
  Direction.—Somewhat oblique, from above downwards,
and from without inwards.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous inferiorly, fleshy in the
rest of its extent,  it has  the same uses as the psoas  mag-
nus, except that it does not act on the thigh.

                   ILIACUS INTERNUS.
                 (Iliaco-trochantinien.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, radiated, triangular, and
situated in the internal iliac fossa.
   Extent.—From the  ilium to the trochanter minor.
   Division.—An internal surface, covered on the right
by the ccecum, on the  left by the S of the colon.  An ex-
ternal surface,  applied to the internal iliac fossa.  The in-
 ternal border is confounded with the psoas; the external,
 free above, is covered below  by the sartorius ; the supe-
; 
 216            anatomist's manual.

 rior,  or base, is attached to the internal lip of the crest of
 the ilium.  Its  inferior extremity,  tendinous, is united  to
 those of the two psoas muscles, and is attached to the tro-
 chanter minor.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
 without inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous inferiorly, fleshy in the
 rest of its extent, it bends the thigh on the pelvis, and the
 pelvis on the thigh.

                 QUADRATUS  LUMBORUM.
                      (Ilio-costal.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat,  quadrilateral, situated on
 the lateral and inferior portions of the trunk.
   Extent.—From the last rib to the ilium.
   Division.—A posterior surface, covered immediately by
 the middle  aponeurosis of the transversalis, and by the
 fleshy mass of the sacro-lumbalis  and longissimus dorsi.
 An anterior surface,  covered  by the kidney,  colon, and
 aponeurosis of the  transversalis.   Its  external border is
 free, and concealed in the separation of the aponeuroses of
 the transversalis; the internal is attached to the  trans.
 verse apophyses of the four first lumbar vertebras; the in.
 ferior to the posterior fourth of the crest of the ilium, and
 the superior to the inferior edge of the last rib.
   Direction.—Slightly oblique from above downwards,
 and from within outwards.
   Structure and uses—Aponeurotic at  its attachments,
fleshy in the interval, it draws the last rib  downwards, and
 bends the pelvis upon the trunk. 
ANATOMISTS  MANUAL.            217
                  ISCHIO-CAVERNOUS.
                 (Ishio  sous-pubien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated,  thin, situated at the
inferior part of the trunk.
  Extent.—From  the  ischium  to the corpora cavernosa.
  Division.—An external portion,  applied to the branch
of the ischium ; an internal portion, which corresponds to
the transversalis and bulbo-cavernous.  The inferior ex-
tremity is attached to the internal lip of the tuberosity of
the ischium ;  the superior to the root  of the corpus caver-
nosum.
    Direction.—Oblique from below  upwards, and from
without inwards.
  Structure  and  uses.—Tendino-aponeurotic  inferiorly,
fleshy in  the rest  of its extent,  it draws the penis down-
wards.

                  BULBO-CAVERNOUS.
                    (Bulbo-uretral.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thin, situated at the
inferior part of the trunk.
  Extent.—From the  bulb of the urethra to the root of
the penis.
  Division.—An inferior surface,, covered by the skin ; a
superior  surface applied to the  bulb and  urethra, and a
portion of the corpus cavernosum.   The internal border is
confounded with the muscle of the opposite side, the exter-
nal adheres to the external membrane of the corpus caver-
nosum.  Its  posterior  extremity is confounded with  the
external sphincter ; the anterior terminates near the root of
the penis.
   Direction.—Horizontal. •
   Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it compresses  the
                         19 
218           anatomist's manual.
canal  of the urethra, and  accelerates the course of the
urine and semen.

                    TRANSVERSALIS.
                  (Ischio-perineal.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated at the
inferior part of the trunk.
   Extent.—From the ischium to the urethra.
   Division.—An anterior surface, covered by the ischio and
bulbo-cavernous muscles,  together with cellular and adipose
tissue; a posterior surface, which corresponds to the levator
ani, and is traversed by the profound branch of the pubic
artery.  Its external border is attached to the  tuberosity
and branch of the ischium ; the internal is confounded with
its  fellow,  in  the space between the  bulb of the urethra
and anus;  the posterior is free under the skin.
   Direction.—Transverse.
     Structure  and  uses.—Aponeurotic  at its  insertion
into the ischium, fleshy in the  rest  of its  extent, it com-
presses the canal of the urethra.

                 EXTERNAL SPHINCTER.
                    (Coccigio-anal.)
   Situation  and  figure.—Flat,  nearly  circular,  and
pierced in its centre  ; situated at the inferior  part of the
trunk,  around the anus.
  Extent.—From the coxcyx to  the perineum.
  Division.—An  inferior surface,  covered by" the  thin
skin of the  anus; a superior, corresponding to the levator
ani, ischio and bulbo-cavernous muscles.  It is attached be-
hind to the coxcyx,  and in front it is lost in the bulbo-caver-
nous muscle.
  Direction.—In concentric arcs from the circumference
to the centre. 
anatomist's manual.
219
  Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it corrugates the
skin around the anus, and contracts the rectum.

                INTERNAL  SPHINCTER.
                   (Coccigio-anal.)
  Situation and figure.—Thin, circular, in the form of a
ring;  situated at the inferior part of the trunk, and at the
extremity of the rectum.
  Division.—An external portion, lost in the rectum ;  an
internal,  covered by the  internal membrane  of the same
intestine.   Its  superior  border is  confounded with  the
inferior extremity  of the rectum; the  inferior separated
about one finger's breadth from the preceding, is confound-
ed with the external sphincter.
  Direction.—The fibres are all circular.
  Structure  and uses.—Fleshy, it constricts  the intes-
tine.

                ISCHIO-COCCYGIEN.
                    (Coccigio-anal.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated at the
inferior part of the trunk.
  Extent.—FrOm the ischium to the coxcyx and sacrum.
  Division.—A posterior surface, covered by the skin and
sacro-sciatic ligaments; an anterior surface corresponding
to the rectum.  The superior border is fixed to the ischium,
the inferior  is confounded with the  levator ani; the base,
turned backwards, is fixed to the coxcyx and sacrum ;  the
summit to the ischium.
  Direction.—The fibres diverge from the ischium to the
coxcyx.
   Structure and uses.—Mixture of fleshy and aponeurotic
fibres, its sustains  the weight of the fcecal matter. 
220           , anatomist's manual.
                     LEVATOR ANT.
                (Souspubio coccygien.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat, thin, quadri-lateral, situa-
ted at the inferior part of the trunk.
  Extent.— From the ischium to the coxcyx and rectum.
  Division.—An external surface, applied to the  lateral
portions of the pelvic excavation;  it also corresponds to the
internal obturator  and gluteus maximus : an internal sur-
face, corresponding'to the bladder and rectum.   The supe.
rior border is  attached  to  the upper part  of the exca-
vation of the pelvis ; the inferior is confounded with that of
the opposite side, from the coxcyx  to the  rectum; the pos-
terior is united to the ischio-coccygien muscle ;  the ante-
rior to that of the opposite side, in embracing the rectum.
   Direction.—Oblique from above  downwards, and from
before backwards.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic above, fleshy
in the rest of its extent, it sustains the rectum in the expul-
sion of the foecal matter; it  raises it and then restores  it to
its natural situation.
   Of all the regions of myology, there is none that presents
such variety, relatively to the uses of the muscles, as that we
have just described.   The diaphragm does not confound its
action with that of the psoas,  iliacus and quadratus  lumbo-
rum, nor these with the muscles of the perineum and gene-
ration.
   The diaphragm, whose action is not absolutely  depen-
dent on  the will, although it has  all the  characters of
muscles of the life of relation, is situated so as to  form a
kind of moveable floor, interposed between the chest  and
abdomen, the respective organs of which it  separates  very
accurately.   Enjoying an alternative motion of contraction 
               anatomist's  manual.             221

and relaxation, it augments in the first case the capacity of
the chest, facilitates the admission of air into the pulmonary
cells, and thus becomes one of  the chief agents of respira-
tion.  It forces, at the same instant, the abdominal viscera
downwards and forwards, in compelling the parietes of the
bas-ventre  to aid  in  this  movement,  and  in this way it
increases  equally  the pectoral  and  abdominal  cavities.
During its relaxation, the diaphragm ascends towards the
lungs, adds to the expiratory power of these organs, and
allowing the abdominal muscles to return upon themselves,
favors the action of these last on the abdominal viscera.
  When speaking  of the uses  of the muscles of the bas-
ventre, I mentioned the active  part which  the diaphragm
took during the evacuation of  foeces and the expulsion of
urine, as also during accouchement.
  The psoas and iliacus muscles  have a simultaneous action.
Their particular uses are to maintain the equilibrium of
the trunk on the inferior extremities in the ordinary standing
position, by preventing the trunk from falling backwards ;
but when this  is the fixed  point they draw  the thighs, and
the totality of the  inferior member  on the pelvis, which is
particularly observed in progression, during which the al-
ternative displacement of each abdominal extremity requires,
in the first place, its elevation from the ground, and a slight
flexion; they are  the congeneres of  the glutei muscles;
like these last, they can draw the pelvis on the thigh, but
in an opposite direction, that is to say, in front and in flex-
ing the trunk, particularly the psoas magnus, which facili-
tates progression, whether it be  slow or rapid.  Behold the
traveller, after a long walk, or who wishes to accelerate his
gait, far from  holding himself upright, he  is, on the con-
trary bent forward.
                           19* 
222
anatomist's manual.
  The quadratus  lumborum,  isolated, as it were,  in the
abdominal  cavity, a portion of whose walls it forms, con-
tributes in a feeble manner  to the phenomena of respi-
ration, by  drawing down  the last  rib, and exerting upon
it, but in a contrary direction, the same action as the sub-
clavius on the first rib;  it also contributes to draw the
trunk to one side, and thus becomes the antagonist of its
fellow, of which it is the congenere at the moment of in-
spiration.
  As regards the muscles whose general uses it remains for
us to examine, it will be necessary to establish a difference
between those of the margin of the anus and those of genera-
tion.  Sometimes, indeed, these different organs have simul-
taneous actions, but most frequently they act separately,
and it is  under the latter point of  view that  we shall now
examine  them.
  The object of the levator ani is  not exclusively, as its
name indicates, to raise the inferior extremity of the rec-
turn, but  to form, conjointly with the ischio-coecygien, the
inferior floor of the abdominal cavity,  as the diaphragm
forms the superior, and in this  way to sustain, at  the time
of a deep inspiration, the weight of the abdominal viscera,
which are carried  in this direction by the powerful action
of the diaphragm.
  During the efforts of the child's head, at the moment of
accouchement and in the expulsion of fceces, the two mus-
cles in question support the violence  of  these efforts, op-
pose the  laceration of the perineum in the  first case, and
the  complete protrusion of the anus in  the other.  The
two sphincters, congeneres of these last  under almost all
circumstances, have for an additional use to keep  the infe-
rior extremity of the rectum continually closed, and to pre-
vent the  discharge of fceces, either liquid or  solid, through 
anatomist's  manual.            223
this opening, except at the time of the natural  expulsion
of the foecal matter.
  The uses of the muscles of generation are not in propor-
tion to the energy and vivacity of the generative  functions.
Here the muscular action is two weak ; nature requires a
power very differently organized.  The general disturbance
of the  whole machine, the disorder in the sensations, the
convulsive exhaltation of all the vital  forces are scarcely
sufficient for the violence of desire in the accomplishment of
the act of generation.  Under these  circumstances what
could be  effected by the feeble and uncertain action of the
transversalis perinei, or  bulbo-cavernous ?  Let us, how-
ever, examine the uses of these muscles.
  Of  these  three muscles,  the ishio-cavernous  alone has
distinct uses; those of the  other  two are more obscure.
We know, in fine, that the ishio-cavernous draws the penis
downwards  when it  is  in  a state of erection;  that  it
dilates at the same time the canal of the urethra, which
affords a free passage to the urine, and  a still greater facility
to the  emission of the semen ;  that it is consequently the
antagonist  of the bulbo-cavernous, whose action is  limited
to exerting pressure on the canal of the urethra, without,
however, drawing the penis in any particular direction.
   The uses of the transversalis  appear  to be to draw
slightly,  in a contrary sense, the portion of the canal of
the urethra,  to  which it is inserted,  and  to facilitate the
flow of the urine.

                     FIFTH REGION.
                  (Costo- Thoragiqve.)
   Muscles on the sides of the trunk.—These  muscles are
the serratus magnus, the external and internal  intercostals. 
224
anatomist's manual.
               Anatomical  Preparation.
  Serratus magnus.—The pectoralis major and the mus-
cles on the posterior part of the trunk being removed, the
serratus magnus will be readily perceived  by raising the
omoplate.  The cellular tissue found between this last and
the subscapularis must be removed, as also that which is in-
terposed between the posterior part of the ribs and serratus
magnus.   This muscle must not be entirely detached from
these same ribs, but we may disarticulate the humerus and
clavicle, and thus move the detached arm in different direc
tions, which will afford an opportunity of seeing the serra-
tus magnus  in all  its different  relations.  In the study of
this muscle, we should  always approximate as much as
possible the head of the humerus  to  the glenoid cavity, in
order to have an idea of the whole of its description.
  External and internal intercostals.—After having detach-
ed the arm from the body, and removed the clavicle, as also
all the superficial muscles of the trunk, the ribs  and corres-
ponding intercostal muscles will be exposed.   Nothing, un-
der these circumstances, can interfere with the study of these
muscles ;  it is true, however, that the external only are per-
ceived at first, but the preparation of the internal requires
but very little trouble.   For this  purpose, we remove the
fibres of the external intercostals, until those of the in-
ternal are brought into view;  these  last go  in an opposite
direction.   The layers formed  by both  the external and
internal fibres are  not very thick, and they are separated
only by a small quantity of cellular tissue.   The two in-
tercostals, occupying nearly all the space of each rib, it is
indispensable to examine them from the anterior to the pos-
terior part; for which purpose, as has  already been stated, it
will be necessary to  remove all the  muscles covering the
trunk.   It will also be  necessary  to penetrate the interior 
               anatomist's  manual.            225

of the chest, in order to have a better view of the internal
intercostals; but as the triangular section of the  sternum
has not yet been made, we may dispense with this exami-
nation for the moment, and continue it  after that of the
superficial muscles on the anterior part of the neck.

                     Description.
                  SERRATUS MAGNUS.
                  (Cos to • Scapulaire.)
  Situation and figure.—Broad, flat, quadrilateral, situa-
ted on the lateral portions of the trunk.
  Extent.—From the omoplate to the eight first ribs.
  Division.—An  external surface, covered by the sub-
scapularis, a portion of the pectoralis major and minor, latis-
simus dorsi, and integuments.   An internal surface, which
covers the seven or eight first ribs, and the corresponding
intercostal  muscles.   Its  superior border, the shortest,
and its inferior,  do not present any  thing remarkable.
The posterior is fixed to the base of the omoplate;  the an-
terior is attached to the seven or eight first ribs, by digita-
tions, the inferior of which become confounded with those
of the external oblique.
  Direction.—The more oblique from behind forwards,
and above downwards, as we examine  the  muscle nearer
its inferior portion.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic at its different
attachments,  fleshy in  the  rest its  extent, it draws the
omoplate forwards and upwards, and in some cases elevates
the ribs.

               EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS.
                         {Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, thin, situated in the space
between the ribs. 
226
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
  Extent.—From the posterior to the anterior part of the
intercostal spaces.
  Division.—An external surface, covered by the pecto.
rales  major and minor, the three serrati, obliquus exter-
nus of the abdomen, sacro-lumbalis and longissimus dorsi;
an internal surface, applied to the internal intercostals, and
pleura posteriorly.   The superior border is attached to the
rib which is above, and the inferior to that which is below.
  Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards,  and  from
behind forwards.
  Structure  and  uses.—Slightly aponeurotic at their at-
tachments, fleshy in the  rest of their extent, they elevate
the ribs.

               INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS.
                         (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, thin, situated in the space
between the ribs.
   Extent.—From the posterior to the anterior part of this
space.
   Division.—An  external surface, covered by the exter-
nal intercostals;  and internal  surface,  applied  to the
pleura.   The superior border is attached to the rib above,
and the inferior, to the one below.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards,  and  from
before backwards.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic at their  at-
tachments, fleshy in the  rest of their extent,  they  elevate
the ribs.
   The  uses of the  serratus magnus in man are rather
limited.   It approximates the shoulder to the  trunk, and
in this  way imparts more energy to the motions of  the
arm ; on the other hand, it acts on the chest, which it di- 
anatomist's  manual.
227
lates feebly when the thoracic members are in repose ;
such is,  in  a word, its  physiological history.   But if
we study it  in birds, whose flight extends to the highest
regions, we  will observe very  important  uses attached to
it.  In raising the ribs of these animals, it increases very
considerably the dilatation of the chest, permits the en-
trance of a great quantity of air into this  cavity,  and thus
contributes to give them that extraordinary  power, by the
aid of which they are enabled to sustain themselves in their
flight.
   The external and  internal intercostals, whose uses have
excited so much discussion, are  at the present day  much
better understood than they were in the middle of the last
century.  We now are aware that they have a simultaneous
action; that the seven or eight first, counting from above
downwards, elevate  the superior  ribs,  and that the four or
five last draw down  the inferior ribs so that the whole chest
is thus equally enlarged from above downwards.   The first
are aided in their action by the posterior and superior ser-
ratus minor, and the last by the posterior and inferior ser-
ratus major.

             SIXTH  AND SEVENTH REGIONS.
   Muscles of the summit  of the  head and face.—I  have
included, in  the  same article, the preparation and  study
of the muscles  of these  two regions, because  it is  dif-
ficult to separate them.   These muscles are, for the sum-
mit of the head, the occipito-frontalis,  three auricular, cor-
rugator supercilii and pyramidalis; those of the face are, the
orbicularis palpebrarum, levator labii superioris alceque nasi,
levator labii superioris proprius, triangularis nasi, the two
zygomatiei, caninus, triangularis menti, quadratis, myrtifor-
mis, buccinator, and orbicularis 1 abiorum. 
228            anatomist's manual.
                Anatomical Preparation.
   The preparation of the muscles of the head and face has
always been regarded as one of the most delicate and diffi-
cult in  myology.   Some of them  are enveloped by fat,
others repose under dense and compact cellular tissue, and
others again are covered only by a cutaneous envelope, so
thin, that it is difficult to separate the interval which sepa-
rates them ;  all these considerations, therefore, render the
dissection of the muscles of the  face  extremely difficult.
But a circumstance entirely independent of these first in-
conveniences may render the preparation of these muscles
still more embarrassing; it is the bad quality of the subject.
In a word, we <?annot say to what degree the difficulty will
extend of dissecting the muscles of the face in subjects  that
are infiltrated,  or  in such as have  perished by a violent
death,  strangulation,  apoplexy,  &c,  and it would be ad-
visable, in these cases, to defer this dissection until another
period, rather than consume time unprofitably,for 1 defy the
most skilful  anatomist to dissect  and-iSolate exactly the
muscles of the face in a subject that has been infiltrated.
An excessive  quantity of  fat will also render  the  dis-
section difficult and disagreeable ; the disposition  of these
muscles  explains,  to  a  certain  degree, the nature  and
cause of all these inconveniences; all of them  extend to
the skin, follow its movements, and, like it, are obedient
to the agents which distend it.   Lost in fat, cellular tissue
or effused fluid,  they cannot be seized  but with great diffi-
culty, and the student cannot possibly fix  them in  any
steady position.   For this reason, it is usual to place in the
mouth, and between the lips and gums, bodies more or less
hard and solid, which, by raising the external  parts, offer
a point of support,  difficult  to ob fin without this precau-
tion.  Further  remarks  on this  subject would be of but 
anatomist's  manual.            229
little avail in removing the difficulties attending this dissec-
tion—they will be made  to disappear  more effectually by
indicating the manner of dissecting each of these muscles
in particular.

  Occipito-frontalis.—It is very common  for students,
who undertake to prepare this muscle for the first time, to
raise it with the skin of the  cranium.   It  is so intimately
connected with it, and the muscle itself so thin,  that  the
fault is excusable.  In order, however, to avoid this error,
the  following  precautions must be observed:—instead of
opening the skin, from the root of the nose to the external
occipital protuberance, as authors recommend, commence,
on the contrary, this incision towards the auricular region,
as if proceeding to open the cranium, but do not carry the
scalpel too deep, and be particular not to cut any thing but
the  integuments, because, in  order to  avoid  the  inconve-
nience of cutting the occipito-frontalis by the] ordinary
incision, you would necessarily divide the auricular mus-
cles, which are even more delicate.  It is  true that at this
point the layer of cellular tissue is somewhat more abundant,
and on this account there is  less risk.
  From the middle of the first incision we should make
a second, extending to the summit of the head, so as to
have  two flaps, one of which is thrown forwards and the
other backwards.  But we  should not detach the skin,
which is to form one or other flap, except in proportion as
the muscle is exposed; or we may, after the first incision
indicated above,  remove the whole  of the skin of  the
cranium from before  backwards—cutting it in the middle
—in proportion as it is detached.  After all this difficulty
and care, we have only one  muscle exposed ; but he who,
for the first time, will have succeeded  in exposing well the
                         20 
23U            anatomist's  manual.
occipito-frontalis, will  already have made great progress
in the art of dissecting.

   Auriculares.—In removing the skin from the  cranium,
in order to see the occipito-frontalis, we necessarily expose
a great portion of the auricular muscles, which demand the
more care, as  they are sometimes so very  pale  and thin,
that they can scarcely be rendered visible, even  with the
most  scrupulous attention.   In  order  to  observe  their
traces the more easily, it .will be proper to draw the whole
ear in different directions, and study them all at  the same
moment,  for in a short time they become dry, and do not
re-appear.

   Corrugator supercilii.—Make a longitudinal incision
from the frontal protuberance, to the extremity of the nose,
and  even to the chin.   Then  detach the skin, from within
outwards, and from above downwards, in an indeterminate
extent, for  the  dissection of all  the  muscles of the face
requires  it to be removed, as  far  down as the chin.  But
for the ^corrugator, it  will suffice to expose a  portion
of the orbicularis  palpebrarum;  the   occipito-frontalis
should be cut across the middle of the superciliary ridge;
the instrument  must be carried  with care in this place,
for the corrugator  is  below.   It  will  be necessary to
turn up  the divided portions  of  the occipito-frontalis, in
order to study the  corrugator, the fibres of which run in
the direction of the superciliary ridge  itself; it is the only
mode of observing it correctly.

   Pyramidalis.—This small muscle  being  nothing more
 than a prolongation of the occipito-frontalis, in order to see
 it, it will suffice to remove the skin which covers  the latter 
anatomist's manual.
231
on the root of the  nose ; but without some  attention, we
will remove it with the integuments.  To have a good view
of it, it will be necessary to pull the occipito-frontalis up-
wards, of which it is merely a prolongation.
 ~v
  Orbicularis Palpebrarum.—The  difficulty attending
the preparation of  this muscle is owing to its strong adhe-
sion to the skin, and the  great  laxity of the latter.   The
muscle itself and skin become  so thin  towards the free
border of the eyelids,  that it  requires much skill in dissec-
tion to preserve the orbicularis uninjured ; and  if, as  some-
times happens, the eye-lids are bloated, the difficulties will
still be increased :  perhaps it would be as well to employ a
more delicate scalpel than we are in the habit of using for the
rest of myology.  We proceed to the dissection of the skin,
placing it in the most perfect tension; at the  same time, we
should draw downwards the free border of the superior eye-
lid, and  continue the separation of the skin, as far  as the
great angle of the eye : after  this, the dissection is to be
continued from above downwards, from within outwards,
and, in this way, we expose at the same time the transver-
salis  nasi and levatores labii,  and outwardly, the  zygo-
matici, especially if the separation of the skin  be carried
somewhat low down.
   It would even be  proper to prepare all the muscles of
the face at one time, for the study of each one of them in
particular, after the dissection of the integuments, is easily
made, and the  numerous relations which  they present
require that  they should  be  seen  together.  Remove, -
therefore, all the skin from the face; this  must be done
cautiously, for it is loose, abounding in cellular tissue and
fat, and the muscles are sometimes very pale. 
232           anatomist's  manual.

  Levator labii superioris alceque nasi, and levator labii
superioris  proprius.—These  two  muscles are  slightly
covered at their superior part by the orbicularis, which it
will be necessary to raise and  carry upwards in order to
have a good view of them.  For the purpose of distinguish-
ing the  two levators, it will be proper to  draw the free
border of the lip  downwards;  sometimes they  can be
easily separated; frequently,  however, there is difficulty
ine fleeting this.

   Transversalis nasi.—In part concealed  by the two
preceding muscles, it is situated on the lateral portions of
the nose.   If we do not study this muscle the moment it is
exposed, it  becomes dry and disappears ; we should,  there-
fore, hasten to examine it, drawing in an opposite direction
and downwards the aloe of the nose, which will render the
fibres of this muscle more apparent.

   Zygomatici.—Like the levatores the Zygomatici  are
slightly covered outwardly by the orbicularis at their su-
perior portion ;  we will be enabled to isolate these muscles
sufficiently well, by drawing the  integuments downwards
and inwards,  which may  be done by placing a hook in the
angle of the mouth.

   Caninus.—Remove, or  rather separate,  without  de-
taching them, the preceding muscles;  dissect away the
fat enveloping the Caninus and expose this  muscle,  which
is situated in the canine fossa ;  nothing can be easier than
this preparation, when the other muscles of the face have
been already dissected.

   Myrtiformis.—The student  who is not  guided  in the
preparation of this  muscle will not be able to find it, be- 
anatomist's  manual.
233
cause he constantly looks for it where it is not, and in fact
removes it when he is merely seeking for its situation:  it
mdst not be exposed externally, but on  the internal side of
the Superior lip.   This lip, therefore, is to be raised and
carried upwards, we are then to divide with caution, at its
middle part, the membrane covering its internal  surface;
here, will be found the two  small myrtiforme  muscles,
nearly united to each other, and separated only by a very
small space.

   Triangularis menti.—Placed on the inferior maxilla,
it will suffice to remove the skin by which it is covered in
order to have a view of it;  a small quantity of cellular
tissue is found interposed.  If the free  border of the infe-
rior lip be drawn upwards,  it will  facilitate the dissection
of the triangularis.

   Quadratus menti.—The preparation  of the triangularis
exposes the quadratus, which is in  part covered by it, and
demands the same precautions.
    V
   Buccinator.—In order to have  a  perfect view of this
muscle, we  must, of necessity,  place in,the- mouth, and on
the sides principally, paper, linen, or  some other  body,
which will  render the skin of the cheeks prominent; by
this simple means, we shall observe the  greatest portion of
the buccinator,  whose points  are  inserted into  the two
maxillas; but its posterior part, concealed under  the mas-
seter, cannot be well seen until this last has been removed;
it is, therefore, necessary to abandon the preparation of it
until after that of the masseter ; this is the more necessary,
as we should endeavor to seize this opportunity of observing
the direction of the parotid canal, which terminates nearly
                           20* 
234            anatomist's manual
in the middle of the buccinator,  and which it is important
to preserve.

   Orbicularis labiorum.—If it is proper to place something
in the mouth or  between the  lips,  for the preparation o.
some of the muscles of the face, it is absolutely indispensa.
ble to do so for the orbicularis  labiorum; without this pre-
caution, it would be almost impossible to make a prepara-
tion of  it.   The skin covering the  lips is so thin, that in
endeavoring to dissect it, we always remove a greater or
less portion of the orbicularis.  This  muscle itself is nothing
more than  the result of the disposition of the other muscles
of the face, which form it in great part, in extending to the
lips.  In order to prepare it, it is essential to  place the lips
in the most perfect tension, and remove the skin with much
caution.


                   Occipito-frontalis.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, quadrilateral,  situated on
the superior part of the head.
   Extent.—From the superciliary ridges  and  root of the
nose, to the superior line of the occiput.
   Division.—Superior surface, covered  by the integu-
ments.  Inferior surface, applied to a portion of the frontal,
parietal, and occipital bones.  its internal border is  con-
founded with that of the opposite side ; the external  with
the auricular muscles;  the  anterior with  the orbicularis,
pyramidalis, and corrugator  supercilii;  the posterior is
parallel to  the superior curved line of the occiput.
   Direction.—Horizontal. 
anatomist's  manual.
235
  Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic at its middle portion,
fleshy in the rest of its extent, it corrugates the skin of the
head, and draws that  of the forehead upwards.

             AURICULARIS  ANTERIOR.
                (Znjgomato-Auriculaire.)
  Situation and figure*—Thin, triangular, situated on the
temple.
  Extent.—Between the  ear and external orbital angle.
  Division.—External surface covered  by  the integu-
ments;  internal surface applied to the temporal muscle.
The inferior border is free ; the superior is confounded with
the superior auricular; the anterior, or  base, loses itself
partly in the occipito-frontalis;  the summit is fixed to the
helix.
  Direction.—Horizontal.
  Structure and uses.—Slightly  aponeurotic at its  base
and summit, fleshy in the rest of its extent,  it draws the
ear forwards.

                AURICULARIS  SUPERIOR.
                (Temporo-auriculaire.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, triangular, situated on the
temporal region.
  Extent.—From  the superior part  of  the ear  to the
neighboring portion of the occipito-frontalis.
   Division.—External surface, covered  by the integu-
ments,  internal surface applied to the aponeurosis of the
temporalis.   The  anterior  border  is  confounded  with
the anterior auricularis; the posterior with the auricu-
laris of the same name;  the  superior, or base, with the
 occipito-frontalis; the summit  loses  itself in the cartilage
 of the ear. 
236
anatomist's  manual.
  Direction.—'Radiated from the cartilage of the ear to
the adjacent part of the occipito-frontalis.
  Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic at  its  base
and summit, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it raises the ear.

                AURICULARIS F06TERIOR.
                (Mastoido aurieulaire.)
  Situation and figure.—Thin, elongated, situated on the
mastoid region.
  Extent.—From the ear to the mastoid apophysis.
  Division.—External  surface, covered  by the integu.
ments;  internal surface, applied to the os-temporale.  It
is  fixed on the  one hand to the posterior portion of the
ear, and, on the other, to the mastoid apophysis.
  Direction.—Horizontal.
  Structure and uses.—Similar to the two preceding as
regards its structure,  it  carries the  ear backwards.

                CORRUGATOR SUPERCILII.
                  (Pronto Surcilier.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, narrow, situated on
the superior part of the face.
  Extent.—From the environs of  the internal orbital an-
gle to the distance of two fingers' breadth outwardly.
  Division.—Anterior  surface, covered by the occipito-
frontalis ;  posterior surface applied  to the os-frontis.   The
internal extremity is  fixed to  the  internal portion of the
superciliary ridge ; the external loses itself in  the orbicu-
laris and occipito-frontalis, two or  three fingers' breadth
from the first insertion.
  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure  and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it approximates
the eye-brows, and draws them downwards. 
               anatomist's  manual.           237

                  py ram i d alis.
                    (Fronto-nasal.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, narrow, situated at
the superior part of the nose.
  Extent.—From the root to the middle of the nose.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered  by the integu-
ments ;  posterior surface, applied to the bones of the nose.
The  superior extremity, a  continuation  of the occipito-
frontalis, is fixed  to the^root of  the nose ;  the interior to
its middle portion.
  Direction.—-It follows that of the dorsum of the nose.
  Structure and  uses.—Aponeurotic inferiorly,  fleshy
in the rest of its extent, it corrugates the skin of the nose.

              ORBICULARIS  PALPEBRARUM.
                   (Nazo-palpebral.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, broad, oval, and open in
the centre; it is situated at the superior part of the face,
in the substance of the eye-lids.
   Extent.—From the great orbital angle to the temple,
and from the eye-brow to the region of the cheeks.
   Division.—Anterior surface covered by the skin  of the
eye-lids;  posterior surface, which covers the  corrugator
supercilii, zygomatici, levatores labiorum, and the liga-
ments and cartilages of the eye-lids.   Its great circumfe-
rence commences at the internal orbital angle, extends
over  the eyebrow, descends towards  the temple, and con-
tinues its' direction downwards  and inwards passing over
the zygomatici and lavatores labii superioris, and  termi-
nates at the internal orbital angle.  Its small circumfe-
rence accompanies the free  border of the eye-lids.
   Structure and uses.—Two tendons are remarked at its
internal portion ;  one, direct,  is fixed to the great  angle \ 
238
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
the other, reflected,  is lost on  the  lachrymal  sac ;  it ap-
proximates the two eye-lids.

       LEVATOR LABII SUPERIORIS  ALiEQUE NASI.
               (Grand sus-maxillo-labial.)
  Situation and figure.—Thin and  elongated; situated
on the middle  portion of the face.
  Extent.—From the ascending apophysis of the maxil-
lary bone, to the superior lip.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered superiorly by the
orbicularis, and by the skin in the rest of its extent; pos-
terior surface, applied to the maxillary bone;  it is united
externally with the levator labii superioris proprius.   Its
superior extremity is  fixed to the ascending  apophysis of
the  maxillary bone, near the  internal orbital  angle; the
inferior is lost, on the one hand, in the wing  of the nose,
and, on the other, in the upper lip
   Direction.—Nearly vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly  aponeurotic superiorly,
fleshy in  the rest of its extent, it elevates the wing of the
nose and superior lip.

          LEVATOR LABII  SUPERIORIS PROPRIUS.
               (Moyen sus-maxillo-labial.)   K
   Situation and figure—Thin,  elongated, situated on the
middle portion of the face.
   Extent.—From the orbit to the superior lip.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered above by the orbi-
cularis and by the  skin in the  rest of its extent; poste-
rior  surface,  applied  to the maxillary bone.   The supe-
rior extremity is attached to the base of the orbit; the in-
ferior is lost in the superior lip.
    Direction.—Nearly vertical. 
anatomist's  manual.            239
  Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic superiorly,
fleshy in the rest of its extent, it elevates the upper lip.

                     ZYGOMATICI.
          (Grand et petit zygomato labiax.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, narrow, situated on
the middle and lateral portions of the face.
  Extent.—From the malar bone to the upper lip.
  Division.—Anterior portion, covered above by the or-
bicularis, and by the skin in the rest of their exient;  pos-
terior portion, which covers a part of the cheek bone and
buccinator.  The  superior extremity is fixed to the cheek
bone, that of the small within, and that of the large with-
out; the inferior is lost in the commissure of the lips.
   Direction.—Oblique  from above downwards, and from
without inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic above, fleshy
in  the rest of their extent, they draw the  commissure of
the lips upwards and outwards.

                        CANINUS.
                (Petit sus-maxillo-labial.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, elongated, situated on the
 middle portion of the face.
   Extent.—From the canine fossa to the upper lip.
    Division.—Anterior surface,  covered  by the  levator
 labii superioris  proprius and by  a quantity of fat; poste-
 rior surface, applied to  the maxillary bone.  The superior
 extremity is fixed in the bottom of the  canine fossa  ; the
 inferior  loses itself in the upper lip, near the commissure.
    Direction.—Slightly oblique  from above downwards,
 and from within outwards. 
240            anatomist's  manual.
   Structure and uses.—Fleshy, it elevates the superior
lip, and draws its commissure inwardly.

             TRANSVERSALIS NASI.
                 (Sus-maxillo-nazal.)
   Situation and figure.—Very thin,  flat  and triangular,
situated on the side of the nose.
   Extent.—From the canine fossa to the nose.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the levatoree :
posterior surface,  applied to  the  maxillary  bone.   The
external extremity is fixed in the canine fossa ; the inter-
nal to the dorsum of the nose.
   Direction.—-Transverse.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly  aponeurotic within, and
fleshy in the rest of its extent;  its uses are uncertain;
according to some, it dilates the nose, and to others, it con-
tracts it.  It is  probable that it serves  the former purpose.

                     MYRTIFORMIS.
                 (Sous-maxillo-nazal.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, flat, situated on the middle
portion of the face.
   Extent.—From the maxillary bone to the superior lip
and wing of the nose.
   Division.—Concealed by the superior lip, it is entirely
covered by it:  it is fixed, on the one hand, to the maxillary
bone, above the dentes  incisores, and,  on the other,  to the
cartilages of the wing and septum of the nose.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and  uses.—Entirely fleshy, it depresses the
wing of the nose, and contracts its orifice. 
anatomist's manual.            241
                 TRIANGULARIS MENTI.
                    (Maxillo-labial.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, flat, triangular, situated
on the inferior and lateral  portions of the face.
  Extent.—From the base of the under jaw bone to the in-
ferior lip.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the skin;  pos-
terior surface,  applied to  the  quadratus.   The inferior
extremity,  called the base, is fixed to the external oblique
line of the  inferior maxillary bone ;  the superior, or sum-
mit, is lost  in the commissure of the lips : here, its fibres
become confounded with those of the caninus  and zygo-
matici.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Altogether fleshy, it  drawsthe
commissure of the lips downwards.

                  QUADRATUS MENTI.
                    (Mento-labial.)
  Situation and figure.—Thin, flat, quadrilateral, situated
at the inferior part of the face.
  Extent.—From the base of the jaw to the inferior lip.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the triangularis,
platysma myoides and  skin ;  posterior surface,  applied to
the jaw.  The internal border is confounded with  that of
the opposite side ; the external is free ; the inferior is fixed
to the base of the jaw;  the superior loses itself in the infe-
rior lip.
  Direction.—Slightly oblique from below upwards,  and
from without inwards.
  * Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it depresses the
inferior lip.
                           21 
242            anatomist's  manual,
                 HOUPPE DU MENTON.
           (Comprised in the Mento-labial.)
   Situation and figure.—Conical, situated at the inferior
and middle portion of the face.
   Extent.—From the inferior maxillary bone to the inte-
guments of the chin.
   Division.—It has a base united to the quadratus muscle,
and terminating in the skin of the chin ; a summit fixed in
the fossette observed below the inferior dentes incisores.
   Direction.—Its fibres diverge from the  summit to the
base.
   Structure  and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it renders the
chin prominent.

                      BUCCINATOR.
                    (Bucco-labial.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, flat,  quadrilateral, situated
in the substance of the cheek.
   Extent.—From one  alveolar border to the other, and
from their posterior part to the commissure of the lips.
   Division.—External surface,  covered by the  masseter,
zygomaticus  major, triangularis, and parotid duct, which
traverses it  from without inwards ;  internal surface, ap-
plied to the internal membrane of the mouth.  The supe-
rior and inferior borders are fixed to the alveolar borders
of each jaw ; the posterior  is united to the pharygean
membrane; the  anterior loses itself  in the commissure of
of the lips.
   Direction.—The superior fibres are oblique from behind
forwards, and from above downwards; the  inferior  like-
wise from behind forwards, and from below upwards: the
middle are transverse. 
anatomist's manual.            243
  Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it draws the com-
missure outwards ; it also acts during mastication, and the
use of wind instruments.

                ORBICULARIS LABIORUM.
                        (Labial.)
  Situation and figure.—Oval, flat, situated in the sub-
stance  of the lips.
  Extent.—From one commissure to the other.
  Division.—Composed of all  the  muscles going to the
lips, the orbicularis presents  an anterior surface, covered
by the  skin ; a posterior, applied to the internal membrane
of the mouth; a great circumference, confounded with the
muscles of the lips; a small circumference, forming the free
border of the lips.
  Direction.—The fibres form concentric lines, which, from
one commissure to  the other, pass  from the great to the
small circumference.
  Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it approximates
the lips, and contracts the orifice of the mouth.  It  like-
wise serves for the prehension of food, and the articulation
of sounds.
  The muscles of the face and head  in  general greatly
excel,  as regards expression, vivacity and variety of ac-
tion, all the other muscles of the animal economy.  I shall
not attempt to  describe their numerous attributes;  such
an undertaking would oblige me to exceed the limits which
I have proposed in this work.   I  shall  merely indicate
their principal uses.   In civilized man, the auriculares and
occipito-frontalis have obscure and  limited movements ; it
is only in the heat of  passion, under some alarming excite-
ment, or in consequence of the effects  of  long habit, that 
244
anatomist's  manual.
they enjoy a certain action, and that their contraction be-
comes more or less manifest.
  The anterior portion  of the occipito-frontalis is alone
an  exception  to this general law.  It is this which, by
imparting continual  wrinkles to the skin of the  forehead,
gives rise  to  those depressions, which become lasting in
proportion  as age advances; the portion of the occipito-
frontalis, extending  to  the  nose,  under  the  name  of
pyramidalis, produces similar effects  at the root of the
nose ; the corrugator supercilii, in hatred, anger, sadness,
&c, causes  the longitudinal wrinkles, observed on the fore-
head, and which ultimately become  permanent in persons
of a grave,  fierce, and passionate character.
  The orbicularis palpebrarum, by bringing the two eye-
lids towards each other, opposes the  admission of the lu-
minous  rays, when  we  are exposed to  a vivid light;
in sleep  and  in drunkenness, its  action  is  very trifling;
but on the contrary, it is very lively whilst awake ; it is in
consequence of this  action that  the eye-lids,  rapidly ap-
proximated  to each  other, cause  their internal surface to
traverse  the globe of the eye, remove the small  ambient
corpus cules which would  otherwise have remained there,
and contribute in this way to give  it  that  polish, and
brilliancy necessary for  the integrity and perfection of
vision.  To the physiological history of the orbicularis is
joined that  of the levator  palpebras superioris which, the
antagonist of  the first, separates the superior eye-lid  from
the inferior, permits the entrance of the rays of light into
the globe of the eye, and thus favors the phenomena of vision.
The other  muscles of the face refer more or less to the
action of the lips in the prehension of  food,  in the arti-
culation of  sounds, and also in  the sad or lively affec-
tions, with which we are so often affected. 
anatomist's manual.            245
                    EIGHTH region.
                 Te mporo -zygomatique.
   Muscles on the lateral portions of the  head, and those
 which surround the articulation of the inferior  maxilla.
 —These muscle are :—the masseter, zygomaticus or tern-
 poralis, and the two pterygoidei.

               Anatomical Preparation.
   We should not proceed to the dissection of these muscles
 until after having performed a section, which will very much
 facilitate their  preparation.  But this section, rigorously
 speaking, is only necessary for  the study of the pterygoid
 muscles, for we can  dispense with  it  for  the  temporalis
 and masseter.
   Masseter.—In order to prepare this muscle, we should
 detach the skin from the lateral portions of the face ; ex-
 pose  the parotid  gland, and pursue its  excretory duct,
 which passes across  the masseter, near  the  zygomatic
 arcade, and pierces the buccinator.   The dissection of the
 masseter must  be  continued, and after having examined
 it, we should remove the parotid gland lodged in the space
 between the branch of the  inferior jaw and  the  external
 auditory conduit;  this is necessary in order to proceed to
 the examination of the temporalis.
   Temporalis.—Placed immediately under the skin of the
 lateral regions of  the head, the temporalis is one of the
 easiest muscles to prepare, at least as regards its  superior
 portion.  If the auricular muscles, which  have been de-
 scribed, are  well removed, the temporalis will be exposed
 as far as the zygomatic arcade.   The  remainder of the
muscle concealed  by  this arcade should not be prepared
until after the pterygoidei.   We are, therefore, to  be satis-
fied with isolating well its superior portion, as likewise the
                          21* 
246
anatomist's manual.
skin, the auriculares, and the cellular tissue as far as the
arcade: the external aponeurosis must be preserved, and
we should then proceed immediately to  the  dissection of
the pterygoid muscles.
   The two pterygoidei.—We should remove the masseter
from the side on which we wish to prepare these muscles,
and break the zygomatic apophysis; we can then termi-
nate the study of the temporalis, the tendon of which is at-
tached to the coronoid apophysis of the under jaw.  The
jaw-bone must then be sawed at the point, at which the body
is  united  to the branches;  if we remove outwardly the
portion which is behind, in disarticulating the condyle, we
shall bring into view the large pterygoideus, which is only
separated from  the pharynx by a small quantity of fat
and loose cellular tissue.   This muscle is in every respect
similar to the masseter, with the only difference that one
is  within and the other without.  The small pterygoideus
is  more difficult to prepare.  Some anatomists recommend
to  cut the large pterygoideus cross-wise in order  to have a
good view of  the small  one ;  this  is a  bad procedure.
The following  directions should  be pursued :—saw  that
portion of the  under jaw  to which  the  pterygoideus is
attached; raise that part which corresponds to the con-
dyle, and remove the abundant  fat found beneath,  and
which  separates the two pterygoid muscles ;  in  this way,
we shall  destroy nothing, and have an opportunity of ob-
serving the large and small pterygoids in place.  The rule
just  given for the preparation of these muscles is as easy
and convenient, as the one laid down by Lieutaud is defec-
tive and embarrassing.
   The pterygoids may likewise  be seen,  when occupied
with the muscles of the pharynx.   If the piece  on which
we study the pharynx and muscles attached to the styloid 
anatomist's manual.           247
apophysis, is well  arranged, and if the section of it has
been well executed, it must be admitted that the pterygoid
muscles can  then be advantageously viewed.   But by this
latter method the student is obliged  to interrupt the order
of study as regards  the  muscles of mastication.  This
latter inconvenience would make me prefer the directions,
which  I  previously indicated, at least for the first  year.
At a later period, the student may follow either method.

                     Description.
                      masseter.
               (Zygomato-Maxillaire.)
  Situation  and figure.—Flat, thick and quadrilateral;
situated on the lateral portions of the face.
  Extent.—From  the  zygomatic  apophysis  to  the  under
jaw.
  Division.—External surface, covered by the skin,  the
duct of the parotid gland, a portion of this gland and pla-
tysma muscle ;  internal surface, which covers the branches
of the lower jaw, and a portion of the temporal and buc-
cinator.  The posterior border corresponds to the parotid
gland;  the  anterior is free under the fat of the cheeks.
The superior extremity is attached to the external surface
of the zygomatic apophysis; the  inferior  to  the external
surface and  lower border of the branches of the jaw.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and  uses.—Aponeurotic at  its attachments,
and  broad  aponeuroses intermix with  the  fleshy  fibres
placed in the interval.  It elevates the lower jaw. 
       248            anatomist's manual.
i
                           temporalis.
                      (Temporo-maxillaire.)
I         Situation and figure.—Flat, radiated, and triangular;
       situated on the lateral portions of the head.
         Extent.—From the temporal region to the coronoid apo-
       physis of the under jaw.
        Division.—External surface, covered by the three auricu-
       lar muscles, skin, zygomatic apophysis, and a portion of the
      masseter.  Internal surface,  applied to the temporal fossa.
      Its anterior and posterior borders are  free,  and present
      nothing remarkable.  The base,  turned upwards, follows
      the direction of the curved temporal line; the summit, re-
      sulting from the anterior and posterior  borders, attaches
      itself, after  passing behind  the  zygomatic arcade, to the
      coronoid  apophysis of the inferior maxillary bone.
        Division.—The  anterior fibres  are oblique from above
      downwards,  and from  before backwards; the  posterior
      from above  downwards,  and from behind forwards; the
      middle are vertical.
        Structure and uses.—A  tendon is remarked at its in.
      ferior extremity ; two aponeuroses, the one superficial, the
      other profound, enclose between them the fleshy fibres of
      the temporalis.   It elevates  the  inferior jaw,  applies  it
      against the superior, and, like the masseter, acts with much
      force during mastication,

                      PTERYGOIDEUS MAJOR.
                   (Grand pterigo-maxillaire.)
        Situation  and figure.-^Flat, thick, and quadrilateral;
      situated on the lateral portions of the face, within the jaw.
        Extent—From the pterygoid fossa to the lower jaw.
        Division.—External surface, which corresponds above
     to the small pterygoideus, below to the internal part of the 
anatomist's manual.            249
branches of the inferior maxilla, from which it is separated
by the inferior dental vessels and a quantity of fat.  Internal
surface, applied above to the external  peristaphylin and
constrictor; below, to the maxillary gland.  The superior
extremity is  attached in the pterygoid fossa to the two
wings of the apophysis of the same name ; the inferior to
the internal part of the lower jaw, like the masseter to the
external.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and uses.—The structure of this muscle is
nearly similar to that of the masseter, and its uses are the
same.

                 PTERYGOIDEUS MINOR.
               (Petit pttrigo-maxillaire.)
  Situation and figure.—Very slightly elongated, thick
and triangular ; situated in the  zygomatic fossa.
  Extent.—From the zygomatic fossa to  the neck  of the
condyle of the jaw.
  Division.—External surface, covered by the temporal
muscle.   Internal surface,  applied to the large pterygoi-
deus  and maxillary vessels.  Superior surface, lodged in
the zygomatic  fossa. ' The superior extremity, or base, is
attached to the external wing of the pterygoid apophysis;
the inferior, or  summit, to the anterior  part of the neck of
the condyle of the lower jaw.
   Direction.—Oblique from before  backwards, and from
within outwards.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeuroses are intermixed with
the numerous fleshy fibres.  It carries the lower jaw for-
wards and laterally.
   The action  of these four  muscles is exclusive  and
well  determined; they perform the function  of  mastica- 
250
anatomist's  manual.
tion, and suffice for all the efforts required by this ope.
ration, so necessary to the great act of  digestion.  The
buccinator,  although  really  a stranger  to  mastication,
contributes,  however, to render it more perfect, by press-
ing on the food, and placing it continually under the action
of the molar teeth.
  Although it is very evident that the muscles in question
elevate the inferior maxilla and  apply it strongly against
the superior, it is yet true that in the complete luxation of
the lower jaw,  so far  from being able to bring this in
apposition with the upper, they maintain it, on the contrary,
in its  forced descent and in this way oppose its reduction.

                    NINTH REGION.
                 SUPERFICIAL CERVICAL.
        Muscles on the anterior part of the netk.
  These  muscles are:—the platysma  myoides, sterno-
cleido-mastoideus, digastricus, mylo-hyoideus,  genio-hyoi-
deus,  omoplate-hyoideus,  sterno-hyoideus, sterno-thyroi-
deus,  and hyo-thyroideus.
  Platysmia-myoides.—Here commences the  preparation
of the superficial muscles on the anterior part of the neck.
Remove,  carefully the  skin of  the neck,  which must
be dissected from above downwards, from the chin to below
the superior extremity of the sternum ;   detach the flap
from  within outwards, and from  above downwards,  but
care must  be taken not to  remove with it the platysma
muscle, which is very  thin  and  pale, and which  is  inti-
mately united to it.  There are some subjects in which it
is more  red and apparent, but in general it is very difficult
to dissect it  properly.  This  muscle is like a second skin,
beneath which are placed all the  muscles of the neck,
Which may  even be perceived across  the very thin tissue 
anatomist's  manual.            251
t>i the platysma.   It  is very important to remove  this
muscle immediately after its preparation, because it  will
become dry, and then  it will no longer be possible to de-
tach it.   In isolating it, it will be necessary to remove a
quantity  of cellular tissue, and even fat, placed between
the platysma and muscles situated beneath ;  then  we shall
see,  proceeding  from above  downwards, the digastricus,
mylo-hyoideus, stylo-hyoideus, the maxillary gland, carotid
artery, external  jugular vein, omoplate-hyoideus,  sterno-
hyoideus, sterno-thyroideus, hyo-thyroideus,  sterno-cleido-
martoideus, and the thyroid gland.
   Sterno-cleido-mastoideus.— It will suffice to separate the
skin in order to  expose  this muscle, which  has, at its su-
perior part, very  intimate connexions with  the splenius,
and to which  the  skin is very strongly  united.  It is this
muscle, which forms under the skin on the lateral  portions
of the neck, that  elongated  and prominent band which is
distinctly perceived in the  expression of the passions, in
lean and aged persons, and such as are deprived of embon-
point.  After having exposed the sterno-cleido-mastoideus,
it  will be proper to cut  it  across, and turn  the two flaps
above and below, in order to pass to the digastricus, which
it  in part covers.
   Digastricus.— This muscle, lying on  the whole length
of the inferior border of the jaw, is easily distinguished;
after having removed the sterno-cleido-mastoideus, it only
remains to isolate  well the tendinous portion from the cel-
lular tissue, which envelopes  it, and which  contracts ad-
hesions with the stylo-hyoideus, near the os-hyoides.   It is
important to examine  this  disposition, on account of the
circumstances resulting  from it as regards  the action of
the  digastric  muscle ;  in  fine,  it is in  passing into  the
species of pully, which the stylo-hyoideus presents to  it in
this place, that  the digastricus, changing its direction in 
252
anatomist's manual.
order to go  to the under jaw, imparts to this last a move-
ment of descent, which otherwise would not take place.
  Mylo-hyoideus.—For an exact view of this muscle, we
must detach the digastricus at its  insertion into the  jaw,
and turn it over on the os-hyoides;  we should remove the
cellular tissue, and, in order to render the mylo-hyoideus
more visible, carry the under jaw upwards.
  Genio-hyoideus.—Detach  the mylo-hyoideus from the
under jaw from behind  forwards,  and turn it over on the
os-hyoides ; and if, with  this muscle, we remove  the fat
and sub-lingual gland, the genio-hyoideus will be exposed.
We shall also see in this preparation the great hypo-glossal
nerve, a large whitish cord, which proceeds transversely
from behind forwards, and from without  inwards ; in addi-
tion, the lingual and submental  arteries.   I would recom-
mend to leave for a moment the preparation of the genio-
glossus, placed beneath the preceding; it will be described
in the article consecrated to the muscles  of the tongue, for
which we shall indicate a particular dissection.
  Omoplate-hyoideus.—This small slender muscle is ex-
posed by the detachment of the inferior flap of the sterno-
cleido-mastoideus, and this  is the  only  preparation it re-
quires.  We may,  in  preparing the other muscles of the
superficial part of the neck, leave it in place or cut it.  It
is true that the portion of this muscle, which extends to the
omoplate, is not exposed by this procedure ;  but as it would
be necessary,  in  order to come to it, to cut several other
muscles which the student is not  yet acquainted with, and
which it is important not to touch, I would advise to defer
a further examination of it, until he shall enter on the pre-
paration of the muscles of the shoulder.
  Sterno-hyoideus.—This muscle,  placed on the inferior
half of the median  line of the neck, immediately beneath 
anatomist's  manual.
253
  the platysma myoides, is  exposed the instant this last is
  removed, and the facility of isolating it, in raising it without
  detaching it, renders its preparation extremely easy.
    Sterno thyroideus.—Cut transversely through  the mid-
  dle of the preceding;  reverse the two flaps, the inferior of
  which covers in part the sterno-thyroideus, and the supe-
  rior the hyo-thyroideus.  The sterno-thyroideus is applied
  on the thyroid gland, the color of which, sometimes resem-
  bling that of the muscle, may deceive us : by raising this
  last, and cutting it cross-wise at its middle portion, on one
  side only, we shall avoid all error on this subject.
'    Hyo-thyroideus.—This small  muscle, lying on the thy-
  roid cartilage, and concealed, in part, by the sterno-hyoi-
  deus, is one of the least difficult to prepare, since it is suf-
  ficient to have removed this last in order to bring it perfectly
  into view.
    The dissection of the muscles appertaining to the tongue,
  velum  palati, pharynx and larynx will be described in a
  subsequent  chapter.

                       Description.
                   PLATYSMA MYOIDES.
                     ( T/wraco-facial.)
    Situation and figure.—Thin, flat, quadrilateral; situated
  on the anterior and lateral part of the neck.
    Extent.—From the inferior maxilla to the superior por-
  tion of the thorax and region of the shoulder.
    Division.—External  surface,  covered by the skin ; in-
  ternal surface, applied to all the objects forming the super-
  ficial plane of the anterior and lateral portions of the neck.
  The anterior border is confounded with that of the opposite
  side ;  the posterior is free, and extends from the shoulder
  to the under jaw ;  the superior is confounded, on the body
                             22 
254           anatomist's manual.
of the under jaw,  with the triangularis and quadratus
menti, and the inferior loses itself in the cellular tissue at
the superior part of the thorax.
   Direction.—Oblique from without inwards, and  from
below upwards.
   Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it wrinkles the
skin on the neck.

              STERNO-CLEIDO-MASTOIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated and somewhat flat;
situated on the lateral portions of the neck.
   Extent.—From  the mastoid  apophysis to the clavicle
and sternum.
   Division.—External  surface, covered by the skin, the
platysma  myoides  being interposed.   .Internal  surface,
covering above  and below the digastricus, carotid artery,
eighth pair of nerves, omoplate-hyoideus, internal jugular
vein,  and quite low down, the  sterno-thyroid, and sterno-
hyoid muscles.   The borders, free under the skin, present
nothing remarkable.   The  superior extremity is attached
to the mastoid apophysis, the inferior is double, and is at-
tached to  the superior  part of the sternum, and to the
sternal extremity of the clavicle.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
behind forwards.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotico-tendinous at its at-
tachments, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it draws the head
to one side, in making it execute a movement of rotation
from  the side opposite its insertion. 
               anatomist's  manual.            255

                 omoplate-hyoideus.
                 ( Scapulo-hyoidien.)
  Situation and figure.—Thin, elongated, situated en the
anterior and lateral portions of the neck.
  Extent.—From the os-hyoides to the omoplate.
  Division.—External surface, covered by the platysma-
myoides, sterno-cleido-mastoideus  and clavicle;  internal
surface, which covers a portion of the sterno-thyroideus
and hyo-thyroideus, the scaleni, carotid artery and inter-
nal jugular vein.  The free borders do not present any
thing worthy of attention.   The anterior  extremity is
attached to the middle  and inferior portion of the os-hyoides;
and the posterior to the superior border of the omoplate.
   Direction.—Oblique  from above downwards, and from
before backwards.
   Stucture  and uses.—Aponeurotic at  its extremities,
tendinous at its middle portion, and fleshy in the intervals,
it draws the os-hyoides downwards.

                  STERNO-HYOIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated at the
anterior and middle part of the neck.
   Extent.—From the sternum to the os-hyoides.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the platysma-
myoides and sterno-cleido-mastoideus; posterior surface,
applied to the thyroid gland, sterno-thyroideus, crico-thy-
roideus, and thyro-hyoideus.  The superior extremity is
attached to the inferior part of the body of the os-hyoides;
the inferior to the superior and internal part of the sternum.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic at  its attachments, 
256
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
 fleshy in the rest of its extent,  it draws  the os-hyoides
 downwards and inwards.

                  STERNO-THYROIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat,  situated at the
 anterior and middle part of the neck.
   Extent.—From the sternum to  the thyroid cartilage.
   Division.—Anterior  surface, covered by the  sterno-
 hyoideus, platysma-myoides, and sterno-cleido-mastoideus;
 posterior surface, applied  to  the  trachea,  thyroid gland,
 and cartilage.  The superior extremity is fixed  to  the
 anterior and middle part of the thyroid cartilage;  the in-
 ferior, to the  superior and internal part of the  sternum,
 more within than the preceding.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic at its attachment,
 fleshy in the interval, it  draws the thyroid cartilage down-
 wards.

                   HYO-THYROIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, flat, quadrilateral; situated
at the anterior and superior part of the neck.
   Extent.—From the thyroid cartilage to the os-hyoides.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the the  sterno.
hyoideus, omoplate-hyoideus and platysma myoides ; poste-
rior surface, applied to the thyroid cartilage.  The inter-
nal and  external borders  do not present any thing remark-
 able.  The superior extremity is  fixed to the os-hyoides,
and the  inferior to the thyroid  cartilage,
   Direction.'—Vertical. 
anatomist's manual.
257
   Structure and uses.—Entirely  fleshy it draw s the os-
hyoides dow nwards, and the thyroid cartilage upwards.

                     DIGASTRICUS.
                  (Mastoido-genien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated transversely ; situat-
ed at the superior and lateral portion of the neck.
  Extent.—From  the digastric  groove  to  the  inferior
maxillary bone, passing  on its way through the stylo-
hyoides.
   Division.—External portion, covered in front by the
platysma myoides and sterno-cleido.mastoideus; behind,
by  the  splenius.  Internal portion,  applied to the stylo-
hyoideus, stylo-glossus and stylo-pharyngeus, and in  front
to the mylo-hyoideus.  The posterior extremity fixes itself
in the digastric groove of the temporal bone, and the ante-
rior to the  inferior and middle part of the under jaw.
   Direction.—Transverse.
   Structure  and uses.—Aponeurotic at its  attachments,
tendinous  in the centre, fleshy in  the two intervals,  it
draws down the under jaw, and, according to some anato-
mists, elevates  the upper,

                    MYLO-HYOIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
    Situation and figure.—Thin, flat,  triangular, situated
at the superior and anterior part of the neck.
   Extent.—From the body of the  under jaw to the os-
hyoides.
   Division.—External  surface, covered  by the platysma
myoides and digastricus; internal surface, applied  to the
genio-hyoides,  genio-glossus, sublingual gland and lingual
nerve.   The external border is free;  the internal is con-
                          22*, 
258            anatomist's  manual.

founded with  that of  the  opposite side : the superior  is
fixed  to the mylo-hyoidean line  of the  inferior  maxilla.
From the external and internal borders  there results an
extremity, which is attached to the os-hyoides.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
without inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic at its attach-
ments, fleshy  in the rest  of its  extent, it  draws the os-
hyoides upwards arid  forwards, and  the inferior maxilla
downwards.

                    GENIO-HYOIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, thin, situated at the
superior, middle, and anterior part of the neck.
   Extent.—From the inferior maxilla to the os-hyoidcs.
   Division.—External  surface, covered  by  the  mylo-
hyoideus ;  internal surface, applied to that of the opposite
side and to the genio-glossus.  The superior extremity is
fixed  to the apophysis of the chin, and the  inferior to the
os-hyoides.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic at its attach-
ments, fleshy  in the rest of its extent,  it elevates the os-
hyoides, in carrying it forwards, and  depresses the un-
der jaw.
   Among  the muscles  of  this  region, there are only the
platysma myoides and sterno-cleido-mastoideus, which  do
not associate  their action  with that of the other muscles
of the same  region.  The first, weak, and  superficial  in
man, slightly  corrugates the skin on the anterior part of
the neck; stronger, and more extensive in certain animals,
it produces in them effects much more remarkable.   The 
anatomist's manual.            259
second imparts to the head those great movements, by
which it is carried quickly and forcibly towards the sides,
inclines forwards and counterbalances  the action of the
muscles placed on the posterior part of the neck, such as
the trapezius, complexus, &c.  The other muscles of the
ninth region are so situated that they produce the descent, at
first of the larynx and os-hyoides and afterwards of the un-
der jaw, which necessarily draws down the orifice of the
mouth; but when this  last  is closed, and deglutition is
going on,  the muscles placed between the lower jaw and
os-hyoides draw  the  latter  upwards and forwards, and
carry  the larynx in the  same  direction—a  movement
which  increases the capacity of the isthmus of  the throat,
the occlusion of the glottis and dilatation of the pharynx.

           TENTH AND ELEVENTH REGIONS.
           Lingual.—Staphylo-pharyngienne.
   Muscles of the tongue, pharynx  and velum palati.—
These muscles are  for the  tongue;—the genio-glossus,
hyo-glossus, stylo-glossus and lingualis; it is necessary to
add the stylo-hyoideus, although it does not appertain to
the tongue.  Those of the pharynx are :—the  three con-
strictors and stylo-pharyngeus ; those of the velum palati
are:—the two  peri-staphylin, the palato-staphylin, the pha-
ryngo-staphylin and glosso-staphylin.

               Anatomical  Preparation.
   We  cannot  but admit that the preparation of the mus-
cles, which are about to occupy our attention, is difficult,
and that it requires great care and attention ;  I shall en-
deavor, however, to  diminish  the  difficulties,  by the
precision  with which I  shall describe the  various rules
necessary to be adopted in order  to accomplish their dis- 
260
anatomist's  manual.
section.  Cut the trachea at its middle portion; raise the
superior flap; remove  the  loose cellular  tissue,  which
unites this  part to  the vertebral column ;  carry this sepa.
ration nearly as  far as  the base of the cranium, dividing
on the  sides the  cellular tissue from the carotid arteries,
eighth  pair of nerves, scaleni muscles, internal jugular
vein, &c.;  having arrived at  the superior part, pass the
scalpel  between  the styloid apophysis and adjoining por.
tion  of  the temporal bone, so as to preserve this  apophysis
in its integrity, as also the muscles which are attached to
it;  then carry  the saw  between  the vertebral column
and  piece which  is to  become  the object of attention.  In
sawing, it  is «rare that  we  do  not  remove the  whole
or part of  the small  anterior recti muscles of  the neck.
I cannot conceive it possible to avoid this inconvenience.
We  should divide the  osseus parts  as far as the root
of ihe  nose : after  this, another section must be made,
by carrying  the saw from before backwards, from the
middle  of the nose, in order to fall perpendicularly  on the
first division; we then remove the piece, and proceed to
prepare the different parts.  In order  to render the work
easier, it will be  proper to pull constantly on the two extre-
mities of the piece in contrary directions, for the purpose of
establishing a point of support necessary in this prepara-
tion.  The first  muscles, with which we should occupy
ourselves, are those of the tongue and styloid apophysis;
those of the pharynx and velum palati  come  next, and
we terminate with those of the larynx.  The muscles of
the tongue  are :—the genio-glossus, hyo-glossus, lingualis
and  stylo-glossus.
   Genio-glossus.—Remove the genio-hyoideus, cutting it
cross-wise,  and turn its two flaps upwards and downwards.
Immediately  beneath,  the genio-glossus  is observed, a 
anatomist's  manual.            261
fleshy mass somewhat considerable, which, from the apophy-
sis of the chin, extends to the tongue, increasing in width as
it goes along.   In continuing to  isolate it, we must attend
to the connexions which it contracts outwardly with the hyo-
glossus, as well as with its fellow near the tongue.  In draw-
ing this last out of the mouth, we shall render the prepa-
ration of the muscle in question  much more easy, as also
that of the others.
  Hyo-glossus.—Placed on the  outer side of the preced-
ing, and internal to the stylo-glossus, it is less extensive,
but thicker than the genio-glossus.  We must remove the
sub-lingual gland, fat, and cellular tissue ;  keep the parts on
a stretch, retain the tongue out of the mouth, and even saw
the jaw at its middle  portion; separate its branches, and
by these different means, we shall be enable to pursue the
hyo-glossus  which, from  the os-hyoides, extends to the
lateral portions of  the  tongue, where it terminates.
  Lingualis.—This muscle composes  in great part the
proper substance of thetongue; it is placed along the whole
length of this  organ, between  the two preceding, and
cannot be seen  until after removing the body of the  jaw.
bone, so as to be enabled to divide the inferior part of the
tongue in its whole extent.  It is proper  to remark, that
we must not attempt  to terminate the preparation of the
muscles of the tongue definitively, if we have not previously
removed those  of the pharynx  and velum palati, whose
preparation  is  more minute than embarrassing ; and we
cannot undertake  them until  after those of the tongue,
whence results  the necessity of studying  all these muscles
at  one time. We may, however, remark that we cannot
acquire, in the  first dissection, as perfect a knowledge of
the muscles of  the series, which we are  now considering,
as those of  the back or extremities. 
262            anatomist's  manual.
  ' Stylo-hyoideus.—Although this small  muscle has been
for  some time exposed by all the preceding preparations,
I thought  proper not to describe  it, until we could take
into consideration the two other muscles,  likewise attached
to the same  apophysis.   The  stylo-hyoideus  is the most
superficial and  easy to dissect of the three ;  the mere
separation of the digastricus and^sterno-cleido-mastoideus
brings it perfectly into view.  But  as  it is not  necessary
to divide and remove the muscles on  both  sides at once,
we may leave one of the sterno-mastoids in place, and not
detach it  until  prepared  to  dissect  the  stylo-hyoideus.
The  name of this  muscle  indicates sufficiently well the
direction necessary to be taken, and renders its recognition
easy.   We should not neglect  to observe the manner in
which it divides near the os-hyoides, in order to receive the
 tendon of the digastricus.
    Stylo-glossus.—This  is situated  nearly  behind the
 preceding; but  it is  deeper,  and ascends higher  up, for
 the purpose of going to  the tongue.   A great quantity of
 cellular tissue surrounds them near the styloid  apophysis,
 as  also the stylo-pharyngeus ;  but at a little distance from
 this  apophysis,  the three  separate,  and go in different
 directions  to their  destination.   The  stylo-glossus en-
 larges considerably in proportion  as it  approaches the
 tongue, in which it soon loses itself.   It is unnecessary to
 pursue its dissection  farther  than its entrance into this
 organ, its fibres becoming confounded  with  those of the
 hyo-glossus.  It is very essential to  separate it carefully
 from  the  adjoining  parts, which are very numerous; it is
 true  that  by the section, which we have indicated, the nu.
 merous relations of this  muscle are  reduced to a trifle;
 but such  is the lot of anatomical preparations, that some 
anatomist's manual.            263
of them  cannot  be accomplished  but at  the expense of
certain sacrifices inseparable from such an operation.
   Stylo-pharyngeus—The particular care taken to re-
move the cellular tissue, which interfered with the prepa-
ration oflhe two preceding muscles, will render that of the
stylo-pharyngeus very easy ; it occupies  the base of the
styloid apophysis, and extends  lower down and farther
back than the other two ; it  is necessary to prepare it at
the posterior part of the piece.   The loose cellular tissue
which surrounds it is very trifling,  and it can be separated
with facility.  Like the stylo-glossus, it becomes larger in
proportion as it approaches the pharynx, in which it is lost
about two or three inches from  its origin, confounding its
fibres very intimately with those of this muscular bag.
   The three constrictors.—Writers  admit three muscles
in the pharynx ;  but dissection does not recognize this
distinction,  or,  rather,  it confounds them  in the  same
operation—the  preparation  of one of the  constrictors
necessarily involving  that  of the  two others.    After
having distended the pharynx, by stuffing it with linen or
wet paper, we should carefully detach the cellular tissue
found on its posterior and lateral portions;  the three con-
strictors will then be as well prepared as an ordinary study
of their parts will require.   But if we desire to see the
line}> which separates  them,  we shall  find  it  difficult
and sometimes  impossible to  attain this object.   Some
modern  anatomists have done away with  these useless
divisions, by  embracing  the muscular bag of  the  pha-
rynx in one entire muscle.   I admit this  innovation the
more  readily, as it is well  founded, and as it dispenses
with a considerable sacrifice of time.
   In  order to judge of the  difference between  the  di-
 rections  I have  given, and  what  the modern anato- 
264
anatomist's manual.
mists, particularly Lieutaud, have written on  this sub.
ject, it will only be necessary to throw a coup d'oeil over
the preparation of the pharynx, and  all the muscles at
tached to it.   Lauth  has passed this article by in silence;
Lieutaud, himself, has been so diffuse, that it is impossi.
ble to profit by  his  advice.   I  think I have gained  an
advantage over all these anatomists, which  no doubt will
be appreciated; it is, that I  have exposed the preparation
proper to each part, in the order necessary to be pursued
for its anatomical study.
   The  two peristaphylin  muscles.—Cut  the pharynx
longitudinally at its posterior  part, which will bring into
view  the posterior nares, velum  palati, posterior opening
of the mouth,  called the isthmus of the throat, the Eus.
tachian tubes,  larynx, and the whole interior of the pha-
rynx.  An  abundant  mucosity is sometimes found on all
these parts, it must be removed in order to pass to the pre-
paration of  the peristaphylin muscles ; we first meet with
the interna], which  is under the  base  of the  cranium.
Commence by cutting with caution the mucous membrane
on the posterior part of thejvelum palati; in slightly sepa-
rating the borders of  the incision, we  shall observe  in
the interval distinct muscular fibres, extending somewhat
cross-wise ;  they are  those of the internal peristaphylin,
which it will be  necessary to expose  more and  more, by
drawing the pharynx outwards, as far as its superior part,
near  the insertion of  the pterygoideus major into the
sphenoid bone; then the internal peristaphylin will be en-
tirely uncovered.   Remove the prolongation of the in-
ternal membrane of  the  mouth, which envelopes all the
objects placed  in the interior of the pharynx, and  refer
frequently to the  description of the parts, in order to have
a more perfect  idea of their  position.   The external peri-
staphylin is more extensive and more profoundly seated than 
anatomist's manual.
265
 the preceding.   It is lodged in the space, which separates
 the pterygoideus externus, from the external side of the
 pharynx ; we must likewise look for it on the inferior sur-
 face of the petrous bone, and in the pterygoid fossa of the
 sphenoid, the whole course of which  it travels.   Draw
 from time to  time the velum palati in a contrary direction,
 in order to observe the passage of the tendon of the exter-
 nal peristaphylin over  the external  wing of the pterygoid
 apophysis, and which goes from hence to the velum palati.
   Azigos uvula, constrictor isthmii faucium, palato-
pharyngeus.—The azygos uvulas muscles are lopged in the
 velum  palati, of which they form the largest portion, and
 only require  to  be freed from the  internal membrane of
 the mouth, which covers them.  The constrictor isthmii
 faucium and  palato-pharyngeus  form, the first, the ante-
 rior pillar of the velum palati, and the last, the posterior
 pillar,  the description of which indicates more particularly
the extent and relations.

                     Description.
                 GENIO-GLOSSUS.
                       (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated on the
anterior and superior part of the neck.
   Extent.—From the under  jaw to the os-hyoides and
tongue.
   Division.—External surface, covered by the mylo-hyoi-
deus, sublingual gland and hyo-glossus.    The  internal
surface corresponds with the muscle of  the opposite  side.
The inferior border is covered by the genio-hyoideus; the
superior, by  the superior membrane of the tongue; the
                          23 
266
anatomist's manual.
 base extends along  the whole length of the tongue; the
 summit is fixed to the apophysis of the chin.
   Direction.—Resembling a fan  in form, it extends from
 the  os-hyoides to the  apophysis  of the chin,  and thence
 to the whole inferior portion of the tongue.
   Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it  carries the
 tongue forwards and backwards, by the varied direction of
 its  fibres, so that in some cases  it can cause it to extend
 beyond the mouth, and in others  it draws it back into the
 bottom of the throat.

                     HYO-GLOSSUS.
                        (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat,  quadrilateral, situated on
 the anterior and superior part of  the neck.
  Extent.—From the os-hyoides to the tongue.
  Division.—External surface,  covered  by  the  mylo-
 hyoideus, maxillary gland, digastricus and genio-hyoideus.
 Its internal surface corresponds to the genio-glossus and lin-
 gualis.   It is fixed, on the one hand, to the body and great
 cornua of the os-hyoides,  and, on  the other, to the poste-
 rior and lateral part of the tongue.
  Direction.—Nearly vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy,  it carries the
tongue backwards and downwards, and the os-hyoides up-
 wards.

                      LINGTJALIS.
                       (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated at the infe-
rior part of the tongue.
  Extent.—From the base to the apex of the tongue.
  Division.—Its external surface corresponds to the  hyo- 
anatomist's manual.            267
glossus; the internal, to the genio-glossus.  Its superior
and inferior borders are covered by the internal membrane
of the mouth.
  Direction.—Horizontal.
  Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it shortens  the
tongue and curves it upon itself.

                    STYLO-HYOIDEUS.
                       (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thin,  situated on the
superior and lateral part of the neck.
  Extent.—From the styloid apophysis to the os-hyoides.
  Division.—Outwardly,  it is covered by the digastricus ;
inwardly, it covers the stylo-glossus, stylo-pharyngeus  and
hyo-glossus; the superior extremity is attached to the sty-
loid apophysis ; the inferior, to the anterior part of the body
of the os-hyoides : it divides near this bone into two por-
tions for the passage of the tendon of the digastricus.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
behind forwards.
   Structure and  uses.—Tendinous  at its attachments,
fleshy in the rest of its extent, it elevates  the os-hyoides
and carries it forwards.   It may also elevate the superior
maxillary bone, and in  this .way contribute - to carry  the
head somewhat backwards, when the mouth is considera-
bly open.

                    STYLO-GLOSSUS.
                       (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
lateral portions of the neck.
  Extent.—From the styloid  apophysis to the tongue. 
26S            anatomist's manual.
  Division.— External surface, covered by the digastricus
and maxillary gland;  internal surface, applied to the con-
strictors of the pharynx, to the hyo-glossus and lingualis.
Its superior extremity is attached to the styloid  apophysis,
between the stylo-hyoideus and stylo-pharyngeus; the infe-
rior terminates on the lateral portions of the tongue, and is
lost in this organ.
  Direction.—Oblique  from  behind forwards, and  from
above downwards.
  Structure  and uses.—Aponeurotic posteriorly, fleshy
in the rest of its extent, it carries  the tongue on the sides.

                   STYLO-PHARYNGEUS.
                         Idem.
   Situation  and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on  the
 lateral portions of  the neck.
   Extent.—From the styloid apophysis to the pharynx.
   Division.—External portion covered  by the stylo-hyoi-
 deus and external carotid artery ; internal portion, which
 covers theinternal carotid artery, internal jugular  vein
 and palato-pharyngeus muscle.  The superior extremity
 is attached  to the  base of the  styloid apophysis; the in-
 ferior is confounded with the pharynx, and contracts some
 adhesions with the thyroid cartilage.
   Direction.—Oblique from behind  forwards, and  from
 above downwards.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic posteriorly,  fleshy in
 the rest of its extent, it elevates the pharynx.

               THE THREE CONSTRICTORS.
                         (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, thin, quadrilateral, in their
 ensemble,  situated at the  superior, middle and inferior
 part of the pharynx, a great part of which they form. 
anatomist's manual.
271
  Extent.—From the posterior nasal spine to the uvula.
  Division.—Its anterior and posterior surfaces are cover-
ed by the internal membrane of the mouth.  Its superior
extremity is fixed to the posterior nasal spine and to the
membrane  of  the velum; the inferior loses itself in the
uvula.
  Direction.—Vertical.           *
  Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it elevates the
uvula.

            CONSTRICTOR ISTHMII  FAUCIUM.
                        (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thin, situated on the
lateral portions of the velum palati.
  Extent.—From the anterior pillar of the velum to the
base of  tongue.
  Division.—The anterior and  posterior parts are cover-
ed by the  internal  membrane of the mouth;  in addition,
the posterior part corresponds to  the amygdal gland.  The
superior extremity is lost in the  anterior pillar of the
velum, which it  in part forms ;  the inferior is fixed to the
lateral parts of the base of the tongue.
  Direction.—Nearly vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Entirely  fleshy, it elevates the
base of  the tongue and contracts the throat.

                 PALATO-PHARYNGEUS.
                        (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thin, situated on the
lateral portions of the velum palati.
  Extent.—From the posterior pillar of the velum to the
r.arynx.
  Division.—The anterior and posterior parts  are imme- 
272           anatomist's  manual.
diately covered by the internal membrane of the mouth.
The superior extremity is fixed to the palatine arch, and
contracts adhesions with the tensor palati; the inferior is
lost in the pharynx, in the  environs of the cricoid carti.
lage.
  Direction.—Nearly vertical.
  Structure and  uses.—Entirely  fleshy,  it depresses the
velum palati, and elevates the pharynx.
  Of all the organs  provided with muscular  fibres, the
tongue is that whose motions are the  most varied  and
rapid.  The tongue,  in a word, is entirely fleshy, and it
may  be drawn forwards, and even out of the mouth, by
the action of the posterior fibres of the genio-glossus, and
backwards by  the anterior  fibres of  the  same muscle, as
also by the lingualis;  it  may also carry itself in all other
directions ;  to the right and  left by the action of the stylo-
glossus and lingualis ;  under the whole arch of the osseous
palate,  by the lingualis ;  finally, downwards and back.
wards, by the hyo-glossus.
   The action of  the levator palati, tensor palati and other
muscles of the velum palati, as also that "of the constrictors
and other muscles of the pharynx, is  much more compli-
cated and  demands greater attention in  order to have a
clear idea of them.
   Ten muscles, five on each side, are particularly inter-
 ested in  the function of  deglutition;—the levator and
tensor palati  by drawing the velum  palati outwards and
upwards, and the azygos uvulas directly backwards and up-
wards \ the constrictor isthmii faucium and palato-pharyn-
geus by  drawing upwards,  the first, the tongue, and the se-
cond the pharynx, do nothing more than favor the action of
the muscles of the velum, and thus all of them contribute*0 
anatomist's  manual.
273
enlarge the isthmus of the throat, during the passage of the
food through this opening.
  The constrictors have an action tending to  the same ob-
ject, but it does not occur in all  at the same time.   Their
uses are to contract the pharynx  from above downwards, in
proportion as  the food passes through this muscular bag,
and as it approaches the oesophagus, into which it is finally
forced by the successive action of the three constrictors.

                   TWELFTH REGION.
                      Laryngean.
  Muscles of the larynx.—These muscles are : the crico-
thyriodeus, posterior crico-arytenoideus, lateral crico-ary-
tenoideus, thyro-arytenoideus and ary-arytenoideus.

               Anatomical Preparation.
  Muscles  of the larynx.—These do  not present much
difficulty, because  they  have a determinate  extent, and
fixed points of insertion.   In order to prepare them, we
must  separate the larynx  from the  surrounding parts,
being  careful  to preserve only the  larynx properly so
called,  and. a small  portion of the trachea;  we should
then carefully remove a quantity of loose cellular tissue ap-
plied on a thick membrane, which immediately covers the
muscles of the larynx, but which can be removed without
difficulty.   We should commence with the  crico-thyroi-
deus, placed at the anterior part, and which,  of all, is the
easiest to dissect; we are  then to pass to  the posterior
part, where will be found first  the posterior crico-aryte-
noideus  and  lateral  crico-arytenoideus,  and  more  pro-
foundly the thyro-arytenoideus and ary-arytenoideus.
   We must admit that the partial dissection of the mus-
cles of the  larynx gives  rise to great  inconvenience, for 
274
anatomist's manual.
the study of these muscles cannot be separated either from
the general history of the cartilages on which  they are
placed,  or  fro mthe particular uses of  the larynx;  but
usage has prevailed, and we conform to it.

                     Description.
                  CRICO-THYROIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat,  thin, situated on the ante
rior part of the larynx.
  Extent.—From the cricoid to the thyroid cartilage.
   Division.—Anterior  surface, covered  by the thyroid
gland and  sterno-thyroideus muscle ;  posterior  surface,
applied  to  the  thyroid  and  cricoid   cartilages.   The
superior extremity is fixed to the inferior  part of the
thyroid  cartilage ; the inferior, to the anterior part of the
cricoid cartilage.
   Direction.—Oblique  from below  upwards, and from
within outwards.
  Structure and uses.—Entirely fleshy,  it elevates the
cricoid cartilage, and depresses the thyroid.

            POSTERIOR CRICO-ARYTENOIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and  figure.—Flat,  thin,  situated   on the
posterior part of the larynx.
  Extent.—From the cricoid to the arytenoid cartilage.
  Division.—Posterior  surface, covered by  the mucous
membrane  of the internal part of the  pharynx ; anterior
surface, appled to the cricoid cartilage.
   Direction.—Oblique  from  below upwards, and from
within outwards, 
anatomist's MANUAL.
275
   Structure and  uses.—Entirely fleshy, it draws  the
arytenoid cartilage outwards and backwards.

            LATERAL CRICO-ARYTENOIDEUS.
                       (Idem.)
   Situation and  figure.—Thin, flat, situated  on  the
posterior and lateral part of the larynx.
  Extent.—From  the cricoid  to  the arytenoid cartilage
   Division.—External surface, covered by  the thyroid
cartilage and  crico-thyroid muscle;  internal  surface, ap-
plied to the membrane of the larynx.  It  is fixed, on the
one hand, to the superior and lateral  part of the cricoid
cartilage ;  and on the other, to the base of the arytenoid.
   Direction.—Oblique from  below upwards, and  from
before backwards.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous at its superior attach-
ment, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it draws the aryte-
noid cartilage outwards, and enlarges the glottis.

                THYRO-ARYTENOIDEUS.
                       (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thin, flat, situated on
the posterior and superior portion  of the larynx.
  Extent.—From the thyroid to the arytenoid cartilage.
   Division.—External surface,  covered  by  the mucous
membrane of  the internal part of the  pharynx; internal
surface, by that of the larynx.   It  is fixed, on  the one
hand,  to the posterior  part of the thyroid cartilage ; on
the other,  to  the arytenoid  cartilage, below the lateral
crico-arytenoid.
  Direction.—Horizontal.
  Structure  and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it draws the
arytenoid cartilage forwards. 
276
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
                  ARY-ARYTENOIDEUS.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation and figure.—Thin, flat, quadrilateral;  situated
at the posterior and superior part of the larynx.
   Extent.—From one of the  arytenoid  cartilages to that
of the opposite side.
   Division.—Posterior surface, covered by the  mucous
membrane of the pharynx ;  anterior surface, applied to the
arytenoid cartilages.   It is  fixed, on the one hand, to the
base of one of the arytenoid cartilages, and, on the other,
to the summit of that of the opposite side.
   Direction.—Oblique from below upwards, and from with.
out inwards.
   Structure  and uses.—Entirely fleshy, it approximates
the arytenoid cartilages, and contracts the glottis.
   The action of the  muscles  of the larynx is entirely re-
lative to the phenomena of the voice in its different modifi-
cations, but it is not  easy to determine the  particular uses
of these muscles, nor the more or  less active part, which each
of them takes in the production of sound.   According to the
system of Ferrein the uses of these muscles are reduced to a
trifle, since this Anatomist makes the grave or acute tone
consist in the greater or less tension of certain membranous
productions  situated transversely in the interior of the la-
rynx, and since  called the  vocal  cords of Ferrein.  Do-
dart, on the contrary, likening the larynx to a wind instru-
ment, contended that the formation of sounds and  their
difference from grave to  acute  tones, were owing to the
greater or less degree of opening of the glottis, determined
by the combined action of the  muscles of the larynx.  This
latter opinion has prevailed  among physiologists, although
we cannot explain all  the  varieties  and modifications of 
anatomist's manual.            277
which the voice is susceptible, by the simple and ordinary
action of the laryngeal muscles.

              THIRTEENTH  REGION.
                  Profound cervical.
  Deep-seated muscles on the anterior part of the neck.—
These muscles are:—the scaleni, lateral rectus,  great and
small anterior recti, and longus  colli.   We must also add
to these" the triangularis sterni.

               Anatomical Preparation.
  Scaleni.—After having removed the muscles of the pos-
terior part of the trunk, and performed the necessary sec-
tion for the muscles of the tongue, pharynx, &c, the scaleni
remain isolated on the lateral portions of the neck ; the
axillary  artery and brachial plexus  traverse them ;  we
must not remove these latter objects ;  but  in order to have
a correct idea of the scaleni, and  observe them properly in
their whole extent, we should disarticulate  the clavicle, and
detach the arm of the same side  from  the trunk.
  Lateral rectus.—Remove the cellular tissue  and fat,
which conceal the space separating the lateral portions of
the first  cervical  vertebra from the  neighboring part  of
the occiput; here we will find a small fleshy mass, situated
very profoundly;  it is the lateral rectus.  In order to ren-
der this small muscle more  apparent,  incline the head and
vertebral  column  in opposite directions.  After the  prepa-
ration of the  lateral  rectus succeeds  that of the muscles
called inter-transversales colli,  but these  cannot be seen
until after the dissection of the Scaleni, which entirely con-
ceal them.
   Small and  large anterior recti colli, and  longus colli.
—The section of the  pharynx will  expose  these three
                           24 
278           anatomist's manual.
muscles;  the two last are slightly concealed in their in-
ferior portion by the  thorax, which, however, cannot yet
be removed, on account of the triangularis sterni;  we must,
therefore, be content  with separating them from the cellu-
lar tissue, if any remains.   It is rare, in the section made
for the pharynx, not to remove  the small  anterior rectus,
either in part or totally, and I admit that it is difficult to
avoid this inconvenience; the only means of preventing it,
would be to sacrifice  the pharynx, or to make the section
of it at the superior  part  of the head ; but the muscle in
question is of too little importance to require such precau-
tions.   The rectus major is also sometimes interfered with
.by the saw  ; but it is only at its superior portion, and this
does not injure  the study of it.   The longus colli is never
included, unless the saw should  be directed by an unskilful
hand, which will not  be the case in following exactly the
precepts, which  I have already given for the section of the
pharynx.
   Triangularis sterni.—After removing the clavicle, saw
the first ribs in  their  middle  portion, and reverse the ster-
num from above downwards ; detach the anterior medias.
tinum and accidental  adhesions of the other parts in the in-
terior of  the chest.  ■ V9 will  be  important to preserve the
attachments of the diaphragm, in order to see its connexion
with the triangularis, which is now perfectly exposed.

                       Description.
                   RECTUS-LATER ALIS.
                   (Inter-trachelien.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, quadrilateral, situated on
 the superior and lateral portions of the neck.
   Extent.—From the occiput to the first cervical.
   Division.—Anterior surface, corresponding to the in-
 ternal  jugular  vein;  posterior surface, to the vertebral 
anatomist's manual.
279
artery.   It is fixed above to the occiput, behind the jugular
fossa;  below, to the transverse apophysis of the first cervi-
cal vertebra.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Slightly aponeurotic at its attach-
ments, fleshy in  the rest of its extent, it inclines and draws
the head to one  side.

                  SCALENUS ANTERIOR.
                   (Costo-trachelien.)
  • Situation and'figure.—-Elongated, situated on the lateral
portions of the neck.
   Extent.—From the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth verte-
bras, to the first  rib.
   Division.—Anterior side, corresponding  to the sterno-
 mastoid, omoplate-hyoid, and internal jugular vein; pos-
 terior side, separated  from the posterior scalenus by the
 subclavian  artery and brachial  plexus.  The superior ex-
 tremity is attached to the transverse apophysis of the third
 cervical vertebra ; the inferior, to the middle portion of the
 first rib.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards,  and from
 behind forwards.
    Structure  and  uses.—Tendinous  at its  attachments,
 fleshy in the rest of its extent, it inclines the head to one
 side, and slightly elevates the first rib.

                  SCALENUS POSTERIOR.
                  • (Costo-trachelien.)
    Situation and figure.— Elongated, situated on the lateral
 portions of the  neck.
    Extent.—From the six last cervical vertebras to the two
 first ribs, 
280
anatomist's manual.
   Division.—Anterior side, separated from the preceding
by the subclavian artery and brachial  plexus ; posterior
side, covered by the sacro-lumbalis, angularis, transversa-
lis, and splenius.   The superior extremity is attached to the
transverse apophysis of the second cervical vertebra; the
inferior, to the two first ribs, by two distinct portions.
   Direction.—Oblique  from above  downwards, and from
behind forwards.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous at  its  attachments,
fleshy  in the rest of its extent, it inclines the head and neck
to one side, and elevates the two first ribs.

              INTER-TRANSVERSALES COLLI.
   Situation and figure.—Thin,  quadrilateral, distinguish-
ed into anterior and posterior, situated between the trans-
verse apophyses of the  vertebras  of the neck.
   Division.—The anterior surface of the first corresponds
with the  rectus anterior  colli  major :  the  posterior  sur-
face of the last with the transversalis, splenius  and sacro-    '
lumbalis ; the space between them is occupiel by the pos-
terior branches of the  cervical nerves.   They are all in-
serted into the  superior and inferior sides  of the transverse
apophyses'of the  cervical vertebras.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and  uses.—Very slightly tendinous  at their
attachments,  fleshy in the rest of their extent, they contri-
bute to the lateral inflexions of the neck.

                 TRIANGULARIS STERNI.
                    (Sterno-costal.)
   Situation and figure.—Triangular, flat, situated on the
anterior and internal portion of the chest.
   Extent.—From the  sternum to the third, fourth, fifth,   '
and sixth  true ribs, 
                anatomist's manual.            281

   Division.—Anterior  portions  corresponding  to  the
sternum and cartilages of the true ribs ; posterior surface,
corresponding to the pleura.   The  inferior extremity, or
base,  is united to the  transversalis  abdominis;  the su-
perior, or summit, is attached  to the cartilage of the third
rib.
  Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic  at its  attachments,
fleshy in the rest of its extent, it acts on the anterior ex-
tremity of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs, and on the
corresponding cartilages, which it draws inwards.

            RECTUS  COLLI  ANTERIOR  MAJOR.
            (Grand trachelosous occipital.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated,  flat, situated on the
anterior and profound portion of the neck.
  Extent.—From the occiput to  the  sixth cervical  ver-
tebra.
   Division.—Anterior surface,  corresponding  to  the
pharynx;  posterior surface, applied to the bodies of the
six first cervical vertebras.   The superior extremity is at-
tached to tl^ basilar apophysis of the occiput; the inferior
is fixed to the body of the sixth cervical vertebra.
  Direction.—Parallel to the vertebral column.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous  at its  attachments,
fleshy in the interval, it  bends the  head on  the vertebral
column.

         RECTUS  COLLI ANTERIOR MINOR.
             (Petit trachelosous occipital.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, narrow,  and thin,
situated on the  anterior, superior and  profound portion of
the neck.
                          21* 
282            anatomist's manual
  Extent.—From the occiput to the first  vertebra of the
neck.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the rectus ma-
jor, carotid artery and ninth pair of nerves ; posterior sur-
face, applied to the capsule of the articulation^ of the occi-
put and first cervical vertebra.  The superior extremity is
attached to the basilar apophysis of the occiput, more exter-
nally than the rectus  major ; the inferior, to the anterior
and external surface of the first cervical vertebra.
  Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards, and from
within outwards.
   Structure  and uses. — Tendinous  at  its  extremities,
fleshy in the interval,  it draws  the head  forwards, and
maintains its rectitude on the Vertebral column.

                     LONGUS COLLI.
                  (Pre-dorso-atloidien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated,  flat, situated on the
 anterior and profound portion of the neck.
   Extent.—From the first cervical vertebra to the third
 dorsal.                                     1
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the  rectus ma-
jor, pharynx, eighth pair of nerves, and the great sym-
 pathetic ;  posterior surface, applied to  the bodies of the six
 last cervical vertebras and three first dorsal.  The superior
 extremity is fixed, with that of the opposite muscle, to  the
 anterior tubercle of the first cervical vertebra (atlas;)  the
 inferior, to the anterior portion  of  the  body of the third
 dorsal vertebra.
    Structure and  uses.—Tendinous  at  its  attachments,
 fleshy in the intervals, it maintains the  rectitude of  the
 vertebral column, and opposes its falling backwards.
    The two scaleni and  rectus lateralis,  as also the inter- 
anatomist's  manual.
283
transversales, sometimes congeneres of the quadratus lum-
borum, act especially in all the motions of lateral inflexio n
  The anterior recti majores and minores, as likewise the
longus colli, maintain on the one hand, the equilibrium of
the head on the spinal  column, and, on the other, fix the
cervical vertebras  together, in opposing  the falling back.
wards of that portion of  the  column on which they  are
applied.

         FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH REGIONS.
              Scapulo-humerale-humerale.
   Muscles of the shoulder and arm.—These muscles are :
—the deltoid, supra and infraspinatus, sub-scapularis teres
major and minor for the shoulder; the biceps, coraco-brachia-
lis, brachialis anterior and triceps brachialis for the arm.

                Anatomical Preparation.
   After having terminated the dissection of the muscles of
the trunk and head, and passing to the examination of those
of the extremities, the student is astonished at the facility
and rapidity  of his anatomical labors.   These advantages,
it is true, are due  to the nature of the preparations, which
are extremely easy ; but  the skill which  he has acquired
at this period of his dissections is the real cause.  I shall,
therefore,  limit myself in this place to the description  of
that only which is absolutely indispensable, passing rapidly
over the details, which would now be superfluous.
   Although  I  recommended  the student  to separate the
superior extremity  from   the trunk,  in order  to study
the serratus major, it  will be more convenient for it  to
be attached  to the trunk, for the dissection of the mus-
cles of the  shoulder ; their  relations will be more ad-
 vantageously seen, and their general situation much bet-
ter  appreciated.   However,  no  matter what  the  state 
284
anatomist's manual.
of the parts may be, the preparation  of these different
muscles  remains always  the  same, and is  only a little
more or   less difficult.   For  their preparation, it will
be necessary to  make, through the integuments of the
shoulder  and arm, a longitudinal incision extending from
the highest portion of the shoulder to the fold of the arm.
  Deltoid.—The skin, which covers this muscle is some-
times abundantly furnished with adipose matter, which in
some degree  interferes with its preparation, without  how-
ever, rendering it very difficult.   We  should  carry the
instrument in the direction of  the  fibres, and  draw the
flap of the integuments in a contrary direction, which will
afford  much facility'in removing  it.   We should make a
free  incision with the scalpel, for there is considerable dif-
ference, as regards the preparation, between these muscles
and  those of the face or generation.  The free  borders of
the deltoid indicate the point  at which we should discon-
tinue the separation of the skin ;  but, in general, it will
always be better to uncover a larger surface than that of
the muscle we are about to study,  and we should not com-
mence the examination of a part  until after having pro-
perly isolated those, which surround it.  The  muscles of
the arm, as  likewise those  of the fore-arm, are in part
covered  by a  common aponeurosis, which  is  especially
seen behind on the triceps, and in front on the biceps and
fold  of the arm.   Its  glossy  aspect, its whiteness and
tension cause it to be easily recognized.  It is  proper to
leave it  in situ in the dissection of the integuments, and
we should not remove it  until after having studied it in
place.
  Supraspinatus.—The posterior part of this  muscle  is
exposed  in the  preparation of the deltoid,  and what re-
mains  to be done, as also for the most part of  the  other 
anatomist's manual.            285
muscles of the shoulder, is to cut across the deltoid at its
middle portion, and detach  its superior  flap, in separating
it exactly from the humerus, in order to leave it fixed only
to the clavicle and spine of the scapula; by this mode the
supra spinatus is  perfectly exposed ;  the portion which
goes alone to the humerus  is still covered by the species of
arcade formed by the coracoid  and acromion apophyses,
together with their  ligaments.  It is indispensable  to
break  these  apophyses, when  we  wish to  examine  the
manner in which  the  tendons of the supra-spinatus, infra-
spinatus, &c. are  fixed to .the  head of the humerus;  but
this  should not be done until after the preparation of the
other muscles of  the  shoulder;  we may be content  with
breaking  the  acromion apophysis only, and  with cutting
the triangular ligament, in order to observe in what  way
these tendons are inserted into the humerus.   A considera-
ble quantity of fatty matter and loose cellular tissue sur-
rounds the articulation of the humerus with  the omoplate,
pass over the muscles, and keep them in part concealed ;
we should remove these different objects before proceeding
to their examination.
   Infraspinatis.—Like  the preceding, it  is  somewhat
concealed by the the deltoid, but in a great part of its ex-
tent it is naked under the skin, and is immediately covered
by nothing more than a small aponeurosis, which can be
removed  without difficulty.   The portion  going to the
humerus  likewise passes  under the arcade of which  we
 have spoken; before breaking it, and pursuing the ulterior
 dissection of these two  muscles,  those of  the  shoulder
 should be terminated.
   Sub-scapularis.—We  must dissect the integuments  as
 far as possible from the shoulder and backwards, raise the
 omoplate from before backwards, carry the arm outwards, 
286
ANATOMIST*S MANUAL.
remove the abundant cellular  tissue placed between the
sub-scapularis and trunk ; and we must delay the dissection
of that portion which goes to the humerus, until the pre-
paration of the other muscles is finished.
   Teres major and minor.—In detaching the skin for the
purpose of seeing the  sub-scapularis, we likewise expose
these two last muscles; it is here that the cellular tissue
abounds, and it  becomes  necessary to remove a  great
quantity of it.  The teres major is easily recognized  by
its broad tendon, which passes to the humerus;  the teres
minor is more difficult to discover, it is  concealed by the
infra-spinatus, sub-scapularis, and teres major.  The track
of the aponeuroses separating these different muscles, will
aid us in  recognising them.   The long portion of the tri-
ceps brachialis passes upwards between the teres major and
minor, and leaves a  space between them ; but towards the
inferior portion of the omoplate, these two latter muscles
are so united together, as also to the sub-scapularis, that
it is impossible to separate them.
   When the teres major and minor muscles are prepared,
we may, after having taken a good view of the manner in
which the tendons of the latissimus dorsi, pectoralis and
teres major, pass and become  inserted into the humerus;
we may, I say, separate  the superior extremity from  the
trunk, and break or saw the species of arch, below  which
pass the tendons  of  the supra and infra-spinatus muscles.
We must isolate them very carefully from the cellular tissue,
which surrounds them, and  avail ourselves of  this occa.
sion to observe the relations of these tendons, as likewise
that of the teres minor, with the capsule of the scapulo-
humeral articulation.
   Biceps.—This muscle lies under the skin on the internal
part  of the  arm, and the precautions it demands  relate 
anatomist's  manual.            287
only to the disposition of the tendons at its two extremi-
ties.   The  superior  has two, one of which  travels the
whole  length of the bicipital groove; arrived at the articu-
lation, it pierces  the capsule, and is placed from right  to
left, on the circumference of the glenoid cavity.   Follow,
therefore, the distribution just indicated ; open  the capsule,
in order to observe the direction of the tendon, and this
circumstance must not be forgotten, in looking at its situa-
tion and relations.  The other division of the superior ex-
tremity of the biceps,  called its short portion, is inserted inte
the coracoid apophysis of the scapula; it is  confounded
in a great part  of its  length with the coraco-brachialis.   It
is unnecessary to attempt  their separation.   The inferior
extremity of the same muscle, on the contrary, has but
one tendon which is concealed below the fold  of the arm,
under several other muscles.   We should  be content with
removing the cellular tissue, which covers it in  part, and
defer examining its insertion into the radius, until  dissecting
the muscles of  fore-arm.
   Coraco-brachialis,  and brachialis anterior.—The first,
placed on the internal side of  the biceps, is  applied in all
its length to the humerus.   Detach the skin on  the inside
of the arm'; remove  the vessels and cellular tissue, which
cover  a portion  of the coraco-brachialis  at its superior
part.   We should not attempt  to separate its superior ex-
tremity from the short portion of the biceps, for they are
naturally  united; but the latter should be cut across at its
middle, and its portions reversed, in order to see the bra-
chialis anterior, which the inferior portion of the biceps
partly covers.  It is  not necessary to carry  the  dissection
of  the  inferior extremity  of  the brachialis  farther  than
the environs of the articulation. 
288            anatomist's manual.
   Triceps brachalis.—This muscle occupies all the pos-
terior part of the humerus, and by merely removing the skin,
we will be enabled to  see it  in its whole extent: we must
be particular to separate the three portions, which termi.
nate it superiorly, the longest of which is attached to the
scapula,  between the  two teres  muscles.   It  is scarcely
necessary to  observe  to  the  student  the propriety of
always reserving a portion of the integuments, in order to
cover the muscles which have  been dissected, that they
may be properly preserved.

                      Description.
                        DELTOID.
                (Sus-acromio-humeral.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated at  the
superior part of the arm and shoulder.
  Extent.—From the  humerus to the clavicle and scapula.
  Division.—External  surface,  covered  by the integu-
ments ; internal  surface, which covers the' superior third
of the humerus,  scapulo-humeral articulation, supra and
infra-spinatus, coraco-brachialis,  a portion of  the triceps
and  the tendon of the pectoralis major.   The  posterior
border is  free ;  the anterior corresponds  to the pectoralis
major;  the basilic vein alone separates them; the  supe-
rior, or base, is attached to the external third of the clavicle
and all the spine of the omoplate;  the summit is inserted
into the superior third  of the humerus.
  Direction.—The anterior  fibres are oblique from above
downwards, and from within outwards ; the posterior from
without inwards,  and the middle are vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous inferiorly, aponeurotic
at its superior  attachments,  and fleshy in the interval, it 
anatomist's  manual.
2S9
elevates the arm, and, in this  situation, it  may carry  it
forwards or backwards, according to the fibres that act.

                   SUPRA-SPINATUS.
           (Petit-susscapulo-trochiterian.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, nearly round, situat-
ed in the fossa supra-spinata.
   Extent.—From  the base  of the  omoplate to the hu-
merus.
  Division.—Posterior portion, covered by the trapezius
and deltoid; anterior portion, entirely lodged in the fossa
supra-spinata.  The posterior extremity is attached to the
superior third of the base of the omoplate; the anterior,
to the great tuberosity of the humerus.
   Direction.—Horizontal.
   Structure and uses.—Tendino-aponeurotic at its attach-
ment to the humerus, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it
elevates the head of the  humerus, and causes it to execute
a movement of bascule,  by which it draws  it backwards.

                   INFRA-SPINATUS.
           (Grand susscapulo-trochiterien.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular,  situated in the
fossa infra-spinata.
   Extent.—From the fossa infra-spinata to the humerus.
   Division.—Posterior  surface,  covered by  the deltiod,
trapezius, a small  portion of the latissimus dorsi and in-
teguments ; anterior surface,  which occupies the entire
fossa infra-spinata.   The  superior  border passes in  a
direction parrallel to the spine of the omoplate ;  the ante-
rior corresponds to the teres major and minor ;  the poste-
rior, or base, is fixed to  the two inferior thirds of  the base
                         25 
290
anatomist's manual.
of the omoplate ;  the summit  is attached  to  the  great
tuberosity of the humerus.
  Direction.—Slightly oblique  from below upwards,  and
from behind forwards.
  Structure and  uses.—Tendinous at its summit,  fleshy
in the rest of its extent, it draws the humerus backwards,
and causes it to turn on  its axis.

                    SUB-SCAPULARIS.
              ( Sousscapulo-trochinicn.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated  in the
fossa sub-scapularis.
  Extent.—From the fossa sub-scapularis to the humerus.
  Division.—Posterior  surface, lodged in the fossa sub-
scapularis ;   anterior surface,  which corresponds to the
serratus magnus, axillary vessels, five or six first ribs, and
corresponding intercostal muscles.   The  anterior border
is attached to the internal lip of the rib of the omoplate;
the posterior, confounded, with the serratus magnus,  is
attached to the base of the same bone ; the superior goes
in the direction of its superior  border ; a large extremity
results  from the  superior and anterior  borders, and  is
attached to the small tuberosity of  the humerus.
   Direction.—Oblique  from  below  upwards, and from be-
hind forwards.
   Structure and uses.—A broad tendon  is observed at  its
 attachment to the humerus ;  and aponeuroses are remark-
 ed in the proper substance of  the muscle, which is fleshy
 in the rest of its extent;  it turns the humerus  on its axis,
 and fixes it on the trunk. 
               anatomist's  manual.            291

                    TERES MAJOR.
                  Scalpulo-humeral.
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated at the
inferior part of the shoulder.
   Extent.—From the omoplate to the humerus.
   Division.—Posterior surface, covered  by the latissimus
dorsi and integuments ; anterior surface,  which covers the
sub-scapularis, biceps, coraco-brachialis and brachial  ves-
sels.  The inferior border corresponds to the teres minor
below, and  triceps above;  the superior, free under the
integuments, forms, with the latissimus dorsi, the posterior
fold of the axilla.  The inferior extremity is fixed to the
inferior angle of the  omoplate ; the superior, to the poste-
rior border of the bicipital groove of the humerus.
   Direction.—Oblique from  below  upwards, and  from
within outwards.
   Structure and uses.—A broad tendon, united  to that of
the latissimus dorsi,  is observed at its superior extremity ;
in the rest of its extent, it  is  fleshy ; it draws  the  arm
inwards and backwards and causes  it  to turn on its axis,

                     TERES  MINOR.
        (Le plus petit susscapulo-trochiterien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated,   slightly  rounded,
situated at the inferior part of the shoulder.
   Extent.—From the rib, or anterior border of the omo-
plate, to the humerus.
   Division.—Posterior side, covered by the deltoid and
integuments ;  anterior side, which is fixed to the  rib of the
omoplate;  superior side, which corresponds to  the infra-
spinatus ;  inferior side, to  the  teres major and  triceps.
The inferior extremity is fixed to the  rib of the omoplate;
the superior, to the great tuberosity of the humerus. 
292
anatomist's manual.
   Direction.—Oblique from  below upwards, and  from
within outwards.
  Structure and uses.—A tendon  is remarked at its at-
tachment to the humerus ; it is fleshy in the rest of its ex-
tent;  it  separates  the arm from the  trunk and slightly
raises it.

                        BICEPS.
                   (Scapulo-radial.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, rounded, situated on
the anterior part of the arm, and divided superiorly  into
two portions.
  Extent.—From the omoplate to the  radius.
   Divisidn.—Anterior  portion, covered  above  by the
deltoid and pectoralis major, and  by  the integuments in
the rest of its extent; posterior portion, applied to the
humerus, coraco-brachialis and brachialis anterior.  The
inferior extremity is fixed to the bicipital tuberosity of the
radius ; the superior, double, is attached, on the one hand, to
the coracoid  apophysis, and on the other, is lost on the
contour of  the glenoid cavity of the omoplate.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous at its extremities, fleshy
in the rest of its extent, it flexes  the arm  on the  fore-
arm, and this on the arm.

                  CORACO-BRACHIALIS.
                        (Idem.)
  Situation and figure—Elongated, narrow, situated on
the internal portion of the arm.
  Extent.—From the humerus to the omoplate.
  Division.—Internal surface,  covered  by  the  biceps,
pectoralis major and integuments ; external surface, appli- 
anatomists manual.           293
 ed to the humerus.  The superior extremity is fixed to the
 coracoid apophysis of the omoplate ;  the  inferior, to the
 middle of the internal portion of the humerus.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous superiorly, aponeurotic
 inferiorly, and fleshy in  the interval, it approximates the
 arm to the trunk.

                 BRACHIALIS ANTERIOR.
                   (Humero-cubital.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated,  flat,  situated on the
 anterior and inferior portion of the arm.
   Extent.—From the humerus to the  cubitus.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the biceps ;  pos-
 terior surface, applied to the humerus and the articulation
 of the arm with the fore-arm.  The superior extremity is
 fixed below the insertion of  the deltoid to the humerus ;
 the inferior, tathe coronoid apophysis of the cubitus.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and  uses.*—Tendinous inferiorly,  fleshy  in
 the rest of its extent, it flexes the  fore-arm on the arm, and
 this on the fore-arm.

                  TRICEPS-BRACHIALIS.
              (Scapulo-humero-olecranien.)
   Situation and figure.—Thick, elongated, situated on
 the posterior part of the arm, and divided  superiorly  into
 three portions.
  Extent.—From  the humerus and  omoplate to the  cu-
 bitus.
   Division.—Posterior  surface, covered  by the  deltoid
 and integuments ; anterior surface, applied to the posterior
surface of the  humerus.  The inferior extremity is attach-
                         25* 
294
anatomist's  manual.
ed to  the olecranon apophysis;  the superior, triple,  is at-
tached,  the  long portion to the rib of  the omoplate, and
the two others to the humerus.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—A broad tendon is observed at
its inferior extremity, and aponeuroses  in the thickness of
the muscle,  which is fleshy in the rest of its extent.  It
extends the fore-arm on the arm, and this on the fore-arm,
and in addition, it draws the omoplate to the humerus.
   The muscles  of the extremities enjoying, as  it were,
movements of flexion and extension only, and their mecha-
nism  being easily determined, I have not thought it neces-
sary to  enter into any general considerations of their uses,
as I  have done for the muscles of the trunk,  head, face
and neck.

                  SIXTEENTH REGION.
                    RADIO-CUBITAL.
                Muscles of the fore-arm.
   The muscles of the fore-arm are divided  into those of
the posterior and those of the anterior  region.   The pos-
terior region  forms two  layers,  and  the anterior  four.
The muscles of  the posterior  region are :—1st, The supi-
nator longus,  two radials, extensor communis digitorum,
extensor proprius minimi digiti, cubitalis posterior, and an-
coneus,—2d, The supinator  brevis,  abductor pollicis lon-
gus, extensor pollicis  longus and brevis, and extensor pro-
prius  indicis manus.   The muscles of the anterior region
are :—the pronator teres, radialis anterior, palmavis bre-
vis, and cubitalis anterior ;—2d, The sublimis ;—3d, The
profundus  and   flexor policis  longus;—4th,  Pronator
quadratus. 
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
295
               Anatomical Preparation.
  The preparation of the muscles of the fore-arm requires
such little care, that the student the least acquainted with
anatomical dissections  may accomplish it.   It will  suffice
to remove carefully the integuments, which cover them,
commencing at the posterior part.   An aponeurosis, tole-
rably thick, is spread over all these muscles, principally
those of the posterior part; we should leave it in place in
the dissection of the integuments, and it should not  be re-
moved until after having  properly  studied it.  But this
aponeurosis being  strongly  attached  to the  muscles  at
their superior part, we cannot detach it, without  removing
at the same time the proper fibres of the muscles, which
should not be done.  The muscles themselves are very in
timately united to each other towards their common inser-
tion into the external tuberosity of the humerus; aponeu-
rotic partitions indicate sufficiently well  their lines of de-
marcation ; but it is impossible to separate them as far as
their  superior  attachment.   Inferiorly, on  the  contrary,
they are separated by considerable intervals, and nothing
is easier than  to recognize them.   I shall merely make a
few  rapid  reflections on the preparation of each of them
in particular, in the order of their respective study.

                   POSTERIOR PART.
  1st,  Supinator  longus—The first and one of the most
superficial  muscles of this  region, is the supinator longus.
The integuments of the fore-arm having been divided pos-
teriorly in their whole length, from the elbow  nearly to
the fingers, the two flaps must  be separated with caution ;
outwards  and somewhat in  front is found the  supinator
longus, which is easily recognised by  its attachments ;  it 
296            ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
must  be carefully isolated from  the  two radial  muscles,
and its inferior attachment accurately exposed.
   The two radial muscles.—These are placed on the side
and externally to the preceding, from which they can only
be  separated  at  their inferior portion.  The  two radial
muscles themselves are sometimes so united to each other,
that we have  at  first some difficulty  in  distinguishing
them ; but their  point of lower insertion taking place at
different parts, it  is  here that we should endeavor to iso-
late them from  each other, as far as two or three
fingers' breadth from their superior attachment.
  Extensor communis digitorum.—This  muscle, which
is confounded  above with  the preceding, as likewise with
those which  we  are soon to describe,  is  free  and  dis-
tinct  only towards the middle of  the  fore-arm ;  we must
not mistake for separate  muscles the two or three por-
tions, which terminate it  inferiorly.   Its  passage under
the annular  ligament, which must   be preserved, will
cause  it  to be readily  recognised;  it is lodged there
with the  tendon  of  the  extensor proprius minimi  digi-
ti;  but  the direction and  course  of  this  last cannot
lead us into error.   The tendons of the extensor commu.
nis  go and are attached  to the  third phalanges; it is,
therefore, necessary to pursue the dissection of the integu-
ments thus far ;  this may be accomplished by  carrying
the scalpel longitudinally over the whole length of the
four fingers, which follow the thumb, this last having its
proper muscles.  We should not remove  the species of
aponeurotic sheath, which  surrounds  and retains the ten-
dons in place, after finishing the preparation of the muscles
of the fore-arm ;  we may, however, expose one of them,
in order to observe the disposition and manner in which all
the other muscles are attached to the phalanges. 
anatomist's manual.            297
  Extensor proprius minimi digitu—This small muscle
is nearly  always confounded with  the preceding  in  its
whole length, at least as far as its passage under the an-
nular ligament; but beyond this, and on the dorsum of
the  hand, it may be easily distinguished, and its separation
continued  to the  little finger.   When difficulty is expe-
rienced  in  isolating it from the extensor communis, above
the  annular ligament, we should abandon the dissection of
it, and  be content with studying it thus confounded with
the preceding.
   Posterior  cubital.—Placed immediately  below  the
integuments  and  on the  inside of  the fore-arm, it will
suffice to  have removed  this last  to see the cubital in  its
whole extent.  We should leave in place the aponeurosis,
which covers it superiorly, and not seek to divide its con-
nexions with the preceding muscles and anconeus ;  its
situation on  the  cubitus, and  its insertion  into the  os-
pisiforme will cause it to be readily distinguished.
  Anconeus.**Different from the preceding muscles, inas-
much as it is extremely short, the anconeus is observed at
the most elevated part of the posterior portion of the fore-
arm.  We should study it in place, and  not endeavor to
remove it or detach it from the situation it occupies.  The
common aponeurosis  which covers it, as also the cubital,
conceals the lines of demarcation, which separate it from
the  neighboring  parts ;  but  this aponeurosis is  easily
removed;  the anconeus  is  then  perfectly  exposed, and
requires no other preparation.
   2d,  Supinator brevis..—Here commence the muscles of
the second layer, which cannot be seen until after having
removed  those of the preceding ;  but it is  not necessary
to detach entirely these  last;  it will suffice, on the con-
trary, to cut them across, at their inferior third, and turn 
298           anatomist's manual.
the flaps above and below.  If, by this simple process, we
do not uncover entirely the muscles of the second layer,
we may then detach the preceding as far as their superior
part.   The  first which it  is necessary  to  examine, and
which  is the most  external, is the supinator brevis, which
embraces almost the totality of the superior half of the ra-
dius.   It is  indispensable to  pursue the separation of the
supinator longus and the two radial muscles nearly to their
insertion into the humerus.  A thin aponeurosis covers the
supinator brevis in a great part of its extent; it is unne-
cessary to remove it,  for it forms an integral  part of the
muscl€.
   Abductor  longus pollicis, extensor longus and brevis
pollicis.—These  three muscles, thin and elongated, are
placed on the side and within the preceding, and are, as it
were, united to each other.  It  is  sometimes  rather diffi-
cult to recognise them, when we have not taken the pre-
caution of separating  them at  their inferior  part.   The
abductor longus does not present the same difficulties; its
tendon is larger,  and does  not  descend as  low  as the
two others,  which  are thin.  It is  true that the tendon of
the abductor longus and extensor brevis pass  together  in
the same groove, which furnishes a means of  recognising
this last, and of distinguishing it from the extensor longus.
   Extensor proprius indicis manus.—This is the last of
the second layer and situated farthest inwards.  It demands
the same precautions,  in  order to be isolated from the
others;  but its tendon which goes to the index finger, will
be a sure guide  by which  it will be distinguished.  It
passes in the same groove with  the extensor communis
digitorum, with which  it contracts adhesions,  by means of
loose cellular tissue, from which it may be readily detach-
ed.  We should neither remove nor cut the different  ]iga. 
anatomist's  manual.            299
ments, which retain the tendons in their respective grooves;
if we commit this  error,, the preparation of the muscles of
the fore-arm will be nothing but confusion and disorder.

                   ANTERIOR PART.
  The muscles on  the anterior part of the fore-arm form
four layers, the distribution of which must be  preserved,
when we wish to prepare them.  As for the rest, this pre-
paration  is still easier than that of  the preceding mus-
cles, because those of the  anterior part are less numerous,
their  mass in general is more considerable, and they are
separated from each other in  the totality of  their extent.
These muscles  are:—1st,  The pronator teres,  radialis
anterior,  palmaris brevis, and  cubitalis posterior;—2d,
Flexor sublimis ;—3d, Flexor profundus, flexor longus pol-
licis ;—4th, Pronator quadratus.
  1st, Pronator teres.—This muscle which is  the first of
those fixed  in the internal tuberosity of the  humerus  is
placed immediately under the integuments ; at its superior
part, it is united rather strongly to the radialis anterior ;
but outwardly it is free and only requires, in order to be
exposed,  to have  the  integuments  and cellular tissue
covering  it removed.   Between  this muscle and the supi-
nator longus there is observed, at  their superior portion,
a depression rather remarkable, in which is lost the  infe-
rior extremity of the biceps.   The pronator longus is the
shortest of the superficial muscles on the anterior  part of
the fore-arm, in the middle of which it  terminates, going
obliquely from the internal tuberosity of the humerus,  to
the middle and external portion of the radius.
  Radialis anterior.—After removing carefully the integu-
ments from the anterior part of the fore-arm, the radialis
anterior, like the other muscles of this layer,  will  be per-
fectly exposed ; we must  be particular not to confound it 
300            anatomist's  manual.
with the cubital of the  same region ; its  direction being
more outwards, and its course along the radius will pre-
vent this error.
   Palmaris  brevis.—This  small muscle  is  sometimes
wanting, and when it does exist, is very trifling ;  it is placed
between the anterior radial and cubital, and its tendon, which
occupies nearly its whole length, will enable us to distin-
guish  it without any difficulty.   It is necessary to observe
the manner in which this tendon forms inferiorly the pal-
mar aponeurosis, and it should be kept  in place until  the
examination of this last.
   Cubitalis posterior.—This is the last and most internal
of this layer ;  placed along  the cubitus, it is fixed below
to the os-pisiforme, and  only  requires to be separated from
a small quantity of fat,  which covers it inferiorly.
   After  having  studied the muscles  of this  superficial
layer, we should cut them  cross-wise at  their middle, and
turn the ends above and  below, in order to examine the
two flexors which  are  placed beneath, as also the long
flexor of the thumb.
   2d, Flexor  sublimis.—The flaps of the muscles of the
preceding layer being turned upwards and downwards, the
sublimis will be found beneath.   We must distinguish it
from the profundus, which is placed on the side, but more in-
ternally, and  the superior attachment of which is to the
cubitus.  We  should detach the  muscles of the first layer
as far as their superior  part, in order to observe the sub-
limis in its  whole extent.  We should likewise expose the
inferior portion of this muscle ; it is formed of four tendons,
which go to the four fingers following the thumb.  For the
purpose of tracing them, we  are obliged to dissect all the
integuments of the hand,  and examine,  before removing
them, the  palmar aponeurosis, which is composed in part 
anatomist's manual.            301
  of the tendon of the palmaris brevis; but we should not
  disturb the anterior annular ligament of the carpus, beneath
  which pass the tendons of the sublimis, as also those of the
  profundus. We may defer the ulterior preparation of these
  tendons until engaged in the dissection of the profundus, to
  which we  shall now pass.
    3d,  Flexor profundus. — In  order  to  prepare  this
  muscle,  it is  not  necessary to detach the preceding, but
' merely separate  it, without  cutting it,  for the  relatione
  of both are  very  numerous;   we  must  be particular
  to observe what appertains  to one and  the other.  Each
  of them soon divide into two, and sometimes into three
  portions;  but after  passing under the  annular  liga-
  ment, their tendons are isolated  and distinct.   We  must
  remove the small quantity of fat  and cellular tissue found
  between the  two muscles and the different parts, which
  form them;  we may then even cut away all the muscles
  of the first layer, as they are no longer of indispensable
  necessity for  the  study of the last.  Beyond the annular
  ligament,  the tendons are placed above each other,  and
  continue in this way until they nearly  reach  the  second
  phalanges, where those  of the sublimis, which were  until
  then placed  above, pass below,  traversing a species of
  groove, presented to them by the tendons of the profundus.
  It will suffice  to follow, with some little attention, the course
  of the tendons of the two muscles,  in order to acquire a per-
  fect knowledge of the manner in which they are respective-
  ly distributed.
    Flexor  pollicis longus.—This muscle lies along the
  radius.  It will be necessary to raise the sublimis in order
  to see it, and this  is the only preparation it exacts, until its
  passage under the  annular  ligament, which it  passes in
                           26 
302           anatomist's  manual.
company with the sublimis and profundus.   Here is found
a soft and loose substance, which unites feebly these dif.
ferent parts ; it must be removed, and we should pursue the
tendon of the flexor  pollicis longus, which  is concealed in
the thickness of the short flexor, in order to arrive at the
last phalanx of the thumb, to the internal part  of whioh it
is fixed.
  4th, Pronator  quadratus.—We may either leave in
place or remove the preceding muscles, in order to ob-
serve the pronator quadratus, which is placed beneath, at
the inferior portion of the two bones of the fore-arm.  This
is the only preparation required by this small muscle, and
its examination as well as its dissection are easy.

                     Description.
                  SUPINATOR LONGUS.
                 (Humero-sus-radial.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated on the exter-
nal part of the fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the humerus to the radius.
   Division.—External portion, covered  by the  integu-
ments ;  internal portion, which  covers the  brachialis an-
terior, sublimis,  flexor pollicis  longus, supinator brevis,
and the first radialis externus.   The superior extremity,
more voluminous, is  attached  outwardly to the  inferior
fourth  of the humerus; the inferior, more thin, is fixed to
the  anterior border of the radius,  near  its inferior ex-
tremity.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Fleshy in its superior third, ten-
dinous in its two  inferior thirds, it produces  the supination
of the hand, and extends the fore-arm on the arm. 
anatomist's manual.
303
              FIRST RADIALIS EXTERNUS.
             (Humero-sus-metacarpien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
external part of the fore-arm.
  Extent.—From the humerus to the radius.
  Division.—External portion, covered by the supinator
longus, and below by the  tendons of the abductor longus
pollicis and of its short extensor;  internal portion, placed
on the articulation of the arm with the form-arm and on
the second radialis externus.  The superior extremity, more
thick, is attached to the most elevated part of the  external
tuberosity of the humerus ;  the inferior, more thin, to the
posterior and superior part of the second metacarpal bone.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure  and uses.—Fleshy in its superior half, ten-
dinous in its inferior, it produces the supination of the hand;
it may also extend the fore-arm on the arm*

              SECOND RADIALIS EXTERNUS.
             (Epicondilosus-m'etacarpien.)
   Situation  and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
external and posterior part of the fore-arm.
  Extent.—:From the humerus to the radius.
  Division.—External surface, covered above by the su-
pinator longus, in the rest of its extent by the first radial
muscle and the tendons of the abductor longus pollicis and
of its short extensor;  internal surface, placed on  the su-
pinator brevis and radius.   The superior extremity, more
voluminous,  is attached  to  the external tuberosity of the
humerus, below that of the  first radialis externus ;  the in^
 ferior, more  thin, to the  posterior and superior part of the
 third metacarpal bone. 
304           ANATOMISTS  MANUAL.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
without inwards.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous at its two extremities,
fleshy in the interval, it draws the hand outwards, and pro-
duces supination;  it may also extend the fore-arm on the
arm.

            EXTENSOR COMMUNIS DIGITORUM.
        (Epicondilo-sus-phalangettien commun.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, rounded, divided into
four portions inferiorly; situated on the posterior part of
the fore-arm.
  Extent.—From the  humerus, to the four fingers which
follow the thumb.
  Division.—Posterior portion, covered by the  anti-bra-
chial aponeurosis and  integuments ;  anterior  portion, ap-
plied  to  the supinator brevis, abductor  longus, short and
long extensors of the  thumb, the  articulation of the hand
and posterior  part of  the  four fingers,  which follow the
thumb.  The  superior extremity is attached to the external
tuberosity of the humerus,  between the radial muscles and
extensor of the little finger ;  the inferior, divided into four
tendons, is attached to  the posterior part of the third  pha-
langes.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic at its superior ex-
tremity, it is terminated below by four tendons, which as-
cend very high in the fleshy fibres ; it extends  the third
phalanges on the  second, these on  the first, and the whole
of the  hand on the fore-arm. 
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
305
               EXTENSOR MINIMI DIGITI.
     (Epicondilosus-phalangettien du petit doigt.)
  Situation and figure. —*Thin, elongated, situated on the
posterior part of the fore-arm.
  Extent.—From the humerus to the little finger.
  Division.—Posterior portion,  covered by the anti-bra-
chial  aponeurosis  and  integuments ;  anterior  surface,
placed on the supinator brevis, abductor longus, short and
long extensors of the thumb and extensor indicis manus. The
superior extremity is fixed to the external tuberosity of the
humerus, between the  extensor communis and .cubitalis ;
the inferior is  attached  to the two  last phalanges of the
little finger.
   Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic at its  superior ex-
tremity,  it is  terminated below by a long tendon, and the
fleshy fibres are found  in  the  interval; it  extends the
last phalanges of the little finger on the first.

                 CUBITALIS POSTERIOR.
               (Cubitosus-metacarpien.)
   Situation and figure.-—Elongated, situated on the pos-
terior part  of the fore-arm.
  Extent.—From  the  humerus to the  fifth  metacarpal
bone.
  Division.—Posterior portion, covered by  the integu-
ments  and anti-brachial  aponeurosis; anterior  portion,
placed above on all the muscles of the second layer, and in
the rest of  its extent on the cubitus.   The superior extre-
mity is attached to the external tuberosity of the humerus,
between  the extensor proprius minimi digiti and anconeus ;
the inferior, to  the posterior and superior part of the fifth
metacarpal bone.
                         26* 
306            anatomist's manual.
   Direction.—Nearly vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic superiorly,  tendi.
nous at its inferior extremity, and fleshy in the interval; it
has the same uses as the radialis posterior.

                       ANCONEUS.
                  (Epicondilo-cubital.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated on the
posterior and superior part of the fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the humerus to' the cubitus.
   Division.—Posterior surface, covered  by  the integu-
ments and  ante-brachial aponeurosis;  anterior  surface,
placed on the  articulation of the arm with  the fore-arm,
and on a portion of the cubitus.  Its internal border is free,
the external is confounded  with the cubitalis.  The base
is attached to  the external tuberosity of the humerus;  the
summit, or inferior extremity, is fixed to the superior fourth
of the cubitus.                                       #
   Direction.—Oblique from above  downwards, and from
without inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Tendino-aponeurotic at its  ex-
tremities, fleshy in the interval,  it contributes to extend the
fore-arm  on the  arm,  and reciprocally  the arm on  the
fore-arm.

                  SUPINATOR BREVIS.
                  (Epicondilo-radial.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
posterior and superior portion of the fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the humerus and cubitus to the radius.
   Division.—External surface, covered by all  the mus-
 cles of the  superficial layer on the  posterior part of the
 fore-arm; internal  surface,  applied  to  the cubitus and 
anatomist's manual.            307
radius.   The superior extremity, called its base, is attach-
ed to the external tuberosity of the humerus,  below the
preceding, and also to a portion of the posterior surface of
the cubitus ; the inferior is fixed  to the middle portion of
the external  surface of  the radius,  below  the pronator
teres.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, from with-
out inwards, and from behind forwards.
  Structure and uses.—A broad  tendon, reaching nearly
as far as its inferior extremity, originates from its superior
attachment; fleshy fibres occupy  the rest of the muscle ;
it produces the supination of the fore-arm.

             ABDUCTOR LONGUS  POLLICIS.
          (Cubito-sus-metacarpien dupouce.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated,  flat, situated on the
posterior and external portion of  the fore-arm.
  Extents—From the cubitus and radius to the metacarpal
bone, which sustains the thumb.
  Division.—Posterior  surface covered by most of the
muscles of the superficial layer;  anterior surface, applied
to a portion of the cubitus, interosseous ligament and ra-
dius.  The superior extremity is fixed to the superior part
of the posterior surface of the cubitus; the inferior, to the
superior and posterior part of  the first metacarpal bone.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
within outwards.
   Structure  and uses.—A long tendon is observed at its
inferior, portion : it is fleshy in the rest of its extent;  it
draws the thumb outwards  and backwards. 
308
anatomist's manual.
               EXTENSOR POLLICIS BREVIS.    '
            (Cubito-sus-phalangien du pouce.)
   Situation and figure—Elongated, narrow, situated on
 the posterior and external portion of the fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the cubitus and radius to the first pha-
 lanx  of the thumb.
   Division.—Posterior  surface, covered by most of the
 muscles of the superficial layer; anterior surface, covering
 a portion of the cubitus, interosseous ligament, radius, and
 the first  metacarpal bone.   The superior extremity is
 fixed to the superior and posterior part  of the cubitus be-
 neath the preceding ; the inferior is  attached to the supe-
 rior and posterior part of the first phalanx of the thumb.
   Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards, and from
 within outwards.
   Structure and uses.—A long and thin  tendon terminates
 it inferiorly; it is  fleshy in the rest of  its extent; it ex.
 tends the first phalanx of the  thumb on  the metacarpal
 bone.
              EXTENSOR LONGUS POLLICIS.
          (Cubito-sus-phalangettien  du pouce.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat,  situated on the
 posterior and external portion of the fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the cubitus to the last phalanx of the
 thumb.
   Division.—Posterior surface, covered by most of the
 muscles of the superficial layer; anterior surface, applied
 to the cubitus, radius, first metacarpal bone, and the first
 phalanx of  the  thumb.   The superior  extremity  is: at-
 tached to the superior third of the cubitus, lower down
 than the preceding:  the  inferior, to  the  posterior  part of
the last  phalanx of the thumb. 
anatomist's manual.            309
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and  from
within outwards.
   Structure and uses.—A long tendon terminates it in-
feriorly; it is  fleshy in the rest of its extent;  it extends
the last  phalanx of the thumb on the first.

          EXTENSOR  PROPRIUS INDICIS MANUS.
        (Cubito-sus-phalangettien  de Vindex.)
  Situation and figure.—Thin, elongated, situated, on the
posterior portion of the fore-arm.
 Extent.—From the cubitus to the two last phalanges of
the index finger.
 Division.—Posterior surface, covered by the extensor com-
munis digitorum and the extensor of the little finger ;  ante-
rior surface, which covers a portion of the cubitus, inter-os-
seus ligament,  radius and the second metacarpal bone.  The
superior extremity is fixed to the middle part of the poste-
rior surface of the cubitus; the inferior, tendinous, passes
in a groove common to the extensor communis  digitorum,
and is fixed to  the posterior part of the two last phalanges
of the index finger.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and  from
Within outwards.
  Structure and  uses.—It is  terminated  inferiorly  by a
long tendon, and it  is fleshy in the rest of its extent.  It
extends  the last phalanges of the index finger on the  first,
and contributes to the extension of the hand.

                PRONATOR TERES.
                  (Epitroclo-radial.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, rounded,  and situat-
  edonthe anterior part of the fore-arm. 
310            anatomist's  manual.
  Extent.—From the humerus to the radius.
  Division.—Anterior portion, covered by the integuments,
anti-brachial aponeurosis, supinator longus  and the two
radial  muscles ; posterior surface, which covers the bra-
chialis anterior and sublimis.  Its internal side is united in
all its extent to the brachialis  anterior ; its external side
corresponds  to the supinator longus-and two radial muscles.
Its superior  extremity is fixed to the internal tuberosity of
the humerus, and  to the neighboring part of the coronoid
apophysis of the  cubitus; the inferior extremity, to the
middle portion of the external surface of the radius.
  Direction.—Oblique  from above downwards, and  from
within outwards.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous at its extremities, fleshy
in the rest of its extent, it produces the pronation of the
fore-arm and hand.
                  RADIALIS  ANTERIOR.
                (Epitroclo-metacarpien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated on the  ante-
rior part of the  fore-arm.
  Extent.—From  the humerus to the second metacarpal
bone.
  Division.—Anterior  surface, covered  in part  by the
supinator longus, anti-brachial aponeurosis  and  integu.
ments ; posterior surface, applied to the sublimis and flexor
longus pollicis.   Its superior extremity is fixed  to the in-
ternal tuberosity of the  humerus, between the preceding
and palmaris brevis ; the inferior is attached  to the ante-
rior and superior part of the second metacarpal bone.
   Direction.—Oblique  from above downwards, and from
within outwards. 
anatomist's manual.           311
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous at  its extremities,
fleshy in the interval, it flexes the hand on the fore-arm.

                  PALMARIS BREVIS.
                 (Epitroclo-palmaire.)
  Situation and  figure.—Thin,  narrow, elongated;  si-
tuated on the anterior part of the  fbre-arm.
  Extent.—From the humerus to the palmar aponeurosis.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the aponeuro-
sis of the fore-arm and integuments;  posterior surface,
placed on the sublimis.  The superior  extremity, situat-
ed between  the radialis anterior and cubitalis  internus, is
fixed to the internal tuberosity of the humerus.  The in-
ferior is lost in the palmar aponeurosis.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure  and  uses.—It  is terminated inferiorly by a
long and small tendon, which in great part forms it; it
presents a small fleshy portion at its superior part; it ex-
tends the palmar aponeurosis.

                 CUBITALIS ANTERIOR.
                   (Cubito-carpien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated ; situated on the  an-
terior and internal portion of the  fore-arm.
  Extent.—-From the humerus to the os-pisiforme.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the integuments
and ante-brachial aponeurosis;   posterior surface which
covers the profundus and pronator quadratus.   The supe-
rior extremity is fixed within to the internal tuberosity of
the humerus ; the inferior to the os-pisiforme, which it em-
braces in its whole extent.
   Direction.—Vertical. 
312
anatomist's  manual.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous at its two extremities,
fleshy in the interval, it flexes the hand.

                       SUBLIMIS.
            (Epitroclo-phalangien commun.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thick, situated on the
anterior portion of the fore-arm and  hand;  divided into
four portions inferiorly.
  Extent.—From the humerus to the four fingers, which
follow the thumb.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the  pronator
teres, radialis anterior, and palmaris brevis ; posterior sur-
face, placed  on the profundus and flexor  longus pollicis.
The superior  extremity is fixed to the internal tuberosity
of the humerus, and  to the neighboring part of  the coro-
noid apophysis  of the cubitus ; the inferior, divided into
four portions, passes under the anterior annular  ligament
of the carpus, and thence attaches itself to  the anterior
portion  of the second phalanges of the four  last fingers,
by  as many tendons.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Its superior extremity is slightly
tendinous;  the inferior,  on the contrary, presents four
tendons, which ascend high up in the fleshy fibres; it flexes
the second phalanges on  the first,  and  bends the whole of
the hand.
                      PROFUNDUS.
              Cubito-phalangettien commun.
   Situation  and figure.—Elongated, very thick, situated
on  the anterior part of the fore-arm and hand; divided into
four portions inferiorly. 
anatomist's  MANUAL.            313
   Extent.—From  the cubitus to  the third  phalanges
of the four last fingers.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by  the  sublimis
and cubitalis anterior; posterior surface,  placed on the
anterior  portion  of the cubitus  and  on  the  pronator
quadratus.   The superior extremity is attached below the
coronoid apophysis of the cubitus;  the inferior, divided
into four tendons, passes with the sublimis uoder the ante-
rior annular ligament of the carpus, and thence  attaches
itself  to the anterior part of the  third  phalanges of the
four last fingers.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and  uses.—Aponeurotic  superiorly, it pre-
sents  at its inferior extremity four tendons, which ascend
very high  up in the fleshy fibres; it flexes the third pha-
langes on  the second, these on the first, and produces  the
complete flexion of the hand.
                FLEXOR LONGUS POLLICIS.
             (Radio-phalangettien du pouce.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat,  situated on  the
anterior and external portion of the fore-arm.
>  Extent.—From the radius to the last  phalanx of the
 thumb.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the sublimis
 and radialis  anterior; posterior  surface, applied  to the
 three inferior fourths of the radius,  the articulation of the
 hand and flexor pollicis brevis.  The superior extremity is
 attached to the upper  fourth of the anterior  surface of the
 radius;  the inferior, to the  anterior surface  of the last
 phalanx of the thumb.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
 within outwards.
                            27 
314
ANATOMIST'S  MAS CAL.
   Structure and uses.—It  is terminated  inferiorly by a
long  tendon,  and is fleshy in the rest  of its extent.  .It
flexes the last phalanx of the thumb on the first.

                 PRONATOR  QUADRATUS.
                    (Cubito radial.)
   Situation and  figure.—Flat, quadrilateral, situated on
the anterior and inferior portion of the fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the radius to the cubitus.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered  by the profundus
and  flexor longus  pollicis ;  posterior surface, placed on
the inferior fourth of the radius and cubitus, and on the
corresponding portion of the inter-osseous ligament.  The
superior and inferior borders do not present any thing re-
markable.   The external is  attached to  the inferior fourth
of the external border of the radius; the internal, to the
inferior fourth of the internal border of the cubitus.
   Direction.—Transverse.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic at its  attachments,
fleshy in the interval, it effects the pronation of the hand.

                 SEVENTEENTH REGION.
                (Carpo-inetacarpienne.)
  Muscles on the palmar and dorsal surfaces of the hand.
—The muscles of this region are  divided into those of the
palma and those of the dorsum of the hand.  The muscles of
the palm of the hand are  distinguished into those of the the-
nar and those of the  hypo-thenar eminence.  The names of
all these muscles, in the order of their preparation  and
study,  are :—the abductor  brevis  pollicis, flexor brevis
pollicis, opponens, and abductor pollicis, the flexor brevis
minimi digiti, abductor and opponens minimi digiti; the cu-
taneous palmar is likewise included among them 
ANATOMISTS MANUAL.
315
  The lumbricales are four in number, which are distin-
guished by the numerical terms of first, second, &c. com-
mencing  at  the  thumb.  The inter-osseous muscles  are
seven in number, distinguished into palmar and dorsal.  Of
the former there are four, and of the latter three, count-
ing from the thumb.
               Anatomical Preparation.
  The muscles of the hand  are very numerous, but they
are themselves of small  size, and occupy but little space:
approximated  to each other and  touching at all their dif-
ferent points,  their preparation, in this  respect, presents
some difficulty ; in fine, no matter what care may be taken
in their dissection, we cannot succeed in isolating them, as
we did with those of the arm and fore-arm.   The skin of
the hand, like that of the foot, adheres strongly to  the
subjacent parts, particularly in that portion which is called
the palm of  the hand, beneath which is found the palmar
aponeurosis, of which we should have a correct idea  be-
fore proceeding to the preparation of the muscles situated
below it.   If we employ, for the muscles of the hand,  the
same extremity on which we studied those of the fore-arm,
the integuments of the palm and back of the hand having
been removed  as far as  the fingers, in order to follow  the
tendinous termination of many of the muscles of the fore-arm,
a portion of the labor attending the dissection of the muscles
of the hand  will already have been accomplished ;  but in
proceeding in  this way, we shall sacrifice the palmar-apo-
neurosis,  and a very small muscle, called palmar cutane-
ous, which is seen by very few students, because they do
not preserve untouched one of the sides of the part which
they prepare, for  the  purpose of avoiding the inconveni-
ence of which we  have  just spoken.   For the dissection,
therefore, of this series of muscles, we should employ  a 
316           anatomist's  manual.
hand, all the portions which are still enveloped by the in-
teguments, ill order that we may have a more exact idea
of the preparation of each  part.   Things thus arranged,
we should commence by dividing  the integuments of the
palm of the hand, as far as the palmar aponeurosis, which
should not be removed until after having been examined, as
also the palmar cutaneous, which, it is true, docs not always.
exist, but which it is proper to preserve when it is present.
It is placed on the hypothenar eminence, and its fibres, ex-
tremely pale, render its preparation rather  difficult.   But
we should do every thing in order to see it, and not pass
to the particular dissection  of  each of the muscles of the
hand Until after having studied it.
   Abductor pollicis brevis.—This muscle is the  most ex-
ternal of those of the thenar eminence ; and although con-
founded with the others  of the thumb, it  may be distin-
guished  without much  difficulty, by searching cautiously
for its line  of  separation, which  is  indicated by a slight
trace of cellular tissue, placed between this muscle, the op-
ponens, and  flexor pollicis brevis.
   Opponens pollicis.—It is not so  easy to discover  the
separation of this muscle and of the flexor brevis, as  it was
for the preceding.   There are certain  subjects especially
in which these two muscles are so  united and  confounded
together, that  it is impossible to  isolate them from each
other.   The only mode of forming an idea of it, when this
circumstance exists, is to  take  for the opponens nearly the
fourth of the fleshy mass, placed  below the abductor bre.
 vis, and to preserve the remainder for the flexor brevis.-—'
 In order to render the task  still less embarrassing, we may
 cut the abductor brevis crosswise, and  separate  the ends.
 The  opponens  is ordinarily placed under  the preceding,
 although  the  abductor brevis likewise covers a part  of 
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.            317
 the  flexor brevis, which  is the largest of all those of the
 thenar eminence.
   Flexor brevis.—When nature herself indicates the sepa-
 ration of the opponens and flexor brevis, or when the seal-
 pel has  supplied this omission, it will  be very easy to ex-
 pose this last muscle ; for the adductor, with which it  has
 some relations, has  a direction, and is  placed  in. such a
 manner  as to leave no doubt as to the  place of their sepa-
 ration.   The flexor brevis likewise possesses a character,
 which will aid us very materially in recognising it;  it  is
 the species of groove in its middle portion for the passage
 of the tendons of the flexor longus pollicis, a circumstance
 which we had occasion to advert to before when describing
 the preparation of this last muscle.   The  three small mus-
 cles of the thumb having their points of superior insertion
 partly in the anterior annular ligament of the carpus, we are
 obliged   to preserve it  entire, not only for the  preceding
 muscles, but likewise for those of the little finger.
   Adductor pollicis.—This is situated  on the thenar  emi-
 nence, but it advances somewhat in the palm of the hand ;
 and in order to have a good view of it, we should remove
 the tendons  of the  great flexors of the fingers, and the cel-
 lular tissue, which covers it in part.   The flexor  pollicis
 brevis also conceals  it to  a certain extent.  The inteo-u-
 ments, between the thumb and index finger, adhere rather
 intimately to this muscle ; it will  not  be  sufficient to ex-
 pose it in front, we must also dissect it posteriorly ;  in fine,
 in order  to do it successfully, it will be necessary to carry
 the index finger firmly inward, and the thumb outward.—
 In attending to these simple directions,  its preparation will
 be rendered easy.
  Abductor  minimi digiti.—This  muscle  is to the little
finger what the abductor brevis is to the thumb.   The one
                           27* 
318,           anatomist's  manual.
separates the lktle finger from the other fingers, in carry.
ing it inwards ;  the other produces the same effect on the
thumb, carrying it outwards ; both form  the most promi-
nent portion of that species of mollct, which is  remarked
in the inside of the hand, in the direction of these two fin-
gers.  The precepts given for the preparation of the ab-
ductor pollicis brevis apply, therefore, to that of the ab.
ductor minimi digiti.
   After having  recognized its  separation, by the trace of
cellular  tissue,  which  always  exists, we should  cut it
across at its middle portion, and pass to the preparation of
the other muscles of the same finger.
   Flexor  brevis minimi digiti—opponens minimi digiti.
—These muscles present, as regards  their  preparation,
nearly the same difficulties as the corresponding muscles
of the thumb, with thisdifference, however, that here the
flexor  brevis is  situated nearly parallel to the abductor,
and  the opponens is placed behind these two muscles; this
last, although attached superiorly to the same parts on the
flexor brevis does not descend so low down, for its inferior
insertion is into the  fifth metacarpal bone, whilst the two
others go  as far as the first phalanx of the little finger.
   Lumbricales.—These small muscles are attached  to the
tendons of the profundus;  they are  placed in the palm of
the hand, and their  preparation consists in isolating the
tendons of the muscle  to which  they are  attached.  We
should observe  that  their  inferior  termination abandons
this  muscle, in order to fix itself to the posterior and ex-
ternal portion of the first phalanges of the  four fingers,
which follow the thumb.
   Inter-ossei.—Nature has dissected  these muscles;  the
scalpel of the anatomist adds nothing to their preparation,
but it is necessary to  free them from the objects, which ob- 
anatomist's manual.           319
 scure them at  first view.  The integuments alone cover
 the dorsal inter-osseals; the palmar muscles are enveloped
 by the lumbricales and muscles of the thenar and hypothe-
 nar eminences.  This operation being achieved, all the in-
 ter-osseal muscles remain perfectly isolated in the interval of
 the metacarpal bones, which they  occupy in their whole
 extent.  A small tendon, which terminates them inferiorly,
 fixes  itself, according to the inter-osseal to which it apper-
 tains, sometimes to the internal side, sometimes to the ex-
 ternalside of the first phalanges of the four last fingers.

                     Description.
              ABDUCTOR POLLICIS  BREVIS.
           (Carpo-sus-phalangien  du pouce.)
   Situation and figure—Elongated, slightly rounded, and
 situated on the  thenar eminence.
   Extent.—From the  anterior ligament  of the carpus to
 the first bone of the  metacarpus.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered by  the integu-
 ments ; posterior surface, applied  to the opponens pollicis,
 and a small portion of the flexor brevis.   The superior ex-
 tremity is attached to the external portion of the anterior
 annular ligament of the carpus, and to the os-scaphoides ;
 the inferior, to the external side of the superior extremity
 of the first phalanx of the thumb.
   Direction.—Oblique  from above downwards, and from
 within outwards.
  Structure and uses.—Aponeurotico-tendinous at its ex-
tremities, and fleshy in the interval, it draws the thumb
outwards and forwards.
                  OPPONENS POLLICIS.
            (Carpo  metacarpien du pouce.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, rounded, situated on
the thenar eminence. 
320            anatomist's manual.

   Extent.—From the annular ligament  of the carpus, to
the first metacarpal bone.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered  by the abductor
brevis pollicis and integuments ; posterior surface, applied
to the whole  anterior surface of the first  metacarpal bone,
and to the flexor brevis, to which the opponens is some-
times intimately united.  The superior extremity is fixed
to the anterior part of the annular ligament, and to the os-
trapezium; the inferior, to the external  part  of the  infe-
rior extremity of the  first metacarpal bone.
   Direction:—Nearly vertical.
   Structure  and uses.—Aponeurotic  at its  attachments,
fleshy in the interval, it draws the first  metacarpal  bone
outwards  and forwards, and, by a rotatory movement, op-
poses the thumb to the other fingers.

               FLEXOR BREVIS POLLICIS.
             (Carpo-phalangien  du pouce.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated,  thick,  flat;  situated
on the thenar eminence.
   Extent.—From the annular ligament  to the first pha-
lanx of the thumb, more inwards  than the preceding mus-
cles.
   Division.—Anterior  surface, covered  from without in-
wards by the abductor brevis pollicis, the  tendon of the
flexor longus pollicis, the tendons  of the profundus, and by
the two first lumbricales ; posterior surface, applied to the
first inter-osseals.  Its external side corresponds to  the
abductor pollicis, and the internal to the  adductor pollicis.
The superior extremity, divided into two  portions,  is fixed
on the one hand, to the  anterior part of  the annular liga-
ment  and os-trapesium, and, on the other, to the os mag-
num and third metacarpal  bone ;  the  inferior extremity, 
anatomist's manual.            321
likewise divided into two portions, is attached, on the one
hand, to the external part of the superior extremity of the
first phalanx of the thumb, and, on the other, to the inter-
nal part of the same phalanx.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
within outwards.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous at its extremities, and
fleshy in the interval.   Its uses are sufficiently indicated
by its name.
                  ADDUCTOR  POLLICIS.
           (Metacarpo-phalangien du pouce.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated in the
palm of the hand.
   Extent.—From the third metacarpal bone, to the first
phalanx of the thumb.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the integuments,
the tendons of the profundus and  by the two first  lumbri-
cales ; posterior  surface, which corresponds to the first-
dorsal and palmar inter-osseals.  The external border cor-
responds to the flexor brevis ; the inferior is free under the
integuments ; the internal, or base, is attached to the ante-
rior surface of the third  metacarpal bone;  the summit, re-
sulting from the inferior and external borders, is attached
to the internal portion  of the superior extremity of the
first phalanx of the thumb.
   Direction.—Transverse.
   Structure and  uses.—Slightly tendinous at its attach-
ments, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it approximates'the
thumb to the fingers.

                  palmaris cutaneus.
   (Comprised in the carpo phalangien du petit doigt.)
   Situation and figure,—Very thin, flat; situated on the
superior and internal part of the hand, 
322            anatomist's manual.
  Extent.—From the annular ligament of the carpus to
the neighboring part of the palmar aponeurosis.
  Division.—Anterior  surface, covered by  the integu.
ments;  posterior surface, applied to the flexor brevis and
abductor minimi  digiti.   It is fixed,  on  the one hand,
to the  annular  ligament  of  the carpus, and,  on  the
Other, to the  neighboring  part of the palmar aponeurosis
and to the integuments of the hand.
  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure and uses.—Nearly fleshy in its whole extent,
and very pale, it corrugates the skin on  the  palm of the
hand, the concavity of which it augments.

               ABDUCTOR MINIMI DIGITI.
   (Comprised in the carpo-phalangien du petit doigt.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, somewhat flat, situat-
ed on the hypothenar eminence.
  Extent.—From the os-pisiforme to the first phalanx of
the little finger.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the cutaneous
palmaris and integuments ;  posterior surface applied to the
opponens of the same finger.  The superior  extremity is
attached to the os-pisiforme; the inferior, to the internal
portion  of  the superior extremity of the first phalanx of
the  little finger.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and  uses.—Aponeurotic at  its attachments,
fleshy in the rest of its extent, it draws the little finger in
wards.
            FLEXOR  BREVIS MINIMI DIGITI.
  (Comprised in the carpo phalangien du petit doigt.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated,  thin,  and  narrow ;
situated on  the hypothenar eminence. 
Aiw^TOjfiaifc'e Manual.            323
  Extent.—From the  annular ligament of the carpus, to
the first phalanx of the little finger.
  Division.—Anterior  surface, covered by the palmaris
cutaneus and  integuments;  posterior surface, applied to
the opponens of the same finger.  The superior extremity
is fixed to the annular ligament of  the carpus, and to the
neighboring portion of  the os-unciforme; the inferior, to
the internal portion of the superior extremity of the first
phalanx of the little finger.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Slightly tendinous at its extremi-
ties, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it flexes the little finger.

               OPPONENS  31INIMI DIGITI.
          (Carpo metacarpien du petit doigt.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated on the hy-
pothenar eminence.
  Extent.—From the annular ligament, to the fifth meta-
carpal bone.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the two preced-
ing muscles ; posterior  surface, applied  to the fifth] meta-
carpal bone.  The superior extremity is  fixed to the annu-
lar  ligament of the,carpus, and to  the neighboring por-
tion of the os-unciforme ;  the inferior, to the internal and
inferior portion of the fifth metacarpal bone.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and uses.—Slightly tendinous  at its  attach-
ments, fleshy in the interval, it draws the little finger for-
wards and outwards, and contributes to form the hollow of
the hand, vulgarly  called gobelet of Diogenes. 
324            anatomist'*  MANiat,
                    LUMBRICALES.
                 (Palmi-phalangiens.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, slightly flat; situat-
ed in the palm of the hand, along the tendons of the pro-
fundus.
  Extent.—From the tendons of the profundus, to the pha-
langes of the four last fingers.
  Division.—Anterior portion, covered by the tendons of
the sublimis; posterior portion, corresponding to the in-
ter-osseous muscles.  The superior  extremity is fixed to
the tendons of the profundus ; the inferior, to the posterior
and external part of the first phalanges of the four last fin-
gers.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure and uses.—A small  tendon is  observed at
their inferior extremity, and in the rest of their extent
they are fleshy, they are auxiliaries  of the  flexor profun-
dus.
                      INTER-OSSEI.
  They are seven in number, divided into four dorsal and
three palmar:  they are  distinguished  by the numerical
names of first, second, &c, commencing with the thumb.

                 DORSAL INTER-OSSEALS.
    (Metacarpo-phalangiens-lateraux-sous-palmaires.)
  Situation and -figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
posterior part of the hand, between the metacarpal bones.
  Extent.—From the space between the metacarpal bones,
to the first phalanges of the four last fingers.
   Division.—Posterior  surface, covered by the integu-
ments ;  anterior surface, which corresponds to the palmar
inter-osseals.  In the first only, this  surface is covered by
the  abductor brevis pollicis and the  flexor brevis pollicis. 
anatomist's manual.
325
The superior extremity, divided into two  portions, is fix-
ed to the  most elevated portion of the  metacarpal bones;
the inferior, terminated by a small tendon, is fixed to the
lateral portions of the first phalanges of the four last fin-
gers.
  Direction.—It follows  that  of the  space  between the
metacarpal bones.
   Structure and  uses.—Tendinous inferiorly, and fleshy
in the rest of their extent.  The first  dorsal inter-osseal
draws the index finger outwards; the second, the great
finger outwards ; the third, the same finger inwards ;  the
fourth, the ring finger likewise inwards.

                PALMAR INTER-OSSEALS.
     (Mctacarpo-phalangiens-lateraux-palm aires.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated in the palm
of the hand, between the metacarpal bones, like the dorsal
inter-osseals.
  Extent.—From  the space between the metacarpal bones,
the first excepted,  to the first phalanges of the three last
fingers.
  Division.—Posterior portion, in relation with the three
last dorsal inter-osseals ;  anterior portion,  covered by the
muscles of the thenar and hypothenar eminences;  and, m
addition, by the  tendons of the profundus and lumbricales.
The superior  extremity is  attached to the most elevated
portion of the corresponding metacarpal bones; the infe-
rior, tendinous, is fixed to the  lateral portions of the first
phalanges of the index, ring, and  auricular fingers.
  Direction.—It follows  that  of the spaces  between the
metacarpal bones.
                           28 
326            anatomist's manual.
   Structure and uses.—A long and small tendon  is re-
marked at  the inferior extremity ;  they are fleshy in the
rest of their extent.   The first palmar inter-osseal draws
the index finger inwards; the second, the  ring finger out-
wards ;  the third, the small finger outwards.

                 eighteenth  region.
                    Coxo-fcmorale. *
   Muscles on the posterior part of the pelvis, and supe-
rior  and posterior part of the thigh.—These muscles are :
—the three glutei, divided into maximus,  medius, and mi-
nimus ;  pyramidalis, gemini, the two obturators  and the
quadratus ;  the  biceps,  semi-tendinosus, and semi-mem-
branosus.
                Anatomical preparation.
   The greater part pf the muscles of  the thigh have a
point of insertion in the  trunk, and their length, as also
their mass, is very considerable.  If we except  the  pro-
found muscles of  the buttocks, all the others, in their pre-
paration, are more  embarrassing on account of  their vo-
lume than situation.  Enveloped in a  great quantity of
fat and cellular tissue, they produce, in this respect, despair
among the students ; and I have frequently known them
to abandon an examination of them, fatigued with the obli-
gation of  removing  the  fat.  But,  I repeat it, patience is
indispensable for the anatomist, and it is especially at the
commencement of his studies that  he should arm himself
with it.
   The general preparation of the muscles  on the posterior
part of the pelvis and thigh, requires that the subject be
placed on the abdomen,  and all the inferior part of the
trunk should be elevated, which is indispensable for the 
anatomist's manual.
32V
dissection of the muscles of this series.   The incision of the
integuments is to be made so as to form one broad flap, hav-
ing the figure of a lozenge, one of the acute angles of which
corresponds to the  third or fourth lumbar vertebra, and
the other loses itself in the skin of the perineum.   For
this purpose, we must prolong an incision which, from the
third or fourth lumbar vertebra, will go to the environs of
the anterior and  superior spinous process of the ilium,  and
terminate in the  middle of the  posterior part of the thigh.
The same rule must be followed  on the opposite side ; we
will then detach the flap, which results from these two in-
cisions, from above downwards, and from  without inwards,
so as to have a species of hood (capuchon,) which we employ
at pleasure for the purpose of covering the muscles we have
just prepared.  We should be careful not to leave any fat,
and it should be  removed in detaching the flap in question.
We should  isolate it well, especially from the posterior and
inferior part of the sacrum and coxcyx, and, if possible, not
a particle of fat should be suffered to remain on these bones.
If the general preparation of the integuments, such as has
just been indicated,  be  well made, it will  facilitate that of
the muscles which are covered by them.
   Gluteus maximus.—This muscle, without contradiction,
is  that which is  covered  by the  largest quantity  of fatty
matter; indeed,  it  completely surrounds it;  and if  we
should ever be tempted to give to any one the name of de-
graisseur de muscles, it should certainly be to him who
dissects the gluteus maximus, as likewise all the other mus-
cles on the  posterior part of the thigh.  Be this as it may,
with the integuments we should  remove all the subjacent
adipose  matter,  and endeavor  to follow,  in this prepara-
tion, the direction of the fibres of the gluteus maximus, 
328
anatomist's manual
commencing at its superior and anterior part, in order to
terminate posteriorly and inferiorly.  It is especially in
the environs of the anus and perineum that  this muscle re-
quires the most care and patience, for at this point it is not
supported, and  it is difficult to retain it under the instru.
ment.   It is,  however, essential to expose it completely
before passing to its examination, for, in general, nothing
is more unpleasant to  behold than Ihese  dissections  but
half terminated, which occasion considerable difficulty, and
which afford but a poor opportunity of observing the situa-
tion and relations of the parts.
   In the interval of the fibres of the gluteus  maximus there
are sometimes mingled considerable masses of fatty matter;
it is unnecessary to attempt to remove them, they form
part of the muscle ; it will suffice to have  removed them, as
much  as possible, from its  external  surface,  and  to have
isolated properly its terminations.   We may then, particu-
larly if we  have prepared the two glutei at one time, cut
that of one  side across, at its middle portion.   One of the
flaps is thrown towards the ilium, and the other turned over
on the thigh.  As this muscle is very thick, we may carry
the scalpel boldly through its tissue, proceeding from with-
in outwards, as far as the aponeurosis  which  unites it to the
gluteus medius in front, and which should be left entire.—
It would perhaps be still better to detach the gluteus maxi-
mus at its connexions with the sacrum and  ilium.   There
is a great quantity of loose cellular tissue between the glu-
teus maximus  and medius ; it must be entirely removed, in
order to pass  afterwards to the preparation of the gluteus
medius.
   Gluteus medius.—This muscle, placed nearly altogether
under the preceding, occupies the  greatest part of the ex- 
anatomist's manual.            329
 ternal iliac fossa, from which  it is separated only by the
 gluteus minimus ; its dissection is entirely accomplished,
 after having detached the portions of the gluteus maximus
 which covered it; it is especially towards the great tro.
 chanter that it is necessary to separate it more completely,
 in order to expose it perfectly.
   Gluteus minimus.—This is the last of the muscles situat-
 ed  in the external iliac fossa.   When compared to the
 gluteus maximus, it will be found  that a  great difference
 exists between them.   The gluteus minimus is entirely co-
 vered by the medius, and,  in order to  expose it, we must
 cut this last across at its middle portion, and raise the flaps
 as was done for the gluteus maximus, or even detach it,
 like this last, at its upper points of insertion.   The  same
 as the medius, the gluteus  minimus is prepared, when we
 have  completely removed the  preceding; we  may  even
 leave it until the examination of the other muscles on the
 superior part of the thigh, for it does not interfere with their
 preparation  ; its presence, on the contrary, contributes to
 show more clearly the.relations of these different muscles.
  Pyramidalis, gemini, and quadratus.—The prepara-
 tion  of these  different  muscles should be simultaneous ;'"
 they are  so approximated to each other, and  touch by
 such numerous  points,  that  many anatomists have  con-
 founded and described them as one and the same mass.__
 We shall, however, preserve the division of these muscles,
 such as we have  just indicated  above.  Entirely covered
 by the gluteus maximus, they  are separated from it only by
 a large quantity of cellular tissue,  very abundant in these
 regions.   All these muscles go from the pelvis, to the di.
 gital cavity of the great trochanter: the first which  pre-
sen'.s itself for study is the pyramidalis, a portion of which
                         28* 
330
anatomist's manual.
is enclosed in the interior of the pelvis.  We must reservo
for another time the preparation of this portion ; outwards,
it occupies the most elevated part  of the  digital cavity.
The two gemini  are found  beneath ; one comes  from the
spine of the ischium, and the other from the tuberosity of
the same name.  They are separated by the tendon of the
internal obturator, with which they contract strong adhe-
sions, which must be partly destroyed, in order to isolate
the gemini, but  without detaching  them entirely.   The
preparation of the  internal obturator, external obturator
and pyramidalis, cannot be accomplished until  after that of
all the muscles of the thigh  ; because, in order to see them
well, we must disarticulate the pelvis, and free the  first
from many objects, whose presence  is a great obstacle to
their preparation.  The quadratus femoris  is  the last and
lowest of this deep-seated layer, and it  cannot be seen with-
out  the precaution  of detaching  completely  the gluteus
maximus, which covers it.   It is  parallel,  by its  inferior
border, to  the third adductor of the thigh, with which it is
sometimes intimately united.  This circumstance is of but
little importance, and does not prevent us from recognising
•the quadratus,  which is  never more  than  three fingers'
breadth from above downwards.   It should  not be forgot-
ten, in the preparation of all these muscles, that they should
be left in place after having employed all the proper means
of observing them, and that the great ischiatic nerve should
likewise be preserved; this passes from the pelvis to the
thigh, lying on the posterior portion of these muscles.
   Biceps,   semi-tendinosus,  sem.i-membranosus.—I in-
elude these three muscles  in the same  preparation, be-
cause it is  difficult to dissect them separately.  We must
prolong an incision of the  integuments  below the  ham, 
               anatomist's manual.            331

and turn the two flaps outwards and inwards ;  in this space
just  exposed  are found  these three muscles—the  bi-
ceps outwardly, and the two  others inwardly.  A broad
aponeurosis, called fascia lata, covers them almost imme-
diately ; it should be removed with the integuments in  or-
der to pass to the dissection of  the muscles.   Their supe-
rior portion being concealed by a part of the gluteus maxi-
mus, it is indispensable to separate this last completely, in
order to see the others  in all  their  extent.   There is a
great quantity of fat on these  muscles, as likewise in  the
space which separates  them; the labor  necessary to  re-
move it is long and fatiguing;  it is worthy  of remark,
that this fat,  as  abundant as  it  is, preserves  the form
of the parts, retains the muscles in their respective position,
and conveys an accurate idea of their absolute situation.—
In removing it, all these advantages will be  sacrificed.—
The student, therefore, before proceeding with  it, should
take a  general survey of the parts.  The muscles, once
separated  from the fat, no  longer preserve their rela-
tions, and if the precautions we have just mentioned be  not
followed, we shall have but a very imperfect idea of these  dif-
ferent objects.  These three muscles have a common supe-
rior origin:  the semi-tendinosus  and semi-membranosus
especially are intimately connected, and we should not at-
tempt to separate them.   Their inferior extremity, on  the
contrary, going in different directions, does not present  the
same arrangement.
   It is easy enough to pursue and obtain  a correct view
inferiorly of the  insertion of the biceps and semi-membra-
nosus, because they are fixed, the first to the  superior  ex-
tremity of the peroneus, and the second to that of the tibia.
 In removing the  integuments at this  point, the insertion of 
332           anatomist's manual.
both is perfectly exposed, but the inferior extremity of the
semi-tendinosus passes  the  articulation  of the thigh and
ieg, and  goes to the anterior and  internal  portion of the
tibia, five or six fingers' breadth from'the superior extremity
of this bone.   We may  be content, for the moment, to pre-
pare the portion of the muscle which occupies the posteri-
or part of the thigh,  abandoning  the  examination  and
study of its tendon, until we shall dissect the sartorius and
rectus internus, with both of which it contracts strong ad-
hesions, and in addition contributes to form with them an
aponeurotic expansion,  called la patte d'oie, and which is
observed at the superior and internal portion of the tibia.

                     Description.
                   GLUTEUS MAXIMUS.
                   (Sacro-femoral.)
  Situation and figure.—Broad, thick, flat, quadrilateral;
situated on the posterior part of the pelvis and superior of
the thigh.
  Extent.—From the  ilium, sacrum  and coxcyx, to the
femur.
  Division.—Posterior surface,  covered by  the integu-
ments, beneath which is observed a great quantity of fat;
anterior surface, which covers a portion of the ilium, sa-
crum, all the  muscles  of the deep-seated layer, and the su-
perior part of the three muscles on the posterior portion of
the thigh.  The superior border extends obliquely from
the ilium to the  great trochanter, passing on the gluteus
medius; the inferior,  the  longest and  thickest of all, ex-
tends  obliquely from  the coxcyx to the superior part of
the femur; the external is  united  to the gluteus medius,
by means of a strong aponeurosis, and  it goes  from  the 
anatomist's manual.
333
ilium  to  the great trochanter ;  the internal passes from
the ilium  to  the sacrum and  coxcyx,  and  is  united
strongly  to the aponeuroses  of  the  sacro-lumbalis and
longissimus  dorsj. From  the  external  and inferior bor-
ders there results an elongated and  tendinous  portion,
which embraces the entire of the  great trochanter.
   Direction.—Oblique from above  downwards, and from
within outwards.
   Structure  and  uses.—It is aponeurotic at its  attach-
ments  to the  ilium,  sacrum, and coxcyx;  the portion at-
tached to  the femur  presents a broad  and thick tendon,
which is continuous with the aponeurosis of the fascia lata ;
in the  rest of its extent, it is composed  of fleshy fasciculi,
separated by bands of fatty cellular tissue ; it extends the
pelvis  on the thigh, and the thigh on the  pelvis, drawing
the point of the foot outwards,

                   GLUTEUS  MEDIUS.
               (Grand ilio trochanterien.)
    Situation and figure—Broad, flat, radiated;  situated
 on the  posterior  part  of the  pelvis,  and superior of  the
 thigh.
    Extent.—From the external iliac fossa to the great tro-
 chanter.
    Division.—External surface, covered  by  the gluteus
 maximus behind, and by the integuments in front;  internal
 surface, applied to the ilium  and gluteus  minimus.  The
 anterior border extends from the superior spine of the ilium
 to the great trochanter ;  the  posterior, from  the  ilium, to
 the great trochanter likewise, following  the  direction of
 the pyramidalis ; the superior, or base, is fixed to the su. 
334
anatomist's manual.
perior curved line of the ilium ; the summit, to the supe-
rior border of the great trochanter.
  Direction.—The fibres  converge from  the os-ilium to-
wards the great trochanter.
  Structure  and uses.—Aponeurotic at  its attachments
to the ilium, a broad and thick tendon terminates it inferi-
orly, and in the rest of its extent it is fleshy : it  has the
same  uses as the gluteus maximus.

                   GLUTEUS MINIMUS.
                (Petit-ilio-trochantericn.)
   Situation  and figure.—Broad, flat, radiated ;  situated
on  the posterior part of the pelvis, and the superior of the
thigh.
  Extent.—From the ilium to the great trochanter.
  Division.—External  surface, entirely  covered by the
gluteus medius ; internal surface, which covers a portion
of the external iliac fossa and the ileo-femoral articulation.
The anterior and posterior borders, parallel  to those of the
gluteus medius, but. shorter, present nothing remarkable;
the superior, or base, is fixed to the inferior curved line of
the ilium;  the summit, to the anterior border of the  great
trochanter.
  Direction.—Similar to that of the gluteus medius.
  Structure and uses.—The structure and uses of this
muscle do not differ from those of the gluteus medius.

                     PYRAMIDALIS.
                 (Sacro-trochanterien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, triangular ; situ-
ated on the posterior and internal part of the pelvis, and
superior of the thigh, 
anatomist's manual.
335
  Extent.—From the excavation of the pelvis to the great
trochanter.
  Division.—Posterior surface, applied on part on the sa-
crum, and covered in the rest of its extent by the gluteus
maximus and medius ;  anterior surface,  covered in  the
pelvis by the rectum and sciatic plexus, and placed, out of
the pelvis, on the gluteus minimus and ilium. The superior
border is parallel to the posterior border of the gluteus
medius ; the inferior is confounded with the superior gemi-
nus.  The base is placed in the pelvis in the environs  of
the sacral foramina ; the summit  is attached  to the most
elevated portion of the digital cavity on the great  trochan-
ter, near the gluteus medius.
   Direction.—Slightly oblique from above downwards, and
from within outwards.
   Structure and uses.—It is terminated outwardly by a
long tendon, and is fleshy in the rest of its extent; it ro-
tates the thigh outwardly.
                  SUPERIOR GEMINUS.
        (Comprised in the Ischio-trochanterien.)
   Situation  and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
posterior portion of the pelvis.
   Extent.—From  the ischiatic  spine  to  the great tro-
chanter.
   Division.—Posterior  surface, covered by the gluteus
maximus and great sciatic nerve ; anterior surface, applied
on the haunch  bones.   The  superior border is parallel to
the pyramidalis; the inferior is confounded with its fellow
and the tendon of the  obturator  internus.   The internal
extremity is fixed to the sciatic spine ; the external, in the
digital cavity of the great trochanter, below the pyrami-
 dalis. 
336            anatomist's manual.

  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure  and uses.—Tendinous at  its femoral  or ex-
ternal portion, fleshy in the rest of its extent, its uses are
the same as those of the pyramidalis.

                  INFERIOR GEMINUS.
        (Comprised in the Ischio trachanterien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on  the
posterior part of the pelvis.
  Extent.—From the ischiatic tuberosity, to the great tro-
chanter.
  Division.—Posterior surface,  covered by  the  gluteus
maximus  and great  sciatic nerve; anterior  surface, ap-
plied on the haunch bones.  The superior border is paral-
lel  to the superior geminus, and the inferior to the quad-
ratus. The internal extremity is attached to the tuberosity
of the ischium ;  the external is fixed in the digital cavity of
the great  trochanter, beneath  the  preceding and obturator
internus.
  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure  and uses.—A tendon is remarked at its ex-
ternal extremity ;  in the rest of its extent, it is fleshy.  It
has the  same uses  as the preceding.

                OBTURATOR  INTERNUS.
           (Sous-p:bio-trochanterien-interne.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, triangular ;  situ-
ated in the excavation of the pelvis and on the superior
part of the thigh.
  Extent.—From the  obturator  fossa,  to the  great  tro-
chanter. 
anatomist's  manual.             337
  Division —Internal surface, which corresponds to the
pelvis; it is covered by the levator ani and numerous  ves-
sels ;  external surface, applied to the obturator fossa.  The
superior and  inferior borders,  placed in great part within
the  pelvis, as also the base of the muscle, circumscribe the
circumference of the obturator foramen ; the external ex-
tremity is tendinous, and is placed between the two gemi-
ni ;  is fixed to the posterior part of the great trochanter.
  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure and uses.—A long tendon is remarked  out-
wardly ;  in the rest of its extent it is fleshy.  Its uses are
the  same as those of the preceding muscles.

                     QUADRATUS.
              (lschio-sous-trochavterien.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, quadrilateral; situated on
the posterior and superior part of the thigh.
  Extent.—From the ischium to the great trochanter.
  Division.—Posterior  sur'ace, covered  by the gluteus
maximus, great  sciatic nerve, and a small portion of the
semi-membranosus; anterior surface, applied to the exter-
nal  obtura:or.  The superior border is parallel to the in-
ferior geminus, and the inferior to the third adductor ; the
internal is fixed to the tuberosity of the ischium in front of
the semi-membranosus; the external, to the  inferior  part
of the posterior border of the great trochanter.
  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure  and use*.—Very slightly tendinous at its at-
tachments, fleshy in the  interval, it has the same uses aa
the preceding.
  All the muscles of  this region, if we evcept the three
glutei, produce on  the thigh a movement of rotation, by
                         29 
338            anatomist's  manual.
which  the point  of the foot is  turned outwards ;  under
some circumstances, they move the pelvis on the thigh.

                       BICEPS.
               (Ischio-femoro-pironie n.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated ;  situated along the
whole extent of the posterior and external part of the thigh;
divided into two portions at its superior part.
  Extent.—From the tuberosity of the ischium to the pe.
roneus.
  Division.—Posterior surface, covered above by the glu-
teus maximus, and by the  integuments in the rest of its ex-
tent ;  anterior surface, which covers,  from above down-
wards, the  semi-membranosus, cruralis, third adductor and
external gemellus of the  leg.  The superior extremity is
divided into two  portions : the long portion is attached to
the tuberosity of the ischium, in uniting with the semi-ten-
dinosus; the short  portion is fixed to  the  inferior part of
the linea aspera of the femur ; its inferior extremity  is at-
tached to the upper portion of the peroneus.
  Direction.—Nearly vertical.
  Structure and  uses.—Tendinous  at  its  extremities,
fleshy in  the interval, it  flexes the leg on the thigh, and
this on the  leg.
               SEMI-TENDINOSUS.
                   (Ischio-pre-tibial.)
  Situation and  figure.—Elongated ; situated along the
whole extent of the posterior and internal portion of the
thigh.
  Extent.—From  the tuberosity of the ischium to the
tibia. 
anatomist's  manual.            339
  Division.—Posterior surface, covered above by the glu-
teus maximus, and in the rest of its extent by the integu-
ments ;  anterior surface, applied in part to the semi-mem-
branosus.   The superior extremity is attached to the tube-
rosity of the ischium ; the inferior, to the internal and su-
perior part of the tibia.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, from behind
forwards, and from without inwards.
  Structure  and uses.—It is terminated inferiorly by  a
long tendon,  and is fleshy in the rest of  its extent.  It
flexes the leg on the thigh, and this on the  leg.

              SEMI-MEMBRANOSUS.
                 (lschio-popliti-tibial.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat; situated along
the whole extent of the posterior and internal part of the
thigh.
  Extent.—From  the  tuberosity of the  ischium  to the
tibia.
  Division.—Posterior  surface,  covered  above ..by the
gluteus  maximus, semi-tendinosus, biceps,  and by the in-
teguments in  the rest of its'extent;  anterior surface,  which
covers above a portion of the quadratus and third adductor.
The superior extremity is fixed to the tuberosity of the is-
chium, below the attachment of the semi-tendinosus : the
inferior  is fixed to the posterior part of the internal tubero-
sity of the tibia.
  Direction.—Nearly vertical.
  Structure and  uses.—This muscle is terminated above
and below by a broad aponeurosis ; in the  interval, there
are fleshy fibres obliquely situated; it has the  same uses as
the preceding 
340
anatomist's manual
       NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH REGIONS.
            Anterior and internal fern oral.
  There is only one muscle observed on the external por-
tion of the  thigh—it is  the muscle of the fascia-lata;
those  of the anterior part are—the sartorius, rectus ante-
rior, and triceps cruralis.   On the internal part—the rec-
tus internus, pectineus, three adductors, and obturator ex-
ternus.
               Anatomical Preparation.
   A* r reat as were  tl e difficulties in the preparation  of
the muscles on the posterior part of the  thigh, we must
not flatter ourselves tl at we shall b  more favored in un-
d'ertaking those on the anterior and internal part.  The fat
and cellular tissue, it is true, are not in such abundance aa
on the posterior portion, but the muscles are more nume-
rous; they touch each other by multiplied  points, and
 their reciprocal separation  is often impossible.   The large
 vessels of the thigh are found continually under the seal-
 pel, and  the blood which  escapes from them on all sides
 contributes to  render the preparation  of these muscles
 troublesome and fatiguing.   Notwithstanding the inconve-
 niences w  ch result from it, I think that the student, who
 has not  y t  had much pra tica in dissection, should re-
 move the crural vessels, before proceeding to the prepara-
 tion  of  the muscles  with wh ch they are in contact; for
 this, it will be necessary, after havng cut them near the
 ilium and  under the ham, to remove  them  from above
 downwards, being careful to separate them from  the sur-
 rounding parts.   The dissection and study of myology are
 sufficiently long and encumbered with details, without being
 obliged to examine all the parts, which have relations with
 the muscles. 
anatomist's  manual.
341
   Sartorius.—If, for the examination  of the  muscles on
 the anterior part of the  thigh, we  make  use of the extre-
 mity which has served for those of the posterior, it will be
 necessary to pursue the dissection of the integuments from
 behind forwards, until we arrive at the sartorius, and con-
 tinue the preparation of this muscle, as will be hereafter in-
 dicated : in the contrary case, we  should  proceed in  the
 following manner:—Make an incision of the integuments
 which is prolonged obliquely inwards, from the superior
 spine of the ilium, to the superior portion of the tibia.  This
 incision indicates precisely the course of the sartorius; in
 fine, if we separate inwards and outwards the two flaps of
 the integuments, v/e shall see this  muscle exposed in its
 whole extent;  it must be freed from the fat which covers
 it;  but we  should not remove it from that on which it  re-
 poses, and  by  means of which  we observe very well  its
 absolute position and numerous relations ;  for, the fat once
 removed, and the muscle separated from the subjacent parts,
 we will have but an imperfect idea of these two important
 circumstances.
  Rectus anterior.—After preparing the sartorius, a great
 part of the rectus anterior will be exposed.   Placed imme-
 diately under the integuments, like the preceding, nothing
 can be easier than its dissection:  it occupies the anterior
 portion of the  thigh, and goes from the inferior spine of
 the ilium to the rotula, on which  its tendon expands after
the manner of a capsule.   It should not be forgotten that it
furnishes a  tendon above, which is lost in the coxo-femoral
 articulation, which we ought  to observe accurately before
passing  to the  preparation  of  the  other  muscles  of the
thigh. We should not attempt to separate it too low down
                           29* 
342           anatomists manual.
from the cruralis, to which it is intimately united in its in-
ferior portion.
   Cruralis.—We may  leave  the sartorius in place in or-
der to dissect tlte rectus anterior;  but we must necessa-
rily cut  both across in  order to pass to the preparation
of the cruralis ; it is then that we must remove the quan-
tity of fat  found in these regions, particularly  on the
superior and internal  part of the  thigh.   Here also are
found the crural vessels, inguinal glands, and a quantity of
cellular tissue ; the whole should be removed with precau-
tion, and the muscles freed from them with all possible care.
The cruralis occupies the whole body of the femur, except
the posterior part, where are remarked the three adductors
and  biceps  ; this large  fleshy mass forms three  portions
very distinct, at least at its middle part;  however, it is not
absolutely necessary to consider the cruralis as composed
of three portions; there are  some  subjects in which this
distinction is quite apparent;  but in one or the other case,
the study of these different parts refers merely to one mus-
cle.   It is easy enough to dissect outwardly what is termed
the vastus externus ;  but the internal portion is much more
difficult, because it is in part concealed by the  adductors,
and above by the pectineus.  In consequence of this, it would
perhaps be  well not to dissect the cruralis until  after hav-
ing removed all the other muscles of the thigh.
   Fascia lata.—It alone occupies the external region of
the thigh, at the superior part of which it is situated. Con-
cealed in the duplicature of the aponeurosis of the same
name, it can be separated from it but with difficulty, parti-
cuiarly at its internal part.  We must, therefore, be con-
tent with examining its external surface, and leave it ap-
pUed to the  profound feuillet of the aponeurosis.   Not butf- 
anatomist's  manual.            343
ing much extent,  and  its volume bo!ng  inconsiderable,
more ample details as regards its preparation would be su-
perfluous.
  Rectus internus.—Like the sartorius, it is placed under
the incision of the  integuments, when we ©ommence the
study of the muscles of the thigh, along the whole extent
of which the rectus internus is situated.   As with the sar-
torius, we must at first be content with exposing its super-
ficial  part, and afterwards take a survey  of its  absolute
situation and different  relations.  It may then be separat-
ed from the fat and  other parts with which it has connex-
ions.   We may also, after this, cut it  across at its middle
portion, in order to pass to the preparation of the pectineus
and adductors; but, before doing this, we should examine
the arrangement of the  tendons  of  the rectus internus,
semi-tendinosus, and sartorius.  They form, in the superior
and internal portion of the tibia, four or five fingers' breadth
from its superior extremity, what is termed the patte d'oie,
which is situated immediately under the integuments, and
which gives origin to the tibial  aponeurosis.
  Pectinevs.—This muscle, as also  the three adductors,
occupies all the internal and profound part of the thigh.—
As  these different  muscles  are intimately united to each
other, their  preparation, in this respect, presents some dif-
ficulty.   The  pectineus is the first  with which we should
occupy  ourselves;  its  situation demands  this.   It goes
from the ileo-pectineal eminence to the  small trochanter,
placed behind the femoral vessels, glands  and abundant
cellular  tissue, which  surrounds these  parts.   When we
have not taken the precaution of previously removing all
these objects,  and of frequently absorbing with a sponge.'
the blood and other effused  fluids, the preparation' of th& 
344
anatomist's manual.
pectineus and adductors is one of the most fatiguing and
vexatious.  It is easy to .recognize the pectineus in front;
but it is more difficult to observe posteriorly the line, which
separates  it from the first adductor.   We  must recollect
that the pectineus originates from the horizontal  branch
of the pubis, and that it scarcely ever descends lower than
the small trochanter, whilst the first adductor, which is at-
tached above  to the body of the pubis descends as far down
as the linea aspera of the femur.
   The three adductors.—Immediately below and  behind
the preceding, is observed the first adductor, which is larg-
er and longer than  the pectineus.  What we have alrea-
dy said respecting the difficulty of finding the line, which
separates  it from the first adductor, applies very well to
this last and to the second adductor; both are attached to
the body and descending branch of the pubis, and both go
to the linea aspera of the femur, into which they are im-
planted conjointly with the third adductor.   We may, with
some care, find  above the trace of separation  of the two
first adductors ;  but .we shall in vain look for the same re-
sult below, where their common insertion into the femur is
so confounded, that the three muscles  appear to  be  one
and  the same  mass.  The third adductor, the largest of
the three,  and one of the most considerable of the whole
economy,  is more embarrassing  on account of  its volume
and great extent, than from any difficulty of following its
course.  When we have had the precaution to remove the
fat, which enveloped the other muscles of the thigh, which
must also  be  removed, after having studied them,  except
the triceps cruralis,  which it is necessary to preserve, we
may then more easily prepare the three adductors.   The
third extends  from the tuberosity of the ischium, the ^isr':. 
anatomist's  manual.            345
boring part of the femur, and the whole length of its linea
aspera, nearly es far as the internal tuberosity of the same
bone ;  very broad  and voluminous at its superior part, it
is  terminated  below by  a  species  of aponeurotic  band,
across  which passes the crural artery four or five fingers'
breadth above  the  ham.   We should not fail to observe
accurately this disposition,  as also the connexions of the
third adductor,  with the short portion of the biceps.
  We. may,  after the preparation of the three adductors,
detach them as near as possible to the femur, without ab-
solutely removing them, and examine, for a moment, the ar-
rangement of the three portions of the cruralis, particularly
at their superior part, where they were in great  measure,
concealed by the abductors and pectineus: finally, this once
achieved, we should proceed to the preparation of the two
obturators, which it would have been difficult and even im-
possible to prepare before, especially the external.
   The  two  0/ turators.—These Jwo muscles occupy the
obturator foramen, one within, the other without the pel-
vis, but they cannot be well dissected, until afer the exa-
mination of all the  other muscles of the thigh,  and after
having  performed  a particular section, which consists in
separating the pelvis at its middle portion from before back-
wards ; or,  we may simply divide the symphisis pubis with
a scalpel, and by drawing in a contrary direction  the divid.
ed pubes, rupture  posteriorly the sacro iliac  symphisis of
the side on which we wish to dissect the obturaiors.  After
this preliminary step, we should  carefully remove all the
soft parts which conceal internally the obturator internus,
and then  pursue its dissection as far as the great trochan-
ter.   The obturator externus is very profoundly situated,
and absolutely concealed by the pectineus and first  ad- 
346            anatomist's  manual.
ductors.   We must, therefore, remove all these muscles,
as also the rectus internus and rectus anterior, if we have
not already done it.   Such is the  easiest and most simple
mode of preparing the muscles of the thigh.

                     Description.
          THE MUSCLE* OF THE FASCIA  LATA.
              (Ilio-aponeurotic-fe moral.)
   Situation and .figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
superior and external part of the thigh.
   Extent.—From the ilium, to six or eight fingers' breadth
below.
   Division.—Its external and internal surfaces are in re-
lation with the two feuillets of the aponeurosis of the fascia
lata, in which the muscle is completely lodged.   Its bor-
ders, concealed by  the  aponeurosis, present nothing re-
markable.  The superior extremity is fixed to the superior
spine of  the  ilium;  the4nferior loses itself in the duplica-
ture of the aponeurosis.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure  and uses.—Tendino-aponeurotic  at its  su-
perior extremity, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it extends
the aponeurosis of the fascia lata, and may  also draw the
thigh outwardly.
                      SARTORIUS.
                    (Ilio-pre-tibial.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, narrow, flat ; situat-
ed on the internal part of the thigh, and superior and inter-
nal of the leg.
   Extent.—From the ilium to the tibia.
   Division.—External surface, covered  by the  integu-
ments ; internal surface, which covers a portion of the ilia- 
                anatomist's manual.            347

cus, triceps cruralis, third adductor and rectus internus.—
The borders offer  nothing particular.   The superior ex-
tremity is fixed to the superior spine of the ilium ;  the in-
ferior, to  the superior and internal portion of the tibia, in
confounding itself with the inferior extremities of the semi-
tendinosus and  rectus internus, for the formation  of the
patte d'oie.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
without inwards.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous inferiorly, fleshy  in
the rest of its extent, it bends the leg on the thigh, in draw-
ing it towards that of the opposite side.

                  RECTUS ANTERIOR.
                    (Ilio-rotulien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated  on the
anterior portion of the thigh.
  Extent.—From the ilium to the rotula and tibia.
  Division.—Anterior  surface,  covered by the  integu-
ments and aponeurosis of the fascia lata ; posterior surface,
applied to the middle portion of the cruralis, with which
it contracts strong adhesions below.   The borders present
nothing particular.  The superior extremity is fixed on the
one hand, to the anterior and  inferior spine of the  ilium ;
and, on the other, to the circumference  of the ileo-femoral
articulation ; the inferior is expanded  on the rotula, and
embraces on the right and left the  superior extremity of
the tibia.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—Strong tendons  are remarked at
its two extremities ; broad aponeuroses originate from these
tendons, and partly envelope  the  muscle ;  the interval is 
348
anatomist's manual.
occupied by short and abundant fleshy fibres   It extends
the leg on the thigh, and draws the pelvis and thigh on the
leg.
                  TRICEPS CRURALIS.
                 (Tri-femoro-rutidivn.)
   Situation and fijure.—Broad, thick, flat; situated on
the anterior,  internal, and external part of  the thigh, and
divided  superiorly into three portions.
   Extent.—From the environs of the trochanters to tho
 rotula and tibia.
   Division.—Anterior surface, covered outwardly  by the
 muscle of the  fascia-lata,  and  the aponeurosis of  the same
 name;  inwardly by the sartorius, rectus internus;  and at
 its middle portion, by the rectus anterior; posterior surface,
 applied in its  whole extent on the femur.  The external
 border  is fixed to the external lip  of the linea aspera; the
 internal, to the internal  lip.  The superior extremity, di-
 vided into three portions, is attached to a rough impression
 below the trochanters ;  the  inferior, united in one mass,
 is attached to the superior part of the rotula, and also to
 the external and internal  tuberosities of the tibia.
   Direction.—The   fibres, in the  internal  portion, are
 oblique from above downwards, and from within outwards;
 in the external  portion,  oblique  from  above downwards,
 and from without inwards, and vertical in the middle por-
 tion.
   Structure   and uses.—Broad aponeuroses are observed
 in  the three portions ; a broad and thick temlon terminates
 them inferiorly,  and  fleshy fibres occupy the interval.  It
 extend i the leg on the thigh, and reciprocally the thigh on
 the leg. 
anatomist's manual.
349
                   RECTUS  INTERNUS.
                 (Sous-pubio-pre-tibial.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat;  situated on the
 internal parts of the thigh, superior and internal of the leg.
   Extent.—From the body of the pubis to the tibia.
   Division.—Internal surface, covered by the integuments;
 external surface, applied  on the three adductors. The bor-
 ders have nothing worthy of remark.   The superior ex-
 tremity, thin and flat, is  attached to  the  body of the pubis
 and to the branch of the ischium ; the inferior, tendinous,
 is fixed to the superior and internal portion of the tibia, and
 contributes to the formation  of the patte d'oie.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—A  long tendon terminates it infe-
 riorly, and it is fleshy in  the rest of its extent; it flexes the
 leg on the thigh, and draws it towards that of the opposite
 side.
                      PECTINEUS.
               ( Sous-pubio-trochantinien.)
   Situation and figure—Elongated, thick, flat;  situated
on the superior and internal  portion of the thigh.
  Extent.—From the  pubis to the femur, below the small
 trochanter.
  Division.—Anterior surface,  covered by the integu-
ments;  posterior surface, applied on the obturator ex-
ternus and  one of the  adductors;  the  superior extremity
is fixed to the  pubis, near the ileo-pectineal eminence ; the
inferior, below the small trochanter.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
before, backwards.
  Structure  and  uses.—Tendinous  inferiorly, fleshy in
the rest of its extent, it flexes the thigh on the pelvis,  and
                         30 
350
anatomist's manual.
approximates it to that of the opposite side, in turning it
outwards.
                  ADDUCTOR PRIMUS.
                   (Pubio-fcmoral.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thick, flat; situated
on the internal and superior part of the thigh.
  Extent.—From the pubis to the linea aspera of  the fe-
mur.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by  the  sartorius
and integuments; posterior surface, placed on the femur
and third adductor.   The  superior extremity is fixed to
the body of the pubis ; the  inferior is attached to the mid-
dle portion of the linea aspera, and becomes confounded
with the  third adductor.
  Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards, and  from
before backwards.
  Structure and uses.—Tendino-aponeurotic at its extre-
mities, fleshy in  the interval,  it flexes the thigh on the pel-
vis and draws it  towards that of the opposite side, in turn-
ing it outwards.

             ADDUCTOR SECUNDUS.
                 (Sous-pubio-fimoral.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, thick, flat; situated
on the superior and  internal portion of the thigh.
  Extent.—From the body and branch of the pubis to the
linea aspera.
   Division.—External portion, covered  by the adductor
primus ;  internal portion, which corresponds to the  tendon
of the psoas and obturator externus.  The superior extre-
mity is attached  to the body and branch of the pubis ; the
inferior, to  the superior third of the linea aspera. 
anatomist's manual.             351
  Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards, and from
before backwards.
  Structure and uses.—Similar to the adductor primus,
as regards its structure and uses.

              ADDUCTOR  TERTIUS.
                   (Ischio-femoral.)
  Situation  and  figure.—Broad, thick,  flat;  situated
along the whole  extent of the  internal portion of the thigh.
  Extent.—From the  ischium to the internal  tuberosity
of the femur.
  Division.—Anterior  surface, covered by the two first
adduetors ; posterior surface, covered by all the muscles
on the posterior part of the thigh.   The internal border is
covered by the  rectus internus ; the external  is fixed to
the external ridge of  the superior bifurcation of the linea
aspera, at its interstice, and to the  internal ridge of the  in-
ferior bifurcation.  This border presents,  at  its inferior
third, an opening for  the passage  of the crural artery.—
The superior extremity, called the base, is attached to the
tuberosity of the ischium, to the branch of the pubis, and
to the adjoining  part  of the femur, below the  great tro-
chanter ; the inferior  is fixed  to the internal tuberosity of
the femur.
  Direction.—The fibres are the more oblique from above
downwards, and from within outwards, as we examine the
muscle nearer its inferior portion.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous inferiorly, aponeuro-
tic at its attachments to the line of the femur,  and fleshy
in the interval.   Its uses are the same as those of the two
first adductors. 
352           anatomist's  manual.
                OBTURATOR EXTERNUS.
                       (Idem.)
  Situation and figure.—Broad,  flat, nearly triangular ;
situated on the superior and  internal portion of the thigh.
  Extent.—From the obturator foramen to the femur.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the second ad-
ductor ; posterior surface, applied on the obturator fora-
men.   The internal extremity is fixed to the pubis and is-
chion; the external, is attached to the inferior part of the
great trochanter.
  Direction.—Transverse.
  Structure  and uses.—Aponeurotic at its attachment to
the pubis  and ischium, tendinous at  its attachment to the
femur, and fleshy in the interval; its uses  are analogous
to those of the gemini, iliacus,  and obturator internus.

      TWENTY-FIRST AND  TWENTY-SECOND  REGIONS.
           Anterior tibial.—Posterior tibial.
  Muscles of the anterior  and posterior part of the leg.
—The muscles of the anterior part are :—the tibialis an-
ticus, extensor communis digitorum pedis,  extensor  pro-
prius pollicis pedis, and the peroneus anticus. The muscles
of the external region are :—the two peronei, distinguished
into long and short; those of the  posterior part are more
numerous.  Authors are in the habit of distinguishing them
into several layers, placed in the following manner :—1st,
gemelli, or gastrocnemii;  2d, plantaris; 3d, Soleus and
popliteus ;  4th, flexor pollicis pedis,  flexor communis digi-
torum, and tibialis posticus. 
anatomist's  manual.
353
              Anatomical  Preparation.
  The preparation of the muscles of this region, do not pre-
sent any very great difficulty. The skill, which the student
has acquired in dissection by this time, should be consider-
ed as the  principal cause.   He now  finds the preparation
of these parts comparatively easy; but they  would  have
been extremely  embarrassing if he  had commenced his
anatomical labors with them.  It is, however, true that he
owes a part of this facility to the disposition of the muscles
themselves, separated as they are from each in  nearly their
whole extent, possessing but an inconsiderable volume, and
deprived of that mass of fat, which rendered the prepa-
ration of  the muscles of the thigh so inconvenient;  those
of the leg, on the contrary, present, in this  respect, the
most favorable circumstances for their dissection.
   The muscles of the anterior and external part being few
in number, should be  prepared  the  first.  Divide, there-
fore, the integuments of the anterior part of  the leg from
the knee  to the back of the foot, and turn the flaps out-
wards.   The  muscles are immediately covered by a thick
and tense aponeurosis ; it should be left in place,  in order
to get an  idea of  its  relations with them ;  it is then to be
removed,  commencing at its inferior  part, and  pursuing
the dissection as high up as possible  : but it adheres so  in-
timately to the muscles at their superior  pari, that it is im-
possible to free them from it ; we should not even attempt
it.   The  muscles  thus exposed, the first  requiring our  at-
tention, is the tibialis anticus.
   Tibialis anticus.—Placed at the internal portion  of the
 muscles of this region, it will be readily recognised  by ita
 volume, which is more considerable  than that of the other
muscles ; by its superior insertion, which is into  both the
                        30* 
354            anatomist's manual.

tibia and fibula ; and by the strong tendon, which termi-
nates it inferiorly.   In order to observe the trace, which
separates it from the adjoining muscles, we should com-
mence below, where  this separation is well marked, and
pursue it as high up as possible ;  but we should not carry
it as far as the most  elevated part  of the  leg, where the
union of the different muscles of this region is very inti-
Tnate.
   Extensor communis digitorum pedis.—Although this
is situated more outwardly than the extensor proprius pol-
licis pedis, it should be prepared before this last, which is
concealed and covered by it and the tibialis anticus ;  in
the preparation of the extensor communis digitorum pedis,
we should be careful to separate accurately its tendons at
the inferior portion ;  preserve the annular ligament under
which they pass ; and we should not forget to distinguish
and separate the peroneus anticus from the extensor com-
munis ; they pass under the annular ligament  together,
and frequently the  fibres of the two muscles  become inti-
mately confounded : but the different insertion of their in-
ferior extremity furnishes means  of distinguishing them—
the extensor communis  terminating at  the  toes, and  the
peroneus at the superior and posterior part of the fifth me-
tatarsal  bone.
   Extensor proprius pollicis pedis—-This muscle, as has
already been remarked, is entirely covered, at its superior
part, by  the tibialis and extensor digi-torum pedis ; we must
separate both one and the other, in order  to see it.  The
insertion of its inferior extremity into the  last phalanx of
the great toe, serves as a means of recognising it.
   Peroneus anticus.—It has already been observed that
thi3 muscle is often united rather  intimately to the extensor 
anatomist's  manual.
355
digitorum pedis, so that it cannot be separated from this
last except at its inferior insertion ;  this is the only means
by which it may be known.   The muscles on the anterior
part of the leg, the tibialis  excepted, are  sometimes so
thin, that it is as well not to  attempt to separate them too
nicely, with a view of making a vain parade of skill in dis-
section.
  The two peronei.—Placed at the external  side of the
tibialis, they are at this point so approximated to each other,
that they cannot be separated except at their inferior part,
where their respective tendons separate for the purpose of
going to their different  points of insertion.   One, in fine,
the peroneus longus, leaves the leg to  be inserted into the
first metatarsal bone, passing obliquely under the sole of
the foot ;  the other, on the  contrary, limits its march to
the fifth metatarsal bone, to which it is fixed.  We should
not, for the moment, endeavor to pursue the  termination
of the peroneus longus: this should be reserved  until we
prepare the muscles on the sole of the foot, and we should
limit ourselves merely to that portion of the muscle, which
travels along the tibia.
  After the preparation and examination of the  peronei,
we proceed to the muscles of the posterior part of the leg,
for which it will suffice to pursue the separation of the in-
teguments  posteriorly,  and to free the  whole of the leg
from them.
  Gastrocnemii.—These  muscles,  placed  immediately
under  the skin, form  the calf, particularly  the inter-
nal portion.  A part of  these  muscles  was  exposed in
the preparation of those  in  the posterior region of the
thigh ; it will merely be necessary to pursue the division
of the integuments, as far as the heel, and to turn the flaps 
356            Anatomist's  manual.
outwards and inwards, or even to remove them entirely
from the leg.   As I just observed, a quantity of adipose
cellular tissue is found at the superior part of these mus-
cles and  in the hollow  of the ham ; a quantity not less
considerable is likewise remarked  at the inferior part, and
surrounds the  tendo Achillis.  All this  cellular tissue
must be removed, and the gemelli muscles accurately ex-
posed ; but the aponeuroses, which cover them above and
below, are not to be touched.   We should not attempt to
separate these muscles from the soleus and tibialis parvus,
which are placed beneath, before having studied them pro-
perly ; and we should preserve, if convenient, the popliteal
vessels, lodged in the space between these muscles at their
superior portion.
   Soleus and tibialis parvus.—Cut the gemelli across  at
their superior third,  and turn the flaps in a contrary direc-
tion, in order to expose the soleus and tibialis placed imme-
diately  beneath; a  very small quantity  of  cellular tis-
sue covers these  muscles; towards  their superior  part is
likewise  found the small popliteal muscle.   The  tibialis
parvus is  only remarkable for  its  extreme  smallness and
the excessive length  of its tendon ; it is sometimes wanting,
but rarely.  It is situated along the internal portion of the
soleus, intimately united, at its inferior part, to the tendon
of Achilles ; sometimes, however,  it  does not adhere to it.
Its fleshy fibres do not occupy superiorly more than three
or four fingers' breadth.
   The soleus is too voluminous and distinct, to render it
necessary to  point out  here  any characters  by  which it
may be  recognized.   It  adheres strongly at its  superior
part to the tibia and fibula, which  it soon  abandons in or- 
anatomist's  manual.            357
der to contribute, with the  gemelli and tibialis parvus, to
the formation of the tendo Achillis, where these three mus-
cles are absolutely confounded together.
   To the preparation of the soleus and tibialis parvus, is
connected that of the popliteal muscle, united in nearly its
whole extent to the hard parts, on which it is situated.   It
is seen at the posterior part of the articulation of the  leg
and thigh.   It will suffice to remove the small quantity of
cellular tissue, which covers  it; not  being susceptible of
detachment from the  place it occupies, it does not  require
any preparation.
   Flexor  longus digitorum pedis communis—flexor lon-
gus poll ids pedis—tibialis posticus.—The preparation of
these three muscles should be made simultaneously,  at
least for the portion,  which corresponds to the leg.   One
circumstance alone renders it somewhat embarrassing—it
is that we must either sacrifice nearly all the muscles of
the foot in order to see the inferior termination of those of
the leg, or  we must only study at first that portion of these
muscles, which travels along the posterior part of the  leg,
and reserve the preparation of what is to follow, until after
that of the muscles of the foot.  I would advise  the  stu.
dent  to adopt the latter mode ; he will depart, it  is true,
from  the order  most  generally adopted in  books  on ana-
tomy, but  he  will  follow more accurately  the  correct
 mode  of  dissecting.  Let  him commence, in the  first
 place, with the flexor longus digitorum pedis,  which is
 within, and pass afterwards  to the  flexor longus pollicis
 pedis, which is without.   The tibialis posticus is in  part
 concealed by the preceding.  In order not to be  deceived
 as regards these muscles, and not to mistake one for  the
 other, it will be necessary to pull alternately on  their re, 
358
anatomist's manual.
spective  tendons, and  examine what part they set in mo.
tion.  All three of them pass through the large groove on
the calcaneum in order to go to the foot ;  in this place they
are covered by a quantity of adipose cellular tissue, from
which it will be proper to free  them.   We  shall re-
turn to this subject after the preparation of the muscles of
the foot.

                      Description.
                tibialis anticus.
                  (Tibio-sus-iarsien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat in different  di-
rections ; situated on the anterior part of the leg, and supe-
rior of the foot.
   Extent.—From the tibia to the first os-cuneiforme.
   Division.—Anterior portion, covered in its whole extent
by the integuments ; internal portion, applied on the tibia ;
external portion, united above  to the extensor communis
digitorum pedis, and below to the extensor pollicis  pedis ;
posteriorly, this muscle contracts  adhesions with the inter-
osseous  ligament.   The superior portion is attached to
the  external tuberosity of the  superior extremity of the
tibia; the  inferior, to the superior surface of the first os-
cuneiforme.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and uses.—A long tendon terminates it infe-
riorly, and it is fleshy  in the rest of its  extent.   It flexes
the foot on the leg, and this on the foot.  In its action on
the  foot, it elevates particularly  its internal  border, and
draws its point inwards, 
anatomist's  manual.
359
          (Extensor proprius pollicis pedis.)
  Situation  and figure.—Elongated,  slightly  flat;  situ-
ated on the anterior part of the leg, and superior of the
foot.
  Extent.—From the peroneus, to the last phalanx of the
great toe.
  Division.—Internal surface, which  corresponds to the
tibialis anticus ;  external surface, to the extensor commu-
nis  digitorum pedis.   It is concealed  in front by these two
last muscles;  posteriorly,  it corresponds to  the  fibula
above, and to the inter-osseous ligament below.  The supe-
rior extremity is attached to the superior third of the fibu-
la; the inferior, to the superior and posterior  part of the
first phalanx of the great toe.
   Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards, and from
without inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous inferiorly, fleshy  in the
rest of its extent, it extends successively the phalanges of
the great toe on the metatarsal bones,  and may afterwards
contribute to produce the flexion of the whole foot.

        EXTENSOR   COMMUNIS  DIGITORUM  PEDIS.
         (Peroneo-sus-phalangettien  commun.)
    Situation and figure.—Elongated, slightly flat;  situ-
 ated on the  anterior part of  the leg,  and superior of the
 foot.
    Extent.—From  the tibia, to the first and second phalan-
 ges of the four last toes.
    Division.—Internal portion,  in  correspondence with
 the tibialis  anticus and  extensor pollicis pedis ; external
 portion, which  corresponds successively to the three pero-
 nei.   It is  covered in front by the integuments, and  be- 
360
anatomist's  manual.
hind it is attached to the fibula and  inter-osseous  liga-
ment.   The superior extremity is fixed to the external tu-
berosity of the tibia, between the  tibialis and peroneus Ion.
gus; the inferior, divided into four tendons, is attached  to
the first and second phalanges of the four last toes.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Structure  and  uses.—The tendon's,  which  terminate
it inferiorly, ascend very high up in the fleshy fibres, which
compose the rest of the muscle.   It  produces the success-
ive  extension of the phalanges on the metatarsal bones, and
may, like the preceding, flex the foot on the leg.

                  PERONEUS  ANTICUS.
            (Petit-perineo-sus-metatarsien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated,  thin, flat; situated
on the anterior part of the leg, and superior of the foot.
  Extent.—From the fibula, to the  fifth metatarsal bone.
  Division.—External portion,  covered  by the integu-
ments ;  internal portion, united to the preceding; it is at-
tached posteriorly to the two inferior thirds of the fibula.—
The superior extremity, confounded  with the  extensor di-
gitorum pedis, is fixed to the internal  surface of the  fibu-
la, towards the superior  part of its middle third ; the in-
ferior, to the posterior part of the fifth  metatarsal bone.
  Direction.—Nearly vertical.
  Structure and uses.—The structure does not differ from
that of the preceding muscles ; it flexes the foot on the leg. 
anatomist's  manual.            361
             PERONEUS LONGUS LATERALIS.
                (Peroneosous-iarsien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated ; situated on the ex-
 ternal lateral portions of the leg, and at the inferior part
 of the foot.
   Extent.—From the  tibia and  fibula to the first me-
 tatarsal bone.
   Division.—External portion,  covered  in  the  whole
 length of the leg by the integuments, and in the rest of its
 extent by the muscles of the superficial layer on the sole
 of the foot; internal  portion, placed above on the fibula,
 and below on the peroneus lateralis brevis.  It corresponds
posteriorly to the soleus and flexor longus pollicis pedis ; an-
 teriorly, to the extensor digitorum pedis and peroneus anticus.
 The superior extremity is fixed to the most elevated por-
 tion of the fibula, and to the adjacent part of the  tibia;
the inferior, in crossing obliquely the sole of the foot,  be-
 comes attached  to the inferior part of  the first metatarsal
 bone.
   Direction.—Vertical on the leg, obliquely horizontal on
the foot.
   Structure and uses.—A long tendon which  terminates
it inferiorly, ascends very high up in the fleshy fibres, which
form  the  rest of the  muscle.   It extends  the foot on the
leg, and reciprocally this on the foot.

             PERONEUS BREVIS LATERALIS.
           (Grand peroneo-sur-metatarsien.)
 Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat; situated on the
lateral portions of the  leg.
 Extent.—From the fibula to the fifth  metatarsal bone.
 Division.—External surface, covered by the peroneus lo.
                          31 
362            anatomist's manual.
gus; internal surface, fixed to the two inferior thirds of the
fibula.  The superior extremity is attached to the external
surface of the fibula, between the superior and middle third ;
the inferior, tendinous, passes behind the  malleolus exter-
nal, and is attached to the posterior part of the fifth meta-
tarsal bone.
   Direction.—Vertical on the leg, horizontal  on the foot.
   Structure and uses.—Its  structure and  uses are the
same as those of the peroneus longus lateralis.

               GEMELLI  OR GASTROCNEMII.
                 ( Bi-femoro-calcanien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated,  slightly flat; situat-
ed on the posterior part of the leg.
   Extent.—From the condyles of the femur to the cal-
caneum.
   Division.—Posterior surface,  covered by the integu-
ments ; anterior surface, placed  on  the  tibio-femoral
articulation, tibialis  parvus,  popliteus and  soleus.   The
borders form within  and without the prominences of the
calf.   The superior  extremity consists of two portions;
the internal, the largest and longest,  is fixed to the poste-
rior part of the internal condyle of the femur, and the ex-
ternal, to  the  posterior part of the  external  condyle.—
 These two portions, between which are observed  the pop-
 liteal vessels, united  at a few fingers' breadth from their
 insertion, form a common  mass, the  inferior  extremity of
 which contributes to the  formation of the tendo Achillis,
 which is attached to  the posterior part of the  calcaneum.
    Direction.—Vertical.
    Structure and uses.—Two short and  thick tendons are
 observed at the two superior extremities; a broad  aponeu-
 rosis covers posteriorly and anteriorly a great part of the 
anatomist's manual.
363
fleshy mass placed in the interval, and they are terminated
inferiorly by a long and strong tendon.  The gemelli ex-
tend the foot on the leg, flex this on the thigh, and  reci-
procally this last on the leg.

                   TIBIALIS PARVUS.
               (Petit-femoro-calcanien.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, very thin ;  situated
on the posterior part of the leg.
  Extent.—From the external condyle of the femur to the
calcaneum.
  Division.—Posterior surface, covered by the gemelli;
anterior surface,  placed on the soleus,  along the internal
border of which it passes.   The superior extremity is at-
tached to the posterior  part of the external condyle of the
femur ;  the inferior is confounded with the tendons of the
gemelli  and soleus,  and contributes to the formation of the
tendo Achillis.
  Direction.—Slightly oblique  from above  downwards,
and from without inwards.
  Structure and  uses.—The  fleshy fibres  are scarcely
three or four inches in length ; the rest of the muscle is
formed by a long and thin tendon.  It aids, but feebly, the
action of the gemelli and soleus.

                       SOLEUS.
                   ( Tibio-calcanien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, thick, flat;  situated
on the posterior part of the leg.
  Extent.—From the tibia and fibula to the calcaneum.
  Division.—Posterior surface, covered  by the gemelli
and tibialis parvus; anterior surface, which covers a por- 
564            anatomist's  manual.
tion  of the fibula and  tibia, the flexor  longus digitorum,,
tibialis posticus and flexor longus pollicis pedis.  The su-
perior extremity, narrow and  pointed,  is attached to the
posterior surface of the fibula, near its superior extremity ;
the inferior contributes to the formation of the tendo-Achil-
lis, and is fixed to the posterior part of the calcaneum.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Structure and  uses.—Broad aponeuroses are observed
on the posterior surface  and in the interval of the fleshy
fibres ; a long tendon, intimately united to that of the ge-
melli,  terminates the muscle inferiorly.  Its  uses are the
same as   those of the gemelli, but it does not act on the
thigh.
                      POPLITEUS.
                 (Femoro-popliti-tibial.)
   Situation and figure.—Flat, thin, and triangular; situ-
ated on the posterior and superior part of the leg.
   Extent.—From the external condyle of the femur to the
tibia.
   Division.—Posterior  surface, covered by the  gemelli;
anterior  surface, applied on the femoro-tibial  articulation.
The external border is parallel to the soleus ;  the internal
is free along the superior part of the internal border of the
tibia ; the superior is fixed to the tibia and fibula. A species
of summit terminates this muscle on the  posterior part of
the external condyle of the  femur.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and from
without inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous at  its attachment to
the femur, aponeurotic posteriorly, fleshy  in the rest of its
extent, it flexes the thigh on the leg, and this on the thigh. 
               anatomist*s manual.            365

      FLEXOR LONGUS  COMMUNIS DIGITORUM PEDIS.
             ( Tibio-phalav gettien-commun.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
posterior part of the leg, and inferior of the foot.
  Extent.—From the tibia to the last phalanges of the four
last toes.
  Division.—Posterior surface,  covered by  the soleus ;
anterior  surface,  applied on the tibia.  The superior ex-
tremity is attached to the superior part of the posterior sur-
face of the tibia ;  the  inferior, after having  passed  under
the arch  of the calcaneum, advances under the sole of the
foot, becomes united to the square portion, and divides into
four small tendons which, traversing the openings presented
to them by those of the flexor brevis, are attached to the
inferior part of the last phalanges.
  Direction.—Vertical on the leg, horizontal on the foot.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous inferiorly,  fleshy  in
the rest  of its extent, it flexes successively  the phalanges
on each other, and extends the whole of the foot.

            FLEXOR LONGUS  POLLICIS PEDIS.
         (Pironeosous-phalangettien du pmce.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
posterior part of the leg, and inferior of the  foot.
  Extent.—From the fibula to the last phalanx of the great
toe.
  Division.—Posterior portion,  covered by the soleus ;
anterior  portion,  applied  on  the posterior  surface  of the
fibula.   The superior  extremity is fixed to the superior
part of the  fibula ; the inferior passes under the arch of
the calcaneum, crosses the direction of the preceding, and
                           31* 
356
anatomist's manual.
U attached to the inferior part of the last phalanx of the
great toe.
  Direction.—Oblique  from above downwards, and  from
without inwards.
  Structure and uses.—A tendon, concealed very high up
in the fleshy fibres, terminates this muscle inferiorly;  it is
fleshy in the rest of its extent; it flexes the great toe, and,
like the preceding, extends the foot.

                   TIBIALIS POSTICUS.
                  ( T'biosous-tarsien.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated on  the pos-
terior part of the leg, and inferior of the foot.
   Extent.—From the tibia  and fibula to the os-scaphoides.
  Division.—Posterior portion, covered by the two preced-
ing muscles and the soleus; anterior portion, attached to the
posterior surface of the tibia and inter-osseous ligament.—
The superior  extremity, bifurcated for the passage of the
anterior tibial vessels, is attached to the superior part of
the fibula and tibia ;  the inferior traverses the arch of the
calcaneum, and is fixed to the inferior surface of the sca-
phoides.
   Direction.—Slightly oblique from  above downwards,
and from without inwards.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous inferiorly, fleshy in
the rest of its extent, it extends  the foot on the leg, and
this on  the foot, raising this last from within outwards.

                TWENTY-THIRD  REGION.
                 Tarso-metatarsienne.
'   Muscles on the back and sole of the foot.—The  mus-
cles of  the  foot  are  distinguished  into those  of the 
anatomist's manual.            367
back  and sole : one muscle only is found on  the back'—
it is the extensor brevis digitorum pedis.   The muscles of
the sole  of the foot are more numerous, and are divided
into several layers:—1st, Adductor pollicis  pedis,  flexor
brevis digitorum, abductor minimi digiti pedis ; 2d, Flexor
accessorius ; lumbricales ; 3d, Flexor brevis pollicis pedis,
abductor obliquus  pollicis  pedis, transversalis digitorum,
flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis ; 4th, Seven inter-ossei, of
which there are four dorsal and three plantar.

               Anatomical Preparation.
  Extensor brevis digitorum pedis.—Divide the integu-
ments on the back of the foot in their whole length  ; turn
the flaps inwards  and  outwards,  and this muscle  is, as
it were,  prepared.    It will  suffice  to  expose its  poste-
rior attachment, and  pursue the  tendons, which  termi-
nate it at the toes.  No muscle  is near  it or conceals  it;
nor is it  enveloped by any membrane;  being alone  under
the integuments, it reposes on most of the tarsal and meta-
tarsal bones, and its preparation merely requires that we
isolate it from the place it occupies.
  The muscles on  the sole of the foot are much more dif*
ficult  to  prepare, as well on account of their number, as
of their intimate approximation, and the aponeurotic bands,
which keep them united and almost confounded with each
other.  The skin itself covering  them is hard and callous ;
their preparation is rendered difficult and  fatiguing by a
fatty and very dense  cellular tissue.   In order to remove
this tissue, we must prolong an incision from  the heel to
the toes ; we must remove with the integuments the cellu-
lar tissue until we come to an aponeurosis, which will be
recognized by its texture and shining' aspect.   It will be 
368
ANATOMISTS MANUAL.
necessary to expose this aponeurosis very accurately,  in
order to study it;  it covers almost immediately the  three
muscles, which form the first layer of those on the sole of
the foot, and at its posterior part, it cannot be separated
from them.   We should afterwards pass to the preparation
of the muscles, which this preliminary dissection will have
very materially facilitated.  We may, in  order to remove
the skin from the  sole of  the  foot, cut it in its whole cir-
cumference, and then remove it.  This latter mode is per-
haps preferable to the former.
  Adductor pollicis pedis.—This muscle is placed on the
internal side of the foot:  it may be  easily separated  out-
wardly from the flexor brevis communis digitorum ; but
in its  progress it becomes united to the short flexor of the
same toe,  and  the two muscles appear to  make only one.
We should, therefore, be  content with removing all the
fatty cellular  tissue, which could interfere  with the exa-
mination of the adductor; and  this last  must be left  in
place until we are ready to prepare the flexor brevis pol-
licis pedis.
  Abductor minimi digiti pedis.—After the  preparation
of the preceding, we then pass to that  of the abductor mi-
nimi digiti pedis, and  leave, for a moment, the flexor bre-
vis, which will soon be dissected with the  termination of
the flexor longus,  flexor accessorius, and  lumbricales, the
preparation of which cannot be separated.  The abductor
minimi digiti pedis, placed on the external side of the foot,
resembles very much the adductor pollicis pedis, and  its
preparation presents the same circumstances.   We must,
therefore, observe with regard to this last what we did for
the preceding. 
anatomist's  manual.            369
   Flexor brevis digitorum.—It is especially on this mus-
cle that the plantar aponeurosis is expanded, and it will be
necessary to remove it, if this has not already been done.—
We may likewise cut across the adductor pollicis pedis, in
order to  terminate  the preparation of the flexor  longus,
which it covers in part, and  the tendons of which have
numerous relations  with the flexor brevis, as also with the
accessorius: for this purpose, we must remove the fatty
and abundant cellular tissue,  which occupies the arch of
the calcaneum, and  leave in place the annular ligament
under which passes the flexor longus.
   Flexor accessorius and lumbricales.—We cannot pur-
sue the ulterior dissection of the long and short flexors, un-
til we have accomplished the preparation of the accessorius-
and lumbricales.  For the first of these muscles, it is abso-
lutely necessary to cut across the flexor brevis, and draw
backwards its posterior flap, which conceals in this place the
attachment  of the accessorius.  We  must, however,  pre-
serve in  place  the  tendons of these different muscles, in
order to observe their distribution and numerous relations.
The lumbricales, being placed on the continuity of the ten-
dons of the flexor longus, require no other preparation than
that demanded by the preceding muscles.
   Flexor brevis pollicis pedis.—This muscle, concealed in
great part by the adductor of the same toe, demands some
little attention in  its dissection ; but within, it is so united
to the adductor, that it is almost impossible to separate it.
It is essential to distinguish accurately  the point of its pos-
terior insertion, which is into the anterior portion of  the
caneum, and neighboring part of the ossa-cuneiformia. 
370
anatomist's manual.
  Flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis.—It will be necessa-
ry to pass immediately to the preparation of this muscle,
before undertaking the two others placed in the interval.
  The flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis, concealed in part
by the abductor of the same toe, presents in its preparation
the same difficulties as the preceding.  We should endea-
vor, therefore,  to  distinguish its  posterior attachment,
which is found  at the posterior part of the fifth metatarsal
bone.
  Abductor obliquus pollicis pedis—abductor transversa-
lis pollicis pedis.—These two muscles are placed between
the two preceding, and are entirely concealed by all those
of which  we have just spoken.   The abductor obliquus,
situated  more  posteriorly, is more voluminous than  the
transversalis,  and  is easily recognized.   Such is not  the
case with the transversalis, a small elongated muscle, con-
cealed under the heads of the metatarsal bones, and whose
insertion into the great toe is  confounded with the abductor,
and even with the adductor and flexor brevis of the same
toe. In order  to render the preparation of these two mus-
cles the easier, it will be proper to .remove the flexor bre-
vis  digitorum,  the accessorius, the  tendons  of the flexor
longus, and the lumbricales ; these different objects should
be detached especially from the heads of the metatarsal
bones, and from  the  first phalanges, to which they are
rather intimately united.
  Inter-ossei.—As in the hand, the inter-osseous muscles
of the foot are placed in the interval of the metatarsal
bones, and do not require any other preparation than the
entire separation of all  the other muscles of  the  foot.
This is more minute than difficult, and only needs time and
patience. 
anatomist's manual.
371
  Here we terminate the dissection of myology; the mus-
cles of the eye will be  treated of under the head of these
organs.
                     Description.
          EXTENSOR BREVIS DIGITORUM PEDIS.
         (Calcaneo-sus-phalangedien commun.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat, thin, divided into four por-
tions anteriorly ;  situated on the dorsum of the foot.
  Extent.—From the calcaneum to the four first toes.
  Division.—Its superficial surface is immediately covered
by the integuments; its  deep-seated surface is applied on
the dorsal part of the tarsal bones.   The posterior extre-
mity is attached to the anterior  part of the external sur-
face of the calcaneum, and to the neighboring part of the
astragalus ; the anterior is divided into four portions, each
of which is terminated by a small tendon, which is fixed,
the first to the first phalanx of the great toe, and the three
following to the three phalanges of the next three toes.
   Structure and uses.—Aponeurotic at its posterior part,
tendinous anteriorly, fleshy in the rest of its extent, it aids
the extension of the four first toes.

               ADDUCTOR POLLICIS PEDIS.
         (Calcaneosous phalangien du pouce.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated,  flat, situated on  the
internal part of the sole of the foot.
   Extent.—From  the calcaneum to the first phalanx of
 the great toe.
   Division.—Inferior surface,   covered by  the plantar
 aponeurosis and integuments; superior surface, placed un-
 der the flexor brevis  pollicis pedis and flexor accessorius. 
372
anatomist's manual.
The posterior extremity is fixed to the internal and poste-
rior part of the calcaneum;  the  anterior, to the  internal
and posterior part of the first phalanx of the great  toe.
   Direction.—Horizontal.
   Structure and uses.—Tendinous anteriorly, very slight-
ly aponeurotic posteriorly, and fleshy in the rest of its ex-
tent, it draws the great toe inwards and slightly flexes it,

           FLEXOR BREVIS DIGITORUM  PEDIS.
         (Calcane'o-sous phalangcnien commun.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
middle part of the sole of the foot, and  divided into four
portions  anteriorly.
   Extent.—From the calcaneum to the second phalanges
of the four last toes.
   Division.—Inferior surface, covered by the plantar apo-
neurosis  and integuments; superior surface, placed under
the accessorius.  The posterior  extremity is fixed to the
posterior part of the calcaneum; the anterior is divided into
four tendons, which, pierced near the first phalanges to ad-
mit the passage of those of the flexor longus, go to attach
themselves to the inferior part of the second phalanges.
   Direction.—Horizontal.
  Structure and uses.—Four tendons terminate this mus-
cle anteriorly ; posteriorly, it is aponeurotic, and fleshy
in the rest of its extent.  It contributes to the flexion of
the phalanges on each other.

            ABDUCTOR MINIMI  DIGITI PEDIS.
      (Calcaneo-sous phalangien du petit doigt.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
external part of the sole of the foot. 
              anatomist's manual.             373

  Extent.—From the calcaneum to the first phalanx of
the small toe.
  Division.—Inferior surface, covered by the plantar apo-    i
neurosis and integuments ;  superior surface, placed under
the flexor brevis of the same toe, and the accessorius of the
flexor longus.   The posterior extremity is fixed to the pos-
terior and external part of the calcaneum ; the anterior, to
the posterior and external part  of the first phalanx of the
small toe.
  Direction.—Horizontal.
  Structure and uses.—The structure is similar to that of
the adductor pollicis pedis ;  it draws the small finger out-
wards and slightly flexes it.

         ACCESSORIUS OF THE  FLEXOR  LONGUS.
     (Comprised in the tibio-phalangettien commun.)
  Situation  and figure.—Flat, quadrilateral;  situated
on the sole of the foot.
  Extent.—From the calcaneum to  the tendons of the
flexor longus.
  Division.—Inferior surface, placed on the three preced-
ing  muscles ;  superior surface, applied  on  the abductor
pollicis pedis.   Its borders  offer nothing remarkable.   It
is fixed, on  the one hand, to the calcaneum,  more in  front
than the flexor brevis ; and, on the other, it is confounded
with the tendon of the flexor longus.
  Direction.—Oblique from behind forwards,  and  from
without inwards.
  Structure and uses.—Its two extremities are terminated
by very small tendons ;  fleshy  fibres occupy the interval.
It aids the action of the flexor longus, in correcting its ob-
liquity.
                           3a 
374
anatomist's MANUAL.
                    lumbricales.
              (Plantisous-phalangiens.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated on the sole
of the foot.
  Extent.—From the tendons of the flexor longus to the
four last toes.
  Division.—Their inferior  portion corresponds  to the
plantar aponeurosis ; their  superior portion to  the trans-
versalis digitorum pedis.   The posterior extremity is fixed
to the  tendons of  the flexor longus ;  the anterior, to the
first phalanges.
  Direction.—Horizontal.
  Structure and uses.— A long and very small  tendon
terminates  anteriorly each  of these  muscles, which are
fleshy  in the rest of their extent.   They effect, but  feebly,
the flexion of the first phalanges.

          FLEXOR BREVIS PRIMI DIGITI PEDIS.
           ( Tarso-sous-phalangien du pouce.)
  Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated on the
internal side of the sole  of the foot.
  Extent.—From  the  calcaneum to the first phalanx  of
the great toe.
  Division—Inferior surface, placed  on  the abductor  of
the great toe; in addition, it presents a depression which
lodges the tendon of the flexor longus pollicis pedis; supe-
rior surface, placed in the whole extent of the inferior sur-
face of the first metatarsal bone.   The posterior extremity
is fixed to the anterior  part of the calcaneum, and to the
neighboring part of the ossa-cuneiformia; the anterior, di-
rided into two portions, is attached to the internal and ex-
ternal tubercles  of the posterior part of the first  phalanx. 
anatomist's MANUAL.
375
  Direction.—Horizontal.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous at its two extremities,
fleshy in the  interval,  it  flexes the first phalanx of the
great toe.                                               '
              ABDUCTOR  POLLICIS PEDIS.
         (Metatarso-sous-phalangien du pouce.)
  Situation and figure.—Flat, triangular, situated on the
middle portion of the sole of the foot.
  Extent.—From the cuboides to the first phalanx of the  j
great toe.
  Division—Inferior surface, placed on the flexor longus,
accessorius and lumbricales ; superior surface, which cor-
responds to the interossei;  it is fixed, on the one hand, to
■the  cuboides, the neighboring  portion  of the metatarsal  ,
bones, and, on the other, to the internal tubercle of  the  >
posterior extremity of the first phalanx.
   Direction.—Oblique from behind forwards,w and from  J
without inwards.
   Structure  and uses.—Very slightly tendinous  at  its
extremities, and fleshy in the interval,  it draws the great
toe outwards.

           TRANSVERSALIS  DIGITORUM  PEDIS.
   (Metatarso-sous-phalangien transversal du pouce.)
   Situation  and figure.—Elongated,  situated under  the
heads  of the  metatarsal bones.
   Extent.—From the  metatarsal  bones to the first pha-
lanx ofthe great toe.
   Division.—Inferior surface,  placed  on the  tendons of
the  long and short flexors; superior surface, which cor.
 responds to  the inter-osseous  muscles.  It is attached, on
the  one hand, to the last metatarsal bones, near their head, 
376
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
and, on the other, to the external tubercle of the first pha-
lanx of the great toe, uniting intimately with its abductor.
   Direction.—Transverse.
   Structure  and  uses.—Almost entirely fleshy, it draws
the great toe outwards,  and approximates the metatarsal
bones to each other.

          FLEXOR  BREVIS MINIMI DIGITI  PEDIS.
        (Tarso-sous-phalangien du petit doigt.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, situated on the exter-
nal part of the sole of the foot.
   Extent.—From the fifth metatarsal bone  to  the first
phalanx of the small toe.
   Division.—Inferior surface, placed on the abductor mi-
nimi digiti pedis ;  superior surface, which corresponds to
the fifth metatarsal bone.  The posterior extremity  is  at-
tached to  the posterior part of the fifth metatarsal bone;
the anterior, to the base of the first phalanx of the small
finger.                                             ,
   Direction.—Horizontal. -
   Structure  and  uses.—Tendinous at  its  extremities,
fleshy in the rest of its extent, it flexes the first phalanx of
the small  toe.
                     INTER-OSSEI.
   They are seven in number,  divided into four dorsal and
three plantar ;  and are  distinguished by the numerical
names of first, second, &c. commencing with the great toe.

                  DORSAL  INTER-OSSEI.
    (Metatarso-phalangiens-lat&raux-sus-plantaires.)
   Situation and figure.—Elongated, flat, situated in the
interval of the metatarsal bones. 
anatomist's  manual.
377
  Extent.—From the interval of the metatarsal bones to
the first phalanges of the four  last toes.
  Division.—Superior  surface,  covered by the  integu-
ments ;  inferior surface, which corresponds to the plantar
inter-ossei; in the first only, this surface corresponds to the
abductor pollicis pedis.  The  posterior extremity, divided
into two  portions, is fixed to the most remote part of the
metatarsal bones;  the anterior, terminated by a small ten-
don, is fixed to the lateral portions of the first phalanges of
the four last fingers.
  Direction.—It follows that  of the interval  of the meta*
tarsal bones.
  Structure and uses.—Tendinous anteriorly, fleshy in.
the rest of  their extent.   The first dorsal  inter-osseous
draws the second toe inwards, the second draws the same
toe outwards, the third draws the third toe outwards, and
the fourth draws the toe of the same name outwards.

                 PLANT'R INTER-OSSEI.
    i (Metatarso-phalangien-laterauz-sous-plantaires.),
  Situation and figure.—Elongated ;  situated on  the sole.
of the foot.
  Extent.—From  the  interval  between the  metatarsal
bones, the first interval excepted, to the first  phalanges of
the three last toes.
  Division.—Superior surface, in relation with the dorsal
inter-ossei; inferior surface, which corresponds to the flexor
brevis and transversalis.   The posterior extremity is at-.
tached  to  the  posterior  part of  the  interval between,
the metatarsal  bones; the anterior is fixed to the lateral
parts of the three first phalanges of the toes.
                          32* 
 378          Anatomist's manual.

  Direction.—It follows tfyat of the interval between the
metatarsal bones.
  Structure and  uses.—Tendinous anteriorly, fleshy in
the rest of their extent.  The three plantar inter-ossei.draw
the. three last toes inwards. 
 
 
THE
ANATOMIST'S    MANUAL
                 A   TREATISE


                        ON  THE


MANNER  OF  PREPARING  ALL  THE  PARTS

    OF   ANATOMY, FOLLOWED  BY  A

         COMPLETE  DESCRIPTION

               OF  THESE   PARTS.
IN TWO VOLUMES.

   VOL.  XX.
                     V     BY

           J. P. MAYGRIER,  M. D. P.
Professor of Anatomy and Physiology ;  of Midwifery, and the^ Diseases of
  Women and Children ;  Physician to the  Bureau de Charite of the 10th
  Arrondissement; Me n';er of the Medical Society of Emulation of Paris,
  of that of Practical Medicine in the sam3 city ;  of the Medical Societies
  of Liege and Toulouse;  of those ofthe Science? inMa^on, Marseilles, &c.
     TRANSLATED FROM  THE FOURTH  FRENCH EDITION,  BY

       GUNNING S. BEDFORD, A.M., M.D.

Lecturer on Obstetrics, J«. in the New-York School of Medicine ; Membcrofthe Medical Socie-
      ty of the City and County of New York ;  of the New-York Literary and
             Philosophical Society ; of the Historical Society, Sec.
                NEW-YORK:

PUBLISHED  BY  COLLINS  &  CO.,

      AND SOLD BY THE PRINCIFAL BOOKSELLERS. 
 
                     THE

ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
             SPLANCHNOLOGY.

                Preliminary Exposition.

   Skkletology  and Myology form, as it  were, only the
 mechanical part of the individual.  Their presence is'un-
 doubtedly necessary in  order to constitute man an admi-
 rable and perfect being;  but the action of each of these
 systems may be suspended momentarily, or even entirely
.annihilated, without essentially altering life and the differ-
 ent functions, which sustain it.   Several animals have no
 osseous system, and others, in small number, it is true, ap-
 pear to be deprived of muscularity.   But wherever life is
 supported, in all beings in which it is in exercise, we find
 viscera, vessels,  and nerves.  These three orders of or-
 gans  appear, therefore, to be more intimately connected
 with the maintenance of life ; and it is also true that death
 is always the result of a grave and profound lesion of some
 of the viscera, and especially the heart, lungs, and brain.
   Splanchnology is that part of anatomy, which treats  of
 the  viscera or  splanchnic organs.  These  organs  are
 placed in the great cavities of the human body ;  according
 to their situation, they may be distinguished into cephalic,
 thoracic, abdominal, and genital.  But this division is not
 founded on any philosophical.arrarigement, and is at vari-
 ance  absolutely with the principles of modern physiology 
4
anatomist's  manual.
In order to  conform in this  respect  to  the views  of the
most celebrated physiologists, and  preserve in this work
the plan and distribution which I have constantly followed
in my lectures on anatomy and  physiology, I shall divide
the study and preparation of the viscera,  according to
their uses and  the order in which their different functions
are developed  and  connected.  It is indeed time that the
vigorous hand  of analysis should preside over the labors
of anatomists;  for too long a period its negligence or for-
getfulness has  exposed the science of man to all  the ca-
prices of human conceptions.     «■**
  In taking  an attentive  survey of  the various functions
of the animal economy, we will be struck with the great
difference which exists dfriong them.  Some, in  a word,
whose action appears to be concentrated within the indivi-
dual, are more particularly  connected  with the  mainte.
nance of life ;  the others, on the contrary, situated,  as it
were, out,of ourselves, are destined to place us in relation
with the bodies or  beings which surround us.  The ac.
tion of  the  former  cannot be  suspended, annihilated, or
even troubled, without there resulting a derangement more
or less marked in the general health.  The others, on the
contrary, have periods of intermission, moments of repose,
necessary to maintain their  perfect  equilibrium.  Some,
especially destined to assimilate the food, are likewise en-
gaged in separating  the superfluous  or  injurious parts, in
order to effect their expulsion.   The others, which preside
over the locomotive  movements,  and  the formation of
sounds,  have under their empire the noble attributes of the
brain, and the ingenious perceptions of the senses.
  The immortal Bichat,^hose superior  genius had seized
all  the developements  of this great idea, has denominated 
anatomist's manual.             5
the first, functions of organic  life, and the second, func-
tions of animal life.   These expressions have undergone
some  modifications,  but their application  is always the
same.   Thus, Mr. Richerand, who published at the same
time his Nouveaux Elemens de  Physiologie, calls those
functi'ons assimilative, interior, which Bichat denominates
functions of organic  life;  and relative, external functions,
those  which the  same physiologist denominates functions
of animal life.
   But whatever  names  we may adopt or prefer, the dis-
tinction of the two lives  should be rigorously preserved.
   Independently  of  the  functions proper  to the mainte-
nance of the life of each individual, there are others which
assure him the faculty of reproducing his fellow-being, and
of creating new individuals.   These functions, which re-
quire  the union of the two sexes, are called generative.—
The male and female co-operate equally in  the great work
of generation, and possess for this purpose different organs,
which it is  indispensable to examine  in both  one and the
other.
   The order, which we shall adopt, demands that we com-
mence with the examination of the  digestive organs ; to
these  will succeed the urinary apparatus :  its situation in
the abdomen, its  numerous  relations with the organs of
digestion, will not permit us to reserve their study for any
other  place.   The product  of digestion passing  immedi-
ately  from  the chyliferous ducts and thoracic canal into the
left subclavian vein, which transmits it to  the  heart, this
course will naturally conduct us to the consideration of the
organs situated in the thorax.   When the functions of the
different organs,  which  we  have just enumerated, are in 
  6             anatomist's manual.

  perfect equilibrium, and when the organs themselves enjoy
  all their integrity, life is  assured.  But in order to endow
  these parts with sensibility—the precious faculty without
  which every thing in the economy would be in confusion—
  the  brain  and its  radiations  become  indispensable;  the
  senses,  those ministers of the intellectual  functions,* are
  equally necessary.   The study of these different parts will
»  follow, therefore, immediately after that of the organs con-
  tained in the abdomen and chest, recollecting, however,
  that taste  and  smell are  too  intimately connected  with  !
  the history of digestion and respiration, to admit of a sepa-
  ration.   Finally, the organs of generation will terminate
  the table of splanchnology: intended merely for the repro-
  duction of the species, their presence is not  rigorously ne-
  cessary for the maintenance  of the individual life.  Deve-
  loped very late in both sexes, and  their action being of
  short duration, their absence or presence  does not influ-
  ence the action of other organs or the ensemble of life so
  immediately, as that the individual could not sometimes be
  deprived of them, without fatal  consequences.  Eunuchs
  furnish  numerous examples of  this truth, and I possess in
  my collection the generative organs of a female advanced
  in age, in  whom the uterus was absolutely wanting, and
  the vagina terminated in a broad cul-de-sac, two fingers'
  breadth from its external orifice.
    Such is the most natural and easy mode of. studying
  splanchnology.   It now  remains for me to  give some ge-
  neral precepts respecting  the preparation  of this  part of
  anatomy, reserving the description of the particular dissec-
  tion required by each set of organs,  until  these  objects
  shall present themselves to our notice. 
anatomist's manual.             7
       Particular preparation of Splanchnology.
  The dissection of splanchnology differs materially from
that of myology.   This latter is subjected to general pre-
cepts, from which we must  never depart.   We have the
same principles, nearly the same instruments, and, as it
were, always the  same course to pursue.  He who  can
dissect one muscle well, will  be enabled, without difficulty,
to dissect  them all equally well;  the manner alone of ex-
posing them differs,  as also the particular sections required
by some of  them.   Splanchnology, on the  contrary, irre-
gular in the disposition of the parts composing it, presents
as many different preparations as there are organs to exa-
mine.   We  cannot do  more than  give  general  pre-
cepts on this subject, each one being permitted to change,
at pleasure, the manner of exposing such and such organs,
provided he shall be enabled, by the method he has adopt-
ed, to acquire a perfect knowledge of them.   We shall not,
therefore, give in this place a detailed exposition of the dif-
ferent  modes  of preparing the organs: we shall content
ourselves  with indicating, with as much precision as possi-
ble, those  rules,  which have been in general  use,  and
by means of which  we will be enabled to expose an organ
with greatest facility.   The study of splanchnology is very
long, particularly when we wish to acquire a perfeet know-
ledge of it, and join to a knowledge  of the organs that of
their functions.  I shall merely remark that most of these
organs being  situated  in cavities more or  less profound,
which sometimes cannot  be  reached   but with  great  diffi-
cultv, the essential point is to execute accurately the open-
ing of the cavity in which the parts we are about to study
are enclosed:  we should preserve their relations, either with
the surrounding parts, or with themselves : we should be
                           33 
8             anatomist's manual.

careful not to divide, rupture, or lacerate the large vessels
which  penetrate  them, or the membranes which cover
them ; we should obtain a  just  and precise idea  of their
situation,  figure, color, and density,  before subjecting them
to any alteration, proper to demonstrate more completely
their intimate organization ; in fine, we should have at our
disposition, and under our hand, the instruments and other
objects necessary for their preparation.   It is true that, in
their ordinary examinations, students do not need so ma-
ny precautions, since splanchnology is, of all  the  parts of
anatomy, that which they study with the most success.—
However, it cannot  be denied that  it is only by ingenious
dissections, that the student will be enabled to  have a per-
fect knowledge, not of the figure of the organs, but of their
numerous relations and of the different situations they may
affect in such or such position assumed by the individual.
   We cannot  determine precisely what instruments are
necessary for the study and preparation of splanchnology :
they are numerous, and  their figure very varied; this,
moreover, will depend on the person who dissects.  I shall
merely remark that we must have  all the different kinds of
 scalpels,  several hooks, scissors, saw, mallet  and chissel;
 pipes, sponges,  thread, bellows, and some other articles
less important, which  will be mentioned when it becomes
more particularly necessary to speak of them.

                   DIGESTIVE  ORGANS.
   These  organs are  composed, 1st, of the mouth, which
 contains the organs for the prehension of the food, masti-
cation, salivation, and  deglutition ; 2d, of the alimentary
canal, composed of the esophagus, stomach and intestines;
 3d,  of the  liver, organ for the secretion of bile; 4th, of 
anatomist's manual.
9
the pancreas, organ for the secretion of the pancreatic juice;
5th,  of the  spleen, the uses of which are unknown ; 6th,
of the urinary organs, consisting of the kidneys, ureters,
bladder, and urethra ; 7th, of the peritoneum, from which
originate the mesentery and epiploons.

        1st,--THE MOUTTI AND ITS ACCESSORIES.
   The mouth may be  distinguished into anterior and poste-
rior.  The anterior comprehends the lips, teeth, gums, pa-
late  and its membrane, as also the glands which cover it,
the tongue and salivary glands properly so called.  In the
posterior, called arriere-bouche or  pharynx, are observed
the isthmus of the throat, the velum palati and uvula, the
pillars of the velum, the amygdalous  glands, and eusta-
chian tubes.  Such is  the  order in  which the different
parts of the mouth are to be studied.

                   ANTERIOR MOUTH.
                Anatomical Preparation.
   Lips.—They do not  exact any preparation ;  placed on
the  exterior, it will suffice  to throw the eye over  these
parts in  order to have  a knowledge of their situation and
relations.   To the study of the lips, we should joi\that of
the cheeks, and beard which is found in great part spread
over these different  objects.   Females being deprived of
this latter, it would be well to  procure a head of both sexes,
in order to appreciate the differences, which characterize
them in this particular.
   Teeth and gums.—It is  indispensable to  separate  the
lips  in order to perceive the objects concealed by them.—
In addition to this, we should  make an  incision from right
to left in the direction of the commissare of the lips, for the 
10
anatomist's manual.
purpose of rendering the teeth and gums more apparent.—
It will he necessary, as far as this will be possible, to have
a head, the jaws of which are furnished  with  all their
teeth : this is the best means of forming an accurate idea
of the arrangement of these little bones, of their uses, and
especially of the necessity of their presence to the perfec-
tion of the mouth.   If we wish merely to acquire a know-
ledge of the human teeth, it will suffice to procure heads
of individuals of different ages ; but if it should be desired
to make comparisons between those of man and animals,
we should obtain heads or jaws of those the most known—
such as the dog, cat, horse,  &c, nothing being more varied
and  interesting than the anatomical and physiological his-
tory of the teeth, in all animals furnished with them.  We
may, for  the same reasons, plunge the  teeth into  certain
acids and allow them to remain some time in order to ap-
preciate their intimate structure.
   Palate and glands.—The palatine membrane being ex-
actly applied over the bones, we can study it in place with
great facility, and  comprehend, in this examination, that
which covers the osseous palate, as well as that which, un-
der  the name of membrane of  the gums, envelopes a part
of the teeth and encloses them solidly in their alveolar pro-
cesses.   Such  is not the case with the palatine, buccal,
and molar glands, with  which this membrane is so abund-
antly furnished : frequently they cannot be  perceived but
with the aid of a  magnifying glass.  In order to render
them more sensible, we may macerate, for some time, a
portion of this membrane in ordinary water, or plunge the
parts to which it adheres, into boiling water, which will be
found to be more expeditious.   They may likewise be exa-
 mined in a living uujnal, that has suffered fox a long time 
anatomist's manual.
11
from hunger, and to  which food,  at  various periods, has
been presented, but continually withdrawn.
   Tongue.—This part is exposed by prolonging the inci-
sion of the commissure of the lips posteriorly ; and draw-
ing its point  outwards.  The glands covering it may be
examined  with the glass, although they  are  in general
larger and more prominent than those of the palatine mem-
brane, which circumstance will permit us to study them
with the naked eye.
   Salivary glands.—They are three in number—the pa-
rotid, maxillary, and sublingual.   The first is placed  in
the depression of the same name, which is observed behind
the branch of the  inferior maxillary bone.  In order to ex-
pose it, make a longitudinal incision of the integuments,  as
in preparing the masseter muscle ; in separating the flaps,
this gland will be recognized  by its  very pale red color,
irregular  form, &c.   Its excretory duct travels parallel to
the zygomatic  apophysis, one or two fingers' breadth be-
low.   When once exposed  and recognized, it will be^fol-
lowed without difficulty as far  as its entrance  into the in-
teguments of the cheeks, which it pierces, as well as the
buccinator muscle, nearly as high up as third superior mo-
lar tooth.
   The maxillary gland, concealed under the angle of the
inferior jaw, is not as voluminous as the preceding; but its
form  and  color are the same.   It is  sometimes united  to
the sublingual, which is placed under the body of the jaw,
and covered by the mylo-hyoid muscle.   An incision of the
integuments, in the  direction of  the digastric muscle, will
suffice to  expose both of them.  It then only remains  to
follow the excretory duct of the maxillary, which passes
across the sublingual, opens into the point of the tongue, 
12             anatomist's  manual.
and pierces at this  spot  the  internal membrane of the
mouth.   We sometimes observe, in the living subject, the
saliva flow from the two  tubercles,  which terminate the
salivary ducts of this gland.
  The sublingual  has several  small excretory  ducts,
which  become lost  in that of the in axillary, and which
cannot be distinctly'seen except by the aid of  an injection
made with mercury.
                     Description.
                  THE  MOUTH.
          Os. of the  Latins, Stoma, of the Greeks.
  Situation and relations.—Placed at the  upper portion of
the alimentary canal, the mouth, of a  quadrilateral form,
corresponds in front  to the  lips, behind to the isthmus  of
the throaty and velum palati, above  to the palatine arch,
below to the tongue, and on the sides,  to the internal por-
tion of the cheeks.
  Division.—Anterior paroi,  formed  by the  lips, distin-
guished into superior and inferior ; and by the teeth the de-
scription of which belongs to osteology (see Vol. I.  p. 56);
posterior paroi, formed by the velum palati, its pillars, the
uvula and  isthmus of the throat, the description of which
will be  given farther on ;  superior paroi, formed  by the
palatine arch and membrane which covers it;  inferior pa-
roi, on which is observed the tongue (lingua of L., glossa
of G.,) a soft, flat organ, elongated from  behind forwards,
thick at its posterior part, which is called its base ; thin
and pointed at its anterior part, called the summit or apex.
Its superior surface  is covered by a thick membrane, on
which are observed  numerous glands termed papillae ; its.
inferior portion, occupied by the muscles which form it in
great part, is free in front, and  presents the orifice of the 
anatomist's
manual.
13
excretory ducts of the maxillary and sublingual glands. Its
base sustains the larynx, its apex is free.  The tongue is
the organ of taste, and one of the most powerful agents in
deglutition.   The lateral parois of the mouth are formed
by  the integuments  of the  cheeks, and present at the
height of the third molar tooth of the upper jaw, the ori-
fice of the excretory duct of the parotid gland.
  Structure  and uses.—The maxillary bones,  superior
and inferior, and those  of the palate, as also the teeth, con-
stitute the solid parts of the mouth.  Its  whole interior is
furnished by the palatine membrane, of a mucous nature;
soft and flexible on the internal  part of the cheeks, this
membrane is hard and  resisting on the alveolar processes,
where it forms the gums; rough  and thick on the tongue,
numerous glands cover the whole  of its free surface;  they
bear the names of buccal,  palatine, lingual, according to
the place they occupy ; they secrete a  thick, viscid hu-
mor, proper to keep  up the suppleness and humidity of the
different parts of the mouth, and to mix with the food dur-
ing mastication.
  The uses  of the mouth are  to serve for the prehension
of food by the lips,  mastication  by the  teeth,  the  com-
mencement of deglutition by the tongue, and the retention
of the food until it becomes  mixed with the saliva ; finally,
for the articulation of sounds.  The organ of taste is not
found exclusively in the tongue or its membrane, but the
whole interior of the mouth  is provided with it in a greater
or less degree.
                  SALIVARY GLANDS.
  The parotid.—Situation and relations.   Placed in the
parotid depression, between the branch of the inferior jaw
and the neighboring part of the mastoid apophysis, it  is in 
14
anatomist's manual.
relation at its superficial portion with the integuments, and
at its  deep-seated  with the pterigoid muscles, temporal
artery, and facial  nerve.   An excretory duct proceeds
from  its anterior part, and terminates  at the height  of
the third superior molar tooth, piercing the integuments of
the cheeks at this point, as also the buccinator muscle.
  Structure and uses.—Several glandular grains, of ex-
treme  smallness, give rise to lobulated masses, the union
of which constitute the ensemble of the gland. It furnishes
an abundant fluid, called saliva, which penetrates the food
during mastication, aids its conversion into a paste, which
facilitates its deglutition, and imparts to it the first degree
of animalization.
   The maxillary.—Situation and relations.—This gland,
placed under the angle of the  inferior jaw, is covered, on
the one hand, by this bone, and, on the other, is supported
on the digastricus.   An excretory duct arises from its an-
terior  portion, travels  along the body of  the jaw, passes
through the sublingual gland, and pierces the internal mem-
braneof the mouth at the side of the frenum of the  tongue.
  Structure and uses.—Perfectly similar  to  the  parotid
gland as regards its structure  and uses ; but as it is less
voluminous, it furnishes  less saliva.
  The sublingual.—Situation  and relations.—Of a more
irregular form than  the two preceding, the sublingual is
placed behind the body of the jaw, between the mylo-hyoi-
deus and  genio  glossus.   Its excretory  ducts, very deli-
cate, are difficult to perceive ; some of them are lost in the
duct of the maxillary, the others pierce the internal mem-
brane of the mouth.
  Structure and uses.—The same as in the two  preced-
ing glands. 
anatomist's  manual.
15
                   ARRIERE-BOUCHE.
                Anatomical preparation.
   The arriZre-bouche is  that large cavity, which is  ob-
 served beyond the isthmus of the throat.   It still bears the
 name of pharynx.   Its extent,  from six to eight  fingers'
 breadth, measures  from  the base of the cranium  to  the
 height of the larynx.
   In order to see the arriere-bouche distinctly, it will be
'necessary to make  a section similar to the one indicated
 for the preparation  of the muscles of the pharynx  and ve-
 lum palati (see Vol.  I. p. 264  et seq).   In this  section,
 we also  remove the larynx, which certain anatomists  de-
 scribe immediately  after  the  pharynx.   It cannot be de-
 nied that this method presents some  advantages; but it in-
 terrupts all the physiological connexion, and deviates too
 much from the plan we have adopted ; we, therefore,  feel
 ourselves authorised to reserve the study and  preparation
 of the larynx until we shall speak of the respiratory organs.
   The section  indicated  above  being executed, we  must
 carefully remove the cellular tissue, and cut the pharynx
 in the  whole extent of its posterior part.  This incision
 will permit us to see, in a general manner, and in their en-
 semble,  all the parts which compose the arriere bouche,
 which are :  above and in front, the opening of the poste-
 rior nares, as also the eustachian tubes ; lower down, the
 velum palati, its pillars, the amygdalous  glands and uvula;
 still lower, the isthmus of the throat, the base of the tongue,
 and superior orifice of the larynx, called  glottis,  which is
 covered by a species of thin,  moveable  cartilage, called
 epiglottis.   These different objects do not require any pre-
 paration ; it is their respective situations which it is most
 important for us to understand.  The lateral and  posterior 
16             anatomist's manual.
parts are formed  by the constrictors, the description  of
which will be found in Vol.  I. page 264, et seq.

                     Description.
            ARRIERE-BOUCHE,  OR PHARYNX.
               Os. posterius,   Guttur L.
   Situation and relations.—Placed at the posterior part
of the mouth properly so called, the pharynx occupies the
superior portion of the neck, and corresponds above to the
base of the cranium, below to the esophagus, behind to the
vertebral column, in front to the posterior nares, velum pa-
lati  and larynx, and on the sides to the carotid arteries and
internal jugular veins.
   Division.—Posterior  paroi,  muscular,  formed by the
constrictors, and  offers nothing  remarkable : anterior pa-
roi,  where are observed  the velum palati, its  pillars, and
the  amygdalous glands;  above and on the  sides, the orifice
of the eustachian tubes.
   The velum  palati (septum staphylin)  is~a moveable,
fleshy, quadrilateral partition,  interposed  between the an-
terior  and posterior mouth, formed by several muscles, the
extreme mobility  of which  makes it  perform a very inte-
resting part in deglutition.  Above,  the velum is attach-
ed to the palatine arch; below, it  is  free  and presents in
 the  centre a fleshy button, called the uvula ;  on the sides,
it offers two fleshy bands, called its  pillars, distinguished
into anterior and posterior, in the interval of which is ob-
served the amygdalous  gland, reddish, and of an elongated
form;  it secretes a  viscid  fluid, proper  to  lubricate  the
surrounding parts, and to facilitate the passage of the food
 during deglutition. 
anatomist's manual.
17
  Structure and uses.—The pharynx is almost entirely
muscular.   Its internal surface is covered by a membrane
of variable thickness, partaking of the nature  of mucous
membranes, and continually lubricated with  an abundant
fluid.   Exteriorly, the pharynx is united to the  neighbor-
ing parts by cellular tissue.   Its uses are numerous and
very important, and all refer to deglutition.

               2d. ALIMENTARY  CANAL.
It is composed of the Esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
               Anatomical Preparation.
  Esophagus.—This portion  of  the alimentary canal is
the most embarrassing to prepare, on account of its pro-
found situation and the organs behind which it is placed.
We cannot expose perfectly the Esophagus, without sacri-
ficing in part  the lungs and heart.  I am in the habit of
abandoning the preparation and  study  of  it until  after
those  of the organs  contained in the chest.   No matter
which rule is adopted, the following are  the precautions
necessary to be taken.
   The Esophagus and pharynx  constitute one and  the
same canal, the division of which is arbitrary, and the line
of demarcation  difficult to  determine. The one commences
where the other  terminates,  and this distinction occurs
nearly at the height of the inferior part of the larynx.—
We will recognise the Esophagus by the narrowness of
its canal, compared to the capacity of the pharynx, by its
external aspect being less  red, and its separation from the
surrounding parts. It measures from the termination of
the pharynx  to the stomach.   In its course it  is applied
constantly on the vertebral column, concealed  in the neck
by the trachea,  and in the cheet by the heart and left lung. 
18             anatomist's manual.
It will be necessary, therefore, to open this cavity in order
to have a good view of it, to raise the heart and left lung,
and draw these latter to the right without  detaching them.
  If we decide to remove the lungs and heart, the, prepa-
ration of the Esophagus  will  offer more interest, and  will
leave nothing further  to desire.  In this case, make a sort
of circular section of the  whole anterior paroi of the chest,
which  must extend as far as  the abdomen ; the lungs and
heart are then easily removed; but we should leave in place
the large vessels, as  also  the trachea, in order that we
may have an idea of  the relations existing between these
parts and the Esophagus.
  We  may, in order to  lose none of the relations of the
Esophagus, expose it at its  posterior  portion.  For  this
purpose, we must saw the ribs near the transverse apophy-
ses of the vertebrae, separate the seventh cervical from the
sixth, and the last dorsal  from the first lumbar; the portioa
of the vertebral column,  which we have just isolated is then
to be removed; in this way, we shall observe all the rela-
tions of the Esophagus.   We* shall even have a more ex-
act idea of its passage through the diaphragm, but this  pre-
paration is long and difficult, and requires that we should
sacrifice several cadavera in order to accomplish it.
  Stomach.—The preparation of this musculo-membranous
bag,  absolutely requires that we open the abdominal cavity
as was indicated( Vol.  I. p. 162). Inseparating the superior
flap of  the  left side, we shall have the major  part of the
stomach exposed.   But in order to have a perfect idea of
its situation and relations, it will  be necessary, in addition,
to detach the four or  five last false ribs, under which  it is
concealed in its state of vacuity.   The  liver also covers it
in part  on the right side;  such are its relations when emp- 
anatomist's manual.             19
ty ; but when we blow into it, it then  assumes a greater
capacity, proceeds  from beneath the ribs and liver, and
presents in a more exact manner the figure peculiar to it.
I would not advise, however, to dilate the stomach before
taking a general view of the intestines, and even of all the
organs situated in the abdominal  cavity.   The  great ex-
tension of  the  stomach and intestinal tube when inflated
deranges the relations which these parts  have with each
other and those surrounding them, and there is nothing but
confusion in the future examination of the abdominal or-
gans.  Such is not the  case, when these  preliminary pre-
cautions have been taken ; it then becomes indispensable
 to inflate the intestinal  tube ;  we shall even derive several
 advantages from it, which its  examination will  make us
 fully appreciate.   Thus, we shall readily see, by this pro-
 cess, the manner in which the stomach,  progressively in-
 flated with air, distends  the two  feuillets of the epiploon,
 and thus approximates  its vessels, which ultimately  are ap-
 plied on itself.   The same thing  is observed between the
 stomach and spleen, which, more or less  remote from the
 great cul-de-sac of the stomach, when this is empty, ap-
 proaches it in proportion as it is distended with air, so as to
 be immediately applied on this organ.
   Before  passing to the  preparation of the intestines, we
 should distinguish  accurately  the two  orifices of  the sto-
 mach ; the  superior, or cardiac, merely presents arbitrary
 distinctions  ; the inferior, on the contrary, possesses a cha-
 racter which is peculiar to it; it is recognised by a specie*
  of circular  bourrelet, which forms its line of demarcation
  between the stomach and first of the small intestines ; it is
  the pylorus.
                           34 
90             anatomist's manual.
  We should likewise examine the interior of the stomach,
which cannot be done without opening it to an extent more
or less considerable.   The arrangement of its different tu-
nics should not be neglected.  There are no precepts to be
given for the first object, but for the second it is absolutely
necessary that the  stomach be considerably distended ;
without this precaution it will be impossible to  attain it.—
However, for both one and the other, we must wait until
after having examined the entire alimentary canal.
  Intestines.—The  preparation of the  stomach  leaves
scarcely any thing else to be done for the intestinal tuhe.
Exposed by opening the abdominal cavity, it only remains
for us to recognise the six divisions, and preserve the place
and relations, which nature has assigned them.  The first,
called duodenum,  occupies the profound part of the epigas-
trie region ; it is concealed by a portion of one of the large
intestines, called  transverse colon, which we  must  move
upwards, as also  the  liver  and stomach; we  should pull
gently downwards the jejunum and ileum,  and  then follow
the duodenum, which proceeds at first parallel to a glandu-
lar body (the pancreas), and afterwards travels  along the
vertebral column, and  loses itself in the jejunum, after a
length of twelve fingers' breadth.
  The duodenum will be recognised by its capacity,  great-
er than that of the following intestines, by its profound si-
tuation and  the insertion of the ductus choledochus  and
pancreaticus, which  takes place on the right  side  of the
intestine, two or three fingers' breadth  from the pyloric
orifice of the stomach.
  The other intestines do not present any very great diffi.
culties.  The jejunum and ileum, the longest of all, occu-
py  the umbilical and hypogastric regions.   The fourth, 
anatomist's manual.
21
(the crecum) first of the large intestines, is nothing more
than a species of bag, or cul-de-sac, lodged entirely in the
right iliac cavity.   The fifth, (the colon) rather considera-
ble in length, surrounds,  as it were, the whole  abdominal
cavity : it terminates towards the left side of the pelvis by v
the rectum, placed in the whole extent of the middle por-
tion of the sacrum ; the name indicates its direction.
  Several valves are found in the cavity of the intestines;
the pyloric valve, and that of the ccecum or of Bauhin,arethe
most remarkable.  The best mode of observing them is to
inflate the intestinal tube, and allow it to dry in this state
for two or three days, and then to open the tube, regarding
more  particularly the pyloric valve  and that  of Bauhin,
which is found between the ccecum and colon, and which
forms their line of separation.   We may also, by plunging
perpendicularly a portion of the intestines into water, ren-
der sensible any of the different  valves, and  principally
that of the coecum.
  But if we wish to have a more exact idea of it, we may
remove the intestinal  portion  found between the termina-
tion of the ileum and the commencement  of the colon.—
This latter must have a ligature passed around it, and then
the piece distended by blowing into that portion of the ile-
um, which  has been  cut; the whole  must  be  allowed to
dry, and then opened  cautiously, making the incision from
the colon to the ccecum, on  the right side.  On looking
into the interior, we shall see a broad semilunar fold; it  is
the coecal valve.
  The inflation of the intestines and their state of dryness
will also  render the examination of  their different tunics
easy ;  it would answer the same purpose, to introduce a
circular and solid body into a portion of the intestinal tube, 
22
anatomist's manual.
and use it as a point of support for the dissection of the dif-
ferent tunics.
  The mesentery and epiploons do not require any prepa-
ration ; the former is the common link, which retains the
intestines in their respective position ; the latter, three in
number, are expanded: the first (the large epiploon) over
the mass of intestines ; the second, under the name of gas-
tro-hepatic epiploon, between the liver, stomach, and arch
of the colon ; the third, the smallest of all, is observed in
the right iliac region : it bears the name of colic epiploon.
   In the prepartion of the intestines, I have not alluded to
the manner of exposing the ductus choledochus, as also the
pancreaticus, which likewise empties into the duodenum ;
but this shall be indicated when we  describe the liver and
pancreas, to which they appertain.  I shall only remark,
that we should leave the duodenum  in place, even after its
examination, in order to have a more correct idea of the di.
rection and relations of the two ducts, which penetrate its
interior, and especially of the ductus choledochus.

                      Description,
                    E S OFHAGU S ,
               Gula, L.  Oisophogos, G,
   Situation and relations.—Along the vertebral column,
between the pharynx and stomach,  behind the trachea  in
the neck, the left lung and head in the chest.
   Figure.—Elongated,  cylindrical, slightly flat from be.
fore backwards.
   Structure and  uses.—Three tunics enter into its com-
position.  The first,  external,  common, cellular; the  se-
 cond, muscular,  divided into two planes, one,  external,
 formed of longitudinal fibres;  the  other, internal, of trans- 
anatomist's  manual.
29
verse fibres;  the third, internal, membranous, villous, par*
taking of the nature of mucous membranes.  Each of the
tunics is separated by a layer of cellulartissue, and their in-
terior is furnished with numerous glands.
  The uses of the Esophagus  are—to transmit the food
from the pharynx to the stomach, which is precipitated not
by its specific weight, but pushed downwards by the success-
ive contractions of this canal.

                       STOMACH.
               Ventriculus, L. Gaster, G.
   Situation and relations.—In the abdominal cavity, of
which it occupies the left hypochondriac  region ; in front,
it corresponds to the last false ribs, liver and abdominal pa-
rietes ;  behind, to the pancreas and aorta; above, to the
liver and diaphragm ; below, to the arch of the colon ; on
the left, to the spleen, and on the right, to the liver.
   Figure.—Somewhat  similar to  a  cone  curved from
right to left, the base of which corresponds to the left, and
the summit to the right.
   Division.—Superior portion, inclined forwards ;  inferior
portion, inclined backv/ards.  Anterior border, called the
great curvature of the stomach, which receives the inser-
tion of the large epiploon  ; posterior border, called the
small curvature, which receives that of the small epiploon.
A large extremity, turned to the left, corresponding to the
spleen; a small extremity turned to the right, and correspond-
ing to the duodenum.  In addition, there are two orifices-
one, superior, called cardiac, is continuous with the Esopha-
gus, and corresponds to the middle and superior part of the
large extremity of the stomach;  the other, inferior, called
pyloric, is continuous with  the duodenum, and establishes 
24             anatomist's manual.

very exactly the line of demarcation between this intestine
and the stomach.
   Structure and uses.—A number of tunics equal to that
of  the Esophagus  enters into the composition of the sto-
mach.  But here, what is termed the external  tunic is no-
thing more than a prolongation  of the  peritoneum; it is
the serous tunic of the moderns.  The muscular tunic  of-
fers a third plane of  fibres, which, under the figure of two
long fleshy bands,  are thrown around the large extremity,
likewise called cul-de-sac of the stomach.  Finally, the
mucous tunic presents  several remarkable dispositions :—
1st, its  internal  surface, continually lubricated  by  an
abundant mucous fluid, is, in its  natural state, of a reddish
color, interspersed  with  several bluish spots;  2d, this
internal surface likewise presents several folds, which are
the result  of the contractions of the muscular tunic ;  3d,
there are observed on it numerous villosities, or common
rendezvous for the vessels of the stomach  and  numerous
orifices, some of which are the orifices  of the  absorbents,
and the others correspond to  the mucous follicles, situated
in this tunic.
   Among the folds or rides on the  internal surface of  the
stomach, there is none more  considerable than that on  the
inferior extremity, of this viscus ; it is  called  the pyloric
valve : it is formed,  not only by a prolongation of the mu-
cous tunic, but there is also a fibrous bourrelet of a circu-
lar form, in which anatomists have supposed  they  recog-
nized fleshy fibres.
   The uses of the stomach are  very numerous, and from
their accomplishment result the most important phenomena
 of digestion.  The food, brought through the Esophagus
 into the stomach, there undergoes  an infinity of changes, 
anatomist's manual.
25
all of which tend to transform it into a homogeneous mass,
of a grayish, lactescent white, proper to pass through the
pyloric orifice. Several combined causes effect these great
changes ;  the most important are, heat, humidity, the pre-
sence of different fluids, the gastric in particular, the con-
tractions of the stomach, aided  and rendered more effica-
cious by those of the diaphragm and  abdominal muscles,
dec.
                     INTESTINES.
                General considerations.
  They form, in their  ensemble, the intestinal canal, the
length of  which is very considerable, and is  six or seven
times that of the individual  to  whom they belong.  The
intestines occupy nearly the whole of the abdominal cavity,
and  they  are folded on  themselves  several  times;  they
commence at the pylorus and terminate at the anus.  The
difference in the size of this portion of the alimentary ca-
nal, has induced authors to distinguish it into several parts,
all of which bear different  names.   The first  intestines,
more delicate,  called small intestines, have  received the
names of  duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.   Their absolute
length exceeds considerably that of  the others.   These,
called large intestines, bear  the names  of ccecum, colon,
and  rectum, and they form scarcely a fifth  of the whole
length of the intestinal canal.
  The mass of intestines is attached to  the  vertebral co-
lumn and  neighboring parts, by means of a duplicature of
the peritoneum, called mesentery, the  description of which,
as also that of the peritoneum itself, and epiploons  ema-
nating from it, will be found at the end of the  article on
the digestive organs. 
26             anatomist's manual.
                      DUODENUM.
  Situation and  relations.—In  the epigastric  region:
from the pylorus to the second lumbar vertebra, forming
several curvatures.  It corresponds with the colon  and
liver  in  front; with the pancreas, and inferior vena cava
behind ;  on the right, with  the  gall bladder and kidney of
the same side ;  on the left, with the pancreas and ductus
choledochus and pancreaticus.
  Figure.—Elongated, cylindrical.
   Structure and  uses.—See Vol. I. page 320.

                       JEJUNUM.
   Situation and relations.—In the umbilical region, be-
neath the arch of the  colon, above the ileum, behind the
abdominal  parietes, in front of the mesentery and verte-
bral column.
  Figure.—Elongated, cylindrical.
   Structure and uses.—See Vol. I. p. 320.

                        ILEUM.
  Situation and relations.—In  the  hypogastric region,
beneath the jejunum, above the bladder  and rectum; be.
hind the abdominal parietes,  in front of  the  vertebral
column and mesentery.
  Figure.—Similar to the two preceding.
  Structure and uses.—See Vol. I. page 320.

                        CCECUM.
  Situation and  relations.—In the  right iliac fossa, be-
neath the ascending colon and ileum.
  Figure.—A species of cul-de-sac, of an irregular form,
larger than that of the colon and ileum, with which  it is 
anatomist's  manual.
27
continuous.  This intestine offers, in addition, a vermiforme
appendage, four or five fingers' breadth in  length, which
originates from its inferior portion.
  Structure  and uses.—See Vol. I. page 320.

                        COLON.
  Situation and relations.—This intestine  takes its  ori-
gin from the ccecal valve, ascends the right lumbar region,
as far as  the liver, then  proceeds transversely along the
great curvature of the stomach, from which it is separated
by the great epiploon, as faj as the neighboring part of the
spleen, descends into the  left lumbar region,  in front of the
kidney of the same side, to the superior part of the sacrum,
where it terminates;  whence result four portions, which
bear different  names.  The first, which is on the right, is
called ascending colon, or right  lumbar portion ; the se-
cond, the  arch of the colon, or transverse colon ; the third,
which is on the left, descending colon, or left lumbar por-
tion ; finally, the fourth,  which from the left iliac fossa ter-
minates in the rectum, the iliac colon, or S of the colon.
  The relations of these four portions of the  same intes-
tine with the surrounding parts, are as follow :—
  The ascending colon extends from the coecum to the gall
bladder ; it corresponds in front to the small  intestines, be-
hind to the quadratus muscle and right kidney, and within
to a duplicature of the mesentery.
  The arch of the colon extends from the environs of the
gall bladder to the large  extremity of the stomach ; it cor-
responds above to  the  stomach, below to the small intes-
tines, in front to the great epiploon, and behind to the me-
sentery. 
28             anatomist's  manual.
  The descending colon extends from the  environs of the
spleen to the right iliac fossa : it corresponds  in front to
the jejunum, behind to the quadratus muscle and  left kid-
ney, and within to the mesentery.
  The 5 of the colon extends from  the commencement of
the left iliac fossa to the superior part of the sacrum, form-
ing several curvatures.
  Figure.—Similar to that of the other intestines.
  Structure and  uses.—See  Vol. I. p. 320.

                       RECTUM.
   Situation and relations.—The rectum, the last of the
large intestines, forms the termination of the intestinal ca-
nal.   It is  situated in the excavation of the pelvis, and ex-
tends from the end of the S of the colon to the anus.   Be-
hind, it corresponds to the sacrum, of which it occupies the
whole anterior surface; in front, to  the bladder in the male,
and  to the uterus in the female.
   .Figure.—Similar to that of the other intestines.
   Structure and uses.—Here will be given all that we
have to say concerning the structure and uses of the intes-
tines in general.
   The organization of the  intestines is nearly the  same
in all; however, it presents  some differences,  which it is
important to mention.   All, except the duodenum, possess
an external, serous tunic, which  is a prolongation of the
peritoneum.  The absence of this tunic in a great part  of
the duodenum, permits this intestine to assume a considera-
ble volume, for which reason the  name of second stomach
(ventriculus  succenturiatus), lias  been  given  to  it.—
This disposition,  favorable to the  accomplishment of diges. 
anatomist's manual.             29
tion, permits the food to remain a longer time in the duo-
denum, and to undergo the alterations and changes effected
by the biliary and  pancreatic fluids.
  This tunic furnishes to the colon three species of bands,
which  pervade nearly its whole length, and which give
rise to several projections, from which  this intestine  de-
rives one of its principal characteristics.  The ccecum pre-
sents the same disposition.   In the other intestines, this tu-
nic offers  nothing  remarkable ; but it must not be forgot-
ten that it does not envelope the intestines in their whole
extent,  and  that  the place through  which  the vessels
penetrate is  deprived of it.
  The muscular tunic does not present any sensible  dif-
ference in the extent of the intestinal tube; it is composed
of two  planes of fibres, which, in the external, proceed lon-
gitudinally, and, in the  internal, circularly.   The length
of both is very variable, and difficult to determine.  The
inferior extremity  of the rectum is deprived of  them;  but
they are replaced  by two muscles ;  these are the sphinc-
ters, which wen; described in the chapter on myology.
  The third  and last tunic  is that which authors denomi-
nate villous ; but more exact ideas concerning its uses have
given to it, in these latter times, the name of mucous mem-
brane.  It line.- the whole interior surface of the intestines,
and presents, in each of them, certain peculiarities worthy
of notice.
  In the duodenum, besides several villosities, this mem-
brane offers a number of folds, called valvulae conniventes.
We likewise observe in it numerous glands, which bear the
name of glands of Brunner. Finally, two or three fingers'
breadth from its origin, the duodenum presents interiorly
an oblong tubercle, pointed at  its extremity, which is the 
30
anatomist's  manual.
common orifice of the ductus choledochus and pancreaticus.
In the jejunum and ileum  the valvule conniventes, at first
very numerous, become more and more rare, in proportion
as they are examined in the ileum.   The glands covering
them  are  called the glands of Peyer.    As for the rest,
the number and disposition  of the villosities  are nearly
the same as in the duodenum.
  As we advance in the examination of the internal tunic
of the large intestines, we perceive that it is  less abun-
dantly furnished with  villosities,  valves, and  especially
glands: these last are there  separated, and  their volume
is more considerable than in  the small intestines ; but we
should not omit seeing the form and disposition of the coe-
cal valve, and of  the  appendage  of the same  intestine:
these different objects claim all the attention of the  anato-
mist.
  The uses of the intestines are the more important to be
known, as it is during its  sojourn in these organs, that the
food is definitively elaborated, and  that, under the form of
a white, sweet, lactescent fluid, it  is more especially des-
tined  to the nutrition of the individual;  finally,  in passing
from  the stomach into the duodenum, it there is subjected
to the powerful action of the  biliary and pancreatic juices,
and it is,  during its passage  into the intestine, as well as
into the jejunum and ileum, that it abandons the greatest
part df its nutritive  elements.  Arrived in the ccecum, the
alimentary paste is, in  great part, deprived of its chylife-
rous and nutritive particles, on which account it acquires a
greater degree of consistence and solidity.  This residue
of the food proceeds gradually through the ccecum and co-
Ion.   The coecal valve, which permits the passage of this
material from the ccecum  into the colon, opposes a regur- 
               anatomist's manual.             31

gitation, and forces  it to travel by degrees  through the
whole extent of the colon, and to precipitate itself en masse
into the rectum, from which it is expelled by the simultane-
ous action of the muscles of the bas-ventre and diaphragm.
At  this time,  the fceces are hard, dry, exhaling  a fetid
odor, and completely deprived  of nutritive fluids.   Such
is, in a few words, the accomplishment of digestion, the
the product and result of which is the nutrition of the in-
dividual.
  The expulsion of urine, which always accompanies that
of the fceces, is  produced by the same causes.  The for-
mation of urine, like that of the  foeces, is  the result  of
digestion,  and both the one and the other are its residue.
It is for  this  reason that  we have thought proper  to
connect the study of the  urinary and  digestive organs,
not, as some  anatomists" have- done, because the organs
belonging  to  both are situated in the same cavity, but
because their  functions are similar, and have  the  same
principles for  their cause.

    3d, 4th, AND 5th  BILIARY AND PANCREATIC ORGANS.

 We shall here  describe the liver, pancreas and  spleen.

                Anatomical  Preparation.
   Liver.—This is one of the  easiest  organs to examine,
 after having opened the abdominal cavity.   Concealed  in
 part by the last ribs of the right side, it will suffice to break
 them, and carry them outwards in order to see the entire
 of the liver ; but it is* also the  viscus, the relations  of
 which are the most numerous and important to understand.
 Its  diseases,  the influence  it exerts on the surrounding
                          35 
32             anatomist's  manual.
parts,  its volume, weight, and  important  functions  will
always render  its examination  as  curious as  profitable.
The anatomist, the surgeon, and especially the physician,
may fall  into serious  errors,  and  commit unpardonable
faults,  by neglecting to study this viscus.
  As I have already remarked, the liver will be perfectly
exposed, after having  removed  the last false  ribs.  But
this superficial knowledge will not  suffice; we must exa-
mine with care  its extent, from above downwards, and
from right to left ;  we must  also  see  the ligaments by
which  it  is attached and fixed in  place.  They will be
be found on its convex surface, in its  great fissure, and on its
two extremities.  The first bears  the name of coronary
ligament; the  second is the  suspensory or  falciforme
ligament; the two lateral have no particular names.  We
should next  examine  the relations of the liver  with  the
stomach, spleen,  transverse  colon,  pancreas, and right
kidney.  These different parts  do not require any  par-
ticular preparation.  Such,  however is  not the case as
regards its excretory duct, the objects  placed on  the pos-
terior  surface, and especially its intimate structure.  The
preparation of  the  hepatic duct is so exceedingly diffi-
cult, that many students frequently neglect  to  examine it.
In  order to find it,  we should draw upwards  and to  the
right  the inferior and cutting  border of the liver; the
colon  and stomach should  be  pulled  at the  same  time
in  a contrary direction ; if then we cautiously  detach the
loose cellular tissue  found in the interval, as also a portion
of  the gastro-hepatic epiploon,*we shall have  the hepatic
duct under the scalpel.  A yellowish taint, the consequence
of an  exudation of bile, spread on  the surrounding parts,
 will  indicate the place  in   which  it is to  be found. 
anatomist's  manual.
33
This duct and the choledochus, preserve very intimate
relations with the  vena portae and  hepatic  artery.  We
will  rarely   err,  if  it  be remembered that  the vena
portae is very voluminous,  bluish,  and situated  much
more profoundly; that the artery  is placed on  the left
of  the  duct,  which  it  in part  covers;   but the best
means of recognising it, is  to take it at its  insertion into
the duodenum, and thus  follow it in a retrograde manner
to the  liver, observing that it unites on its way with the
cystic duct.   It is the union of the latter with the hepatic
that forms the ductus choledochus.
   The  simple inspection  of  the gall-bladder  will suf-
fice to  convey an idea of its situation and relations.   It
requires no  preparation; it is merely necessary to exa-
mine accurately the direction  of  its duct, as  also  its
union with  that of the liver for the formation of the duc-
tus choledochus.
   When satisfied with all  these preparations, we may re-
move the liver, and detach it from the objects with which
it contracts  very strong adhesions, in order  to study more
advantageously its details, and especially those of its con-
cave surface, which are very numerous.
   The minute preparations of the liver consist in injecting
its different  vessels and duct with mercury.  We may like-
wise make these injections with  alcohol  or resinous sub-
stances, not forgetting to color them, in order that we may
follow  the direction of the injected  vessels;  thus  we may
inject  the  arteries  with red,  the veins  with  black,  the
hepatic  duct with bltfe, &c. The object of these injections
is  to examine the manner in which the sanguineous ves-
sels anastamose, and in what way these last  combine with
the extremities of  the biliary ducts. 
34             anatomist's  manual.
  As, in these  latter times, a new membrane  has been
discovered in the liver it becomes indispensable to point out
the manner of rendering it  visible.  An attentive dissec-
tion is necessary to discover it.  For this purpose, we must
cautiously divide that portion of  the  peritoneum, which
covers  the liver at  the point in  which the suspensory
ligament is  inserted  into this organ.   Then, in gently
raising  the peritoneum with the handle of the scalpel or
simply  with  the fingers, we shall observe  beneath the
membrane in question, which is evidently cellular.
   Spleen.—If we raise the stomach, and draw it forwards
and to the right, we shall discover  the spleen  without diffi-
culty :  but in  this way, its situation  is changed, and  we
shall have but  an imperfect idea of its relations.  It is
better to leave  the stomach in place, break the false ribs of
the left side, as was done on the  right for the  liver, and
then the spleen will be exposed.  The size and extent of this
viscus  vary  considerably.   Sometimes reduced  to a
very small volume, the spleen appears to be nothing more
than  a small inorganic mass applied  to the  large extre-
mity of the stomach ; sometimes thick, elongated, and very
broad, it occupies a considerable space.  No matter how
numerous its varieties may  be, we should not lose sight of
the  principal object in its examination—viz.,  its nume-
rous relations with the stomach, as well by its situation,
as the  communications established  between  these  two
organs by means of short vessels, which should be preserv-
ed.   This  object  will  not be attained if,  taking these
vessels  for cellular  tissue, we lacerate them under  the
pretext of getting a better view of the spleen.   In examin-
ing the interior of a spleen inflated and somewhat dry, we
 will find it composed of cells communicating with each 
anatomist's  manual.             35
other ; these cells  themselves  communicating  with  the
veins, as  is  proved by  the  passage of  the  air  from  one
into the other ;  we may be convinced of this by  repeating
this experiment, or even by  injecting the  spleen with  the
substances ordinarily used in such cases.
  Pancreas.—This  gland,  situated in the profoundest
portion of  the  epigastrium,  is  concealed  by the  liver,
stomach and colon, and cannot  be seen until  these diffe-
rent objects  have been previously removed.  This is  the
last organ we should  occupy ourselves with, and I would
recommend  to defer its preparation until after the defini-
tive  examination of all  the  other abdominal viscera.  It
will  be necessary only to  leave  the portion of the duode-
num, into Which the excretory duct of the pancreas is in-
serted ; the  same thing was done for  the  ductus choledo-
chus.  These  two ducts sometimes  open into the intestine
at the same point; at  other times they pierce it in different
places, but always near to each other.
  The pancreas is the more difficult for the young anato-
mist  to  expose accurately, as  it  sometimes presents  a
soft, and, as it were,  cellular  consistence, which causes it
to be confounded with  the surrounding cellular  tissue
which  is very abundant in this place.  Its situation is not
fixed in the  spot  it occupies, and we frequently  remove it
when detaching the parts by which it is covered.   Notwith-
standing  these slight inconveniences, we will succeed in ex-
posing it  perfectly, by  moving at the  same time the stomach,
liver, and colon in different directions ;  the pancreas occu-
pies the  space exposed  by this process ; it lies across the
vertebral column, and does not measure more than eight to
ten fingers' breadth in extent.  It  will be  recognised by
its very  pale-red color, and by the slight  irregularity of
                         35* 
36             anatomist's  manual.
its exterior.  When we  are  assured of its presence  and
the place it  occupies, and when we have  examined its
situation and various  relations, we should  remove cau-
tiously the parts which conceal it, leaving nothing but the
portion of duodenum, receiving the pancreatic duct;  which
must be done by tying,  before cutting them, the two ex-
tremities of this intestine.
   The  dissection of the excretory duct of  the  pancreas
presents some difficulties, as well on account  of its diminu-
tive size, as its  situation, concealed as it is in the sub-
stance of this gland.  It originates  by very  fine radicules
from its  splenic extremity,  and  proceeds in a  serpentine
course from left to right, in order  to  enter the duodenum
four or five  fingers' breadth from the pylorus.   It will be
readily  found by  raising in thin,  successive layers, the
anterior portion of the  pancreas.   After having  arrived
 at a certain depth, this  serpentine duct is observed in the
substance of the organ.  In order, however, to see it still
 more  advantageously we  should not  seek it at its  origin,
but, on  the  contrary, commence with it  at its  union with
 the choledochus, or at its insertion into the intestine, and
 then pursue it in a retrograde manner.  This  is the only
 means of avoiding cutting or  rupturing  it, which will in-
 fallibly happen  if we attempt to  expose it from left  to
 right, and from its origin to  its insertion.

                       Description.
                         LIVER.
                   Iecur. L. hepar. G.
    Situation and  relations.—In  the entire right hypo-
 chondrium,  epigastric region, and  even  a portion of the
 left hypochondrium; in front of  the vertebral column, 
anatomist's  manual.
37
where are found the esophagus, aorta, vena cava ascendens
and the  pillars of the diaphragm ; behind the  false ribs
on  the  right  side,  beneath the  diaphragm,  above  the
stomach, colon, duodenum, middle epiploon and right kid-
ney. • The situation and relations of the liver present in
addition  certain varieties depending on particular circum-
stances.   When the stomach is empty, the liver descends
considerably ;  the contrary is observed when the stomach
is  filled with aliments ;  standing or  sitting, the liver de-
scends equally;  it ascends when  the individual is in  the
recumbent posture ;  when on the right side, it is support.
ed  on the ribs, does  not  interfere with any viscus,  and
sleep  is then calm  and  undisturbed;  if  the  individual
changes to the left side, it rests on the stomach, compress-
es it, renders digestion difficult, especially after a hearty
meal, and troubles the sleep.
   Figure.—Elongated from right to  left, thick superiorly,
thin and cutting inferiorly.
   Division.—Superior convex surface united to the  dia-
phragm by the  coronary ligament ;  inferior concave  sur-
face,  on which  is observed this following objects, proceed-
ing from right to left:—lst,;fwo slight  depressions which
correspond, the one to the right kidney, the other  to the
colon ;  2d,  the  gall bladder ; 3d, the longitudinal fissure,
in which is remarked the insertion of ..he hepatic artery,
vena  portae, hepatic duct,  and  suspensoiy ligament of the
liver  ; 4th,  the  transverse fissure ; 5th, the lobe of Spige-
lius, or small lobe of the liver, and the two portal eminen-
ces;  6th, a large depression, which corresponds  to  the
stomach.  Its posterior border is inclined upwards ; on it,
is observed the insertion of the  hepatic  veins;  its infe-
rior  border, inclined downwards, is thin, cutting, and pro-
t 
38
anatomist's manual.
foundly divided in the middle  portion, for the insertion of
the suspensory ligament of the liver ; its two extremities
present nothing particular.

                   GALL BLADDER.
                   ( Vesicula-cistii.)
  Situation and relations.—In the hypochondrium of the
right  side; below the great  lobe of the liver, to which it
adheres ; above the colon and  duodenum.
  Figure.—Py riforme.
  Division.—A large extremity, called the fundus, situat-
ed  downwards and  forwards;  it exceeds the boundary of
the liver when the vesicle is full, but it is concealed by it
in  the  contrary  case ;  small  extremity, called the neck,
turned  upwards and  backwards, and terminated by  the
cystic duct.
  Structure and  uses.—The color of the liver,  a melange
of biliary juices  and of a black and abundant blood, is of
an obscure red, mixed with yellow.
  Its  intimate structure results from  the disposition  and
combination of a great  number of sanguineous vessels,
arterial and venous, nerves, biliary ducts and  lymphatic
vessels, which are completely  enveloped  by two very thin
membranes.   One of  these membranes is of  a serous na-
ture, external  and a prolongation of the peritoneum ; it is
extremely thin, and may be detached from the liver with
great  facility.   The most remarkable sanguineous vessels
are, the vena porta; which takes its origin in the intestines,
epiploons, stomach,  spleen, pancreas, and which  ramifies
infinitely in the interior of  the liver.   Each of its  nu-
merous  divisions, in  this organ, is accompanied  by an ar-
tery, branch of the hepatic,  by a nerve and  biliary duct, 
anatomist's MANUAL.
39
the fluid of which proceeds in a direction contrary to that
of the sanguineous vessels.   A membrane,  called  the
membrane of Clisson, immediately envelopes these different
objects, accompanies them to their utmost ramifications,
and  thus  prevents them from adhering  to  the  proper
substance of the liver.   The hepatic veins, on the contrary,
deprived of this sheath, adhere strongly to the liver and pro-
ceed in a direction opposed to the first vessels.  This dis-
position is  very  accurately  seen  in cutting the liver
by layers, which leave the hepatic veins comprised in the
section we  have made,  exposed and bent.
   A cellular layer has lately  been discovered, which enve-
lopes the liver immediately beneath the serous membrane,
and which  is even found where this latter  does not exist,.
such as the point occupied by  the gall bladder, and also that
in which the coronary  ligament is observed.  This third
membrane of  the liver has been called cellular membrane.
   The gall bladder presents a very  different structure.
There are only two membranes  found in  it, the external
is of a serous  nature, rather  dense, and a  prolongation of
the peritoneum.   The internal, mucous, is that which some
anatomists term  the villous  membrane; in the cadavera,
these two membranes are yellow and  strongly impregnat-
ed with  bile; but  in  the living subject, their color is
whitish.
   The uses of the liver are by no means equivocal.  It is the
organ for the  secretion  of bile, and it furnishes this fluid in
great abundance.   Contained at first  in the  radicules of
the  biliary ducts,  it  soon   proceeds to  the  principal
divisions, and  finally collects in the common trunk, called
the hepatic duct.   After arriving a  short distance from
the liver, the  bile meets with the duct  of the  gall  bladder 
40              ANATOMIST^ MANUAL.

(ductus cysticus) penetrates this  bag, remains  there  for
some time, and then proceeds to the duodenum, traversing
anew the cystic duct, which transmits it  into the choledo-
chus.  The bile pursues the first route we have  just indi-
cated,  when digestion is  not  going on,  and  the  second
when this  is in operation.

                       SPLEEX.
                      Spicn.  G.
  Situation  and relations.—In the  profoundest  part of
the left hypochondrium,  below the diaphragm, above the
kidney of the  same side, between the false  ribs of the
left side and the large extremity of the stomach, to which
it is united in this place by means of the short vessels.
This circumstance explains  the numerous changes, which
the spleen may undergo in its situation and relations.
  Figure.—Ovoid, flat, and elongated from  above down-
wards.
   Division.—External  convex surface,  which  corres.
ponds  to  the ribs;  internal concave  surface, contiguous
to the stomach by means of the short vessels.  It presents
in addition a longitudinal fissure, by which the  splenic
nerves and vessels are  introduced into  its interior.  Its
anterior and posierior borders, its superior and inferior ex-
tremities offer nothing peculiar.
  Structure  and uses.—The structure  and  uses  of  the
spleen are  unknown, and we can  advance  nothing  but
conjecture in our attempts to explain either the one or the
other.  All that  we  can say with certainty, is that  the
spleen is of a deep  red color, of a consistence sometimes
soft and easy to lacerate, sometimes  hard and of  a more
dense tissue; that  it is penetrated by  a  great number of 
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
41
blood vessels ;  that its parenchyma appears to be exclu-
sively formed of them, and its external membrane is very
delicate'; finally, the spleen, lightly pressed, allows a black
and abundant fluid to escape.

                      PANCREAS.
  Situation and relations.—Situated  transversely in the
profoundest part of  the epigastric region, as high as the
twelfth dorsal vertebra ;  beneath the stomach, above the
duodenum, in front of the vertebral column, aorta and vena
cava ;  between the spleen and duodenum.
  Figure.—Elongated, flat, and curved on itself,in order
to be accommodated to  the prominence of the vertebral
column.
  Division.—Superior surface, inclined forwards  ; inferior
surface, inclined  backwards.  The posterior and anterior
borders offer nothing remarkable.   The  left extremity,
called  the tail (queue)  of the  pancreas, corresponds  to
the spleen ; the right extremity, called the head, frequent-
ly  presents  a prolongation, which has been termed the
small pancreas.
   Structure and uses.—The pancreas resembles the sali-
vary glands  as  regards its structure and  uses.   Like
them,  it  is  of a  grayish  color,  and granulated;  it  is
composed of lobes, lobules, formed  of glandular grains,
in which  are found a nerve, artery, vein, and a radicule of
the excretory duct,which takes its origin from the left ex-
tremity, proceeds,  increasing  in size, towards the head of
the pancreas, and  pierces  the duodenum, sometimes con-
jointly with the choledochus, by uniting with it, and some-
 times separately.
   The pancreas secretes  a fluid, very analogous to  the 
42             anatomist's  manual.

saliva;  it mixes  in  the duodenum  with  the  bile,  and
contributes  to the  accomplishment  of  digestion,  by
moderating, according to some physiologists,  the  exces-
sive action of the biliary juice.

    6th, peritoneum, mesentery,  and  epiploons.
  Situation and  relations.—The peritoneum  forms the
common envelope for all the abdominal viscera, if we ex-
cept the  kidneys,  and  lines,  moreover,  the cavity in
which they are contained.   The mesentery and epiploons
are merely prolongations of  this membrane.  Its relations
with the organs contained in the abdomen  are the follow.
ing :—the middle portion, in proceeding from the environs
of  the  umbilicus, lines the  transverse  muscles, gets into
both lumbar regions, covers the whole anterior and pos-
terior outer part of the ascending and descending colon,
passes over the kidneys, advances towards the vertebral
column, meets  the mesenteric artery, applies itself to the
right and left on this artery, thus forms the two feuillets
of the mesentery, and  finally terminates on the ileum and
jejunum.
  The inferior portion proceeds from the umbilicus, deve-
loping itself on the umbilical  arteries and ouraque, as far as
the bladder, of which it covers only  the  posterior part,
as well as vesiculae  seminales,  is  reflected thence on the
rectum, ascends to the right and  left,  covers the ccecum
on  one side, and the  S of the colon on  the  other, and also
the sacral, hypogastric and iliac vessels, and becomes con-
founded with the middle portion.
  In the female, it is  reflected from the  bladder to the
uterus, covers the anterior,  superior  and posterior part of
this latter, and then  proceeds as we have just described. 
anatomist's  manual.             43
  The superior  portion, which gives origin  to the falci-
forme ligament, extends from the umbilicus to the diaphragm,
which  it covers; is reflected from the right side on the
liver and gall bladder; and  from the left side,  on  the
stomach ; it forms at the two extremities of the  liver its
lateral ligaments ; in addition, it covers the spleen on the
left, gives rise to the gastro-hepatic epiloon and to the great
epiploon ; finally it passes beneath the pancreas and duode-
num,  and becomes continuous with the  two feuillets of
the mesentery.
   Structure and uses.—The peritoneum is a serous mem-
brane, diaphanous, smooth, and shining on the surface re-
garding the abdominal cavity, constantly lubricated, on this
portion, by a lymphatic fluid ; its elasticity is extreme, as
is  proved by pregnancy,  certain  hydropsies, &c. ;  its
uses are,  to maintain the abdominal viscera in their natural
situation,  furnish  them an  external covering,  and to
secrete an abundant  fluid, intended to prevent their ad-
hesions.

             7th, URINARY  ORGANS.
                General considerations.
  The urinary organs are composed of the kidneys, ureters,
bladder,  urethra, and renal  capsules, although it is not
proved that  these last appertain to the urinary apparatus,
their functions being unknown.
   Among the urinary  organs, some are  situated within
the abdomen,  and others out of this  cavity.  The  kid-
neys, destined to secrete the urine, are placed profoundly
in the lumbar regions,  and are protected  from the influ-
ence of external bodies, by the hard parts which are near
them ; the ureters are merely canals of  communication,
                          36 
44              anatomist's  manual.

which proceed from the kidneys to the bladder by the most
direct and shortest route.  The  urine, continually secreted,
passes without interruption from the kidneys to the bladder
by these canals.  The bladder  is contained within the ca-
vity of the pelvis, in which it may, without inconvenience
and  even without effort, acquire a considerable  volume,
proportionate to the quantity of urine it contains.  W ithout
the medium of the bladder, the urine would be transmit-
ted directly from the ureters to the canal of the urethra,
and  would thus oblige the individual to void it continually;
a dreadful inconvenience, of which the incontinence of urine
 gives us some idea.   Remaining, on the contrary,  in the
bladder,  it is not  excreted  through  the urethra except
at distinct periods, and it is easily expelled  by the tonic
 action of the bladder.   Every thing  in  this  function
 inspires  the greatest interest—the  form, composition, and
 situation of the organs, the  fluid which  they secrete, the
 mode of its secretion, its sojourn in a cavity proper to
 contain  it, without  its presence, when even  prolonged,
 giving rise to any alteration,  except  in case of disease of
 the bladder ; the mechanism of  its expulsion ;  finally, the
 numerous complicated diseases,  which may occur to some
 of the urinary organs.

                Anatomical Preparation.
   Kidneys and capsular renales.—In  removing  from the
 abdomen all the organs, which form the digestive apparatus,
 there then only remain in this cavity the kidneys, ureters
 and bladder, and nothing is  easier at this  time  than the
 preparation of the first of these objects; it will  suffice to
 free them from the loose and very abundant cellular tis-
  sue, which envelopes them  on all sides.  The volume  of
  the kidneys, and their hardness  will not  permit us  to 
anatomist's  manual.             45
mistake them.   They  are  profoundly situated  in  both
lumbar regions, and covered immediately by the right and
left colon.
  The student, in dissecting them, should preserve their
vessels, which go  to  the  aorta, on the one hand, and to
the vena  cava,  on the other: and  it is  not until after
having  accurately studied the situation and  relations of
these organs, that we can remove  them  in order to
examine them in their isolated state, which will enable us
to acquire a more perfect idea of their form, color and
density.   For the purpose of seeing  their internal struc-
ture, we  must  open them on their posterior  and convex
part, and thus  arrive at their  fissure.  It is  unnecessary
to employ an instrument  in order to divide the kidneys in
their whole extent; but  we should tear their tissue with
the fingers, commencing  at  the convex border,  after
having cut  it one half only with the scalpel,  in  its whole
 length.
   We  should  likewise examine the capsular  renales be-
 fore removing  the  kidneys.   These glandular  bodies,
 much smaller than the kidneys, are situated on their supe-
 rior and  internal part.   Their color, of a pale red, their
 triangular, flattened,  lobular  form, and their soft consis-
 tence, will render it  easy to recognize them, provided we
 have  not removed them with the intestines, as very fre-
 quently  is the case.  One thing we should not  neglect
 before removing  the kidneys, in order that we may study
 their organization the more conveniently, is, to isolate the
 ureters, which will be seen, with a little attention, to proceed
 from their internal  and inferior  portion, continue  along
 the vertebral column, and enter the pelvis towards the
 sacro-iliac symphises, for the purpose of penetrating the 
46              anatomist's manual.
bladder,  at its  posterior  and  inferior portion.  Their
volume is  nearly that of an ordinary  writing quill, and
they  are  attached  but  feebly  to the surrounding parts;
they have a quantity of loose cellular tissue around them;
it  may be raised with great ease;  but  it  is in the pelvis
that it is  most difficult to pursue them.  The section we
shall now indicate for the examination of the bladder will
obviate this inconvenience.
   Bladder.—Before performing this section,  we  should
examine the relations of the bladder with  the surround-
ing parts; at first empty, effaced, afterwards distended,
either by introducing into the  urethra a small tube, quill,
or even a straw in lieu of a more appropriate instrument,
and then  blowing  into  it.  A  ligature should be placed
around the urethra after having inflated the bladder ;  or
it will suffice to press it forcibly in order to prevent the air
from escaping.  After having performed these prelimina-
ries,  we  make  the necessary section  for the  purpose of
understanding more thoroughly all the details ; it consists
in  sawing the  horizontal  branches of the  pubes three
fingers' breadth from  the symphisis,  and also the de-
scending branches of the same bone.   The ureters should
be cut at a certain distance, and  then detach with the
scalpel the piece, which is held together merely by the
soft parts.  For this purpose, we should draw it forwards
in proportion as we detach it,  and be particularly careful
to protect the inferior portion of  the  bladder, which ad.
heres  more  strongly  to the  neighboring parts.   Here
are  found the vesiculse seminales, which must be preserv-
ed, although their preparation is not essentially necessary
 for  the study of  the  bladder.   The piece completely
 removed," we  may  then  inflate the  bladder  again, if it is 
anatomist's  manual.
47
not sufficiently  so ;  this  is the only means of obtaining
an idea of its figure and  degree of extension.   Detach it
from  the body of the pubes, or rather  divide  their sym-
phises, in order  to separate the branches, and in this way
we  shall arrive at  the bladder, which  should be incised
in its superior and  anterior portion ; by doing this, we
shall  discover its interior, which  it is important  to  exa-
mine.   Our  attention  should be  fixed  especially on the
opening, which  is  found below and in  front;  this is the
neck  of the bladder; somewhat posteriorly is observed a
triangular  space,  slightly elevated,  called  the vesical
trigone.  The ureters, after having travelled for some
time in the proper  substance of  the bladder,  pierce this
organ and open in  its cavity, at the  extremity of the
lateral  angles of the trigone ; they will  be  seen without
any difficulty, and a small stylet  can be easily introduc-
ed  into their interior.  We  should not  fail to do it; it
is the only way in which we can have  an  idea of the
course  of these canals.
   The  inflation of  the  bladder  is  necessary in  order
to examine its different tunics ; thus, we shall easily per-
ceive, in this manner, that the peritoneum does not enve-
lope  this  organ at its anterior part; indeed,  it does not
need  it, as it is united to the posterior part of the  body
of  the  pubis,  by means of a loose and abundant cellular
tissue.
   We shall  not describe  here the mode .of preparing the
urethra ;  this will  be  mentioned, when we  treat of the
organs of  generation.
                            36* 
48             ANATOMISTS MANUAL.

                     Description.
                        KIDNEYS.
                  Renes. L. Nephroi. G.
  Situation and  relations.—In the  profoundest  part of
the lumbar region, on the vertebral column, and  the two
last false ribs.  The right corresponds above to the liver,
below  to the ccecum, in front to  the ascending colon ; the
left corresponds above to the spleen, below to the S of the
colon,  and  in front to the descending  colon.
   Figure.—Spheriodal, elongated.
   Division.—Anterior  surface, covered  in  both loins,
by the colon; posterior surface, which corresponds to the
body of the lumbar vertebrae, and to  the  internal surface
of the two last false ribs.  The external border is convex,
smooth, directed  slightly backwards; the internal border
presents a profound notch  (echancrure) into which are
inserted the renal vein  above,  the  artery of  the  same
name  in the middle, and below,  the commencement of the
ureter.    Of the two  extremities,   one  is  superior and
more voluminous ; the other is inferior.
   Structure and  uses.—The consistence of the kidneys
is  firm, and their color of a  reddish brown.   We  dis-
tinguish on them an external, cortical substance, two lines
in thickness, beneath which is observed a tubular sub-
stance, which terminates by the mamelonnee, admitted by
 some anatomists, rejected by others, who regard  it as the
 termination  of  the faisceaux of the  tubular  substance.
 Between these different objects  and the fissure, is perceiv-
 ed the pelvis, in which are  found the vessels of the
 kidney, as also the ureter.  The kidney is the organ for
 the secretion of urine. 
ANATOMIST^  MANUAL.             49
                   RENAL CAPSULES.
  Situation and relations.—In the lumbar region, above
and within the kidneys, the  superior extremity of which
they embrace.
  Figure.—Triangular.
  Division.—Anterior surface, covered by the abdominal
soft parts; posterior  surface applied on  the  body of the
vertebra?.
  Structure and uses.—The color of the capsules is yel-
low bordering on brown.   Interiorly, they appear formed
of lobules, composed themselves of smaller grains.  Their
uses are unknown.

                        URETERS.
                      Oureter.  G.
  Situation  and relations.—The portion of  the ureters
placed  in the abdomen is situated on the  sides of the ver-
tebral column, and that which is in the  pelvis, on the
lateral portions of the bladder.
   Extent.—From the  kidneys to the bladder.
   Figure.—Elongated, cylindrical.
   Structure and uses.—Three tunics enter into the com-
 position of the ureters ; one exterior, cellular ;  a middle,
 more consistent;  and an internal,  mucous, a  continuation
 of  that which  lines the  interior  of the  bladder.  The
 ureters  transmit   the  urine  from the  kidneys  to the
 bladder.

                        BLADDER.
                  Vesica. L. Cisiis. 6?.
   Situation and  relations.—In the cavity of the pelvis,
 behind the body of the pubes, in  front of the rectum in 
BO             ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
the male, and the uterus in the female ;  beneath the intes-
tinal paquet;  above  the vesiculse seminales  and  vasa
deferentia.
   Figure.—Ovoid,  slightly  flattened from before  back-
wards.
   Division.*-Anterior surface, which corresponds to the
pubis ; posterior  surface,  corresponding to the rectum iw
the male,  and  the uterus in the female.  The superi<v
extremity  is called  the summit of the  bladder, to which
corresponds the ouraque ;  the inferior, called  the  base, is
composed  of the neck in front, and the bas-fond poste-
riorly.
   Structure and uses.—The bladder offers three tunics ;
an external, prolongation of the peritoneum, which covers
the superior, posterior and lateral portions ; amiddle, mus-
cular ;  and an internal, mucous.  On this last are observ-
ed, below  and in front, the vesical trigone and  the ori-
fice of the  ureters.   Several  duplicatures are also re-
marked  in the  interior  of  the bladder;  they  are the
result  of a  folding of the mucous membrane, occasioned
by the contractions of the muscular tunic.   The bladder
receives and contains the  urine, which is   continually
poured into  it. by the ureters, and finally expels  it, when
its quantity, having become too considerable and fatigue-
ing, forces the  bladder to contract in order to  empty itself.

        RESPIRATORY  AND CIRCULATORY ORGANS.
                 General considerations.
   These organs are contained in great part in the chest,
whose structure  is  admirably adapted  to their mode of
wction.  Endowed  with an alternate and continual  move-
ment,  they require that the cavity enclosing them, should 
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
5*1
 enjoy at the same time a degree of suppleness necessary
 for their  free exercise,  and  resistance sufficient to pro-
 tect them from the influence of external bodies.
   In the  chest  are  found the organs  of respiration and
 those  of circulation.   The first  are  composed of  the
 larynx, trachea, bronchise  and lungs, to which we must
 add the thymus and thyroid  glands.   The  heart  alone
 constitutes the great agent  of circulation :  the vessels
 which emanate from it and divide into numerous branch-
 es, in proportion as  they  proceed  throughout the dif-
 ferent  portions  of the  individual, should  be considered
 merely as a means  of transmitting the blood.  If the
 most remarkable phenomena of circulation occur in the
 heart, the  results, the  object  of this circulation can be
 perceived only at the extremities of the capillary tubes be-
 longing to the arterial system.  The most perfect  know-
 ledge of the  course and  principal divisions of the arteries,
 gives but a very feeble idea of this function.   The most
 important escapes our observation,  and takes  place out
 ofthe canals, which  the scalpel of  the anatomist cannot
 expose.
               Anatomical Preparation.
   Before passing to the  preparation  and  study of the
 organs contained in  the chest, and  even before we oc-
 cupy oursebyes  with  the  larynx,  thymus  and thyroid
 gland, we should  examine the  mammae, which, however,
 can be advantageously studied only in a female.   The pre-
 paration required by these glandular bodies is ofthe simplest
 kind, when we desire merely to understand  their general
form, situation and relations.   But we should not limit our-
 selves  to  this superficial study of the mamma?, for it is
 necessary  to examine also their interior and particular
 structure. 
52             anatomist's manual.
  There is found, under the integuments of the mamma?,
an abundant cellular tissue, which forms part of the gland;
in examining this gland attentively in  front we will  find
that it is composed of numerous ducts folded several times
on themselves, larger  at  the base of  the  mammae,  and
which constantly contract as  they  proceed towards the
nipple, where  they amount only to fifteen.  In  order  to
render these ducts more apparent, it is necessary to in-
ject mercury into one of them; soon all the others  will
be filled with it, and thus they will be seen very distinctly.
The  organization of the  mammary glands could be stu-
died  with  much more advantage,, if it were possible  to
examine them in a female recently delivered, who had
died,  for example the second or third  day after her ac-
couchement.
   Larynx, thymus and thyroid gland.—The piece, which
has  served'for the study of the pharynx, may also an-
swer for the  larynx ;  but it  would be much better  to
examine this latter  in  place.   For this purpose, we make
a longitudinal  incision into the integuments of the neck ;
in the middle part, is found the larynx, placed beneath
the os-hyoides, and above, the  trachea, which is  the con-
tinuation of it.  Certain  muscles, described  in myology,
are  applied immediately  on the larynx ;  they  may  be
either removed, or left in place;  they do Vot interfere
with its examination : but,  in this manner, we shall observe
only  the exterior of the larynx, and it is highly impor-
tant  to understand  its internal structure, which  can only
be done by detaching and removing it from the place it
occupies;  this, however, should not be done,, until  after
 having  exposed  the  thyroid  gland, which embraces  the
 larynx at  its  inferior part.   It  will  be  known by  its 
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
53
volume, its soft and spongy consistence, its reddish color,
and its division into two  portions of equal volume.  The
thymus is  not very  apparent except in  the  infant; it
scarcely exists in  the adult.   It  is found,  in the former,
placed behind  the sternum, at the entrance of the chest,
in the ecartment of the  anterior mediastinum.   Its con-
sistence is soft in the foetus and infant; but it increases in
the adult  and aged.   Its color of a  pale red  in the
foetus, becomes yellow in the adult.  When we cannot
procure a very young subject  in order to examine it, it is
better to proceed  immediately to open the chest, as was
indicated Vol. I. p. 162, and to study the organs contained
in it.
   Lungs and Trachea.—If we wish to prepare the lungs
properly, we  must study them  in  place.  For this pur-
pose, it will be necessary to open the chest as largely as
possible.
   We should also, in  this preparation, examine the man-
ner in which the  pleura is arranged  at the posterior part
of the sternum, in order to form  what  is termed the ante-
rior  mediastinum.   With this  view the chest must be
opened, as was described Vol. I. p. 162.  The sternum is
then  to be  removed, either  from above  downwards, or
from below upwards, and in detaching it successively from
the two prolongations of  the pleura which adhere to its
posterior  part, we should observe the ecartment resulting
 from them, it is the anterior mediastinum.
   After removing the sternum, we observe, in front of the '
 pericardium,  the two  duplicatures of the two  pleurae, cut
 in the direction of their length, representing tolerably well
 the figure  X, the inferior branches of which are more
 distant than the  superior.   The  reader  will  find more 
54              anatomist's manual.
ample details respecting  this subject, at the end of  this
article.  We shall now proceed to the preparation of the
lungs.
   Having removed the sternum with the intercostal carti-
lages, we should break the ribs as  near as possible to their
articulation with the vertebral column; then, we should care-
fully remove all the soft parts, muscles, vessels, and cellular
tissue covering the objects about to be examined.   In  this
way,  we shall see the union of the larynx with the  tra-
chea, the division of  the latter into two principal  trunks
called bronchiae; and the more numerous divisions of  the
bronchiae in the proper substance of the  lungs;  in  this
way also, we shall observe the disposition and distribution
of the  pulmonary artery, its relations with the aorta  and
trachea.   This,  however will  be more advantageously
seen if we inject the  pulmonary artery with tallow, resin,
wax,  &c.   This preparation will render it very apparent,
and we shall not be liable to error by confounding its  two
first branches  with the bronchiae.   If the  student should
desire,  before opening the chest,  to  assure himself that
there  does not exist a vacuum between the pulmonary  and
costal pleura, and that there is no bubble of air  in  the
interval, he may remove, with some care, several  of  the
intercostal muscles,  as far as the portion  of the corres-
ponding costal  pleura;  this latter, however, must not be
interfered  with.  It  will  then  be  very easy  to convince
himself that the  lungs,  which will  be distinctly  seen
through the transparency of the costal pleura, are appli-
ed, without adhering to it, to the latter, and that there
does not exist any vacuum between these two parts.
   We may, still  more successfully perform the same  ex-
periment on a living animal, with this difference that when 
anatomist's  manual.              55
we have arrived at the costal pleura, it will be necessary
to divide it in a small space ;  in an  instant, the column of
external air precipitating itself between the costal pleura
and lungs, presses the latter, and  then permits a vacuum,
which, consequently did not previously exist.
  Heart.—We should not separate the preparation of the
heart from that of the respiratory organs: like these latter it
requires the chest to  be opened.  Placed  in the interval
of the two pleurae and  between the two lungs, a little to
the left, the heart is enveloped by  a bag peculiar  to it}
called pericardium.   If we cut this bag,  we shall  have
the heart  exposed  to  view, and we  can then  examine
its exterior,  together  with its  different  relations.   All
these indications  having been fulfilled, we may then  take
up  the particular consideration  of  each of the organs,
which were at first  studied in situ, and after  having de-
tached them  from  their  situation,  examine the various
parts- in detail.   Thus, it will become necessary to divide
the larynx at its anterior part, and separate its two  divid-
ed portions in order to  have a view of their interior.   The
same thing will be required for the trachea and bronchiae.
We may also detach  the lungs from the thoracic cavity,
cut them in different directions, press them under the fin-
gers,  examining attentively their organization, and follow,
as far as possible, the divisions of the bronchiae.
   In  order to acquire a perfect  knowledge of the intimate
structure of the lungs,  it would be necessary to inject the
trachea and the principal trunks of its arterial and venous
vessels, with  substances differently colored.    The  heart
requires, more than any other organ, to be separated from
the  larcre  vessels which emanate from it; these vessel.
are eight in number ; they may be very well  dist.nguish-
                            37 
56
anatomist's manual.
ed, when even the heart is  in  place.   The  largest and
most external is the aorta, the parois of which are likewise
thicker;  below is observed the  pulmonary artery, which
soon divides into two principal branches;  on the right and
in front  are two large  bluish vessels,  one of which is
the superior or ascending vena cava, and  the other the in-
ferior or  descending vena  cava, both of which go to the
right  auricle.  In raising  the heartby.the apex, we shall
observe on the left four vessels,  smaller  than  the first, all
of which enter the left  auricle ;these are the pulmonary
veins.
   We may  examine  without difficulty the disposition of
the twovenaa cava?  relatively to the right  auricle, which
they  penetrate, and also the extent of this  latter.  Such,
however, is  not  the case with the pulmonary veins, and
especially with the left  auricle, which  receives the blood
brought  by  these veins from  the lungs.  After  having
raised the point of the heart,  as was just indicated, we
may  cut the auricle transversely at its posterior part, and
introduce the finger into  its cavity, in order to ascertain
its extent and depth ;  or  rather,  after cutting the aorta
and pulmonary  artery  four fingers'  breadth from the
heart, turn them over on its anterior part, and then open
the left auricle at its superior portion.
   When we  have decided  to remove the heart, we should
cut its vessels as far  as possible from  their egress  from
this organ, wash  this latter and free it from  the blood. We
may then cut it lengthwise on its lateral portions; at first
through  the auricles which are above, afterwards through
the ventricles,  which occupy its inferior part.   We should
not injure the point of internal separation between the
auricles  and ventricles;  and  the mitral  and  tricuspid
valves should be accurately distinguished ; they are situat- 
anatomist's manual.             57
ed on the parois of the two ventricles-, and may be raised
by passing the handle of a scalpel  between them and the
ventricles.   We must not lose the opportunity of seeing
the three sigmoid valves of  the  aorta and  pulmonary
artery, which  may be done  by incising  the arterial  tube,
from its cut extremity, towards the heart.  These valves
are most generally applied  on the parois of the artery ;
they may easily be brought into view with the handle of
the scalpel.
   It now remains  for me to  say  a word respecting the
pleura and the two mediastinums.   The pleura  is to the
chest and the organs contained in  it, what the peritoneum
is to the abdomen.   We can without difficulty detach the
first from the  thoracic parois, and this  simple procedure
will suffice for its preparation.  Such,  however is not the
case as regards the mediastinums,  which are nothing more
than a consequence of the manner in which the pleura de-
 velopes itself in the  chest and on  its organs.   In order  to
 have a view of them, it will be necessary in the first place
 to proceed as if we wished to remove  the sternum, after-
 wards  we  should detach the ribs as  near as possible  to
 the vertebral column,  leaving the sternum in place, take
 the lungs  from their respective  cavities, wash the parts
 and free them  from the  blood which  flows on  all sides;
 then, in removing the sternum, we shall see that it gives
 attachment to a double prolongation of the pleura.   The
 interval forms the anterior mediastinum, in which are con-
 tained  the  heart, large vessels and pericardium.  Behind
 the heart, the two prolongations are applied against each
 other, and  separate  anew on  the vertebral  column; this
 second interval forms the posterior mediastinum, in which 
58
anatomist's manual.
are situated the aorta, esophagus, eighth pair of nerves, or
pneumogastric, and the thoracic canal.
  Such are the preparations of the different parts enclosed
in the chest.
                     Description.
                       LARYNX.
  Situation and relations.—On the anterior and middle
portion of the neck, below the os-hyoides and  tongue, and
above the trachea; in front it is covered by the  integu-
ments of the neck and some interposed muscles ;  behind,
it corresponds to the pharynx.
  Figure.—Elongated, cylindrical.
   Division.—Five cartilages,, one of which is above and
in front, called  thyroid, on  account  of its resemblance
to a  shield;  one below, circular,  and  called cricoid, on
account  of its   resemblance  to a ring : two above and
behind,  called  arytenoid,  which  may be  compared  to
species of  funnels ; the fifth and last,  above, developed in
form of  a tongue, called epiglottis.   From  the arrange-
ment and  disposition of these  cartilages there results a
sort of elongated box, the superior opening of which, call-
ed  glottis, corresponds  to the base of the tongue.   The
inferior opening, which  has not received any  particular
name, is continuous with the trachea.   The interior ofthe
larynx presents, above and below, species of ligamentous
cords, in the interval of which are the ventricles.   The
inferior  ligaments  bear the  name of  the vocal cords of
Ferrein.
   Structure and uses.—The  parts which form the larynx
are of a cartilaginous nature.  The interior  is  lined by a
mucous membrane, the continuation of that of the trachea 
               anatomist's manual.              59

and bronchiae, and  which is constantly moistened with a
humor of the same nature.  The uses of this tube are not
merely to afford a passage to the air, but by the mobility
with which its component parts are endowed, this fluid un-
dergoes, in traversing it, different modifications, whence
result the formation of sounds and their numerous modu-
lations.
                   THYROID GLAND.
  Situation arid relations.—On  the anterior and inferior
portion of  the  larynx, behind the sterno-thyroid, sterno-
hyoid and sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscles : in front of the
larynx and trachea  in  its middle portion ; the carotids,
jugular veins and eighth pair of  nerves  correspond to its
lateral portions.
  Figure.—It is of a crescent shape.
  Division.—A middle  portion,  very narrow, called the
isthmus of the thyroid gland ; lateral portions, voluminous,
oblong, of equal size and perfectly resembling each other.
  Structure and  uses.—The thyroid  gland, of a  soft
consistence, and of a brownish  red color, presents an  or-
ganization difficult to  demonstrate.  Its uses are unknown;
it is presumed that it furnishes a humor proper to lubricate
the interior ofthe larynx.
                       TRACHEA.
  Situation and relations.—On the  inferior and  anterior
portion of the  neck ;  from the  larynx  to the second or
third dorsal vertebra, where it divides into two branches,
called  bronchiae;  in  front of  the vertebral column  and
esophagus;  behind the integuments of the neck and the
interposed muscles.
  Figure.—Elongated, cylindrical.
                          37* 
GO              ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
  Division.—Several  cartilages  (from sixteen to twenty
in number) compose the trachea.  As a whole they form
a species of cylindrical funnel,  the posterior  fourth  of
which has been cut off.  Each of the cartilaginous circles
is separated  by a small ligamentous band, which affords
considerable  mobility to the different parts  of the trachea.
    Structure and  uses.—The cartilages  of  the  trachea
do  not  differ, as regards their organization,  from  other
parts of the same kind.  Their consistence is weak  in in-
fancy but  it increases with age;  the membranous por-
tion which separates them in front, exists alone at the pos-
terior part, where there is  no trace of cartilage observed.
The  interior is  lined  by a  prolongation of  the  mucous
membrane,  which  continues  into   the bronchiae.   The
trachea can  merely be considered as a tube affording pas-
sage to the air.

   ORGANS APPERTAINING  ESPECIALLY TO THE CHEST.
                       Mamma.
   Situation  and relations.—On the anterior, superior and
 lateral  portion of the  chest;  covered immediately by the
integuments, which, in this place, are soft to the touch, and
white, except towards  the  summit of the  gland, where a
bluish circle, called areola, is observed,  in the centre of
which there is  a small projecting portion, red in virgins,
 and  brown  in women who have borne children, termed
nipple.
   Structure and uses.—The mamma? are formed of one
gland, enveloped  by a great quantity of  cellular tissue.
In  order  to  see the intimate structure of this gland, we
should, if possible,  examine it on  a  female  who may have
died during lactation; we shall then observe a great number
of  tubes,  called lactiferi, which unite as they approach the 
anatomist's manual.
61
nipple, to the number of fifteen or twenty, under the name
of the excretory milk ducts.   The  uses of the  mam-
mas,  in the  female,  are  not  equivocal ; they are  de-
stined  to secrete milk  in such as have just been delivered.
This nourishment of first infancy is mild  and sweet, and
accommodates itself very happily  to the weakness of its
organs. In imparting to the infant the facility of seizing and
embracing  the nipple,  nature appears  to have  intended
that  the nutritive fluid, furnished by the mother, should
not be exposed to the contact of the air.   This  simple
mechanism destroys all  the reasons adduced in favor of
artificial lactation.
                       THYMUS.
   Situation  and relations.—On  the superior part of the
chest, behind  the sternum,  between the two folds of the
mediastinum.
   Figure.—Oblong, similar, in some respects, to the thy-
roid gland.
   Structure  and uses.—Possessing a soft consistence, and
a brownish red color, the thymus, which is not very appa-
rent except  in early infancy, and which disappears with
age, does not present any other considerations relative to
its uses, which are unknown.

                        LUNGS.
   Situation  and relations.—In the chest, of which they
occupy nearly the  whole cavity.   They are  two in num-
ber, one on  the right, which is  the most voluminous,  the
other on the  left.   They correspond in  their  whole extent
to the ribs and corresponding  inter-costal muscles, from
which they are separated only by the pleura.  The heart 
62           anatomist's manual.
reposes on the anterior portion of the  left lung, which is
separated from that of the right side by the two  folds of
the mediastinum.
   Figure.—It corresponds to that of the  cavity in which
the lungs are enclosed,and somewhat resembles an irregu-
lar cone, the base of which is below and the summit above.
   Division.—External,  convex surface, which  corres-
ponds  to  the  ribs ; internal, concave  surface, contiguous
to the  heart.  The external  surface of the left  lung  pre-
sents a tolerably deep fissure, which  divides it into two
lobes ; that of the right lung presents .two of them, which
divide  it into  three lobes.  The base turned downwards,
corresponds to  the diaphragm ; the summit, turned  up-
wards, extends a little above the first rib.
   Structure and  uses.—The  structure and uses of the
lungs present great differences,   and are not  the same
in the  foetus  and  adult;  these differences are relative  to
their color, density and volume.
   Color.—It  is  livid in the foetus ;  vermillion red, when
the infant has respired ; greyish in the adult, and more or
less  covered with bluish  spots, which become  more  nu-
merous and larger in old  age.
   Density.—It  is considerable in  the  foetus  ; but  in  pro-
portion as  the air  penetrates and dilates the lungs of the
new-born infant, in which respiration is well  establish-
ed, the density always diminishes more and more, so  that
in the adult the  lungs are soft, swollen with air,  and their
specific gravity is less than the water into which they are
plunged.
   Volume.—Reduced to  the smallest  possible size in the
foetus,  the lungs  present a considerable developement  and
mass in the adult; but their  weight  is scarcely increased, 
                 anatomist's manual.            63

the introduction of the air into their cells being the prin-
cipal cause of this augmentation.
  The lungs are composed of blood-vessels, arterial and
venous air-ducts, and an abundant cellular tissue.  Nerves,
lymphatic  vessels and  glands likewise enter  into  their
composition.   An external,  serous membrane, which is a
prolongation  of the  pleura,  constitutes  their general
covering.                                          $
  The pulmonary artery, divided into two principal trunks,
both of which penetrate the lungs, ramifies in them and gives
origin to the first radicules of the  pulmonary veins which
by  their successive re-union, form the trunks of the four
veins of the same name.
   The  trachea is  divided  at  first  into two principal
branches, called bronchiae; these  last multiply  their divi-
sions in proportion as they advance in the lungs, and each
of the infinitely small 'air  tubes resulting from  them ter-
minates in a very fine  membranous cell, having a figure
difficult to determine, and which  has been considered as a
species of ampoule,  to which  has  been given the name of
air ,vesicle.   Several of these  cells   communicate  with
each other ;  their re-union forms lobules, these lobules
lobes, and the assemblage of these last constitutes the en-
tire mass of the lungs.   A mucous membrane lines the in-
terior of all the air tubes.
   The lungs are the principal agents in respiration, which
is effected by the alternate admission and expulsion of the
air in their cells.  Respiration has for its object to operate
changes  in the  blood by the presence of atmospheric air,
so that from being black vyhen it enters the lungs, it becomes
vermillion on  leaving  them.   This new quality acquired
by the blood  in passing  through the  lungs,  renders it 
64'            anatomist's  manual.
proper for the nutrition  of the individual,  and for the
maintenance of a degree  of heat  suited to his mode of
existence.
                       HEART.
   Situation and relations.—A  hollow viscus,  situated
obliquely in the chest and enclosed in the pericardium, to-
gether with the trunks of the large vessels, which emanate
fi=oi| it.   Placed in the separation of the two folds of the
mediastinum,  between the two lungs,  the heart corres-
ponds  in  front to the sternum  and cartilages of the last
true ribs on  the left side ;  behind,  to the  esophagus, de-
scending aorta and  vertebral column ; below, to  the dia-
phragm ;  above, to the aorta and pulmonary artery.
   Figure*—Conoid, flat posteriorly ;  the base of the heart
is above,  inclined to the  right  and somewhat backwards ;
its summit is below, to  the left and inclined  forwards.
   Division.—Superior convex  surface,  inclined  forwards
and to the right;  inferior flat surface, inclined backwards
and to the left, and reposes in part on  the diaphragm.
The right border, turned forwards,  is pointed and longer
than that of  the  opposite side; the left border,  turned
backwards, is thick and  shorter ;   the base, turned up-
wards, is inclined backwards and to the right; the summit)
turned downwards, is inclined forwards and to the left.   It
is this portion of the  heart, which  strikes the space be-
tween the fifth and sixth ribs in  its  pulsations.   This
division of the heart appertains merely to its external con-
formation, and  gives no  idea  of that resulting  from the
arrangement  and  disposition of its  different parts.  In a
word,  if we examine the  heart  rnore attentively, we shall
 find that it  is composed of  two orders  of cavities, the
 two superior of which, one on the right and the other on 
anatomist's  manual.
65
the left, are called auricles ;  and the two inferior, also one
on the right, and the other on the left,  bear the name of
ventricles.
   The  right  auricle,  turned forwards, larger  than the
left, from which it is separated by a thin partition, receives
above the superior vena cava, and below the inferior vena
cava, and also the two coronary veins.  It corresponds to
the superior part of the  ventricle of the  same side.  At
the  mouth  of the  inferior  vena  cava,  we  observe  the
eustachian valve, a sort of moveable partition, having the
form of a crescent, whose functions seem to be  intended
 to prevent  the blood contained  in the auricle, from regur-
gitating into the inferior vena cava; the left auricle, smaller
 than the right, and turned backwards, receives the four pul-
 monary veins, two of which are  on. the right, and two on
 the  left; it corresponds to the superior  part  of the left
 ventricle.
   Both of the auricles present externally an appendage,
 resembling a dog's ear, from which  circumstance they
 have received their name ;  their interior  is furnished with
 fleshy  pillars, the number of which varies.
   The right  ventricle is situated  below the  auricle of the
 same side ; it is larger than the left, but its parois are less
 thick.   It  is  separated  from the  auricle by  an opening
 termed auricular, and furnished, in this spot, with a tricus-
 pid valve.  The  interior  presents  a great  quantity  of
 fleshy pillars, the direction of which is parallel to that of
 the ventricle ;  from its superior and left  portion originates
  the pulmonary artery.
    The  left  ventricle, smaller than the right, but more
  elongated, is  situated below the auricle  of  the same side,
  from which it is separated by an opening also called auri-
  cular, and furnished with a mitral valve.   Its parois are 
66
anatomist's manual.
 much thicker  than those of the right  ventricle, and iU
 fleshy pillars, less numerous, are in general larger.  Near
 the mitral valve, and  to  the  right of the ventricle, origi-
 nates the aorta.   The two ventricles are separated by a
 partition  much thicker than  that of the auricles.   Their
 auricular opening  is likewise surrounded by a species of
 whitish cord, called tendinous zone.   The aorta and pul-
 monary artery which, in  their orgin, present nearly the
 same dispositions,  are each supplied  with  three valves,
 called  sigmoid, much  smaller and differently conformed
 from  those of the ventricles.   The  aorta presents,  be-
 tween its origin and the point at which its  sigmoid valves
 are inserted,  two  small openings, which are the orifices
 of the two coronary arteries.
   Structure and uses.—There is no organ that has  ex-
 cited so much research and discussion as the heart; how-
 ever, we  know but little  of its structure, and authors do
 not agree  respecting  its  uses.   All  that we can advance
 with certainty on this  subject is, that the parts composing
 it enjoy an extreme irritability, which has given rise to the
 belief that  they  were fleshy fibres.   Red  at first  sight,
 their  continued immersion in water,  gives  them a  white
 appearance.    It is evident that  the  heart is the great
 agent   of circulation ; but there is   difference  of opin-
 ion respecting a number of phenomena, which  cannot   be
 examined  in this place.   Let  us now see  what is  the
course of  the blood through the four cavities of the heart.
  The  blood being thrown into the right auricle by  the
venae  cavae and coronaries  passes into the ventricle of  the
same  side ;  the slight contractions of the  auricle,  the
 weight  of the liquid  and the vacuity of the  ventricle,
 are the laws in virtue of which it is conveyed into it. 
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
67
By a strong  and energetic contraction of  the right
ventricle, it is pushed into the pulmonary artery.  By this
mechanism, the mass of the fluid is carried into the lungs,
which produce certain changes in it by which it acquires
new properties ;  taken  up . by the  pulmonary veins, it  is
brought  into the left auricle, which transmits it to the left
ventricle, from which it is forced into the aorta.  This se-
cond part of the circulation pursues the same laws, and is
effected by the same mechanism as the first, with  this dif-
ference, that the blood pushed into the aorta is carried by
this artery to all the parts of the  economy for the  pur-
pose of vivifying them.

       PLEURA, MEDIASTINUM AND  PERICARDIUM.
   Situation, relations  and uses.—The  pleura,  a mem-
brane  common to all the thoracic viscera, lines the cavity
in which they are contained.   When  it  has reached the
vicinity  of the vertebral column, it becomes reflected from
behind forwards in order to form the mediastinum, which,
on the other hand, is implanted into the posterior part ofthe
sternum.  It is formed  of two lamina?, one of which ap-
pertains  to the prolongation of the pleura  on the right side,'
and the  other  to the  prolongation of  the  same mem-
brane  on the left.  There result  from  them two  por-
tions, one behind and the  other in front.  The posterior
mediastinum  lodges the aorta, esophagus and  eighth pair
of nerves ; the anterior the heart, large vessels and  thy-
mus gland.
   The pericardium is a  membranous sac, which  encloses
the heart, and, like this  last, is situated in the anterior sep-
tum of  the  mediastinum.  Its figure  resembles   that  of
the heart; its external  surface  corresponds to the lungs
                            38 
68             anatomist's manual.
on the sides, to the sternum in front, and below to the dia-
phragm, to which it adheres  rather firmly.  Interiorly the
pericardium corresponds to the heart, from which  it is se-
parated by an abundant serosity.
  Structure and uses.—What we have said of the peritone-
um, as regards the abdominal viscera, will apply to the pleura
for those of the chest; it forms, in addition, in the middle ofthe
chest, a partition which sustains the lungs, and prevents them
from compressing  each  other.   The  septum  presented
by this partition anteriorly and posteriorly, is destined to re-
ceive different objects, and to protect them  from the  influ-
ence of the surrounding parts.
  The  pericardium, which appertains to the pleura by its
organization, is  intended to  enclose the heart without in-
terfering with its movements, and to furnish a quantity of
serosity, which prevents this bag from adhering to it.

        ENCEPHALIC ORGANS--ORGANS OF SENSE.
                General Considerations.
   Here  commences the  study of the  organs of animal
life:  the functions which depend on them  are more  or
less under  the  influence of the  will; and  we can, to a
certain  extent,  increase  or  diminish  their energy  at
pleasure.
   Those organs, which belong to the intellectual functions,
and which preside over the senses, may be considered under
two points of view.  The first are enclosed in osseous cavi-
ties,  which  remove them  entirely  from  our sight; the
second, in part  concealed,  like the first, are however in
part easy to  perceive.    The internal organs  are the en-
 cephalon or brain, which is divided into cerebrum, cerebel- 
anatomist's manual.             69
ium and  medulla  oblongata.   Hie  external organs  are
those of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, to which is
given the name of senses.  We cannot sufficiently admire
the wisdom of nature in  the distribution she has made of
the sensorial organs ; in a word, the most precious of these
organs are contained in a cavity, whose parois  being ex-
tremely solid, place them beyond  injury from external
agents.   Receiving merely insensible impressions, it  can
without trouble or effort, fulfil its wonderful functions.  It
is pretended that these are the  more extensive as the mass
of the brain is more considerable.  This opinion has very
celebrated partizans;  however, there are so many parti-
cular facts, which seem  to destroy this general principle,
that we cannot admit it in all its extent.   It is an incon-
testable truth, that the brain diminishes in all animals, in
proportion as, by their conformation, they become farther
removed from that of man.  But the degree of their intel-
ligence is far from being in correspondence with the   vo-
lume of their cerebral mass;  whence it may be concluded
that  the brilliant views of modern physiologists, respect-
ing the developement of the  facial angle, can have no
real object, at least as regards animals.
   Man alone possesses, in a high degree of perfection, the
organs of sense, the extent of which he increases by means,
which his intelligence suggests. In him, the organ of sight
is  placed at the most elevated part  of his body; those of
smell and taste are very near them, and that of hearing is
found on the lateral portions of the head; but this circum-
stance, far from diminishing its energy or extent, appears,
on the contrary, to fulfil in a more perfect manner the views
of nature.  Touch alone, extended over the whole external
surface of the body, is carried to the greatest degree of 
70
Anatomist's  manual.
perfection on the internal part of the hand, and on the ex-
tremity of the fingers.  It is  the  touch,  which  rectifies
the errors of all the other senses, especially of the sight,
which,  perceiving the surrounding bodies  at  very-great
distances, cannot judge of their exact form, density, or of
any other of their  attributes, a knowledge of which the
sense of touch  alone will communicate.   It is true that
this sense cannot be exercised successfully' except on the
external surface of bodies, the dimensions of which  it de-
termines with the greatest accuracy;  but when  we  wish
to know the intimate composition of these bodies, judge of
their smell, or taste, the touch  becomes useless; it is to
the senses of smell and taste that  we must have  recourse
in order to have these properties revealed to us.
   The  brain, as also the heart, gives origin to prolonga-
tions which, distributed  throughout the different parts of
the body, are as it were executors of its orders,  and com-
municate, with  the  rapidity of lightning, to the 'common
centre, the sensations  produced by the  surrounding bodies
on the  exterior of the individual.  These prolongations,
termed nerves, are not of two kinds, as is the case with the
sanguineous vessels; but they are equally susceptible of
transmitting feeling, and  of serving the  different  sensa-
tions.  Their origin is in  the brain,  and their radiations
on the  organs  of sense.  However, notwithstanding the
order of this distribution, we shall occupy ourselves in this
place with the  brain and  organs of sense only,  reserving
the exposition of the nerves  until  we  shall have  described
the blood vessels.  This course, moreover, is  adopted by
all anatomists,  and in fact we should not pursue any other.
Without rejecting absolutely the ideas of Dr. Gall, respect- 
anatomist's manual.            71
ing the distribution of the nerves, I have not adopted them
in this work.
                     ENCEPHALON.
   It is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla
oblongata,  as also its prolongation, called spinal marrow.
We must join to these first objects the meninges or mem-
branes of the brain.   We shall pursue, for the brain and
its membranes, the same course which we have adopted
for the organs in the other cavities of the body; that is to
say, we shall in the first place occupy ourselves with the
whole cerebral mass, including the  spinal marrow, and
we shall not describe the membranes of the brain until af-
ter having examined the organs which they envelope.

               Anatomical Preparation.
   Cerebrum, cerebellum,  medulla oblongata.—The pre-
paration of the brain requires  that we should perform the
section  indicated in Vol.  I. but  here there  are  certain
precautions to  observe, which may be neglected when we
open  the  cranium merely for the purpose of examining
the derangements occasioned  by certain diseases.   We
should not, for  example, select a subject that has  died of
apoplexy, or in consequence of a violent blow on the head,
but we should procure, if possible", an  adult, who has died
of a disease of several days' standing.  The bones are to be
sawed regularly, and the instrument should not be carried to
the interior of the cranium, for it is very rare that the mem-
branes are not lacerated, and the brain more or less injured.
In order to  avoid this inconvenience, we  should saw only a
portion  of the substance ofthe bones, and terminate their de-
finitive  separation with the chisel and mallet;  in this way,
we shall not risk tearing the  dura mater, and the brain
                     38* 
72
anatomist's manual.
will be more secure.  We shall not be in danger of either
lacerating the  dura mater, or injuring the brain if,  instead
of the saw, we employ a hammer for the purpose of open-
ing the cranium,  vide Vol. I.
  When we have completely separated the arch ofthe cra-
nium, it should be cautiously removed from  before back-
wards.   The dura mater is frequently very adhering to it,
especially at the portion corresponding to the parietal suture
and foramen ccecum ;  in order to do away with this adhe-
sion, we  should pass the handle  of  a  scalpel or a chisel
of  sufficient length,  between the  bones  of  the cranium
and dura mater,  and detach, in.. proportion as we raise
the arch of the cranium, the  vessels which are the princi-
pal cause of this  adhesion.   This preliminary preparation
being achieved, we will have a good view ofthe mariner in
which the dura mater envellopes the brain ; but we will not
be able to pursue its different prolongations, a knowledge of
which is highly important; it is for this reason that we advise
to defer an examination of them until after that ofthe brain.
In following a different course, it will be impossible  to form
an idea of the disposition  of this membrane, as regards
the brain.   We may, it is true, examine  its external con-
formation, such as its color,  density, thickness, &c. ;  but
we must afterwards sacrifice it in order to pass to the study
of the brain.  For this purpose we should cut it circularly
on a level with the bones ofthe cranium, and we expose the
brain, in. raising the dura mater on its summit ; then in de-
taching it from the crista galli apophysis, it is to be drawn
from  before backwards, and then abandoned in this  place.
We  shall find bo difficulty  in thus  isolating it;  for the
serous humor with which its internal surface is continually
lubricated, permits it to move freely on the  cerebral mass. 
anatomist's  manual.
73
Such is not the case as regards the other two membranes
applied immediately on the  brain, and termed arachnoidea
and pia-mater ; both of these are extremely thin  compar-
ed to the first.   The arachnoidea, especially, presents very
great difficulty in its preparation; it does not dip  between
the convolutions of the brain, but  it proceeds without stop-
ping, over its whole external surface,  adhering intimately
to the pia-mater, from which it  cannot  be detached but
with much trouble except towards the base of the brain,
where  their separation is  more  sensible, and  where the
arachnoidea can be distinctly seen ; however, if we should
wish to  see it on  the summit of the brain, we  should
gently  raise,  either  with the small  dissecting  forceps,
or  with  the  point of a scalpel, the  smallest  portion
of  membrane  perceptible—it is  the  arachnoidea.  The
pia-mater  is beneath ;  it is a species of cellular network,
interspersed with  a great quantity of biood-vessels;  it
must be raised with the dissecting forceps, and detached
with caution, because it dips down between  the  convolu-
tions of the brain, and in drawing forcibly on it  we fre-
quently remove with it the substance  of this  organ.  At
the end of this article, there will  be found more ample de-
tails respecting the preparation of the three membranes of
the brain.   When we have thus removed  the membranes,
which cover the brain, this latter remains exposed, and pre-
sents to the eye its numerous convolutions, which have
been compared to  those  of the intestines.   We should, in
the first place, and before proceeding to its ulterior study,
examine its form, volume, consistence and color : this last
is not the  same on its external surface  and in its interior.
In order to assure ourselves of the fact, we should cut a
portion of its substance from the sides at the depth of about 
74             anatomist's  manual.
an inch, and we shall then judge not only of 4his difference
of color, grey  without and white within,  but likewise of
the thickness of that which is external, and which measures
nearly two lines.   The first bears the name of cineritious
or cortical, and the other that of medullary substance.
  We then pass to the particular examination ofthe brain.
This  is long  and difficult, and will require considerable
patience.  It must not be forgotten that  its study and  pre-
paration  should go together.  The impossibility of pre-
serving the objects in place, in proportion as they are ex-
posed, is the principal cause.
  It is not an unfrequent circumstance for the brain, on
which we are. about to make the necessary researches, to
be of a soft consistence, which interferes considerably with
the preparation of the different parts composing it.   In or-
der to render it more firm and thus preserve it for a longer
time, we should put it for twelve or fifteen hours into a solu-
tion of the muriate of mercury, or into a mixture of water
and some acid ; but we must not allow it to remain too  long
in'contact with these reactives.  The solution ofthe  muriate
of mercury imparts to the whole cerebral mass a  dull white
color ; and the acids, a black color, very unfavorable to
the study of the brain.  Let the student commence by re-
moving the portion of this organ  situated above the hori-
zontal and circular section of the  bones of the cranium,
and from this will result what anatomists call the oval cen-
tre of Vieussens.   In this section the brain is :o be remov-
ed by masses, so as to leave untouched an elongated, whitish
body, which occupies the centre of  the two hemispheres of
the encephalic organ, and termed corpus  callosum; in
separating carefully the substance ofthe two hemispheres, 
anatomist's manual.
75
and viewing the interval, we shall see very distinctly the
corpus callosum.
  In  order  to  examine  the objects  placed below, which
are numerous, we should carry cautiously the point of the
scalpel on the sides and along the whole extent of the cor-
pus callosum.   We will know that it is completely divided,
when, in endeavoring to raise it, we perceive a species  of
arch below.  Then with the handles of two scalpels, we
raise it on its lateral portions, in order to get a view of a
very thin  medullary body, placed immediately below ;  it
is the septum lucidum (septum medium) the transparency
of which  we should not neglect to notice.  The corpus
callosum and  septum  lucidum being carried backwards,
we  shall see that the latter reposes on a medullary prolon-
gation, called the arch with three pillars, which is applied
immediately over a species of triangular cavity, termed th%
lateral ventricles.   In  order to expose them, it will be ne-
cessary to remove the  arch with three pillars, which must
be carried backwards,  as also two reddish bodies, a species
of vascular network, called plexus choroides. These diffe-
rent operations require considerable address and a certain
delicacy in the manner of raising and removing the objects
already examined, the  presence  of which interferes with
the study  of those which are placed beneath.
  The lateral ventricles, freed from  the corpus callosum,
the transparent partition, the arch and plexus  choroides,
present the following objects, proceeding from before back-
wards :
  1 st. Two bodies rather voluminous, greyish, and  of  an
ovoid form, called corpora striata, occupying the whole an-
terior part of the space, which has been exposed. 
76
anatomist's manual.
  2d. The thalami nervorum opticorum, placed between
the former, and connected to each other, of a whitish co.
lor, and separated from the corpora striata by a medullary
bandelette,  which is prolonged  backwards, and  termed
tania semi circularis.
   In separating the thalami  of the optic nerves, we per-
ceive in the interval a small cavity, called third ventricle ;
at the extremities  of this species  of groove, there are two
openings, above which we remark two medullarycordona
placed cross-wise, termed anterior and posterior commis-
sures, the extent and direction of which we should observe,
in removing the portion of the cerebral mass, which covers
them on the two sides.
   The  anterior opening leads to the pituitary tige and
gland ;  the posterior to the fourth ventricle.  But before
passing to the examination of these different objects, we
 should  first complete the inspection  of every thing to  be
 seen in the lateral ventricles.  We must, therefore,  conti-
 nue  our researches behind and on the  sides, separating
 more and more the cerebral mass in the direction of the
 semi-circular  bandelette.   In this way we  will penetrate
 the profoundest part of the lateral ventricles ; in  order to
 arrive  at this point, we must be guided by the presence of a
 flat medullary body, which appears to be continuous with
 the posterior prolongations of the arch with three pillars,
 and which is termed the feet of Hippocampus, one of the
 borders of this broad medullary bandelette is as it were
 scolloped.   Anatomists have termed  this portion, corpora
 fimbriata, striata.  When these objects have been seen and
 recognized properly, we should then pass to an examination
 of the  others.  In raising more and more, and  drawing
 backwards the posterior part of the arch with three pillars, 
               anatomist's  manual.             77

we will perceive four  whitish tubercles, integral parts of
the brain, .in the middle of which is observed a small grey-
ish body, which is sometimes removed with the arch with
three pillars, when we do not attend to this  circumstance,
or when dissecting too rapidly ; it is the peneal gland, in
which is  constantly found small gravel, of which we can
assure ourselves by pressing it between the fingers, after
having obtained an idea of its situation and relations; here
terminates the examination of the  objects placed on the
 lateral ventricles.
   In separating the thalami nervorum opticorum, we shall
 observe  a cavity extending from before backwards—it is
 the third ventricle.   If we follow the anterior opening, we
 shall reach the infundibulum,, a species  of funnel, at the
 bottom of which  there  is  a small greyish prolongation,
 which continues as far as the sella turcica ;  it is the pitui-
 tary tige, leading to  the  gland of the same  name ;  but  in
 order to have a better view of these objects, we must gent-
  ly raise the brain at its anterior part; or cut two whitish
  cords, which pass over the sella turcica and conceal them
  from  our view : in this way, we shall arrive without diffi-
  culty at the pituitary gland, which is profoundly lodged in
  the fossa of the same name.
    The posterior opening of the third ventricle leads to the
   fourth, which cannot be distinctly seen until  after having
   removed the entire  mass  of the cerebellum, the medulla
   oblongata, and remaining portion of the cerebrum.  For
   this purpose, we must cut in its whole circumference that
   portion of the dura mater, placed between the cerebrum
   and  cerebellum; we must  then  remove  the two hemis-
   pheres of the cerebellum from the occipital  fossae, and in
   carryinga scalpel as far forwards as possible in tothe spinal 
78
anatomist's manual.
 canal, we separate the prolongation of the medulla oblon.
 gata; finally, with the scissors, we should destroy, in pro.
 portion as the whole is raised, the vessels, nerves, and eve-
 ry thing, that could oppose the free passage of the ence-
 phalic mass, which should be  placed upon the table, in
 order to continue our researches.  The first objects to ex-
 amine are, the cerebellum, its prolongations towards a me-
 dullary body, situated between the cerebrum and cerebel-
 lum, and called  medulla  oblongata, annular  protube-
 rance, (meso-cephale.)   It appears to  give origin to four
 prolongations, two for the cerebrum and two for the cere-
 bellum ; they are termed the arms and legs of the medulla
 oblongata;  their re-union bears the name of pons varolii,  j
   Between the cerebellum and  medulla  oblongata, is  re-
 marked the fourth ventricle,  the different objects of which  '
 may be seen, by raising a species of medullary tail (queue,) *
 which terminates the medulla oblongata, and which is  the
 commencement  of the  vertebral or  rachidien  medulla.
 The  first thing presenting itself to  view is a species  of
 groove, called calamus scriptorius, farther on, a small me-
 dullary partition (valve of Vieussens) beyond which is found
 the aqueduct of# Sylvius ; and if we carry our  researches
still farther, we will arrive  at the posterior opening of the
third ventricle, precisely at the spot at which we had aban-
doned the examination of the cerebrum, in order to pass
to that of the cerebellum, which presents nothing peculiar
in its interior, if  we except  the disposition  of the two grey
and white substances, the particular arrangement of which,
no matter in what direction  it may be cut, gives rise to
what is termed the arbor vitae.
   The spinal marrow is contained in the canal of the same
 name, and extends from the medulla oblongata to. the  in- 
anatomist's manual.
79
ferior portion ofthe sacral canal.  It cannot be exposed, ex-
cept by removing the posterior part of the vertebrae in the
whole extent of the spine.   We must proceed in the follow.
ing manner : the posterior part of the vertebral column be-
ing completely freed from its muscles, we must remove, with
the chisel and mallet, the whole posterior portion ofthe ver-
tebrae, which will perfectly expose the spinal marrow. How-
ever, we should not touch that part ofthe canal through
which pass the vertebral nerves, which originate on the sides
ofthe spinal marrow, and emerge from the canal in the same
direction.  We should likewise avoid injuring the spinal
marrow and membranes  enveloping it: but in order to
render this preparation more complete,  it will not be suffi-
cient to  have  the vertebral canal exposed  in its  whole
length ; it will likewise be necessary to have all the  pos-
terior  part of the bones  of the cranium removed, which
will be done with  a saw, chisel, or with  a sharp-pointed
hammer.  We will perceive by this, that it is difficult for
one head to suffice for the study of the  encephalic  organ;
but this inconvenience, if it be one, furnishes us the means
of seeing the  origin of the  nerves, with which it  is not
possible to occupy ourselves in the special preparation of
the brain.
   If we  have  properly  prepared the  spinal marrow, we
shall perceive that it is enveloped by a prolongation of the
membranes of  the brain, which should be cut in their
whole  posterior portion.   A  space, which is rather con-
siderable is remarked between the membranes and medulla;
sometimes a small quantity of water is  found contained in
it;  more frequently, however, there is none.  In the spot
at which the  spinal marrow leaves the  annular protu-
berance, it is as it were surrounded by four renfiemens, to
                         39 
80             anatomist's  manual.
which have been given the names  of olivary and pyramidi-
al eminenees.   The  spinal marrow  descends  into the
vertebral  canal, preserving a volume  nearly relative to
the cavity in  which it is enclosed; it terminates towards
the first lumbar vertebra, and, at this  place, gives origjn
to a quantity of nervous cords, which prolong iDto the ver-
tebral  canal,  and  accompany  it to the  bottom of  the
sacrum ;  it is. the Cauda Equina.

           Preparation of the Membranes.
   The preparation of the spinal marrow, such as. we have
just indicated,  has an additional advantage of furnishing us
with the  means of  observing the arrangement of  the
membranes of the brain;  but if we could procure the head
of a  child, it would  be preferable, on account of  the
facility of sawing, or even  of cutting the  boaes.  We
should proceed as follows: were move on the right and left,
from the superior part of the head,  a portion of the bones
of the cranium, in  form of a lozenge,  the great diameter
of which proceeds from  before backwards.   Its  extent
must measure from the environs of the frontal protube-
rance,  to the external  oecipital prominence, and from the
temporal fossa to within two fingers' breadth of the section
on the  opposite side; in this way, there remains in the cen-
tre and in the same extent., a species of osseous band, which
follows pretty  qorrectly the  direction of the  superior lon-
gitudinal sinus, and  which sustains it.   Having removed
the bones, we  should open  the dura mater on. a level, with
the section^ and the hrain  is to be expelled through the
this opening; the. same thing should be done for the, cere-
bellum through the foramen occipitale, and, in this, way, thfc
 lura mater will be  preserved  in  its integrity.  We shall 
anatomist's  manual.             81
then see, in front, that portion of this membrane, which is
placed between the two  hemispheres, and which is termed
the falx of the brain ;  lower down and behind there is a
species  of floor  formed by  this same membrane, which
marks the separation between  the cerebrum and  cerebel-
lum; it is the  tentorium ;  and  below is observed  the falx
of the cerebellum.  This  is  not all; the dura mater like-
wise forms  sinuses or veins of the  brain, the volume of
which  is considerable,  and the number multiplied.   The
head, which has served for the preparation of the brain,
will also answer  for that of these sinuses.
   The longest  and most, considerable  is the  superior
longitudinal sinus, which  is lodged in the groove of the
same name.    We should  break the bones ofthe cranium,
in this spot,  in order to pursue it; it is for this reason that
it would be preferable to have the head of a young subject.
Along the inferior border,  and free from the falx, is another
sinus, much smaller than  the preceding,  which is termed
the inferior longitudinal  sinus.   Both  of  them  reach
a  third, which  appertains in  part to  the tentorium, and
which  is  called  the right sinus.    Nearly in the same
place, the superior sinus divides into two branches, which
pass into the lateral 'grooves and  form  the lateral si-
nuses.
   Another mode of seeing the  longitudinal sinus  is to re-
move the top of the cranium, without interfering  with the
dura mater.  The sinus continues  along  the superior part
of the head, and it can  be traced in its whole length with
great facility.
   The  other sinuses of the  dura mater, more numerous,
are smaller and shorter than the preceding.  They are
the superior and inferior petrous sinuses, which proceed 
82
ANATOMISTS  MANUAL.
along the superior and inferior borders of the petrous por-
tion  of the temporal  bone, and  lose themselves in  the
lateral sinuses.   On the lateral portions ofthe body ofthe
sphenoid, and around the sella turcica are observed the cav-
ernous and coronary sinuses.   In fine, the occipital sinuses
are distinguished into superior  and transverse.   The first,
two in number, go along the lateral portions of the internal
occipital crest, and are lost in the  gulf of the jugular vein ;
the second, more numerous, are placed across the vertebral
groove, and communicate with  the inferior petrous sinuses.
   We must, with the point of  a  scalpel or  scissors, open
these different sinuses in their whole extent, in order to
examine  their  interior, and follow  more  exactly  their
course;  they are  ordinarily filled with  thick  blood  of a
deep red color.
                      Description.
                         BRAIN.
             Encephalon G. ; Cerebrum L.
   Situation and Relations.—In the  interior of the crani-
um, the  greatest part of  which  it  occupies ; in  relation
with the  bones of this cavity, except posteriorly and be-
low, where it corresponds to the cerebellum.
   Figure.—It is relative to that of the cavity in which it
is enclosed, and represents tolerably well  an ovoid  body,
the  inferior portion of which is flat.
   Division-—Superior surface, which is in correspondence
 with the parietal bones and a  portion of the frontal:  infe-
 rior surface, occupying the internal part ofthe base of the
 cranium, and presenting three tubercles, divided into ante-
 rior, middle, and  posterior.   Lateral  regions, lodged in
 great part in the parietal fossa, and  having  a  profound
 fissure at this point, called the fissure of Silvius.   The 
                ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.             83

 posterior extremity,  large,  is  received in  the superior
 occipital  fossa;;  the anterior extremity, corresponds to
 the coronal  fossa?.  The whole external surface of the
 brain  is  immediately covered  by the  pia-mater   and
 arachnoidea,  and is in relation with the internal surface of
 the dura mater.
   But this division appertains only to the external confor-
 mation of the brain, and does not point out the numerous
 objects, which result from the arrangement of its different
 parts.    We  should, therefore,  remark  that  the general
 mass of  the brain is divided into two equal portions, one on
 the right, the  other on the left, called  hemispheres of the
 brain; in the interval of the two hemispheres, there is a
 profound depression, which lodges the falx ofthe brain.—
 Each of the hemispheres presents in addition circumvolu-
 tions and imfractuosities, the  figure and  extent  of which
 are variable.    In  separating the two hemispheres, and in
 performing the section already mentioned, in order to form
 the oval centre of Vieussens, we will observe successively
 the following  objects :—
   1st.  The corpus callosum, a species of medullary  floor,
 elongated from before backwards, broader posteriorly than
 in front;  its superior surface is furnished in its whole length
 with the callous arteries, and it presents at its middle portion
 a  slight  depression;  its inferior surface reposes on the
 transparent  septum ; its lateral portions are  confounded
 with the  cerebral mass.
   2d.  The septum lucidum sustains the  corpus callosum,
 on the one hand, and reposes on the arch with three pillars
 on the other.   This  septum is formed by the  adossement
of  two medullary  lames  in  the interval  of which  h
                        39* 
84             anatomist's  manual.
remarked a cavity, which most generally contains a varia-
ble quantity of serosity.
  3d.  The  arch with three pillars is the portion which
presents  itself after having removed the corpus callosum
and septum.    It is a medullary triangle, placed between
the above objects and  lateral ventricles.  Above, the arch
corresponds  to  the septum;  below,  it reposes  on the
thalami nervorum opticorum in front, and on the lateral
ventricles behind; the anterior angle, formed by two cords,
which continue to separate more and more, loses itself  in
the cerebral mass; the posterior angles dip down into the
lateral ventricles, and form  the corpora fimbriata;  the
lateral portions are embraced by the choroid plexus.
  4th.  These plexuses are two reddish membrano-vascu-
lar productions, which  extend  from  the environs of the
thalami nervorum opticorum to the posterior  part of the
lateral ventricles.
   5th.   The lateral ventricles cannot be seen  until all the
objects just described have been removed.   We  will find
there from before backwards the corpora striata formed
of a greyish substance externally, and of lames alternate-
ly grey and white internally;  piriforme eminences, the
large  extremities of  which, turned  forwards touch each
other in  this place, and present posteriorly an interval  in
which the optic nerves are lodged.     •
   The  thalami  nervorum opticorum,  ovoid,  placed  in
the interval of the corpora striata, correspond above to the
arch and corpus callossum, below  to the  annular  protu-
berance, on the sides to the  corpora striata and cerebral
mass; within, they are thrown against  each  other, con-
tiguous in their whole extent, except in the middle portion
and somewhat anteriorly where there is observed a medul-
lary cord, which passes from one thalamus to the other. 
anatomist's manual.
85
  There is remarked, between the corpora  striata  and
thalami nervorum opticorum, a slight  depression which
lodges a whitish cord, known under the  name of semi-cir-
cular bandelette, and  which, from  the  anterior part con-
tinues posteriorly as far as the fundus of the ventricles.
  The  horns of Ammon, feet  of  Hippocampus,  are  two
medullary prolongations, which seem to be  the continua-
tion of  the posterior angles of the arch with three pillars,
and  which extend  to the  deepest  portion of the late-
ral  ventricles, the course  and  direction of which they
follow.   The anterior extremity, lower than the posterior.
is  terminated by two,  three,  or  four tubercles.   The
color of these prolongations, white externally, is grey  and
of an ash hue internally.
  On the  internal and concave part of the feet of Hippo-
campus there is a medullary  lame scolloped on  its free bor-
der,  and termed corpus fimbriatum.    This body is noth-
ing more than the continuation of the posterior pillars of
the arch; but it does not accompany the  feet of Hippocam-
pus to their termination.
  On the external side  of  the feet of Hippocampus,  and
nearly at the middle portion, there is a tubercle called ergot;
its form is similar to that  of the cavity  in which  it is en-
closed, and it is curved in a sense contrary to  the pedun-
cles, on which it borders.  Its extent is not very considerable,
and its color  is altogether similar  to that of the  horns of
Ammon, the bandelette, &c.
  6th.   To these different objects, we must join a descrip-
tion  of the  tubercula quadrigemina, and  pineal gland,
although they do not appertain especially to the lateral
ventricles.
  The tubercula quadrigemina, placed  under the arch 
86              anatomist's manual.
with three  pillars and  at  its posterior  part, are arranged
in pairs, and distinguished into superior  and inferior.  They
sustain in  their interval a greyish  body, envelloped by a
prolongation of the choroid plexus, termed pineal gland.
  This pretended gland  is of a very soft  tissue,  breaks
easily under  the  finger,  and then  leaves  a quantity of
small gravel,  the  presence of which cannot be attributed
to any known cause, and does not appear to  have any par-
ticular object.
  7th. In  separating the thalami nervorum  opticorum, the
eye falls on a cavity elongated  from before  backwards—it
is the third ventricle.   It presents two openings; the pos-
terior is surmounted  by  a medullary cord placed cross-
wise, called the posterior commissure,  the extent of which
in the cerebral mass is considerable ;  it is on the posterior
part  of this commissure  that repose the tubercula quadri-
gemina and pineal gland ; this opening leads to the fourth
ventricle.    The anterior is, like  the  preceding, also sur-
mounted by a  medullary cord, situated transversely; it
communicates with a  conduit, which  from its figure has
received the name of  funnel,  at  the  bottom of which is
remarked  the pituitary tige  and  the gland of the same
name; this last is lodged on the sella turcica, the cavity of
which it  occupies  : widened on the side at which it  cor-
responds to the os-sphenoides,  it  is terminated  above by
a  prolongation, which has scarcely  less than three linet
in  length, called pituitary tige.    The eolor of the gland
 is  yellowish  externally,  and greyish internally;  its con-
 sistence is soft and friable.
 K  8th.  The aqueduct of Silvius and valve of Vieussens
 terminate  the  description of the cerebrum.  The first of 
anatomist's manual.             87
these  objects is  a conduit placed between  the posterior
commissure, tubercul  quadrigemina  and  annular protu-
berance, and  terminates in the fourth ventricle.   The se-
cond is a greyish medullary lame, termed valve of Vieus-
sens;  it is very thin, and resists feebly any shock impart-
ed to the brain.

                     CEREBELLUM.
   Situation and figure.—In the posterior fossae ofthe base
ofthe cranium, below  the tentorium.
   Division.—Like the cerebrum, it is formed of two
hemispheres,  and its figure resembles somewhat an ellipsis,
the great diameter of which is transverse.   We  consider
in the cerebellum a superior surface, on which is observed
the superior  vermicular eminence;  an inferior  surface,
which corresponds to the bones of the base of the cranium,
and presents the  inferior vermicular eminence; in addition,
we remark on this region, and  in the interval of the two
hemispheres, a  species of crucial eminence,  the lateral
branches of  which are lost in the cerebellum; the poste-
rior is free, and the anterior is confounded with the annular
protuberance.
   The whole external surface of the cerebellum presents
a great number of convolutions, which give it the appear-
ance of being composed of lames united to each other ; in
cutting it  by slices, the interior presents species  of arbo-
rescent branches,  which has acquired for  it the name of
arbor vitoz.

              CEREBRAL PROTUBERANCE.
   Situation  and relations.—Placed  between  the cere-
 Turn and cerebellum, of which it is the point of communi- 
88             anatomist's manual.

cation, the cerebral protuberance Occupies the basilar de-
pression, on which it is sustained on the one hand, and, on
the other, corresponds to the cerebrum  and  cerebellum.
The following objects are presented :—
  1st.   The mamillary eminences, which, from the pitui-
tary tige, extend to the anterior part of the protuberance.
  2d.  The prolongations of the cerebrum and cerebellum,
 to which have  boen given  the  namesof arms and legs o{
the medulla oblongata, are four large  .medullary cords
which, from the protuberance, proceed, the anterior towards
the cerebrum, and the  posterior towards the cerebellum.
  3d.  The pous varolii, or annular protuberance, a com-
 mon rendezvous of the four above  prolongations, quadri-
 lateral, corresponds above to the aqueduct of Silvius, and
 below  to the occipital depression.   There is  remarked at
 its middle portion a groove, which lodges the basilar arte-
 ry.  In front it is free; behind,  it gives rise to the verte-
 bral or spinal marrow.   It is composed of medullary  sub-
 stance, mixed with a small quantity of greyish material.

                    spinal  marrow.
                     Rachidienne.
   Situation and relations.—Its  length is considerable, and
 extends from the  posterior and  inferior part of the protu-
 berance  to the top ofthe first lumbar  vertebra.  Its figure
 resembles tolerably well the cavity in which it is enclosed ;
 however, it appears  in general slightly flat from  before
 backwards.  Constantly in relation with the  vertebral ca-
 nal, it is separated from  the  bones which form it, by the
 presence of three membranes, prolongations of  those of
 the brain.
   Division.—Anterior portion, which, at its origin,  pre- 
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
89
sents the olivary and pyramidal eminences, separated by
a depression which continues along its whole length, and
which makes it appear like  the result of the adossement
ofthe two medullary cords.   This opinion is not unfound-
ed, and I have frequently succeeded in isolating these  two
cords  for  several inches.   The  posterior part likewise
presents a depression, which is more superficial than the
preceding.   The lateral portions  give origin to the cere-
bral  nerves which,  at their commencement, present an
anterior and posterior faisceau.  Above, the  spinal mar-
row corresponds to  the cerebral protuberance of which it
is the prolongation; below, it terminates at the first lum-
bar vertebra, where  commences the cauda equina, which
continues  down the rest  of the vertebral canal.
  Structure and uses.—If we are content  with  simply
inspecting the external aspect of the encephalic mass, we
will observe that it is composed of two substances diffe-
rently arranged; one, more abundant, is white or medulla-
ry ; the other greyish.  The name of cortical  which has
been given to this  last, cannot be applied  to it in  all the
parts ofthe brain where it is found, for it is sometimes situ-
ated externally, and  sometimes concealed in the interior.
Some  anatomists have pretended, without foundation,  that
its color was*  due  to  the quantity of vessels with which
this substance is furnished :  an  attentive examination will
serve  to destroy this assertion.  Neither can any inference
be drawn  from the oiversity of arrangement in the  two
substances.  It appears probable that the medullary which
is also the most  abundant,  possesses more extensive  pro-
perties.   A late opinion seems to take these  properties from
it in  order to  give them  to the cortical substance.   Dr. 
90
anatomist's manual.
 Gall, by recent researches, appears to have demonstrated
 that  the  nerves,  of which  the  medullary substance is
 nothing more than  the assemblage, originated in the grey-
 ish substance.
   Great obscurity still prevails respecting the uses of the
 brain: it is,  as is generally said, the organ of sensation
 and motion;  but we cannot determine in what way these
 phenomena of  life  act.  Its  soft and friable consistence,
 the extreme tenuity of its parts explain,  to a certain de-
 gree, the subtiltyof the operations, which are effected in it.
 This is all that physiology can explain in  reference to the
 functions  ofthe brain.  But to seek to understand the uses
 of the different parts contained in its interior, and to unfold
 the arrangement of these parts, is an undertaking, which
 so far proved unavailing.
  The opinion of the ancients, respecting the secretion of
 a cerebral fluid, admitted  for many ages, afterwards aban-
 doned, and again resumed in our times, is far from  being
 based on constant and positive facts.   Let us hope, how-
 ever,  that time, the labor of anatomists, the experiments of
 physiologists, and the repeated, observations ofthe derange-
 ment ofthe brain, will unveil the mystery which conceals
 from our observation its wonderful functions.

        MENINGES OR MEMBRANES OF THE BRAIN.
                   ( Meninges  G.)
  Situation and relations.—Three in number, contained
in the cavity of the cranium and vertebral canal, and serv-
ing  as an envellope  and support  to the different parts of
the  cerebral mass: they should be examined separately.
  1st, Dura Mater.—This is the most external, as well as
the  thickest of the three.   It is applied, on the one  hand, 
               anatomist's  manual.              91

to the internal  surface  of the bones of the .cranium, with
which  it  contracts  more  intimate  adhesions  at   the  •
base,  and in the environs of the foramina and  sutures;
on the other hand, it  corresponds to the  arachnoidea,
but  so far from adhering to it, it is on the contrary sepa-
rated  from it-by an abundant serosity, which renders its
surface  smooth and polished.  It  is  to*the numerous
vessels which,  from this membrane, enter the bones of
the cranium, that is due the  adhesion which cannot be
overcome except  by  lacerating them.   The drops of
blood  with which  the dura mater is covered, after having
removed  the summit of the cranium, leaves no doubt as
to the truth of this assertion.
  The dura mater is  of a pearl white  color, and com-
posed  of  two lames  united to each other by a very dense
cellular  tissue.  It furnishes three  prolongations,  which
are :  1st,  the falx  cerebri,  situated  between the  two
hemispheres, having  a  figure  nearly  similar  to the  in-
strument from which it receives its name.   Its  superior
border  forms  in  part   the  superior  longitudinal  sinus,
and the  inferior  the sinus of the same name.   In front,
the falx  is attached  to  the apophysis  christa galli;  be-
hind, it corresponds to the internal occipital protuberance.
2d,  The  tentorium  cerebelli, situated  transversely, sepa-
rates  the cerebrum from the cerebellum.    Its figure,
difficult  to determine,   is relative  to the  organs' with
which  it  is in contact: superiorly, it supports  the pos-
terior lobes of the cerebrum : inferiorly, it reposes on the
cerebellum.   Its circumference is attached to the borders
of the lateral   depressions on  the  occiput,  and,  at  this
place, it  contributes to  the  formation of  the  lateral sinu-
ses.   Sd, The  falx cerebelli, similar to the falx cerebri,
                           10 
92              anatomist's  manual.
but infinitely smaller, is  placed  in  the interval of the
lobes ofthe cerebellum.
  The uses  of these different folds  of the dura mater
are  evident,  and  do not require any explanation ;  but
besides these folds,  the dura mater  forms  sinuses,  real
venous  conduits,  which,  receiving the  blood  from  the
arteries of the brain, deposit  it in the  internal jugular
veins.   These  veins  are:   1st,  The  superior  longitu-
dinal, which is also the most considerable.  It  extends
from  the  foramen  coecum   to  the  internal  occipital
protuberance.  Its  figure is triangular;  narrow  at  its
origin, which is in  front, it becomes broader in propor.
tion as  it is  examined towards its posterior part, where
it  bifurcates,  and forms  the  lateral sinuses, which  are
the continuation of it.
   2d.   The  lateral sinuses.   These  are received in
the  lateral depressions,  and  lodged  in the cavity pre-
sented by the circumference of  the  tentorium  cerebelli.
They  extend  from  the  protuberance  to  the  foramina
lacera  posteriora.   Of these two sinuses, the  right  is
ordinarily the largest.
  3d.   The  inferior  border of the  falx cerebri lodges
the inferior longitudinal sinus, the extent and volume of
which  are not  very considerable.   It loses itself in the
right sinus.
  4th.  This bears the name of the Press of Herophilus.
It  extends from the tentorium cerebelli  to   the  occipital
protuberance.  It opens, on the one hand, into the inferior
longitudinal  sinus,  and,  on  the  other, loses itself most
commonly in the right lateral sinus.
   5th.   The superior petrous  sinuses  are situated in
the groove on the  superior border of the petrous portion 
anatomist's  manual.
93
of the temporal  bone, and lodged  in  a  portion  of  the
circumference ofthe tentorium cerebelli.   Anteriorly they
sometimes  communicate with  the cavernous  sinus,  and
open posteriorly into the lateral sinuses.
  6th.   The inferior petrous  sinuses are situated in  the
inferior petrous grooves :  narrower than the preceding,
they communicate in front with the cavernous sinuses,  and
open behind into the lateral sinuses.
  7th.  The cavernous sinuses  are lodged in the caro-
tid  grooves,  and extend from  the internal orifice of  the
carotid canal to the  anterior  clinoid apophyses.   Their
interior, very ample, is filled  with  a spongy tissue,  not
unlike that of the  corpora cavernosa;  they  contain, in
addition, the carotid  artery and the nerve  of the sixth
pair.   They receive, in front, the blood brought by the op-
thalmic  veins,  and communicate  posteriorly with  the
petrous sinuses.
  8th.   The coronary or  circular sinuses surround the
sella turcica, and open  into the cavernous sinuses.
    9th.   The superior occipital  sinuses, or  sinuses of
Duverney,  are  situated on  the  lateral  portions  of the
internal occipital crest.   They  open  on the one hand
into the lateral  sinuses, and, on the other, into the  gulf
ofthe jugular veins.
    10th.   The  inferior  or transverse  occipital  sinuses,
 usually two in number, are placed crosswise on the basilar
 depression of the occiput,  and  lose  themselves  in  the
 petrous sinuses.
   2d.  Arachnoidea.—This second membrane ofthe brain,
 excessively  thin and  transparent, is situated between the
 dura mater  and pia mater: it envelopes the entire  cere- 
94             anatomist's manual.
bral mass, without  penetrating its interior.   On the  one
hand, it corresponds to the dura  mater without adhering
to it, and is continually lubricated  in this  place  by  an
abundant  serosity; on the other hand, it is applied  on the
pia mater, from which  it is rather difficult to separate it,
except at the base of the  cranium, where these  two
membranes  offer  an adhesion less intimate.
   3d.   Pia mater.—This membi ane, very thin, is  applied
immediately on the brain, of which it covers not only  the ex-
ternal surface, but likewise  dips down between the con-
volutions  of this organ, and penetrates its cavities.
   This membrane is furnished with a great quantity of
vessels, which accompany it  in the  brain,  and of which
it is the envellope and support.
   The spinal marrow  is envelloped by a prolongation of
the three membranes of the brain.   The most external is
the  dura mater, and -it is thicker than on the brain ;   the
 second is the arachnoidea,  placed between the preceding
and the pia mater,  and very distinct from both of them;
the  third  is  the pia mater,  excessively thin, and  applied
immediately on the medullary substance.
   This description of  the membranes,  very short it is
true, is conformable to what is presented on an inspection
of the cadaver, and to what,modern authors have given
,in their works.
   Structure and uses.—The structure  of  the different
membranes of the brain does not  appear  to be  the same.
The first appertains to the order ofthe fibrous, the second to
to that of the serous; as regards the third, it is not yet satis-
factorily demonstrated that it is a membrane.   The multi-
plicity of the vessels, with which  it is  furnished, seema 
anatomist's manual.
95
to  indicate that  it is merely a cellular net-work, destined
to  serve as a support to these vessels, and to accompany
them in the soft  and pulpy mass ofthe brain.
   Their  uses  are less equivocal.  All anatomists  agree
that they serve  as an envellope  for the nerves, which
emanate  from  the brain and spinal marrow;  that  the
first of these membranes, the thickest and most  solid, is a
sort of protection against any violence done  to the cere-
bral mass ; that  the arachnoidea embraces  more directly
the brain, and connects, as it were, its different parts :  it,
moreover,  serves for  the  secretion of a  humor, which
lubricates its internal surface ;  finally, that the pia mater
envellopes  the vessels  of the brain, sustains and  favors
their small divisions.

            the eye and its appendages.
                General considerations.
   The exposition of the organ of vision is not limited to
the parts constituting  the globe  of the eye;  we likewise
embrace under this head the lachrymal organs, as also the
muscles of the eye, the eve-lids, and eye-brows.   The ana-
tomical arrangement requires that we should first study the
eye-brows, then the  eye-lids, and afterwards pass to the
lachrymal  organs, to the muscles  ofthe globe ofthe eye,
and to that of the superior eye-lid, in order  to terminate
by the globe itself.

                Anatomical Preparation.
   Eye-brows.—Placed  above the orbits, the  eye-brows
do not  require any preparation.  The only remarkable
circumstance which they present, is the manner in  which
they are  inserted into  the  integuments of the  forehead,
                          40* 
96             anatomist's manual.
and the direction they effect externally ; it should not be
forgotten  that  they are  placed immediately  above  the
corrugator supercilii, the  functions of which are entirely  '
relative to the motions imparted to them by this muscle.
   Eye-lids.—We must  consider in the eye-lids the skin
which covers them, the cartilages  which form them, the
lashes with which  their free  borders are furnished, the
muscles  which cause their motion; and finally the mem-
brane by which they are lined internally.
   The skin is a continuation of that of the cheeks  and
forehead ;  it is very thin, and the cellular tissue which is
interposed is but little abundant and dense, for which reason
we must  expose them slowly  and  cautiously.   When de-
prived of their external covering, we will see the cartilage
or broad  ligament  which, forms  them  in  part; it de-
scends from the orbital  border to the environs of another
thicker  cartilage,  which is  found along the free border
of each eye-lid, and which is termed the tarsal cartilage.
 This cartilage permits  us to  see without difficulty, on the
side of the free border of the eye-lid,  a number of little
eminences (from 30  to 40) placed perpendicularly uy the
 side of each other; they are called the glands of Mei-
 bomius.   At  their  extremities  are remarked  the  eye-
 lashes, the number and length of which are very varia-
 ble.   We should also examine the manner in which they
 are retained  on the  free border   of the eye-lids, which
 may be easily done.   The conjunctiva is the common and
 external  membrane  of the  eye  and lachrymal  organs.
 It may be readily examined with the naked eye, on the
 internal surface of the eye-lids ; but it is very difficult to
 recognize it  on the  globe,  where it is extremely thin;
 nothing but maceration  or  ebullition will render it visi-
.  * 
anatomist's manual.             97
ble.  The  levator palpebral superioris will  be described
hereafter.
                  Lachrymal Organs.
  They  are  composed  of the lachrymal gland,  puncta
lachrymalia, caruncula  lachrymalis, sac  and nasal duct.
  Lachrymal Gland.—It is situated in the external orbital
 angle, and lodged in a depression presented by the orbital
 arch.  In order to expose it to view, we should divide the
 conjunctiva, and remove the cellular tissue; we shall then
 arrive at a reddish body, elongated from before backwards:
 it is  the lachrymal  gland.   It  is pierced by  several
 openings, which permit the tears to escape, but it has^no
 particular  excretory duct; when closed,  the eye-lids form
 a triangular canal Avhich takes its place.
   Towards the internal orbital single, at the  free border of
 each eye-lid, is  a small fleshy button, pierced in the cen-
 tre—it is the punctum lachrymale, which  will be rendered
 very apparent by turning the eye-lids outwards.   We will
 be enabled to follow the trajet of these small  canals,  by in-
 troducing  into each  punctum a hog's bristle, the course of
 wh;ch, different in the  superior and inferior, indicates the
 direction which they take in order to arrive  at the lachry-
 mal  sac.
   The semilunar valve (plica semilunaris) is nothing more
 than a very small duplication ofthe conjunctiva, placed a tithe
 internal commissure.  Not very apparent in man, it pre-
 sents a  considerable extent in several animals.   In order
 to render it more sensible, we  should draw the globe of
 the eye inwards ; this is the only preparation it  requires.
   The  caruncula  lachrymalis  is  that  reddish  tubercle,
  placed in its internal commissure, the preparation of which
 it is difficult to  indicate.   When accurately examined, it 
98             anatomists manual.
will be found to consist of a group of sebaceous glands, o.
which, according to some writers, there are seven, ranked
two in a row, and one on the top  of the others.  In gene-
ral, the different objects just mentioned should be examined
with a magnifying glass.
  The lachrymal  sac  is situated below and  more  pro-
foundly than the parts already described.  In order to ex-
pose it, we will have to remove  cautiously the  semilunar
valve and caruncula;  and  leave  in place  the puncta
and lachrymal ducts, as also  the  bristles introduced into
these latter.  In proceeding thus, we will arrive at a small
cavity the bottom of which is  reddish, and  into  which
penetrate  the bristles,  which were  introduced  into  the
lachrymal ducts.   On the other hand,  the lachrymal sac
communicates  with  the  nasal  duct,  the  preparation  of
which  will be reserved until that ofthe nasal fossae.

                 Muscles  of the Eye.
  They are eight in number, if we  comprehend among
them the  orbicularis palpebrarum and  levator palpebrse
superioris.  The  first  has  already been described,  the
others  require  the following precautions :—we shouldse-
lect, for the preparation of the muscles ofthe eye, a head,
which has served for the  examination of the brain.   We
then have nothing more to  do than to carry the saw from
above downwards  in the  direction  of the  two orbital
angles, so  that the  two portions of the  saw unite  poste-
riorly in the environs of the foramen opticum ; we must
push forwards,  in breaking the bony pieces which resist,
the  species of angle resulting from the operation, and we
shall have exposed the  levator palpebral superioris, which
is  covered by an  expansion  of the dura mater.   This 
anatomist's  manual.             99
muscle should be exposed and  left in place.   Beneath, is
found the superior straight muscle ofthe globe ofthe eye,
surrounded by  a quantity of fatty matter.   In order  to
pursue the dissection of the  other  muscles of the eye, I
would advise the  student to remove the portion of bone
which has  been sawed ; the  levator palpebrse superioris
may be left in place, or it may be removed with the saw-
ed portion.   The muscles of  the eye are envelloped in a
great quantity of fat, of which it will be necessary to free
them,  sometimes with  the scalpel,  but more  frequently
with the scissors.   One of them will require moreparticu-
lar attention—it is the great oblique, which takes its ori-
gin, like the four straight muscles, posteriorly in the envi-
rons of the foramen opticum, then travels along the inter-
nal paroi of the orbit, and, after  arriving at the internal
orbital angle, degenerates in a tendon which is received into
a species of cartilaginous pulley ;  thence, it becomes fleshy
and is reflected in order to become implanted on the globe
of the eye.  The inferior oblique arises from the environs of
the nasal duct, and goes to the inferior part ofthe eye.   The
four straight muscles extend from the environs of the fora-
men opticum towards the globe, continuing always to sepa-
rate more and more  from each other.   Nothing interferes
with their dissection ; the fat surrounding  them is  easily
removed, and there remains nothing after the preparation
of the muscles,  but the, globe  of the eye, which exacts a
special examination.
  Globe ofthe eye.—After having acquired a correct idea
of its situation, form, and relations  with the surrounding
parts, we  should remove it  from the orbital  cavity;  in
order that  we may pass to  an examination of its  con-
stituent portions.  It will  be proper, in order to have a 
100            anatomist's manual.

more distinct view of them, to use the eyes of an ox, calf,
or sheep, in which the different objects, being more devel-
oped, are  likewise  more easily recognized.   It is indis-
pensable to have several of them at our disposition,  for the
sections  are numerous,  the  fluids quickly  escape,  the
membranes  are multiplied, and  some   possess extreme
tenuity.  The first thing, which strikes our observation is
the difference between the two external membranes, one
of which, called  sclerotica,   opaque,  has  considerable
extent; it forms the three posterior fourths of the globe of
the eye.   The other, placed in front, occupying compara-
tively but a small space,  is called the transparent cornea.
In order to see the  union of these  two membranes, we
must examine them both externally and internally.  In this
latter sense, the cornea appears as if encased in the scle-
rotica.  It is easy to separate them from each other; for
this  purpose, they  should macerate for some  days  in cold
water, or be plunged  into  boiling  water;;  a few hours
will  suffice  to effect their separation.   These two mem-
branes envellope the globe ofthe eye.  The  objects  they
enclose are, proceeding  from  before  backwards,  the
aqueous  humor,  iris,  ciliary ligament  and  processes,
cristalline lens, vitreous humor, retina, and choroides.
  If it  should be desired  to  prepare these  different ob-
jects in the order in which they have just been mentioned,
considerable  difficulty  will  be experienced;  however, it
may  be  accomplished by proceeding  in the  following
manner: remove,  without  compressing the globe  of the
eye,  the  transparent  cornea  alone, and  the aqueous
humor should not be allowed to  escape  until  we  have
had an idea  of its  quantity; next is  observed a blackish
partition—the iris  which, by its  great  circumference, 
               anatomist's manual.             101

adheres to the ciliary ligament.   It  will be necessary to
cut  the  opaque cornea,  in proportion as we advance in
the  preparation of the parts.   The iris, after the evacua-
tion of the aqueous  humor,  touches and is applied on a
very white lenticular body, called the  cristalline lens. We
should pass the point  of a scalpel or of its handle between
the  cristalline and iris, and raise this membrane in order to
appreciate more thoroughly its particular form and disposi-
tion.   On  the side  at which it  corresponds to the cris-
 talline are found  the ciliary processes,  species of mem-
 branous   feuillets,  disposed in  radii, the assemblage  of
 which constitutes  the ciliary body;  but it  is difficult  to
 have  a good view of them in proceeding as  we have just
 indicated.
  Behind the iris,  is observed the cristalline lens, which is
 itself received in a depression presented to it by the vitre-
ous body.  At this stage  of the  dissection, we should  re-
 move the vitreous  body and lens, by pressing on the globe
 of the eye ; once evacuated, they can be studied to much
 more advantage,  and we may then see the two proper
 membranes of the eye, the  retina and choroides, placed
 behind the vitreous body.   The first presents itself under
 the form of a pulpy pellicle,  which is very easily detached
 from  the choroides placed behind and applied immediately
 on  the internal surface of the opaque cornea.   This latter
 will be recognized by its  dark color, with shades of green
 and blue.
   The preparation ofthe eye, such as we have just describ-
 ed, will  not   answer for  all the parts of this  organ;
 the iris requires a more  attentive examination;  the retina
 and  choroides  may be  seen more advantageously  by
 examining  them  differently;  the ciliary processes,  the 
102
anatomist's manual.
 body and circle ofthe same name are scarcely perceived,
 and these different objects  inspire  considerable  interest,
 and excite our curiosity.  But, we repeat it, it will be ne-
 cessary to have a number of eyes ;  we should multiply the
 sections,  and spare nothing in the study of  an organ,
 admirable  in its  composition, and  presenting the richest
 phenomena of optics.
   One of the  best modes of viewing the choroid,  is to re-
 move with great  care the sclerotica without touching the
 choroides.  For this purpose, we must have an entire eye,
 and we must commence  outwards at the posterior  portion.
 We shall  observe, in  this  manner, what is termed the
 external surface ofthe choroides ; its internal surface will
 be exposed, by cutting the eye circularly in the direction
 and somewhat  in front  of  the ciliary ligament;  all the
 humors of the  eye  must be evacuated by pressing lightly
 on the globe ;  we remove  the retina, and in  reversing the
 bag like the finger of a glove, we will have a perfect  view
 of  the internal surface  of the choroides.   It termmates,
 in front, behind the ciliary ligament, which it in part forms.
   The retina may be examined in  the  same way but we
should have an eye prepared as was described farther back,
in order to see the manner  in which it  disposes  itself
around the optic nerve.
   As for the iris, it  will  be necessay to make a first circu-
lar section  of the eye, in  front  of, and quite  near  this
membrare, being careful not to embrace it, and then per-
form a second some lines beyond ;  we should evacuate the
aqueous humor, cristalline lens and vitreous body, and plunge
the remaining portion into water.  The iris will float in the
 liquid and it will be seen to  advantage.   We may after-
wards examine the disposition of the ciliary ligament. 
anatomist's manual
's  MANTTAT..            103
  A  small  canal is observed between the cristalline lens
and vitreous humor ; we should carry the point ofthe scal-
pel into a part ofthe interval which separates them;  intro-
duce, if possible, a small straw into the opening, or even
blow into  it;  we shall then observe a small renflement of
the hyaloid membrane develloped; it is the trace  of the
canal, discovered by Petit de Namur.
  We cannot isolate the cristalline lens from the vitreous
humor,  until after having lacerated the small membrane
which unites it to  this body ; it has received the name of
 cristalline  membrane, the  division  of which is made by
 carrying  the point  of the scalpel on the cristalline lens;
 it should  merely  glance over its  external surface.   If
 we then press the vitreous humor carefully, the cristalline
 membrane will be immediately torn, and we shall observe
 the escape ofthe lens, the transparency of which, remark-
 able in a young subject, disappears in proportion as  age ad-
 vances, and is succeeded by  a yellow  hue more less
 marked.
    The vitreous  humor  likewise presents considerable
 transparency, and a whiteness  which is not changed by
  age.  We should examine its  consistence and cellular dis-
  position,  by piercing it in  several places, and  introdu-
  cing a straw into the orifices in order to distend it.   We
  should also examine the comparative density of the three
  humors, their weight,  their form,  and the place occupied
  by each of them  in the globe of the eye.
     If we examine the eye in very cold  weather,  we should
  endeavor  to. have it frozen.   In  this  way, we  will  be
  enabled to see in what manner  the  iris comports itself
  relatively to the  aqueous  humor  and  cristalline lens,
  which maybe done by performing  on  the frozen eye a
                             41 
104
anatomist's manual.
perpendicular section from before backwards, and dividing
it into  two or three  equal  portions.  We  may, by these
means, examine whether the iris is immediately applied on
the lens, as some anatomists  have falsely advanced,  or
whether it  divides the  aqueous humor into two unequal
portions, as is demonstrated by anatomical dissection.
  It would have been  an easy matter to  present a more
minute description of the eye, but this would have occa-
sioned considerable loss of time to the student, who is just
commencing the study of anatomy ; for he  would not have
made much progress in his knowledge of this important
organ, if it had been charged with too  much detail.   The
student will hope in vain to have a perfect acquaintance
with the eye and  brain during his first winter of dissec-
tion ; let him, therefore, be satisfied with the limited notions
he may acquire of these precious  organs, by the aid which
we offer him, in pointing out in this treatise the most sim-
pie and easy preparation of the eye.  Had we been  more
minute  or entered more  largely into detail,  we should
have opposed  the  student's progress,  by the embarrass-
ment and confusion necessarily attending such descriptions.
When his experience and sagacity will permit him to ad-
vance with bolder steps in the prosecution of his anatomi-
cal studies, he  can then act in  opposition to our present
advice.
                      Description.
                       the eyes.
   This description comprehends,  besides the globe of the
eye, the  eye-brows  and eye-lids,  as  also the lachrymal
organs, which are the accessory parts.
   1st.  Eye-brows.   Situation  and  relations.—Promi-
 nent portions, situated above the  orbits, elongated in form 
anatomist's manual.
105
of arcades from within outwards ; and bordered with hair,
the quantity, color, and length of which are variable.
  Extent.—From the root of the nose to the environs of
the temple.
  Direction.—We consider in  the  ensemble of the  eye-
brows, a  bony  portion,  appertaining to the frontal bone
(superciliary ridge); the muscle of the same name which
has been already described; a very small layer of cellular
tissue; a portion of the integuments of the forehead, and
the hair of the brows;  this is longer in  the male  than
in the female, passes in a  direction more or less oblique,
from within outwards.
  Structure and uses.—Here the hair alone merits par-
ticular  attention; their  structure  willbe  described  in a
subsequent chapter.   The eye-brows impart beauty to the"
visage, divert the perspiration, which falls  from the fore-
head, moderate the impression  of a too intense light, and,
 in their expressive movemeats, indicate the passions which
 agitate us.
  2d.  Eye-lids.  Situation and relations.—Two in num-
 ber, moveable,  situated  in front of the  globe of the eye,
 which they cover when they are relaxed or closed, and
 which they leave exposed when they are  separated, and,
 as is commonly said,  open.
   Extent.—The superior, the largest, arises from the base
 ofthe orbit, and in its progress covers three-fourths ofthe
 globe of the  eye; the inferior is  smaller, has  the same
 origin, and is scarcely elevated to its inferior fourth*
   Division.—Anterior  surface, covered  by the common
 integuments,  on which  are  observed  transverse  folds,
 which  increase with  age;   posterior  surface, smooth
 and  polished,  applied to the globe of the  eye.  There 
106            anatomist's manual.

is an  adhering border, which is attached to the  base  of
the orbit, and a free border, on which the  eye-lashes are
implanted.   The reunion of the two free  borders of the
eye-lids forms a triangular canal,  more narrow  towards
the lachrymal gland, broader towards the  puncta lachry-
malia; the tears travel through  it, in  their passage from
the lachrymal gland  to  the puncta lachrymalia, which
they penetrate.
  Structure and uses.—The eye-lids are formed of a part
of the skin of the face, thin, elastic, and under which there
is never any fatty matter collected; of a broad ligament,
of a tarsal cartilage, and its pretended glands, called glands
of Meibomius; of the  eye-lashes  and a  mucous  mem-
brane,  termed conjunctiva, which covers  their posterior
surface.
  Broad ligament.—This is a cellulo-membranous produc-
tion,  extending from  the  contour   of the  orbit to the tar.
sus in each eye-lid ;  on the superior eyelid, this ligament
is placed between the orbicularis muscle and levator palpe-
bral ; and on the inferior, it is between the orbicularis and
conjunctiva.
   Tarsal cartilages.—They occupy the free border of the
eye-lids.  The superior is more extensive and broader than
the inferior.   Their color is yellowish ; on their posterior
part  are observed prominent lines,  which  have  been re-
garded as the excretory ducts and pretended glands, called
the glands of Meibomius.   These ducts,  from twenty to
thirty in number, emit, towards the free border ofthe eye-
lids, an unctuous humor, destined  to  prevent or moderate
the friction of the  free border ofthe eye-lids on each other,
When this humor collects between the eye-lashes of  in-
fants, it constitutes what is called the yeux chassieux, 
anatomist's manual.           107
  Eye-lashes.—Double range of hairs, placed on the free
borders ofthe eye-lids ; more numerous and longer on the
superior than on the inferior.   Their direction is such, that
on the superior eye-lid they are  curved from below up-
wards, and on the inferior from above downwards.  Their
uses are to moderate the impression of too intense light, and
to prevent the ambient corpuscules  from "being introduced
between the eye-lids and  the globe of the eye.
   Conjunctiva.—It extends from the free border  of one
eye-lid  to that  of the other,  in passing over the globe of
eye.  On the one hand, it corresponds to the internal sur-
face of the eye-lids, and to the external part of the globe
ofthe eye;  on  the other, it is free.
   The  conjunctiva is thin, transparent, formed of a very
dense cellular tissue,  which is traversed by vessels but lit-
 tie apparent in a state of  health, but which  are  rapidly
 develloped in inflammatory  diseases of the eye : it is the
 means of union between the eye-lids and eye.
   The uses of  the eye-lids are to cover the globe of the
 eye,  and protect  it  and preserve  the  suppleness of the
 cornea, by extending uniformly  the humor of the  tears
 over its surface.

                  Lachrymal  Organs.
   They are composed of the lachrymal gland, and of the
 caruncula of the same name ;  of the lachrymal ducts and
 puncta ; of the lachrymal  sac and nasal duct.
   1st.   Lachrymal gland.—Situated in the external orbi-
 tal angle, it corresponds, on the  one hand, to the  globe of
 the eye;  on the  other,  to the os-frontis.   It  is formed of
 glandular grains,  which become united in  a small  mass,
 the length of which  is about ten lines,  the breadth four.
 Its color, density, and external  form are analogous to the
                          41* 
108            anatomist's manual.
salivary glands.   It has no particular excretory duct; but
six or seven orifices throw out upon the globe  of the eye
an abundant humor, which is that of the tears, and which
serves to lubricate the cornea and preserve its suppleness.
  2d.   Lachrymal carwncZe.—Species of conical  tuber-
cle, situated towards the  internal  commissure of the eye-
lids.   Its base, turned inwards, is adhering ; its summit di-
rected outwards is free, rounded, and regards the interval of
the two puncta lachrymalia.   Red in sanguineous persons,
remarkably pale  in hydropics, the lachrymal caruncle is
composed of follicles attached to each other,  and furnished
with some hairs  on  their  exterior.  It causes the tears to
pass into the puncta lachrymalia.
  The semilunar valve,  not very apparent  in man,  is
a small duplication of the conjunctiva, placed towards the
internal commissure; it facilitates the motions of the eye.
ball.
  3d.  Puncta lachrymalia and ducts.—Two in number,
placed  on the free  borders  of the eye-lids,  one  or two
lines from the internal commissure.   The orifice, which is
always open, will scarcely  permit  the introduction of a
very small stylet.  The  ducts  empty into  the lachrymal
sac.  They are destined to convey the humor of the tears
to the sac, which transmits them to the nasal duct,
  4th.   Lachrymal  sac.—A small membranous bag, of
an oblong figure, placed  in  the great orbital angle.  On
the one hand, and within,  the sac adheres to the lachrymal
groove; outwardly,  it corresponds to the lachrymal ducts,
and in this place it is covered by the tendons ofthe orbicu-
laris palpebrarum;  below, it is contiguous to the nasal
duct.  Its structure is membranous.  It receives the hu>
mor of the tears, and transmits it to the nasal duct 
anatomist's  manual.
109
  5th.   Nasal duct.—It extends from the lachrymal sac to
the nasal fossae.  Its length is from four to five lines, and its
diameter measures nearly one line.  Its superior opening
communicates with the lachrymal sac   Its inferior open-
ing corresponds in the nasal fossae, above the inferior turbi-
nated bone, to the anterior part ofthe inferior meatus.  It is
in part formed of osseous parois, covered by two membranes
adhereing to the bones, the one fibrous,  and the other
mucous.  Its uses are to transmit the tears fiom the lachry-
mal sac  to the nasal fossa:.

                   Globe of the Eye.
  The description of the eye should be preceded by that
ofits muscles, to which should be added the levator palpe-
brae superioris.   These  muscles are, the four straight, the
great and small oblique.
  The levator palpebrae superioris, elongated, flat, extends
from the circumference of the foramen opticum to the tar-
sal cartilage ofthe upper eye-lid.   It corresponds above to
the  orbital arch;  below, to the levator  occuli.   Its uses
are  to   raise the upper eye-lid,  and to draw  it slightly
backwards.
  The four straight muscles, distinguished into superior,
inferior, internal, and external, proceed in a diverging man-
ner from the environs of the foramen opticum to the globe
of the eye.  They are, in general,  elongated,  thin, and
flat.  They  are attached, on the one hand, to the summit of
the orbit; and, on the other, they spread, under the form
of an aponeurosis, over the sclerotica,  at the distance of
nearly two lines from the cornea.
  The great oblique, elongated, thin, and rounded, extends
from the summit of the orbit to the internal orbital angle, 
110
anatomist's manual.
and thence to the external  part of the globe of the eye,
passing across  a cartilaginous pulley, which permits it to
retrograde and reflect itself on the globe.   It is horizontal
along the internal paroi of the orbit, and  reflected  from
before backwards, from without inwards, and from above
downwards in the rest of its extent.
   The small oblique,  elongated, thin and narrow, extends
from the anterior and internal part of the floor of the orbit,
to the posterior and external portion of the globe ofthe eye.
   The organization of the muscles  of the eye is the same
in all;  almost  entirely fleshy, short  aponeuroses  are ob-
served at their two extremities.   The great oblique alone
presents a tendon at  its middle portion,  which gives it the
appearance of  being composed of two  muscles.   Their
uses all refer to the motions ofthe eye.   The four straight
muscles draw it  backwards, when  their contractions are
simultaneous, and each of them imparts to the eye a pecu-
liar movement,  in virtue of which  this organ is drawn in
the direction of the muscle under contraction.  The two
oblique muscles turn  the eye on itself, drawing it obliquely
outwards in the sense of their direction.
   The eye is composed of humors which it encloses, and of
membranes which envellope them.  These last are divided
into external and internal.   The first are the sclerotica and
cornea;  the second, the choroid,  retina,  and iris.  The
humors  of the  eye are  the  vitreous,  cristalline,  and
aqueous.
   2d.    The  Sclerotica.   Situation and  relations.—It
forms  the greatest  part  of the  external envellope of the
 globe  of  the eye, and occupies the three posterior fourths
 of it.
   Division.—Its posterior surface, convex, corresponds to 
               anatomist's  manual.            Ill

a very abundant layer of fat, and to the muscles of the eye;
its anterior surface, concave,  is applied on the posterior
surface of the choroides.   In front it is united, by its cir-
cumference, to the cornea; posteriorly,  it offers an open-
ing through which passes the optic nerve.
   Structure  and  uses.—The color of the sclerotica  is
milk white, its  thickness and  density  are  considerable;
but its intimate organization is difficult  to determine.   It
contains the humors of the eye, and serves as a support to
all the parts of this organ.
   3d.  Cornea.    Situation and relations.—It forms all
the transparent portion of the globe of the eye.
   Division.—Anterior convex surface,  covered  imme-
diately  by the  expansion of the conjunctiva; posterior
concave surface, which  corresponds to the aqueous hu-
mor ; its  circumference is united to the sclerotica, by
which it is covered.
   Structure  and  uses.—Extremely transparent, the cor-
nea is less dense,  but  thicker  than the sclerotica ;  it is
formed  of lames applied on each other,  the  existence of
which is easily demonstrated  by maceration; its uses are
to permit the luminous rays to pass into the interior ofthe
globe,  and to refract  them in drawing them nearer the
perpendicular.
   4th.    Choroides.    Situation and relations.—In the
interior of the globe of the eye, of which it occupies the
whole posterior portion ; between the sclerotica and retina.
   Division.—Posterior convex surface, applied on  the an-
terior surface of the sclerotica, to which it  is united by
means  of  numerous  vessels ;  anterior concave surface,
simply contiguous to the retina.  In front, the choroides is
united intimately to the ciliary body, and thence passes to 
112           anatomist's  manual.

the posterior part of the iris, in contributing to the forma-
tion ofthe ciliary body and processes.
   Structure and uses.—The choroides is very thin and is
easily lacerated.   The fibres which form it are bordering
on black.  It appears destined to absorb the luminous rays
which are unnecessary for vision.
   5th.   The Retina.  Situation and relations—On the
posterior part of the  globe  of the eye, between the cho-
roides and vitreous humor.
   Division.—Posterior surface, contiguous  to the cho-
roides ;  anterior surface, contiguous to the vitreous  humor.
Its circumference terminates at the ciliary ligament without
adhereing to it.
   Structure and  uses.—The retina, of  a greyish white
color, and of extreme softness, appears to be nothing more
than  the expansion  of  the  optic nerve, under a pulpy
form.   All  physiologists  agree in regarding it as the im-
mediate seat of vision.
   6th.   Iris.  Situation and relations.—Species of par-
tition floating in  the aqueoushumor, which it separates in
order to form two chambers, an  anterior and posterior,
the former of which is the largest.
   Division.—The anterior surface corresponds to the an-
terior  chamber;  the posterior surface,  to  the chamber
of the same name.   The first of these surfaces presents
two species  of rings,  formed of radiated fibres converging
towards  the pupil.  Numerous blood-vessels are observed
on this portion  of the iris, and impart  to it its peculiar
color.   The posterior surface likewise presents two sorts
of rings, and traces  of the ciliary processes ; in addition,
this surface is  covered by  a black and very tenacious
humor. 
               anatomist's manual.            113

  The  large  circumference of the  iris  is  united to the
ciliary ligament and processes, and also to the choroides.
Its small circumference constitutes the pupil.
  Structure  and  uses.—The iris  appears to be  noth-
ing more  than an assemblage  of nerves  and vessels;
the existence of its muscular fibres  is yet a problem.  Its
functions are of the highest importance in the accomplish-
ment of vision ; by its dilatation or  contraction, it permits
or opposes the admission of a greater or less quantity of
the luminous rays.
   7th.  The Ciliary Ligament  and Processes.   Situa-
tion and relations.—The  one is the continuation  of the
other.   The ligament is the whitish circle,  one line in
width, which unites in front the choroides with the sclero-
tica ; it is situated behind the circumference of the iris.
 The  ciliary processes  appear to arise from the ciliary
 ligament; they spread  themselves,  under the form of ra-
 diated feuillets,  over the posterior  surface of the iris, and
 advance from without inwards.
   A dark and tenacious humor is observed on their poste-
 rior surface.   The intervals correspond to the  ciliary
 processes.
   Structure and uses.—The ciliary ligament and process-
 es appear to be composed of a very thin cellular mem-
 brane, to which pass a great quantity of sanguineous ves-
 sels and nerves.   The functions  of these parts cannot be
 exactly determined.
    8 th.   Aqueous humor.  Situation and relations.—In
 the anterior part  of the  globe of the eye, between the cris-
 talline lens and cornea.    The anterior chamber consists of
 the space between the iris and cornea ; and the posterior
 chamber is that which is found between the iris  and lens. 
 114            anatomist's  manual.

 The  aqueous humor occupies the  two chambers, which
 are separated by the iris.  The quantity  of this fluid'is
 about four grains, of which not more than the sixth part is
 contained in the posterior chamber.   It is not so transpa-
 rent as the vitreous humor.  It is  contained in a  mem-
 brane peculiar to it, and which is extremely thin.
   Cristalline lens.  Situation and relations.—It occupies
 the centre of the globe  in the direction of its horizontal
 diameter;  it is situated between the aqueous and vitreous
 humors.  Its form is that of a lentil, the diameter of which
 is from twelve to fourteen lines, and its greatest thickness
 measures about two lines and a half.  Its anterior surface
 regards the  iris,  from  which it is separated by  the pos-
 terior  chamber;  its posterior  surface  is received  in a
 depression of the vitreous humor.   The cristalline lens is
 also envelloped in a membrane peculiar to it; its transparen-
 cy is perfect until the middle period of life ; it diminishes in
 proportion as age advances,  and becomes yellowish in old
 persons.   It is formed of concentric lames rendered visible
 by ebullition.
   Vitreous  humor.  Situation  and relations.—It occu-
 pies a great part of the globe,  at the posterior portion of
 of which it is situated, between the cristalline lens and retina.
 Its volume is considerable, when compared to that of the
 aqueous humor,  for its weight is  more than a hundred
 grains. Its consistence is that of melted glass, and its trans-
 parency equals that of the most limpid water.  The mem-
 brane, which is proper to it, bears the name of hyaloid.  It
 covers  not only  all the external surface  of the vitreous
 humor, but  it likewise penetrates its interior, and forms
.small cells in which is contained the humor  of the  vitre-
 ous body. 
anatomist's manual.           115
  Uses of the humors of the eye.—Without them the me-
chanism of vision could not take place ; they direct, as it
were, the luminous rays, which the internal membranes of
the  eye modify in order to produce the phenomena  of
vision.  Received into the aqueous humor, these luminous
rays experience a sensible divergence; but,  reassembled
again by  the  density  and convexity of the  cristalline
lens,  they approach the perpendicular, and thus arrive in
the vitreous  body, which, less dense than the  cristalline
lens, permits them  to  separate  a  little ; thence they] are
transmitted to the retina, on which they trace the figure of
♦he particular object from which they emanated.

                  ORGAN OF HEARING.
                General  Considerations.
   Of all the senses, that of hearing is the least understood.
 The mechanism of hearing has  so far escaped  the  re-
 searches of physiologists.
    The ear, which is the organ of hearing, is distinguished
 into external and internal.   The  external ear is that pro-
 minent portion situated on the sides of the head, which is
 not  concealed by  any object,  and  which is seen without
 difficulty.   The internal ear,  on the contrary,  compre-
 hends  the  objects placed in the  interior, and which the
  eye of the anatomist  cannot distinguish except by long
  and minute dissections.
    The external ear is composed of the pavillion and audi-
  tory conduit.  The internal  presents a greater number of
  objects.    It  comprehends the cavity of the  tympanum,
  and  the  labyrinth,   composed itself of the   vestibulum,
  cochlea and the three semi-circular canals.
                             42 
116           anatomist's MANUAL.
               Anatomical Preparation.
                    external ear.
   Pavillion.—This part does not require any preparation,
 and nothing can  be easier than its  examination.   Such,
 however, is not the case with its internal muscles ;  their
 small size, and  extreme paleness render their dissection
 very embarassing;  indeed, they are not  always found to
 be present.  The subject on which we attempt to prepare
 them should be stout and vigorous, and the muscles them-
 selves well marked ; in the contrary case, our time will most
 likely  be employed in vain : frequently we  are  unable
 to recognize  them, notwithstanding  the  most scrupulous
 attention.  I have repeatedly experienced great difficulty
 in  meeting with them,  and the parts  which I took for
 these muscles were  so little apparent, that  I would re-
 commend to  the student  not to  occupy  himself with
 an  examination of them when he encounters such  diffi-
 culty in rendering them  visible.   However,  if the stu-
 dent is absolutely  desirous of making these  researches,
 he  should select  a muscular subject,  and examine with
great attention the prominent parts of the  pavillion, where
he will find small reddish productions, which are the mus-
cles in question ; they are the large and small muscles of
the helix, the muscle of the tragus, that of the anti-tragus,
and the transversalis.   This last is placed on the internal
portion of the pavillion ; it presents the same  difficulties.
  The cartilage ofthe pavillion, after having been exami-
ned externally, should be exposed.  For  this purpose, we
should remove the thin and dense skin  which covers it;
it preserves nearly the same form that it  had before; but
it presents several eminences and cavities, which have re-
ceived particular names.  The first are the helix, anti-he- 
anatomist's manual.            117
 lix, tragus and anti-tragus ;  the  second are the great fis-
 sure of the helix, fossa navicularis and concha.  The soft
 portion, which terminates the ear below, is called the lobe.
   External auditory conduit.—It extends from the concha
 to the membrane of the tympanum.   It may be  studied at
 first on the temporal bone, deprived of its soft portions, and
 then examined in connection  with its different parts.   If a
 more minute preparation is desired, it will be necessary to
 saw the petrous portion of the  temporal bone lengthwise,
 passing the saw over  the  middle  portion  of the conduit ;
 but the advantages resulting  from this operation  will be no
 compensation for the trouble  in performing it.  Moreover,
 the preparation of the internal ear  will  present frequent
 occasion to  examine  the auditory conduit, and the  parts
 which cover  it.
                    INTERNAL ear.
   The preparation of the internal ear is, without contra-
 diction, the most difficult of all  those in splanchnology.  I
 am so well convinced of this  difficulty for  the student who
 is commencing the study  of  anatomy, that I would advise
 him to procure internal ears already prepared, rather than
 to attempt to prepare them himself.  All the professors of
 anatomy and many of the prosecteurs possess them.   The
 public schools preserve them in wax.  I think, therefore,
 it would be better to have recourse to such sources for in-
 formation on  the subject.  No matter what care may be
 taken to indicate the  preparations of the various parts of
 the internal ear, I do not  believe that the student will re-
 ceive much advantage.   Considerable time  would, more-
 over, be  consumed to no  purpose; the student would be-
 come impatient and fatigued  at his want of success, and
 perhaps be induced to abandon  the study of the internal
ear, which merits the greatest attention. 
118            anatomist's manual.

  In order, however, not to  make  the difficulties greater
than they really are, and to  inspire the student with a de-
sire  to obtain a more particular knowledge of the ear, I
shall describe the most.common preparations, those which
may be performed by the great majority of students, observ-
ing at the same time  that these preparations will not be
sufficient for him, who  may  desire  a perfect acquaintance
with the  structure ofthe internal ear.
  If it is more convenient to prepare the internal ear on the
bones of  an  adult, it is more easy on those of a foetus ;
we should commence  with these latter ; they yield more
easily to the instruments, and there are fewer objects to be
removed: it is worthy of remark that the organs of sense
in general, vision and hearing in particular, are very much
develloped in the infant.
   Remove,  therefore,  all the soft  parts, and observe that
the temporal bones  of the foetus have no external auditory
conduit;  it is replaced by an osseous circle, which is enclos-
ed by the membrane  of the tympanum.  We should  be
careful not to interrupt this  membrane ; it is important to
leave it in place, and to study it in  this situation.   It is not
even necessary to rupture it in order to see the  cavity of
the tympanum, for this can be arrived at by removing with
a scalpel or  a knife, a part  of the superior surface of the
petrous portion.  This section  will permit us to view not
only the extent and form of the cavity, but also the four
small bones ofthe ear in place.  It will serve, in addition,
to bring  into view certain objects, which  could  not  have
been seen without it.   Of the four small bones, the malleus
is applied, on the one hand,  on the internal surface ofthe
membrane of the tympanum; on the other, it is articulated
with the  incus, one ofthe branches of which passes down- 
                 anatomist's manual.           119

wards in order to unite with the stapes.  Between these two
bones, is observed the  os-orbiculare, which is extremely
small.  The  stapes  itself, at  its base, closes an opening
called fenestra ovalis, on the side of which there is re-
marked another  termed fenestra  rotunda.  In  the in-
terval is a small  eminence,  the pyramid.   Behind, is ob-
served the entrance to  the mastoid cells,  and, in front, the
conduit of the eustachian tube.
  The other parts of the internal ear are the cochlea, and
the three semi-circular canals ; their ensemble  constitutes
what is called the labyrinth.   The  first of these parts oc-
cupies nearly the middle ofthe superior surface ofthe pe-
trous portion.   It may be exposed in the same way as the
cavity ofthe  tympanum, that is,  we should cautiously re-
move  with a scalpel  or  knife, the external lame ofthe pe-
trous portion,until we discover a species of spirale (formed
of an  osseus lame and a double groove)  called the steps ;
one of them,  the  external, communicates with the vesti-
bulum ; the internal extends to the fenestra rotunda.
  We must look  for the three semi-circular canals on the
posterior and  internal parts of the cavity—and they should
be exposed in the manner just indicated.   Each  of them
describes a particular curve,  so that,  originating at the
vestibulum,  they enter  there, after having traversed the
thickness ofthe petrous portion at its posterior part, inform-
ing a  species of ovale.
  It is in  the interval of the cochlea and the three semi-
circular canals, and  at the internal part of the cavity, that
the vestibulum is found; it is so called,  because it forms,
as it  were, the entrance to the two former parts.  The
mode  of exposing it is the more difficult to indicate, as we
cannot assign any particular figure to  it; it  is only by
                         42* 
120
anatomist's manual.
an exact knowledge of all the other parts of the ear, that
we can  form an idea of the vestibulum,  and  especially
of its  numerous  communications, with  the  cavity,  or
the semi-circular canals.   We can here only give some
general precepts respecting such a preparation, and it is
only by time and great tact for this sort of work, that the
student  will succeed in a faithful preparation of the inter-
nal ear.   The muscles and nerves, situated  in this organ,
although very small and delicate, have particular names,
and peVform functions,  which excite  the most lively in-
terest on account of the exalted idea which the uses of these
parts give us of the Divine Hand that formed them.   The
malleus has two small muscles, one of which passes by the
fissure of Glaser, and comes from the  summit of the pe-
trous portion, crossing the small cavity, called the  bee de
cuiller, in order to pass to the malleus.  The stapes like-
wise has a small muscle, which is inserted into the pyra-
mid, and thence goes to embrace the  neck  of the stapes.
Two nerves, the acoustic and facial,  enter through the in-
ternal auditory foramen ;  the acoustic passes to the steps
of the cochlea, and  the facial, after  having traversed the
aqueduct  of Fallopius, goes to the lateral parts ofthe face.
This last gives off a branch in the interior of the ear, called
chorda  tympani, which arises  in  the environs  of the
pyramid,  turns around the incus and malleus, and  passes
out of the ear by the fissure of Glaser.
   Minute osteology points out two openings,  one  in the
middle ofthe posterior surface ofthe petrous portion called
the aqueduct of the vestibulum, and the other on the pos-
terior border of the same bone, called the aqueduct  of the
cochlea:  these two  openings communicate in the vesti-
bulum.  We may, with the aid of a  very fine  probe, with 
anatomist's manual.            121
a hog's bristle or with  mercury,  traverse the trajet ol
these cavities.

                     Description.
                    external ear.
  It is composed of the pavillion and external auditory
conduit.
  Pavillion.  Situation and  relations.—This is what is
commonly called the ear ; this part, elongated from above
downwards, and flattened, is situated on the lateral portions
of the head ; its figure is oval.
   Division.—External surface, on which are observed four
 eminences,  which are the  helix behind, somewhat more
 forwards the anti-helix, the  tragus and  anti-tragus around
 the  concha.  Three cavities separate these  parts;  the
 first called rainure of the helix, the second fossa navicula-
 ris,  and the third concha.
   The internal surface corresponds to the bones of the cra-
 nium, from which it is separated  in the greatest part of its
 extent.  Its circumference  presents, below, a soft portion,
 called lobule.
   The five small muscles move, though feebly, the different
 parts ofthe external ear.   The most considerable is the
 great muscle of the helix ;  it arises from the helix, in the
 environs  ofthe tragus,  and terminates, after  a trajet of
 three or four lines, at the anterior part of the helix.
   The second is the small  muscle of the helix, which
 arises from the part of the helix  dividing the concha.
   The third is the muscle ofthe tragus, which arises from
 the base of this eminence and terminates at its summit; it
 is the most apparent ofthe  three.
    The fourth is the  muscle of the anti-tragus.  It arises 
122
anatomist's manual.
from the posterior border of this eminence, and loses itself
in the environs ofthe anti-helix.
  The fifth is  the  transversalis, situated on  the  internal
part of the pavillion.  It arises from the convexity ofthe
concha, and terminates on that ofthe fossa navicularis.
  Structure and  uses.—A cartilage which has the same
figure  as the pavillion ofthe ear, three ligaments which fix
it on the lateral parts of the head, some muscular portions,
a prolongation of  the integuments,  sebaceous glands, and
vessels enter into  the composition  of the pavillion.  Its
uses are to concentrate the sonorous rays and direct them
to the  auditory conduit.
  External auditory conduit.   Situation and  relations.
From the concha to the membrane of the tympanum, going
from without  inwards,  and  from  behind forwards; its
length is from ten  to  twelve  lines,  and its width  is more
considerable at its  two extremities than in the middle.
  Structure and uses.—The conduit is composed of an
osseous portion, which appertains to the  temporal bone ; of
a cartilage which has the form of the conduit, and of a thin
membrane enclosing cerumineous  glands.   The humor
which  they secrete preserves the suppleness of the internal
parts of the conduit, and prevents the ingress of external
objects.
                    INTERNAL EAR.
  Membrane of the tympanum.   Situation and relations.
It is placed at the bottom of the external auditory conduit,
which  it separates  from the cavity of the tympanum.
  Division.—It has an  external  surface which  corres-
ponds  to  the external conduit; and an internal  surface,
which is observed in the cavity of the  tympanum and to
which the handle of  the malleus is applied.  Its circum-
ference is received in a small groove of the temporal bone. 
*=ss^Mfe
ANATOMIST S MANUAL.
123
  Cavity of the tympanum.   Situation  and relations.—
In the hard portion of the temporal bone, at the internal
part of the external auditory conduit, and at the external
part of the labyrinth.
  Division.—Externally it corresponds to the membrane
of the tympanum ; internally we perceive two holes sepa-
rated  by  a prominence ; the first is called the fenestra
ovalis, and is closed by the stapes ;  the second is the fenes-
tra  rotunda  and is closed by a delicate  membrane; the
prominence is called the promontory.
  The circumference  presents, on its upper-and posterior
 portion, the  pyramid  which  lodges the  muscle of the
 stapes ; more posteriorly, is  observed the  entrance to the
 mastoid cells ;  a little anteriorly the fissure  of Glaser;
 above, the eustachian tube,  and the bee  de  cuiller.   In
 the  cavity  of  the tympanum are  contained  the  four
 bones  of  the ear, which are the  hammer, (malleus,) the
 the anvil (incus,)  the stirrup  (stapes,) the os-orbiculare
 and the small muscles ofthe bones ofthe ear.
   The hammer, (malleus,)  is most external and corres-
  ponds on one side to the membrane ofthe tympanum, and
  on the other to the incus.   It is divided into a head which
  is articulated with the incus  ; a neck from which a delicate
  process arises, to which is attached its anterior muscle, and
  a handle the point of which  is applied to the centre of  the
  membrane of the tympanum.  At the origin ofthe handle is
  a process to which is attached the  internal muscle of  the
  malleus.                                             .
    The incus is placed between the malleus and stapes.  It is
  divided into a body, which is articulated with the malleus,
  and two branches, of which the one, superior and posterior,
  is placed near the entrance of the  mastoid cells  and the
  other, inferior, is articulated with the os-orbiculare. 
124
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
   The  os-orbiculare  is the smallest of the  bones of the
ear, and is situated between, and articulated with, the incus
and stapes.
   The  stapes  is  situated horizontally  between the os-
orbiculare and the fenestra ovalis, which it  in a  great
measure closes.  It is divided into a head which  is articu-
lated with the os-orbiculare; a neck  which  gives attach.
ment to the muscle of the stapes,  and a body which has
the form of a stirrup, the base of which  is  situated over
the fenestra ovalis.  A delicate membrane which has by
the generality  of  anatomists been  called periosteum, and
by Bichat mucous, is reflected over all the parts contain-
ed in the cavity ofthe tympanum; it fixes the  bones in their
natural position and is extended into the mastoid  cells and
eustachian tube.
   The muscles of the bones of the ear are three in num.
ber, viz. :  the muscle of the stapes, and the internal and
 anterior muscles of the malleus.
   The muscle of the stapes arises  from the base of the
pyramid, is inserted into the neck of the stapes, and gives
this bone a see-saw motion.
   The  internal muscle  of the malleus arises from that
rough portion of the temporal bone which is seen in front of
the internal auditory hole ; this muscle passes into the in-
ternal ear, enclosed in a bony canal, and is inserted into the
handle ofthe malleus; when it acts it draws this bone in-
wards and  makes  the  membrane of the tympanum  more
tense.
   The anterior  muscle  of the malleus is much  smaller
than the preceding ; it passes from the spinous process of
the sphenoid  bone, and from the neighboring part of the
cartilage ofthe eustachian tube, to the Glaserian fissure, 
ANATOMIST S  MANUAL.
125
which it traverses, in order to penetrate the cavity of the
tympanum and  be inserted into the small process of the
malleus.   It relaxes the  membrane of the typanum  by
drawing it outwards.
   Vestibulum.   Situation and  relations.—It is situated
on the internal side of the cavity of the tympanum, behind
the cochlea, and in front of the three semi-circular  canals ;
we see on it the orifices of these canals; and, in addition, the
opening of the fenestra ovalis, that of the external part of
the cochlea, and  that ofthe aqueduct  of the vestibulum.
The interior of the vestibulum is lined by a delicate perios-
teum.
   Cochlea.   Situation  and  relations.—It is  situated be-
low the superior surface of the petrous portion of the tem-
poral bone, and on the  external side of the other  parts of
the labyrinth.
   Division.—The cochlea is composed of a common cen-
tre from  which  proceed two osseous  laminae, between
which are seen the twobsteps, divided into external, which
is longer,  less broad, and bordering on the vestibule ;
and one internal, which  is broader, shorter, and terminates
on the fenestra rotunda. The interior ofthe cochlea is lined
by a prolongation of the periosteum of the vestibulum.
   Semi-circular  canals.    Situation  and   relations.—
These three canals arise from the vestibulum and open into
it again after  having described in  the petrous  portion of
the temporal bone semi-oval curvatures.  They are  divid-
ed into superior vertical, posterior vertical, and horizontal
vertical.  They are likewise lined by a prolongation  ofthe
periosteum of the vestibulum.
   Structure and uses.—The auricular muscles, the mus-
cles of the pavillion and its  cartilage, those of the small 
126            anatomist's, manual.

bones, the bones themselves,  a very delicate membrane,
and the  pulpy expansion of the acoustic  nerve, are the
parts which  enter  into its composition.   Its uses are to
serve the purposes of hearing.  The mechanism is  imper-
fectly understood.  It is  said, however, that the sonorous
rays, or which is the same thing, the air put in  motion by
the sonorous  and vibrating bodies, is precipitated into the
auditory conduit, and excites the membrane of the  tym-
panum; this is communicated to the small bones ofthe in-
ternal ear, which transmit it through the  vestibule into
the slopes of the cochlea, from whence it  comes in contact
with the pulpy portion of the auditory nerve which  carries
the impression to the  sensorium commune, where sound
is perceived.
                     Description.
                        NOSE.
   Situation  and relations.—The nose  is situated on the
middle  part  of the face, above  the mouth and below the
forehead.  Its figure is pyramidal with the base downward.
   Division.—Lateral surfaces, broader below than above,
divided by a  furrow at their inferior part; anterior  border,
called the dorsum ofthe nose, the superior portion of which
loses itself in the forehead, and is termed the summit or root.
Its base has  two openings which are termed nostrils, and
are separated from one another by  a  cartilaginous  parti.
tion.   Posteriorly it corresponds with the nasal fossae.
   Structure and uses.—The nose is formed by the ossa
nasi, the nasal processes of the superior maxillary bones,
five cartilages, and some muscles, the whole covered with
a delicate integument in which fat never accumulates. 
anatomist's manual.
127
   The cartilages of the nose are five in  number, and are
divided into the proper lateral cartilages,  and into the car-
tilages of the wings of the nose; the fifth  belongs to the
partition which separates the  nares from one another.

                    NASAL  FOSS.E.
   Situation and relations.—The nasal fossae are two in
number, and are separated from one  another by a cartila-
ginous partition, and the perpendicular lamina of the vo-
me rand  ethmoid bone.  They are placed  at the middle
and posterior part  of the face,  below the anterior portion
of the base  of the  cranium, above  the  superior paroi of
the mouth, behind the  nose,  and in front ofthe pharynx.
   Figure.—Quadrilateral.
   Division.—The nasal fossae have a superior wall which
is formed by the ethmoid bone, an inferior which is formed
by the  maxillary and  palate bones,  a  pos'.erior which
corresponds with the posterior nares, an anterior which is
concealed by the nose, and an internal which is formed by
the partition between the two  nares.   An  external wall on
which are seen  the following objects, viz.: upwards and
backwards, the superior turbinated bone ;  downwards,  the
meatus of the same name, into  which open the posterior
ethmoidal cells and the  internal  orifice ofthe sphenopala-
tine hole; still lower is seen the inferior turbinated  bone,
and below it, the meatus of the same name, at the anterior
part of which is remarked the inferior orifice of the  nasal
canal, which  commences below the  lachrymal sac, and
after a trajet of five or six lines terminates in  the  nasal
fossae.  From its situation and uses, the description of the
nasal canal belongs  equally to that ofthe lachrymal  ducts
and nasal fossae.
                          43 
128            anatomist's  manual.
   Structure and uses.—The solid part of the nasal fossa
is formed by the maxillary, palate, lachrymal, nasal, in-
ferior turbinated, ethmoid and sphenoid bones;  and by t+ie
vomer, the cartilaginous partition which divides the nasal
fossae,  and the  lateral  cartilages.   The nasal fossae are
lined by a thick membrane which  secretes mucous, and
has been called the pituitary membrane.  The nose and
its appendages fulfil several functions.  It is a portion of
the tube which  allows the passage of air to the lungs dur-
ing respiration.  As the organ of smell it receives the im-
 pression of odors, and by its nerves transmits them to the
 brain.  In  giving  to the nose this  double faculty, nature
 has exhibited another evidence of her foresight and infinite
 wisdom.  In fact, without air,  respiration could  not  be
 effected ; it is in the  air that the aroma of odorous bodies
 is diffused;  and it is the vehicle in which this  aroma  is
 develloped with the greatest  facility; what, therefore,
 could be more  simple, or more ingenious than to place the
 organ of smell at the entrance of the  tube through which
 air is conveyed to the lungs.  In this respect the nose is,
 in animals which  respire,  a sentinel always  active, who
 instructs them with regard to the deleterious or healthy
 condition of the surrounding air.   Under another point of
 view, smell  is to man -a source of agreeable and delightful
 sensations.
    The physiological order would render it necessary for us,
 in this place, to treat of the sense of touch, and of the skin ;
 but as this would interfere with our  anatomical arrange-
 ments we shall omit it until  we have finished splanchnology 
anatomist's manual.
129
      GENITAL ORGANS OF THE MALE AND FEMALE.
               General Considerations.
  The genital organs, appertain to the life and preservation
of the species.  Nature, in endowing these parts with an
action of but short duration, has imparted to them,  during
its existence, a degree of extraordinary activity.
  Before the  time of puberty, individuals of both sexes are
capricious and irresolute, and with regard to their physical
and intellectual qualities are mere children; and between
the child of three or four years of age, and the child often
or twelve, the difference is inconsiderable.
   But when the organs are fully devel loped, and when the
male  or female can no longer question the purpose -for
which they were created, a remarkable energy is percepti-
ble in all  their movements, and a considerable increase is
remarked  in all  their organs; finally, their  intellectual
operations become so vigorous as no longer to admit of a
doubt of the rank they should hold among their fellows.
Of all  the organs of the animal economy  these are the
ones which exercise a more marked influence on certain acts
of life;  and  still  the male or female may be deprived of
them without any very grave  consequences resulting from
their loss.  On the contrary, it has been remarked that, un-
der certain circumstances, their too frequent use has been
 often the cause of dangerous maladies, such as phthisis, loss
 of memory, emaciation, and tabes dorsalis, which could be
 attributed to no other cause, than an excessive loss ofthe
 seminal fluid, which appears to indicate  as  a means of
 cure, the removal  of these organs.
   These organs  being different  in  the  two sexes, both in
 their structure and actions, we are obliged to study them
 separately.   In beginning with the male, we must consider 
130            anatomist's manual.
 those which prepare the seminal fluid, and those by which
 it is preserved, and, perhaps, endowed with new properties;
 finally, those parts by which it is carried without the body.
 According to this arrangement the  male organs of gene-
 ration are divided into the testicles and their  envelopes,
 the vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, ejaculatory ducts,
 the penis and the urethra.
   Those of the female refer to generation, conception and
 pregnancy.   They  are naturally divided into two classes ;
 in the first are found the external or preparatory organs ;
 the second embraces the internal organs or those in which
 the act of generation  is  consummated.    The first are
 composed of the  mons veneris, the pudendum  or vulva,
 the labia, the vestibulum,  the  clitoris, the  albia mino-
 ra or nymphaa, the meatus urinarius, the external orifice
 of the vagina, the hymen,  the carunculse myrtiformes, the
 fossa  navicularis, and the  fourchette or posterior commis-
 sure, to which may be added the perineum.   The vagina,
 the uterus, and its appendages constitute the  second.

           MALE  ORGANS   OF  GENERATION.
              Anatomical Preparation.
   Testicles.—These  glandular bodies are  enclosed in a
 pouch formed by the skin, which has received the name of
 scrotum.  This term is confined to  the  integument which
 constitutes the exterior or common envelope of  the testi-
 cles;  it is remarkable only  for its laxity, its exterior is ru-
gous, and is covered  with  hair  after the age of puberty.
Immediately beneath this is found what  has  been by ana-
 tomists called the dartos.
  In order to  expose  the dartos, make an incision through 
anatomist's manual.
131
the integument  of the  scrotum ;  a reddish  cellular ex ■
pansion will be perceived, and which may be easily eleva-
ted—it is the dartos.
  Independently of the envelopes common to both testicles,
viz: the dartos,  and the tunica vaginalis, each testicle is
surrounded with another  coat, and  is suspended by a cord
which  enters the inguinal canal and passes into the abdo-
men.  On  the  external side  of  this cord is  a muscle  of
three or four fingers' breadth  in' length, which appears to
come from the oblique muscles,  and is called  the cremas-
ter ; from its reddish  appearance it may be recognised with
 facility.
   When we divide the tunica vaginalis, we perceive the tes-
 ticle in its cavity;  we should here observe the difference be-
 tween the two portions of this tunic.  It envelopes equal-
 ly the testicle and cord,  without any communication  exist-
 ing between them.  This membrane is  reflected on itself
 in such a -manner as  to form two  little sacs, which  are
 without an opening.   This is also the case with the pleura,
 the peritoneum, and, in general, with all serous, and synovial
 membranes.  By dividing the testicle longitudinally, we are
 enabled to see its color, and the form, and arrangement of
 the seminiferous canals.   To make them more distinct we
 may adopt two modes of proceeding; the first of which con-
 sists in injecting water into  the testicles through an opening
 made in the tunica albuginea; or in macerating them for some
 time in the same fluid.   We may also render them apparent
 by  injecting  mercury  through the vas  deferens, at  a cer-
 distance from the testicle, which should be suspended in
 order to favor  the  passage of the mercury  through the
 seminiferous canals.
   We should examine that elongated reddish body, which is
 situated on the  superior part ofthe testicle,  and which ap-
                           43* 
132            anatomist's  manual.
pears to have been superadded to this gland, it is called the
epidydimis ; and  observe that the special covering of the
testicle  is here quite dense and tendinous; here we  find
the corpus highmorianum, communicating with the  epidy.
dimis, which continues with  the cord;  this latter  should
be  pursued  to the  interior of the  abdomen.  When the
cord has arrived  behind the  abdominal ring,  the  artery,
vein,  and nerve, of which it is composed, pass beyond the
pelvis to join their respective trunks; whilst another por-
tion,  the vas deferens, plunges into the pelvis, passes be-
hind the bladder and terminates at the anterior part of an
elongated, irregular body, which is called the vesicula
seminalis.
   When the trajet ofthe vas  deferens has been observed—
to study successfully the remaining  organs of generation it
will be  necessary to prepare  the bladder after the manner
which has been indicated elsewhere.
   The intestinum rectum should be cautiously detached,
that  the vesiculse seminales be uninjured; in preparing
these parts it is advisable to remove the  whole of the rec-
tum which,  when the bladder has been filled with air, may
with more ease be separated  from it, for without this pre-
caution, you will have much  difficulty in finding the vesi-
cuke, and the canal which empties into them.  In this dis-
section  be  careful  not to  puncture the bladder,  for  the
escape  of the urine  will obscure the view ofthe objects to
be  studied.   From these parts  we  must pass to  the  ex-
amination ofthe urethra, and ejaculatorv ducts, and finish
Fy examining the penis.
   In  studying these organs the  method which   I con-
ceive to  be  preferable is to commence with the penis,
and leave the urethra  and ejaculatory ducts  for  the
last.  By proceeding in  this manner nothing is cut unne- 
               anatomist's  manual.            133

cessarily, and the preparation of one part does not cause
the destruction of the other.  Moreover, in order to pre-
pare the urethra,  we are obliged to sacrifice the scrotum,
which should be preserved for the examination of the penis.
   In examining the penis, we are to observe the remarkable
laxity  of the integuments, and the manner in which they
are reflected over the glans to form  the prepuce  and its
frenum.  The formation of the glans,  and the delicacy of
the skin which  covers it should also be observed.  We
should now expose the suspensary  ligament  of the penis,
 which, on  the one hand, is  inserted  on  its  superior and
 posterior part, and, on the other, is lost on the body of the
 pubis.  The internal  structure of the penis should not  be
 studied until the urethra has been examined.
   In order to examine the  urethra it should be  divided
 through its whole length.  Observe carefully the fossa
 navicularis,  situated  immediately under the glans,  and
 those  contractions which are  sometimes remarked in  its
 continuity and which are the result of disease ; this canal
 presents differences  of structure,  to  distinguish which, it
 has been divided into three  portions ;  the first of which is
 of considerable extent, and has been denominated the spon-
 gy portion;  the second portion is smaller, lies immediately
 under the skin  of the perineum,  and is called  the mem-
 branous portion ; the third,  opens into the bladder, is three
 fingers' breadth in extent,  and has,  as yet, received no
 particular name.  This latter is  embraced by the  pros-
 tate,  a  glandular body, which surrounds the commences
 ment of  the urethra.  In order to see these parts advdf^
 tageously, the  pubis  should be divided  at  the symphisis,
  and totally removed; we must remember  that the ejacu-
  latory ducts open into the uret^a,  a  few lines from its
  origin- to  see  them, we must divide the urethra through 
134             anatomist's  manual.
its superior portion, and seek them on the lateral parts of
an elongated body, which is placed longitudinally in  the
urethra, and which is called the verumontanum; they  are
about an inch in length, and, with a fine probe or bristle,
they may be traced  to their entrance into  the vesiculae
seminales.   This is the only mode of appreciating their
direction, and the manner in which they communicate with
the vesiculae.   They may be injected with  mercury,  or
melted wax, by forcing the injection through  the vas defe-
rens into the vesicular, by compressing which the injection
will |be pushed through the ejaculatory ducts.
  The penis is composed, interiorly, of two large  canals,
which  are called the cavernous bodies ; they are filled with
a firm  and dense cellular tissue,  and are divided, the one
from the other by  a membranous partition.
  To see their interior structure, they should  be divided
through their whole length ; they are always  found filled
with dark thick blood, which is readily washed away, and
the cellular tissue  is observed to have its usual  whitish  ap-
pearance.
                      Description.
             MALE ORGANS  OF GENERATION.
  These organs are: the testicles, the vas  deferens,  the
vesiculae seminales, and the ejaculatory ducts. The appen-
dages  of the testicles are—the scrotum, which is a  tunic
common to both, the dartos, the cremaster muscle, and  the
tunica vaginalis, which are  proper  coats.  The tunica al.
buginea, belongs to the testicle itself, and is independent of
the others.
  Scrotum.   Situation and relations.—The  scrotum is
a kind of pouch formed  by a prolongation  of the skin
which  covers  the thighs, and is situated below the perine-
um and penis. 
anatomist's  manual.
135
  Division.—It is divided into an external surface, which
is rugous and hairy after the  age of puberty, and is  tra-
versed by a fold  of the skin, which is called its  raphe,
and is continuous with the integument covering the penis
and perineum;  the internal surface of this fold is united
to the dartos.
   Structure  and uses.—Its use is to envelope  the testi-
cles;  it differs from the general integument, of which it is
a prolongation, in being very  lax.
   Dartos.    Situation and relations.—The dartos are
situated immediately  under the scrotum, with which they
are loosely connected ; they correspond to the tunica va-
ginalis ; they are also united to  form a  partition, which
separates the testicles from one  another.
   Structure  and uses.—The structure  of the dartos is
imperfectly understood.  Their tissue has, by some, been
pronounced muscular, others,  on  the contrary, assert that
they  are formed of  very dense  cellular tissue.   Their
use appears to  be to  compress the testicles and assist in
the expulsion of the semen.
   Cremasters.    Situation and   relations.—They cover
the spermatic cord, and extend from the internal oblique
and transversalis muscles,  to  the  external surface  of the
tunica vaginalis.   Externally, they are covered by the
dartos and integument;  internally, they are in  contact
with the tunica vaginalis.
   Structure and uses.—Many anatomists make  no dis-
tinction  between the cremaster   muscle  and the red  or
erythroid tunic.   It is doubtless   a muscle,  the fibres of
which are extremely pale ; its uses are to suspend the tes-
ticle, and to  assist in the expulsion ofthe seminal fluid.
   Tunica  Vaginalis.   Situation and  relations.—It  is
the last proper  envelope ofthe testicle.   Externally, it is 
138            anatomist's  manual.
m contact with the dartos, and a portion  of the cremaster
muscle; internally, it is contiguous to the testicle, and is
constantly moistened  with  a lymphatic  fluid, which pre-
vents the formation of adhesions.   When this fluid  accu-
mulates in the sac formed by the tunica  vaginalis, and its
absorbption is not in a ratio with its secretion, it constitutes
the disease called hydrocele.
   Structure and uses.—The  tunica  vaginalis  does  not
differ in structure from the peritoneum, of which it is  a
prolongation;  it encloses the  testicle, and its  particular
use  appears to be t© furnish  a lubricating fluid, which
increases the  mobility of the  testicle, prevents  the  for-
mation of adhesions,  and assists its important functions.
   Testicles.   Situation and relations.—The testicles are
 two in number, and  are each contained in a pouch formed
 by  the  tunica vaginalis, they are oval, and  elongated,
 antero-posteriorly, and are surmounted at their superior
 portion by the  epidydimis and corpus highmorianum placed
 below, which  extend down their whole  length.   The an-
 terior extremity  of  the  epidydimis,  which is called its
 head, communicates with  the  corpus  higmorianum  by
 ten or twelve little canals ;  its posterior extremity,^or tail,
 gives origin to the vas deferens.
   Structure and uses.—The tunica albuginea, an external
 coat,  which  is white  and  smooth, encloses  the proper
 tissue of the testicle, which consists of a number of fine
 tubes called the seminiferous ducts,  and which terminate
 in the corpus highmorianum.   The testicles secrete the
 seminal fluid.
   Vas deferens.   Situation  and relations.—The vas
 deferens passes from  the  testicles to the vesiculae semi-
 nales through the abdominal ring.   Without the abdomen,
 it is enclosed in the  sheath which envelopes the spermatic 
anatomist's  manual.
137
vessels, which sheath is a prolongation of the peritoneum.
When it enters the pelvis it runs along the lateral parts of
the bladder to its has fond, and  opens into  the vesiculae
seminales.
   Figure.—Elongated, cylindrical.
   Structure  and uses.—The  vas deferens has two coats,
the external, dense and white, and the internal, mucous;
the use  of this duct is to transmit the seminal fluid from
the testicles, where it  is secreted, to the vesiculae semi-
nales.
    Vesiculce  Seminales.   Situation  and  relations.—
These organs are situated at the inferior part of the blad-
der, between it  and the rectum.  Posteriorly, they  are
 considerably separated from each other ; anteriorly, they
 are so much approximated as barely  to permit the passage
 ofthe vasa deferentia, which  open into^heir anterior ex-
 tremities.
   Figure.—Elongated, tortuous, anc]gg|plar.
   Structure and  use.—They are ingt^cture similar  to
 the vasa deferentia.   The use of thes^gans, is to serve
 as reservoirs for  the seminal fluid, and to allow if  to
 escape during coition.
    Penis, and its appendages.  Situation and relations.—
 It is  placed below the symphisis  pubis,  and above the
 testicles.
    Figure.—Elongated.
    Division.—It is divided into  a superior surface, which
  is called its  back, and an inferior  surface along which
  runs the canal of the urethra.  Into a posterior extremity
  or root, adhering  to the pubis, and supported by the sus-
  pensory  ligament, and  an anterior extremity, terminated
  by the glans, which appears to be superadded to the penis.
  This glans is pierced at its free extremity  by an opening 
13S
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
  which is the termination ofthe urethra, and is  ordinarily
  covered by a fold of integument, called prepuce.
    Structure and uses.—The principal  part ofthe penis is
  formed by the union of two membranous canals, containing
  very dense cellular tissue, and called the cavernous bodies:
  they are separated from one another by a membranous par-
  tition, and are covered by loose skin.   The use ofthe penis
  is to carry the seminal fluid into the genital organs of the
  female.
    The appendages of the  penis  are  the prostate  gland,
  the ejaculatory ducts, and the urethra.
  ?-. The  prostate is a glandular body, which surrounds the
 commencement of the urethra; it corresponds superiorly
 to the inferior portion of the pubis, and  inferiorly, to
 the intestine  rectum.  Its  texture is firm,  and its color
 greyish ;  its organization  and functions  are  unknown.
 The ejaculatory ducts traverse it from  behind forwards,
 aod from without inwards.
   The ejaculatoYy ducts may be considered  as the termi-
 nations  of the vasa deferentia, and  vesiculae seminales;..
 they are about two lines  in  length,  and  open  into  the
 urethra on the lateral and anterior parts of the verumon-
 tanum.   Their use is to conduct the seminal fluid from the
 vesiculae  seminales into the urethra at the time of coition.
   The urethra is a canal  which extends  from the urinary
 bladder to the extremity of the penis.  It is from ten to
 twelve inches  in length ; it commences at the neck of the
 bladder,   traverses the prostate gland, is  applied to the
 symphysis pubis,  and in the remainder of its trajet, it is
 contained in the groove which is formed by the union of
 the two cavernous bodies, at their inferior surfaces.
   The urethra is divided into three portions : the first, an
inch and  half inl ength, has not received any particular 
               anatomist's  manual.            139

name ; it is very thin, and is sustained by the prostate ; the
second,  is about  an inch  in  length, and  is  called  its
membranous portion; at this part the urethra is covered
solely by the integuments, and is extremely  weak; the
third portion occupies  the  remainder of the  penis, and
is called  its spongy portion.   The bulb of the  urethra
is near the  origin  of this portion of the  canal.  The
anterior  extremity of  the  urethra traverses  the glans,
the opening of which is called the. meatus urinarius, imme-
 diately below which is found the fossa navicularis.   The
 urethra  is lined by  a mucous membrane, which at   its
origin has an elevation to which the name Verumontanum
 h as been applied, on the lateral portions of which are seen
 the orifices of the ejaculatory ducts.  Through the canal
 of the urethra are transmitted  the urine and semen.

               FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS.
   For the convenience of studying them they  are divided
 into external and'internal; but this division is arbitrary,
  and entirely conventional.

                Anatomical Preparation.
    Those organs which are  called  external,  require no
  preparation ;  with some trifling precautions, they may be
  studied  with facility.   The   subject  being  placed  in  the
  position which is adopted for observing the muscles of the
  perineum, we should separate the labia majora, having pre-
  viously observed their relations;  in the  interval which is
  called the pudendum,  you see from before backwards the
  clitoris, partially covered by the union ofthe nymphae ; about
  an inch below is observed the meatus urinarius.  We should
  study the relative situation of these two parts, as they are
                             44 
140            ANATOMIST'S MANUAL
frequently, mistaken for each other, in introducing the
catheter.
  Below the  meatus urinarius, is seen the exterior orifice
ofthe vagina, which in young girls is partially closed by
a membrane called the hymen, which  is of  a crescet
shape.
  The existence of this  membrane  is not chimerical,  as
has been asserted.   Many pupils have seen at my amphi-
theatre this membrane in  a female of  advanced age.   The
knowledge of the existence of this membrane, should pre-
vent us  from using force, when examining some females.
  Below  the hymen,  is seen the  posterior commissure.
When, in consequence of violence,  the  hymen has  been
destroyed, it  is replaced by tubercules,  which might be
mistaken for the consequences of venereal disease.
  In  examining the internal  parts  of generation,  more
care is  necessary.   The parts should  be prepared as for
examining the bladder,  ;  leave the bladder  and  rec-
tum in position, which last, should  be  tied four fingers'
breadth from  the  anus,  and divided above the ligature ;
remove the whole  with  care, wash it,  and observe the
relation  which exists  between  the  uterus,  bladder, and
rectum, and the ligaments which arise  from  the lateral
parts of the former.   The ligaments of the  uterus are
divided into the broad, which  do not extend  beyond the
pelvis, and the  round which pass through  the abdominal
ring,  and are lost on the internal parts of the thighs.  It
is difficult to preserve the round ligaments,  they should
be studied in position, before  the pubis is divided.   They
are the least important of the appendages of the uterus.
Those parts, which do not belong to the genital apparatus,
as also the cellular tissue, should be removed, that the view 
ANATOMISTS  MANUAL.
141
be not obscured.   The  symphisis pubis should  be cut
through,  and the bladder divided through its whole length,
that we may observe the relation it bears to the uterus,
particularly at its neck.
  Divide the vagina, through its anterior parietes, in the
same direction as the bladder ; separate the divided parts,
and you  perceive the neck of the uterus, which  must be
left until the vagina has been  studied..   We may  now
separate these parts from  the pubis,  but  I prefer leaving
them  in  situ, until the uterus is to be studied particularly,
which should be also divided longitudinally, in the  same|
manner as the vagina.   When  the parts have been pre-
pared in the manner indicated, nothing prevents us from
studying them.   The  broad, and what  remains of the
 round ligaments,  should be  extended on  the table and
 placed in position.  The latter do not require particular
 examination.  The broad ligaments, on  the contrary, re-
 quire  especial attention ; the length of the Fallopian duct,
 and the ligament  which sustains  the ovarium, should be
 studied,  as well as the manner in which they unite at their
 respective extremities.  The tube of Fallopius is  a conduit,
 the  calibre  of which,  at  its opening into the uterus, is  so
 small as to admit with difficulty the finest probe. By
 partially dividing the tube, a bristle may be introduced into
 its cavity.   The ovaria do not  require  any preparation ;
 the appearances so much insisted on,  by different  anato-
 mists, are often illusory.

                       Description.
             FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
   Proceeding from above downwards, and from before back-
 wards, we find: 
112             anatomist's  manual.
  1st.  The mons veneris, which is a greater or less eleva-
tion, according to the disposition ofthe hones ofthe pubis,
and  the  lax  and abundant  cellular tissue which  covers
them ;  this part at the age of puberty is covered with hair.
  2d. Below the mons veneris are the labia majora, which
are. united anteriorly and posteriorly.   Their points of un-
ion are called the commissures,  and the space between the
commissures  the vulva or pudendum; looking from be-
fore  backwards, we  perceive  the  vestibulum,  which is
placed between the anterior commissure and the clitoris.
The clitoris is  a body more or less projecting, and  is ordi-
narily concealed by the nymphae ; the labia minora or nym-
pha? which  are united  at the clitoris, diverge  from one
another, in  proportion as they proceed  posteriorly,  and
terminate on the lateral parts of the vagina.  Between
the nymphee, and below the clitoris, is seen the meatus uri-
narius, or the external  orifice of the urethra, which is
about one inch in length; below it, is the external orifice
ofthe vagina, partially closed by the hymen in persons who
have not copulated,'nor  had it destroyed by external vio-
lence.   Behind,  the  vulva  terminates  at  the posterior
commissure,  within  which is  seen the fossa naviculars.
The space which is comprised between the anus and pos-
terior commissure is called the  perineum.  Cellular tissue
in great quantity, numerous glands and a mucous membrane,
compose in great measure the  parts just described.  They
are the preparatory organs of  generation the accomplish-
of which is effected in the uterus.
  3d. Vagina.  Situation and relations.   This canal, vul-
vo-uterine, is from four to five inches in length and ex-
tends from the vulva to the uterus, over the neck of which
it is  reflected.
   Figure.  Elongated, and  flattened antero-posteriorly. 
                anatomist's  manual.             143

   Division.   Anteriorly, it adheres  intimately  to  the
 bladder, posteriorly it adheres to the rectum, inferiorly it
 terminates by an opening called its external orifice, which
 is narrower than the rest ofthe canal, posteriorly it is con-
 nected with the neck of the uterus.  Internally it  is  con-
 stantly bedewed with mucous, and has on its surface many
. wrinkles or folds, the developement of  which at the mo-
 ment of parturition, singularly favor this  painful process.
 The external  coat of the vagina is a prolongation of the
 peritoneum, its internal coat is mucous,  and is a continua-
 tion of that which covers the external parts of generation;
 the vagina likewise contains a great number of glands, and
 a peculiar tissue, which,  by some anatomists,  is considered
 muscular.  Be this as it may, all admit the existence of two
 muscles which are placed at the entrance  of the  vagina,
 and which are called constrictors.
   4. Uterus.  Situation and relations.  It is situated in the
 lesser pelvis, between the rectum and uterus.
   Figure.  Pyriforme, elongated from above downwards
 and flattened from before backwards.
   Division.  It is divided into a body and neck.  Its two supe-
 rior thirds compose its body, which is entirely covered by the
 peritoneum.  Its interior, which would with difficulty con-
 tain a French bean, has three openings, two superior which
 communicate with the Fallopian tubes, and one inferior at
 its neck.   The neck ofthe uterus is placed below its body,
 and is about one inch in length, it has a  superior orifice
 which opens into the cavity of the uterus, and an inferior
 which opens into the vagina, the first is called  the internal
 or uterine, and the  other is called  the inferior or vaginal
 orifice.   The  organization of the  uterus resembles very
 much that of the vagina; like it, it has a peritoneal cove-
                          44* 
144             anatomist's manual.
ring, and  an internal mucous membrane, between  which
is a tissue, which is  generally considered muscular.  On
the interior of the uterus are the orifices of the uterine
sinuses, which  are very considerably develloped during
pregnancy.  The uterus is the  principal organ  of repro-
duction.
   The appendages of the uterus are the  broad and round
ligaments.
   The round ligaments arise from the superior and lateral
parts of the body of the uterus,  before and a little below
the origin of the Fallopian tubes ; they pass through the in-
guinal rings, and are lost in the neighborhood of the labia
majora.   The tissue of these ligaments is membranous, but
their use is little understood.
   The broad ligaments are formed  by the Fallopian tubes
anteriorly, and posteriorly by the ovaria and their liga-
ments.   The Fallopian tubes are two ducts  which  extend
from the lateral parts ofthe uterus to the sides ofthe pel-
vis, they  terminate by a kind of funnel shaped fringe, which
is inclined towards the ovaria ;  they communicate with the
 uterus by a narrow orifice, on  the one side, and  with  the
cavity ofthe abdomen  on the other, which explains  the
possibility of extra uterine gestation. They have an external
or peritoneal coat, and an internal mucous coat, which is
 continuous with that which lines the uterus ; although ordi-
narily the calibre of these tubes is very small, still in cer-
 tain cases they become much  enlarged, as in the case of
 extra uterine conceptions, in which the ovum remains in
 the Fallopian tube.  These ducts appear to be intended to
 allow the  generative  fluids to reach the ovaria,  and to
 transmit  the product of fecundation to the uterus.
   The ovaria and their ligaments are placed below, and a 
^."
               anatomist's manual.            145

little behind the Fallopian tubes.  The ligaments  are not
remarkable, the bodies which terminate  them are ovoid,
whitish, and adhere to the fringed extremities of the Fal-
lopian tubes ; externally they are covered by the peritone-
um ; their internal structure is  imperfectly known: in it
we find many vesicles filled with water, which  physiolo-
gists have looked upon as eggs.  The use of the ovaria is
not known ; in the system of the ovarists these organs are
very important, but the precise function they are intended
to fulfil is far from being satisfactorily, ascertained.
                         skin.
   The common integument is not composed exclusively of
the skin ;  the nails and hair nrq considered as parts of it;
the fat and cellular^tissue are throughout the animal econo-
mv contiguous to its internal surface.   The integuments
shall now be examined, not only as  the external covering
ofthe body, but as the organ ofthe sense of touch.

                Anatomical Preparation.
   The  skin  can be  prepared but  imperfectly  by stu-
 dents,  the instruments  and  necessary  agents   being
 usually  wanting.   In  despite of  these  inconveniences,
 thev can generally by simple means  acquire a  sufficient
 knowledge of it.  In fact, without the assistance of physical
 or chemical  agents, the color, density,  and thickness of
 this common envelope can be easily determined.  Its elas-
 ticity, which is its most astonishing property, can  be appre-
 ciated without the assistance of the scalpel.  The observa-
 tion of certain vital phenomena are sufficient to convince us
 of it but imperfectly ; the same is the case with regard to its
 sensibility. There is nothing surprising in this when we re-
 member that the skin is the organ of touch; and that this 
146            anatomist's  manual.
sense, which is generally diffused over its whole surface, is
extremely perfect at the extremities ofthe fingers.  But this
general knowledge of its  properties and functions  is not
sufficient; it  being indispensably necessary  to become ac-
quainted with its  intimate structure.  By maceration \ve
may arrive at some knowledge of its texture.  When we
plunge a portion of skin into  boiling water,  the epidermis
is observed to elevate itself, and the fatty matter it contains
to melt.   This procedure is  sufficient to show us that the
epidermis is  an over skin, the texture  and functions of
which differ from the rest of the common integument, and
that the  fat is not an integrant part,  but is a kind of cush-
ion which is  interposed between the skin and the parts
which it covers.
  After the  epidermis is detached, there remains that por-
tion ofthe integuments which  is called the chorion, in which
is found the reticular body, which  appears to be a conge-
ries of vessels, the number and direction of which, appear
to be beyond the  power of the anatomist  to determine.
On the surface of the chorion are perceived a number of
little  eminences  which are called  papilla?.  The  great-
er number of anatomists agree in considering these  bodies
as the terminations of the nerves, although it is impossible
to trace  the nerves  into them ;  this  opinion  appears
to be  well founded.  The great sensibility of this part, and
the extreme pain which is felt when the chorion is exposed
by some external agent, as a burn  or blister, leave little,
doubt of the fact.
  The hair and nails  are considered as belonging to  the
skin, the  former  of which are spread profusely  over  the
whole exterior surface of the animal economy, very abund-
ant in certain places, and scarcely to be observed in others.
Although they exist, their extreme  minuteness renders it 
anatomist's manual.            147
difficult to perceive them.   When  we  macerate or boil
the skin, they do not leave the chorion, even after the epi-
dermis is detached, which proves that they merely traverse
this latter envelope, and  that  they are implanted into the
chorion; by  examining  attentively  the  skin after long
maceration, they may be traced in  the chorion,  and their
bulbs or roots perceived.   We must proceed in  the same
manner to observe the mode in which the  nails are im-
planted on the extremities of the fingers; when we plunge
these  latter*' into boiling  water,  or cautiously expose
them to the action of  fire,  we perceive  that they are
composed of scales, laid  one upon another, which leads us
to believe that the nails are composed of the thickened epi-
dermis, and what appears to establish the fact, is the facili.
ty with which they are renewed,
  Although  a kind of analogy exists between the epider-
mis and the nails,  their texture is not absolutely the same",
and this should be attributed to the difference in form and
organization of the subjacent parts with which these tissues
are in relation.

                     Description.
                        SKIN.
  Situation and  relations.—The skin envelopes the body
generally, and occupies  its exterior surface.  Externally
it is in contact with  the atmosphere; internally  it corres-
ponds to different parts, which are more  or less solid, as
muscles, tendons, aponeuroses, bones, vessels of all kinds,
&c.   Between the skin and the subjacent parts, a quantity
of cellular tissue is always interposed.
  Structure  and  use.—The  skin  is composed of three
distinct parts, which are the chorion, the  reticular body,
 nd the epidermis, to which last is added  the hair and nails. 
14S
anatomist's manual.
  The former of these parts, viz. the chorion, is situated
below the two others, and is the part of the skin which re-
mains, after the different preparations to  which it has been
subjected.  The second has been called  the mucous or re-
ticular body;  experiments  have proved that this body is
composed of a congeries of vessels, placed between the epi-
dermis and chorion.  The third and last is the epidermis.
  The hair has received different names, as the beard,
eyelashes, generally we distinguish in a  hair a stem and  a
root, the former is the portion exposed, it is elongated, cy-
lyndrical, and apparently composed of two membranes, in
the interior of which is seen a little cylindrical canal.  The
root is enclosed in a kind of bulb, or membranous sac im-
planted on the chorion.
  The nails are only seen at the extremities of the fingers
and toes, they have the appearance of  hard, whitish, and
transparent laminae.  They are divided into a root which
is implanted on the proper substance of the skin, and  a
body, which forms all their visible portion.   The  reddish
color which  the nails  ordinarily present, depends on the
vessels which are below them.
  The uses of all these  parts  are numerous and  vari-
ous ;  the skin in general defends the. exterior, surface of
the body, from the two strong impression of surrounding
bodies.   The epidermis  in  particular "moderates the two
lively sensibility ofthe chorion, and permits us to approach
and seize certain bodies, the immediate impression of which
on  the  chorion would  be  too  painful.   The skin is the
organ  of touch, of the secretion of sweat, of  insensible
transpiration, and  of  cutaneous  absorption.   The nails
and the hair appear to be intended to moderate the impres-
sion of hard and solid bodies, and to prevent their too lively
percussion on the body. 
anatomist's  manual.            149
                 AN GEOLOGY.

               Preliminary Exposition.

  Angeology is that part of anatomy which treats of the
sanguineous vessels.   We divide these vessels into arterial
and venous ;  the former proceed from the heart to all parts
of the body, and  are infinitely divided ;  the second arise
from the capillary extremities of the former, and  proceed
to the heart, having  united their numerous divisions into
two principal trunks.   The arteries  receive from the heart
and transmit to all parts of the body a vermillion colored
blood, which is light, and well oxygenated, and which con-
tains the  element necessary for the support of life.   The
veins on the contrary return, slowly, towards the principal
organ of the circulation, blood, which is  black, thick, con-
taining no oxygen, and surcharged  with azote and hydro-
gen :  the first kind of blood contains the  elements  of nutri-
tion and life, and the second contains agents which are de-
structive to this precious faculty.  The course of the liquid
likewise presents important considerations.   On leaving the
heart, the blood is propelled by lively and periodical shocks,
 which are equally and almost simultaneously felt  in every
 part ofthe body.  This motion is called sistole, when the
 heart contracts and expels the blood  it contained; and when
.it relaxes it is  called diastole.  This  alternating motion
is felt throughout the arteries, and constitutes what is called
 the pulsation.   The veins have no perceptible motion, and
 the blood traverses them slowly and imperceptibly".' *
   The arteries and  veins differ in structure, which differ-
 ence is explained by their functions.  The blood is driven
P 
150
anatomist's manual.
with force through  the arteries,  the  coats of which are
firm and resisting^, the veins destined merely to contain the
blood, which exerts little pressure on  them, their walls
are not so solid.  The arteries are composed  of several
coats, laid one upon another, the number of which anato-
mists have not agreed upon;  they generally admit the exis-
tence of an exteriorcoat, formed by the neighboring cellular
tissue, but which does not appear to  be  essential to the
walls ofthe arteries ; below  this is found what is called the
membranous coat, which is laid  on a third or muscular
coat; finally, there  is a fourth or internal coat, which is
fine, reddish, smooth and polished.  We  count the same
number of coats in the veins, but they are infinitely less
thick, and their  existence is not admitted by all anatomists.
   In the  exposition of Angeology,  we shall pursue  the
following order : we shall first occupy ourselves with the
arteries, and then we shall pass to the veins.  The arteries
shall be  described in the order in which they arise from
the principal  trunks;  thus  the  carotids,  and  their di-
visions  shall be studied ;  the first, the sub-clavians shall
follow  them, those of the trunk shall come next, and we
shall finish by those of the inferior extremities.   The dis-
section  of these parts, and the anatomical  studies observed
in the ampitheatres,  do not allow us  to pursue any other
course.    The veins require a different exposition : those of
the head, and superior extremities, are to be studied first,
then all the divisions of  t]*c  superior or ascending cava,
and then  we shall pass to that portion of the venous sys-
tem which appertains to the descending or inferior cava.
The system  of  the  vena porta shall terminate angeology,
which we shall consider, to a  certain degree, as a distinct
portion  of Veniolgy, as its different  ramifications do not
communicate directly with the inferior vena cava.
* 
anatomist's manual.
151
          Particular dissection of Angeology.
  Angeology and Neurology are those  parts of anatomy
which require much patience and dexterity, on the part of
the student,  particularly when  he wishes to dissect the
more minute divisions of this part ofthe economy. It is true
that the injections which are pushed into  the veins and arte-
ries |to  render them  more distinct,  facilitates singularly
the study; but' in despite  of this advantage there are no
parts  which  are worse  dissected, and more  frequently
destroyed.-  In a preparation  of Angelogy, made by one
not accustomed to dissect, arteries are divided  at each
stroke of the scalpel; the trunks are  cut at their origin,
the branches at their divisions, and it is not known  to
which of the trunks the ramifications belong.
   To  dissect well  in  Angeology, it  is necessary to have
 evinced some  ability in  the  dissection  of the  muscles:
 many  arteries traverse the  muscles, and loose themselves
 in their tissue, and if we  are not well  acquainted with
 these last and have not prepared them  with  care, the dis-
 section  of  the  arteries will be difficult and embarassing.
 I have already mentioned that the instruments necessary for
 Angeology should be smaller and more delicate than those
 used for the muscles.  Certain arteries  are destined for the
 bones and traverse their holes or canals, it is necessary to
  follow them with the saw, mallet, and chissel, or,  we
  can make these vessels  more  apparent by plunging the
  bones into some reagent, which will remove their earthy mat-
  ter, and leave in the midst of their parenchyma, the vessels of
  bones, or, at least, traces ofthe coloring matter which has
  penetrated them ;  but this  mode of  preparing the vessels
  can scarcely be employed  by  students,  they want time
  and the  necessary apparatus for the  operation.  All the
                            45
* 
152             anatomist's  manual.

precepts therefore which we could give on this subject would
be of no avail.   We must also acknowledge that the most
minute preparations bring to light parts the knowledge v
which is, at least, superfluous to  the student, who has just
commenced the study of anatomy. Being farther advanced,
and better instructed, his own  genius  and experience will
assist more than books.   M. Dumeril, who has entered into
very extensive details on all points concerning the art of an-
atomy, observes, in speaking ofthe variety and modifications
of instruments, that "these modifications may appear minute:
they  depend on the  experience  of the anatomist,  and  on
circumstances in which he is compelled to imagine them."
The  student will have completely fulfilled the task which
is imposed on him,  if he  carefully dissects the principal
arteries, those for  example, which carry the  blood to the
viscera and which penetrate them, and, particularly, those
which traverse the  length of the  extremities.   If  these
last are not the most  difficult to  discover, they  are, at
least, more interesting to know, and, consequently, deserve
more time  and  study,  in their investigation.   To pre-
pare them  properly and  not to  cut them,  nor change
their  situation  and relations, we must  commence  by  a
careful  dissection   of the  muscles, divide  those which
 interfere with the view of the vessels, and separate such as
 conceal the arteries;  we should then pursue  the  arteries
 from trunk to branches, and from branches to ramifications ;
 we must be particular to isolate these last from every thing
 which  conceals them, and not to seize them  with  the for-
 ceps, as they are torn with  facility ; sometimes  we may
 use the handle  of the scalpel, but it is better not to touch
 them.
    It remains for me to say something on the composition 
                anatomist's  manual.            153

of injections and the manner of injecting in general: this
object moreover requires some precaution, and is not exempt
from many inconveniences, which it will not be useless to
allude to here.   All subjects are not proper for the study
of angeology, and  the  disadvantages which they present
relate to the difficulty of injecting on  the  one hand, and
that of dissecting them on  the other.  There is no part of
anatomy which  is  more embarassing than that of Ange-
ology ;  the  subject may be bad, the injection may be un-
successful, or, pushed with too great violence, it may have
ruptured  the  arteries of  the abdomen, and the injection
extravasated into its cavity, the vessels of the extremities
 remaining empty.    Those  subjects which are  fat, infil-
trated,  and of large stature, are, most frequently, impro-
per.  It is  rare that the  injection penetrates all the parts
equally ; in addition to this first inconvenience, these sub-
jects  are embarassing, difficult to  dissect and require too
much time  in order to  pursue the arteries; for here it is
neither the size nor extent of the vessels that it is impor-
 tant to see, but it is their situation, relations, and distribu-
 tion that most interest us.   As it will require much longer
 time to expose  the brachial artery of a very long upper
 extremity,  than it will for that  of a thin and small arm, it
 will be admitted that a young  subject, cseteribus paribus,
 will be  more favorable for  Angeology, than an individual
 of a high and robust stature.   Let the student, therefore,
 select, if it  be possible, a thin and young subject,  from six,
 eight,  twelve to  eighteen years of  age.  The parts, in
 general softer, are more flexible, and will permit the injection
 to  traverse more  freely  the principal arteries and  their
 numerous d ivisions.
   The study of anatomy  is generally pursued during cold 
154
anatomist's manual.
weather;  this circumstance is unfavorable to the success
of injections.  The parts  are stiff,  contracted, nnu some-
times even, more or less,  frozen :  in this case, the injection
is arrested in its course, and scarcely fills the large arterial
branches.  It is for this  reason that  we  are in the habit,
as far as practicable, of placing  the cadaver, intended to
be injected, in warm water ; the  limbs then become sup-
pie,  all the parts  are relaxed, and the injection  reaches
without  difficulty  the smallest divisions.   When this ad-
vantage  cannot be enjoyed, we  should relax the subject,
at least in part, by moving  the cadaver in all directions,
and by putting in  brisk motion its  different articulations;
it should then be placed horizontally on its back,  the
shoulders gently raised, by means  of a solid  body placed
beneath, so that the head may  fall easily backwards, by
which the injection will, be  made to  traverse the arteries
of the superior parts  with  greater  facility ;  we should
separate the superior extremities  from the trunk, and the
inferior from  each other, by drawing the feet  outwards,
and  then we should be  prepared  to inject.   In  some
schools, they are in the habit of injecting at two different
times; this is objectionable and  presents serious inconve-
niences ;  at Paris, the injection is made at one time ;  and
this method, preferable in all respects, offers great advan-
tages.   For this purpose,  the student removes,  with  the
chisel and mallet,  a portion of the  sternum at its superior
part, measuring about  four  or five inches  in length,  and
an inch and a half in breadth ; care must be taken not to
carry the instrument too deep, for fear  of wounding the
aorta, which is found just under that portion of the sternum
which has been removed^ and also  that we may avoid the
internal mammary arteries,  which are distributed under the 
anatomist's  manual.
155
intercostal cartilages, very near their articulation with the
sternum.  The first object that  presents itself is the peri-
cardium, which must be carefully divided, -in order after-
wards to raise the aorta and pulmonary artery, which may
be easily distinguished by the difference of their tissue and
size.  The first is ordinarily placed  on the second;  but,
in order  to  avoid  confounding the two, we need  only
pull gently on one  of them,  in  order  to  perceive  the
direction taken  by "the tractions j when we pull on the
aorta, the lateral parts of the neck are more or less agitat-
ed, which arises  from tiraillement of the carotids.   We
then pass a scalpel between these two arteries, the superior
of which, larger  and thicker,  is the aorta, which must be
divided in its length, as near as  possible to  the heart in
an extent of six  or  eight lines.  It is in this opening that
we should place  the tube,  around which the artery is to be
tied ; in it we fix the barrel  of the syringe filled with the
injection.   This latter is  composed of fatty materials, to
 which "should be  added some solid materials, such as  colo-
 phony and  the different kinds of resins.   Trre following is
 a receipt published by M.  Dumeril, it is not expensive, and
 is very easily procured :
        Tallow,........5  parts.
        Burgundy pitch,   .....   2    "
        Olive or nut oil,    .  f  .  .  .   2
        Liquid turpentine and
        coloring  matter  dis-
        solved in volatile  oil, ....  1    "
    In all the private amphitheatres,  they put  still less
  polishing matter :  2 pounds of tallow, 6 ounces of  resin
  or Burgundy pitch, one dram of ivory black, compose the
  matter  injected;  sometimes the ivory black is diluted  in
                           45* 
156
anatomist's  manual.
three or four ounces of the oil of turpentine^ which  is in-
jected first, in order  to  color the walls of the  arteries ;
afterwards, the  boiling  injection  is passed  through  the
linen, which was used to  receive the oil of turpentine and
coloring matter ; in this way its black  color  will be  suffi-
ciently marked to enable  us to follow the arterial divisions.
Whatever mode of injecting we  may adopt, and whatever
be the matter constituting  the  basis of our injection, we
must always pass the boiling liquid  through a linen  suffi-
ciently thick to retain the gross particles, which, without
this  precaution,  would be pushed  into the  arteries, and
arrest the injection ; frequently too, they would  cause'the
rupture of the  vessels in which they  penetrate.  When
we desire to make very  nice injections, we will have to
vary the ingredients.  I  deem it proper to  pass this over
in silence, for it  would lead me into details  which cannot
have a place here,  and for which the student may consult
the work of M. Dumeril, who has left nothing to be. desired
in this respect, and also that of M.  Marjolin.

             the arteries in particular.
   In this description we shall expose the origin of the  aorta
and  the  first divisions parting from  it.  These divisions
constitute  what is  called the ascending aorta ; they are
the carotids and subclavians, and also their different por-
tions.
   The carotids,  called at first primitive, divide at several
fingers' breadth from their origin, into external and inter-
nal.   The principal branches of the first are, the superior
thyroid, lingual,  labial,   occipital,  posterior  auricular,
pharynigeal,  temporal and  internal maxillary; but one
remarkable branch is given off from the internal  carotid—
it is the opthalmic. 
anatomist's  manual.            157
                 Anatomical Preparation.7
    Primitive  carotids.—We  must  remove  nearly the
  whole of the sternum, and  also the internal portion ofthe
  clavicles, which are to be carried outwards';  there remains
  a large space, in which  are found the arch of the aorta,
  and the four arteries arising from it.  We must not detach
  the clavicles  at their humeral articulation,  for we should
  destroy  the  transverse  cervical   arteries.   A  quantity
  of loose  cellular tissue covers all these  parts ;  it must
  be removed.  We soon arrive at  the jugular and subcla-
  vian  veins,  which will be readily recognized by their
  bluish color and easy compression—they must not be de-
  stroyed.   Beneath these veins, is observed the arch  ofthe
  aorta, from the convexity of which originate four arteries ;
  those which go directly from below upwards, on the sides
  of the trachea,  are the primitive  carotids, which preserve
  this name as high up as the inferior jaw, where they divide
  into  two, branches.   We cannot  pursue the primitive
'  carotids  properly without  commencing  in  the first place
  with the preparation of the muscles situated on the anterior
  part  of the  neck,  such as the sterno-mastoideus, sterno-
  thyroideus, and hyoideus, and also the omo-hyoideus.   We
  should not'cut the muscles in question until we have a correct
  idea of the relations they bear  to  the  arteries ; we should
  leave in place the eighth pair of nerves, which is situated on
   the external side of the carotids, and also the recurrent, like-
   wise situated on their external side, but at their inferior
   portion only, for it passes  under these arteries in  order to
   reach  the larynx.  We next pass to  the  divisions ofthe
   external carotid artery, which  should be dissected at one
   time, except the internal maxillary, which must be left for
   the  last, and which at this stage  of our examination, it is 
15S            anatomists manual.

impossible to see, for it is absolutely concealed by the inter-
nal part of the  branches of the lower jaV.  It alone will
be the object of a particular preparation.
   External carotid.—As  high up as the lower jaw, the
primitive carotids divide into two branches; that which is
most  inwards  is the  external carotid ; the other  is  the
internal.  As  soon as the separation of these two  arteries
takes place, the external furnishes, within, a branch which
descends towards the thyroid gland, it is the superior thy-
roidal ; it will  suffice  to separate, without removing them,
the sterno-thyroid and sterno-hyoid muscles, in order to
have a perfect view ofthe distribution of this artery, which
may be followed without difficulty  to  the thyroid gland.
Two other arteries arise from the external carotid, almost
immediately after  the origin ofthe thyroid ;  the one which
is  most outwards, is the external  maxillary or facial;
the other is the lingual.   We must commence with  the
facial, for its  superficial situation will not permit  us to
follow any other course; it travels, in a winding manner,
towards the angle  of the jaw, covered by the digastricus,
a small portion  of the stylo-hyoideus,  and by the maxil-
lary gland, on the  external side  of which it is found.  It
is,  therefore,  essential to  expose these different objects,
the preliminary  preparation of which will favor singularly
the study of the maxillary in  this place.   It is there seen
to pass beneath  the jaw in order to place itself in a slight
depression, which is remarked on the inferior border, and an.
terior surface ofthe lower jaw, in the spot at which the body
of this bone unites with the branches ; it then passes, in a
serpentine course, toward the commissure ofthe lips, where
it divides into two branches, which proceed  along both
lips.   As the flexuosities of the labial are very numerous, 
anatomist's  manual.            159
and the integuments  of the cheeks flaccid, it  frequently
happens that it is cut, when it is not dissected with atten-
tion.  In order  to avoid this inconvenience, we should
place a wrapper of linen or paper in  the mouth, and draw
the integuments of the cheeks in  different directions ; in
this way the parts will be  made tense, which will assist"
very much in the dissection of this artery.
   Lingual.—This  artery,  immediately after its origin,
dips down between the genio-glossus and  hyo-glossus, on
the inside  of the sublingual gland.   In  order to follow its
distribution,  we must saw the body ofthe lower jaw, at its
middle portion, separate the two fragments, and then draw
the tongue outwards and upwards.  That this last opera-
tion may be  rendered easier, we should cut the buccinato-
pharyngeal aponeurosis ; it will then be easy to follow the
course of the lingual artery, the trunk of  which goes par-
ticularly towards the base of the tongue.   Having arriv-
ed there, this trunk divides into three branches, which may
be pursued without any difficulty, being careful to keep the
tongue in a  degree of tension which will  permit us to dis-
sect the muscles of which  it is composed.  Of the three
branches, that which proceeds posteriorly, and which passes
on the base ofthe tongue, is called the dorsal artery of the
tongue : the two others proceed towards the point of the
tongue, and are called  sublingual and ranine ;  this  last
marches  parallel to  that of the opposite  side, in order to
reach the point of the tongue together.
   Occipital and posterior auricular .—The dissection of
the one facilitates considerably that of the  other;  the occi-
pital is the largest.   Both of them may be readily recog-
nized by their direction; immediately after their origin, 
160            anatomist's manual.
they  pass  backwards, profoundly concealed ;  the occipi-
tal especially, by the sterno cleido-mastoideus, digastricus,
splenius, &c.  In order to follow the distribution of this last,
we should cut the sterno-mastoideus at its middle portion,
and separate the  two extremities, as also those of the  di-
gastricus.  Then, in following the occipital, we shall per-
ceive it dip down in the space comprised between the trans-
verse apophysis of the first cervical vertebrae, and the mas-
toid process,  covered  in  this place by the digastricus, the
eighth pair of nerves, and somewhat more posteriorly,  by
the sterno-mastoideus ; the occipital passes under the sple-
nius,  which must be cut across in order  to expose it ;• but
it soon becomes  subcutaneous, and may then be  pursued
with  great ease.   The preparation required for the study
of the occipital has exposed the posterior auricular, which
passes over  the  mastoid  process, and the two surfaces of
the  pavillion of the ear, anastamosing frequently with the
preceding.
   Temporal.—After the preparation and study of the  ar-
teries already mentioned, it then remains to  dissect the
termination  of the  external  carotid.   Some  regard the
temporal as  the continuation and termination of the caro-
tid ; others,  on the contrary, state it  to be the  internal
maxillary.   I shall not now undertake to decide this ques-
tion, which after  all, is unimportant;  it is our  business to
indicate the particular course  to be followed by the student
in their respective preparation :  anatomical arrangements,
claims the priority for the temporal;  this artery ascends in
the direction of the external carotid, in the space compris.
ed between the ear and lower  jaw, beneath and envelloped
by the parotid gland, which must be carefully dissected in
order  to expose  the temporal.  Having arrived  at  the 
anatomist's MANUAL
161
height of the zygomatic apophysis, it furnishes the trans-
verse artery of the face, which is also covered in part by the
parotid gland ; it will now be extremely easy to follow the
divisions of the temporal, which are distributed over all the
lateral portions ofthe head.
  Internal maxillary.—This artery, is beyond doubt, one
 3f the most  difficult to prepare, and requires considerable
 care and patience in its examination.   We cannot recom-
 mend too strongly to the student, to have continually un-
 der his eye a dry head and its lower jaw, and also, if possi-
 ble, different sections of heads.   Without this aid and the
 exact  knowledge of  the foramina and conduits, through
 which the divisions of the internal maxillary pass, it will
 be very difficult to form a correct idea of this artery.  For
 this preparation,  the following precautions must be observ-
 ed : saw the jaw on the side of the symphisis ofthe chin ;
 break the zygomatic arcade, posteriorly near its root, and
 in front,  along a line  which proceeds from the  superior
 to the inferior angle of the malar bone ; detach the mas-
 seter from above downwards, and leave  it united to the
 portion of  the zygomatic arcade into which it is inserted;
  carry the whole posteriorly, and then saw the branch of the
  under jaw below the neck ofthe condyle and coronoid apo-
  physis ; detach the temporal muscle from above downwards ;
  draw the whole somewhat backwards, and make an osseous
  lambeau of the entire exposed surface, the summit of which
  is  found at the sphenopalatine foramen;   the  internal
  maxillary will be seen situated profoundly between the small
  pterygoid muscle and branch ofthe lower jaw.  But it is
  unnecessary to pursue farther the preparation of this artery,
  until we have  previously studied.  1st,  The pterygoids,
   goids, small arteries, which are lost in the muscles of the 
162            anatomist's manual.
same name; 2d, the buccal, which passes on the internal
membrane of the mouth, below  the  buccinator muscle;
3d, the alveolar, situated a little lower down, but  which
proceeds in the same direction, applied on the  maxillary
tuberosity, and covered by a quantity of fatty matter, which
must be removed ;  4th,  the inferior dental, which pene-
trates the canal of the same name, and which there is danger
of lacerating, if the branch of the  lower jaw be carried too
suddenly outwards ; 5th, the masseter artery, which turns
around the sigmoid depression on the branches ofthe lower
jaw, in order to lose itself in the masseter muscle.   It fre-
quently happens that this artery is ruptured, notwithstand-
ing the care taken in the section, necessary for the examina-
tion of the internal maxillary.
  After the study of these different arteries, the student should
proceed with the temporal, which require, on the one hand,
as has been already remarked, the removal of the temporal
muscle from above downwards, and, on the other, it will be
necessary to break a portion ofthe  cheek bone, in order
to expose the anterior profound temporal; 2d, the infra-or.
bital, which arises nearly on a level with the alveolar, but
which travels in a different direction, and reaches the infra-
orbital foramen, united in this  place to the nerve of the
same name.  If the  student desire to pursue  this artery
more minutely, it will be necessary to expose the floor of
the  orbit, break  a portion of the  maxillary bone, and ter-
minate its examination by following it  on the face, under
the  canine muscle.
  The palatine, vidian,  pterigo-palatine and spheno-pala.
tine arteries cannot be traced without breaking nearly the
entire ofthe upper jaw ;  we will then observe each of these
arteries, proceed through a particular canal, the direction of 
anatomist's manual.             163
which  will  be  brought  to  mind  by  recurring  to  our
knowledge of Osteology ; for, I repeat it, without  this
knowledge, it will be very difficult to prepare these arte-
ries.  It may,  however, be  remarked that the palatine
passes through the palatine canal, and re-appears  on  the
arch of the same name,  concealed  by the  palatine mem-
brane,  which must be removed; that the spheno-palatine
penetrates the foramen of the same  name, in order to reach
the pituitary  membrane, and is  afterwards  found in the
interior of the nasal fossae; that the superior pharyngeal,
and pterygoid,  or vidian of some  authors,  proceed to a
canal  bearing  their respective names; finally, that the
pterigo-palatine, which  is regarded as the termination of
the internal  maxillary,  enters and  traverses the canal of
 the same name.   I place here the  spheno-spinous, al-
 though, in the order of origin, it is the first of which au-
 thors make mention.  As it  cannot be  studied until after
 the preparation of all the others, its divisions being distri-
 buted  in the cranium, we must of necessity saw through this
 osseous box in order to follow them.   We may, therefore,
 either proceed at once  to open  the cranium, in  order to
 study  the spheno-spinous, or  wait until we  are ready for
 the preparation of the internal carotid, which requires the
 same  preliminary operation.
    Having reached the interior of the cranium, it is placed
 in a groove, which is  seen  on  the internal portion of the
 anterior and  inferior angle of the  parietal bone.  Hence
 it is distributed over the whole external surface of the dura
 mater, and produces by its numerous divisions,  over  the
 whole concave part ofthe parietal  bone, those hollow lines
 in form of grooves, which assume an arborescent appear-
 ance.
                            46 
164            anatomist's manual.
  When we detach the dura mater from the internal por-
tion of the bones ofthe cranium, the divisions ofthe spheno-
spinous artery remain applied on the external surface of
this membrane, on which they may be traced without diffi-
culty.
                     Description.
              PRIMITIVE  CAROTIDS.
                  (CEPHALIC TRUNK.)
  Situation.—On the lateral and inferior portions of the
neck.
  Extent.—From the arch  of  the  aorta, to  the thyroid
cartilage.
  Direction.—Slightly oblique from below upwards, from
within outwards,  and from before backwards.
  Relations.—They correspond with the platysma my-
oides,  sterno-mastoideus,   sterno  and  ihyro-hyoidei  in
front, and with the vertebral column posteriorly; internally,
with the trachea and larynx ; externally, with the internal
jugular veins, the great sympathetic and par vagum.
   Divisions.—They do not give off any branches, but ter-
minate by two large trunks, called the external and inter-
nal carotids.
                  EXTERNAL CAROTID.
                       (Facial.)
   Situation.-^Qn the lateral and superior portions of  the
neck.
   Extent.—-From the termination of the primitive carotid,
to the condyle ofthe lower jaw.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Relations.—In front, with the platysma myoides at first,
then with the digastric muscle, ninth pair of nerves and
stylo-hyoideus, and superiorly  with the  parotid  gland;
infernally, with the  stylo-pharyngeus and stylo-glossus. 
ANATOMIST S MANUAL.
165
  Division.—1st,  Superior  thyroidal, destined for  the
gland of the same  name, and which  in its trajet sends a
small branch to 'the larynx, called laryngeal.
  2d, Labial (palato-labial,) which ascends in a serpentine
course on the body of the jaw, and furnishes, before arriving
there, the  submental;  it is flexuous as far as the commis-
sure of the lips, divides into the coronaries, and anastamo-
ses, under  the name of angular, with the termination of
the ophthalmic.
   3d, Lingual, which goes to the tongue, furnishes  the
sublingual, and dorsal branch of the tongue, and terminates
 by the ranine.
   4th, Occipital,  which, deep seated, proceeds to the pos-
 terior part ofthe head, posterior and superior ofthe neck.
   5th, Posterior  auricular,  which  advances towards the
 internal part ofthe ear,  and sends off in its  course, the
 stylo-mastoideus,  the branches of which are  lost in the ex-
 ternal auditory conduit, in  the aqueduct of Fallopius and
 mastoid apophysis.
    6th, Inferior pharyngeal, which ascends along the verte-
 bral column, behind the pharynx,  and furnishes branches
 which go, on the one hand, to the eustachian tube,  and,
 on the other, penetrate the  cranium by the  posterior  fora-
 men lacerum.
    7th,  Temporal,  which ascends,  in the direction of the
  principle trunk, towards the temple, and gives off, on a level
  with the  zygomatic apophysis, the transverse artery ofthe
  face, and distributes  numerous branches on the superior,
  anterior, and posterior portions ofthe head.
    8th. Internal maxillary,  which,  from the condyle of the
  lower jaw, ascends to the summit  of the zygomatic  fossa,
  and furnishes the following arteries : 
166
anatomist's manual.
  The spheno-spinous, which  proceeds directly from  be-
low upwards to the spheno-spinous foramen,  which it tra-
verses in order to penetrate the cranium, and divides into
numerous  branches on the external  surface of the dura
mater.
  The inferior dental, which is directed from above down-
wards, and from behind  forwards; penetrates the dental
canal of the under jaw, through the foramen of the  same
name, traverses its whole extent, gives off branches in its
course for  all the teeth, and passes out through the mental
foramen, in order to lose itself in the quadratus* and tri-
angularis muscles of the face.
  The profound temporals, two in number, distinguished
into anterior and posterior.  Both of them pass under the
temporal muscle, between this muscle  and  the fossa tempo-
ralis.
  The buccal, which proceeds transversely from behind for-
wards, and loses itself in the buccinator muscle.
  The alveolar, which goes in the same direction as  the
preceding,  marching along the alveolar border of the supe-
rior jaw, on which it ramifies.
  The masseter,  which  is inconsiderable, and proceeds,
after  a  short trajet,  from  within  outwards, towards  the
sigmoid notch  of the lower jaw, and thence penetrates
the masseter muscle, in which it is lost.
  The pterygoids, two in number, which travel a very
short distance, and then reach  the pterygoid muscles in
which they lose themselves.
  The  infra-orbital, which reaches the  bottom of the
zygomatic  fossa,  and then places itself in  a  notch, pre-
sented to  it by the posterior  part of the orbital surface
of the superior maxillary bone;  thence it travels forwards, 
                 anatomist's manual.          167

lodged in a groove of the maxillary bone, and passes out
through  the infra-orbital-foramen,  in  order  to expand
itself on the muscles ofthe face.
  The superior  palatine, which proceeds  towards the
superior  part  of the posterior  palatine canal,  which  it
traverses  in its whole extent; it passes out through  its
inferior orifice, and ramifies on the palatine membrane.
  The vidian, which  divides into two branches ;  the first
traverses the canal at the base of the pterygoid apophyses,
proceeds from before backwards, and reaches a small canal
on the temporal  bone, and penetrates this bone through
the hiatus Fallopii; the second, which may be termed the
superior pharyngeal, loses itself in the parois of the pha-
rynx and eustachian tube.
  The pterigo-palatine, which passes across a small canal
formed by the articulation ofthe vomer and os-sphenoides,
and expends itself on the most elevated portion of the pha-
rynx.
   The  spheno-palatine, which proceeds from without
inwards,  and penetrates through the spheno-palatine fora-
men, the interior  of the nasal fossae, on the lateral portions
of which it ramifies.
                  INTERNAL CAROTID.
   It furnishes the ophthalmic, the communicans, the artery
of the corpus callosum, and that of the lobe of the brain.
               Anatomical Preparation.
   Internal carotid.—This artery is destined for  the brain
and the organ of vision.   The different preparations already
made, will have exposed that portion of it situated without
the cranium, so that no additional dissection will be requir-
ed;  but it is indispensable to open the head in  order to
follow it in the brain  ; we are even obliged to combine its
                          46* 
168
ANATOMIST S  MANUAL.
examination with that of the vertebral artery, although this
latter arises from the subclavian, because these two arteries
frequently anastomose with each other, and it is from their
ensemble that the brain receives all its arteries.   As the
vertebral artery, from its origin, penetrates a canal formed
by the cervical vertebrae, it will suffice to commence with
it  at its entrance into the  cranium, and to follow its dis-
tribution conjointly with that of the internal carotid.   It
will, therefore, be readily conceived that,  for the prepara-
tion of either of these two arteries,  it will be necessary to
open  the cranium;  we  should avail ourselves of this
opportunity to  study the meningeal artery,  destined prin-
cipally for the nourishment of the dura mater.  It is for this
reason, that we should remove the top of the cranium cau-
tiously, and leave for the moment, the dura mater untouch-
ed on the brain ; it is the only mode by which we shall be
enabled to obtain a good view of the course and distribu-
tion of the meningeal artery.   When this is  accomplished,
we should cut this membrane in the direction of the supe-
rior longitudinal sinus, and separate the flaps, in  order that
we may completely expose the brain, the entire  mass of
which must be removed by commencing at the base of the
cranium.   We  should proceed from  before backwards;
and, in proportion as it is  thus turned  up,  we  should  cut
first the  ophthalmic  arteries,  at  some lines from  the
foramen of the same name; more posteriorly, the trunk of
the two carotids ; finally, the  vertebrals, as much in front
as possible, in the vertebral canal;  we should then remove
the brain, which should be placed carefully on the table,
or received  in the top of the cranium.   A great number of
vessels are  observed at the base of the brain ; posteriorly,
are the two vertebrals, which  unite in a common trunk, 
ANATOMISTS MANUAL.            169
which  receives, in front, two  branches from the carotid,
called communicating arteries.   The branches which origi-
nate from the lateral  parts of the basilar  trunk are the
superior and inferior arteries of the cerebellum, the poste-
rior arteries of the cerebrum,  and the spinal arteries.  In
front, the trunk of the carotids furnishes the arteries of the
corpus  callosum,  which  we  should  pursue  by  turning
over  the brain, and separating  its two hemispheres.
There likewise go off from it two other branches which dip
into the fissure of the brain, but which have not  received
any particular names.
   Ophthalmic.—In consequence of the preparation which
we have been obliged to make, the ophthalmic artery is cut
at the entrance ofthe foramen opticum.  This artery furnish-
es a number of branches, which it is not always easy to per-
ceive,  because  it frequently happens that the injection does
 not penetrate them all equally;  be this as it may, we must per-
 form, for the preparation of the ophthalmic, the same section
 that was indicated for the  preparation of the muscles of
 the eye.   We should then push forward the portion ofthe
 orbit  that  has been sawed;  preserve  the  infra-orbital
 artery, one of the first branches given off by the ophthalmic,
 and proceed at once to the preparation of the others.  The
.best mode of  doing this, is to proceed, as  if  we in-
 tended to study the muscles of the eye, and respect all the
 branches  that  are  found under the  scalpel.   When we
 have  properly  removed the fat, we  will then see without
 difficulty the lachrymal  branch, which expends  itself on
 the gland of the same name;  the muscular, two in num-
 ber, the  two  palpebral, the two ethmoidal,  the central
 artery  of the  retina, the  ciliary arteries, the nasal and
 frontal;  each of these arteries  proceeds to a distinct 
                                                        1
170             anatomist's  manual.
part, which renders  their examination much easier; but
we  shall  not be able to have a good view of these arte-
ries, if we do not free them from the abundant fatty matter
which envelopes the globe of the  eye and the surrounding
parts.   This dissection is an affair of patience and skill;
the arteries  to be  prepared are  numerous  and  very
near to each other, which often causes some of them to be
cut; this will occasion confusion,  and will tend to increase
the difficulties.

                     Description.
                  INTERNAL carotid.
                  (Anterior  Cerebral.)
  Situation.—On the lateral portions of the neck, and in
the interior of the  brain.
  Extent.—From the  primitive  carotid  to the  carotid
foramen, and thence to  the orbit and the  whole  cerebral
mass.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Relations.—On the  neck, it corresponds inwardly to
the pharynx, outwardly to the internal jugular vein, pos-
teriorly to the vertebral column,  and in  front to a portion
of the external carotid, and  pharynx ;  in the cranium, it
is at  first contained in the carotid canal; lodged after-
wards in the cavernous sinus, it makes  a posterior curve,
and goes to communicate  with the basilar trunk.
  Divisions.—1st,  Ophthalmic,   which   arises from the
bend  formed  by  the carotid,  on leaving the cavernous
sinUs;  it penetrates  the  orbit on the external side  of the
optic  nerve, and furnishes the following branches :—the
lachrymal, supra-orbital, centralis retinae,  ciliary, muscu-
lar, palpebral, ethmoidal, frontal, and nasal, which forms 
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
171
the  termination  of it, and anastomoses with the angular,
a branch  and  termination  of the  labial;  2d, Arteria
communicans, which  arises  posteriorly near  the  pons
varolii, and soon anastomoses with the branches of the
basilar trunk ;  3d,  The carotid  then  divides  into  two
branches, one of which, called the artery of the  corpus
callosum, travels forward between  the  hemispheres of the
brain, and the other, longer and larger, dips down into the
fissure of Silvius.
                     SUBCLAVIANS.
  These two arteries likewise originate from  the  arch of
the aorta, but at some distance from each other; destined
for the superior extremities, they  proceed immediately
towards these parts, and change their name in proportion
as they recede from their origin.  Thus, both of the sub-
clavians  become  axillaries  under the arm-pit, brachial
or humeral along the  arm, radial and cubital on the fore-
arm,  and  palmar on the hand.   We  shall now describe
successively each of these divisions.

               Anatomical  Preparation.
   Subclavians.—The  preparation  of  the  carotids  has
 achieved part of the work necessary for that of the sub-
 clavians.   In a word, a portion of the clavicles has already
 been removed, and also the greatest part of the sternum;
 the cellular tissue has  likewise been taken away ; the in-
 ternal jugulars are isolated, and,  finally, the origin ofthe
 subclavians  is exposed; nothing then remains but to pur-
 sue them.   We will observe, before going farther, that,  of
 the two subclavians, the right originates from a  common
 trunk with the  carotid of  the same side; that it is  also 
172            anatomist's manual.

placed more forwards than the left subclavian, which is
rather deep-seated, and arises from the most distant part of
the arch  of the aorta.   These two  arteries  scarcely
proceed two fingers' breadth,  when they furnish several
branches, all  of which are remarkable for their great
extent, and the frequent anastomoses  they  form in their
course.   One  of the first is the internal mammary, which
passes under  the sternum, and anastomoses  under  the
parois of the abdomen with a branch of the  external iliac.
I am in the habit of commencing Angeology with the expo-
sition of the mammary and epigastric.  If we do not com-
mence with these, we shall probably not have an opportu-
 nity of seeing their connection.   In order to have a good
 view of them, it will be necessary to saw the whole of the
sternum in its length,  open the parois of the abdomen as
far as the pubis, and turn the divided  parts  outwards ; on
 looking within,  and without the aid of any dissection, we
 will perceive the course and anastomoses of the two arte.
 ries; and once recognized, we may trace them  in all their
 divisions.
   Somewhat  posteriorly to the mammary, originate  the
 superior intercostal arteries, which must be  left for  the
 instant, in order to return to  them after the study of all
 the branches  of the subclavian.  Nearly at the same place
 is observed the  inferior thyroidal, which will be easily re-
 cognized by its  direction towards  the gland  of the same
 name.   A little  more profoundly and above the vertebral
 arises  a large branch, which  immediately penetrates the
 canal formed by the  cervical vertebrae, and  which may
 be followed to its entrance into the cranium, breaking, as
 we proceed, the  transverse apophyses  of these  vertebras;
 more externally, the  subclavian  furnishes  the ascending 
anatomist's  manual.            173
cervical,  the  transverse  cervical,  the profunda,  and,
finally, the superior scapular.   As these different  arteries
lose  themselves in the imuscles or dip down under their
mass, we must, before proceeding with their examination,
expose these muscles and dissect them, in great part, as was
pointed out in Myology ; this  is, without doubt, the best
way of enabling ourselves to follow the  arteries as far as
their importance demands ; we should early accustom our-
selves to trace an  artery very  minutely, especially when
the injection will permit us to do it with success.
   Axillary.— In emerging from the  scaleni  muscles, the
subclavian loses its name and assumes that of axillary.
This latter requires us  to proceed to  the dissection of the
pectoralis major,  which must be cut across in order to
expose the artery.  This will  not be sufficient; the mus-
cles of the arm should likewise be dissected in part, the
 deltoid  especially, for,  although the extent of the  axillary
 is not considerable, yet it dips down deep into the hollow
 ofthe axilla ; there it is surrounded by a quantity  of cellu-
 lar tissue, and sometimes it is concealed by the  axillary
 glands; all these  objects should be removed,  and.we should
 follow the  trajet  of  the artery in  order  to see how it
 mingles with the brachial plexus, which must be preserved.
 Placed at first above this plexus, and covered by the axil-
 lary vein, it soon passes through  the branches of the
 plexus, and is, as  it  were, surrounded by it.   This distri-
 bution should be  followed ;  the difficulties  are  not very
 great, we only  require patience and attention.
    When we have properly separated the axillary artery
 from the surrounding parts, and if we should succeed in not
 cutting the vessels it  sends  off, we will observe that it
 furnishes to the pectoral muscle  and neighboring parts 
174            anatomist's  manual.

three or four branches, called thoracic, the distribution of
which is not very important; but externally and  poste-
riorly, it gives off two remarkable branches, one of which
goes to  the deltoid, and called acromial, the other proceeds
under the scapula, and is termed the common scapular
artery.   We should not be too much in a hurry to pursue
these two arteries;  we can return to them  again in a short
time, for it is  better, at  this staged of the dissection, to
detach the superior extremity from the trunk, in  order to
examine with greater facility the arteries distributed on it,
and during  which it is  necessary to turn the limb some-
times in one, sometimes in another position.   The clavicle
and  scapula should remain attached to  the  upper  ex-
tremity, and should not be separated until a much later
period.   Before proceeding farther, we  may examine the
superior intercostals,  placed under the two first ribs, and
which nothing  now prevents  us  from studying  with all
possible care.  The  arm, thus isolated, will  permit us to
expose  to  much  greater advantage two  other  arteries,
branches ofthe axillary, which, encircling  the neck ofthe
humerus in its whole circumference,  have  received the
name  of circumflex, one of them (the external)  passes
under the deltoid, which must be cut crosswise,  in order to
raise the superior  flap, .which  covers it;  the other, more
voluminous, proceeds  under the triceps in order to anasto-
mose with the preceding ;  it is now easy to perceive what
course  is to be taken for the  purpose of following these
two>'arteries.   The axillary artery at  this  period loses
its name, and assumes that of brachial or humeral.
  Brachial.—The dissection  of the muscles of  the arm,
of the biceps especially, will suffice for the  study of the
brachial artery.   The branches which it  furnishes in its 
anatomist's manual.            175
progress to the bend of the arm, are lost in the muscles,
and, with the exception of two which are more considera-
ble, they have not received any particular names.  Those
to which I allude are the collateral, one of which (the ex-
ternal) arises very high up, dips down under the  triceps,
and re-appears on the external and lower portion of the
humerus, in order to lose itself in the articulation of the
fore-arm, in anastomosing with the recurrents ; the  other
(the internal) arises very low down from the bracial, pro-
ceeds immediately towards the articulation,  and likewise
anastomoses with the recurrents.  The brachial artery is
constantly accompanied by the median  nerve, which we
must be careful not  to cut,  but which,  on the contrary,
should be preserved in order  that we  may examine the
relations of these different parts.
  Radial and  Cubital.—Below the bend  of the arm the
brachial divides into  two branches, one  of which (the
radial,) proceeds down the external  side of  the fore-arm,
and the other  (the cubital)  down  the  internal side.   In
order to examine these arteries,  as  also  the numerous
branches which  they  furnish at the bend of the arm, we
should,  after having laid open the integuments  ofthe fore-
arm in their whole extent, occupy  ourselves  in the first
place with the radial,  which proceeds under the  skin,  in
the 'direction of the radius ;  we should leave it near the
hand, in order to return to  the cubital, which travels in
the direction ofthe cubitus ;  but this latter is more deeply
seated;  in order to follow it, it will be necessary to dissect
the biceps, pronator teres and the other muscles on the an-
terior part of the fore-arm.   It is only after having travel-
led for sometime under these muscles and crossed  them in
their direction, that we perceive it re-appear very low  down,
                            47 
176
anatomist's manual.
placed on the external side ofthe anterior cubital; it then
passes towards the wrist, where we should  abandon it  in
order to return to the articular branches furnished by the
radial and  cubital, and which are called recurrents ; these
arteries are four in number, two radials  and two cubitals,
which are  distinguished  into superior and inferior; each
of them surrounds the articulation, and  it  will be easy to
follow them when  we have recognised their trunk.   In
proceeding with care, we will reach without difficulty the
termination  of  these arteries,  which, although small,
demand  considerable  attention.  Surgery  will derive the
greatest advantages from an exact knowledge of them.
   Independently  of the recurrents,  the cubital furnishes  an
artery, called interosseous, which divides into two branches,
one for the anterior portion of the interosseous ligament,
and the other for the posterior  portion : we must seek for
these arteries, by separating the muscles, which were pre-
viously dissected ;  they  may be traced as far as the wrist,
where they terminate by anastomosing with the palmar arte-
ries ;  but the posterior interosseous furnishes the posterior
radial recurrent; this must not be  forgotten, otherwise we
might look for it  in vain  elsewhere.
    The  Palmar  arches.—They  are  distinguished into
superficial and profound;  the first is  the  continuation of
the  cubital,  the  second of the radial.  Their dissection
demands great attention, for their  divisions are numerous,
and so arranged  that they intermingle  with a  regularity
which it is highly important to understand.  In  following
the  cubital in the hand, we will perceive that it forms the
superficial palmar arch.   In order  to see it, it will be only
necessary to remove  the integuments  of the palm of the
hand  and the palmar aponeurosis;  but if we should desire 
               anatomist's  manual.            177

to pursue  it in its distributions to the fingers, we must
necessarily free these latter from their integuments.
  The deep-seated palmar arch requires more  care and
presents greater difficulties ;  it is  on the posterior part of
the thumb,  between this  last and  the  index  finger, that
the trunk of the radial dips down under the adductor of
the thumb, in  order to become deep-seated in the hollow of
the hand,  and effect, in this place, the same disposition as
the superficial  palmar arch.   It will be readily conceived
that its dissection cannot be exact, if we do not remove the
greater part of the muscles on the palm of the hand ; and
let the student remember  that, in this preparation, he must
proceed with  the greatest possible care, otherwise he will
most probably spend his time to no advantage.

                      Description.
                   SUBCLAVIANS.
                    (Brachial trunks.)
   Situation.—At the superior portion of the chest and in-
 ferior of the neck.
   Extent.—From the arch of the aorta to the first rib.
    Direction.—Oblique from within outwards,  and from
 below upwards, forming  a curve, the convexity of which
 is above.
   Relations.—The right  subclavian corresponds in front, to
 the vein  of the same name, to the sterno-hyoid and sterno-
 thyroid muscles,  and to  the clavicle ;  posteriorly, to the
 trachea and vertebral column.  The left subclavian corres-
 ponds, in front, to the left lung,  to the vein of the same
 name, and  to the clavicle ; posteriorly, to  the vertebral
 column. 
178            anatomist's manual.

   Divisions.—1st, The vertebral, which arises from their
superior portion, traverses the canal formed by the cervical
vertebrae, and penetrates the cranium, where  it  forms the
basilar  trunk, which gives off the  superior  and  inferior
arteries of the cerebellum,  and also the anterior and poste-
rior spinal; the basilar anastomoses with the communicating
arteries, after having furnished the posterior artery of the
cerebrum;  2d,   The  inferior thyroidal,  which  ascends
towards the thyroid gland and loses itself in it, in anastomo-
sing with its  fellow and also  with  the superior thyroidal;
3d,  The  superior scapular, which proceeds posteriorly
towards the  scapula, passes on its  superior border,  and
expends itself on  the  supra and infra-spinatus  muscles ;
4th, The transverse cervical, which travels on the inferior
lateral portions of the neck,  below the muscles  of  this
part, and loses itself in the muscles of the superior portion
of the back  and inferior of the neck ; 5th, The  internal
mammary, which arises from the inferior  part of the subcla-
vian, passes under the cartilages of the ribs, furnishes in
its course the diaphragmatic, proceeds onwards under the
intercostal cartilages, giving small branches to all the ribs,
and anastomoses with the epigastric and anterior iliac ; 6th,
The superior intercostal,  which proceeds,  immediately
after its origin, under the neck of the first rib, and divides
into two branches, destined for the two upper ribs.

                       AXILLARY.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation.—In the hollow of the axilla.
   Extent.—From the  first  rib,  below the  head of the
humerus.
   Direction.—Oblique from within outwards,  and  from
above downwards. 
ANATOMISTS manual.
179
  Relations.—In front,  with the clavicle, the great and
small pectoral muscles; posteriorly, with  the  brachial
plexus;  above, with the integuments and platysma my-
oides ;  below, with the first rib, on which it leaves a re-
markable depression;  afterwards with the second rib.
  Divisions.—1st,  Three or four thoracic arteries,  which
proceed  forwards,  and lose  themselves  in the  mammae,
pectoral muscles, great serratus and intercostals; 2d,  Acro-
mial, which passes outwards  towards  the articulation, and
gives branches to the  deltoid and pectoral muscles ; 3d,
Common scapular, which arises from the  posterior part of
the   axillary,  proceeds  towards the subscapularis,  and
furnishes this muscle  with numerous branches; it then
divides into two principal branches, one  within,  and the
other above  the scapula, and  it  expends itself on the
muscles  covering this  bone;  4th, Circumflex,  the last
branches given off by the  axillary,  and  which  are  dis-
tinguished  into anterior, very small, and into posterior,
which is larger.  The first proceeds below the deltoid,
furnishes branches  to this muscle,  to the biceps and  to the
articulation ;  it then turns around the humerus from with-
out  inwards, in order to anastomose with the posterior cir-
cumflex ; this passes under the great and small  round
muscles, proceeds between the triceps and humerus, gives
off branches to these different parts, and anastomoses with
the  preceding.
                    BRACHIAL.
                      (Humeral.)
  Situation.—On the internal and anterior part ofthe arm.
  Extent—From the axilla to the bend ofthe arm.
                         47* 
180            anatomist's  manual.
   Direction.—Oblique from above  downwards, and from
 within outwards.
   Relations.—In front,  with  the  common  integuments;
 behind, with the triceps brachialis above, and the brachalis
 anterior below; within, with the median nerve; without,
 with the internal border of the biceps.
   Divisions.—1st,  External or superior collateral, which
 arises from the internal and superior part ofthe brachial;
 accompanied by the  radial nerve  it  turns around the
 humerus, passing under the three portions of the triceps
brachialis, and descends towards the  external tuberosity of
 the humerus, in order to anastomose  with the radial recur-
 rents ; 2d, Internal collateral, which arises very low  down
 from the brachial, and proceeds  towards  the internal tu-
berosity of the humerus,  in order to anastomose with the
 cubital recurrents.

                      RADIAL.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation.—On the anterior and  external part of the
fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the fold of the arm, to the palm of the
hand.
   Direction.—Parallel to that of the radius.
   Relations.—In front, with the integuments ; behind, it
reposes  on the pronator teres, sublimis,  profundus, and
pronator quadratus muscles.
   Divisions.—1st, Anterior radial recurrent, which arises
from the  superior part of the radial,  turns around  the
articulation, and furnishes branches to the neighboring
muscles and articulations;  it anastomoses with the external
collateral, a branch of the brachial;  2d, In its course, the 
anatomist's  manual.
181
radial sends off several small branches to the muscles of the
fore-arm; after arriving at the palm ofthe hand, it furnishes
it with one, which is destined to anastomose with the end of
the superficial palmar  arch ; it then passes outwards and
gets between the thumb and index  finger ;  before arriving
there, it gives off the  dorsal branch  of  the  thumb, and
thence proceeds between the first and second metacarpal
bones, and forms the deep-seated  palmar arch, the termi-
nation of which anastomoses with the superficial palmar
arch.   From this arch originates an  infinity  of branches
which*expend  themselves on the neighboring parts ;  the
largest  of them reach the sides  of the fingers,  and are
termed collaterals.

                      cubital.
                        (Idem.)
   Situation.—On the anterior and internal portion of the
 fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the bend ofthe arm to the palm ofthe
 hand.
   Direction.—Parallel  to that ofthe cubitus.
   Relations.—In front,  with the  pronator teres, radialis
 anterior, palmaris parvus, flexor sublimis, cubitalis internus,
 and below with the integuments ;  behind, with the cubitus
 and pronator  quadratus; within,  with the cubital nerve,
  and, externally, with the sublimis.
    Divisions.—1st, Cubital recurrents, distinguished into
  anterior and  posterior.  They arise very high up  from the
  cubital, encircle the articulation in front and posteriorly;
  they furnish  branches to  the articulation and neighboring
 parts, andterminate by anastomosing with eachother aswell 
182            anatomist's  manual.
as with the internal  collateral;  2d, interosseous,  distin-
guished into anterior and posterior, which proceed to the
interosseous ligament, and terminate by anastomosing with
both of the palmar arcades.  The posterior interosseous
gives off in addition, at its  superior portion, the posterior
radial recurrent, which, in its distribution,  does  not differ
from  the other branches of the same name;  3d,  In the
rest  of its  course, the  cubital furnishes several   small
branches to the muscles of the fore-arm ; finally, having
arrived at the palm of the  hand  it  forms the  superficial
palmar arcade, which is covered by the integuments only,
and which is distributed to the surrounding parts, in the
same way  as the radial.

                  DESCENDING AORTA.
   After sending  off the  carotids  and subclavians,  the
aorta descends in the chest; it  passes through the dia-
phragm,  and  traverses the  abdominal  cavity ;  having
arrived at the last or next  to the last lumbar vertebra, it
divides into two branches,  called  primitive iliacs.   In this
long  trajet, it gives off the coronary, intercostals, pericar-
diacs, oesophageal, bronchial, mediastins, diaphragmatics,
the cceliac  trunk, the superior mesenteric, the capsular,
renal, spermatics, and inferior mesenteric/

                Anatomical Preparation.
   Some are in the habit of commencing  the study of the
arteries just enumerated by the cceliac  trunk ;  several
books on anatomy even begin with  its description when
treating of Angeology.  This method is by no means un-
 reasonable; in following  it,  they remove  the  soft parts
 contained  in  the abdomen, the  putrefaction of which i« 
anatomist's manual.
183
much more rapid  than the other  parts of the cadaver;
but, on the other hand, the great facility which students
now enjoy  of procuring subjects for the various parts of
anatomy, the different ingredients composing the injections,
the nature of which  opposes, to  a  certain  degree,  the
developement of decomposition, and the season even, may
authorise a different course.   We should, therefore, com-
mence by the  thoracic or  pectoral aorta, the preparation
of which is not attended  with any difficulty.  For this
purpose, we should open the chest in the usual manner, if
this has not already been done; we should be careful with
the ribs, and break them only in'a portion of their extent,
or even they may  be left untouched, in order that we may
have a better view of the intercostals;  we should  raise,
without detaching it, the lung of the left side ;  if we turn it
over into the right portion of the thorax, we will see, with-
out difficulty,  the  aorta,  considerably develloped  by  the
injection, descending along the vertebral column, inclined
slightly to  the  left side ;  we  will, moreover, observe  the
small arteries, which, from its anterior portion, proceed to
the esophagus and mediastinum; in  addition, from  its
lateral portions, more considerable branches are given  off,
placed with a sort of regularity above each other; they  are
nine in number, and are destined  for the nine intercostal
spaces ;  their  course may  be  followed without any other
preparation than  that which we have indicated for  the
aorta.  When  we  desire  to  examine them more particu-
larly, it will be necessary  to remove the portion of pleura
which covers them, which may be  done  with facility.
The right intercostal arteries are  longer than  the left, in
consequence of the situation of the thoracic aorta.
  Cceliac  trunk.—This artery, profoundly situated, and 
184
anatomist's manual.
of moderate extent, is remarkable only on account of the
branches which it furnishes ; they all go to important visce-
ra,  and their  distribution merits especial attention, and
presents great interest.   After having opened the abdomen
in a considerable extent, we should  seek for the  interval
between  the liver and  stomach; the loose cellular tis-
sue should be removed cautiously,  and then by plunging
the fingers towards  the spinal column to  seek for the
aorta, we will meet with the cceliac artery, which arises
from the aorta almost immediately after its passage through
the diaphragm ;  it is by no means the most difficult part to
find the cceliac trunk, but we must trace the three branches
which it  gives off, and which are destined for the stomach,
liver and spleen, under the names of gastric, hepatic and
splenic.  It is at the moment of their  entrance into  each
of these viscera, that we must commence with  them, in
order afterwards to follow them in a  retrograde manner
towards  their common  trunk.   In order to  render this
operation  the more easy, we  may break  the last false
ribs, which will  give us the advantage of turning the liver
and stomach outwards, and of exposing a large space be-
tween them.   We should be careful  in using the scalpel
not to cut  any of  the principal arteries,  which are here
very numerous.   The  first  and smallest  is the  gastric,
which proceeds towards the  commencement  of the lesser
curvature of the stomach, on the left side, and traverses it
in its whole extent.  In order that we may have a  more
advantageous view of the divisions of this artery, we should
inflate the stomach, which presents an interesting and at
the same time  instructive appearance.   Another branch of
the cceliac  trunk  goes  on the right to the liver; this is
the hepatic, which furnishes another considerable branch, 
anatomist's manual.
185
that proceeds towards  the right portion of the stomach,
towards the greater curvature, and also to the pancreas,
under the  name of right gastroepiploic artery ;  it like-
wise sends a small branch to the pylorus.  The splenic
artery, which is the largest of the three, proceeds trans-
versely under the  stomach, in order  to reach the spleen.
In  tracing it  from this  latter viscus to  the common
trunk, we  should  be careful, in raising  the stomach in
 order to render it  more apparent, not to injure the numer-
 ous vessels which proceed from the spleen to the stomach,
 under the  name  of vasa brevia, and  likewise a branch,
 which passes to the greater curvature of the stomach, and
 is called left gastroepiploic artery.   It is also at this stage
 ofthe dissection that  we should occupy ourselves with the
 inferior diaphragmatic  arteries, which require but a very
 slight preparation.   In a word, we should raise, as much
 as possible, the anterior part of the circumference of the
 diaphragm ;  and depress, on the other hand, the stomach,
  liver, and spleen, when we will readily perceive the arte-
  ries in  question ramify on the inferior surface of the dia-
  phragm.   We*can, in this way, follow  them in their dis-
  tributions, and arrive without difficulty to the trunk from
  which  they originate.   We should next pass to  the  pre-
  paration of the mesenteries,  renal, capsular and sperma-
  tics, before terminating the study of the  arteries of the
  abdomen.
     Mesenteries.—Of the two mesenteries, the superior arises
  very  near the  cceliac trunk; its numerous branches ex-
  tend to a great distance, and are distributed to almost all the
   intestines.  It is rather difficult to indicate, in a  precise
   manner, the means  of properly recognizing the principal
   branches, and the remarkable divisions furnished by the 
186
anatomist's manual.
superior mesenteric.   They are numerous, and  this cir-
cumstance alone renders  their study very embarassing.
It is indispensable, however, that we examine the distribu-
tion of the branches called colic.  In order to do this, we
should raise the epiploon, which  is to be  turned over on
the sides, as  well as the transverse colon, and the other
intestines should be carried  downwards to form with the
colon a  species of circle, with  which  we surround the
abdominal cavity, and  which should be enlarged as much
as  possible;  in the interval are found the jejunum and
ileum, which should be carried somewhat to the left ; we
then expose,  on the right side, three large branches which
originate  from  the concavity of the mesenteric.   These
three branches are the colics, each of  which  divides  into
two other principal branches, destined  to anastomose with
each other.  We should be particular  to have a good view
ofthe celebrated anastomosis of the two mesenteries, which
takes place on the left  side, between the right  superior
colic  branch of the great superior mesenteric, and the left
superior  colic,  a branch of the  inferior mesenteric.  The
numerous branches (15 to 20) which arise from  the con-
vexity of the great mesenteric, have not received any par-
ticular names, notwithstanding  their large size; they are
distributed, in great part, on the jejunum and  ileum.
  The  inferior mesenteric  arises  very  low  down from
the aorta, and at a  short distance only from  its bifurca-
tion ; much less considerable than the superior, its distri-
butions are less extensive and  numerous; but,  like the
superior, it describes a species  of curve the convexity of
which is on the left, and furnishes  three  branches,  called
the left colics ; the superior anastomoses,  as has already
been remarked, with the superior mesenteric.  We should 
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.           187
extend the colon, draw it outwards  and thus  isolate pro-
perly the left colics and branches which part form its con-
cavity, the distribution of which is precisely the same as
in the superior mesenteric.   After this operation, which is
long and  even embarassing, we may inflate the intestinal
paquet, and then remove  it cautiously, together with the
mesenteries ; but the capsular, renal, and spermatic arte>
ries must be left untouched ;  we'may  also remove the liver,
spleen and stomach.
   Capsular, renal, and  spermatic arteries.—The first
of these arteries have but little extent, and their volume is
inconsiderable.  They arise from the aorta between  the
superior  mesenteric  and renal, and  proceed towards  the
glandulae  renales, on  which they are expended.  It will
suffice  to free  them  from  the loose  cellular  tissue,
which sometimes conceals them from view.  ' They do  not
require any other preparation.
  The renal arteries are very large  and cannot be mista-
ken.   They are both  accompanied  by  veins of the  same
name ; in  addition, the right renal is, in  part, covered by
the inferior vena cava. They are sometimes covered by
a loose  and abundant cellular  tissue, which should be
removed.  It often  happens  that the  renal  divides  into
two  and  even three principal branches, and that it thus
penetrates the kidney at different points more or less dis.
tant from each other ; sometimes, the capsular are furnish-
ed by the  renal arteries..  These different varieties might
prove embarrassing if the  student were not apprised of
them.  In general, the renal arteries, and even all those of
the abdomen, present numerous anomalies.
   The spermatics arise from the anterior  portion of the
aorta, between the renal and inferior mesenteric, and  pro-
                           48 
188
anatomist's manual.
 ceed as far as the testicles without furnishing any b ranches.
 It must be remembered  that these arteries pass through
 the ring in, order to reach their destination, and that they
 contribute to the formation of the spermatic cord ;  in the
 abdomen, there is no obstacle to their preparation; without
 this  cavity, they are accompanied by a nerve, vein, and
 by the vas deferens,  but united to these parts in so loose a
 manner, that they may be examined with facility in their
 whole extent.
   Lumbar and middle sacral.—We cannot examine these
 arteries until  after having removed the intestinal paquet,
 and also the kidneys.  It is necessary only to preserve the
 rectum, around the superior  portion of which  we should
 pass a ligature ;  then, in removing the remaining cellular
 tissue, we will readily expose the origin and course of the
 lumbar  arteries,  which will be found in the intervals of the
 lumbar  vertebrae.
   The anterior sacral is  a small artery, which arises from
 the bifurcation of the aorta, and is distributed on the ante-
 rior  and middle portion  of the sacrum.   It is extremely
 small, and cannot be seen until we have removed the layer
 of cellular tissue by which it is concealed.   The rectum,
 when left  in place,  will likewise  frequently prevent our
 seeing it.
   Here we terminate the dissection of the arteries of the
 chest and abdomen, the study of which cannot be separated,
 and which we shall now  describe in the order of their pre-
paration.

                      Description.
                  DESCENDING  AORTA.
   It is divided into two portions :  that which is contained 
                anatomist's manual.           189

in the chest bears the name of descending thoracic or supe-
rior aorta; the portion below the diaphragm is called the
descending abdominal or inferior.
             DESCENDING THORACIC AORTA.
   Situation.—In the cavity of the chest, along the verte-
bral column.
   Extent.—From the left ventricle to the diaphragm.
   Direction.—From the ventricle to  the  third dorsal ver-
tebra, it presents a remarkable curve, called the arch of
the aorta, which proceeds at first from below upwards, and
from behind forwards :  afterwards from above downwards,
from before backwards, and from right to left; in the'rest
of its extent, it follows nearly the direction of the spinal
column, but lies evidently to  the left.
   Relations.—It corresponds, posteriorly, to the left late-
ral portion of  the bodies of the vertebra: ; in front, to the
esophagus ; on the sides, to  the  two laminae of the medi-
astinum ;  and, in addition,  the vena azygos and thoracic
 duct are situated on its left side.                    .
   Divisions.—1st,  The coronary (cardiac) two in num-
ber,  destined for the head ; 2d, the- bronchial* one on the
 right and the  other on the  left, which proceed towards the
 bronchia?, continue with  them to  the lungs, and expend
 themselves on the substance  of these organs ; 3d, the eso-
 phageal, three, four, five or six in number, which pass from
 the anterior portion of the aorta to  the  esophagus ; they
 penetrate this canal and there ramify ;  4th, the mediastins,
 the number of which varies ; they are lost on the mediasti-
 num ;  5th, the intercostals or aortics, usually nine in num-
 ber.  They arise from the  lateral portions  of the aorta,
 then proceed  immediately to  the  articulation of the  ribs
 with the vertebrae, and there send off a twig which pene- 
190            ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
trates the vertebral canal; they then continue along  the
ribs, dividing into two branches, one of which, the smallest,
passes along their superior border ; and  the  other, which
is, as it  were, the continuation of the principal  trunk, tra-
vels along their inferior border; they ultimately anasto-
mose with the internal mammary.
      INFERIOR DESCENDING OR  ABDOMINAL AORTA.

  Situation.—In the abdominal cavity, along the vertebral
column.
  Extent.—From the diaphragm to the  fourth  lumbar
vertebrae.
  Direction.—Vertical.
  Relations.—Posteriorly, it is supported on the bodies of
the lumbar vertebrae; in front, it corresponds to the liver,
stomach, pancreas, duodenum,  jejunum and ileum;  the
inferior vena cava lies along its  right side.
   Divisions.—Inferior  phrenics, celiac trunk,  superior
mesenteric, capsular, renal, spermatic, inferior mesenteric,
lumbar  and middle sacral, all of which require a particular
description.
                  INFERIOR PHRENICS.
  Situation.—In the  abdominal cavity, below  the dia-
phragm.
  Extent.—From the  aorta to  the inferior surface of the
diaphragm.
  Direction.—Oblique from within outwards.
  Divisions.—Each ofthe phrenics, after arriving  at the
diaphragm, divides into two branches, one of which is inter-
nal and the other external; they pass on  the diaphragm,
and anastomose with each other. 
anatomist's  manual.
191
                    CELIAC  trunk.

  Situation.—On a level  with the last dorsal   vertebra
between the pillars ofthe diaphragm.
  Extent.—It  scarcely  measures half an inch  from its
origin at the anterior and left portion of the aorta  to its tri-
furcation.
  Relations.—In front,  it is concealed by the  liver and
stomach.
  Divisions.—1st, the  coronary or gastric,  which  pro-
ceeds,  on  the left, to  the  superior  orifice  of the sto-
mach,  sends  a small  branch to  the  esophagus,  makes  a
bend to the right, traverses the lesser curvature ofthe sto-
mach,  ramifies on its  two  surfaces-, and anastomoses with
the pyloric,  a branch of the hepatic; 2d, the hepatic,
larger than the  preceding,  which travels, on  the  right,
towards the liver, and sends off, at the inferior orifice of
the stomach, the  pyloric, and a little further on  the fright
^astro-epiploic;  it then places itself in front of the abdomi-
 ial vena  portae  and  behind  the hepatic duct, in dividing
;.nto two branches, which reach the transverse fissure of t he
liver;  that which is on  the left penetrates the lobe of the
same  side ; the  right branch furnishes the artery of the
■gall bladder, called cystic, and expends itself on the lobe
of the same  side ; 3d,  the splenic, which, in the adu It, is
 the largest of the three : it proceeds from right  to left,
 under the  stomach, and  reaches the spleen, after forming
 numerous  flexuosities  ; it penetrates this viscus by four, five,
 or six large branches :  towards the large  extremity of t he
 stomach, it furnishes several twigs which  go to this o rgan,
 under the name  of vasa brevia, and a little further on, the
                           48* 
192            anatomist's manual.
left gastro-epiploic artery, destined, with that ofthe right
side, to traverse the greater curvature of the stomach.
  The gastric and two gastro-epiploic arteries send off, in
their course, numerous twigs, which ramify on the two sides
ofthe stomach, and form frequent anastomoses  with each
other.

              the  superior mesenteric
  Situation.—In the profound part ofthe epigastric region,
almost immediately below the cadiac.
  Extent.—From the aorta  to the colon, jejunum and
ileum.
   Direction.—Oblique from above  downwards, and from
left to  right, forming a great  curvature, the convexity of
which is to the left, and the concavity to the right.
   Divisions.—Into three  considerable branches, called
right colics, which originate  from its concavity, distin-
guished  into superior, middle and  inferior ; each  divides
into two twigs, which, anastomosing with the neighboring
twigs, form  arches, whence are  given off new branches,
which again form new arches, giving birth to other twigs,
 which proceed towards the colon, on which they ramify;
3d,  into fifteen or twenty branches which go off from its
convexity, and which, after having formed different arches,
finally terminate  in the jejunum, ileum, and a  portion of
the duodenum.
                 INFERIOR MESENTERIC
    Situation.—In the  hypogastric  region,  between  the
spermafics and primitive iliacs.
   Extent.—From the inferior part ofthe aorta to the lower
 extremity of the rectum.
   Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards, and from 
anatomist's manual.             193
left to right, forming a curvature, the convexity of which
is to the left and the concavity to the right.
  Divisions.—1st, into three principal branches, called left
colics, each of which divides into two large twigs, which
anastomosing  with  each other, form arches, from which
originate additional twigs, giving rise to other arches, the
ramifications of which are lost in the tunics of the colon
and rectum.
                 CAPSULAR  ARTERIES.
   Situation.—In the abdominal cavity, above the superior
mesenteric.
   Extent.—From the aorta to the glandulae renales.
   Dirtction. —Transverse.
   Divisions.—Of middling size, their divisions are limited
to a few twigs, which are sent to the neighboring parts ;
they there expend themselves on the glandular renales.

                   RENAL ARTERIES.
   Situation.—On a  level with  the kidneys,  below the
capsular.
   Extent.—From  the aorta to the kidneys.
   Direction.—Transverse.
   Relations.—Posteriorly, with the vertebral column ;  in  .
front, with the renal vein.   The vena cava partly covers
the right renal artery.
   Divisions.—They do not give off any twigs,  but pro-
ceed immediately to the kidneys, which they penetrate by
two, three or  four branches.

                      SPERMATICS.
   Situation.—In  the abdominal cavity, below the renal,
and above the inferior mesenteric. 
194            anatomist's manual.
  Extent.—From the anterior part of the aorta to the
testicles.
  Direction.—Slightly  oblique from above  downwards,
and from within outwards.
  Relations.—In  their  trajet, they are placed on  the
psoas muscle, in the abdominal cavity ; and pass through
the plexus, formed  by the  spermatic veins.   After arriv-
ing at the  ring, they traverse it,  accompanied by  the
ureter, the spermatic vein and nerve ; they there descend
to the testicles, which they  penetrate, by  dividing into two
fasciculi, one  of which  goes to the epidydimis,  and the
other to the  testicle.
                    MIDDLE  SACRAL.           •
  Situation.—On the anterior and middle portion of the
sacrum.
   Extent.—From the bifurcation of the  aorta to the infe-
rior part of the coxcyx.
   Direction.—Vertical.
   Relations.—Posteriorly with the  sacrum ; in front,  with
the rectum.
   Divisions.—There arise from the lateral parts of the
middle  sacral some small  branches, one  of which, more
considerable than the others, forms the  last  lumbar; the
others anastomose with the lateral  sacral; it forms in ad-
dition, at its termination, species  of arches which are lost
on the coxcyx.   The aorta furnishes four lumbar arteries
on each side, which arise from its lateral portions.   After
arriving at  the root  of  the  transverse apophyses of the
vertebrae, they send off, posteriorly, a twig which expends
itself on the muscles of the back, and sends a small branch
to the  vertebral canal; finally, they advance towards the
integuments of the abdomen, on which they are expended. 
               anatomist's  manual.            195

  the arteries which arise  from the bifurcation
         OF THE AORTA AS FAR AS THE CRURAL.
  The arteries which  arise from the  bifurcation  of the
aorta, bear  the name  of primitive  iliacs  until their divi-
sion into external and internal iliac.   The first is the con-
tinuation of the primitive iliac, and marches in the same
direction ; the second plunges  into  the pelvis, and sends
off a considerable number of branches ; the most remark-
able are :  the ileo-lumbar, lateral sacral, obturator, poste-
rior  iliac and gluteal, ischiatic, internal  pudic,  middle
hemmorrhoidal, vesical, uterine and vaginal.

               Anatomical Preparation.
   Primitive and external iliac.—When  we have arrived
at the bifurcation ofthe aorta it is easy to follow its princi-
pal branches, as far' as  the passage of the external  iliac
under the crural arch.   The precaution which was taken
 of removing  the  intestinal paquet will  very much favor
this preparation.  They  are covered  in  part  by cellular
tissue, which must be removed, as well as every thing else,
which could possibly obstruct the proper exposition of these
 arteries.  At the junction of the sacrum with the haunch
 bones, the primitive iliac gives off a considerable branch,
 called the hypogastric or internal iliac, to which we  shall
 return after a few moments.   In continuing to expose and
 isolate  the external iliac, we shall arrive  at the crural
 arch ; at this place, and before  passing  under the arch,
 the external iliac sends off two very remarkable branches,
 one of which, called epigastric,  proceeds under the inter-
 nal portion of the abdominal walls; and the other, known
 under the name of anterior iliac, passes outwards.  These
 two arteries require to be prepared before proceeding with 
196
anatomist's manual.
the hypogastric and its branches.  We should be particular
to expose their origin properly, and then to follow them in
 apart of their extent.  The student will remember  that
the"epigastric anastomoses with the internal  mammary;
but a  very important point  in the examination of this
artery,  and which  should not be neglected, is to have a
clear idea of its relations with the inguinal ring and sper-
matic cord, in order that we may make a practical appli-
cation of our knowledge in case of an operation for hernia.
   Hypogastric audits branches.—This artery is said to be
very difficult to prepare ; to a certain  extent  this is true.
The causes of this* difficulty are owing to  the'great number
of branches it furnishes,  to the concealed situation  of many
of them, to the want of a point of support for the soft parts
contained in the pelvis, and to the confusion of their differ-
ent branches.  I shall now endeavor to  remove  these in-
conveniences, at least in part.
   It is essential to free the origin of the hypogastric from
the cellular  tissue,  which  conceals it, and likewise  from
the blood which escapes from  the  divided veins.  Water
and other liquids are sometimes effused in the  bottom of
the pelvis  ;  they must  be  removed with a sponge,  and
every thing else that can at all interfere with the dissec-
tion.   These arteries arise from the  hypogastric, at the
moment it plunges  into  the pelvis ;  one is the ilieo-lumbar,
which proceeds posteriorly and outwardly ;  the second, is
the lateral  sacral  which passes to the sacrum;  the third,
is the obturator, which  proceeds through the foramen of
the same name.  The  ileo-lumbar is  observed  in the de-
pression found between  the  last  lumbar vertebrae  and in-
ternal iliac fossa.  It is concealed,  especially at its origins
by a quantity ^f cellular tissue, which  it  will be  necessary 
anatomist's  manual.            197
to remove.   The psoas muscle covers it in great part in its
distributions;  it should be dissected with care, and pushed
to one  side without entirely detaching it.   The sacral or
lateral sacral  arteries are concealed by the rectum.   The
preparation of  the  middle  sacral  will have  exposed a
great part  of  these  arteries,  and their origin is nearly as
high up as the preceding.   The obturator arises from the
.anterior part ofthe hypogastric, and proceeds in the  direc-
 tion ofthe  border ofthe pelvis, but somewhat lower  down,
 in order to reach the obturator foramen.  The nerve of
 the same name, which accompanies it,  should be preserved.
 Beyond the obturator foramen, it loses itself  in the mus-
 cles of the thigh ;  and as it  would  be necessary to sacri-
 fice the external pudics in order to  see its distribution, we
 had better reserve its study until we shall have finished
 with these arteries;  it is the same with the internal pudic.
 When we have terminated the  preparation of these three
 arteries, we should pass immediately to the small branches
 furnished  by the  hypogastric,  and which proceed to the
 bladder in the male and female; and we should, moreover,
 occupy ourselves with the uterine  and  vaginal in the^lat-
 ter; but  as it is always more or less  difficult to  carry the
 instruments to  the bottom of the  pelvis, and as the parts
 are extremely loose and without support, it will be  proper
 to divide the  pelvis,  by separating, on  the one hand, the
 body from one  ofthe pubes, at  an inch from the symphisis,
 in order to leave untouched the organs of generation, for
 the study of  the internal pudic; and, on the other,  that  of
  the posterior symphisis, on the  side opposite to the arteries
  which we are  about to  examine ;  then, if we follow the
  course of the  hypogastric, we shall  observe that it is
  divided into two principal branches, which-proceed  to  the 
198            anatomist's  manual.
posterior and inferior part ofthe pelvis.   The most elevat-
ed of  these two branches is the posterior iliac and gluteal;
the other is the ischiatic.   From  this last  arise the small
branches of which I have spoken.   But before leaving the
pelvis, the  ischiatic furnishes an artery, which it is impor-
tant to understand—the internal pudic.  It is essential that
we prepare at once the branches furnished by the ischiatic,
as it is necessary to cut  them  and remove the organs to
which they are destine'd..  The interior ofthe pelvis being
thus emptied, it will  be much easier to follow the course
of those that remain.  We  should observe particularly the
place of their exit from the  pelvis.  The pyramidal muscle,
which serves as a guide, separates the gluteal, which is
above, from the ischiatic which is below.  Out ofthe pelvis,
they can be seen only by turning over the subject, and care-
fully dissecting the gluteus maximus, which should be push-
ed over  towards the anus, after having detached it from the
great trochanter.  Beneath the great  gluteal muscle we
remark the ischiatic;  but we cannot perceive the posterior
iliac until after having removed the middle gluteal muscle
in ±he  same manner.   This being done,  we  should  follow
the distribution  of these arteries,  being careful to  cut as
few ofthe  branches which they furnish as possible.
   Internal pudic-—This should  be reserved for  the last,
and its  preparation requires considerable  care and atten-
tion.  It arises, as was  before said, from the ischiatic, at
the time this last leaves the pelvis.  Like the ischiatic, it
abandons the  pelvis a little above the sacro-ischiatic liga-
ment ;  but it  soon re-enters  the pelvis through the small
sacro-ischiatic  notch, in order to proceed between the
tuberosity  of the ischion and anus; it is hero that it is im-
portant to  recognise all  its divisions.   At this stage of his
labors,  I would advise the  student to proceed to the careful 
anatomist's manual.
199
dissection of the muscles ofthe perineum and penis, and to
pass on to this artery, between the ischion  and anus, in
order to follow it in its divisions,  which go to the perine-
um, scrotum, penis,  and to the environs of the organs  of
generation.   But if the student is  not  particular to make
the section of the bones of the pelvis, as was directed a
moment since, he will necessarily destroy some interesting
branches of this artery, of which  he  can form but an in-
exact idea.
                     Description.
                  PRIMITIVE ILIACS.
  Situation.—At the inferior part ofthe abdomen.
  Extent.—From the bifurcation  of the aorta to the top
of the sacro-iliac symphises.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards,  and from
within outwards.
   Relations.—Posteriorly, they  are  supported on the
vertebral  column, and  repose on  the  veins  of  the  same
name ; anteriorly, they correspond  to the intestinal pa-
quet,  and are crossed by the ureter at an acute angle.
  Divisions.—Into external and internal iliacs.

                   EXTERNAL ILIAC.
  Situation.—On the lateral parts ofthe pelvis.
  Extent.—From the  union  of the sacrum  with the
haunch bones to the crural arch.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards,  and from
within outwards.
  Relations.—Within, it  corresponds to the iliac vein;
without, to the psoas muscle.
  Divisions.—1st,  Epigastric,  which arises  from  its
                         49 
200
anatomist's manual.
internal part,  near the  crural arch, ascends behind  the
rectus muscle, on the internal side of the  spermatic cord,
and, after reaching the umbilicus, it anastomoses with the
branches of the internal mammary.  2d,   Anterior iliac
(circumflexa ilii)  which arises, externally, on a level with
the epigastric, proceeds  towards  the anterior spine of the
ileum, and divides into two branches, which are lost in the
muscles of the abdomen.

          INTERNAL ILIAC  OR HYPOGASTRIC
   Situation.—In the cavity of the pelvis, in front of the
»acro-iliac symphisis.
   Extent.—From the union of the sacrum with the haunch
bones to the distance of two  or three fingers' breadth with-
in the interior of the pelvis.
   Direction.—Slightly oblique  from  above downwards,
and from  behind  forwards.
   Division.—1st,  Ileo-lumbar, which arises  very near
the origin of the hypogastric, proceeds outwards and up-
wards, concealed by the  psoas muscle, and soon divides
into^two branches,  the one ascending and the other trans-
verse, which are lost in the adjoining parts.
   2d,  Lateral sacral,  which travels on the anterior sur-
face of the sacrum in front of the sacral nerves;  gives off
twigs which,  on  the one hand, penetrate  the  vertebral
canal by the  sacral foramina, and on the  other, anasto-
mose frequently with those ofthe middle sacral.
   3d,  Obturator, which proceeds along and below the
border of the pelvis, accompanied by the  obturator nerve,
 as far as  the  foramen of the same name,  through which it
 passes at its superior part, and divides into two branches,
 the twigs of which are lost in the superior portion ofthe
 muscles of the thigh. 
anatomist's  manual.            201
  4th,   Vesical, the origin of which presents considerable
variety, but which most generally arises from the hypogas-
tric, and proceeds to the inferior part of the  bladder, send-
ing off twigs to the  vesiculae  seminales,  prostate,  vas de-
ferens, and ureter.
   5th,   In the female, the  hypogastric furnishes,  in addi-
tion, the uterine and vaginal; the first travels on the late-
ral and inferior portions  of the uterus, and expends itself
on this organ ; the second is placed, likewise on the lateral
parts ofthe vagina, advances as far as its anterior  portion,
 and is lost in its cellular tissue.
   These  different arteries offer so many  varieties,  both
 as regards  their origin and  distributions, that  we can
 scarcely find two subjects  in which they present the same
 results.
    After having furnished these arteries, the hypogastric
 divides  into  three  principal  branches, viz: the posterior
 iliac,  ischiatic, and internal pudic.

                     POSTERIOR ILIAC.
    Situation.—At the posterior and inferior part of the
 pelvis, and superior and posterior of the thigh.
    Extent.—From the  cavity of the pelvis to the superior
  region,  of   the  buttock,  passing through  the  ischiatic
  notch above the pyramidal muscle.
    Direction.—Oblique from  within outwards, and from
  below upwards.
    Relations.—In the pelvis, it is situated between the  last
  lumbar and first sacral pairs ; out  of  the pelvis, its divi-
  sions pass between the  great and middle glutei muscles.
    Divisions.—Into two principal branches, destined  for
   the glutei muscles, and some of those on the  posterior part
   ofthe  trunk. 
202
anatomist's  manual.
                          ISCHIATIC.
      Situation.—At the inferior part of the pelvic cavity and
    posterior ofthe thigh.
      Extent.—From the pelvic cavity to the  posterior pait of
    the thigh, passing through the ischiatic notch,  below the
    pyramidal muscle.
      Relations.—It is accompanied by the great sciatic nerve
    in the most considerable portion  of its extent.
      Division.—Into a number of twigs,  which lose them-
    selves in the muscles of the buttock, and  in  those of the
    posterior and  superior part  of  the  thigh; one of these  is
    more remarkable than the others, and always accompanies
    the sciatic nerve.
                       INTERNAL PUDIC.
      Situation.—At the inferior part of  the pelvic cavity
    and in the region of the perineum.
     Extent.—From the pelvic cavity to  the perineum  and
*  organs of generation.
     Relations.—In the pelvis, it is situated in front of the
   sciatic plexus  and  pyramidal muscle ;   after  leaving the
   pelvis, it passes through the small sciatic notch, proceeds
   in the space  comprised  between the  tuberosity  of the
   ischion and anus, and expends itself on the adjoining parts.
     Division.—In its  trajet to the  transverse muscle, it
   sends off a great number of twigs, which go to  the bladder,
   ureter, vesiculae seminales, glutei, gemelli, &c.; it after-
   wards divides into two branches, one inferior and the other
   superior;  the  first  is called  the artery  of the perineum,
   the second that of the penis.

          ARTERIES OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITIES.
     These arteries are :  the crural, popliteal, posterior tibial,
   peroneal, anterior tibial, and plantar. 
anatomist's manual.
203
              Anatomical  Preparation.
  Crural artery.—At its passage under the crural aroh,
the external iliac changes its name in order to assume that
of crural, which it preserves as far as the ham, where it
takes that of popliteal.  The crural artery, properly so
called, is not very difficult to prepare;  in general its situa-
tion  is very superficial,  at  least  at its superior part, and
this  circumstance renders  its dissection and examination
the more easy.   In order to see it  we should make an in-
cision on the integuments  of the thigh, which, from their
superior  and middle part,  should be directed obliquely to
 their inferior and posterior  portion, as far as the hollow of
 the  ham; we should then separate the flaps in a contrary
 sense,  and the crural artery will be found almost naked,
 placed at the internal side of the sartorius muscle, which it
 abandons at the three inferior fourths ofthe thigh, in order
 to pass through the third adductor, and then show itself, in
 the ham, under the name of popliteal.   In its  course, it
 seDds off several branches, the most considerable of which
 is the profunda or small [crural, which gives origin to two
 circumflex  arteries ;  the other branches, less remarkable,
  arise from the most elevated portion ofthe crural, and are
  known under the name of external pudic.  I cannot rec-
  commend too strongly the greatest attention in the prepa-
  ration  of all these  arteries, for their knowledge is very
  important in the treatment  of certain diseases of the ex-
  tremities, and especially in some operations, in which the
  life ofthe patient is often compromised.
     The  best and most certain mode of effecting a proper
  preparation of the arteries of the thigh, is to  proceed at
  first with the dissection of the muscles of this part, taking
  care not to injure  any of the branches which may be met
                            49* 
204
ANATOMISTS MANUAL.
with in the course of this operation.  The first proceed trans-
versely inwards and outwards to the superior part of the
thigh; those of the internal part  are less extensive, but
they are situated more profoundly than the external, one
of which, especially, proceeds along the thigh, passing un-
der the  external  parts of the femur, in order to anasto-
mose with the arteries ofthe articulation ofthe knee.
  The small crural or profunda arises from the posterior
part ofthe great crural, a little above the small trochanter,
between the adductors and rectus internus.  This circum-
stance will explain the necessity of a preliminary prepara-
tion of these muscles in  order to have a good view ofthe
artery.   This preparation should even  be  sufficiently mi-
nute to afford us an opportunity of following three or four
branches of  this artery,  which lose themselves, under the
name of perforating, in  the adductors, and particularly  m
the third.  At its superior part, the profunda sends off the
circumflex branches, which are in the same relation to the
thigh, that those of the same name are to  the arm ;  but if
we do not take the precaution of removing from the mus-
cles of the thigh the abundant  fat, which  envelopes them
on all sides, if we do not completely isolate these muscles,
we will in vain  endeavor to prepare the divisions of the
crural artery.
   Pop'iteal artery.—Concealed profoundly in  the  hollow
of the ham, this artery is enveloped by a quantity of fatty
matter, and demands considerable patience in its dissection.
We should lay open the integuments in a great extent, re-
move the abundant cellular tissue and fat, dissect  the  mus-
cles and cut them at  four fingers' breadth above the articu-
lation ;  we should turn downwards, in separating them cau-
tiously, the inferior portions ofthe cut muscles ; in this way, 
anatomist's  manual.           205
we will arrive with  more  facility at  the  popliteal artery,
which is found, as it were, attached to the nerve and vein
ofthe same name.   These different objects should be iso-
lated but not cut: we should separate them  in order to
follow with more  advantage the small branches given off
from the lateral portions of the popliteal, called articu-
lar.   The inferior articulars cannot  be seen properly, un-
til after having dissected and removed a part  of the ge-
melli, in the interval of which these arteries are situated.
   Arteries ofthe leg  and foot.—The dissection ofthe ge-
 melli and other  muscles of the posterior part  of the  leg
 will permit us to  pursue the continuation of the popliteal,
 as far as  its division  into posterior  tibial and peroneal;
 the  popliteal sends off from its anterior portion, an artery
 which pierces the inter-osseous ligament, in order to pro-
 ceed to the anterior portion of  the leg, under the name of
 anterior tibial; its ulterior preparation should be abandoned,
 in order to pass  to those ofthe posterior part.  These re-
 quire that we remove the superficial layer of muscles in
 order to get a good view of them, for they travel, as it were,
 on the tibia and  fibula; the branches which they furnish,
 although  numerous,  not having received any particular
 names, do  not  merit a special preparation ;  one  only is
 worthy of attention, it is that given off by the tibial for the
 tibia itself, which penetrates through the nutritious fora-
 men of this bone.
    After having traced these arteries to the inferior part of
 the leg, we should abandon them there, and  return to the
 anterior tibial,  a division of the popliteal,  the origin of
 which takes place at the posterior part of the  leg, situated
  more profoundly than the two preceding.   It dips down
  immediately between the two bones of the leg, above tte 
206
anatomist's  manual.
inter-osseous ligament, which it pierces in order to show
itself at  the  anterior  portion,  between  the   tibialis
anterior, and extensor communis digitorum pedis.  The
preparation and study of this artery require, like  the pre-
ceding, that we proceed at first to the dissection of the
muscles.  In proportion as it passes downwards, this arte-
ry becomes more and more superficial,  and reaches in this
way the dorsum of the foot; we should then return to the
plantars,  the termination  and  divisions of the  posterior
tibial.
  In order to diminish the difficulties attending the prepara-
tion  of the plantars,  we may disarticulate the foot,  and
preserve  for  their examination, this  portion  only of the
inferior extremities.   It will be conceived  that, before do-
ing this, we must  have achieved  the  examination of tho
arteries of  the leg.  The common trunk of the two plan-
tars must be looked for under the arch of  the calcaneum ;
but  at this part are  likewise  found the  tendons  of seve-
ral  muscles,  also  nerves,  and  a  quantity of dense
cellular  tissue, and consequently  the  difficulties  will be
increased.  We should isolate  the arteries as  carefully as
possible, and once exposed, we should follow their course
and divisions, cutting every thing that opposes their prepa-
ration, preserving merely their smallest twigs, for each one
of them demands particular attention.

                       Description.
                       CRURAL.
   Situation.—On the anterior  and internal portion of the
 thigh.
   Extent.—From the crural arch to the inferior and poste-
 riorpart ofthe femur, four fingers' breadth from the articu-
 lation. 
anatomist's manual.           207
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and  from
before backwards, following the trajet of the sartorius.
  Relations.—In  proceeding from above downwards, this
artery is covered, in front, by the integuments, the sartori-
us, and by the aponeurosis of the fascialata :  posteriorly, it
corresponds, from above downwards to the united tendons of
the  psoas and iliacus, to the pectineus and first adductor :
outwardly, it corresponds to the  crural nerve, sartorius and
vastus internus : within, it corresponds to the crural  vein,
pectineus and first adductor.
  Divisions.—1st, External pudics, two in number, which
arise from the internal part of  the crural artery, proceed,
within,  the  one more superficially, the  other  more pro-
foundly.   The  twigs which these two  branches furnish,
pass to  the pubes, and scrotum, and anastomose with the
branches of the internal pudic ;  in  addition, there some-
times arises  from the crural a very small artery, under the
name of integumental artery,  which expends itself out-
wardly on these parts; 2d, Profunda, which merits a par-
ticular description.
              PROFUNDA OR SMALL CRURAL.
  Situation.—On the internal and posterior part of the
thigh.
  Extent.—From the  posterior part of the crural, near
the small trochanter, to the inferior portion  of the femur,
passing  at this place, across the third adductor.
  Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and  from
within backwards.
  Relations.—In its course, it is almost always  placed
between the adductors and vastus internus.
  Divisions.—1st, The circumflex, distinguished into ex-
ternal and internal;  the first, more considerable, proceeds 
208            anatomist's manual.

outwardly, and  furnishes two branches, one of  which,
transverse, turns around the femur; it gives off twigs to
the articulation and some of the adjoining muscles, and
anastomoses  with  the  internal circumflex.   The  second
branch  passes outwards and  downwards,  as  far  as the
articulation, in order to anastomose with the articulars.
The internal circumflex, larger than  the preceding, like-
wise turns around the femur, in order to get  to the external
circumflex and  anastomose with it.  In its  trajet, it sends
off two branches, which are lost  in the neighboring parts,
principally in the  muscles of the posterior and superior
parts ofthe thigh.   2d, The perforating, which are three
or four in number : these arteries, situated very profoundly,
are destined  for the muscles ofthe whole posterior part of
the thigh ; and  they pierce  the  adductors  in a very re-
markable  manner.  It is  the second perforating  artery
which furnishes a  twig that penetrates the superior nutri-
tious foramen in the femur : the  inferior  foramen receives
the small artery that traverses it from the termination of
the profunda.

                      popliteal.

   Situation.—In  the hollow of the ham.
   Extent.—From the inferior  part  of  the  thigh, to the
superior portion of the leg.
   Direction.—Nearly vertical.
   Relations.—In  front, it  is supported on  the  inferior
fourth  of the femur, on the  articulation  of the  knee, and
 lower down on the popliteus :  posteriorly, it is  covered
 at first by the semi-membranosus, afterwards by fatty cel-
 lular tissue, and,  on the  leg, by the gemelli and  soleus; 
anatomist's  manual.           209
inwardly and outwardly, it corresponds to the condyles of
the femur and tibia; and, in addition, its external side is
bordered by the vein and nerve ofthe same name.
   Divisions.—The  articulars, five in number,  of which
three are superior and two inferior ;  the first arise from the
popliteal, almost immediately after the passage of the cru-
ral through the  third  adductor.  These  arteries encircle
the  articulation,  supply the adjoining parts, and anasto-
mose with the profunda and  external circumflex, as well
as with the inferior  articulars.   Of the three superior
 articular arteries, one differs  in its  situation and distribu-
 tion : it occupies the middle and posterior part of the articu-
 lation of the knee, and supplies, in great part, this articu-
 lation.
   The inferior articulars arise  at two' or  three fingers
 breadth from the preceding, proceed obliquely downwards,
 in encircling the articulation, and act in the same way as
 the superior articulars, with which they anastomose in a
 very remarkable manner.
                    anterior tibial.
    Situation.—On  the anterior part of the leg.
    Extent.—From the superior union of the two bones of
  the leg to the superior part ofthe foot.
    Direction.—Slightly oblique from  above downwards,
  and from without inwards.
    Relations.—It pierces,  at the  posterior part of the leg,
  the tibialis posterior  and inter-osseous ligament; along the
  leg, it is constantly between the  tibialis anterior which is
  within, and the peroneous anterior which is without; poste-
  riorly,'it reposes on  the inter-osseous ligament, and, below,
   on the tibia;  in front,  it  is covered not only  by the pre-
   ceding muscles, but  likewise by the extensor pollicis pedis,
   and extensor communis digitorum pedis. 
210             anatomist's  man cal.
   Divisions.—A great number of twigs, destined for the
 muscles, arise from the anterior tibial  in its course,  as far
 as the lower portion ofthe leg, where it gives off two, one
 within, and the other  without, which we  may denominate
 the malleolar  arteries ; they anastomose with the posterior
 tibial and peroneal.
   The  anterior tibial continues on the foot, under the name
 of pedal artery.
                  PEDAL  ARTERY.
   Situation.—On the  superior part of the foot.
   Extent.—From the  annular ligament of the foot, to the
 first metatarsal bone.
   Direction.—Horizontal from behind forwards.
   Relations.—On the  one hand, it  is  covered by the
 integuments, by the tendons ofthe extensor communis digi-
 torum, and by the pedal arteries; on the other, it reposes
 on the bones ofthe tarsus.
   Divisions.—1st, Near its origin, it gives off twigs more '
 or less considerable, which proceed inwards and outwards, J
 and  are distributed to the neighboring parts.  2d, Some-
 what outwards, originates the artery of the tarsus and that
 ofthe metatarsus ; the first, nearer the origin ofthe pedal,
 proceeds on the external side of the foot, and  anasto- !
 moses with the external  plantar, after having furnisheda rA
 great number  of twigs to the adjoining parts ; the second, ,
 which  arises more  in  front than the artery of the tarsus, ,
 forms a curve, the convexity of which, turned  forwards,
gives rise to branches  which pass between the metatarsal
bones, and which may  be called interosseal arteries ; the
rest of this artery goes to the neighboring parts ; 3d,  hav-
ing arrived at  the anterior extremity of the first metatarsal  i
bone, it  dips under the  foot, and  anastomoses  with  the
internal plantar artery.                                  < 
anatomist's manual.            211
                    PERONEAL ARTERV.
    Situation.—On the posterior and external part of* the leg.
    Extent.—From the end of the popliteal to the external
  malleolus.
    Direction.—Slightly oblique from  above  downwards,
  and from within outwards.
     Relations.—Posteriorly,  it  is  covered by the soleus
;  and long flexor of the great toe :  in front, it reposes above,
  on the  tibialis posterior, and below, on the 'inter-osseous
   ligament.
     Divisions.—In its course, as far as the inferior part of
   the leo-, it merely gives off branches destined for the mus-
   cles ;  near the malleolus, it divides intb two branches, one
   for the  external side of the foot,  and  the other, which
   pierces the  inter-osseous ligament, expands itself on  the
   superior portion ofthe foot.

                   POSTERIOR TIBIAL ARTERY.
      Situation.—On the posterior and internal part of the leg.
      Extent.—From the end of the popliteal to the arch of
    the calcaneum.
      Direction.—Oblique  from above downwards, and from
    without inwards.
      Relations.—Posteriorly, it  is covered  above  by the
    gemelli and soleus ; below, by the integuments ; in front, it
    is supported on the tibialis anterior, the flexor longus com-
    munis digitorum pedis, and on the tibia ; its external side is
    bordered by the external popliteal sciatic nerve.
       Divisions.—Considerable twigs,  which are distributed
    to all the muscles on the posterior part of  the leg ; among
     them, one  penetrates the tibia through the nutritious fora- 
212
anatomist's manual.
 men.  Arrived under the arch ofthe calcaneum, the tibial
 divides into the plantars, one of which is internal and the
 other external.

                  INTERNAL PLANTAR.
   Situation.—At the inferior part, and  on the  internal
 side of the foot.
   Extent.—From the division of the tibial, to  the neigh-
 borhood of the great toe.
   Relations.—It is, in great part, covered by the adductor
 muscle of the great toe, and the short common flexor of the
 toes.
   Divisions.—The  branches  it furnishes are  lost in the
 adjoining muscles, plantar aponeurosis, and periosteum; it
 terminates  by  anastomosing  with the collaterals of  the
 great toe.

             EXTERNAL PLANTAR ARTERY.
   Situation.—At the inferior and external part ofthe foot.
   Extent.—From the division ofthe tibial, to theposterior
 extremity of the fifth metatarsal bone.
   Direction.—Oblique  from behind  forwards,  and from
 within outwards.
   Relations.—In its oblique course, it is covered, on  the
 one hand, by the short flexor ofthe toes, and, on the other,
 it is  supported on the abductors of the great and small
toe.
   Divisions.—Several branches proceed to the superficial
muscles on the sole of the foot; but, after arriving at  the
fifth  metatarsal bone, it dips down under the bottom of the
foot, proceeds  from  without inwards,  in  order to anasto-
mose with the pedal, and form the plantar arch, from which 
anatomist's manual.            213
arise  numerous  twigs which  pass  forwards,  backwards,
upwards, and downwards.  The anterior branches are the
most remarkable, and they are destined to form  the colla-
terals of the toes.

                  PULMONARY ARTERY.
   Situation.—In the chest, at the height of the  third dor-
sal vertebra. -
   Extent.—From  the  superior  and left  portion of the
right ventricle to the lungs.
   Relations and divisions.—It reposes at first on the aorta,
but soon becomes posterior to  it;  and after proceeding
about two inches, it divides into two branches, one on the
right, larger and shorter, for the right lung, and the other
on the  left, smaller and longer,  for the left lung.  These
two arteries penetrate these  organs by an indeterminate
number of branches, which ramify in their  tissue.

                        veins.
   The exposition of the veins  appertains to Angiology,
and their distribution presents the same considerations  as
those of the arteries.  Like  these last, the veins  offer
trunks, which furnish branches, whence arise twigs and ra-
mifications, the ultimate divisions  of which escape the eye of
 the anatomist.   The veins do not present as much interest
 as the arteries;  the slowness of  the circulation of the fluid
 which traverses them, the nature  of this fluid, the uncer-
 tainty of their  relations and divisions, the slight influence
 they exert over the entire functions of the economy, will
 explain the indifference with which they inspire us, and
 the little inducement which students have to study them. 
214            anatomist's manual.
   We must,  however, except  the  system  of the  vena
portae, which calls for our serious attention, and presents
the most instructive as well as interesting details.  I shall,
therefore, limit myself to indicate, for the veins, the most
general preparation, and their description  will occupy but
little  space.
   The manner of injecting them differs from  that of the
arteries;  we must not proceed with this operation by the
large trunks, but we  should,  on the  contrary, commence
with  the  last ramifications of the two  venae  cava?, and
make  a separate  injection for  both.  The valves  with
which the veins are supplied,  the use of which is to faci-
litate  the  flow  of  blood to  the heart, in  opposing  its
return to  the extremities,  will  explain the» reason of this
difference.  It is on the back of the hand that we should
inject the  veins of the upper extremities ;  for this purpose,
we must employ a tube, the calibre of which should be pro-.
portioned  to the size of the vein in which it is introduced.
In this  way, it is true, the jugular veins and those of the
face  will  be swelled with great difficulty by the injection ;
but they scarcely need it.   The large size of the first, the
origin of  which corresponds  with  the sinus of the brain,
and the superficial situation ofthe second, will,  to a certain
extent,  dispense  with the  necessity of injecting  them.
Such, however, is  not the  case as regards the abdominal
extremities, and the whole inferior venae cava:.
   The  injection, pushed in sufficient quantity into one of
the veins  ofthe foot,  will fill  all the divisions  of this vein.
Those of the vena portae are difficult  to inject,  but they do
not require it; we may follow their  divisions without this
aid, unless we should  wish to pursue them in their distribu^
tion in  the liver: for, then, it  would be indispensable to 
anatomist's manual.
215
inject the portion of this vein which proceeds to this organ.
In the private amphitheatres the veins are very rarely in-
jected.  It is true that  a knowledge of the arteries  will
greatly facilitate that  of the veins,  which almost always
accompany these last in their distribution.
  Jankius is not the only one, as is pretended, who has  suc-
ceeded in passing the injection of the arteries into the veins.
Chance has more than once  effected this for other anato-
mists. One of my ancient colleagues in the Marine hospital,
Doctor  Brunei, the same who contrived an apparatus for
fractures  of the limbs, since made perfect by Professor
Boyer,  has frequently shown  me  upper extremities, the
arteries and veins of which had been injected by the same
coup de piston,  and  which presented absolutely  the same
results  which have been since obtained by Jankius.
   The blood  returns to the heart by two principal veins,
 which are the superior  or ascending vena  cava, and the
 inferior or descending vena cava.   The first carries to the
 heart the blood from the head, neck, and superior extremi-
 ties ; the second brings it from the inferior extremities and
 some of the  organs ofthe bas-ventre.   The veins of the
 other viscera of this cavity unite  in one common trunk,
 called  vena  portae, which enters the liver, and is entirely
 expended in it.
   The veins of the  chest empty, in great  part,  into one,
 sometimes into two  large trunks, isolated  and distinct,
 which  bear the name of azygos veins.

              SUPERIOR  VENA CAVA.
                Anatomical Preparation.
    The superior portion of the venous system is  in part
  already known, since the student understands the sinuses of
                           ou 
216
ANATOMIST S MANUAL.
 the] brain, which constitute,  as it  were, its  origin.  The
 internal jugular vein, which is a continuation of them, and
 the external jugular, a common  rendezvous for the veins
 ofthe face, are very voluminous, and we may follow them
 to their junction nearly on a level with the clavicle.  It is
 essential  to open the  chest  and  separate the clav'cle, in
 order to observe these veins, thus united,  proceed to the
 heart, and receive,  before arriving there, the subclavians.
 The  disposition  is somewhat different on the right and left
 sides.  As it is on the right side that the auricle is situated,
 into which the two  cava? empty, it follows that the jugular
 and subclavian ofthe left side have  a greater distance to
 go in order to arrive at the vena cava.  If the veins are
 injected, this  will be readily perceived ; in the contrary
 case, we must proceed cautiously  for fear of opening one
 of the veins,  for the  blood  will  run  in abundance; and
 then  no matter what  care  may be taken  to remove it, it
 will always interfere  with  the dissection.  Moreover,  the
 veins will be more or  less effaced, and this will render their
 study the more disagreeable.
   The veins ofthe arm, those at  least which it is impor.
 tant to  understand, are  superficial,  and we may  pursue
 them in  either direction.  They  are two in number,  the
 cephalic  and basilic, the multiplied divisions  of which have
 not received any particular names,  except  at  the fold of
 the arm,  where each of them gives off a second; this
 makes four principal  veins for this  part, which bear the
names of cephalic, median,  basilic, and cubital, proceeding
 from  without  inwards.  When  we  have arrived  at  the
 hollow of the axilla, it will require somewhat more atten-
 tion  to disengage the axillary vein from the artery and
 brachial  plexus; and without  attempting  to dissect  the 
anatomist's  manual.
217
branches of the axillary, we should pass immediately to the
subclavian in order to terminate by the vena cava.
  For the inferior extremities, we must in the first place
occupy ourselves with the preparation of  the  great vein,
which, from the internal malleolus, proceeds along the leg
and thigh, in  order to  empty,  under the name  of the
great saphena, into  the crural vein;  we should next pass
to  the study of this latter, which follows absolutely the
course and ^distributions of the artery of the  same name.
 The small saphena, placed on the external side of the leg,
 loses itself in the popliteal vein, which is itself the con-
 tinuation ofthe crural.
    But in order to study the inferior vena cava, we must
 have previously examined and removed  the  vena porta?.
 We should, therefore, proceed to the study of this last, the
 preparation of which consists particularly in exposing the
 common trunk of the branches,  which form its origin, and
 of those which are distributed  in the liver.  This  trunk
 will^be found in the fasciculi  of the  vessels  of  the  liver,
 situated a little posteriorly and to the right.  Its volume
 and bluish color will not permit  us  to mistake it.  This
 great trunk will have been frequently met with  during the
 examination of the ductus choledochus and hepatic artery.
  We  may afterwards pursue the branches,   which  come
  from the abdominal viscera, and those which are distributed
  in the liver.   If we  have the time and means, we may in-
  ject the trunk of the vena portee, push the iniection to  the
  liver, the artery and duct of which should  be filled with
  materials of a different color ;  this  will give us the advan-
  tage of following, in the interior of this  viscus, the  course
  of its  different vessels.   But  this  operation is long and
  demands considerable care ; the student alone  cannot  un<
  dertake it. 
218
ANATOMIST S  MANUAL.
  When the vena portae  and its  principal divisions are
known, it will be necessary to remove the intestinal paquet
with the usual precautions, but, in  addition,  it is indispen-
sable not to touch the vena cava, which  is placed on the
vertebral column, and to the right.   The crural, iliac, and
hypogastric veins should not be  interfered with ; if they
are opened, the blood will  flow in  abundance and soil the
different parts.   The liver and   kidneys should  remain
in place.   It may be observed that the preparation of the
inferior vena cava in its whole extent requires very great
attention and cleanliness.  It is  especially when it leaves
the liver in order to enter  the  right auricle,  in  receiving
the hepatic veins, that it is more difficult to  expose  it, for
it is entirely concealed by this organ ;  but it  will be readi-
ly  discovered,  by raising  the  liver,  which  we may even
dispense with  removing,  in  order to study  this vein.
Another vein yet  remains  to be seen ; it is  the azygos.
Contained in the chest, it travels on the vertebral column
by the side of the aorta, from which it  is easily distinguish-
ed by its color; this vein,  which arises from the inferior
vena cava, nearly on a level with the first  lumbar verte-
bra, loses  itself in the  same cava, near the heart, and
forms, in this way, a long  curvature, the  convexity of
which is to the  left.

                     Description.
         SUPERIOR OR  ASCENDING VENA CAVA.
  Situation.—In the right lateral and  superior part ofthe
chest.
  Extent.—From the right auricle, to the cartilage of the
first rib.
  Direction.—Slightly oblique from below upwards, and
from right  to left. 
                 anatomist's manual.          219

  Relations.—Contained at first  in  the  pericardium, to
the  right of the aorta, it leaves it after having traversed a
space of  two inches,  and soon  divides  into two large
branches, which are the subclavians.

                     SUBCLAVIANS.
  Situation.—In the superior part of the chest,  inferior
and lateral ofthe neck.
  Extent.—From the termination of  the vena cava to the
superior surface of the first rib.
  Direction.—It is different in the two subclavians;  the
 right, shorter, ascends obliquely  from within outwards,
 and from  before  backwards ; the left, longer, proceeds
 transversely.
   Relations.—The right  is placed in front of  the artery
 of  the same name ; the left passes in front  of  the aorta,
 subclavian arteries, and left carotid.
   Divisions.—1st, Inferior thyroidal, superior  intercostal
 and vertebral, which follow the course and  distribution of
 the arteries of the same name; 2d,  Jugular, distinguished
 into external  and internal;  3d,  In  addition, the left sub-
 clavian gives  off the internal mammary.   In fine, each
 subclavian vein terminates by  giving birth to the axillary
 veins.
                   EXTERNAL JUGULAR.
    Situation.—On the lateral parts of the neck.
    Extent.—From the superior  part of  the subclavian to
 the parotid.
    Directions.—Very  slightly oblique from above down-
 wards, and from behind forwards.
    Relations.—Between the platysma myoides which  is in
 front, and the sterno-mastoid muscle  posteriorly. 
220             anatomist's manual.

  Divisions.—Into numerous branches, which  are distri-
buted to all parts of the face, under the names of posterior
auricular, internal  maxillary, temporal, frontal,  super-
ciliary and palpebral.

                 INTERNAL JUGULAR.
  Situation.—On the lateral and profound portions of the
neck.
  Extent.—From the subclavian to the posterior foramen
lacerum.
  Direction.—Slightly oblique from below upwards, and
from before backwards.
  Relations.—It is placed on the external side of  the in-
ternal carotid,  covered   by  the  sterno-mastoid, sterno-
hyoid, and sterno-thyroid muscles.
  Divisions.—1st,  Superior  thyroidal,  lingual,  pharyn-
geal, facial, occipital, internal maxillary and temporal, the
course and divisions of which correspond with those of the
arteries ;  2d,  After arriving at the posterior foramen la-
cerum, the internal jugular  loses itself in the sinuses of
the brain.   It furnishes,  in addition,  the ophthalmic vein,
the divisions and anastomoses of which with the tibial vein
are similar to those of the artery of the same name.

                    AXILLARY VEIN.
   Situation.—In the hollow ofthe axilla.
   Extent.—From the  environs of the scalenus muscle to
 the  superior part of the arm.
   Direction.—Oblique from before  backwards, and  from
 above downwards.
   Relations.—Similar to those of the artery of the same
 name. 
anatomist's manual.
221
  Divisions.—1st,  The  cephalic, which  arises from the
ixillary, on a level with the head ofthe humerus, gains the
nterval between -the  deltoid and great pectoral muscles,
descends along  the arm,  on  the external  side  of the
biceps, gives off, at the fold ofthearm, the median cephalic,
and  continues to travel along the  external part of the
fore-arm, in order  to  lose itself on the back of the hand ;
2d, basilic, which arises from the axillary, like the prece-
ding, reaches the fold  of the arm, gives  off the  median
basilic, and divides into two  principal divisions,  which
descend along the internal  part of the fore-arm, in order to
expend themselves on  the back of the hand; 3d, In addi-
tion, the axillary furnishes the veins which accompany the
brachial artery,  as well as the  veins of the radial and
cubital arteries.

         INFERIOR  or abdominal vena  cava.
   Situation.—In the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
   Extent.—From   the  right auricle to the fourth or fifth
 lumbar vertebra.
   Direction.—Parallel to  the vertebral column.
   Relations.—On  leaving  the  pericardium, it  traverses
 the diaphragm, places  itself behind the  liver, which em-
 braces it on all sides, and accompanies  the aorta in  the
 rest of its extent, placed at its external side ; it is covered
 by the mass of intestines in the cavity of the abdomen.
   Divisions.—1st, Inferior diaphragmatics or phrenics,
 the distributions of which follow those of the arteries ;  2d,
 Hepatics, three or four  in number, distinguished into right,
 larger,  and left, smaller  ;  they  penetrate  the liver,  and
 lose  themselves  in  its  substance;  3d,   Renal,  which
 ramify in the kidneys ;  the right is the shorter, and passes 
222            anatomist's manual.
on the artery of the  same name ; the left is  longer, and
proceeds on the aorta ; 4th, Capsular,  the left of Which
arises from the renal vein of the same side ; 5th,  Sperma-
tics, which arise, the  right from the vena cava, the left
from  the  renal vein ; they descend on the spoas muscle,
and form, in this place, a  net-work, called  the  pampini-
forme plexus;  they  traverse the   inguinal canal,  and
proceed to the testicles ; 6th, Lumbar and middle sacral,
which do not present any thing particular.

                   primitive iliac
   Situation.—In the lower part  of the abdominal cavity.
   Extent.— From  the  bifurcation of the vena cava to the
union ofthe sacrum with the haunch bones.
   Divisions.— 1st, Hypogastric,  the divisions of which
are similar, as to the  number and  course, to the arteries
whose name they bear.  The vesical veins  form, in addi-
tion, a  plexus on the  inferior and  posterior parts  ofthe
bladder, from which pass off branches  for the organs of
generation ;  2d, External iliac, from which proceed the
epigastric and anterior iliac or circumflex.

                     CRURAL VEIN.
    Situation.—On  the anterior and internal part  of the
 thigh.
    Extent.—From the ligament of Fallopius, to the hollow
 ofthe ham, where it takes the name of popliteal.
    Direction and relations.—Similar to those ofthe crural
 artery.
    Divisions.—Great  saphena,  which arises from  the in-
 ternal part of the crural, descends under the skin parallel
 to the sartorius muscle, passes behind the internal condyle 
                anatomist's manual.            223
                       •
of the femur, and proceeds on the leg ; it gets in  front of'
the internal malleolus and loses itself on the foot; 2d,  The
crural vein, after arriving at the fold of the ham, takes the
name of popliteal, places itself on the external side of the
artery, and, an inch below, furnishes the anterior tibial, and
then divides into the posterior  tibial and fibular, the distri-
butions of which correspond with the arteries of the same
name.   In addition, the popliteal  gives  off the small sap-
hena, which  descends under the skin along  the external
part ofthe leg, passes in front of the external malleolus,
and loses itself on the back ofthe foot.

                      VENA PORTyE.
   This great vein, which forms a particular system of cir-
culation,  has its roots from most of the abdominal viscera,
and is distributed in  the liver.  The common trunk of all
these veins  occupies the  interval between  the liver and
pancreas.  Its size is  considerable, and its  direction, on
leaving the liver, is oblique from above  downwards, and
 from right to left.  The branches it sends to the liver are
 the hepatic portal  veins, the  number and course of which
 correspond  with the  arteries.   The branches or  roots
 which  form it  are,  the superior mesenteric,  gastric,
 splenic,  and inferior  mesenteric,  as also some other small
 branches, which come from the duodenum and pancreas.

                 SUPERIOR MESENTERIC.
    Situation.—This  vein  arises from  the  ventral vena
 portae, of which it appears to be the continuation ; situated
'at first behind the pancreas,  it passes in front ofthe  trans-
 verse portion of the  duodenum, and  soon  meets  with the
                           51 
224            anatomist's manual.

superior mesenteric artery, the drrection and distributions
of which it follows.
    Divisions.—1st,  Right gastro-epiploic,  which  arises
from  its right side, supplies the pancreas  and duodenum,   •
and expends itself on the great curvature of the stomach,
in anastomosing with the  left gastro-epiploic ; 2d, Three
right colic  veins  which go to the  small  intestines, and
comport, in  their distributions, like  the arteries of  the
same name;  3d,  Several branches which  arise from
its left side, and which are destined for the small intestines.

                        GASTRIC
  Situation.—It arises from the ventral vena porta-, near
the  pancreas, marches at first along the superior border
of this gland, and thence reaches the cardiac or esophageal
orifice of the stomach, on which it expends itself.
   Divisions.—1st, Twigs, destined  for the  inferior part
 of the esophagus ;  2d, The  trunk  continues along  the
small curvature of the stomach,  on the two surfaces of
which the  gastric vein  ramifies,  and anastomoses with the
 right and left gastro-epiploics.
   The duodenal vein likewise arises from the ventral vena
 portae, near the gastric,  and  loses itself in  the duodenum
 and right portion of the pancreas.

                     SPLENIC VEIN.
   Situation.—Smaller than  the  mesenteric,  the splenic
 vein, situated behind the  pancreas, marches in a flexuous
 manner from right to left, parallel  to  this- gland, and is
 accompanied  by the  artery of the same name;  it loses
 itself in the spleen. 
                anatomist's  manual.            225

  Divisions.— 1st,  Inferior mesenteric, of which we shall
speak hereafter.   2d, Left gastric or small coronary, des-
tined for the same parts as the great coronary.  3d, Left
gastro-epiploic,  which travels along the great curvature of
the stomach, and anastomoses  with the right  gastro-epi-
ploic.   4th,  Several small branches, which  go  to the
large extremity  of  the stomach, under the name of vasa
brevia.
                 INFERIOR MESENTERIC.
   Situation.—This vein travels  from the commencement
of the splenic, along the left  of the aorta, to the posterior
part of the rectum,  as far down as the anus.
   Divisions.—1st,  From its left side,  it gives off three
colics, distinguished into  superior, middle  and inferior,
which go to the colon, and follow the course of the arte-
ries of the same name.   2d, Several  branches for the  S
of the colon and rectum, which they accompany as far as
its inferior extremity.

SOME OTHER VEINS, THE  DESCRIPTION OF WHICH  IS NOT
    FOUND IN THE HISTORY OF THE  TWO VEN^E CAV.E AND
   VENA  PORTAE.
   Azygos.—It  arises from the superior  part  of the vena
 cava, descends along the vertebral column, by the side ofthe
 aorta, passes through the diaphragm, and, not far from this,
  loses itself, sometimes in the inferior vena cava, sometimes
 in one ofthe renal veins.  In its course,  it supplies the
 bronchiae, mediastinum, and aorta ; m addition, it furnishes
  the semi-azygos,  the  course  of which  is parallel  to  its,
  own ; it usually gives off the intercostals, and loses itself,
  like the first, sometimes in  the vena cava, and sometW*
  n the left renal vein. 
226
anatomist's manual.
  Pulmonary veins.—They are four in  number,  two on
the right and  two on the left;  from the left auricle they
pass to the lungs, where they ramify.  These veins  carry
from the lungs to the heart vermillion blood, which, from
its properties, has all the characters of ar te rial blood.
   Veins of the heart.-r-The principal vein of this organ is
called coronary, it traverses the  heart in nearly its whole
extent, and anastomoses frequently with some other small-
er branches of the same organ.
                  NEUROLOGY.
               Preliminary Exposition.
   Neurology  is that part of anatomy which  treats of the
 nerves.  Among these, some  appertain to the organs of
 motion and sensation ; the others are destined principally
 for the viscera of the neck, chest and abdomen.   Both one
 and the other  differ in their origin and structure ;  the first
 part from the brain and  medulla oblongata, and exhibit
 themselves  under the form of whitish cords, of a firm and
 dense consistence ;  in general they diminish in size in pro-
 portion as  the branches recede from the trunks, and the
 twigs from the branches.   Organs of motion and sensation,
 they proceed  to the extremities where their divisions are
 very numerous; and, in  general, to the whole external
 surface of the body; these are  what  Bichdt has called
 the nerves  of animal life.
   The second, on the contrary, enclosed in the great cavi-
 ties of the  chest and abdomen, and  profound part of the
 neck, have no fixed or determinate  origin ;  they appear
 to originate from renfiemens of middling  size, called gan-
glions, and to which has been given the name of small brains; 
anatomist's manual.             227
they are of a reddish color, and soft consistence.  Destined
for the  viscera of the chest, abdomen and neck, they ap-
pear to have  functions distinct  and independent of the
first;   Bichdt calls  them  the nerves  of  organic  life.
These ingenious distinctions, on which modern physiology
has  drawn  so largely, are  far  from reposing on  solid
foundations.   Rigid anatomy, which scorns  the false eclat
of a vivid imagination, and which rejects the  systems fos-
tered by this  latter, respects neither the hypotheses, nor
the brilliant applications which  have flown from it.  Nature
amuses herself with  physiological  arrangements, and  in
her most evident, as well as in her most obscure operations,
the real object escapes our intelligence.  What appears to
us complicated and incomprehensible, is perfectly  plain to
nature.  It is with the scalpel  in hand  that  anatomy can
demonstrate that the nerves of the  brain and  those of the
 ganglions become confounded with  each other,  cross their
 twigs, give mutual birth to each other, and go indifferently
 to the same parts.  The eighth pair of nerves (pneumo-gas-
 tric) is an example of this for the nerves of the brain ; and
 for the nerves of the ganglions we have an instance in the
 numerous connections ofthe branches ofthe great sympa-
 thetic with that ofthe cervical, dorsal, and sacral nerves.
 Let it not, therefore, be said that anatomy is a dry nomen-
 clature of words and facts ;  a  profound  knowledge of this
 science, is, on the contrary, the most certain guide  which
 the  physiologist', physician and surgeon can  employ  in
 order to avoid errors.

           Particular dissection of Neurology.
   It is very wise to terminate  our  anatomical labors with
 Neurology.   It cannot be denied  that  its  preparation  is
                           51* 
228           anatomist's manual.
very difficult, and requires great care and address.  But
the skill which the student  will have  acquired  at this
period of his anatomical studies will furnish him with the
means  of easily surmounting  the obstacles presented by
neurology.  Thus, the student, who has prosecuted with
success the first divisions of anatomy, should not hesitate to
undertake the dissection of Neurology.   However, it must
be admitted that  he will have to arm  himself with great
courage and patience.  Nothing is more difficult to prepare
than the nerves of the head: the cervical, cardiac, and
pulmonary plexuses do not present less difficulty.  The
nerves ofthe extremities, on  the contrary, are the more
easy to dissect as the parts which they traverse are better
known and more distinct in their distributions.
   Every thing among us contributes to remove, or  at least
 to diminish the obstacles—the  excellence of the instru-
 ments, the  elegance  of  their form,  appropriate   to the
kind of work for which  they are  intended.  Glasses, in
order to  magnify certain nerves or ganglions, which the
eye alone can perceive but imperfectly ; a gouge, mallet,
hammer, hooks,sponges, &c. should  becontinually in action,
in order  to  second the efforts of the student.  An advan-
 tage enjoyed in  the dissection of  Neurology is that the
 cords composing it offer a certain resistance, and we may
 pull upon and raise  them without interfering with the pre-
 cision of their study.    Their color, constantly white,like-
 wise furnishes us with a means of pursuing  them with
 certainty.
   But, we  repeat,  without a precise  knowledge of the
 osteology  of the  head,  we  will  endeavor in  vain to
 obtain an accurate idea of the nerves of this part.  With-
 out this knowledge, we shall consume considerable time in
 exposing objects, which would have been found without 
anatomist's manual.           229
difficulty, if a profound study of the bones of the head had
preceded that of the other parts of anatomy.   It  is  said
that the angeology and neurology of the head are difficult,
without  recollecting  that  these  difficulties  are  most
generally owing to negligence in studying the bones of
the cranium.
  I will now terminate the precepts respecting the dissec-
tion of Neurology with the two following passages from
the essay of M. Dumeril:
   " Thus, for example, in order to render the vessels of
the bones more visible, we may plunge these latter into a
weak  mineral  acid, which, by completely dissolving the
earthy salt, will leave the vessels  in position and sensible,
through the fibrous tissue of the bones, changed in their
nature and  almost gelatinous.  On  drying this  mucous
body,  it will acquire a transparency which will exhibit the
distribution of the vessels by which they are penetrated."
   " We may plunge the piece into a  weak solution ofthe
 carbonate of potash, or into soap water, in order to neutra-
lize the  acid with which the bone is impregnated,  for it
would injure  the  steel  instruments,  and blacken  their
 surface.  We  will then  pursue the nervous ramifications
 with great facility."
    It is  especially for Neurology that it is important to
 select a subject the most fit for the examination of this
 part of anatomy.   In general, children, young people and
 females are more proper for the preparation of Neurology,
 than  men  and old persons of either  sex.  The nerves,
 ceeteribus paribus, are larger  and  more easy to expose in
 the former than in the latter individuals.   But, no matter
 what  may  be  the age or sex of the  subject, it should be
 remembered  that  such  as are infiltrated, maigre, and 
230
anatomist's manual.
have  a white skin, are best suited  for the preparation of
Neurology.   I have likewise remarked that a commence-
ment of putrefaction, far from interfering with the prepara-
tion of the nerves, will, on the contrary, favor it.  The
nerves, like  the tendons, arteries,  &c. resist  the effects of
putrefaction ;  and whilst the cellular tissue, muscles, and
most of the viscera are in part destroyed by  putrid decom-
position, the nerves continue in a state of integrity.  The
anatomist, however, should adopt such precautions as are
required by  prudence and the preservation  of his health.

               NERVES IN PARTICULAR.
  The anatomical order,  followed by almost  all  the pro-
fessors of anatomy, as well as in all the works treating of
this science, require that we should occupy  ourselves first
with the nerves ofthe head and extremities,  and terminate
with those of the thoracic  and abdominal  cavities; we
shall follow  this course, but we have made slight changes,
which the dissection of these  parts renders  indispensable.

            NERVES OF THE BRAIN.
               Anatomical  Preparation.
  The preparation of the nerves ofthe head should be divid-
ed, as it were, into three periods ; in the first period, we
should see the nerves in place, which may be done by
raising  the  cerebral mass from  before backwards, and
cutting them as we proceed, at an equal distance from the
brain  and foramina of the cranium,  through which they
pass.   The portion attached to the  brain will serve as a
guide  to the anatomist when endeavoring to see  their
origin, this will constitute  the  second period ;  it is equally
necessary to preserve  the  second  portion  in order  that 
ANATOMIST S MANUAL.            231
 they may be followed out of the cranium, and not be con-
 founded with each other :  this latter operation, the longest
 and most  difficult, completes the preparation of the cere-
 bral nerves, and constitutes the third  period.  It is highly
 important that the  student should never  commence the
 study of a nerve at a distance from its origin.   This mode
 of examining the nervous system is  extremely objection-
 able, and  will result  in very superficial knowledge.
    First Period.—After  having  sawed the head, as for
 the  study of the  brain,  we should  raise  this  last from
 before backwards, and incline the head in  the same direc-
 tion ; in this  way,  the brain,  although sustained  by its
 numerous vessels, is sufficiently separated  from the bones
 ofthe cranium, and  thus leaves an  interval which permits
 us to get a satisfactory view  of the nerves in the order of
 their origin.  We may,  in order not to  lose any nervous
 twig, detach the  integuments, before sawing the cranium,
 in the  following manner :   Make a  longitudinal incision
 from the root of the nose to the occipital protuberance ; this
 incision should penetrate to the  bones ; we  should  then
 detach, from each side, with the handle of a scalpel, all
 the soft parts, and even the periosteum,  as  far as the half
 of the temporal  fossa.   In this manner, we shall be ena-
 bled to pursue the smallest divisions of the nerves, which
 go to the  integuments  of  the head-  In whatever  way
 we  may  open the  cranium, by  reversing cautiously the
 brain  from  before  backwards, we shall see  successively
 all the nerves ofthe head.   The first which present them-
* selves to  view are the olfactories,  or first pair of nerves ;
 they are pulpy and soft, and are easily broken ; the portion
 that corresponds to the brain  is  applied  to the  inferior
 part of its anterior  lobes; posteriorly  to  this, there is a 
232
anatomist's manual.
broad medullary production, which soon divides into two
large cords, which lose themselves in the optic foramina;
these are the optic nerves : they  may  be cut on a level
with the optic  foramina,  through  which they pass.   As
they are very short, it is essential to leave them as much as
possible on the side of the brain,in order to appreciate better
their or igi n A little posteriorly  and outwardly  are seen
the nerves ofthe third pair, which are small in comparison
with the preceding, although their length is more consider-
able ; they proceed from  behind forwards, and enter "the
orbit through the  sphenoidal  fissure ;  their great extent
will permit us to cut them where  we think proper; there
always remains sufficient  of them  on either side, either to
trace their origin  in the brain or follow their distributions
out of the cranium.   On  the side  of these last  and  out-
wardly, we  perceive  two  long  and   very  small filets,
coming from behind, turning on the arms of the medulla
oblongata,  and proceeding parallel to the superior border
of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, in order to pene-
trate the orbit through the  sphenoidal fissure :  at first lower
than the nerves of the third pair, they become superior to
them when they enter the orbit ; these are the nerves of
the fourth pair ;  near these but more externally, numerous
filets coming from the lateral parts of  the left of the me-
dulla oblongata, unite into one large flat  cord,  which
places itself on  the  middle of the superior border of the
petrous bone, and thence proceeds to the middle fossse of the
cranium, where  it divides into three portions ; it is the fifth
pair of nerves,  or trifacial.  The first branch  bears the
name of ophthalmic,  the second that of superior maxillary,
and the third is called inferior maxillary.  More posterior-
ly, inferiorly, and more  internally, there is  observed, on 
               anatomist's manual.            233

each side of the basilar groove,  a long nejve, the size of
which is between that of the third and fourth pair of
nerves; it  enters  the cavernous  sinus, nearly  an inch
below the posterior  clinoid apophyses, in  order to pene-
trate the orbit through the  sphenoidal fissure, under the
name of the sixth pair or %motor  externus:  on the exter-
 nal of the preceding, there are two cords,  of a different
 »ize and  consistence, which  pass  outwardly, and after  a
 short trajet, penetrate the petrous portion of the temporal
 bone through the acoustic foramen ; these are the seventh
 pair of nerves.  The  tfos  portion  is called the acoustic
 nerve, the  other the portio dura or facial nerve.
   At this period of our examination ofthe nerves, the great-
 est portion of the cerebral mass is out of the cranium, and
 thrown backwards: we should  be particular when taking
 it entirely  from the cranium, and be careful to prevent, if
 possible, any derangement of it; we then proceed, and, not
 far from the seventh pair of nerves, we will perceive seve-
 ral filets unite  in order to form two cords, which proceed
 upwards and outwards in order to  reach the  foramen  la-
 cerum posterius; they leave the cranium through this fora-
 men, under the name of the eighth pair of nerves; it is easy
 to distinguish the two cords, which compose it; the anterior
 smaller, bears the name of glosso-pharingeal; and the pos-
 terior, larger, that of pneumo-gastric.  The filets of which
 they are composed, arises, as is easily seen, from the lateral
 and superior parts of  the tail of the medulla oblongata, a
 little posterior to the seventh pair.  Finally, the ninth pair
 of nerves  arise by ten or twelve filets from the tail (queue)
 of the medulla oblongata, and proceed immediately to the
 anterior condyloid foramina, which they traverse in order to
  teach the tongue: the trajet of these nerves can be seen only 
234           anatomist's  manual.
by separating the brain, and examining the commencement
of the vertebral canal.
   Secondperiod.—Origin ofthe nerves.—This prelimina-
ry examination ofthe nerves being achieved, we should cut
the medulla oblongata below the origin of the ninth pair of
nerves, and remove the brain, in order to place it on the table
with its base upwards, and then proceed to the study of their
origin.  Some will be found, perhaps, to censure the course
I adopt in preparing the nerves of the brain ;  they will ad-
vance, with some appearance of reason, that  it is  difficult
to recognise, after having cut them, the filets  which give
birth to the majority of the nerves ; that these filets are not
very evident on the brain, and that great confusion ensues
when we do not study them immediately after having cut them.
I avow that, instructed by my  own experience, I was de-
sirous of being able to indicate a mode of preparing them
which would have removed this inconvenience.   I have, in
fine, very frequently remarked, and my students who were
present at these experiments have remarked the same thing,
that on cutting a nerve with a metallic instrument, no matter
of what kind, it would retire, with a species of fremissement
towards the cerebral mass, adhering intimately to this last,
and ultimately disappear altogether;  I have likewise  de-
monstrated to these same students, that, when employing
scissors or  a scalpel in order to cut these nerves, their re-
traction was both more lively and complete, and I was of opi-
nion that there was some analogy between these phenomena
which chance caused me to observe  before the discovery
of galwanism,  and which  are produced by the most simple
means, and those which this same  galvanism developes,
aided by its instruments and apparatus.   I now return to
the preparation of the nerves. 
anatomist's manual.            235
  Notwithstanding  the inconveniences connected with the
plan which I advise in the study of these parts, I am of
opinion that it should be adhered to, because there is none
preferable to it.   We should now occupy ourselves with
the origin of the nerves, in the same order in which they
have been exposed.
  First pair,—Olfactories.—It arises posteriorly from the
anterier lobes of the brain by two roots, one of which passes
in the direction of the common trunk,  and the other, longer,
proceeds outwards, and dips down into the fissure, which se-
parates the anterior lobe of the brain from its middle lobe.
We should carefully pursue  this different course of the two
roots, and follow them as far as possible.  This will be the
more easy, as the roots of the olfactory nerve present
greater -density  as they proceed in  the substance  of the
brain.  But, in general, these minute researches ofthe origin
of the nerves, which excite such lively  interest in the rigid
anatomist, merely tend to embarrass  the student, and cause
him to lose much precious time, which  might be advanta-
geously  employed in the examination of other parts.
   Second pair,—Optics.—-The origin of these nerves is
perceived without difficulty ; they arise from the inferior
and posterior part of the  thalami  nervorum opticorum,
and unite at  a short distance  from  them.  It  is likewise
easy to see that the origin of the optic nerves takes place
beyond the thalamus of the same  name.  Of this we may
assure ourselves by cutting it in its length, which will per-
mit us to follow the optic cord to the environs of the tuber-
cula quadri-gemina.
   Third pair,—Motores communes.—We must look for
the origin of these at the posterior part ofthe anterior pro-
longations of the medulla oblongata.   There, they are ob- 
236
anatomist's manual.
served to arise by several filets, which soon unite in one
rounded fasciculus, in order to proceed in the direction above
indicated.  But when we wish to pursue the origin of the
third pair of nerves still farther, we will  experience  great
difficulty, for they are  very easily taken  up with the pia-
mater ;  being very thin at their origin, they abandon  with-
out difficulty the cerebral substance.
   Fourth pair,—Pathetici.—These nerves, although very
delicate, proceed for a long distance before leaving the cra-
nium.   They arise near the union of the tubercula qua-
drigemina ;  when  pursued  to these eminences, they will
be seen to make a  considerable  circuit around the arm of
the medulla oblongata, and annular-protuberance.
   Fifth pair,— Trigemina- Trifacial.—Several filets arise
from  the legs  of the  medulla oblongata, at  their  union
with  the protuberance, and  unite  in  a large  flat  cord,
in order to form the tri-facial, which soon places itself on
the superior border of the petrous bone, in order afterwards
to proceed to the depression found in front of this bone, and
form what is called the pes anserinus.
   In order to have a good view  of the disposition of this
nerve  in front of the temporal,  and to  follow more easily
the branch given off from it, we should remove the dura
mater, which, in this place, adheres very strongly to these
nerves.
   Sixth pair,—Motores externi.—These take origin from
the groove that separates the protuberance from the tail  of
the  medulla oblongata, by a few filets feebly united  to
each other.
   Seventh pair,—Acoustic and facial.—These two nerves
have a different origin.   The  portio mollis (acoustic) arises
 more  posteriorly from  the back  part of the tail of the me-
dulla oblongata, and the portio dura (facial,) higher up, and
 in front, ofthe prolongation ofthe cerebellum. 
anatomist's  manual            237
  Eighth pair,—Pneumo-gastric and glossopharyngeal.—
These two nerves have a common origin, and they are seen
to arise from the superior and lateral parts of the tail of the
medulla oblongata, by  a great number of filets,  isolated
at first; then united, and forming|two cords, one of which,
anterior, is the smaller of the two, and is  called pneumo-
gastric.
   Ninth pair,—Hypo-glossus.—Ten or  twelve filets take
their origin from the  fissure which separates the olivary
and pyramidal eminences,  and separate themselves from
the numerous vessels found in this place, in order to unite
 in one cord under the name of great hypo-glossus.
   Such is the order of the nerves furnished  by the brain,
 the annular protuberance, and commencement ofthe medulla
 oblongata.   We may  next pass to their  definitive prepa-
 tion,and follow them out ofthe cranium in the order nearly of
 their  origin, but with  the modifications  required by  their
  different distributions and their mode of preparation.
    Third period— Special preparation.—First and second
  pairs.—The student is arrested the moment he begins to
  occupy himself  with  the first pair of nerves, as he must
  necessarily sacrifice a part of those which enter the orbit,
  or at least  interfere singularly with their preparation, m
  order to study  the olfactories.   These considerations are
  more directly applicable to the second pair, which penetrate
  the orbit, and which cannot be studied until after those with
  which we shall occupy ourselves immediately.   We may
  then return to the first pair, and give to them all the atten-
  tion they require.
     I shall now,  however, indicate in two words what the
   student will  have to do at a later period for the examina-
   tionofthesenerves,unlessheshouldhave a number of heads, 
238
anatomist's manual.
 which would supercede the necessity of deferring the pre-
 paration ofthe t wofirst pairs.
   The first  is much more difficult than the second; this
 latter not undergoing any division in  its course, and pass-
 ing directly  from its origin to the posterior part of the
 sclerotica, through which it introduces itself in order to form
 the retina, does not require much time for its preparation.
 It will suffice to break the posterior part of the  orbit, in
 order  to expose  the  portion of nerve  that  passes to the
 sclerotica, and examine  the manner in which it penetrates
 this membrane.
   The pulpy consistence of the olfactory nerves being the
 principal cause ofthe difficulty attending their dissection, it
 would, perhaps,  be proper in order to diminish this diffi-
 culty,  to plunge the  superior nasal fossae into an acid, or
 even into asmall portion of alcohol diluted with water.
   We  should then seek for the divisions of the olfactory
 nerves, which are distributed principally on the superior
 and lateral portions of the nasal fossae.   We may even con-
 tent ourselves with scraping, with the back of the scalpel, the
 surfaces on which they are perceived to spread themselves.
   Third, fourth,sixth pairs, and firstbranchof the fifth.—
 These  different  nerves should  be  prepared at the same
time.  They all penetrate the orbit  through the sphenoidal
fissure, in order to go for the most  part to the muscles of
the eye and  upper eye-lid.   The first that presents itself
to our  study is the ophthalmic ; next comes the fourth; the
third follows, and we terminate with the sixth.  In order
to proceed with method, we should act in the following man-
 ner : make with the saw two sections at the orbital arch,
from before backwards, which represents a V, the base of
which is in front, and the summit behind.  One of these sec-
tions must  commence at the root of the nose, the other on 
anatomist's manual.
239
the temporal region ; we should turn forwards, without de-
taching it completely, the portion of the orbital arch com-
prised in the two cuts of the saw; a blow with the mallet
will suffice for this.   In this way, the eye will be exposed,
as also the soft  parts covering it.  We should divide the
portion of dura mater  expanded over these objects ; when
we remove it, we shall see immediately below the principal
divisions  of the first branch of the fifth pair.  But before
proceeding  to the ulterior  study of the nerves that  go to
the orbit, it  is indispensable to determine the respective en-
 trance of each of them into this cavity, in order not to con-
 found them with each other; it is for  this reason that, in
 taking them at their entrance into the orbit, we  find that
 the optic nerve, the largest of all, is situated at first above
 the others, and at their internal part, but soon it is covered
 by them.  Farther backwards is observed the third  pair,
 situated  at first above the  fourth, but which  soon be-
 comes inferior to it.   A little more posteriorly, and  exter-
 nally, is observed the fourth pair, which is  very delicate ;
 it may be  found without  difficulty, by following the du-
 plication furnished by the dura mater, in order to form the
 superior petrous sinus ; lower down than the two preceding
 is remarked the  first  branch of  the fifth pair, which like-
 wise penetrates the orbit; below all these nerves, and in the
 interior of the cavernous sinus, is the sixth pair, which can-
 not  be seen properly until after the examination of all the
  others.  All-these nerves, before entering the orbit, are so
  firm and united among themselves by the dura mater that
  it would be almost  impossible to separate them; it would
  be much better to take them in the orbit, in  the order in
  which they present themselves.  It is, therefore, with the
  first branch of the fifth pair that we should commence ; it
                            52* 
240
ANATOMIST'S  MANUAL.
divides itself into three principal branches.   Two of these
divisions distribute themselves on the levator palpebral su-
perioris, one of which, the larger of the two, goes  to the
supra-orbital foramen, and the other, much smaller, proceeds
to the lachrymal gland.  In order to expose  this branch,
we should commence with it on the side ofthe gland, and follow
it  in a retrograde  manner towards the  common  trunk.
The other loses itself in  the integuments of the forehead,
and it may be followed without difficulty.  A branch, under
the name of frontal nerve, leaves the orbit, towards the in-
ternal orbital angle.
 We should next pass to the last branch ofthe ophthalmic call-
ed nasal; it will be found below the levatores palpebral superio-
ris, of that ofthe globe ofthe eye, and above the rectus internus
and obliquus magnus.  It will suffice to separate these muscles
without cutting them; we readily see the branch in question
proceed obliquely from behind forwards, and from without
inwards, towards the orbital foramina  through which the
divisions penetrate, and ramify on the pituitary membrane.
In gently separating the great oblique and internal straight
muscles, we will observe a  division of the nasal, travelling
along  the internal wall of the orbit, and proceeding out-
wardly in order to anastomose with the frontal.   But it is
important to remember, in  the examination of the  nasal,
that, in passing over the optic nerve, it gives off a retrograde
branch, which reaches the nerve of the third pair and con-
tributes to the formation of  the ophthalmic ganglion. We
 will return  to this farther on.
   The fourth pair, of which \v;e must free ourselves before
 passing to  the  third  pair, must be'taken  at the great
 oblique muscle, in  which this nerve loses itself;  its small
 size, its interlacement with  the other nerves, would render
 its preparation extremely difficult in commencing with it in 
                anatomist's manual.            241

any other manner: as for the rest, the student may pursue
it posteriorly  as far as  his patience and intelligence will
permit him.   In examining this nerve in the great oblique
muscle, we should  pursue its multiplied divisions, by sepa-
rating the fibres of the  muscle.
  In order to have a satisfactory view of the divisions of the
third pair, we should, as far as practicable,  commence by
exposing its ganglion.  I have rarely failed in finding it, by
looking, in the first place, at the posterior part of the globe,
and on its external side, for very  small branches  which it
furnishes under the name of ciliary nerves,  and in following
them posteriorly,until I observed a small reddish body, placed
on the external side of the optic  nerve, and always enve-
loped by a great quantity of fat, from which it must be cau-
tiously freed. If we have been fortunate enough to find this
ganglion,  we will then readily perceive the branch of  the
nasal  nerve,  which  contributes to its formation;  we will
likewise perceive the large  and short filet,  which the third
 pair of nerves sends to  it posteriorly and inferiorly; from its
 anterior part  arise the twigs which proceed along the optic
 nerve, in order to  penetrate the globe, under the name of
 ciliary nerves.
   The other  branches ofthe third pair do not merit so much
 attention ; they go to the muscles, and the dissection of these
■will suffice for them. The muscles in which'the branches of
 the third  pair are lost, are the superior rectus  and levator
 palpebrae superioris, for the superior branch, and the inferior
 rectus, rectus externus, and  obliquus parvus, for  its three
 inferior branches.
    The sixth now remains; we must commence with  this
 nerve in the cavernous  sinus.  We should observe  that
 it is enclosed with the carotid artery, on the external side of
 which it is situated.   It will be recognised by its white co- 
242           anatomist's  manual.
lor;  we should pursue it towards the orbit; it loses itself
in the external straight muscle.  In passing over the carotid
foramen, the  sixth  pair sends • off a twig which descends
through the foramen, and contributes, it is  said, to the for-
mation of the great sympathetic ;  its small size  and great
tenuity almost always interfere with its examination; the
best way to see it, is to raise, with a hook, the trunk ofthe
sixth pair, and to carry carefully  the instrument beneath,
in order to remove the parts which conceal it.   We might
likewise have an opportunity of seeing this filet,  during the
preparation of the superior branch of the superior cervical
ganglion, into which it throws itself.  This requires con-
siderable patience.   I shall refer to it again.
  Second branch of the fifth pair.—We  must  commence
with this nerve at its entrance into the  superior maxillary
foramen, and follow it to the zygomatic fossa, breaking the
portion of bone by which  it is covered ; it is not necessary
to touch either the  superior maxillary  or petrous portion
ofthe temporal bone; but we should remove the abundant
fat, which is  found  in the zygomatic fossa, when we have
exposed it, nearly in  the  spot  at which the infra-orbital
canal commences:  we  must  then  endeavor to find the
branches, which dip down behind  the maxillary bone, and
expose  the spheno-palatine ganglion, which is  found two
or three lines below, concealed under  a  quantity  of fat,
which it will  be necessary  to  remove.   Three principal
branches arise from this ganglion  : one passes through the
posterior palatine  foramen,  and  is distributed  under the
internal  membrane  of the  osseous palate :  the slightest
knowledge of Osteology will suffice to enable us to pursue
it.  In order  to  expose this  twig  properly, it will  be
neceseary to  saw the nasal fossae longitudinally, remove 
anatomist's manual.
243
the pitiutary on a level with the posterior palatine conduit,
and also the osseous plate which separates it.   The pala-
tine apophysis being next broken, the palatine membrane
remains, and we perceive on its superior surface the termi-
nation ofthe palatine twig.  The second branch arises from
the internal part ofthe ganglion,  penetrates the interior of
the nasal fossae through the spheno-palatine foramen, and
anastomoses with the nasal furnished by the first  branch of
the fifth pair,  and also with the olfactory, with  which the
student should not occupy himself, as has already been
remarked,  until  after having  completed  all the nerves
of the head.  But the spheno-palatine ganglion furnishes a
third branch, remarkable on account  of its small size and
the difficulty of following it; it is the pterygoid nerve.  It
arises from the posterior part of the ganglion, and immedi-
ately  dips down, proceeding directly  backwards, into the
pterygoid canal, which it will be  necessary to break  in its
whole extent in order to see it.   When we have succeeded
in exposing the pterygoid canal and  nerve, we will per-
ceive  it proceed  from before backwards as far as the sum-
mit of the  petrous bone, where  it divides into  very fine
branches, one of which, the  inferior, passes out through
the anterior foramen lacerum,  in order to contribute with
the filet of  the sixth pair, to the formation of the superior
cervical  ganglion, and which we may trace without much
difficulty, with the necessary time and patience; the other
branch, enveloped by a fold of the dura mater, continues to
march through a canal on the superior surface of the pe-
trous  bone,  and  loses itself in  the  hiatus Fallopii, which
terminates this canal.
   After having seen the branches which form the spheno-
palatine ganglion, we must return to the trunk ofthe supe. 
244
anatomist's manual.
rior maxillary, which is lodged in the  commencement  of
the infra-orbital canal, in  which it continues to descend
more  and more, and re-appears on the  face  passing out
through the infra-orbital foramen;  We should remove all
the soft parts contained within the orbit, and even break, if
it be deemed expedient, the portion of the maxillary bone,
which  conceals the course of this nerve, and  dissect with
care the caninus and levator labii  superioris, in which it
in great measure loses itself.
   Third branch of the fifth pair.—This nerve requires of
us to sacrifice all the parts of which we have so far spoken ;
we must, by a section of the bones of the cranium, remove
every  thing  that  conceals this  nerve,  as far  as  its exit
through  the  foramen  ovale.  This section  is made by
carrying the saw from the root of  the nose to the point of
the petrous bone, on the one hand ;  and from the temporal
region transversely, to  the same  place, on  the  other.
When we have removed the parts comprised in the two
sections, there results a triangular space, in the  bottom
of  which  is observed  the trunk of  the  third  branch
ofthe  fifth pair.   We should preserve for a moment this
piece in place, in order to see a particular branch  which
distributes  itself towards the mouth,  under  the name of
buccinator nerve.   The  other filets,  which  the third
branch of the fifth pair furnishes, lose themselves in the
temporal and masseter muscles ; we recognise these nerves
by their transverse direction from within outwards, and by
their small size ; it is the same with the pterygoids, which
are still  smaller, and which dip down  profoundly in the
muscles of the same name.
   After we have terminated the study of these nerves,  we
must continue the dissection of the two principal branches,
known, the one, under the name of inferior  maxillary or 
anatomist's  manual.
245
dental, which loses itself in the under jaw ; and the other,
the lingual, is  destined for the tongue :  these two branches
are less difficult to  follow  and  dissect than the others,
because they are larger, and their division is better charac-
terised.  It is necessary to commence by sawing the under
jaw at its middle ;  we must draw the fragments in different
 directions, and the tongue  should be  pulled outwards in
 order to lengthen it and  render the  lingual nerve  more
 apparent.   In this way, we may continue the dissection of
 the two branches of which we have just spoken; it is also at
 this time that we should look for the articular, which presents
 great difficulty; it proceeds  backwards, and reaches the
 articulation of  the under jaw, in turning around the neck
 of the bone.  When following the branch which  loses
 itself in the under jaw, we must attend to some twigs which
 it furnishes in its course, and which lose themselves in the
 muscles of the  anterior and  profound  part  of the neck,
  among which we should distingush the mylo-hyoideus, which
 is constant, and expends itself on  the muscle of the same
  name.
     The trunk of the dental or inferior maxillary, after hav-
  ing traversed  the entire body of the  under jaw, passes out
  through the mental foramen, which is observed at the ante-
  rior portion of this bone ;  we may commence with it there
  in order to follow it in the muscles and integuments of the
  face, where it frequently  anastomoses  with the  portio
   dura of the seventh pair.
     Seventh pair.—The two nerves of which it is composed
   penetrate the petrous portion ofthe temporal bone through
   the acoustic foramen.  The portio  mollis remains in this
    bone, and  distributes itself, under  a pulpy form, on the
    cochlea.   The portio dura traverses the aqueduct of Fallo-
    pius <dves off some  small  branches in the interior of the 
246
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
 petrous portion,  among others the  chorda tympani, and
 passes out through  the  stylo-mastoid  foramen.  I would
 not advise the student to attempt to follow this nerve in the
 petrous portion ofthe temporal bone, for it will be attended
 with great difficulty; he should content himself to commence
 with it at its exit through the stylo-mastoid foramen.
   The  portio dura  of" the  seventh pair,  at  its passage
 from   the  cranium,  is seen at  the external  orifice
 of  the  stylo-mastoid   foramen,  which is the termina-
 tion of the  aqueduct  of Fallopius,  consequently  very
 profoundly  situated, and  requiring great  care for its
preparation.  We should commence by dividing the integu-
 ments from above downwards in the direction of the under
jaw; we should  draw  the flaps outwards, and  leave the
 ear in situ, as well as the parotid gland; we must carefully
 remove the cellular tissue which covers  this gland, without
 touching the numerous branches,  which  arise from the
 seventh pair.  We should remove particularly the cellular
 tissue which is found in the  depression comprised between
 the branch ofthe under jaw and adjoining  part ofthe tem-
 poral bone;  it is in the bottom of this  space that we  find
 the origin of the seventh pair.  When we have arrived at
its principal  trunk, it will be  easy to follow the  numerous
 divisions, which are distributed more especially on the late-
 ral portions of the face, neck, and even of the  cranium;
but it will be necessary, after attaining this  point of its
preparation, to remove a part of the parotid gland, which
conceals the trajet of this nerve, the numerous distributions
 of which are made particularly on the superficial parts of
 the face.
  The  seventh  pair  likewise furnishes   a  remarkable
 branch which proceeds behind the ear, on the mastoid re- 
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.            247
gion,  under  the  name of posterior auricular nerve; this
branch is very delicate and loses itself almost entirely in the
integuments of these parts by very fine filets; it requires
considerable  care.  After having divided  the integuments
of the posterior part of the ear, we seize some twigs of this
branch, which will serve as guides in order to arrive at its
origin, which takes place at the posterior part of the trunk
of the seventh pair.   It should be remembered that this
branch, as well as the others of which I have already spo-
ken, are situated very superficially, and  anastomose fre-
quently with the  anterior  and subcutaneous branches of
the first cervical pair.
   Eighth pair.—This  nerve, one of the/ most extensive
of those furnished by the brain,  does not present much
difficulty in its preparation;  a tolerably exact knowledge
of the organs with which it holds relations,  will facilitate
its study; destined for the tongue, the lateral portions of
the neck, lungs, heart, and stomach, it is easy to follow its
distribution,  although they are somewhat minute.  At its
exit through the posterior foramen lacerum, this nerve is
found  profoundly situated on  the lateral and superior por-
tions  of this part.  In order to  find  it,  we  must cut the
integuments  of the neck from the  region  of the ear  to a
level with the ribs I shall indicate  immediately the man-
ner of tracing it in the chest.  We  must  remove  all the
soft parts which are found interposed as far as the posterior
foramen lacerum.  But in order to have a perfect view of
the eighth pair as it passes out of the cranium, we  must
saw this latter in front and behind, at about  an inch  from
the posterior foramen lacerum, that it may be completely
exposed.   Without this preliminary operation, nothing is
more difficult than to arrive  at the  bottom  of the notch
formed by the maxillary bone, on the one  part, and the
                          53 
248
anatomist's manual.
mastoid region, on the other, in which is found the posteri-
or foramen lacerum.  In proceeding, on  the contrary, as
I have just indicated, we will have the advantage not only
of seeing the eighth pair properly, but we shall likewise
perceive the two other branches, which pass out at the
foramen lacerum with  the eighth, which are the  glosso-
pharyngeal, and accessory of Willis, or spinal; we  shall
also observe the great hypo-glossal nerve, which, at its exit
from the cranium, contracts with the preceding, adhesions
which it is absolutely necessary should be known.
   As it passes from the cranium, the eighth pair is con-
founded with the accessory  of Willis, the  ninth pair and
glosso-pharyngeal,  which has always been regarded as a
branch of the eighth ; it is easy to recognise each of these
nerves  by the different direction  they  assume ; for the
trunk of  the  eighth pair is  placed, from above down-
wards, on the  lateral parts of the neck, and external  side
of the carotid artery: the accessory of Willis, which like-
wise passes through the foramen lacerum with the  eighth,
forms with it a very acute angle, in order to proceed to the
posterior part of the neck, below the sterno-cleido mastoi-
deus, but which may be pursued still farther if it be deemed
expedient: we will then observe its twigs lose themselves
in the muscles of the posterior part of the neck and back,
and anastomose with twigs of the first cervical nerves.
   The ninth pair, or great hypo-glossal, which leaves the
cranium through the anterior condyloid foramen, is observ-
ed at first below and behind the eighth  pair ; but  it soon
becomes superior to it in order to pass to  the tongue.   If
the size ofthe ninth pair is equal to the trunk ofthe eighth,
it is much greater than  that  of the  glosso-pharyngeal,
which is situated considerably higher.   After having de-
termined the situation,  direction, and relations of the eighth 
                anatomist's manual.            249

pair,  accessory of Willis,  glosso-pharyngeal, and  ninth
pair, we may  proceed  with the  definitive  preparation of
each of these nerves, commencing with that which is most
convenient.  I am of opinion that it would be more advanta-
geous to begin the study with the glosso-pharyngeal,  and
then pass to the ninth pair, before terminating the rest of
the eighth, unless we should desire to defer, as was recom-
mended a few moments since, the ulterior  examination of
the accessory.
   Glosso-pharyngeal.—This nerve, a pretended branch of
the eighth, leaves the cranium, as also this latter, through
the posterior  foramen lacerum: it separates from the.  pre-
ceding as soon as  it has  passed out, in order to go  to the
posterior part of the tongue, and  lose itself in this  organ
with the lingual and great hypo-glossal.  In  commencing
with it at its exit from the cranium, we can trace it with facili-
ty as far as the tongue, dissecting carefully the parts through
which it proceeds in order to reach its destination.   This
nerve sends off and receives some twigs from the neighbor-
ing nerves, the description of which will  point out their
distribution.
   Ninth pair.—This leaves the cranium through the ante-
 rior  condyloid foramen.   Immediately after its  exit,  it
turns on the eighth pair, and from having  been posterior,
it becomes anterior and superior ; it is then placed between
the carotid, the eighth pair, and internal jugular; it will
 be recognized by its size, its direction, and termination in
 the tongue; it passes  principally on its  inferior  surface
 and towards its point.  Its preparation is not very embar-
 rassing, especially after the study ofthe glosso-pharyngeal,
 and superior portion of the eighth pair.
   We should not neglect to observe the branches that pass
 off from its inferior part, and which form, in front  of the 
250            anatomist's  manual.
neck, anastomoses with the first and second cervical pairs,
among which there is one more remarkable than the others,
which describes an arch the convexity being below.
  Spinal  or accessory of Willis.—This  does not  arise
from  the  brain ;  it originates, on the contrary, from the
spinal marrow, and its origin cannot be seen until after the
study of nearly all the  nerves;  but in commencing with it
at its exit from the cranium through the posterior foramen
lacerum, we  will soon observe it pass under the sterno-
cleido mastoideus, from which we must detach its superior
part; it then continues to the lateral and posterior portion
of the neck, and  superior of the back, without furnishing
any remarkable branch.   Its dissection is the more easy,
as the branches it furnishes lose themselves in the broad
muscles of the back.
  Progress  of  the eighth pair.—When  the nerves  of
which we have just spoken  have been studied, it will be
necessary to follow the trunk of the eighth pair,  which
travels along the  lateral portions ofthe neck, and furnishes
an infinity of small branches, which must be dissected with
care.  Among these,  there is one  larger  than  all the
others, which proceeds to the larynx, under the name of
laryngeal nerve : it will be recognised by its size, its di-
rection towards the larynx, and especially by its profound
situation ;  it arises  very  high up from the eighth pair, and
is found, immediately after its  origin, behind the internal
carotid artery, and  consequently below all the other  parts
of which we have already spoken, and immediately on the
vertebral column; when it has reached  the larynx, it is
very easy to follow its  distribution.
  In fine, the trunk ofthe eighth pair,  arrived  at the infe-
rior part of the neck and superior of the chest, penetrates
this cavity ; in order to follow it, it is absolutely necessary 
                anatomist's manual.           251

to open the chest, so as to expose, the pericardium and dia-
phragm ; when this is accomplished, we must, before going
farther, proceed to the preparation of the two recurrents,
right and left, which arise  from the  trunk  of the eighth
pair the moment  it enters  the chest; the  right is below
the subclavian artery of the  same side, and  the left below
the arch of the aorta.
   Immediately  after being  separated  from the common
trunk, the two recurrents dip down deeply, as if they were
destined to  penetrate  the chest; but they soon take a re-
trograde course, in turning, one on the subclavian artery,
and the other on the aorta ;  they are then observed, placed
on the lateral portions of the trachea, to continue from be-
low upwards, to the inferior portion  of the larynx; they
lose themselves in  this cavity just like the laryngeal:  it
will suffice to separate the  carotid and draw the  trachea
in different  directions, in order to see their distribution.
It will be necessary to remove a quantity of loose cellular
tissue, which is remarked at this place.
   As soon as the eighth pair has given off  the recurrents,
 it then becomes more difficult to  follow its distribution ;
 this however may  be done  by raising the left lung, and
 carrying it to the right side, so as to expose  the esophagus.
 We then observe, on removing the cellular  tissue by which
 they are covered in  their  trajet,  the  two trunks of the
 eighth pair descend along this canal.   They furnish some
 twigs which go to  the  lungs, and others to the heart,  in
 order  to contribute to the formation of the  cardiac and
 pulmonary plexuses:  it is below these parts that the nerves
 ofthe  eighth pair turn around the esophagus  in  order  to
 lose themselves on  the stomach ; if  we inflate this organ,
 we shall be enabled to follow their distribution without
  difficulty.   We should divide the diaphragm in the point  at
                           53* 
252
anatomist's manual.
which the esophagus enters the abdomen, and, on separat-
ing each of these parts, we shall then see the trunk of the
eighth pair distributed on the stomach, and go ingparticu-
larly to its inferior orifice in order to lose itself in the solar
and other plexuses ofthe abdomen.

                     Description.
        FIRST  PAIR.--OLFACTORIES.—ETHMOIDAL.
   Situation.—In the interior of the cranium ;  under the
anterior lobes ofthe brain.
   Extent.—-From the interval  of the anterior and middle
lobes ofthe brain to the nasal fossse.
   Direction.—Horizontal, from behind forwards.
   Relations.—On the one hand, they are covered by the
anterior lobes; on the other, they repose on the superior
surface  of the sphenoid bone,  and on a  portion of the
 cribriforme plate of the ethmoid.
   Divisions.—Into a considerable and indeterminate num-
 ber of very fine  twigs, which are expended on the pitui-
 tary membrane,  and particularly on  that which lines the
 partition and superior and lateral walls of the nose.

             SECOND PAIR.-—OPTICS--OCULAR.
    Situation..—Under the middle portion of the brain.
    Extent.—From the  thalami nervorum opticorum  to the
 globe ofthe eye.
    Direction.—Oblique, from  behind forwards and from
 without inwards;  finally, from within outwards, and always
 from behind forwards until it reaches the globe.
    Relations.—Covered by the brain,  the optic  nerves
 repose in part on the sella turcica, and in part on the supe-
 rior surface of the small wings of the sphenoid bone ;  the 
anatomist's  manual.
253
opthalmic artery proceeds on  their external and inferior
portion, and penetrates the  orbit  in company with these
nerves.
   Divisions.—Arrived at the globe of the  eye, the optic
nerves,  after  having penetrated  through the sclerotica,
expand themselves under the form of a soft and pulpy
membrane, which is the immediate organ of vision—it is
 the retina.

 THIRD  PAIR.—MOTORES   COMMUNES--OCULO-MUSCULAR.
   Situation.—Under the middle portion of the brain, a
 little externally.
   Extent.—From the  arms of the medulla oblongata to
 most  ofthe muscles ofthe eye.
    Direction.—Slightly oblique  from  behind  forwards,
 from  within outwards, and from above downwards.
    Relations.—Free under the brain,  as far as the posterior
 clinoid apophysis ; they then pass into a species of sheath
  formed  by the  dura mater,  strongly united in this place
  with the fourth pair and first branch of the  fifth, which at
  first  are inferior to them, but which become superior at
  their entrance into the cranium.
     Divisions.—Into two branches, 1st, A superior, which
   reaches the superior straight muscle of the eye, and thence
   gives off a twig, which loses itself in the levator palpebral
   superioris ; 2d, An inferior, more considerable, placed on
   the external side of the optic nerve, and divides into three
   branches:  an   internal,  which  passes  under the  optic
   nerve, and loses itself in  the internal straight muscle ;  a
   middle, which  proceeds  directly to the inferior straight
   muscle ; an external, more considerable, destined for the
   small  oblique  ;  from this branch., there  arises,  within,  a
   large and short twig, which aids in  forming the ophthalmic
   ganglion. 
254
anatomist's manual.
FOURTH PAIR.--PATHETICI--INTERNAL OCULO-MUSCULAR.
   Situation.—Under the brain, a little more external
than the third pair.
   Extent.—From the environs of the tubercula  quadri
gemina to the great oblique muscle, describing a long cir-
cuit  abound the annular protuberance  and arms  of the
medulla oblongata.
   Direction.—Similar to that of the third pair.
   Relations.—Covered  by the brain in  the greatest part
of their extent, they pass into  the  sheath common to the
third pair and first branch  of the fifth ; they then lose
themselves entirely in the great oblique muscle, passing
above  the levators  of the globe of the  eye and superior
eye-lid.
        FIFTH PAIR.--TRIGEMINA.--TRIFACIAL.
   Situation.—Under the lateral and middle parts of the
brain.
   Extent.—From the legs ofthe medulla oblongata, near
the protuberance, to all  the parts ofthe face.
   Direction.—Oblique  from within outwards, and  from
above downwards, passing on the middle part ofthe supe-
rior border of the petrous bone.
   Relations.—Covered  by the cerebral mass  and tento-
rium cerebelli; in a small portion of their extent, they are
seen to ascend on the superior border of the petrous bone,
and then precipitate themselves immediately to  the bottom
of the internal temporal fossae.
   Divisions.—Into three remarkable branches.
   First branch.   Ophthalmic.—It is the smallest of the
three; it proceeds from behind forwards, and from below
upwards, passes into  the sheath common to the third and
fourth  pair, proceeds below these  nerves, and gains the
orbital  arch : there it  divides into three  twigs,  two  of 
anatomist's  manual.            255
which are superior and one inferior; of the two superior,
the internal, called  supra-orbital or frontal, is larger than
the external, and passes out of the orbit through the infra-
orbital foramen;  the external, lachrymal, is very delicate
and loses itself in the lachrymal gland.  In its course, it fur-
nishes some small twigs to the neighboring parts, and among
them there is one more  considerable than the  rest, which
pierces the malar bone, in order to proceed to the tempo-
ral fossa, where it is expended.   The inferior or nasal
twig travels obliquely towards  the internal paroi  of the
orbit, passing above the  optic nerve,  and  penetrates  the
nasal fossse  through the  internal  orbital foramina, after
having furnished a branch which proceeds parallel to the
internal paroi of the orbit, and leaves  this cavity near the
internal orbital angle.  On a  level with the optic nerve,
the nasal sends off posteriorly and outwardly a delicate
filet, which  contributes to the formation  of the  ophthal-
mic ganglion ; this  ganglion, of a reddish  color, and tri-
angular figure, is situated on the external side  of the optic
nerve and gives off from  its  anterior  angle two fasciculi
of nerves, called ciliary, which travel  parallel  to the optic
nerve, pierce the sclerotica, pass towards the ciliary liga-
ment, and  distribute  themselves in the form  of rays on
the iris.
   Second branch.   Superior maxillary.—This is situated
and arises between the ophthalmic and inferior  maxillary ;
it  passes  immediately through  the foramen  bearing its
name ; it thence goes to the superior part of the zygomatic
fossae,  as  far as the commencement  of the infra-orbital
canal, which it traverses in its whole extent, in connection
with the orbital filet, which  travels along the  external
paroi of the orbit,  and anastomoses with the lachrymal
nerve, after having given off the  posterior dental branches ;
it  leaves this canal through the  infra-orbital foramen, and 
256             anatomist's manual.
loses  itself,  by multiplied divisions m form of plexuses, in
nearly all the  muscles of  the  face, after  furnishing  the
anterior dental nerves.
   Before entering  the infra-orbital canal, the superior
maxillary gives off two twigs from its inferior part, which,
after having traversed an extent of two or three lines, form
the spheno-palatine ganglion ; its reddish color will enable
us to  distinguish it in the midst of the abundant fat, which
surrounds it on all sides.  This ganglion, equalling a large
lentil  in size, is situated  so that its internal surface corres-
ponds  to  the spheno-palatine foramen ; the external sur-
face is covered with a  quantity of fatty matter.   Three
branches arise from this ganglion :  an  inferior, called the
posterior palatine, which descends in the canal ofthe same
name, and  exhibits  itself under the palatine  arch;  it is
situated, in  its distribution, between the palatine membrane
and  superior  maxillary bone;  a second branch  is called
the spheno-palatine, which penetrates through the foramen
ofthe same name, to the nasal fossae and there  ramifies,
principally  on their lateral  walls ;  a third branch has
received the name of vidian or pterygoid; it traverses the
foramen of the same name, passes on the anterior foramen
lacerum, sends off in this place a filet, which passes out  of
the cranium through this  foramen, and  proceeds to the
superior cervical gaglion;  the  vidian  then reaches the
summit ofthe petrous bone, passes into a canal hollowed on
one of its surfaces, and penetrates this  bone by the hiatus
Fallopii.
   Third  branch.   Inferior maxillary.—This branch  is
the largest  and most posterior of the three ; it passes im-
mediately through  the inferior maxillary  foramen, and
places itself in the bottom of the zygomatic fossa ;  in this
place, it gives off six or seven twigs, under the names of 
anatomist's manual.
257
profound temporal, buccal, masseter, auricular and ptery-
goid ; the inferior maxillary next divides into two principal
branches ; one of them is called the lingual nerve, and tha
other inferior maxillary or dental.  The former receives, in
the first place, the chorda tympani, which passes out through
the fissure of Glaser; it then proceeds, from behind forwards,
and from above downwards, between the branch ofthe jaw
and the great  pterygoid  muscle, and  reaches the lateral
portions of the tongue, in which it entirely expends itself.
The second appears to be the  continuation of the principal
 trunk,  and travels  on the side of the  lingual;  a little
 outwardly, it is situated between the branch of-the under
 jaw  and  great pterygoideus, and presents itself  at  the
 posterior orifice of the dental  canal.  In this place, it gives
 off a twig, which proceeds in a fissure on  the body of the
 jaw ; it then penetrates the dental canal, traverses it in its
 whole extent, and supplies the teeth of the under jaw ;  it
 passes  out through  the mental foramen, in order to  lose
 itself in the muscles ofthe" under jaw.

         SIXTH  PAIR.   EXTERNAL  OCULO-MUSCULAR.
     Situation.-Undert he inferior and posterior parts ofthe
  cerebral mass.                                       .
     Extent.-From the medulla oblongata to the external
  straight muscle.                                   .
     Direction.-Oh\ique from  behind forwards, and  from
  below upwards, passing by the cavernous sinus.
     LaLs.-Posteriorly,  they  are placed  between the
     Ketations.            j                      arriving
   annular protuberance  and  basilar groov ,
   h the environs  of the  posterior clinoid apophysis  they
   ^toth^vemou. sinus, place themselves on the external
   TXZtid artery, and penetrate the orbit, in order
      los  themselves  in the external straight muscle. 
 258            anatomist's manual.

   SEVENTH PAIR, DIVIDED INTO ACOUSTIC AND FACIAL.
                       ACOUSTIC.
   This nerve penetrates  the labyrinth, with the facial,
 through the internal  auditory foramen ; thence,  under a
 pulpy form, it expends itself on the walls of the vestibulum,
 cochlea, and semicircular canals.

                        FACIAL.
   Situation.—Under the middle portions of the  cerebral
 mass.
   Extent.—From the lateral parts of the protuberance,
 to those of the head, face and neck, traversing the internal
 ear.
   Relations.—Until its entrance into the internal ear, the
 facial nerve is placed  above the acoustic ; it then abandons
 it, and traverses the aqueduct of Fallopius, passes out of
 this canal through the stylo-mastoid foramen, and  is distri-
 buted on  the lateral  portions of  the  face, after having
 traversed the parotid gland.
   Divisions.—1st, Into some inconsiderable twigs, which,
in the interior of the  petrous bone,  proceed   to the mal-
leus, stapes, and  membrane of the tympanum, under the
name of chorda tympani;  2d, Immediately after  its exit
from  the  cranium, it gives off the posterior auricular
nerve, and some other  small twigs, which  are lost in
the mylo-hyoid  and digastric muscles;  3d,  Beyond the
parotid gland, the facial divides into two branches, one of
which is superior, and forms on  the temple a species of
patte d'oie (pes anserinus), whence are given off the tem-
poral, malar, and buccal twigs;  the other is inferior, and
descends along the rami of the jaw; it  divides into four
principal twigs,  which have  not  received any particular
names. 
anatomist's manual.
259
EIGHTH PAIR.  PNEUMO-GASTRIC AND GLOSSO-PHARYNGEA*.
   Pneumo gastric.—Situation.—In the neck, on the
lateral  portions of the vertebral column; in the chest, in
the posterior mediastinum.
   Extent.—From the medulla oblongata to  the stomach
and most of the abdominal viscera.
   Direction.—Longitudinal, but  somewhat oblique from
above downwards, and from without inwards.
   Relations.—In the cranium, the  eighth pair and glosso-
pharyngeal have very intimate  connections ;  when they
pass through the posterior foramen lacerum, these  nerves
are  in  addition united to  the spinal nerve.   Out  of the
cranium,  the eighth pair detaches itself from the two pre-
ceding, passes behind the ninth  pair, and desends along
the neck, in front ofthe anterior straight muscle ofthe neck,
behind and on the external side of  the carotid artery.  In
penetrating the chest, the  eighth pair passes, on the right,
in front of the right subclavian artery, and, on the left, in
front of the aorta  and behind the subclavian vein of the
same side.  In the  rest of their extent,  the two trunks of
the eighth pair approach the esophagus, in turning on this
canal in such a manner that the left becomes anterior, and
 the right posterior.
   Divisions.—1st,  Into  the laryngeal  nerve, which pro-
 ceeds from above  downwards, and from behind forwards,
 passing  behind  the internal carotid artery,  in  order to
 reach the larynx, and divide into two twigs, one of which
 penetrates this air  tube, and the other loses itself on the
 soft parts covering  it; 2d,  Into several filets destined for
 the formation of the cardiac plexuses,  and some others
 which pass to the great sympathetic; 3d, before entering
 the chest, a large cord arises from the eighth pair, called
                          54 
260
anatomist's manual.
recurrent, which ascends on the lateral  portions of.the
trachea,  reaches the  larynx, and  distributes itself there
after the manner of the layrngeal nerve ;  4th, In the rest
of its extent on the esophagus, the eighth pair  furnishes
several filets to this organ, and it likewise gives off others,
which  contribute to the formation of the cardiac and pul-
monary  plexuses; finally, the trunks  of the eighth  pair
are distributed on the  stomach, form the anterior  and
posterior gastric nerves, and ultimately  lose themselves
in the abdominal plexuses.

                 GLOSSO-PHARYNGEAL.
  Situation.—Similar to that  of the  eighth pair in the
cranuium;  but out of this cavity, this nerve is situated on
the  superior and profound portions ofthe neck.
  Extent.—From the medulla oblongata to the tongue.
  Direction.—Oblique from  above downwards, and from
behind forwards.
  Relations.—In the cranium, it is united to the nerve of
the eighth pair;  but out of this cavity,  it is separated  from
it, at first by the internal jugular vein; afterwards  it pro-
ceeds on the internal  carotid artery, passes between the
stylo-pharyngeus and stylo-glossus,  and advances forwards
and inwards, in order to lose itself  in the posterior part of
tongue.
  Divisions,—The filets which  it furnishes or receives
come from the seventh and  eighth pairs.  Among  these
filets, one more remarkable  than the rest, descends along
the internal  carotid   artery, in order  to  aid in  form-
ing the  cardiac  plexuses; some others unite with  those
furnished by the superior  cervical  ganglion,  for the pur-
pose of forming  a species of plexus  for the branches of the
 external carotid artery. 
anatomist's  manual.            261
        NINTH PAIR.—GREAT HYPO-GLOSSALS.
  Situation.—At the posterior part of the cerebral mass,
and on the lateral, superior, and anterior portions of the
medulla oblongata.
  Extent.—From the medulla oblongata to the tongue.
  Direction.—Similar to that ofthe preceding.
  Relations.—At its exit from the cranium, the hypo-glossal
is situated at the posterior  part of the eighth pair, and af-
terwards corresponds with the anterior part of the superior
cervical ganglion ; it then becomes situated, in proceeding
towards the tongue, in front of the  internal carotid, behind
the  jugular vein, and getting more and more superficial,
places itself  behind the sterno-mastoid muscle; it  loses
itself on the lateral and inferior part ofthe tongue, about
an inch from  its point.
   Divisions.—They are limited to a few filets, which con-
tribute with similar filets of the first cervical pairs, to the
 formation of a  very  remarkable nervous  portion.   From
 the  convexity of this species of arcade are given off  twigs
for the neighboring parts.  In  the rest of its extent, the
 ninth pair furnishes numerous twigs to all  the muscles on
the  anterior and profound part ofthe neck.

          INTERCOSTAL.--GREAT SYMPATHETIC.
                     ( Tri splanchnic.)
   Its study cannot be divided into several sections; it must,
  on  the  contrary, be pursued in a general and continued
  manner.   This is the nerve, which, according  to Bichat,
  furnishes  all those of organic life, and which he considers
  as not having any relation with the nerves of the  brain;
  but, independently of what we have already said, the ex-
  periments  of M. Gallois demonstrate that  the great sympa-
  thetic derives its nervous principle from the spinal marrow, 
262
anatomist's manual.
and seem to destroy the hypotheses of Bichat respecting the
difference ofthe nerves of organic and of animal life.

               Anatomical Preparation.
 This nerve is more embarrassing on account of its extent and
numerous distributions, than on account ofthe difficulty at-
tending its preparation.  In  fine, the dissection ofthe eighth
and ninth pairs have already familiarized the student with
this nerve, which proceeds nearly to the same parts, and in
the same directions as the former.
   The trisplanchnic arises from  the lateral and superior
part ofthe heck, by a swollen, reddish portion, called the su-
perior cervical ganglion.   This ganglion is seen on a level
with the first cervical vertebra, on which it is  immediately
applied, a little to  the external side of the carotid artery,
united very frequently to the eighth and ninth  pairs by eel-
lular tissue, which should be entirely destroyed in order to
have a better view of it.   When  we have succeeded in ex-
posing it, it will be easy to pursue it, for its situalion does
not change, and it  adheres, as it were, to the parts on which
it is found.   We must absolutely aid ourselves with a de-
scription, for a great quantity of filets given off and re-
ceived, which go alternately to the eighth and ninth pairs,
and likewise to the cervical nerves, which should be care-
fully preserved, in order to understand something about the
distribution ofthe  trisplanchnic.
   As  in the preparation of the great sympathetic nerve
there  is nothing which will require to  be  preserved, we
should do every  thing in order to see the superior  filets?
which, from  the cervical ganglion, pass to the vidian nerve
and sixth pair.  It will be  necessary, for this purpose, to
break the portions of the bones of the cranium, which are
in the neighborhood of the anterior foramen lacerum, and 
anatomist's MANUAL.
263
expose the foramen itself, with the precautions required in
so minute an operation.   It is scarcely necessary to recom-
mend to the student to be careful with the trunks of the vi-
dian and sixth pair, which, once destroyed, will not permit
us to see the filets in question.
  The student should not be discouraged, when, after having
reached the preparation of that portion of the trisplanchnic,
situated in  the abdomen, this nerve  seems to disappear;  it
will always be found somewhat lower down, but it requires
patience and time.
   Having arrived below the first rib, it dips  down deeply
into the chest, and applies  itself on the tuberosity of the
ribs.  It will be necessary to raise the lungs, the liver even,
and also the intestines; they should be  carried to the  side
opposite to that on which we study this nerve; the cavity
ofthe chest and abdomen must consequently be  exposed,
and we must remove the fold  of the pleura by which this
nerve is immediately covered. Towards the fourth, fifth,  or
sixth vertebra we should notice a sort of division of this
nerve into two remarkable branches,  one of which, the
larger, passes on the bodies of the vertebrae as far as the
 last dorsal, where it terminates by forming the  semi-lunar
ganglion; the other, smaller, terminates in the kidneys, un-
 der the name of small splanchnic.  After having examined
 this distribution we must return to the semi-lunar ganglion,
 and free it from the cellular tissue which unites it to the
 neighboring  parts;  we must  follow cautiously the twigs
 furnished  by  this ganglion;  it will  not be  difficult to
 trace them if we have a tolerable acquaintance with ange-
 ology  for these numerous twigs form,  around the arteries
 of the'priiicipal organs of the abdomen, species of interlace-
 ments known under  the name of plexuses: it will suffice
                             54* 
264            anatomist's  manual.
therefore,  to  take  the  arteries at their origin, and follow
them to the organ on  which they are distributed, being
careful to preserve the white filets which accompany them,
and  which are furnished by these plexuses.   The origin
ofthe cadiac trunk demands especial attention, for the filets
are very numerous there, and the network which they form,
known as the solar plexus, appears to give birth to all the
Others, which it will then \9e necessary to follow.
  After we have seen the distribution ofthe two splanchnics,
we remove every thing that is found in the chest and abdo-
men, in order to proceed at our ease with what remains ofthe
intercostal; it will be found sometimes higher up, sometimes
lower down; it then approximates more and more to the ver-
tebral column, applied immediately on the bones that form
it; it may be pursued  in this way into the pelvis, in attend.
ing to the same precautions to which we have already al-
luded : in fine, it disappears in this osseous cavity, without
our being able to assign to it any precise termination ; but
in the preparation of  the trisplanchnic we should not limit
ourselves to those operations which would be necessary for
us to  study it in an  isolated manner, and as if this nerve
had  no relation with  adjoining ones.   There are, on the
contrary, continual  and very  numerous connections from
its origin to its  termination.   We should, therefore, not
abandon the great sympathetic without having seen, along
the vertebral column, the  filets furnished to this nerve by
the cervical, dorsal, lumbar, and sacral  pairs,  and which,
by their union with the sympathetic, give rise to renfiemens
known as the dorsal, lumbar, and sacral ganglions. 
anatomist's manual.            265
NERVES OF THE  SPINAL MARROW,--CERVICAL,--DORSAL,
                 LUMBAR  AND  SACRAL.
               Anatomical Preparation.
  These are the most difficult nerves to prepare, especially
the first pair, which requires considerable patience, and a
certain portion of skill in  dissection; but there is nothing
which cannot be accomplished by continued assiduity.  The
student, in commencing the study of these nerves, should be
apprised that they divide, at their exit  through the spinal
foramina, into two branches,  one anterior, and the other
posterior ; that the posterior is much less considerable, and
presents less interest than  the  anterior;  that all the pos-
terior branches  are lost in the muscles of the posterior
part  of the trunk, and that they do not present the same
difficulties in their preparation as the anterior.
   The first cervical pair requires  us to remove  or sepa-
 rate  the sterno-mastoid muscle at its superior part, and ex-
pose  the space comprised between the transverse apophysis
 ofthe first cervical vertebra, and the mastoid apophysis  of
 the temporal bone: this preparation  likewise requires that
 we remove a part or totality ofthe anterior straight muscle of
 the neck, ofthe lateral and superior oblique ofthe head; it is
 in the most profound part of this space that we find the
 first  cervical pair.   Its distribution can now be followed
 without much trouble, especially if we do not hurry; the
 other cervical pairs are infinitely less  difficult, on account
 of their size,  which is more considerable, and of their situ-
 ation which is less  concealed;  we shall arrive at them the
 more easily if we have been exact in removing the sterno-
 mastoid muscle, as well as the  scaleni  which partly cover
 them.
    In following the external border ofthe sterno-mastoideus,
 and seeking the interval between each  vertebra, we will 
266
ANATOMISTS MANUAL.
find without much .difficulty the trunk of the other cervical
pairs;  and leaving for a moment  the anterior branches,
we should pursue the  posterior, which, as has already been
remarked, lose themselves entirely in the muscles of the
posterior part of the neck and back; a description of them
will convey a still better idea of their distribution.   As to
the dorsal, lumbar, and sacral pairs, their preparation rests
on the same principles,  and requires the same precautions.
It is only the brachial, lumbar and  sacral  plexuses that
require much detail.  We shall speak of them farther on.

                      Description.
         GREAT INTERCOSTAL  OR  SYMPATHETIC.
                   ( Trisplanchnic.)
  Situation.—On the anterior  and  lateral portions of the
whole  vertebral column and sacrum.
  Extent.—From the environs of the external orifice of
the carotid canal to the inferior part of the sacrum.
  Direction.—Parallel to the vertebral column.
  Relations.—In  the neck,  this nerve is placed immedi-
ately on the anterior straight muscles of the  neck, behind
the carotid artery, and  on the internal side of the eighth
and ninth pair; in the  chest, it is placed in front of the pos-
terior extremity of the ribs, behind the pleura,and is covered
by the mass of the lungs; in the abdomen, it approximates
the vertebral column, on the lateral portions of which it is si-
tuated,concealed by the intestinal paquet; in'addition,the tris-
planchnic, on the right side, is covered by the inferior yena
cava, and,  on the left, by the aorta;  in the pelvis/this nerve
reposes on the sacrum,  on the one part, and corresponds to
the rectum, on the other.
  Divisions.^—Into cervical,  thoracic and abdominal por-
tions. 
               anatomist's  manual.            267

  1st, Cervical portion.—It commences above by the su-
perior cervical ganglion, the extent of which equals about
three fingers' breadth.  Its superior part receives or gives off
filets,which go to the sixth and fifth cerebral pairs; its infe-
rior  part is continuous  with  the common  trunk, which,
arrived  on a  level with  the  fifth cervical  vertebra,
forms the middle cervical ganglion, which is much smaller
than the preceding one, and is sometimes  wanting;  at  a
short distance from it and near its entrance into the chest,
the trisplanchnic gives birth to a third ganglion, called in-
ferior- cervical; in all this trajet, this nerve furnishes nu-
merous twigs from its anterior, posterior, internal, and exter-
nal parts, some of which anastomose with similar ones given
off by the eighth, ninth, and glosso-pharyngeal;  the others
aid in forming the cardiac, pulmonary, and cervical plexu-
ses; and there are others again, which proceed backwards
and anastomose frequently with  the  anterior  branches of
 the cervical pairs.
   2d,  Thoracic  portion.—It commences below the infe-
 rior cervical ganglion, and terminates when the trisplanch-
 nic passes through the diaphragm; in this course, this nerve
 receives from each dorsal pair atwig, which increases its size,
 and appears to determine, in this place, the formation of a
 small  ganglion.   At the root of the  lungs, there are  some
 filets which pass on the divisions ofthe pulmonary artery,
 and form the pulmonary plexus; lower down, and on a level
 with the fifth dorsal vertebra,the trisplanchnic affords origin
 to a long cord (the great splanchnic) which proceeds from
 above downwards and from  without inwards, in order  to
 pass between the pillars of the diaphragm, and lose  itself
 immediately below,in a reddish body, of a crescent shape,
 called semi-lunar ganglion.  Somewhat lower down  there
 arises a nerve nearly similar  to the preceding (the  small
 splanchnic) which goes from the chest to the  abdomen, 
268
anatomist's MANUAL.
passing on the external side of the pillars of the diaphragm
and loses itself in the renal plexus.
  3d,  Abdominal portion.—After  giving  off these  two
nerves, the  trisplanchnic seems to disappear, and again
shows itself on the vertebral column, appproximating more
and more to that ofthe opposite side, in order to pass together
into the pelvis, and terminate at the inferior  part of the sa-
crum; in the whole of this course, the anterior branches of
the lumbar and sacral nerves each send a twig to the tris-
planchnic for  the formation  of a ganglion, much  larger
than in the chest.
   The largest of all is that in the abdominal cavity, below
the diaphragm, called the semi-lunar; its figure is that of a
crescent, the convexity of which is below and the concavity
above.  From this ganglion  go off  a quantity of very de-
licate  filets which  pass  to the aorta,  cceliac  trunk, and
superior mesenteric, forming a large plexus, called solar.
The divisions  of this plexus  proceed to all  the  viscera of
the bas-ventre, following the  divisions of their principal ar-
teries, and forming numerous additional plexuses, whence
are given off new  divisions, which penetrate the  organs
supplied by these arteries.

                   VERTEBRAL nerves.
   The spinal marrow furnishes, from its lateral portions in
the whole extent of the vertebral canal, on a level with the
spinal foramina, two nervous trunks, which soon divide into
two  branches, the  one anterior, and the  other  posterior;
their absolute number is thirty-one pairs,—eight cervical,
twelve dorsal, five lumbar, and six sacral.
   First cervical pair.—It arises Detween  the occiput and
first  cervical vertebra.  After leaving the vertebral canal,
 it divides  into  two branches, one of which  is anterior 
anatomist's  manual.            269
and the other posterior.  The posterior  proceeds  back-
wards  and divides into three twigs, which lose  them-
selves in the neighboring parts:  the anterior passes behind
the vertebral artery, then turns on the transverse apophysis
 ofthe  first cervical vertebra, in order to form with the an-
terior branch of the second, a  nervous  pulp, which em-
 braces the base of this apophysis, and from which pass off
 filets to the great sympathetic, the eighth and ninth pairs.
   Second cervical pair.—It  passes  out  between the first
 and second cervical vertebrae, and divides, like the pre-
 ceding, into two branches, one of which is posterior, and
 proceeds to the muscles of the posterior part of the neck;
 the other is anterior, and is divided into three twigs, which
 lose themselves  in  the  eighth, ninth, and  trisplanchnic
 nerves.  One of its twigs  ascends towards the transverse
 apophysis ofthe first cervical vertebra, in order to form the
 pulp,  of which we have spoken.
 \   Third cervical branch.—-It does not differ from the two
 preceding pair,  as regards its  origin and principal distri-
  butions.
    Fourth cervical pair.—-Besides its conformity in origin
  and distribution with the three  preceding,  the fourth gives
  rise to a nerve, which proceeds downwards and reaches the
  diaphragm  under  the name  of diaphragmatic or phrenic
  nerve.
     This nerve derives its principal  origin  from the fourth
  cervical pair, descends along the neck, passes between the
  subclavian artery and  vein, penetrates the chest, places
  itself in the interval ofthe mediastinum, and travels on the
   diaphragm in the substance of which it is lost.
     The first cervical  pairs, with the exception of the first,
   unite in order to form  the cervical plexus, the numerous
   divisions of which proceed towards the integuments  ofthe
   lateral portions ofthe neck. 
270
anatomist's manual.
   Fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth cervical pairs,  and first
 dorsal.—These five pairs of nerves present traits of resem-
 blance which are not found in the others; all have a pos-
 terior branch, like the preceding, the distributions of which
 are remarked in the muscles of the posterior and superior
 part of the back; but their anterior branches have for  their
 chief object the formation of the brachial plexus, whence
 arise the nerves of the superior extremities.
   The following eleven dorsal pairs present a similar origin
 and distribution.  Their posterior branch loses itself in the
 muscles of the  posterior part of the trunk: the anterior
 branch, after having  given  communicating twigs to the
 trisplanchnic, furnishes a large branch which  places  itself
 in the interval of the ribs, the whole length of which it tra-
 verses, marching  parallel  to  their inferior border;  ano-
 ther branch, less voluminous, and which may be called ex-
 ternal, pierces the intercostal muscles, in order to distribute
 itself on the anterior part of the chest.
   Lumbar pairs.—Five in number : the first  passes out
 between  the first  and  second lumbar vertebras,  and the
 fifth between the last vertebra and sacrum.  These nerves
 arise  from the spinal marrow, on a level with the last dor-
 sal and first  lumbar  vertebras, by two fasciculi of filets,
 which are  very broad, and pass obliquely downwards  in
 order to pass out of the vertebral canal,  in such a way as
 to be very remote from the place of their origin.   The four
 last form a part of the  fasciculus, called the cauda equina.
 All these pairs send off behind a branch, which loses itself
in the muscles of the  posterior and inferior  part of the
 trunk ; their anterior branches, with the exception of the
 last, contribute to the formation of the crural plexus : inde-
 pendently of  this remarkable  distribution,  the anterior
 branches ofthe lumbar nerves send off many other twigs, 
anatomist's manual.          271
some of which communicate with the great sympathetic,
and the others  lose themselves  in the psoas muscle  and
neighboring parts.
   Sacral pairs.—They are six in number : the first passes
out between the first and second pieces ofthe sacrum, and
the last through the notches  observed on  the  lateral and
superior portions of the coxcyx.  The size of these nerves,
which is considerable in the  first pair, continues to dimin-
ish to the last.   They arise  by two fasciculi of filets, de-
scend perpendicularly down the vertebral canal, and form,
with the last lumbar pairs, what is termed the cauda equi-
 na.   Of the two branches furnished by  each sacral  pair,
 the anterior is considerable,  and the posterior  very small.
 The  first, in all  the  sacral pairs, sends a communicating
 filet  to the trisplanchnic, and  contributes, in the  first, se-
 cond, third and fourth,  with the two last lumbars, to  the
 formation of the sciatic plexus.  In addition, the anterior
 branch ofthe third and fourth  sacral, furnishes some twigs
 to form the hypogastric plexus, a  nervous  interlacement
 difficult to describe,  the  ramifications of which proceed to
 the inferior part of the rectum, to the bladder, uterus and
 vagina.
    The posterior branches of the  sacral nerves lose  them-
 selves in the soft parts on the posterior portion of the pelvis.

    BRACHIAL  PLEXUS, AND NERVES OF THE  SUPERIOR
                       EXTREMITIES.
                 Anatomical Preparation.
    The operations performed in the study ofthe eighth pair
  (pneumo-gastric,) trisplanchnic, cervical and  dorsal pairs,
  have exposed in part the brachial plexus: we have only to
  continue the  preparation of  this plexus; in  the contrary
  case, we should remove  the  clavicles, and even the  first
                            55 
272           anatomist's  manual.
rib, free the space, comprised between these objects and the
axilla, of all the superficial soft parts  which conceal it from
our researches ; we should preserve the axillary  artery
and vein, the  march of which, at this place, is through the
inextricable network formed by the brachial plexus :  in this
way,  we  shall be  enabled  to see without  difficulty  the
branches which form it, as also those which pass off under
the arm pit, in order to  go to the different parts of the su-
perior extremity.   For this, it will  be  necessary  for us
to lay open the integuments as far as the fold of the  arm,
and to separate their flaps in proportion as we pursue the
nerves to the inferior parts.  We  should be careful not to
embrace the remarkable branches,  which lose themselves
in the proper tissue ef  the integuments inwardly and out-
wardly.   The muscles of the arm must be dissected in order
to follow more advantageously the nerves  which traverse
them or travel in a direction  parallel to their length.
When this is  accomplished, we  should endeavor, before
passing to the particular dissection  of the nerves  of the
arm,  to recognise them at their origin, and to assign  to each
the rank  and place it occupies, so  that  they may not be
confounded by mistaking one for the other.
   The brachial plexus at first sends off towards the anterior
part  of the  chest  several  inconsiderable filets, under the
name of thoracic nerves : posteriorly, it gives off another,
somewhat larger, which goes to  the scapula, and is called
supra-scapular ; it then furnishes six remarkable branches,
through which passes the axillary artery.
   Four of these nerves are placed in front  of  the  artery
and two behind it.   The four first are, commencing  from
within outwards, the internal cutaneous, cubital, median
and external cutaneous; the two  last  are the  radial  and
axillary or articular.   But in the study of these nerves, it is 
Anatomist's manual.
273
much better to commence  with  the two  cutaneous, then
pass to the median, and  terminate with the cubital.   It is
not until after this examination, thatwe should occupy our-
selves with the radial, and afterwards with the axillary.
   The  two cutaneous nerves lose themselves almost en-
tirely on  the internal part of the integuments of the arm
and forearm ; we must  necessarily dissect these latter in
their whole extent, in order to pursue the numerous  filets
ofthe two cutaneous branches; the median will be recog-
nised by its size,  the place it occupies in the midst of the
 others, and by its termination, which takes place on the four
 first fingers.   We will likewise  observe  that the  median
 does not furnish any branches down to the fold of the arm.
 The cubital, destined for the two last fingers, travels along
 the internal part of the arm, and places  itself behind the
 internal  tuberosity  of  the  humerus.  Nothing is easier
 than the dissection of these nerves, when  we have properly
 recognised their origin ; it would only consume unnecessa-
 rily the time and patience of  the student  to indicate to him
 minutely the mode of  preparing each ofthe nerves of the
  arm.  I think, therefore, that I may dispense with this, and
  proceed immediately with their description.

                        Description.
           NERVES OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES.
     Four nerves are placed in front of the axillary artery,
   and two behind it.  The internal cutaneous, musculo-cu-
   taneous, median and cubital, form the anterior plane ;  the
   radial and axillary,  the posterior plane ; we must add to
   these the thoracic nerves, and the suprascapular.
                    THORACIC NERVES.
      Situation.-On the  lateral and anterior  parts  of the
   chest. 
274
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
  Extent.—From the brachial plexus to the chest.
  Direction.—From without inwards,  and above  down-
wards.
  Relations.—-Always covered by the integuments,  they
recede from the plexus, by passing, some before and others
behind the  axillary artery, in order to reach  the muscles
of the chest.
   Divisions.—They form  three  branches,  an anterior
which loses itself in  the great and  small pectoral  mus-
cles ;  a middle for the great serratus, and a posterior for
the latissimus dorsi.
                SUPRA-SCAPULAR NERVE.
  Situation.—On the superior part of the shoulder.
  Extent.—From the brachial plexus to the  superior and
posterior part  of the scapula.
  Direction.—Oblique from before backwards, and  from
above downwards.
  Divisions.—From  the superior part  of  the brachial
plexus, it proceeds backwards, reaches the notch remarked
on the superior border of the scapula, and divides into two
branches,  which lose themselves  in  the infra-spinatus,
subscapularis and teres minor muscles.
              INTERNAL  CUTANEOUS NERVE.
  Situation.—On the internal part of the integuments of
the arm and fore-arm.
  Extent.—From the brachial plexus to the environs  of
the carpus.
   Direction.-—Parallel t o the internal  portion of the arm
and fore-arm.
   Relations.—Covered by the integuments of the internal
part ofthe arm, on the one hand;  and, on the other,  appli-
ed on the neighboring muscles, almost always accompani-
ed by the basilic vein. 
               ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.            275

  Divisions.—Into tworbranches, the one external, which
travels  parallel to  the  internal border of the biceps, amd
loses itself on the anterior part of the fore-arm; the other,
internal,  is more  considerable,  and  descends along the
internal part ofthe arm and fore-arm; it expends itself on
the integuments of these parts.
               MUSCULO-C^TANEUS NERVE.
   Situation.—On the anterior part ofthe arm, and exter-
nal ofthe fore-arm.
   Extent.—From the brachial plexus to the carpus.
   Direction.—Oblique  from above downwards,  turning
from within outwards on the superior  extremity.
   Relations.—From its origin it pierces the coraco-brachi-
alis muscle, then passes between the biceps and brachialis
anterior, in order to place itself, like the preceding, be-
tween the integuments of the anterior  and external part of
the arm and fore arm, and the neighboring muscles.
   Divisions.—In its course, it sends, first, a filet to the
median  nerve,  then it  gives  several  to  the  coraco-
brachialis, and biceps ; it expends itself, by numerous di-
visions, on the integuments of the  external and posterior
 part of the fore-arm.
                     MEDIAN NERVE.
    Situation.—On the anterior and middle part of the arm,
 fore-arm and hand-
    Extent.—-From the brachial plexus to  the inferior part
 ofthe  four first fingers.
    Direction.—Parallel to the superior extremity.
    Relations.—On the arm,  this nerve descends  between
 the brachial artery, within, and the biceps without; on the
 fore-arm, it is placed on  its middle portion, and, dipping
 down somewhat between the muscles of this region, it passes
 under the  annular ligament ofthe carpus, places itself be-
                            55* 
276           anatomist's manual.
tween the tendons  of the sublimis and those of the profun-
dus, and becomes sub-cutaneous in the rest of its extent.
  Divisions.—1st, It does not give off any ramifications as
far as the fold of the arm :  below, and even in the  palm of
the hand,  it furnishes a number of twigs to the muscles of
the fore-arm ; 2d,  arrived at the superior extremity ofthe
metacarpal  bones, it  divides  into  five  branches,  which
are destined for the external and internal sides of the four
first fingers, except the fourth, on the internal side of which
it  does not  give  off any branch;  this  is   supplied by
the cubital.  Each of  these branches divides  into two
twigs,  except the  first, which loses  itself in the  muscles
of the thenar eminences.
                   CUBITAL NERVE.
  Situation.—At the internal part of the arm,  internal and
posterior ofthe fore-arm.
  Extent.—From the  brachial  plexus to the fourth and
fifth fingers.
  Direction.—From  above downwards, turning on the
posterior part of the fore-arm.
  Relations.—It descends in the first place  attached  to
the  internal part  ofthe triceps  brachialis, passes  behind
the tuberosity of the humerus, between this eminence and
the olecranon, turns on the anterior and internal part ofthe
fore-arm, placed between the cubital and profundus, at the
internal part of the  cubital artery,  and  then reaches the
palm of the hand, in passing between the annular ligament
and  integuments.
   Divisions.—-1st, In its  course, it  furnishes only a few
inconsiderable twigs to the neighboring muscles; 2d, arriv-
ed within two inches of the carpus, it sends off a considera-
ble branch, which goes to the back of the hand, and divides
 into two twigs for the little finger, ring and middle fingers; 
anatomist's manual.
277
3d, having reached the palm ofthe hand, the cubital divides
into two branches, a profound one  for the  inter-osseous
muscles, and a superficial one for the little finger, ring and
middle fingers.
                    RADIAL NERVE.
   Situation.—On the whole posterior part ofthe superior
 extremity.
   Extent.—From the brachial plexus to the posterior part
ofthe four first fingers.
   Direction.—Parallel to the superior extremity, in turn-
ing around the humerus from above downwards, from before
backwards, and from within outwards.
   Relations.—Immediately  after its  origin, it  proceeds,
 posteriorly, between the three portions of the triceps and
 humerus ; it then passes between the supinator longus and
 brachialis anterior, and divides into  two branches.
    Divisions.—1st,  It gives off first some  twigs  for the
 triceps  brachialis;  a  little lower  down,  it furnishes  a
 branch  destined for the integuments on the posterior part
 of the fore-arm,  and which descends to the environs of the
 carpus ; 2d, arrived at the superior extremity ofthe radius,
 it divides into two branches, one posterior, which descends
 very low down, and loses itself in the soft  parts on the
 posterior portion of the  fore-arm;  the other, anterior, is
 destined principally for the external and  internal  sides of
 the four first fingers.
                    AXILLARY NERVE.
    Situation.—In the hollow of the  axilla.
    Extent.—From  the  brachial plexus to the muscles of
 the shoulder.
    Direction.—Oblique from before backwards, and from
 above downwards.
    Relations.—Placed at first under the sub-scapular mus- 
278
ANATOMIST'S MANUAL.
cle, it afterwards dips down between the  great  and email
teres, and turns on the superior part of the humerus, cover-
ed by the long portion of the triceps.
   Divisions.—Into numerous twigs  for the muscles of the
shoulder.
                    LUMBAR PLEXUS.
              Anatomical Preparation.
   It is behind the psoas muscle that we  find this plexus,
which is formed by the anterior branches ofthe four first lum-
bar pairs.  It will suffice, therefore, to dissect this muscle with
care, and to separate it, from within outwards, from the
vertebral  column, without detaching it, in order  that we
may perceive the more  easily the lumbar plexus,  which is
much smaller than  the  brachial,  and the preparation  of
which  is  likewise  less difficult.  Two  nerves only  part
from this plexus:  these are  the obturator and crural.
They are observed at first to  travel along the  psoas mus-
cle, partly concealed by it:  when they are once disengag-
ed from  the muscle, we  can easily follow  them  until the
moment at which each of them proceeds to its particular
destination.   The crural must be dissected and  studied the
first, the obturator being entirely concealed by two divi-
sions of the crural.
   In proceeding with some caution,  we will readily pursue
the divisions ofthe crural, because they are superficial, and
expend themselves on  the  muscles,  the  position  and rela-
tions of which are known.
   The obturator, arrived in the environs of the sacro-iliac
symphysis, descends slightly in the  pelvis and places itself
on the bones of this cavity, the contour of which it pursues
as far as the obturator foramen.   Its  preparation,  dur-
ing  this   course,  does  not present any  difficulty: but
when  it  has  traversed  the  obturator  foramen,  it  is 
anatomist's manual.          279
profoundly concealed by the  superficial  muscles  of the
thigh.   We should, therefore, dissect  these muscles; and
commence with the trunk  of the  obturator at its  exit
through the foramen of the  same name, and follow its di-
visions, which proceed to the muscles on  the internal part
ofthe thigh.
                     Description.
                    CRURAL NERVE.
   Situation.—On the internal part of the thigh.
   Extent.—From the lumbar plexus  to  the inferior and
internal part of the leg.
   Direction,—Parallel  to  the  internal portion  of the
inferior extremity.
   Relations.—In the  abdomen, it is concealed by the
psoas muscle,  and becomes sub-cutaneous along the inter-
nal part of the inferior extremity.
   Divisions.—Into superficial and profound twigs.  The
first distribute themselves on the integuments of the inter-
nal part ofthe thigh and leg; the second may be distin-
guished into external, which lose themselves in the muscles
ofthe superior and external part of the thigh; and into in-
ternal, which accompany the crural artery, among which,
one more considerable than  the others, under the name of
saphena, becomes sub-cutaneous, accompanies the vein of
the same'name, and loses itself on the internal part of the
back of the foot.
                  OBTURATOR NERVE.
   Situation.—On the internal and superior part ofthe thigh.
   Extent.T-Fxom the lumbar plexus to the adductor mus.
cles of the thigh.
   Direction.—Parallel to the psoas muscle.
   Relations.—In the abdomen, it corresponds to theinter-
nal side of this muscle,  and is found in the pelvis,':between 
280
Anatomist's manual.
the obturator artery, which is superior to it, and the vein
of the same name, which is inferior to it: out of  the pelvis
it is situated between the pectineus and first adductor.
   Divisions.—Into anterior and posterior branches, which
lose themselves in the adductor muscles.

                    SCIATIC PLEXUS.

               Anatomical Preparation.
   The sciatic plexus, one of the largest in the human sys-
tem, is observed on the sides of the excavation of the pelvis.
Its volume,  and the size of the branches which form it, will
cause it to be easily recognised.  I shall, therefore, merely
remark in this place, that we should separate one of  the
inferior extremities from the other, in order to expose this
plexus completely.   The section  necessary  for this opera-
tion does  not differ from  that, which we indicated for the
preparation of the hypogastric artery.  Once  freed from
the soft parts which cover it, we  will readily perceive it at
the posterior part of the thigh.   To follow its  trunk and
numerous divisions  will  not be  difficult for the student
who has been zealous and careful in his  previous dissec-
tions.
                     Description.
   The sciatic plexus furnishes first the  pudic  and small
sciatic nerve.  The first passes out under  the  pyramidal
muscle, proceeds between the two sacro-sciatic  ligaments,
with  the internal  pudic  artery,  and divides  into  two
branches, which lose themselves in the organs of generation.
   The small sciatic nerve passes out of the pelvis, below
the pyramidal muscle, with the great sciatic, on the exter-
nal side of  which it is  situated.   It then proceeds to the
gluteus maximus, and  divides into  two branches, one of 
anatomist's manual.
281
which goes to the perineum, and the other descends along
the posterior part of the thigh and  leg, in order to lose
itself in the  integuments of these regions.

                 GREAT SCIATIC NERVE.
   Situation.—On the posterior part of the thigh.
   Extent.—From the sciatic plexus to  the hollow  of the
 ham.                                 ,
   Direction.—Parallel to the  posterior  part of the thigh.
   Relations.—At its  exit from the pelvis, this nerve is
 situated in  front of the gluteus maximus, and behind  the
 gemelli and quadratus muscles; a little lower down,  it is
 found behind  the third adductor, in front of  the long por-
 tion of the biceps and of the neighboring part of the semi-
 tendinosus ; in the hollow of the ham,  the aponeurosis of
 the fascia lata and integuments alone cover it.
   Divisions.—-1st,  Into twigs, which  lose themselves in
 the  muscles on the posterior part of the thigh ;  2nd, At a
 few fingers' breadth above the ham, it divides into two large
 branches, which bear the names of external sciatic popli-
 teal, and internal sciatic popliteal.

              EXTERNAL SCIATIC POPLITEAL.
   Situation.—On the external posterior part of the leg.
   Extent.—From the hollow of the ham to the superior
  part ofthe toes.
    Direction.—Parallel to the  leg, in turning  round this
  part, from behind forwards, on its external side.
    Relation*.—Below the ham,  it is placed  between  the
  Ion* portion ofthe biceps and external gemellus, and more
  outwardly between the fibular and  long  lateral peroneal

  ^Divisions.-Ut, Into  inconsiderable twigs,  which  are 
282
anatomist's manual.
lost  in the neighboring parts;  2d, Towards the superior
extremity of the fibular, it divides into two branches, one
external, called the  musculocutaneous nerve, which ex-
pends itself on the integuments of the leg by filets, which
turn around this part,  from without inwards, and which
terminate on the back of the foot;  the qjher,  internal, is
called anterior tibial, and follows the  trajet of the tibial
artery ; it divides «n the back of the foot into two branches,
one of which passes on the external side of the foot, and the
other on the internal.

             INTERNAL SCIATIC POPLITEAL.
   Situation.—On  the  posterior and internal  part of the
leg.
   Extent.—-From  the hollow of  the ham to the  arch of
the calcaneum.
   Direction.—Oblique from above downwards, and  from
without inwards.
   Relations.—In the hollow of the  ham, it is  placed be-
hind the popliteal vessels,  and on  the external  side of the
semi-membranosus ;  below, it  passes between the articu-
lation  and gemelli  muscles;   still  lower  down, it   gets
between the popliteus and soleus, and  descends along the
posterior part of the tibia, under the name of posterior tibial
nerve, which continues to proceed to the inferior part of
the leg in order to reach  the arch  of the  calcaneum ; it
divides  into  branches  called plantar,  distinguished  into
internal and external.   In its course the internal sciatic
popliteal gives off numerous twigs to all the parts which
surround the superior extremity of the leg ; among these,
there is a considerable one, called external saphena, which
accompanies the vein of the same name, and loses itself on
the external and superior part ofthe foot. 
ANATOMIST S MANUAL.           283
  Internal plantar nerve.—It is larger than the external,
and proceeds directly from behind forwards;  it is placed
above the adductor ofthe great toe, on ^he side ofthe tendon
of its long flexor, and soon divides into four branches, des-
tined for the four first toes ;  they are distributed in the same
manner as the arteries of these parts.
  External plantar nerve.—This proceeds obliquely from
behind forwards, and from within outwards,  between  the
short flexor of the  toes, and  the accessory of the long
flexor; it soon divides into two branches, one profound,
which supplies the muscles  of  the sole ofthe foot, and the
o ther superficial, destined for the two last toes.
              LYMPHATIC VESSELS.

    SE ROUS DUCTS,  LYMPHATIC VESSELS.—ABSORBENT
                       VESSELS.

                General Considerations.
  The part of anatomy concerning the lymphatic vessels
is, without doubt, that which is involved in most doubt and
uncertainty as regards its mode  of preparation and study.
This must be attributed to the extreme smallness of the
vessels, which contain the lymph; as well as to the pellu-
cid character of their parois, which will not permit us to
penetrate  them by the injection of materials proper to de-
monstrate their existence, and to enable us to pursue them
at a distance.   The easy evaporation  of the fluid, which
the lymphatic vessels contain during life, likewise  becomes
an obstacle to their dissection.  The means generally em-
ployedin the preparation of the lymphatic system are: 1st,
to follow with the naked eye, or with the aid of some in-
                          56 
284            anatomist's  manual.
strument,  the vessels of this system, without any other
guide than the uncertain course of their numerous divisions:
2d, to cause, by the  sole law of gravity, certain colored
fluids, such as water, milk, tallow, fat, a solution of gum,
or  mercury, to enter some one point  of the economy,
whence it is supposed that this metal will be gradually in-
troduced into all the ramifications of the lymphatic system;
3d, to plunge a viscus, a separated limb, or any other part
distinct  and  isolated from the  rest  of the  body,  into  a
colored  liquid, possessing a moderate heat.  The liquid
gradually penetrates by this sort of  maceration, through
the tissue of the piece, insinuates itself into all the parts,
and fills equally the lymphatics of the piece on which we
are about to study them.
   If it were  possible to  recognise, by characters drawn
from their form and structure, the  lymphatics wherever
they were met with, there is no doubt that the first mode
of preparing them would be preferable. We would at least,
by this process,  have the certainty of not mistaking other
parts for the lymphatic vessels;  and we would be enabled
to pursue them where it is even supposed they do not exist.
This mode of preparation would have still another advan-
tage, which we  enjoy in  the examination of the  nerves,
viz. we would be enabled to  study the lymphatic  system
in its ensemble, in commencing with  one or more common
centres, in order afterwards to pass to their  respective  di-
visions.  These  inconveniences have induced the use of
mercury, which  is introduced into some  determinate  point
on the external surface of the body, deprived of its  integu-
ments, in order to make it penetrate the lymphatic  vessels,
which are found in the course of the metal.   We may aid
the progressive march ofthe mercury, and its passage into
the  greatest number of branches, either by pushing it 
anatomist's manual.
285
through their calibre by some mechanical force or in sus-
pending the part so that the mercury, obedient to the laws
of gravity, will introduce itself by its own weight into the
vessels which we wish it to penetrate. This latter mode is
the more expeditious; and, in supposing the  possibility or
certainty of its passage into all the neighboring lymphatics,
we may then, by an attentive dissection, follow the vessels
filled and enlarged by this metal.  It will be observed that
they dilate more considerably in the intervals of the valves;
hence  result those nodosities,  which serve as a guide to
distinguish them from other vessels equally delicate.   Se-
veral inconveniences  follow this  mode  of preparing  the
lymphatics.   In  the first place, by this method we can in-
ject only an isolated portion ofthe lymphatic system;  and
moreover, besides  that the  mercury swells these vessels
considerably, it likewise frequently ruptures them, and thus
produces great confusion.
   It is for the purpose of  avoiding,  in  part, the  derange-
ment produced by the mercury,that many content themselves
 with plunging into some colored fluid the  pieces on which
 they are about to examine the lymphatics.
    However,  it cannot be denied that the injection of  mer-
 cury presents great  advantages; thus, this latter mode is
 preferable for the  extremities, whilst the  naked dissection
 is  better suited to the lymphatics of the trunk and head, or
 when we wish to examine these vessels in an isolated piece,
 after having plunged them, as has already been remarked,
 into some proper fluid.
    The lymphatic system presents, in all the parts of the bo-
 dy, and at distances more or less approximated toeach other,
 species  of knots or lymphatic plexuses, to which has  been
 given the name of glands,  and which  are a common ren- 
286
anatomist's manual.
dezvous for the neighboring lymphatics.   These parts,
distinct  and of a certain size, may be  easily perceived,
either by  simple dissection, or  by the aid of mercury,
which, from the vessels, passes to the common centre, or
by immersion in water.  However, in order to have a good
view of the lymphatic glands, we must necessarily choose
a young subject. There is no species of organ, the volume
and developement of which vary so much according to age.
Infancy is  the only period, in which all the glands are well
marked.   In manhood,  they diminish  in  number ; in  old
age, they are to be fdund only in  the  extremities of  the
limbs.
  It is for these different reasons that it is indispensable to
select a subject, in which we propose to study the whole
or a part ofthe lymphatic system.  We may likewise add,
that there is no branch of anatomy in which this precaution
is so necessary as in the study of this system.
  The cadavera of infants, those of females, or those of
emaciated  individuals, are in general  the best suited  for
this examination.  We may likewise employ with advantage
children that have died with some obstruction, with scro-
fula, or with a venereal  disease in which there  has been
a prodigal use of mercury.
  It now  remains for me to say a word in reference to
the manner of exposing the ensemble ofthe lymphatic sys-
tem, and  proceeding to its dissection.   This will  differ
according  to the parts we wish to study, for there are some
which do not require any dissection, properly so called.
  The lymphatics of the abdomen are easily exposed, and
become  sufficiently apparent, by injections pushed into the
belly of an animal, either living or recently dead,  without
requiring  the  aid  of dissection.   We may say the same 
anatomist's manual.
287
thing of the  large viscera, when they have been plunged
into colored warm water for a sufficient length of time to
allow their lymphatics to be penetrated with it.
  Such,  however, is not the case with the lymphatics of
the extremities,  which  may be in  part  followed by the
naked eye, when they have been injected with mercury,
but which it  is necessary to  dissect in  order to get an
exact idea of them.
  We cannot  insist too much  on the delicacy of the in-
struments, the course of which must  be'directed by means
of glasses.
  But of all the parts  of the  lymphatic  system, there is
none  more important to understand than the large trunk
known as the  thoracic duct.
  It is well known that there exists on the whole surface
ofthe alimentary canal, and its dependencies, an order of
vessels  called lacteals; that  these  vessels  proceed  ulti-
mately to a species of empoule, observed in the environs of
the pillars of the  diaphragm,  and which is  the  origin of
the thoracic duct, situated to the right of the aorta,  and
behind  the renal  vessels.  The varieties of the thoracic
duct  are very  numerous ;  two or  three are sometimes
found, which communicate together by a  great number of
small vessels, arranged cross-wise, but which unite in  a
a common trunk.
   In order to see the course pursued by the chyle, and to
expose the vessels which carry it, it will  be necessary to
lay open the abdomen  of  a living animal, which  has eaten
two or three hours previously.  We may, in order to ren-
der the  thing more  sensible,  after having fed a dog, for
example, give him at one time  a large quantity of milk,
and open him immediately afterwards.  We may likewise
color the food, and even the milk.   In order that the lac-
                          56* 
288
anatomist's  manual.
teal vessels and thoracic duct should not empty themselves,
it will be necessary to place ligatures on them: cold wea-
ther,  which condenses the fluids, is also very favorable for
these kind of researches.
  We can even inject the thoracic duct with colored ma-
terials, such as tallow, gum, 6zc.  We should take it above
the opening of the diaphragm, in front ofthe lumbar verte-
brae.  It is at this point that we must introduce the  tube of
a small syringe, filled with the liquid in question, which will
be carried without difficulty in the whole extent of the tho-
racic  duct.
  It is the same with regard to the lymphatic trunk of the
right  side.   We inject it  through  branches, which  are
found sufficiently large for this purpose in the axilla,  be-
tween the great and small pectoral muscles, and on the sides
ofthe neck.
  I shall now pass to the exposition of the lymphatic sys-
tem.

       SUMMARY EXPOSITION OF THE LYMPHATICS.*
  The lymphatics or absorbents  are small, delicate, pellu-
cid, membranous vessels, which,  taking lymph to  all the
surfaces, in all the cavities, bring it  back to the  general
centre of the circulation, and form a  particular  system,
distinct  from  the other vessels, by their origin, course,  ter-
mination, action,  and uses.   They  arise by  radicles or
small cylindrical canals, which open  on the surface of the
membranes,  hollow organs, splanchnic,  cellular,  areolar
cavities, and there form pores, villosities, which, by their
alternate  action of dilatation and contraction, take up the

  * A great part of this general matter is extracted from  the lec-
tures and works of Professor Chaussier. 
anatomist's manual.
289
fluids which touch their orifices, and are thus the organs of
absorption.
  These absorbing  radicles, which are so near together
and of  such remarkable tenuity, that they escape the nak-
ed eye, assemble by fasciculi, unite by collateral ramus-
culi, and by frequent and reciprocal anastomoses,  whence
results  a  very delicate net-work, from which  are  given
off branches which, after having passed under the integu-
ments and tunics of the viscera, into the laminae  of cellular
tissue which separates the different layers*of muscles, and
affords an envelope to the nerves and sanguineous vessels,
unite successively and  form branches which enlarge in
their course, in consequence of the number of small twigs
which proceed to them.
  The lymphatics, thus formed by the successive re-union
of different branches, accompany  almost all the  veins, and,
like these, are directed towards the general centre of cir-
culation; but, 1st,  They  are  not  numerous; in  a word,
besides that each vein is accompanied by sevexal lympha-
tics, we observe throughout twcplanes of them, distinct by
their position ; some are superficial, subcutaneous, and are
distributed under the integuments; the others, profound,
inteT-muscular, are disseminated in the tissue ofthe organ,
and in the interstices of the muscles ; 2d, They  anastomose
frequently among themselves ;  thus, in one part, the super-
ficial lymphatics  communicate   with  the  profound,  the
superior with  the inferior, those of the right with those of
the left side—an  arrangement which affords several diffe-
rent routes to the lyrmm in its course  ; 3d, In their trajet
they always form, either plexuses or glandiformeagglome-
rations, more  or less  volumnious, which are called conglo-
bate or lymphatic glands. 
290
anatomtst's  manual.
  These glands  which constitute an essential part of the
lymphatic system,  are  produced by the assemblage of
different lymphatic  branches,  which,  in approximating
each  other, divide, interlace, turn on themselves, unite
together, become confounded in different parts, and form,
in their plicctures, in their different  windings, contrac-
tions, alternative dilatations which have the appearance of
of cells  or  separate  vesicles,  and  produce anew other
branches, less numerous but  larger, which pass upwards
and continue tc>wards the general centre of circulation ;  a
very delicate cellular tissue  unites  and sustains this lym-
phatic ganglion ; it is  covered by  a  membrane, which
preserves its form.   Finally, sanguineous vessels are ob-
served on its surface, penetrate its interior, and are distribut-
ed there by ramusculi of extreme delicacy, which appear to
furnish a secretion.  The form, volume,  consistence,  and
color of these lymphatic  glands or ganglions, differ very
material according to the age, situation, and condition ofthe
parts ;  their number is very considerable, they amount to
at least six or seven hundred, but are not  equally distribut-
ed all over the body; in the limbs, they are not numer-
ous,  and are separated  by considerable  intervals; in the
neck, thorax, and abdomen, they are multiplied, approxi-
mated,  and  even heaped on  each other  in  some  places;
they  are all connected together by lymphatic plexuses,
which are elevated  above each other and form a continued
series.
  These different glands have been  designated by names
derived  from  their situation;  the  principal  are in the
abdominal  extremities,   three  or four  popliteal  glands,
from eight to ten inguinal, some of which are superficial,
and  the others profound;  in  the  abdomen, there  is  a
numerous series of glands, arranged around the aorta and 
               anatomist's  manual.            291

abdominal vena cava; on the bodies  of the lumbar yerte-
brae, eight or ten  iliacs, which,  on the one  hand,  are
attached to the inguinal, and, on the other, to the lumbar ;
there are more than a  hundred mesenteries, about sixty
mesocolics,  a series of small  sub-hepatics,  splenics  and
pancreatics,  which are  connected with the mesenteries ;
six to  ten  gastrics, arranged on  the  curvatures  of the
stomach ; finally,  in the cavity of the  pelvis,  there is a
score of pelvic  glands   which  are attached  to the iliacs,
lumbar,  and mesocolics. In the thorax, a series of dorsal
glands, which, on the one  hand, are connected with the
lumbar,  and, on the other,  to that of the neck ;  twelve in-
tercostals on each side;  some  diaphragmatics, medias-
tins, sub-sternal, which are united to each other;  a great
number of  bronchial, pulmonary  glands,  situated among
the divisions ofthe brochnise, on the circumference, and at
the summit of the lungs; several cardiacs situated under the
arch of  the aorta; on  the  head and neck, two or three
mastoidean, parotidean, sub-zygomatic,  maxillary,  and
sub-lingual; a numerous series of trachelian glands, and
some  cervical; finally, in  the thoracic extremities,  four
or five humero-cubital, six or eight axillaries, some supra-
scapular and subclavians, which, by their plexuses,  are
united to the sub-sternal, dorsal, and especially  to  the
trachelian.   It  is after having passed by one or several
 series  of these glands, and having  formed plexuses, and
successive re-unions, that the lymphatics, which arrive from
the  different parts, all meet in a manner more  or less
 direct, at two principal vessels, which, by their disposition,
 and size, correspond in some manner to the two venae
 cavse ; they are the trunks of all the lymphatics, and the
 general depot for all the lymph.
   One of these trunks, the longest, and most considerable 
292           anatomist's manual.
discovered by  Pecquet,  in  1649, is  called  the  thoracic
duct,  or  left trunk ;  it arises on the body  of  the  third
lumbar vertebra, by the successive re-union of  the lym-
phatics, which come from the abdominal extremities, pelvic
viscera, and from nearly all  those of digestion ;  it passes
into the thorax, is situated on the bodies of the vertebras,
and traverses the whole  extent of this cavity, inclining
somewhat to the left; it then elevates itself on the trache-
lian surface of  the neck, and terminates, by opening into
the subclavian portion ofthe left brachial vein; this canal,
so remarkable for its  extent,  situation, and direction, and
which presents such numerous varieties in its origin, course,
and termination,  receives the greater number of the lym-
phatics of the thorax, and all those of the  left  side of the
head, neck, and left arm.
   The other trunk, indicated by Stenon, is  very short and
small; it is called the right trunk or brachio-cephalic ;  it
is situated obliquely to the right on the trachelian apophy-
sis of the [six or seventh cervical vertebra, and empties
into the subclavian portion ofthe right brachial vein;  this
trunk, which has several anastomosic connections with the
trachelian extremity of the  thoracic duct,  receives the
lymphatics of  the right side,  of the  head, neck, those tof
the right arm,  and some which come from the thorax and
liver.
   In  order to appreciate  the particular  disposition of the
different lymphatics, and in  order to draw inductions ap-
plicable  to the  knowledge of the phenomena  of health and
disease; we should consider, in  each part, their number,
trajet, direction, and their successive re-union  with the
various kinds of glands ; thus, the study of this order of
 vessels is divided into several sections, viz: 
anatomist's manual.            293
                     Section  1.
   LYMPHATICS OF THE ABDOMINAL EXTREMITIES.
 1. The Crural.
 2.  "   Femoro-sub-pubien.
 3.  (i   Femoro-popliteal.
 4.  "   Gluteal.
                     Section  2.
      LYMPHATICS OF THE ABDOMINAL PAROIS.
 1. The Supra-umbillical.
 2.  "   Infra-umbillical.
 3.  "   Circumflex of the ilium.
 4.  "   Ileo-lumbar.
 5.   "   Lumbar.
 6.   "   Sacral.
                     Section 3.
         LYMPHATICS  OF THE  PELVIC VISCERA.
  1.  The Sub-cutaneous of the perineum and anus.
  2.   "   Sub-cutaneous of the penis.
  3.   "  Deep-seated of the penis.
  4.   "  Scrotal.
  5.   "  Testicular.
  6.   "   Vesical, prostatic.

                      Section 4.
LYMPHATICS OF THE  ORGANS  OF  THE ADBOMEN,  EXTER-
              NAL TO THE PERITONEUM.
   1. The Renal.
   2.  "   Ureteric.
   3.  "   Surrenal.
                      Section 5.
LYMPHATICS OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  ORGANS CONTAINED IN
                    THE  ABDOMEN.
   1.  The Epiploics.
   2\   "  Gastric. 
294
anatomist's manual.
  3.  The Splenic.
  4.  "   Pancreatic.
  5.  "   Hepatic.
  6.  "   Mesenteric.
  7.  "   Meso-colic.
                      Section  6.
     LYMPHATICS OF THE PAROIS OF THE THORAX.
  1.  The Cutaneous of the sterno-costal surface of the
          thorax.
  2.  "   Cutaneous of the back.
  3.  "   Sub-sternal.
  4.  "   Intercostal.
  5.  "   Diaphragmatic.

                      Section  7.
LYMPHATICS OF THE ORGANS CONTAINED IN THE THORAX.
  1.  The Thymic.
  2.  "   Mediastins, pericardiacs.
  3.  "   Cardiacs.
  4.  "   Pulmonary.
  5.  "   Esophageal.

                      Section  8.
         LYMPHATICS OF  THE HEAD  AND NECK.
  1.  The Epicranial.
  2.  "   Subcutaneous of the face.
  3.  "   Lingual, palatine, nasal, orbital, and pharyn-
          geal.
  4.  "   Trachelian.
  5.  "   Thyroidal.
  6.  "   Sub-cutaneous  cervical. 
               anatomist's manual.           295

                      Section 9.
     LYMPHATICS OF THE THORACIC EXTREMITIES.
  1. The-Brachial.
  2.  "   Humero-olecranien.
  3.  "   Scapular.
                       Section 1.
    LYMPHATICS OF THE ABDOMINAL EXTREMITIES.
  1st.   The Crural arise from the  glands  placed  behind
the Fallopian ligament,  accompany the crural artery and
vein,  and  penetrate the inguinal  glands.  In  addition,
these  glands, situated behind  the  ligament, furnish lym-
phatics to the epigastric and anterior iliac arteries.
  2d.   The  Femoro-sub-pubic arise  from the inguinal
glands, and distribute themselves on the penis, integuments
of this part and prepuce.
  3d.   The Femoro-popliteal are those which are distribut-
ed  on the thigh and leg; they come from the superficial
inguinal  glands.  They are distinguished into superficial
and profound ; the first distribute themselves on the inferior
extremity, forming  by their anastomoses a species of net-
work, which envelopes- all the parts ofthe thigh, leg and
foot.  The profound, less numerous, pass off from the  in-
guinal glands, and  accompany the crural artery and vein,
and afterwards those of the ham and leg.
   4th.   The Gluteal.—These, surrounded by a quantity
of fat, communicate with each other from one side to the
other of each buttock, some winding on  the external part,
and others on the internal part of the thigh; they anasto-
mose with the  absorbents of  Itois  limb and those of  the
perineum.   Some of them re-uni^e  in the superficial lym-
phatics  of the liver.
57 
296
anatomist's manual.
                      Section  2.
       LYMPHATICS OF THE  ABDOMINAL PAROIS.
  1st,  The  Supra-umbilical are two fasciculi,  which
come from the lymphatics of the thorax.   One  of these
fasciculi is external; it follows  the  trajet of the external
branch of the mammary artery, and distributes itself with
it in the muscles of the abdomen ; the other accompanies
the internal  branch of this artery, traverses the fibres of
the diaphragm, behind the xiphoid appendage, and distri-
butes itself on the muscles  and integuments of the bas-
ventre.
   2d,  The  Infra-umbilical pass  off  from the  glands,
which  are situated behind the  Fallopian  ligament; they
accompany the anterior  iliac and epigastric arteries, and
are  distributed on the broad muscles  of  the  bas-ventre,
peritoneum and integuments.
 ,  3d,  The  Circumflex ilii  come from the hypogastric
plexus  and  glands situated at  the  inferior part   of the
pelvis ; they are] distributed on the haunch  bones, and
muscles on their posterior part.
   4th,   The Ileo-lumbar likewise  come  from the hypo-
gastric plexus and glands [situated near the  sacro-iliac
 articulation.  These vessels are distributed on the psoas
 and iliac muscles, and enter the vertebral canal,  through
 the last spinal foramen.
    5th,   The Lumbar.—These  come from the glands
 situated on  the bodies of the  lumbar  vertebras, and then
 proceed, conjointly with the lumbar arteries,  to the psoas
 muscles;  after this they d^ide into two fasciculi, one of
 which goes to the vertebral canal and lumbar muscles, and
 the other distributes itselfon the muscles of the bas-ventre,
 quadratus lumborum and peritoneum.
    6th,  The Sacral  arise from the hypogastric   plexus,
r* 
anatomist's manual.            297
and  accompany the  lateral sacral artery; they are  dis-
tributed on the anterior surface of the sacrum and interior of
the sacral canal.
                       Section  3.
          LYMPHATICS  OF THE PELVIC VISCERA.
   1st,  Sub-cutaneous of the perineum and anus.—These
come from the glands situated at the inferior part of the
pelvis, whence they pass out through  the ischiatic notch ;
they are distributed  on  the parts which surround the anus,
and form the profound lymphatics of the penis.
   2d,   The  Sub-cutaneous of the  penis,  furnished by
those of the abdominal extremity, become confounded in
the inguinal  glands.
   3d,   The  Profound  of the penis come from the hypo -
gastric  plexus, and follow the trajet of the internal pudic
artery.
   4th,  The" Scrotal.—Several  of these  are furnished by
the preceding, the others, confounded with the testicular,
follow their disposition.
   5th,  The Testicular.—The absorbent vessels ]of the
testicles coming from the  glands situated in  front of the
aorta and vena  cava, descend in  front of the psoas,  pass
through the  inguinal ring,  and  contribute  to form  the
spermatic cord ;  their number varies from six to twelve.
   6th,  The Vesical, prostatic  pass from the inferior hy-
pogastric plexus ; they distribute  themselves on the pros-
tate gland and  vesiculae, and do not present any thing
remarkable.
                       Section  4.
LYMPHATICS OF  THE ABDOMINAL ORGANS SITUATED OUT
                  OF THE  PERITONEUM.
    1st,   Renal.—The  lymphatic vessels of the  kidneys
may be divided into superficial and profound.   The super- 
298            anatomist's manual.
 ficial spread themselves under the membrane ofthe kidney,
 and penetrate the substance  of this organ in uniting with
 the deep-seated ones ; these  dip down into the fissure of
 the kidney, and are distributed in the pelvis of this organ,
 and likewise in its substance.
   2d,   The Ureterics envelope the ureters in their whole
 trajet, and communicate above with the absorbents of  the
 kidneys, and below with those of the  bladder.
   3d,   The Sur-renal.—Those of the right side pass off
 from some glands situated under the liver around the vena
 cava.   The left come from the glands situated in front of
 the left pillar of the diaphragm, and  all of them  proceed
 togthe sur-renal capsules, the exterior of which they cover,
 and penetrate their internal tissue.

                      Section 5.
 LYMPHATICS OF THE  DIGESTIVE ORGANS  CONTAINED  IN
                    THE  ABDOMEN.
   1st,   The Epiploics come from the glands, which are
 found along the  great curvature  of the  stomach ;  they
 ramify on the epiploon, and accompany the arteries receiv-
 ed by this membranous fold.
  2d,   The Gastrics.—The  lymphatic  vessels  of the
 stomach arise  from the inferior extremity of the thoracic
 duct: they form two fasciculi, one of  which traverses the
 glands   situated  on  the lesser curvature of the stomach,
 with which  they  form a plexus, which continues in the
 whole extent of this curvature.  This plexus furnishes a
 great number of twigs, which are distributed on the mem-
 branous and internal tunics.
  The second fasciculus  accompanies the  right  and left
gastro-epiploic arteries,  traverses  the  glands  from  the
greater  curvature of the stomach, and forms with them  a
plexus like that of the first fasciculus.  In leaving these 
                anatomist's  manual.          299

glands, the gastrics are likewise  distributed on the mem-
branous and internal tunics of the stomach.
  3d,  The Splenics.—The  absorbents of the spleen come
from the thoracic duct, and follow the trajet of the hepatic
artery;  arrived at  the fissure of the spleen,  they divide
into two planes; one, superficial, which ramifies under the
membrane of this  viscus ; the other, profound, penetrates
the substance of the spleen.   These two fasciculi have
several anastomoses among  themselves.
  4th, The Pancreatics have nothing remarkable ; arising
from the gastric and splenic plexuses, they dip down into the
pancreas, and follow  the direction of the sanguineous ves-
sels, which penetrate this glandular body.
  5th, The Hepatics.—No organ  contains "more of them
than the liver ;  they are distinguished into superficial and
profound.   The first  appertain to the superior and inferior
surface of the organ.
   The superficial of the superior surface are distinguished
into those ofthe right lobe and those ofthe left lobe.
   The absorbents of the right  lobe form four different
fasciculi:  1st,  Those which arise  in the interval of the
feuillets o.f the suspensory ligament, ascend on this liga-
ment, enter the thorax by the triangular opening situated
behind the xiphoid appendage,   traverse  one and  some-
times two of the glands of the mediastinum, and then divide
in order to unite with several of the thoracic  absorbents,
 and they finally terminate in the thoracic duct.
   The second fasciculus arises on the right of the first;  it
 proceeds between the lamina? ofthe right lateral ligament
 of the liver, and there divides into two orders: some of them
 traverse the diaphragm, expand on the superior surface of
 this muscle, return to the abdomen through the aortic orifice
 and then terminate in the glands situated between the aorta
                           57* 
300
anatomist's  manual.
and vena cava, confounding themselves with the intercostal
absorbents.   The inferior likewise traverse the diaphragm
towards  the  last  ribs,  and are  distributed on its sides:
there they become confounded with the intercostal absor-
bents.
  The third fasciculus ramifies on the posterior part of the
liver; the trunks which it forms unite partly with the he.
patic absorbents at their entrance into  the abdomen, and
the others terminate in  the thoracic duct, re-united to the
absorbents of the aorta  and esophagus.
  The fourth fasciculus is situated on the anterior part of
the right lobe : it furnishes absorbents, which  go to unite  ..*
with the  first fasciculus, and  others which descend in the  ..:
fissure ofthe liver, in order to communicate with the pro*  *£
found fasciculi.
  The absorbents of the superior surface of the left
constitute three orders :  those ofthe first order unit*
first  fasciculus of the right lobe.
  The second  cover the whole  surface of the left lobe,  •■■*"
and ramify behind the stomach, and on the concave surface
ofthe diaphragm ; they afterwards unite with some sple-  ■■•!;
nic absorbents, in order to pass with them into the plexuses, ^
which surround the aorta and inferior vena cava..  ,-~ '
  The absorbents  of the third  order are situated quite in
front of  the  left lobe  between   the  suspensory and  left
lateral ligaments ;  they then  descend along the esophagus
in order  to lose themselves in the glands on the lesser cur-
vature ofthe stomach.
   The superficial absorbents of the inferior surface divide
into those ofthe right and those ofthe left lobe.  The first
are divided into three orders of branches.
   1st, Some of them arise between the  circumference of
globe- Jgj
 
anatomist's manual.            301
the liver and gall bladder, and  terminate in the neighbor-
ing glands ofthe aorta and vena cava.
  2d, Thoseofthis order ramify on the gall bl<  Mer, between
its  base and the thin border of the liver, and terminate
above the duodenum.
  3d, These last arise between the and gall ;.;>: Ider longitu-
dinal fissure, and ^o to unite with the prer e !i, ^.
  The ab-<>rbents ofthe left lobe cover  the   hole extent
of this lobe and that of Spigelius, and are confounded with
the preceding and deep-seated ones.
  The  prol'jund absorbents arise in  the whole extent  of
the liver ; they accompany the sanguinous ve> -;ols, those of
the biliary duct, and pass out with  them in  order to reach
the glands ■■.(* the  lesser curvature  of the  - >mach; they
descend h hind this organ, and unite finally .v th the intesti-
nal and splenic absorbents.
   The mesenteries.—These are a fasciculus  formed by
the lymphaf cs ofthe small intestines ; it t raver os the paquet
of gland> sita ifed at  the  origin of  the nieseio cry, whence
pass offa great quantity of lymphatic braache's which rami-
fy in all the parts of this membranous fold ; tl ise  branches
advance tow  i.s the  intestinal coauuia and there divide
into superfxu    and profound;  the fmi  ramify  on  the
membra iioi:•■; s issue ; the second on the in... rnal tunic.
   The  31 ■ ■.-.'->■■•■ i'ics.—These  proceed  fjm the  fascicu-
lus, which  -i'Tumpanies  the superior mesenteric  artery,
travel betw'    <hc laminae of the  tran.- vei  e  meso-colic,
and pa      ill'1 glands situated along the j   sterior border
ofthe colon.   The absorbents of the left ind iliac lumbar
colon as wc'i   those ofthe rectum, come f  m the glands
which '-ve   >  d n; front ofthe vertebral  a< lut in and aorta,
and fr      " <■' comprised between  the  two  aminae ofthe
meso-recti'vn. 
302
anatomist's manual.
                       Section  6.
          LYMPHATICS OF THE THORACIC PAROIS.
   1st,  The Cutaneous of the sterno-costal surface of the
thorax.—The axillary glands furnish the superficial vessels
ofthe thoracic parois.   Among these vessels, some ramify
on the anterior surface of the  great pectoral muscle ;  a
few branches emanating from these likewise go to the in-
ferior part of the neck, and  to the deltoid; others turn
around  the  inferior border of the  pectoral.   The  other
absorbents ramify on the great  dorsal, great serratus and
external oblique muscles.
   2d,  The  Cutaneous of the back  likewise come  from
the axillary glands; the superior pass between the  great
dorsal and great round muscles, proceed  under the infra-
spinatus, where they encounter some glands  which  they
traverse; they then are distributed on the trapezius and
integuments  which  cover  it.  The  middle  arise like the
preceding, and ramify on the great dorsal, on the extremi-
ty ofthe trapezius,  and corresponding integuments.   The
inferior, united at first to the  middle absorbents, near the
insertion of the great dorsal,  ramify  on  the  whole  ex-
tent of this muscle.
   3d, The  Infra-sternal come from the thoracic  duct;
they are united to the absorbents ofthe neck, throw them-
selves into the inferior glands of this part, descend behind
and on the sides of the  sternum, following the internal
mammnry  artery;  they  traverse  the opening situated
behind the sternal appendage,  in order to anastomose with
the epigastric absorbents.
   4tb,  The intercostals.—These, arising from  the late-
ral parts of the thoracic duct, are directed from within
outwards, after having traversed the glands situated in front
of the dorsal  vertebrse ;  they form different plexuses, after 
anatomist's manual            303
which they pass through  the  glands which are perceived
near the  articulation of the ribs with the vertebrae;  from
these glands there pass off a multitude of branches,  some
of which go to the verte bree and muscles ofthe back  ; the
otherg fcjltow the inferior  border of the  ribs, and distribute
themselves on the intercostal muscles, pleura, and on the
muscles and integuments of the chest.
   5th,   The diaphragmatics :—The  absorbents of the
diaphragm become confounded with the intercostals,  hepa-
tics, and the other  abdominal absorbents; their principal
trunks occupy the  convex surface of the muscle, and are
found between it  and the pleura.

                      Section 7.
LYMPHATICS OF THE ORGANS  CONTAINED  IN  THE THORAX.
   1st,   The Thymics are few in number;  they proceed
from the glands placed above the arch of the aorta.
   2d,    The Mediastins  and  per icardiacs.—The first
proceed  from the glands  situated in the  superior part  ofthe
mediastinum, and from  those  which are found above the
arch of  the aorta, and are distributed  on the substance of
this partition.   The  others, emanating  from the  same
 place, ramify on the parois ofthe pericardium.
   3d,   The Cardiacs.—The  lymphatic vessels  of the
 heart come from the glands situated above the arch ofthe
 aorta, and descend, some of  them on the superior surface,
 after having passed in  front of the aorta and pulmonary
 artery;  the others descend behind the  aorta  and ramify on
 the inferior surface ofthe neck.
   4th   The Pulmonaries.-The  lymphatics of the lungs
 have not the same origin.   Those of the right lung come
 from the absorbents ofthe superior extremity of this side;
 those-of the left proceed from the thoracic duct,   lhese 
304            anatomist's manual.
vessels unite on each side in a fasciculus, which traverses
the bronchial glands, and  forms with them a  plexus  in
which the lymphatics of the right lung communicate with
those of the left  lung.   From these  glands  pass  off two
planes  of vessels; one, superficial, which ramifies  under
the external membrane of the lung; the other, profound,
penetrates the substance of the organ.
  5th,   The Esophageal come from the glands  situated
above the arch of the aorta.

                      Section  8.
         LYMPHATICS OF THE HEAD AND NECK.
   1st.   The Epicranial proceed from the glands,  which
surround the internal jugular vein, and which are situated
between  the trapezius and  sterno-mastoideus.   Some pro-
ceed posteriorly  on the trapezius ; others surround the
pavillion  of the  ear ; they  all ramify under the integu-
ments.
   2d,  The Sub-cutaneous of the face take their origin on
the glands found in front ofthe pavillion  ofthe ear,  and in
the parotid notch, or from those situated at the base of the
lower  jaw ; some of them,  united with several  absorbents
of the cranium,  proceed to the fore-head and external half
of the  eye-lids ;  the others, united into two principal trunks,
follow the trajet ofthe facial vein, and ramify on the nose,
the  internal half of the eye-lids, and on the  middle  of the
fore-head.
   3d,   The Lingual, palatine, nasal,  orbital, and pha-
ryngeal :—The absorbents of the  tongue come from  the
jugular  glands,  and follow the direction  of  the  vessels
which proceed thither.  Those of the palate and nasal fos-
 sae come from the jugular glands at^the superior and lateral
 part of  the neck ;  it is the same thing with regard to  the 
                anatomist's manual.           305

absorbents of the superior part of the pharynx.  Those of
the  inferior  part  come  from the  inferior glands of the
neck.   The lymphatics of the orbit are furnished by the
glands placed in the  bottom of the parotid [notch, follow
the trajet of the sanguineous vessels, and enter the orbital
cavity by the same opening.
   4th,   The Thyroids proceed  from the glands placed on
the trajet of the internal jugular vein, and from the inferior
jugular glands.
   5th,   The Cervical cutaneous  come from the  glands
 which occupy the triangular space formed by the trapezius
 and sterno-mastoid muscles, and from those which surround
 the jugular and subclavian veins.
                        Section 9.
      LYMPHATICS OF  THE THORACIC EXTREMITIES.
    1st.   The Brachial.—The  absorbents  of the superior
 extremity are divided into two orders— the superficial and
 profound.   The first, arise-from the axillary glands, pass
 along the internal part of the arm, and approximate at its
 anterior and  inferior  part;  there, they furnish the lym-
 phatics of the fore-arm, which are distributed to its anterior
' and posterior parts ; then several  of  them proceed under
  the annular ligament  in  order to supply the palm of the
  hand,  whilst others ramify  on the back  of the hand and
  fingers.
FINIS. 
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