■v# '**.- ::$f*' :m . l'Vb«."' «# '*"#''.* '"t^ :*♦*.. lA ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY, OR OUTLINES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY 11-11 jttjy ILLUSTRATED BY FORTY ENGRAVINGS: BY BENJAMIN SMITH BARTON, M. D. President of the Philadelphia Linnxn and Medical Societies; one of the Vice Presidents of the American Philosophical Society, Member of the Imperial . ociety of Moscow in Russia; and Professor" of Materia Medica, JYatural History and Botany, in the 'University of Pennsylvania, A NEW EDITION: REVISED AND CONDENSED, *""•"• far »* "J* ■* D ' ''V WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF THE AUTHOR, BY WILLIAM P. C. BARTON, M. D. • A. Senior Surgeon of the U. S. JVavy; Formerly Professor of Botany in the University of Pennsylvania; and of Materia Medica and Botany in the Jefferson Medical College of Philada.; and now Lecturer in the Therapeutic Institute of Philadelphia; for teaching Bq. tony, Materia Medica, &c. PHILADELPHIA: ROBERT DESILVER, 110, WALNUT STREET. 1836. 3 3- '3e /2*<* T. B. TOWN, PRINTER. PREFACE. The public is now presented with an edition of these Elements which, it is believed will be more useful than any former one. The work has been condensed from two volumes, into one, although the edition can- not be considered as an abridgement, in the usual appropriation of that term to voluminous works. The condensation consists in the omission, 1st, of all poetical quotations from the Latin and English classics. How apposite and interesting soever they may have been, they had the effect of swelling the work if not in some degree interrupting the scientific de- tail.—2dly, in omitting the tabular views (at the end of vol. 2,) of the antiquated and disused systems of botanical classification, and arrange- ment—3dly,in altogether expunging the index, because in such a work, the index necessarily becomes too copious for facility of reference—^thly, in leaving out more than one half the paragraphical disposition of the matter, thus rendering the pages more continuous.—Finally, by throw- ing all the references of the two volumes into one mass for each plate. I have not felt freedom either in my feelings of respect for the learn- ing of the author, or in my sense of justice to his views pn the subject of elementary botany, in any degree to alter or to modify the details of vegetable physiology and nomenclature, or to intrude any extraneous matter of my own in the form of notes. In a word, I have made it a matter of conscience to change nothing but the disposition of the mat- ter, except in the instance where some diffuseness of the style, render- ed condensation proper and necessary, to meet the object of the edi- tion. The work is therefore, the unmutilated and ungarbled work of the late professor Barton, in toto; I feel that while I have scrupulously preserved its originality, by acting in the revision of the labours of that eminent man of science, as if he were alive and his eye upon me, I have not found this faithful discharge of a trust imposed on myself with restriction and fastidiousness, at all incompatible with the deter- mination to render the work more useful in its present, than it has been heretofore found in its former state. WILLIAM P. C. BARTON. Philadelphia Nov. 18, 1836. A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH READ PURSUANT TO APPOINTMENT, BEFORE THE PHILADELPHIA MEDICAL SOCIETY, AT A STATED MEETING, FEBRUARY 16, 1816, OF THEIR LATE PRESIDENT, PROFESSOR BARTON, BY WILLIAM P. C. BARTON, M. D. AW HONORARY MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY. " At a Stated Meeting of the Philadelphia Medical Society, held at their Hall on Saturday, the 23d of December 1815:— " Resolved, 1st. That the Society view with sentiments of deep regret the death of Professor B. S. Barton, as an event which has deprived the Society of the useful labours of a worthy President, the University of Pennsylvania of one of its brightest ornaments, the Medical -profession of one of its most erudite members, and the United States of one of its most distinguished and useful citizens. " Resolved, 2dly. That a committee be appointed to wait on Dr. Wm. P. C. Barton, to request, him to prepare and read before the Society, a Biographical sketch of the late Professor Barton, previous to the termination of the present Course of Lectures."—(Extract from the Minutes of the Society.) GOUVEYNEER EMERSON, Secretary. " At a Stated Meeting of the Philadelphia Medical Society, held at their Hall, on Saturday the 24th of February, 1816:— " Resolved, That the thanks of the Society be presented to Doctor Barton, for the very appropriate Biographical Sketch of the late Doctor Benjamin Smith Barton, which he has read before the Society, and that a copy of the same be requested for publication.". (By Nathaniel Chapman, M. D/ President, and Samuel Calhoun, M. D.) (Extract from the Minutes of the Society,) GOUVEYNEER EMERSON, Secretary, M ffloaratfHcnl Sfcetcft of JDroftmor Earton. Benjamin Smith Barton, a younger son of the late reverend Tho- mas Barton, a learned episcopal clergyman, long resident at Lancaster in this state, was born in that opulent and comparatively ancient bor- ough, on the 10th day of February, 1766. He bore the intermediate name of Smith (given to him at his baptism) in token of the intimate friendship that had subsisted, during a period of twenty-five years, between his father, and the then learned provost of the university, of that name, by whom he was baptised.* His mother was a sister of the celebrated Rittenhouse. Both his parents were eminently qualified to infuse into the minds of their children, the rudiments of knowledge, and the principles of virtue; but unfortunately, their younger children were too soon deprived of these advantages. The subject of this memoir lost fiis mother when he was little more than eight years of age; and though his father's death did not happen till he had attained his fourteenth year, he was bereaved of the parental care and instruction of one of the best of parents, about a year and a half before that event. His father left Pennsylvania early in the autumn of 1778, intending to proceed to Europe; but he was arrested by sickness before he could, with convenience, embark, and never returned. Thus at the age of fourteen was his son Benjamin left an orphan. Mr. Barton had, however, before his departure from Lancaster, taken care to provide for his minor children, a suitable arid convenient place of abode in the neighborhood of that town: where they were placed in the midst of many of his best and most faithful friends, and under the immediate superintendance of a person of great worth and long experienced friendship for the family. Comfortably situated in this pleasant rural retirement, this little household continued between one and two years: and there, abstracted from the noise and bustle of a town, our youthful student—ever assiduous from a very early period of his life, m the acquisition of knowledge,—devoted much of his time to reading. He never appeared to be fond of those active bodily pursuits and athletic exercises, in which boys employ much of their time; though he occasionally engaged in them. The scene around him was well adapted to the contemplation of nature, and he was of a contem- plative turn of mind. His inclination seemed, at that period of his * Dr. William Smith. 13 biographical sketch of life, to direct, to the study of civil history ; of which he very early acquired a considerable knowledge: but it is not improbable, that having during the life of his father, and while under his roof, acquired some taste for natural history and the culture of plants—subjects to which that gentleman devoted much of his attention*—the objects of this kind by which he was surrounded while in the country, may have drawn his mind to similar pursuits, and the cultivation of natural science generally — certain it is, that his predilection for natural history—more especially for botany—discovered itself very early. In the spring of the year 1780, our young student (with one of his brothers) was removed to the town of York, in this state, where he was placed in an academy, then under the direction of that accomplished scholar, Dr. Andrews, late provost of the university, and who had himself been a student of divinity of Dr. Barton's father. There he continued nearly two years; and, having his studies directed, during that time, by so able a preceptor, the student, aided by his own genius and great application, acquired that critical knowledge of the learned languages, more especially of the Latin, which formed so prominent a feature in his literary attainments. Young as he then was, he read the Greek and Roman authors with avidity, and became enamoured of classic learning:—this is strongly evinced by many of his juvenile letters to his brother William, between September 1780, and March 1782, considering this brother the eldest of the family—as he then did —in the light of his natural guardiam and best friend; a character in which he repeatedly recognized him. At the age of sixteen years, this young scholar made his first attempt in composition, in an " Essay on the vices of the times.1" This essay * It appears by a paragraph in a note to the " Observations on the desider- ata of natural history," that Dr. Barton's father had paid very considerable attention to some part of natural history. Speaking of tin, which upon the authority of Gronovius, Dr. Barton says has been found in Pennsylvania he has the following remark: " If I do not greatly mistake, there were speci- mens of tin in the fine collection of North American minerals, which was made by my father near forty years ago, at a time when he paid more attention to this part of natural history than so far as I know, any other person in the (then) colonies. The greater part of my father's collection was sent to Eng- land ; but falling into the hands of those who knew but little of its value, it has never been heard much of, or mentioned in any of the printed accounts of minerals that I have seen." There is moreover, in the family, and I believe now among the late Dr. Barton's manuscripts; a letter from Linnaeus to the doctor's father in which he tells him that Cuscuta Europea (a little twining parisitick plant) will prob- ably be found in America, and stating that the plant generally (then) called by that name, was a distinct species and should be called Cuscuta Americana. This letter (and there may have been more) seems to imply that the reverend Mr. Barton had paid some attention to botany, and had even corresponded with Linnaeus on the subject. PROFESSOR BARTON. 13 is still in existence. It bears testimony to the early genius and dis- cernment of the writer, and possesses no inconsiderable portion of merit, even in point of style. He manifested too, very early in life, a vivid fancy for drawing; and in the execution of his designs with the pencil, at an immature age, he discovered that taste and genius in the art, which he afterwards cultivated with much success, and prctised, in occasional hours of leisure with great accuracy. This was a talent that he often rendered subservient to his pursuits in natural history and botany;* branches of science which are greatly assisted in their acqui- sition by the investigator possessing, himself, a facility in copying the subjects appertaining to them. Besides his extreme neatness, faithful- ness and truth, in the delineation of natural objects, more particularly of plants, by the pencil, he acquired great adroitness in the beautiful art of etching on copper, and I have now in my possession, among other efforts of this kind, the figure of a dog, which exhibits the most true and perfect attainment of this nice art I have ever seen—It was made about five years ago. Dr. Barton did not despise these adventi- tious aids of science, and he often declared it as his opinion, that no man could become a nice, discriminating, and eminent botanist, without possessing that acumen in preception of proportion, colour, harmony of design, and obscure differences in the objects of the vegetable world which alone belong to the eye of a painter. The accuracy, the vivid- ness, the sensibility (if I may be allowed the expression) of his eye, were truly wonderful. I dwell more on these points than in the esti- mation of some, perhaps they may seem to merit, because they have a near relation to the authenticity of the engravings that accompany some of his works. I know they may be be relied on, for what passed his inspection and received his approbation, in this way; must be faithful as the pencil and the graver could make them. Those who painted the subjects of natural historyf for him know, and those who have multiplied those paintings by the graphic art also know, and can verify the statement I have given, of his uncommon perception of errors, in drawings and engravings. It always took quick cognizance of those * The following extract from a letter written by Dr. Barton to his cousin, July 14, 1785, from the western boundary of Pennsylvania, shows that he very early applied his talent for painting to a useful purpose: " Tell H----she may depend upon the promise I made her, of drawing her a landscape; and probably some other pictures. I have already taken drawings of several curious and beautiful flowers, together with one of the falls of the river Youh : this last I will send her as soon as a safe opportunity offers." Benjamin Barton. f I have frequently painted these subjects for him, and can therefore speak with the more certainty of the fact. In all my drawings made for him, whe- ther of plants, animals, bones, &c. I learnt the absolute necessity (to please his eye) of adhering very faithfully to my models. The first lessons I ever received of scrupulous correctness in drawings of this nature, were from him. 14 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF defects, which other delineators of natural objects, or, in different words, other naturalists who suffer the authenticity of their names to accompany unfaithful or caricatured representations of the works of nature, too frequently allow to escape their observation, and in this way bring into disrepute the real advantages derived from pictured illustrations. In the year 1782 the eldest brother of the subject of this memoir, took him into his family in this city, in which situation he continued between four and five years. During this period he prosecuted his collegiate and medical studies; the first in the college of Philadelphia, where however he did not take the degree of bachelor of arts, and the latter under the celebrated anatomical professor Dr. William Shippen, with whom he commenced the study of medicine, in the beginning of his eighteenth year. While he was yet a pupil of Dr. Shippen, he accompanied his uncle, Mr. Rittenhouse, and the other commissioners appointed for that pur- pose, in running the western boundary line of Pennsylvania. On this occasion he was absent from Philadelphia about five months, having set out with the commissioners in May, 1785, and returned in October following. He was then only between nineteen and twenty years of age, but from his Scientific acquirements he was an useful associate of the commissioners. It was in this excursion that he first had an oppor- tunity of mixing with the savage natives of this country—then he first turned his attention to their manners, their history, their medicines and pathology, and to other interesting points of enquiry; all of which he pursued with great zeal for the remainder of his life. His researches on these subjects; are among the most ingenious, if not the most useful of his labors. They enriched his philosophical inquiries and specula- tions with curious facts, and enchanced the value of his investigations of the materia medica and alimentaria, with some of their most impor- tant additions. Dr. Rittenhouse, who early perceived and acknowledged the talents of his young relative, procured for him this important situation—im- portant, as it gave the first impulse to that spirit of inquiry and re- search into the history of our Indians, which has resulted in an ac- In fact he was, if I may be allowed to use such language, religiously consci- entious not to suffer any things of this nature to pass with his name, unless they were true and faithful representations. In evidence of this I will only mention this one fact,—that in the drawing of the horny lizard, of which he has had a superb engraving made, he caused every spinous process or horny protuberance (which were exceedingly numerous) on the back, tail, and legs of the animal, to be distinctly and separately counted, and made to correspond, even in number, in the drawing. This indeed may be considered as over- reaching the point of necessary truth, and I so considered and still consider it; but it at least must be received as a remarkable evidence of a wish to adhere to faithfulness in portraits of nature. PROFESSOR BARTON. 15 cumulation of so many curious materials relative to their origin and the affinities of their language. This learned man continued to Dr. Barton, through life, a firm and a constant, as he was an illustrious friend. In a letter published in the memoirs of Rittenhouse, the doctor thus acknowledges the succour and the patronage he received from his distinguished relation: "He was dear to us both, to all his relatives and friends, and to his country. Tome, let me add,he was peculiarly dear. The most happy and profitable hours of my life were passed in the society of this virtuous man. I followed his footsteps in the wilderness of our country, where he was the first to carry the telescope, and to mark the motions and positions of the planets. In the bosom of his family, I listened to his lessons, as an humble disciple of Socrates or Plato. Science mixed with virtue was ever inculcated from his lips. But to me Mr. Rittenhouse was more than a friend and preceptor. He was a father and supporter. He laid the foundation of what little pros- perity in life I now, or may in future enjoy: and if it shall ever be my fortune, either by my labours or my zeal, to advance the progress of science, or to reflect any honour upon my country, I should be the most ungrateful of men, if I did not acknowledge and wish it to be known that it was David Rittenhouse who'enabled me to be useful.*" Towards the close of the following summer, Dr. Barton embarked for Great Britain, with the view of prosecuting still further his medi- cal studies at the university of Edinburgh. He remained at that school about two years; except some few months in the earlier part of the year 1787, which he passed in London. During his residence in Ed- inburgh he applied himself with unremitted zeal to his professional studies, attending very regularly the lectures of the eminent medical professors who then taught in that university. In his letters from that place to his brother William, he mentions in terms of high respect the late doctors Walker, Gregory, Black and Hume; from all of whom, particularly the first named, who was the professor of natural history, he received the most marked attentions. Indeed he frequently, in his lectures on natural history, introduced the name of Dr. Walker, and ever spoke of him in terms of unbound- ed respect, and even veneration. He thought he owed much of his success in pursuits of natural history, to the kind encouragement of this professor, united to the fostering and encouraging notice and friendship of the late Mr. Thomas Pennant, a well known and dis- tinguished English naturalist, with whom he wasTong'in habits of correspondence and good fellowship. As an evidence of his high res- pect for this great man, he named his only son after him, and often spoke in terms of satisfaction of this circumstance, since he said his motives for the compliment could never be misconstrued, Mr. Pen- nant having died a considerable time before his friend gave his name to his son. * See Barton's Memoirs of Rittenhouse, p. 445. 16 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF It appears from a letter to his brother, dated at Edinburg on the 29th of September, 1789, that his health, even at that early period of his life, had been delicate. « My spitting of blood," says he, "has left me, and I am no longer tortured with the gout." In the same letter he mentions, that he had then lately received his diploma from the Lisbon academy; and that Dr. Rush had written him a very polite and friendly letter. At Edinburgh he experienced many marks of the respect in which his talents were there held. Young as he was at that time, he obtained from the Royal Medical Society at Edinburgh —of which he was admitted a member before he had been a year in that metropolis—an honorary premium for his dissertation on the Hyosciamus niger* (of Linnaeus)—This was the Harveian prize. About three years ago he received the prize (the first having been lost.) It consists of a superb quarto edition of the works of William Harvey, elegantly bound and gilt: on the fly leaf of which is the following in- scription in manuscript, and signed by the elder Dr. Duncan. Hanc ingenii mercedem aequo jure decretam Viro generoso Benjamini Smith Barton, Pennsylvaniensi: Propter Bsgregiam dissertationem de Hyosciamo nigro, publice tradendam curabat Sodalitas Edinensis Filiorum iEscuIapii, Festo solemni in Harveii honorem institute, Pridie Idus Aprilis 1787 Andreas Duncan, senr. a secret. While Dr. Barton was in London in the first part of the year 1787, he published there a little tract, entitled ft Observations on some parts of Natural History: to which is prefixed an account of some considera- ble vestiges of an ancient date, which have been discovered in different parts of North America." This is called Part I, and is inscribed to his eldest brother. It appears that he intended to have completed his work in one octavo volume, consisting of four parts on the subject of natural history; the first, as he observes in the preface, being a distinct work, having no connexion with that branch of science. This was the first work he ever published. Although in this little book the Dr. evinced much ingenuity and a laudable spirit of research in relation to the antiquities of his native country, the work is evidently the per- formance of a young writer, and, in fact, the author was then only in the twenty-second year of his age: besides, it was written under the pressure of bodily infirmity, occasioned by ill health, and amidst many discouraging circumstances. Indeed, he soon regretted the « p**ema- ture' publication of the work; for he candidly acknowledged its defi- * A deleterious plant, commonly known by the name of Black-henbane. PROFESSOR BARTON. 17 ciences, within a^ew months after its appearance. Speaking of it, in a letter of the 29th of Sept. 1787, addressed to his brother from Ed- inburgh, he said, "when you write to me, do give me your unreserv- ed opinion concerning this premature performance; let me however previously observe, that I am already ashamed of many parts of it; and 1 am confident my language has made you smile. But perhaps an apology may be urged in my behalf: the subject is entirely new, and the work was written at a time when the mind was in that fickle and inconstant state, so frequently the attendant and consequence of disease. Notwithstanding all its imperfections, I am not sorry that I have given the work to the public: I have at least the credit of having directed the at- tention of the world to a curious and interesting inquiry—but peculiar- ly so to an American. You will say, my hypotheses are puerile and crude; but can they be more so than the hypotheses of antiquaries on most subjects ?—I think not. You will also say I should have suffered my work to he on the shelf for a few years; but then the facts I have given to the world would have been all this time unknown." These frank confessions of faults do honour to a young author, more especial- ly, to one who afterwards acquired so much literary fame as the late Professor Barton. They are introduced on this occasion, as a lauda- ble example of candour, in a man of great intellectual powers—as one worthy of being imitated by all young authors too tenacious of their own opinions. Yet after all, the book in question, is by no means so deficient in merit, as its author, himself, seemed to consider it. On the contrary, it does credit to so young a writer. For reasons which he communicated to his brother by a letter dated at London, on the 2d of February, 1789, Dr. Barton chose to obtain his medical diploma from the celebrated German university, founded by George the II, at Gottingen, in the duchy of Brunswick, rather than to apply for one which he was entitled to receive, from the university of Edinburgh. With these reasons, there might, perhaps, have been blended some degree of dissatisfaction with the department of two of the professors in the medical school of the latter, towards him; one of these to whom on his arrival at Edinburgh he presented an highly re- commendatory letter from his preceptor in medicine, professor Ship- pen—never snowed him the slightest attention ; and the conduct of the other was, as he conceived, reprehensible for a similar cause. Yet, while he acknowledged with gratitude and a commendable pride, the very polite and friendly attention with which he was honoured by all the other professors, it can scarcely be doubted that circumstances of this nature would have increased—if they did not originally excite, in the mind of a young man of quick sensibility, those unpleasant sensa- tions which he then experienced. But however this may have been, certain it is, that he determined to graduate at Gottingen. I have not been able to ascertain at what time he visited the German univer- sity, for that purpose. It appears that he repaired to the continent of Europe, after he finally left Edinburgh in the autumn of 1788: con- 18 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF sequently, he must have gone to Gottingen between that period, and the time of his departure from England, in the latter end of July 1789y on his return to America. It may be proper to notice in this place, that whilst in London, Dr. Barton was treated with great kindness and attention by the celebrated Mr. John Hunter, in consequence of his presenting to that illustrious anatomist, an introductory letter* from Professor Shippen. It appears also, from the doctor's letter last re- ferred to, that while in London, in the winter of 1788-9, some favou- rable proposals were made to him to settle in Russia: but his strong attachment to the country of his birth, and to his relatives and friends in that country, induced him to decline the acceptance of an invita- tion, which would, probably, have been highly acceptable to a young man of equal ambition and less feeling. He received while in Eng- land very uncommon proofs of friendship and regard, from the late Dr. Lettsome.t These Dr. Barton duly appreciated, and in a dedi- cation of one of his worksj to him he says, " Your attentions to me, during my residence in London, in the year 1787, were those of a kind and affectionate friend, and cannot be readily forgotten. Nor have you withdrawn your attentions, notwithstanding the distance by which we are separated from each other." After an absence of somewhat more than three years, Dr. Barton arrived at Philadelphia, from London, and was immediately received into the family of his eldest brother, with whom he had always cor- responded from his earliest youth, when residing at a distance from him. He remained in his brother's family a few months, until he was enabled to make suitable arrangements, and to provide himself with a con- venient situation, for establishing himself in the practice of physic, in this capital: he had then completed the twenty-fourth year of his age. The well known abilities of Dr. Barton, introduced him speedily into notice, and soon after he began to get into some practice as a physician. By his reputation, too, for attainments in natural science, he acquired literary and academic honours, at a period of life when, in ordinary cases, the conferring of such would be deemed premature; for soon after his return to America,§ he was chosen a member of the American Philosophical Society in this city, of which he became on the 1st of Jan. 1802, one of the vice-presidents, an office he continu- ed to hold till the day of his death. From the first period of his elec- * This letter was accompanied by drawings of the Ohio bones. f I was introduced to this eminent physician when in London, about four years ago, by my friend the present Dr. Rush ; and the warm and friendly manner of his inquiries after his old friend strongly evidenced, that the high esteem he had conceived for him, was neither abated by time, nor effaced by distance. £ Collections for an essay towards a materia medica of the United States- Part second, 1804. §On the 16th of January 1789. PROFESSOR BARTON. 19 tion to membership of this society, he became one of its most active, as he was one of its most intelligent members. The printed transac- tions of the society are evidences of this. They contain many papers on various subjects relating to natural science, from his pen. I have now arrived at that period of the life of Dr. Barton, in which he made his debut on the theatre of science, as a public teacher. Previously to doing this, however, I pray your patience for a few mo- ments, while I take a necessary retrospect of the beginning of this great medical school, which now vies with the farfamed universities of Edinburgh and Leyden. In the year 1765, the original plan of the college of Philadelphia, was greatly enlarged, by the addition of the medical school; with the appointment of professors for reading lectures in anatomy, botany, chemistry, the materia mediea, the theory and practice of physic, and also for delivering clinical lectures in the Pennsylvania hospital. Dr. William Shippen the younger, first filled the anatomical chair in the College of Philadelphia, afterwards the University of Pennsyl- vania, which he continued to oecupy* for nearly forty-three years, with great respectability. He may justly be considered as the founder of the medical department of this school. He embarked alone in the capacity of private lecturer on anatomy in the winter of 1762—3 being the first winter after his return from his studies in Europe. His success as a private lecturer, demonstrated the expediency of engraft- ing a medical school on the College of Philadelphia, and in conse- quence, he was unanimously elected the professor of anatomy and sur- gery, on the 17th of September, 1765. This able teacher held that chair until his death, which occurred the 11th of July, 1808, in the seventy-fifth year of his age.* I have been more particular in relation to Dr. Shippen, because he was, as I have just stated, the founder of the medical school; for until he delivered lectures in Philadelphia, the voice of a public lecturer had never been heard here. Dr. Adam Kuhn, now living and in the practice of medicine in this city, who had been a pupil of Linnaeus at Upsal, was appointed professor of botany, connected with the materia medica. The late eminent Dr. Rush was appointed to the chair of chymistry, and Dr. Thomas Bond, an in- genious and eminent physician, gave clinical lectures in the Pennsyl- vania Hospital. In the year 1789, the trustees of the college of Phila- delphia instituted a professorship of natural history and botany, which was conferred on Dr. Barton, then only twenty-four years of age. Dr. Kuhn had previously to this delivered some courses of lectures on botany, but natural history had never before been taught. Dr. Barton then was the first lecturer on natural history in Philadelphia, and, so far as I know, the first teacher of natural science in the cis-atlantic world. This appointment was confirmed to him in the year 1791, on the in- corporation of the college with the University of Pennsylvania. Dr. * See Barton's Memoirs of Rittenhouse. 90 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF Barton, at the period of his death, had held this professorship for the space of six-and-twenty years. I beg leave in relating the benefits to natural science that resulted from the labours of the late industrious Professor, to quote what I have published on this point in the preface of my Prodromus of a Flora Philadelphica. "During this period Pro- fessor Barton delivered twenty-five courses of lectures on botany, in which he inculcated a high sense of the real benefits of the pursuit, in a medical point of view, with an enthusiasm that gave unequivocal evidence of his attachment to the interests of the science and the honour of the university. Such was the success of these efforts, that during the period when the laws of the university rendered it obligatory upon the candidates for its honours, to print their inaugural theses, not one commencement was held without a number of dissertations being pub- lished, detailing experiments on the medicinal properties and effects of indigenous vegetables; most of them undertaken at the instance, and prosecuted under the auspices of the Professor. The authors of these tracts were scattered annually through different sections of the United States; many of them cherished the love for botanic pursuits which they had imbibed here—they became botanists—and thus have the ex- ertions of the Professor been seen and felt beyond the precincts of the university. In addition to these facts, it may be mentioned, that many years ago Dr. Barton successfully applied himself to the production of an elementary work on the principles of botany, of acknowledged ex- cellence." Of this I shall speak again when I enumerate the publica- tions Dr. Barton gave to the world. About five years after Dr. Barton was appointed professor of natural history and botany, viz. at the close of the year 1795, Dr. Samuel Powell Griffiths, who is still living, and a respectable practitioner of medicine of the society of Friends in this city, intimated his intention of resigning the professorship of materia medica in the university, sometime in the course of the winter. Dr. Barton became a candi- date for it. On this occasion his friend and relative Dr. Rittenhouse, warmly interested himself in the doctor's behalf. In a letter which he addressed to Dr. M'Kean, then chief justice of Pennsylvania, and an eminent member of the board of trustees of the university, he express- ed himself in these terms, respecting his nephew—terms of high eulo- gium from such a man as Rittenhouse, and one who was alike scrupu- lously sincere, and incapable of flattery: " He certainly has ability suf- ficient," says Mr. Rittenhouse, " to enable him to be useful in any branch of medicine, and ambition enough to induce him to make the greatest exertion; besides, the materia medica seems so nearly connect- ed with botany and natural history, his favourite studies, that I flatter myself he will be successful in his intended application," &c* To this chair of materia medica Dr. Barton was shortly after ap- pointed, being then but just turned of thirty years of age, and having * Barton's Memoirs of Rittenhouse, page 436. PROFESSOR BARTON. 21 been professor of natural history and botany near six years. And here, gentlemen, begins and rests the high professional reputation of Dr. Barton in medicine. To the important lectures on this subject, con- tinued by him till the period when the loss of one of the great pillars of this medical school afforded him an opportunity of a translation to the vacant chair of the practice of physic, is entirely attributable the present conspicuous elevation of the materia medica professorship in this university. Those who have attended the lectures of the late professor on this point of medical science, can bear honourable and powerful testimony in favour of their importance, their learning, their usefulness; and it is no small circumstance in favour of the exertions of his successor in this chair, that we hear nothing of its reputation being in any degree deteriorated, although the present incumbent succeeded to it under circumstances of a very discouraging, nay, almost over- whelming nature. In chronological order it now becomes proper to digress from the subject, and mention that in the year 1797, Dr. Barton married a daugh- ter of Mr. Edward Pennington, long since deceased, but for many years an eminent and respectable citizen of Philadelphia. This lady, together with the only children, a son and a daughter,* survive their husband and father. A year after this event, viz. on the 28th of January, 1798, he was appointed to succeed Dr. Kuhn, as one of the physicians of the Penn- sylvania Hospital, which he continued to hold till his death. I have just hinted that Dr. Barton was translated from the chair of materia medica to the practical chair, relative to which it is necessary to make a few remarks. From the preceding sketch of Dr. Barton's character, you will not be long in concluding that he was a man of high ambition. The fact is so. He possessed this passion in relation to matters of literary reputaion and science, in a most exalted degree. He had long viewed the splendour of professor Rush's deserved ele- vation in the paths of medical science, with emotions that could not but stimulate him to more vigorous and continued exertions to equal his fame. Let me add too, whatever may be thought generally to the contrary, he did that great man ample justice in his unreserved con- versations respecting his literary and medical career. Can it then be deemed unnatural, and will you not expect to hear, that upon the death of professor Rush, Dr. Barton became desirous of filling his chair? He accordingly applied for it, and was appointed some few months after the decease of his learned predecessor. This chair he held in conjunction with that of natural history and botany, till the day of his death. It was, however, his intention, had he lived, to re- sign the latter, perhaps about this time. He believed that the duties of a lecturer on natural history and botany required all the fire, the zeal, the bodily and laborious exertions of a young man. The energy "■■ The only Survivor of these is Dr. Barton's son Thomas Pennant Barton, Esq. late American Charge des Affairs at Paris, July—1836. 22 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF and fervour he had once shown in teaching those branches, he believ- ed himself no longer capable of, neither did he wish to substitute for the necessary perambulatory excursions with his botanical class which had been always frequent) the tame and uninstructive lectures of an old, and, what is an inevitable consequence, of a closet teacher.—He well knew that demonstrative branches, like those of natural history, could neither be faithfully taught nor properly elucidated by a man whose age naturally made him prone to the more inactive pursuits of life. He had been eminent as a teacher of those sciences, because he was young and active—when he became older he was unwilling to detract from his well-earned reputation. Besides these motives, he had determined to devote the remainder of his life to the more impor- tant chair to which he had succeeded. In a conversation with me a short time after his accession to the practical chair, in which he stated his intention to keep that of natural history and botany but a year or two longer, he declared his firm determination to direct the concen- trated powers of his mind to the fulfilment of the duties of his new professorship; and in his dedication of his Archaeologiae Americanae Telluris, &c, to Mr. John Mason Good, an eminent surgeon of Lon- don, with whom he had long been in habits of correspondence, he thus expresses himself: " It is my object to collect materials for a history of these extinct animals and vegetables, the remains or impressions of which are daily discovered in the rapid progress of American popula- tion and improvement. I can hardly flatter myself that my time, de- voted as it must be toother, and to me more important pursuits, will ever permit me to prosecute these archaeological inquiries very far;" and in the preface of the same work he says, "I at one time, indeed, for some years together, flattered myself that I should have found leisure to have devoted a considerable portion of my life to the study of organic geology. But my recent removal, in consequence of the death of Dr. Benjamin Rush, to a more practical chair in the univer- sity of Pennsylvania, and a determination to devote a principal portion of the remainder of my days to the cultivation of practical medicine, now teach me that it is too late to attempt any very extensive and es- pecially very systematic views of these among the most difficult por- tions of natural history. These declarations were an earnest of that assiduous application to the duties of his new chair which he certainly paid, with, to him, a fatal degree of faithfulness and labour. His constitution had been worn down by reiterated fits of irregular gout; and a recent as well as severe attack of haemoptisis, had left him even but a remnant of that trembling and precarious health which for years before had been his companion. As no sickness could tame the vivid flashes of his mind, ever active, restless, and engaged, his hours of pain were continually aggravated by an attention to his studies and the duties of his chair. Nature was not equal to the task imposed on her. And as she ever returns in sickness and in disease the hours which are purloined by PROFESSOR BARTON. 23 active minds, from her customary and necessary rest, Dr. Barton soon perceived the pernicious consequences of his midnight and injudicious toils. That his efforts to support the reputation of the university cur- tailed his existence I firmly believe. He had delivered but two courses of lectures in the practical chair, when his increasing ill health forced him to have recourse to the last resort to renovate his constitution: I mean a sea voyage. He accordingly embarked for France in the month of April 1815, and returned by the way of England in November fol- lowing, not benefitted by his too hasty travel and return. In the month of February, 1809, Dr. Barton was elected president of this society, Dr. Rush having resigned that station some short time before. This circumstance was a subject of gratification to our de- ceased associate, as it evidenced the highest respect for his professional standing that it was in your power to bestow. He felt the interest of this society much at heart; and if he did not give demonstrations of this by his frequent attendance, that circumstance should be attributed to his precarious health, his numerous literary avocations and engage- ments, and his anxiety to finish some works, the completion of which he was very desirous to accomplish. He has left you, gentlemen. No longer will his exertions be made for your interests—for science—for the honour of his country. Let your remembrance of these be perennial, or I should rather say co-existent with your lives—for he justly deserves to be held in long, tenacious, and respectful recollection. You have chosen, as his successor, one of your late vice-presidents, who has given you frequent evidences of his attachment to your in- terests, and his zeal in promoting your prosperity. I feel mlich con- fidence in congratulating you on this choice, for I am persuaded it has fallen on a friend to young men, and one ever ready to lend his aid to the advancement of their interests and their pursuits. The primary disease of doctor Barton was unquestionably hereditary gout, of an irregular form, which assailed him in very early life, having had, as I have before mentioned, some violent athritic symptoms while a student at Edinburgh. About three years ago he was attacked, dur- ing the night, with violent haemoptisis. The discharge of blood was copious, and attended with considerable pain in the breast. This alarming symptom, indicating the approach of a more serious disor- der, appearing in a constitution feeble, enervated, and worn down by study and the gout, could not fail of producing anticipations of a fatal consequence in the mind of a physician. Accordingly, Dr. Barton dated his approaching death from this event. His prediction was sub- sequently verified: for certain it is he never after enjoyed even the scanty portion of health that had before been his lot. He had after- wards other attacks of spitting of blood, and for a long time purulent expectoration, cough, and even hectic flushes occasionally; insomuch that he was inclined himself to believe, and his friends who heard his complaints, and witnessed their effects, believed—that a pulmonary affection had at length supervened. It was in this state of health that 24 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF he devoted his labours to the writing and preparation necessary to fit himself for the new chair he had been appointed to; and, as I have be- fore hinted, these labours doubtless accelerated his death. It was also in this state of health, after more serious indisposition, during the pre- ceding winter, that he embarked last spring for Europe, with how lit- tle real benefit, or even melioration of his malady, I have already stated. Previous to his departure he had many symptoms of hydro- thorax, and this disease, in fact, proved the immediate cause of his death. After his arrival at New York he was violently affected with the distressing symptoms of this disease, and his life for three weeks was despaired of. He was spared however to reach his home in this city, and after a protraction of this indulgence of Heaven long enough to receive the visits of all his relations and friends, near to him, as well as of most of his medical brethren of this city, he expired suddenly in the bosom of his family on the morning of the nineteenth day of December last. He was in fact found dead in his bed. His wife, three hours before, had seen him unusually tranquil in his sleep. He seemed to have a strong presentiment of his approaching dissolution on the evening preceding his decease: for he requested, contrary to his usual custom, that his physician, professor Wistar, should not be ad- mitted to him that night, and refused to have .the friction of his legs continued, intimating by his manner his conviction that neither medi- cal advice, nor any remedies, could any longer be of service to him. He possessed his mental faculties, if not wholly unimpaired, at least unusually active and correct, till the last moment that he spoke. Three days before his death he wrote a memoir on a new genus of plants, named in honour of him, and requested me to make a drawing of one of the species to accompany it. This I did, and at the next meeting of the Philosophical Society, I read this memoir for him. It will of course make its appearance in the next printed volume of that society's transactions, and must always be viewed as a memento of his wonder- ful activity of mind, which continued its operations for the elucidation of science even to the last day or two of his life—and this too in the midst of disease, of pain, and of sorrow. The following letter from his physician, Dr. Wistar, received this morning, will give you a more particular account of his last illness: "Dear Sir, " Your uncle was affected with the ordinary symptoms of hydro- thorax. I believe the disease commenced before he left this country. From his account it appeared to be mitigated during his voyage to France, and while he resided in that country, but increased a short time before he left England. There was a continued succession of storms during the homeward voyage, and he soon became so ill that he could not bear the recumbent posture, and therefore did not lie down during almost the whole of the time he was on board the ship. His sufferings were such that he wished for death. He used the dried PROFESSOR BARTON. 25 squill as a diuretic, during the voyage, but it did not produce the desired effect. After he landed, a greater diuresis was effected, and he was considerably relieved. His death, although not expected at the time when it occurred, was similar to what I have known in at least half a dozen instances of hydrothorax. One of my patients died within five minutes after her return from riding. Another died as he was walking in a wood. Dr. Kuhn, the elder, was found dead in his chair. The late Mr. Milnor, of Trenton, I have been informed, died at his desk. "lam very respectfully yours, "C. Wistar. " Thursday Feb. 15th, 1816." Such was the event that has bereaved the cause of American science of its ablest, its truest, and its most substantia] advocate—its most sub- stantial, for reasons I shall now state. Dr. Barton, in the commence- ment of his career, was not only indigent, but oppressed. He con- tinued his exertions, however, undismayed by poverty, and unin- timidated by enemies. And to those who know more intimately than it would be proper to state in this memoir, the struggles he made in early life through the most discouraging, nay appalling influence of want, added to the direful ravages of disease,—his subsequent eleva- tion appears astonishing. His public lectures, and his various works, the rich harvest of his meritorious exertions, soon relieved him from the pressure of indigence, and the mental uneasiness, nay, sometimes distraction, that supervenes upon it. He whose mental exertions sur- vive such a fate, and who perseveres through it, is not, believe me, a common man! Among the first objects of his attention, when he obtained the means of realizing it, was exploring the extensive wilds of our coun- try, to cull the rich and unknown treasures, particularly among the vegetable productions, which he believed were there; and to obtain in- formation respecting every curious and useful subject of natural his- tory, that invited the attention of the naturalist. Unable, from his professional engagements, to travel himself, and search out these curious spoils, he employed the talents of others, whom taste may have quali- fied, while their circumstances incapacitated them for such pursuits. To these he afforded, liberally, the requisite funds, and necessary in- formation. The only remuneration Dr. Barton received for these une- quivocal demonstrations of his love for science, were the acquisition to himself and others, of useful and novel information, and the thanks and acknowledgments of those who were the subjects of his liberality.* * In proof of the above remarks, I may here not unappropriated cite from the late valuable publication of Mr. Pursh, on our American plants, the fol- lowing passage, alike honourable to the memory of Dr. Barton, and to the good feelings of Mr. Pursh : " Within this period [between 1802 and 1805] I had also formed a connex- ion with Dr. Benjamin Smith Barton, professor of botany, &c. in the university 4 26 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF Thus gentlemen have I endeavoured to point out some of the more prominent of the numerous exertions made by your late president, in the cause of American science. The advantages that have resulted to its interest, by such substantial countenance, fully appear in the valuable work of Mr. Pursh, which contains the united discoveries of this gen- tleman and Mr. Nuttall. of Pennsylvania, &c. whose industrious researches in all the different branches of natural history are so well known to the literary world. He likewise, for some time previous, had been collecting specimens for an American flora. As I was now very anxious to explore the remote parts of the country, particular- ly the interesting ranges of the Allegany mountains, I was enabled by the kind assistance of this gentleman, to take a more extensive range for my botanical excursions, which, during my stay at the Woodlands, had been con- fined within a comparatively small compass, the necessary attention to the duties of that establishment not permitting me to devote more time to themi Accordingly, in the beginning of 1805, I set out for the mountains and western territories of the southern states, beginning at Maryland and extend- ing to the Carolinas (in which tract the interesting high mountains of Virginia and Carolina took • my particular attention) and returned late in the autumn through the lower countries, along the sea-coast to Philadelphia."—Flora America Septentrionulis, by Frederick Pursh, London, pref. p. ix. I have made this full quotation, that every one may see for himself the ex- tent of country over which Mr. Pursh travelled at the expense of his patron and employer. Dr. Barton also extended his assistance to a young English botanist, a Mr~ Nuttall, " whose zeal and services," to use the words of Dr. Barton, " have contributed essentially to extend our knowledge of the 'north-western and western flora of North America; and to whom the work of Frederick Pursh is under infinite obligations."—In justice to Mr. Pursh I beg reave to state, that for the assistance so received, he gives Mr. Nuttall all due credit, although there appears to be some little disagreement between them, respecting the- dis- covery of a new genus of plants, called Bartonia by their joint consent, in honour of, to use Mr. Pursh s words," their mutual friend, Dr. B. S. Barton." Respecting Mr. Nuttall, I beg leave to quote from a manuscript paper now in my possession, written by Dr. Barton three or four days before his death, the following observations: " I became acquainted with this young Englishman in Philadelphia several years ago; and observing in him an ardent attachment tor and some knowledge of botany, I omitted no opportunity of fostering his zeal, and of endeavouring to extend his knowledge. He had constant access to my house, and the bene- fit of my botanical books. "In 1810 I proposed to Mr. Nuttall the undertaking of an expedition en- tirely at my own expense, and under my immediate direction, to explore the botany, &c. of the northern and the north-western parts of the United States, and the adjoining British territories. Accordingly, having provided him with a special passport from the president of the United States, Mr. Madison, and with whatever else I deemed necessary, together with a considerable collection of manuscript queries and memoranda, Mr. Nuttall took his departure from. Philadelphia in April, 1810. PROFESSOR BARTON. 27 With a view still farther to elucidate this point, and to give you, in the fairest way possible, such an history of his improvements in science, as your resolution appointing me to perform this duty, requires -|-I shall beg your patience for a short time, while I briefly enumerate his various works, their titles, and their extent, by affixing the number of pages in each. Such a catalogue will not only enable each of you to make your own deduction on the subject, but it may perhaps, be a mean of giving you some useful information respecting the number, the nature and extent of Dr. Barton's works—some of which are, in this country, as yet unknown. They are, so far as I can collect them as follow: 1. De Hyoscyamo nigro—the Harveyan prize dissertation, before men- tioned, 1787. (I am doubtful if this is printed.) 2. On some parts of natural history, &c. &c. his first work, before mentioned, published in London in 1787—octavo, about 80 pages with an engraving. 3. A memoir concerning the fascinating faculty which has been as- " His route was by Pittsburg to Detroit, Michilimakinak, Fox River, the Falls of St. Anthony, &c. He deviated, however, from the route which had been pointed out to him, having been prevailed upon to ascend the Missouri in company with some of his own countrymen, some Americans, and others, whose objects were principally traffic. " He proceeded to the Mikanee-town ; from thence to the territory of the Mandan Indians, in the boat of a Spanish gentleman ; and in the same vessel descended the Missouri to St. Louis, near the confluence of this great river with the Mississippi, in the autumn of 1811. " Among a very considerable number of plants which he observed and col- lected, in the course of his journey, there were two species of a genus which he observes in his notes to have the " facies" or aspect of cactus, and which he very properly referred to the class and order of icosandria monogynia— he named this genus Bartonia. One of the species he calls Bartonia superba, and the other Bartonia polypetala. The former he found in flower in August and September; growing all the way from the river Platte to the Andes, on broken hills and the clefts of rocks—(Pursh adds, not I fear on the best au- thority, * and on volcanic soil.') He speaks of it as a plant (herba) about three feet high, whose ' splendid flower expands only in the evening, suddenly opening after remaining closed during the day, and diffusing a most agreeable odour. It may justly rank, (he adds) with the most splendid plants of either America, and very probably inhabits Mexico, if not South America. "The other species, Bartonia polypetala, he describes as a perennial, growing on gravelly hills, near the Grand Detour, and flowering in August. "In the latter end of the year 1811, Mr. Nuttall returned to England by the way of New Orleans. Previously to his departure, fie transmitted to me a number of the dried specimens and seeds which he had collected. Among these there were specimens of both species of Bartonia, together with a good collection of seeds. At the same time, he sent me a manuscript book, in which he has given pretty full descriptions of the two plants by the names which I have already mentioned: viz. Bartonia superba and Bartonia polypetala." 28 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF cribed to the rattlesnake and other North American serpents; first edition, octavo, 36 pages—1796. 4. Collections for an essay towards a materia medica of the United ' States. Read before the Philadelphia Medical Society on the twenty- first day of February 1798—49 pages, octavo. .<*-. Fragments of the natural history of Pennsylvania, folio, 42 pages —1799. 6. New views of the origin of the tribes and nations of America— octavo, 165 pages—1798. 7. Supplement to a memoir concerning the fascinating faculty which has been ascribed to the rattlesnake and other North American ser- pents, in a letter to professor Zimmerman of Brunswick, in Ger- many—octavo, 38 pages, 1800. 8. Memoir concerning the disease of Goitre, as it prevails in different parts of North America; octavo, 94 pages, 1800. 9. Collections, &c. part first, second edition—64 pages, octavo—1801. 10. Elements of botany, or, outlines of the natural history of vegeta- bles, illustrated by 30 plates, first edition, two volumes octavo, to- gether 508 pages—1803. 11. Collections, &c. part second, first edition, 53 pages octavo—1804. 12. Facts, observations, and conjectures relative to the generation of the opossum of North America, in a letter to Mons. Roume of Paris Svo. 14 pages, 1809. 13. A discourse on some of the principal desiderata in natural history and on the best means of promoting the study of this science in the United States; read before the Philadelphia Linnean Society, on the 10th of June 1807—octavo, 90 pages—1807. 14. Some account of the Siren Lacertina, and other species of the same genus of amphibious animals; in a letter to Mr. John Gottlob Schneider of Saxony, with an outline engraving of the animal, from a finished drawing made by myself. Octavo, 34 pages, 1808. 15. Collections, &c. 3d edition, octavo, 120 pages; 1810. 16. A memoir concerning an animal of the class ofreptilia, or am- phibia, which is known in the United States by the names of alliga- tor and hell-bender, with an engraving ; octavo, 26 pages—1812. 17. Flora Virginica: sive plantarum, praecipue indigenarum, Virginiae Historia inchoata. Iconibus illustrata.* Pars prima, octavo, 74 pages. Printed in 1812, and going only as far as the fourth class of the Linnaean arrangement. This work has never yet been published in this country, though I have some reason for believing Dr. Barton took it with him in his last voyage to Europe. It is nothing more than an enlarged and new modified edition of the Flora Virginica of Clayton and Gronovius, with the addition of the specific names under which the plants enumerated are described by Michaux, Willdenow, Persoon, &c. * There are no plates in it PROFESSOR BARTON. 29 18. Elements of Botany, or outlines of the natural history of vegeta- bles, illustrated with forty plates; the second edition, first volume. 310 pages, with an index of forty pages—1812. 19. Additional facts, observations, and conjectures, relative to the gen- eration of the opossum of North America, in a letter to professor J. A. H. Reimarus of Hamburg, octavo, 24 pages—1813. 20. Archaeologiae Americanae Telluris Collectanea et Specimina; or collections, with specimens, for a series of memoirs on certain ex- tinct animals and vegetables of North America; together with facts and conjectures relative to the ancient condition of the lands and waters of the continent; illustrated by engravings.* Part first, oc- tavo, 64 pages—1814. 21. Elements of Botany, second volume, in 1814. 22. Memoir concerning the fascinating faculty which has been ascrib- ed to various species of serpents; a new edition, greatly enlarged and embellished by a plate; quarto, 76 pages—1814. 23. An edition of Cullen's Materia Medica, with notes. 24. Ditto first vol. Cullen's First Lines. 25. Medical and Physical Journal. Besides these separate works, the following is a list of his papers and memoirs, read to the American Philosophical Society and printed in the different volumes of the transactions of that society. 1. An account of the most effectual means of preventing the deleteri- ous consequences of the bite of the crotalus horridus, or rattle-snake. Philo. Trans, vol. 3d, pages 14, quarto. 2. An inquiry into the question whether the apis melifica, or true honey-bee, is a native of America. Ditto, 20 pages quarto. 3. A botanical description of the podophyllum diphyllum of Linnaeus, in a letter to Charles Peter Thunberg, M. D. Knight of the Order of Wasa, Professor of Medicine and Botany in the University of Upsal, &c. Ditto, 14 pages quarto, accompanied with a plate of the plant to which Dr. Barton gave the name of Jeffersonia, in honour of Thomas Jefferson. 4. An account of the fascinating faculty which has been ascribed to the rattle-snake and other North American serpents. Vol. 4th of the Philo. Trans. 40 pages quarto. (This paper afterwards appear- ed in the form of a separate work, as has been mentioned, and went through two editions.) 5. Some account of an American species of dipus or jerboa. Ditto, with an engraving of the animal. 11 pages quarto. 6. Observations and conjectures concerning certain articles which were taken out of an ancient tumulus or grave, at Cincinnati, in the county of Hamilton, and territory of the United States, north-west of the Ohio; in a letter to Dr. Priestley. Ditto, 36 pages quarto. 7. Hints relative to the stimulant effects of camphor upon vegetables. Ditto, 3 pages quarto. * The work has no Plates. 30 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF 8 Some account of the poisonous and injurious honey of North Ameri- ca. Vol. 5. Phil. Trans. 16 pages quarto. 9. Memorandum concerning anew vegetable muscipula. Vol. 6, Phil. Trans. 3 pages quarto. 10. Some account of a new species of North American lizard—Ditto, 5 pages quarto, with an engraving of the animal. 11. Supplement to the account of the dipus Americana, in the 4th vol. of the transactions of the Am. Ph. Society. Ditto, 2 pages quarto. 12. Hints on the etymology of certain English words, and on their affinity to words in the languages of different European, Asiatic and American (Indian) nations, in a letter to Dr. Thomas Beddoes. Ditto, 13 pages. Besides these there are other papers which will appear in the next volume of the society's transactions, and which have been read some years: viz. 13. At a special meeting of the Philosophical Society, Feb. 24,1804, Dr. Barton was chosen to deliver an eulogium upon Dr. Priestley. This was a very learned and extensive memoir—it is not yet pub- lished, though I suspect it remains among his manuscripts in a state for publication. 14. In February 1800, he read to the Am. Phil. Society an extensive memoir, entitled, " A geographical view of the trees and shrubs of North America"—not yet published. 15. And a memoir (which gained the Magellanic premium) concern- ing a considerable number of pernicious insects of the United States, which will appear in the next volume of the society's transactions. (These two last papers are mentioned by Dr. Barton in his discourse on the desiderata in natural history, &c.) and it is from that circum- stance that I here enumerate them. Professor Zimmerman translated into German, the memoir (Trans- actions Phil. Society) on the bite of the rattle-snake. Also the memoir on the fascinating faculty of the rattle-snake, &c. to which last he added notes, and an introduction in the German language of 22 pages duodecimo. The Elements of Botany have been republished in London, and translated into the Russian language at St. Petersburgh. These, gentlemen, are all the works which have been printed by Dr„ Barton. Some of them have never yet been published, and many of them were designed entirely for the inspection and perusal of his nu- merous European correspondents. As it may be supposed, these works obtained for him great notoriety in Europe where he is honoured and respected.* Besides them Dr. Barton republished the letter of John * It may not be amiss to enumerate the foreign academic honours which Dr. Barton received at different periods of his life. I have it not in my power, however, to do this in chronological order, since I have not at this time access to any materials that will enable me to do so. He was a member of the Impe- rial Society of Naturalists, at Moscow in Russia; one of the foreign members PROFESSOR BARTON. 31 Henry Burkhard, to Leibnitz, written in the Latin language. He had written a Latin preface to this republication, which 1 have perused in manuscript and also in a proof-sheet. At the time I saw them, it was the intention of Dr. Barton to circulate it with the preface, among the botanical students. By inspection of the work which has now fallen into my hands, I find the preface is omitted, and the letter appears in its original form without comment. For the cause of this omission, with which I confess myself somewhat astonished, it is not difficult for me to account. On some future and more appropriate occasion, I shall endeavour to explain the history of this remarkable attempt to wrest from Linnaeus, his long accredited claim to originality in the principles of his sexual system. The ardent thirst for literary fame, which strongly marked the cha- racter of Professor Barton through life, rendered him a most indefatiga- ble student from his earliest youth. He read much, wrote a great deal, and contemplated nature with unceasing attention. His numerous publications afford, of themselves, sufficient proofs of an uncommon de- gree of industry: but besides these, he was long engaged in collecting materials for other works, and preparing some for the press; all of which it is greatly to be regretted, will now probably be lost to the world. Amidst his professional avocations, which were numerous—the duties of his station, as a medical teacher, which were arduous—and a con- siderable portion of his time that was occupied in keeping up an epis- tolary correspondence with distinguished men of science,* as well in the old world as in his own country—amidst all these occupations, it is a matter of surprise, that he could have found a sufficiency of leisure for his multitudinous pursuits in literature and science: and the more especially when it is taken into view, that he was frequently impeded in these pursuits by the privation of health. of the Linnsean Society of London ^correspondent member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland; member of the Danish Royal Society of Sciences at Copenhagen; and also member of the Royal Danish Medical Society at Copen- hagen. Of this last named academy he was a member several years ago, at the same time with the late Professor Rush. The diploma from this society, however, Dr. Barton received only a week or two before his death, by Mr. Pederson, minister from the king of Denmark to the United States. * Among the most distinguished of these are the following named: The count de la Cepede, peer of France, &c. to whom Dr. Barton dedicated the quarto edition of his memoir on the fascinating faculty of the rattle-snake. Professor E. A. W. Zimmerman, of Brunswick, in Germany. Professor J. A. H. Reimarus, of Hamburg. Professor John Frederick Blumenbach, of Gottingen, to whom he dedicated his memoir on the disease of Goitre. Mr. Thomas Pennant, the celebrated author of Arctic Zoology. John Mason Good, Esq. F. R. S. &c. surgeon, of London, (well known by his poetical version of the Songs of Solomon)—to whom he dedicated his Archasologiae Americanae Telluris, &c. 32 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF Natural history and botany were his favourite studies,* and in his investigation of these branches of science, he made a conspicuous figure. He employed much research, respecting the origin of the tribes and nations of America, on which subject he has, I am persuaded, left many valuable manuscript materials. He was fond of investigating what may be termed the antiquities of this country; and particulary interest- ed in zoological inquiries. He was a skeptic in matters of science, depending on human testi- mony—in fact, his incredulity was astonishing. He upheld the value of skepticism in his lectures—and in one of his publications he thus expresses himself: "Credulity is the most injurious feature in the character of the naturalist, as well as of the historian. Its influence, in one individual, is often felt and propagated through many ages. Un- Dr. James Edward Smith, the learned president of the Linnsean Society of London, to whom he dedicated the second edition of the first part of his Collections, &c. Professor Autenrieth, of Tubingen. Mr. Tilesius, an eminent naturalist of St. Petersburgh, Russia. Monsieur Roume, of Paris, an intelligent French naturalist. Mr. John Gottlob Schneider, of Saxony, a late celebrated writer on amphibious animals. Dr. Patterson, of Londonderry, in Ireland. Monsieur G. Cuvier, of Paris, the illustrious author of many learned works on organic geology, &c. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart, the well known liberal and munificent patron of litera- ture and science. Dr. John Walker, professor of natural history in the University of Edinburgh. Baron Humboldt. Professor Pallas, of Russia. Professor Sparrman, Sweden. Professor Thunberg, Sweden. Professor Burmann, of Holland. * In the preface to his Elements of Botany he thus speaks of his attachment to these sciences: " The different branches of natural history, particularly zoology and botany, have been my favourite studies from a very early period of my life. The happiest hours of near sixteen years of cares, of difficulties, or of sickness, have been devoted to the cultivation of these interesting scien- ces. During this long period, I have never ceased to look forward, as I still look forward, with an ardent satisfaction, to the time, when natural history (including botany) shall be taught as an indispensable branch of science, in our university. That period, however, has not yet arrived. I have, however, the satisfaction of observing, that these sciences are making some, nay, even great, advances among us ; and I still flatter myself, that the directors of our princi- pal American universities, or other seminaries of learning but, in particular, the trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, (in which all the branches of medicine are taught much more extensively than in any other part of the United States) will see the propriety and even necessity, of giving more sub- stantial encouragement for the extension of natural history among us." PKOFESSOR BARTON. 33 fortunately, too, it has been the vice of naturalists, or those who have touched on questions relative to natural history." the genius of Dr. Barton was of the highest grade: it was rapid, 3Z nTr' ^brilliant in the extreme He Was wel1—oTtt inetticacy and fruit essness however, of its unaided efforts-he did not rely therefore on the native powers of his mind alone, great as they were, but applied himself closely to the avocations of the closet He was not only a man of extraordinary industry, but of quick perception, and various information. His genius prompted him to conceive with celerity all the varied and diverse relations of those subjects, to which tne bent of his mmd more particularly attached him—he was therefore, a rapid writer. He possessed a memory remarkably, nay extraordi- narily tenacious and faithful, particularly with respect to facts and chronological events. He never forgot what he once determined to remember, hence he read with great advantage; and though his read- ing was always desultory, irregular, and to all appearance hasty- he was able to make the most profitable use of it. He possessed a good judgment, much imagination, and a taste for the fine arts. He was indeed a man of uncommon genius and excellent professional talents. As a medical teacher, he was eloquent, instructive, and when oc- casion called for it, quite pathetic. His voice was good, though at- tenuated, penetrating, and sometimes rather sharp—his enunciation clear and distinct—his pronunciation constrained, and his emphasis, owing to his remarkable kind of punctuation, and a desire to be per- spicuously understood, was studied, forced, and often inappropriate. In his lectures, his diction was cacophonus and unpleasant. As a writer, he is ingenious, rich in facts, profound in research, and always abounding in useful information. He wanted, however, in a great degree, a talent for generalizing. Hence his various works are characterized by an egregious want of method, or perspicuous arrange- ment. His style, it must be confessed, is always diffuse, inelegant, and frequently tautological. As he never corrected what he once wrote, or at least but rarely, these defects in his composition were the natural consequences of his vehemence in writing. His punctuation is truly remarkable, and, for a man of his discernment and extensive reading, singularly incorrect. As a physician, he discovered a mind quick in discriminating dis- ease, skilful in the application of appropriate remedies, though he certainly was a very cautious if not timid practitioner. No man read more extensively on the subject of diseases—in fact he was deeply versed in pathological knowledge, derived from books. As however his medical practice was never very extensive, his practical observa- tions delivered in his lectures were strikingly marked with the evi- dences of overweening caution. Hence he recommended to his pupils, and always employed himself, unusually small doses of medicine. He was however in the main, an observing and intelligent practitioner, and 5 34 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF PROFESSOR BARTON- was remarkably assiduous in his attentions, and soothing in his be- haviour to his patients. In figure he was tall, and exceedingly well formed; in middle life he might be considered as having been handsome. His physiognomy was strongly expressive of intelligence, and his eye was remarkably fine and penetrating.* In temperament he was irritable and even choleric. His spirits were irregular, his manners consequently variable, impetuous, vehe- ment. These repeated vacillations between equanimity and depres- sion, were generally owing to the sudden and repeated attacks of his continual earthly companion—irregular gout. In familiar conversation he was often elegant, remarkably facetious, but never witty. As a parent, he was kind, tender and indulgent, to a fault. He possessed some high virtues; among the most elevated of them, was his unaffected love of country. Indeed, his patriotic feelings were not only strong, but frequently expressed with unreserved warmth. He always spoke with extreme impatience of the arrogance of pretending foreigners of the literary grade, too many of whom re- sort to our country, being nothing in their own, and perpetually insult us by their vain and insufferable denunciations of our claims to national genius, talents and learning. Such, gentlemen, was the late Professor Barton! May not such a man be truly called great? Before he had completed the fiftieth year of his age, the world was deprived of his talents—his country, more particularly, of his usefulness, and his family of a kind and affectionate protector. While the exit of so ardent a lover of the pursuits of science has given serious occasion to its remaining votaries to deplore his loss, may we not hope that they will emulate his talents and his worth! * The best likeness extant of Dr. Barton, in the fine profile, done in mez- zotinto, by St. Memim (the engraving prefixed to this sketch is copied from it) when the doctor was about thirty-seven years of age. The life-size crayon profile, from which the miniature mezzotinto was taken, is also a very good likeness : it is the property of the Pennsylvania Hospital, where it now is. His portrait of kit-kat-size, was painted while in England, by his ingenious friend and early protege, Mr. Jennings : this was, at the time it was taken, a good likeness. And another, in a more finished style of painting, though certainly not a happy resemblance, was painted by Mr. Rembrant Peale, within the last two years of the doctor's life. Mr. Trott painted a fine miniature picture of him, which is in all respects, except the expression of the mouth, a most excellent likeness. The execrable caricatures now exposed for sale in the print-shops and book- stores, have only the most distant traces of resemblance. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. " Nee dubitamus, multa esse, quse & nos prseterierint. Homines enim sumus & occupati officis." C. PLINII SECUNDI, Naturalis Historia, Lib. I. LiNN.ZEus* has made a general division of the plant, or vegetable, into three parts, viz. the Radix, the Herba, and the Fructificatio. Each of these parts I shall notice in succession. SECTION I.—THE ROOT. The Radix, or Root, is the lower part of the vegetable, which is generally attached to the earth, from which it derives various nutricious principles which it conveys to every part of the plant. It supports the Herba and the Fructificatio. The root consists of two parts, which are denominated Caudex, from csedo, to cut down, and Radicula, a little root. The caudex is the stock, or main body; the radicula, the stringy or fibrous part, which in the greater number of vegetables, terminates the main root, and is supposed to be that part of the root which is especially concerned in absorbing nourishment from the earth. The caudex is either descending or ascending. The caudex descen- dens, or descending caudex, strikes gradually downward into the ground, and puts forth radicles, or small fibres, which are generally regarded as the principal and really essential part of every root. The caudex ascendens, or ascending caudex, is that part of the root which gradually raises itself above the ground, serving frequently the place of a trunk or stem, and produces the herb. It is the descending caudex only which entirely corresponds to the term radix, or root, as it is em- ployed by other botanists. The term caudex ascendens corresponds, in some measure, to the caudex of Malpighi, and other naturalists, who, following the authority of classical writers, designate by this name, the stem, trunk, or bole of a tree. The distinction of L. is, at least, ingenious. It is founded upon this fact, that trees and shrubs, when they are inverted, put forth leaves from the descending caudex, or proper root; and radicles, or roots from the ascending caudex, or stem. Accordingly, he considered trees and shrubs " as roots above ground." " Whenever the name of Linnseus hereafter shall occur in this work, it will be designated by the initial L. 36 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. In a philosophical analysis of the vegetable, this may, perhaps, be a just view of the subject: but it is not probable, that his distinction will ever be generally admitted. I shall treat of the principal roots, under the following: viz. 1. of Roots, in respect to form, or shape: 2. in respect to their direction or manner of grow'h : 3. in respect to their duration. Roots, in respect to their form, or shape, may principally be referred to the following species, viz: 1. Radix fibrosa: 2. Radix fusiformis: 3. Radix tuberosa : 4. Radix prsemorsa : 5. Radix granulata; and 6. Radix bulbosa, 1. The R. fibrosa, or fibrous root, consists entirely, or principally, of a number of fibrous radicles, each of which is more slender than the base of the trunk or stem, to which it is attached. The greater num- ber of the Gramina, or Grasses, such as the Wheat, the Rye, the Oat, the Barley, the Rice, &c. furnish us with the best examples of this form of root. In the grasses the fibres proceed from a small knot at the base of the stem. This kind of root, consisting of very slender fibres, is sometimes denominated Radix capillacea, from capillus, a hair; or the hairy root. The term fibrous root comprehends a very great number of roots, which, as being more slender than the base of the stem or bole, may, with propriety, be arranged under this head. Such are the roots of the greater number of trees and shrubs. 2. The R. fusiformis called in English fusiform or spindle-shaped tap-root, is a species of root, which tapers from above downwards to a point, more or less slender. The radicles, strings, or fibres, are com- monly disposed over the whole surface of the stock, or principal root. We have examples of this species of root in the Carrot, the Parsnip, the Hemlock, the Radish, Horse-radish, and many others. Cultivation frequently changes the spindle-shaped root into a round, knobbed, or tuberous root. This has been particularly observed in some of the umbelliferous plants. 3. The R. tuberosa, tuberous or knobbed root, is a hard, solid and fleshy root, which, in general, is thicker than the base of the stem to which it is attached. It consists either of one knob, as in the common Turnip, or of many such knobs collected, by means of a number of slender strings or filaments, into a bunch, as in the Paeony, Sun-flower, Drop-wort, Potatoe, and many others. The radicles are dispersed over every part of the tuberous root; whereas in the roots afterwards to be mentioned, the radicles are entirely confined to the bottom of the root. Some of the tuberous roots, such as those of the Arum, Orchis, Moschatelline, and others, emit their radicles at the top, from a knot formed between the stem and the thicker part of the root. Such roots have been called Radices comnsse, from coma, a bush or head of hair, from a fancied resemblance of the fibres to a bunch of hair. 4. The R. praemorsa does not taper, but ends (abruptly) blunt, and ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 37 thus appears as though it were bitten off short at the end. Hence, per- haps, it might be called the bitten root The Scabiosa, or Scabious, the Plantago, or Plantain, the Valeriana, or Valerian, furnish us with examples. 5. TheR. granulata, or granulate root, consists of several little tubers, or fleshy knobs, which somewhat resemble grains of corn. The Saxifraga granulata, or White Saxifrage, exhibits the best example. 6. The R. bulbosa, or bulbous root. This form is, more properly speaking, a large bud, situated under ground. It encloses and protects the future plant, several generations of which lie enveloped in it, until they are unfolded by the action of water, or other fit alimentary stimu- lus. L. calls this part, as he also does the true buds of trees and shrubs, the Hybemaculum, or winter-quarters of the plant. He does not consider the bulbus as a species of root. The bulbus consists of two parts, viz. the bulbus, properly so called, and the radicula, or radicle. This last is considered the true root, or fibrous appendage, arising from the lower part of the bulb, by which it is attached to the earth, in which it grows. These radicles may be considered as so many absorbing vessels, by which the various alimen- tary matters of the plant are conveyed, through the bulb, to every part of the plant. Experiments, however, show that the radicles, or cylin- drical fibres, of certain bulbous rooted plants, such as the Hyacinth, are by no means necessary to the full growth and perfection of these plants. This has been proved by the Marquis de S. Simon, in his work on Hyacinths. He considers radicles rather as exhaling, than as absorbing organs; and asserts, that it is the middle part of the bulb which is endued with the absorbing power. There are four different kinds of bulbs: 1. Bulbus squamosus: 2. B. solidus: 3. B. tunicatus: 4. B. articulalus. The b. squamosus, squamose or scaly bulb, consists of a number of imbricated lamellae, or scales. Different species of Lilies furnish us with examples. The b. solidus, or solid bulb, consists of one solid and fleshy sub- stance. The Tulip is given by L. as an instance. I cannot consider the bulb of the Tulip as a solid bulb. Carefully examined, it evi- dently appears to be a true coated bulb. Professor Ludwig has adduced the common Crocus, or Saffron, as an example. But even this, upon minute examination, appears to consist of a number of tunics, or coats, the exterior of which spontaneously separate from one another; and the internal ones, though thicker, may, with ease, be separated. In- deed, some writers have doubted, whether a true solid bulb, in the Linaean sense of the word, does exist. The b. tunicatus, the tunicated or coated bulb, consists of a number of tunics, or coats, which are regularly laid over each other. The com- mon Onion, the Amaryllis, and many other plants, furnish instances of this species. The coats of this kind of bulb are sometimes so very thick and succulent, that they are sufficient to make the plant vegetate, 38 ELEMENTS OE BOTANY. without the aid of earth or water. Thus, we often observe the offici- nal Squill, as it lies in the shops of the apothecaries, protruding both vigorous stems and flowers. The b. articulatus, the articulated or jointed bulb, consists of lamellae, that are linked or chained together, as in the Lathraea Squamaria, or Tooth-wort, the Acloxa Mosehatellina, or Tuberous Moschatel, and the Martynia. L. mentions a Bulbus duplicatus. This name is applied to cer- tain roots, which ha-ve two bulbs connected together. Some species of Orchides furnish us with the best examples. Such is the Ophrys, which is called, in some parts of the United States, by the ridiculous name of " Adam and Eve." Where two bulbs are thus united to- gether, it is commonly observed, that one of them is light, empty, and swims upon the surface of the water; whilst the other, which is solid, sinks by reason of its weight. From the former, the plant of the pre- sent year has proceeded, whilst the latter contains the bud of the future year. (Plates II. and III.) L. does not consider as a true root any of the species of bulb. He views them as large buds situated under ground, protecting the embryo from the severity of the winter, and from other injurious causes. That the bulb does, like a true bud, actually enclose the tender embryo, I shall not attempt to deny. Yet I believe it would have been difficult forL. to have demonstrated the pre-existence of the embryo, in all the different species of bulb. Who has seen the embryo, in some of the arti- culated bulbs? It must exist there, it will be answered, because the bulb shoots into a new plant, in every essential respect similar to the parent plant. Then the leaf of the Aloe, the leaf of the Orange, and the leaves of many other plants, are bulbs, or buds, for they when com- mitted to the ground, produce new plants, similar to their parents.— But I cannot convince, myself, that this is a sufficient reason for assert- ing, that the bulb is not, in reality, a species of root. He considers the tuber, or knob, of the Patatoe, however, as a true root: yet this tuber, as well as the bulbus, in the Linnaean sense of the word, encloses and protects the tender embryo. L. informs us, that in the hollow stem of the Osniunda, near its root, is contained the embryo-plant that is to be born the following year. W7hy does he not consider this " caulis cavus," or hollow stem, as a true hybernaculum, or bulb, or bud? Besides, the observations of the Marquis de S. Simon, compel us to entertain doubts concerning some of L.'s notions respecting the bulb. He says, the radicles, or small fibres, which are attached to the bulb, are the only part entitled to the name of a true root. But it appears highly probable, that all these fibres do not act the part of absorbing organs, or vessels; some of them, at least, appear to be exhalents. Certain it is, that the radicles are not necessary to the nutriment of the plant through the medium of the bulb. Some of the most vigorous blossoms are often protruded from bulbs, the radicles of which have fallen off, almost immediately after their appearance. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 39 In the study of plants, it is a matter of essential importance to at- tend to the structure of the bulb, or bulbous root. These bulbs fre- quently afford excellent marks for distinguishing one species of plant from another of Ihe same genus. Thus, the different species of the genus Scilla, or Squill, can hardly be distinguished from each other, except by the circumstance of their bulbs, which are coated, solid and scaly. The Bulbus caulinus, or stem-bulb, and other similar productions, which, both in their structure and office, are very nearly allied to the bulb of which I have already treated, I shall consider under the head of Hybernaculum. Plants that are furnished with bulbs, or bulbous roots, have received the name af Bulbosse, or Bulbous plants. They constitute one of the classes in the method of Andreas Caesalpinus. Bulbosse and Bulbosis affines are the names of the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth classes in the Methodus Propria of Mr. Ray. L.'s ninth and tenth orders, Spathacese, and Coronal ise, in his attempt towards a natural method, embrace many of the finest vegetables that are furnished with bulbous roots. Such, for example, are the Haemanthus, Amaryllis, Pancratium, Narcissus, Galanthus, Crinum, Colchicum, Allium, Polianthes, Or- nithogalum, Scilla, Hyacinthus, Hypoxis, Lilium,, and Tulipa. Roots, with respect to their direction, or manner of growth, are very different from one another. Some are perpendicular, or run directly downwards into the earth. These constitute what L. calls the Radix perpendicularis, or perpendicular root. This term is generally applied to a particular kind of root, which descends, in one straight fibre, that gradually tapers from above downwards, and whose greatest diameter does not exceed that of the base of the stem. The Carrot, Parsnip, and other spindle-shaped roots, are also examples of the perpendicular root. Some of the perpendicular roots strike but a little way into the ground, such as the Datura, or Thorn-apple; some pierce deep, as the Horse-radish, the Phytolacca, or Poke, and others. The Radix horizontalis, or horizontal root, extends itself under the surface of the ground, nearly in a horizontal direction. The Iris, the May-apple, the Hop, the Cinquefoil, furnish us with examples of this direction of the root. Some of the horizontal roots run very- near to the surface of the earth; such as the Woodbine and the wild Anemone ; others run lower down, as the Triticum repens, or Couch- grass. The horizontal root is sometimes called level or transverse- root. According to the greater or less severity of the climate, the perpendicular and horizontal roots (of the same species) will often be found to pierce the earth more or less remote from its surface. The root, as well as every other part of the plant, accommodates itself, in some measure, to the climate in which it grows. The R. repens, or creeping root, is, by L. distinguished from the horizontal root, to which, however, it is nearly allied. While the lat- 40 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ter is extended under the earth, in a transverse direction, the former is observed to creep horizontally, in every direction, putting forth fibres as it proceeds. The Mentha, or Mint, furnishes us with an ex- ample. The roots of some plants have a two-fold direction. Thus in the Primula, or Primrose the main root runs level, whilst the radicles strike perpendicularly downwards into the earth. Roots are said to be entire when they are not branched. A root of this kind is denominated Radix simplex, or simple root. Other roots are subdivided or branched. These are the Radix ramosa, or branched root. The Radix ramossissima is a root which is greatly subdivided, or branches to a considerable degree. The Podophyllum dyphillum, which I have called Jeffersonia binata, furnishes a good example. The period of the duration or existence of roots is very different. Some subsist for only one, some for two, and some for many years. The first are denominated annuals: the second biennials: the third perennials. It is also among the herbaceous vegetables, those which have succulent stalks, or stems, that perish down to the root every year, that we have examples of annual and biennial roots. The roots of both herbs and trees are perennials. The root and the stem of annual plants perish at the end of one year, and the individual dies to rise no more from a root. It is perpetuated, however, by its seed. Gleditsch has compared the annual plants with insects. Like the insects they undergo various metamorphoses, arrive at maturity, perform the office of generation; after which the male quickly perishes, the female surviving some time longer, to nourish and deposit the seed. Biennials renew their stems only twice, after which the root perishes, the plant being perpetuated by its seed. They are much less numerous than annual or perennial vegetables. Perennials exist for more than two years. Some of this class pre- serve both their roots and stems for many years; such are trees, the roots of which have been denominated Radices fruticosse, or shrubby roots, from Frutex, a shrub. The stems of other perennials perish to the ground, being annually repaired out of the root. Climate and cultivation exert a manifest effect upon the duration of roots. When transplanted into cold climates, many of the perennial become annuals, and the species is perpetuated by seed. Thus, in its native warm climate, the Racinus communis, or Castor-oil plant, has a shrubby stem, and is a perennial; but in cold climates, both the root and the stem perish, and the plant is continued by its seed. The effects of culture, in influencing the term of existence of roots, are much less understood, than the effects of climate. It is certain however, that, in many instances, it prolongs the life of annual plants. The greater number of roots are hid below the surface of the earth and from its bosom they derive a large part of their nourishment and growth. But there are many which are not thus necessarily attached ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 41 to the earth. The Misletoe, the Vanilla, the Dodder, the Hypocistis, for example, do not emit their radicles into the soil, but migrate, if I may use the phrase in search of nourishment elsewhere. They attach themselves to other plants, and from which, it is highly probable, they derive some of their nourishment. Such plants are denominated by Malpighi, Plantse Parisiticm, or Parasitic Plants. The Misletoe, the Vanilla, the Tillandsia, and many others, attach themselves to the branches of trees. The Asarum Hypocistis shows a preference to the roots of plants, particularly the Cistus, or Rock-rose; whilst different species of Cuscuta, or Dodder, cling to the stems of a great variety of plants. Parasitic plants attach themselves to other plants in various ways. The seed of the Dodder having been deposited in the ground, there makes its first effort towards vegetation. It protrudes a stem, which seizes upon the first plant in its vicinity, to which it closely adheres. It is imagined that it derives its nourishment, by means of certain glan- dular organs, from the supporting plant. The lower part of the stem of the parasitic plant soon dries up, the root perishes, and the parasite lives upon its fulcre or support. It is not certain that it derives any essential part of its nourishment from the juices of the plant to which it attaches itself; but it is highly probable, that, in many instances, parasitic plants injure their supporters, more by emitting from their bodies some noxious fluid, than by absorbing wholesome fluids from the supports. The Misletoe, the Vanilla, the Tillandsia, and the Hypocistis are never found upon the earth: they appear to have been originally pro- duced upon the vegetables by which they are supported. The two first extend their roots under the bark, and even pierce the body of the wood. The Tillandsia usneoides, which is well known in North America by the names of Long-Moss, and Spanish-Beard, is much more loosely attached to the trees of the forest. This parasite is so abundant in the southern parts of the United States, and in New Spain, that it even communicates a melancholy darkness to extensive woods. " It is highly probable, that, in many instances, parasitic plants injure their supporters, more by emitting from their bodies some noxious fluid, than by absorbing wholesome fluids from the supports." Actual experiments, however, made with some of the parasitic plants, have very satisfactorily proved, that these plants derive a considerable portion of their nourishment from the vegetables which support them. The stem, the leaves, &c, of the Misletoe may be beautifully colored by diluted Poke juice, and other colouring matters, through the medium of the branches of the Apple, the Gum (Nyssa,) or other tree, from which the parasite proceeds. In this experiment, the Misletoe is not brought into immediate contact with the colouring juice: it becomes painted, if I may use the expression, by the juice which, having been previously absorbed by the stock, is from this taken up by the radicles 6 42 ELEMENTS OF BOTANV". of the parasite, which are intimately intermixed with the woody part of the supporting vegetable. The Tillandsia usneoides, or Long-Moss, is only found, in a vigorous state, upon living vegetables; and it is never seen alive on trees that have been dead more than one season. This fact plainly shows, that the Tillandsia derives a large share of its nutriment from the vegetables upon which it grows. There can be very little doubt, however, that some parasitic plants derive a large, if not the principal, part of their nourishment from the atmosphere. This is, probably, the case with the wonderful Aerides odorataj of which Father Loureiro has given an account. This veget- able, which Willdenow calls Epidendrum flos aeris, is a native of the woods of Cochinchina and of China. It adheres to the trees, by means of a great number of long, linear, radical bulbs, from which it might be conceived to derive its nourishment, if Loureiro did not inform us, that when brought out of the woods, and hung up in the house, without having any connection with the earth or water, it continues, in this situation, during many years, to grow, to flower, and to germinate, exhaling a delightful odour. I shall quote the author's own words, as the book in which the fact is related, is probably in the hands of but few of my countrymen. " Mirabilis hujus plantae proprietas est, quod ex sylvis domum delata, et in aere libero suspensa, absque ullo pabulo vegetabili terreo, vel aqueo in multos annos duret, crescat, fioreat, et germinet. Vix crederem, nisidiuturna experimentia comprobassem." The roots of many mosses attach themselves to the firm barks of trees, whilst the lichens cling to the hardest stones. Some species seem especially attached to stones of a calcareous nature; whilst others form a beautiful plating upon the surface of whins, sandstones, and granites. It has not yet been determined, with absolute certainty, whence these latter derive their nutriment. It cannot be from the stony substances to which they are attached. It is probable, that they are nourished entirely by the atmosphere, and by water and other extraneous bodies which the atmosphere contains. Some plants swim upon the water, and even perform pretty exten- sive migrations. Different species of Lemna, or Duck-meat, swim upon the surface of the standing waters of Europe and North America, and when not disturbed will cover the whole surface. Such plants cannot be said to be fixed to a certain spot. They are furnished with radicles, or roots, but these hang loose in the water, from which, it is probable, they derive their principal nourishment. But the Fuci or Sea-wreck, an extensive tribe of plants, perform migrations of hundreds of miles upon the ocean, where the eye of the navigator is often en- livened with extensive fields, which are principally composed of these vegetables. Of the many thousand species of plants that are known, by far the greater number are, unquestionably, furnished with roots. Some however, are said to be wholly destitute of them. Such are the different ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 43 species of the genus Tremella, which have so many of the habitudes of animals, that, by certain writers, they have been considered as belonging more properly to the animal than to the vegetable kingdom. The root is made up of Medulla, or Pith; Lignum, or Wood; Liber, or Inner Bark; and Cortex, or Outer Bark. L. compares the roots of plants to the absorbing lacteal vessels in animals. The earth he calls the stomach of plants. SECTION II.— OF THE HERB. The Herba, or Herb, is that part of the vegetable, which arises from the root, is terminated by the Fructification, and comprehends the Trunk, the Leaves, the Fulcres, and the Hybernacle. The Truncus, or Trunk, is the body or main stem of the vegetable, whether it be a tree, a shrub, or an herbaceous plant. It supports the leaves and the fructification. There are seven species of trunk; 1. the Vault's. 2. the Culmus. 3. the Scapus. 4. the Pedunculus. 5. the Petiolus. and 6. the Frons. The Caulis, from the Greek, kkuko^ stem or stalk, is the body of an herb or tree, supporting branches, leaves and fructification. " To this description," says Dr. Milne, " may be added another circumstance, that caulis is an universal trunk; that is, proceeds immediately from the root, whilst the foot-stalks, of the flower and leaf, which L. like- wise denominates trunks, are partial; that is, proceed from an universal trunk, or its branches." The caulis is the most common species of trunk, strictly so called. The stems or trunks of the grasses, the palms, the ferns, and the fungous plants, are distinguished by particular appellations, which will be noticed in their proper places. I have said, that the caulis is the stem or trunk whether of herb or tree, formerly the term caulis was applied to herbs only. The term truncus, which was employed to denote the stem, or trunk, or bole of a tree, is now employed as a generic name, of which the terms caulis, culmus, &c. are species. The caulis, or stem, is either simple or compound. " Simple stems are such as do not divide, but proceed in a continued series towards their summits. Compound stems are subdivided into ramuli, or small branches, and diminished as they ascend, so as fre- quently to lose the appearance of a stem altogether." The following are varieties of the caulis simplex, or simple stem; viz. 1. caulis nudus, a naked stem, or a stem devoid of leaves and hair. 2. caulis foliatus, a leafy stem, or stem covered with leaves. 3. caulis fiexuosus, a fluxuose stem, or stem which takes a different di- rection at every joint. 4. caulis vol a bills, a twining stem, or stem which ascends in a spiral direction, round the branch or stem of some other plant, or round some prop. 5. caulis reclinatus, a reclining stem, 44 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. bending in an arch towards the earth. 6. caulis procumbens, a pro- cumbent stem, lying along the ground, but not putting forth roots. 7. caulis repens, a creeping stem, or stem running along the ground, and striking root at certain distances. 8. caulis sarmentosus, or sarmen- tose stem; a slender stem almost naked, or having only leaves in bunches, at the joints or knots, where it strikes root. 9. caulis parasi- ticus, or parasitical stem; astern which does not grow immediately from the ground, but depends for its support upon some other vegetable. 10. caulis teres, a columnar stem, or stem without angles. 11. caulis anceps, orancipital stem; a two-edged stem, compressed and forming two opposite angles. 12. caulis triqueter, or three-sided stem, having three plane or flat sides. 13. caulis triangularis, or triangular stem, with three angles. 14. caulis trigonus, or three cornered stem, having also three angles, with the sides concave or convex. 15. caulis sulcat us, or furrowed, grooved or fluted stem; a stem marked, its whole length, with grooves, or channels. 16. caulis striatus, a striated or streaked stem; a stem marked, its whole length, with superficial or slight grooves or channels. 17. caulis glaber, a smooth stem. 18. caulis scaber, a scabrous or rugged stem, something like shagreen. 19. caulis vilusus, a vilose stem; a stem covered with down or soft hairs: and 20. caulis his- pidus, a hispid stem, covered with bristly-like arms, or minute prickles. The following are varieties of simple branching stems. 1. caulis ad- scendens, or ascending stem; a stem whose branches grow, at first, in a horizontal direction, and then gradually curve upwards. 2. caulis diffusus, or diffused stem; a stem furnished with spreading branches. 3. caulis distichus, from <&-, twice, and ^-x^, a rank, or row, a distich, or two-ranked stem; a stem with the branches horizontal, and pro- duced in two rows: or, in other words, it is a stem whose branches proceed from only two sides of the stem. 4. caulis brachiatus,* from brachium, the arm, or bracheate stem; a stem having branches, stretched out like arms in pairs, and all nearly horizontal, each pair being at right angles with the next. 5 caulis ramosissimus, a stem very much branched; the branches disposed without any regular order. 6. caulis fulcratus,] or fulcrated stem. This species of stem is supported by the branches, which descend to the root; as in the Fig-tree, and the Rhizophora, or Sea-Mangrove. 7. caulisprolifer, a proliferous stem that puts forth branches only from the centre of the summit: as in the Pine, Fir, Cedar, &c. 8. caulis simplicissimus, the most simple stem, having very few branches, and proceeding in a straight line to the top, as in the Lathrsea Squamaria. 3. Of the caulis compositus, or compound stem, the following species are mentioned by L. viz. 1. caulis dicho- tomus,X a dichotomus stem, or stem which continually and regularly * Brachiatus, from Brachium, the arm. f Fulcratus, from Fulcrum, a prop. % Dichotomus from *n, twice, and tVv», to cut: or from <*''--=■ and <*■«<"" v», to divide by pairs. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 45 divides by pairs, from the top to the bottom. This is instanced in the Viscum, or Misletoe, the Valeriana Locusta, called Corn-sallad, the Chironia angularis, or American Centaury, and others. 2. caulis sub- divisus, a stem divided into branches irregularly, or without order. 3. caulis articulatus, a jointed stem, having knots or joints situated at certain distances. To the terminology of caulis, I add caulis filorife- rus, a flower-bearing stem. We have a fine example of this in the beautiful Cercis canadensis, or Canadian Salad-tree; called also Shad- blossom. The trunk, as well as branches, is covered with tufts of the rose-coloured blossoms: a circumstance which adds much to the beauty of the tree, especially as its leaves do not make their appearance until the flowers have begun to fade or disappear. II. The Culmus, which may very properly be translated, Culm, but which is also called the Straw or Haulm,* is defined, by L. to be the proper trunk of the gramina, or grasses, elevating the leaves, the flower, and the fruit. " The word Straw being commonly appropriated to the dry stalk of corn, 1 prefer using the Latin culm."t This species of stem is generally tubular, or hollow, and has very frequently knots or joints distributed, at certain intervals through its whole length. Most of the grasses have a round and cylindrical stem, as in the Wheat, the Rye, the Oat, and many others. Some species of grasses, however, have a triangular culm. We have instances of this in several species of Schoenus, Scirpus, Cyperus, &c. The culm is very frequently in- terrupted by knots or joints; as in the Wheat, Indian-corn, or Maize, &c. This is the culmus articulatus, or jointed culm. But the culms of some species of grasses are entirely destitute of such knots. These are the culmus enodis, or knotless culm. The interval, or space, con- tained between every two joints of a jointed culm is called Internodi- um, and Articulus culmi. To avoid all ambiguity, it may not be improper to anglicize the Latin word internodium, by using the word Internode, as a learned veteran:]" in the science of Botany has done. In the greater number of grasses, the culm is garnished with leaves, as in the Wheat, Rye, Indian-corn, &c. In some species, the culm is entirely naked, that is destitute of leaves. This is the case in certain species of Cyperus, or Cypress-grass. The culms of the greater number of the grasses of the temperate countries are entire, that is not branched. In the Indies, however, many of the grasses have branched culms. The culm sometimes consists of a number of scales, which lie over each other, in the manner of tiles upon a house. The culm of an Asiatic species of grass§ is said to attain to the height of sixty or an hundred feet. Even within the limits of the United States, one species|| of Arundo, or Reed, whose stem is a culm, grows to the height of thirty feet. "The culm sometimes consists of a number of scales, which lie over each other, in the manner of tiles upon a house."—I • Haum, or Haume, is the older English spelling adopted from the Saxon. f Professor Martyn. t Professor Martyn. § Panicum arboresccns, a native of Ceylon. || Arundo gigantea of Walter. 46 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. think it has not yet been ascertained what culm, if any such exist, L. here alludes to. A culmus imbricatus is unknown to the,botanists. It is possible that L. had his eye upon some figure of the stem of a Palm. Plants that are furnished with the particular species of stem which I have been speaking of, are known among botanists by the name of Plantse Culmiferse, or Culmiferous plants. By L. they are denominated Gramina, or Grasses. Mr. Jussieu calls them Grami- nese. 3. The Scapus* or Scape, as Dr. Martyn translates the word, is a species of stem, or trunk, which supports the fructification, but not the leaves. The scape, like the caulis, is an universal stem, in which respect it differs from the pedunculus, or peduncle. The scape pro- ceeds immediately from the root, whereas the peduncle proceeds al- ways from the stem, or branches of the stem. The scape also differs from the caulis aphyllus, or leafless stem, because although the scape is naked, that is without leaves, it has, nevertheless, always radical or bottom leaves: but the naked stem is entirely destitute of leaves.— Dr. Milne observes, that in the Species Plantarum of L. " the term Scapus is generally " preceded by the superfluous word naked; an addition which is apt to mislead the unexperienced botanist, as seeming to imply, that nakedness is not an essential part in the description of this species of stalk." L. has observed, that the " scapus is only a species of pedunculus." " The term, says Dr. Smith, might therefore be spared, were it not found very commodious in con- structing neat specific definitions of plants. If abolished, Pedunculus radicalis, or radical flower-stalk, should besubstitued." I cannot agree with L. and Dr. Smith. The term scapus cannot well be 'spared: its origin emphatically distinguishes it from the pedunculus, with which, in describing plants, it ought never to be confounded. A physiological circumstance concerning the scape deserves to be mentioned here. L. thought, " that a plant could not be increased by its scapus." But Dr. Smith " has had scaly buds from even on the flower-stalk (scapus) of Lachenalia tricolor, Curt. Mag. t. 82., whilst lying for many weeks between papers to dry, which, on being put into the ground, have become perfect plants, though of slow growth." Introduction, &c. page 112. Is the true pedunculus capable of continuing a plant? I have not determined the point by actual experiment: but I have little doubt, that the peduncles of many plants, as well as the scape of Lachenalia, is capable of forming buds, or bulbs (propagines,) from which a plant similar to the parent, may be evolved. It must, how- ever, be observed, that in some plants,! what is called the scape is not wholly leafless. The following, among many other plants, furnish us with examples of the scape: viz. the Narcissus, thePyrola, or Winter-green, the Con- * Scapus, originally from s-*wr7a>, to lean upon ; but more immediately from the classical Latin word, scapus, the upright stem of an herb, the shaft of a column, &c. f Tussilaao alpina &c ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 47 vallaria majalis, or Lily of the valley, the Hyacinthus, or Hyacinth, the Dionaea Muscipula, the Sarracenia purpurea, the Hypoxis erecta, and the Sagittaria sagittifolia.* 4. The Frons, or Frond, is the sixth species of trunk enumerated by L. He defines it to be a kind of trunk or stem, which has the branch united with the leaf, and frequently with the fructification. In other words, it is a stem, " in which the leaves are confounded with the stem and branches, and frequently with the flower and fruit." L. restricts this species of stem to the Ferns and Palms. Some respec- table writers do not agree with L. in considering the frond, as a species of trunk. It does not, indeed, appear in what very essential circum- stance the frond does differ from a true compound leaf. Its two sides are very distinct from each other, in which respect, it agrees with al- most all known leaves: but differs from the other species of real stems, the two sides of which are no way different from each other. It must be observed, however, that the upper and under surfaces of the petiolus, and pedunculus; which the Swedish naturalist considers as species of trunk, are often, like the upper and under surfaces of the leaves, and frons, distinct, in their appearance, from one another. I think, upon the whole, that we should do no injury to the science of plants, were we to exclude, entirely, the frond from the list of stems. Willdenow has totally omitted frons in his list of stems, or trunks. I think this is right. He retains stipes: and he thinks proper to consider the pe- dunculus and the petiolus as species of stems. So does Smith.—The first of these writers restricts the term caulis to the herbaceous vege- table: and he employs truncus to designate the stem of the trees and shrubs. His truncus is two-fold: viz. 1. truncus arboreus, that has a crown of branches at top: and 2. t. fruticosus, that has branches also below. I am not confident that this distinction is of much conse- quence. Mr. Willdenow adds two species of stem to the list: viz. Surculus, and Seta. 1. The Surculus, or Shoot, is the stem which bears the leaves of the mosses. This is either, 1. simplex, simple; having no branches, as in Polytrichum: see our Plate xxxi. 2. ramosus, branched; divid- ing into branches, as in Mnium androgynum. 3. ramis deflexis, with hanging branches; when the stem is branched, but all the branches hang down, as in Sphagnum palustre. 4. decumbens, decumbent; that lies on the ground. 5. repens, creeping: and 6. erectus, upright. 2. The Seta, or Bristle, is that species of stem, which in the mosses supports only the fructification, without leaves.t It is always simple, and never branched, as in the preceding species. The seta is some- times, 1. solitaria, solitary. 2. aggregata, aggregate; or crowded. 3. terminalis, terminal; on the point: or, 4. axillaris, vel lateralis, on the side. * See, in this work, the figures of the four last mentioned plants. f It may be said to be the scapus of the mosses. See Plates xxx. and xxxi. 48 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 5. The Stipes,* or Stipe, is the seventh and last species of trunk enumerated by L. He defines it to be the base of the frond, last mention- ed, and he restricts it to the ferns, palms, and fungous plants. The stem of the last-mentioned family of plants (comprehending the numerous species of mushrooms, &c.) is called by Dr. Withering, the Pillar. The term stipes, or stipe, is also put by L. for the thread, or slender stem, or foot-stalk, which, in many of the compound flowers, belong- ing to the class of Syngenesia, elevates the feather-like or hairy crown (called Pappus,) with which the seeds are furnished, and connects it with the seed. This appearance is sufficiently conspicuous in the com- mon Lettuce, the Dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum,) the Colts-foot (Tussilago,) and many other plants. Of the Pedunculus and Petiolus (known among English botanists by the names of Peduncle and Peti- ole,) I shall treat particularly under the head of Fulcra, of Fulcres. The Folium, or Leaf, is the next part of the herba, that demands our attention. L. defines the leaf to be "the organ of motion in a vegetable:" " Organum motus plantae." But these words convey no manner of idea of the form or structure of the leaf. They only tell us, what the Swedish naturalist deemed to be the true use of leaves in the vegeta- ble economy. Professor Ludwig defines leaves to be fibrous and cellu- lar processes of the plant, which are of various figures, but generally extended into a plain membranaceous, or skinny substance, t Miller's definition of the leaf, might serve as a definition of almost every other part of the plant. I shall treat of leaves, under the following heads: viz. I. of leaves in regard to their nomenclature: II. of the anato- mical structure of leaves: III. of the uses of leaves in the vegeta- ble economy; and, IV. and lastly of certain miscellaneous circum- stances, in the natural history of leaves. A. I. Of the Nomenclature of Leaves. Leaves, considered in respect to their nomenclatural history, may be treated of under the three following heads, viz. 1. of Simple Leaves: 2. of Compound Leaves: and, 3. of Leaves according to their De- termination. 1. The Folium Simplex, or Simple Leaf, is that species of leaf, which consists of only one, undivided portion, situated upon a petiole, or foot-stalk. In other words, the simple leaf is a leaf whose petiole is terminated by a single expansion, the divisions of which, however deep they may be, do not reach to the middle rib. "To understand this, let it be observed, that the middle rib of every leaf is the principal prolongation of the foot-stalk, which, to form the membranaceous expansion, called the leaf, runs out—into a number of ramifications, that inosculating and crossing each other mutually, form the cortical net" of the leaf. "When these ramifications of the foot- stalk are so connected, as to form one entire expansion, the leaf is said " Stipes, originally from a-loto;, a stake. t Ludwig, as quoted by Milne. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 49 to be simple; but when the middle rib becomes, in fact, a foot-stalk, and many different expansions, instead of one, proceed from the com- mon foot-stalk, the leaf, is said to be. compound." The middle rib of a leaf, whether it be simple, or compound, is denominated by L. costa. Of this more particular mention will be made, hereafter. The forms of the simple leaf are almost innumerable. I shall here mention the greater number of those which are noticed by L. in his Philosophia Botanica. They are the following, viz. 1. folium orbiculatum, an or- bicular, or circular leaf. 2. folium subrotundum, a leaf nearly round. 3. folium ovatum, an ovate, or egg-shaped leaf. 4. folium ovale, an oval leaf. 5. folium par abolicum, a parabolic leaf. 6. folium spatula- turn, a spatulate, or spatula-shaped leaf. 7. folium cuneiforme, a cuneiform, or wedge-shaped leaf. 8. folium oblongum, an oblong leaf. 9. folium lanceolatum, a lanceolate leaf. 10. folium lineare, a linear leaf, as the leaves of,the grasses. 11. folium acerosum, or acerose leaf; a leaf which is linear and permanent, as in the Pine, Yew, and many other evergreen trees. 12. folium subulatum, a subulate leaf; linear at the bottom, but gradually tapering towards the end. 13. folium triangulare, a triangular leaf. 14. folium quadrangulare, a quadrangular leaf. 15. folium quinquangulare, a five-cornered leaf. 16. folium deltoides, a deltoid leaf. 17. folium rotundum, a round leaf. 18. folium reniforme, a reniform or kidney-shaped leaf. 19. folium cordatum, a cordate or heart-shaped leaf. 20. folium lunulalum; shaped like a crescent. 21. folium sagittatum, a sagittate leaf; a leaf shaped like the head of an arrow.* 22. folium hastatum, a hastate leaf; a leaf resembling the head of a halbert. 23. folium pandurse- forme, a guitar-shaped leaf; as in Convolvulus panduratus, called Wild- Potatoe, &c. 24. folium fissum, a cleft-leaf; a leaf divided by linear sinuses, with straight margins. (According to the number of these divisions, the leaf is called, bifid, trifid, quadrifid, quinquefid, multifid, bifidum, trifidum, quadrifidum, quinquefidum, multifidum, fyc.) 25. folium lobatum, a lobate or lobed leaf. 26. folium palmatum, a palmate or hand-shaped leaf. 27. folium pinnatifidum, a pinnatifid leaf. 28. folium lyratrum, a lyrate, or lyre-shaped leaf. 29. folium laciniatum, a laciniate, or jagged leaf. 30. folium sinuatum, a sinuate leaf. 31. folium partitum, or parted leaf; a leaf divided almost down to the base. (According to the number of the divisions, the parted leaf is called bipartite, or two-parted; tripartite, or three-parted, &c. &c. bipartitum, tripartitum, quadripartilum, quinqueparti- tum, multipartitum.) 32. folium integrum, an entire leaf 33. folium trunc ttum, a truncate leaf; ending in a transverse line, so that it seems as if the tip of the leaf had been cut off: beautifully illustrated in the Liriodendron Tulipifera, or Tulip-tree, of North-America. 34. folium prsemorsum, a leaf ending very obtusely, with unequal notch- * As in Sagittaria sagittifolia, of which see the figure in this work, 7 - 50 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. es.* 35. folium retusum, a refuse leaf; ending in a blunt sinus. 36. folium emmginatum, a leaf notched at the end. 37. folium obtusum, an obtuse or blunt leaf. 38. folium acutum, an acute leaf, ending in an acute angle. 39. folium acuminatum, an acuminate or sharp- pointed leaf; ending in a subulate or awl-shaped point. 40. folium cirrhosum, a cirroseleaf; terminating in a tendril. 41. folium spino- sum, a spiny or thorny leaf. 42. folium dentatum, a toothed leaf. 43. folium serratum, a serrate leaf, toothed [like a saw. 44. folium crenatum, a crenate leaf; having the edge cut with angular or circular incisures, not inclining towards either extremity. 45. folium repan- dum, a repand leaf; having its rim terminated by angles, with sinuses between them. 46. folium cartilagineum, a cartilaginous leaf. 47. folium ciliatum,\ a ciliate leaf; having the edge guarded by parallel bristles, longitudinally. 48. folium lacerum, a lacerated leaf; with the edge variously cut, as if it were torn. 49. folium erosum, an erose or gnawed leaf; as if gnawed by insects. 50. folium integerrimum, absolutely entire; the margin or edge not in the least cut or notched. 51. folium viscidum, a viscid leaf; covered with a tenacious juice. 52. folium tomentosum, a tomentose, downy or cottony leaf. 53. folium lanatum, a woolly leaf; covered with a substance resembling a spider's web. 54. folium pilosum, a hairy leaf; having the surface covered with long, and distinct hairs. 55. folium hispidum, a hispid leaf (see caulis hispidus.) 56. folium scabrum, a scabrous or rugged leaf (see caulis scaber.) 57. folium aculeatum, a prickly leaf; armed with prickles. 58. folium striatum, a striated or streaked leaf. 59. folium papillosum, a papillose leaf; having the surface covered with fleshy dots. 60. folium punctatum, a dotted leaf. 61. folium nitidum, a glittering or glossy leaf. 62. folium plicatum, a plaited leaf; folded like a fan. 63. folium undulatum, a waved leaf; with the surface rising and falling in waves, or obtusely. 64. folium crispum, a curled leaf. 65. folium rugosum, a wrinkled leaf. 66. folium concavum, a concave leaf; or leaf with the edge standing above the disk. 67. folium venosum, a veined leaf; a leaf whose vessels branch, or variously di- vide over the surface. (When a leaf has no perceptible vessels, it is called folium avenium, a veinless leaf.) 68. folium nervosum, a nerved leaf; having vessels quite simple and unbranched, extending from the base towards the apex, or tip. 69. folium coloratum, a coloured leaf; of any other colour than green. 70. folium glabrum, a smooth leaf. 71. folium teres, a columnar leaf; a leaf without angles. 72. folium tubulosum, a tubulous or hollow leaf, as in the Onion;°and most singularly in the Sarracenia purpurea.! 73. folium carnosum, a fleshy leaf: full of pulp within, as in Sedum, and many other succulent leaves. 74. folium compressum, a compressed or flatted leaf. 75. folium planum, a plane or flat leaf; having the two surfaces parallel. * See radix pi aemorsa. f From Cilice, the eye-lashes. X See Plate 1. J ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 5i 76. folium gibbum, a gibbous leaf; having both surfaces convex, owing to the abundance of pulp. 77. folium convexum, a convex leaf; with the edge more contracted than the disk. 78. folium depressum, a depressed leaf; hollow in the middle, having the disk more depressed than the sides. 79. folium canaliculatum, a channelled leaf; hollowed above with a deep longitudinal groove, convex underneath. 80. folium ensiforme, a sword-shaped leaf; tapering from the base towards the point. 81. folium acinaciforme, an acinaciform leaf; fleshy and com- pressed, resembling a sabre, faulchion or scymitar. 82. folium dola- brif.rme, a dolabriforme, axe, or hatchet shaped leaf. 83. folium lin,- guiforme, a tongue-shaped leaf; " linear and fleshy, blunt at the end, convex, underneath, and having usually a cartilaginous border." 84. folium anceps, an ancipital leaf; having two prominent longitudinal angles, with a convex disk. 85. folium triquetrum, a three-sided leaf (see caulis triqueter.) 86. folium sulcatum a furrowed, grooved or fluted leaf (see caulis sulcatus.) 87. folium carinatum, a carinated leaf; having upon the back a longitudinal prominency, like the keel of a vessel. 88. folium membranaceum, a membranaceous leaf: having no perceptible pulpy matter between the two surfaces. II. " Compound leaves are such whose footstalk is terminated by several expansions; in other words, whose divisions extend to the com- mon footstalk, which not running into the membranaceous part of the leaf, supports the several lobes, or lesser leaves, called Jbliola, of which the compound leaf consists." The foliola, or leaflets, as Dr. Martyn translates the word, are true simple leaves, the forms of which are, like those of the simple leaves already treated of, very numerous. These leaflets are sometimes furnished with particular footstalks; some- times they are destitute of such footstalks, but are seated upon the mid- dle rib of the compound leaf. The former leaflet is denominated foliolum petiolatum, a petioled leaflet; the latter foliolum sessile, a sessile leaflet. In the compound leaves, of which I am speaking, the central longitudinal fibre, or part to which the leaflets are attached, is denominated the costa, or rib. I have already observed, that the cen- tral fibre of the leaves, whether simple or compound, is known by the same name. This part of the leaf is by some writers denominated a nerve. This term ought not to be admitted in an accurate botanical language, since there is no reason to believe that any peculiar sensibili- ty, the attribute of nervous matter, resides in the central fibre. It has also been [called a vein. To this term there is less objection than to the former, since it is demonstrated, as I shall afterwards show, that a fluid circulates or moves through every part of the leaf, along the course of the middle rib, and of the branches, which it sends out. Pro- fessor Ludwig has proposed to call by the name of nerve, the promi- nent division of the rib of the leaf, and by the name of vein, the pellucid part of the rib.* I think, however, that no manner of ad- '' Institutions, &c p. 26. 52 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. vantage is gained by this nice distinction. Compound leaves are dis- tinguished by L. into, 1. compound leaves, properly so called. 2. leaves twice compounded; and, 3. leaves that are more than twice com- pounded. A. The folium compositum, or compound leaf properly so called, is a leaf only once compounded, and admits of the following species or varieties, which I shall mention in the order in which they occur in the Philos&phia Botanica. 1. folium articulatum, a jointed leaf; when one leaflet grows from the top of another. 2. folium digitatum, a digitate leaf; when a simple or undivided footstalk connects several distinct leaflets at the end of it; as in diflerent species of v£rsculus, or Horsechesnut* 3. folium binatum, a binate* leaf; having a simple petiole connecting two leaflets at the top of it; as in Jeffersonia binata, &c. 4. folium ternatum, a ternate leaf; having three leaflets on one petiole; as in Trefoil, Strawberry, &c. 5. folium quinatum, a quinate leaf; having five leaflets on one petiole. (L. considers the binate, the ternate and the quinate leaves as species of the digitate leaf.) 6. folium pinna turn, a pinnate leaf; composed of a number of leaflets, arranged, like wings, along both sides of the middle rib. Of this beautiful kind of leaf, we have many examples, but the finest occur in the leguminous plants, as they are called; as in different species of Robinia, Cassia,&c. fyc. &ct. To this general head of the pinnate leaf, L. refers various species or varieties, such as 1. folium pinnatum cum imparl; un- equally pinnate, when the wings composed of leaflets are terminated by a single leaflet; as in Robinia viscosa. 2. folium pinnatum cirr- hosum; cirrhosely pinnate; terminated by a tendril. 3. folium pin- natum abruplum; abruptly pinnate; neither terminated by a leaflet nor by a tendril. 4. folium pinnatum opposite; oppositely pinnate; having the leaflets placed opposite to each other, in pairs, as in Cassia marilandica. 5. folium pinnatum allernatim? alternately pinnate; the leaflets ranged alternately alongthe common petiole. 6. folium pinnatum interrupte; interruptedly pinnate; having smaller leaflets interposed between the principal ones. 7. folium pinnatum articulate; jointedly pinnate; when the common footstalk is articulated, or jointed. 8. folium pin- natum decursive; decursively pinnate; when the leaflets run into one another along the common petiole. 9. folium conjugatum, a conju- gate leaf; having only one pair of leaflets. B. Thefoliicm compositum decompositum, or decompound leaf is so called, when the primary petiole is so divided that each part forms a compound leaf: in other words, the footstalk, instead of sup- porting small lobes, or leaflets, on the top, or on each side, bears par- tial footstalks, from which proceed the leaflets on both sides. To this head, L. refers the following species of leaves, viz. 1. folium bi^emi- natum, or bigeminate leaf; having a dichotomous or forked petiole, * See the plate of ^Esculus spicata, in this work. f See the plates of Robinia viscosa and Cassia marilandica> ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 53 with several leaflets at the extremity of each division. 2. folium bit- ernatum, a biternate or doubly-ternate leaf; when the petiole has three ternate leaflets; as in Epimedium. 3. folium bipinnatum, a doubly- winged leaf, or frond; when the common petiole has on each side of it pinnate leaves.* 4. foliumpedatum; a pedate leaf; when a bifid or forked petiole connects several leaflets on the inside only: as in Passi- flora, Arum, Helleborus foetidus, &c. C. The folium compositum supradecompositum, or supradecom- pound leaf, is a species of compound leaf, in which the petiole, being several times divided, connects many leaflets, each part forming a de- compound leaf: as in Pimpinella glauca, Ranunculus rutaefolius, &c To this head L. refers the following species, viz. 1. folium triternatum, a triternate or triply-threefold leaf; when the petiole has three biter- nate leaves. 2. folium tripinnatum, a tripinnate, or three times pinnate-leaf; when the petiole hasbipinnate leaves ranged on each side of it; as in in the Pteris aquilina, and other ferns. 3. folium tergemi- num, a tergeminate or thrice-double leaf; " when a forked petiole is subdivided, having two leaflets at the extremity of each subdivision; and also two other leaflets at the division of the common petiole."t III. The Determination or Disposition of leaves, whether they be simple or compound, comprehends the following particulars, viz a, the locus, or place of the leaf, b, its situs, or situation, c, its insertio, or insertion, and d, its directio, or direction, a. By the place of a leaf, botanists mean the particular part where it is attached to the plant. Under this head, L. enumerates the following species of leaves, viz. 1. folium seminale, the seed-leaf; the primary leaves of the plant; being the cotyledons or lobes of a seed expanded, and in a vegetating state.f 2. folium radicale, a root-leaf; proceeding immediately from the root, and not adhering to the stem.§ 3. folium caulinum, a cau- line leaf; growing immediately on the stem, without the intervention of branches. 4. folium rameum, a branch-leaf, growing on, or pro- ceeding from, a branch. 5. folium axillare, an axillary leaf; growing at the angle which is formed by the branch with the stem. 6. folium fiorale, a floral leaf; immediately attending the flower, and never ap- pearing but with it. This last must not be confounded with the bractea, or bracte. b. The situation of leaves respects their position in regard to themselves. Under this head, L. enumerates the following species of leaves, viz. I. folia stellata, or stellate leaves; when more leaves than two surround the stem in a whorl, " or radiate from the stem like the spokes of a wheel," exemplified in the Medeola verticillata, and Cucubalus stellatus. || Such leaves are also called verticillate leaves. 2. * As in Athamanta Libanotis, many Ferns, &c f Professor Martyn. X See Plate V. § See the plates of Dionaea Muscipula and Hypoxis erecta. || See the figures of these two vegetables. 54 ELEMENTS OE BOTANY. folia terna, quaterna, quina, sena, fyc. three-fold leaves, four-fold leaves, five-fold leaves, six-fold leaves: diflerent species or varieties of stellate leaves, when the leaves grow, in a whorl, three together, four, five, and six together. 3. folia opposila, opposite leaves; grow- ing in pairs, each pair decussated, or crossing that above and below it"* 4. folia alterna, alternate leaves; coming out one after or above another, in a regular succession, or gradation; as in Ludvigia alter- nifolia.t The term alternate is opposed to the opposite. 5. folia sparsa, scattered leaves; neither opposite nor alternate, nor in any regular order: as in several species of Lily. 6. folia conferta, crowded or clus- tered leaves; leaves so copious as to occupy the whole of the branches, hardly having any naked space between: as in the AntirrhinumLinaria, called in Pennsylvania, Ranstedweed. 7. folia imbricata, imbricate leaves; lying over each other in the manner of tiles upon a house. 8. foliafasciculata, fascicled leaves; growing in bundles or bunches from the same point; as in the Larch-tree. 9. folia disticha, two ranked leaves; leaves respecting only two sides of the branch, though inserted on all parts of it: as in the Fir, and Lonicera Diervilla. For as in different species of Nymphaea, &c, ending or May-apple, read, as in the majestic Nelumbo lutea, which adorns some of the wet meadows in the vicinity of Philadelphia; in the Tropaeolum, or Indian- Cress; in the Geranium peltatum; the Podophyllum peltatum, or May- apple; the Hydropeltis purpurea (See Plate xxxii. Fig. 12.) the Diphylleia cymosa, figured by Michaux, Flor. bor. amer. torn. i. tab. 19, 20., and in many others. 2. A leaf is said to be centro-peltate, folium centropeltatum, when the foot-stalk is inserted directly, or nearly, in the centre of the leaf, as in the Nelumbo and Hydropeltis, just mentioned. c. By the insertion of the leaves, is meant the manner in which they are attached to the plant. To this head, L. refers the following species of leaves, viz. 1. folium peltatum, a peltate, or target-shaped leaf; having the footstalk inserted into the disk of the leaf, instead of the edge or base, which is the more common mode of insertion: as in different species of Nymphaea, such as the Nymphaea Nelumbo, Nym- phaea odorata, &c. in the Tropaeolum, or Indian-cress, which is men- tioned in Part Second; in the Geranium peltatum, and the Podophyl- lum peltatum, or May-apple. 2. folium petiolatum, a petiolate or petioled leaf; growing on a petiole or footstalk, which is usually in- serted into its base: as in the greater number of leaves. The term is opposed to sessile. 3. folium sessile, a sessile leaf; a leaf which is im- mediately connected with the stem or branch, without the interven- tion of a footstalk; as in Rhexia virginica. % 4. folium decurrens, a * See the figures of Collinsonia canadensis, Veronica, Rhexia mariana, Gerardia flava, and other plants represented in this work. f See the figure. % See the figure. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 55 decurrent leaf; a sessile leaf, with its base extending downwards along the trunk, or stem: as in Symphytum, or Comfrey, Carduus, or This- tle, &c. 5. folium amplexicaule, a stem-clasping-leaf, embracing, clasping, or surrounding the stem by its base (N. B. some leaves go only half round the stem: these are denominated folia se??ii-amplexi- caulia, or half-stem-clasping leaves.) 6. folium perfoliatum, a per- foliate or perforated leaf; having the base of the leaf entirely surround- ing the stem transversely; so that the stem appears to have deen driven through the middle of the leaf: as in Bupleurum rotundifolium, Eupa- torium perfoliatum, or Thorough-wort, &c. 7. folium connatum, a connate leaf; when two opposite leaves are so united at their bases as to appear as though they were one leaf: exemplified in the Garden Honeysuckle, &c. 8. folium vaginans, a sheathing leaf;* when a leaf invests the stem or branch by its base, in form of a tube: as in many Grasses, Polygonum, Rumex, 8fc. d. With respect to their direction, leaves are as follows, viz. 1. folium adversum, an adverse leaf; when the upper side is turned to the south: as in Amomum. 2. folium obliquum, an oblique leaf, having the base directed towards the sky, and the apex, or point, towards the horizon: as'in Protea and Fritillaria. 3. folium inflexum, an inflex or inflected leaf; bent up- wards, at the end, towards the stem. 4. folium adpressum, an oppress- ed leaf; when the disk approaches so near to the stem, as to seem as if it was pressed to it by violence. 5. folium erectum, an erect or up- right leaf; when it makes with the stem an angle so acute as to be close to it 6. folium patens, a spreading leaf, forming an acute angle with the stem or branch upon which it is placed; between the erect and hori- zontal position. 7. folium horizontale, a horizontal leaf; making a right angle with the stem, the upper disk being turned towards the heavens. 8. folium reclinatum, a reclined leaf; bent downwards, so that the point of the leaf is lower than the base. 9. folium revolulum, a revolute leaf; having the edges rolled back, or towards the lower sur- face; as in Rosemary, Kalmia glauca, &c. 10. folium dependens; a leaf hanging down, or pointing directly to the ground. 11. folium radicans, a rooting leaf, a leaf shooting forth radicles, or roots; as in some aquatic plants. (This term is also applied to those leaves which being planted in the ground, there strike root and vegetate: such are the solid and fleshy leaves of several of the Liliaceous plants, the Aloe, Squill, &c. also the leaf of the Orange, and many other vegetables.) 12. folium natans, a floating leaf; a leaf which lies or floats upon the surface of the water, as in Nymphaea, Potamogeton, Trapa natans, &c. and 13, and, lastly, the folium demersum, or demerse leaf; called also a drowned or sunk leaf, a leaf which grows below the surface of the water: this is exemplified in Vallisneria spiralis and Vallisneria ameri- cana, especially the male plants; and in many other aquatic plants.— Some plants are constantly placed below the surface of the water, * " A glove-like leaf." Milne. 56 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. whilst others withdraw themselves to the bottom of the water, in which they grow, in order to avoid the rigour of the winter-season. The whole surface of a leaf is denominated the Discus, or the Disk. The upper surface is called Discus supinus; the under Discus pronus, the upper and under disk. Pagina superior, and Pagina inferior are also the names of the two disks, or surfaces. The apex, tip or end of the leaf, is the upper extremity, farthest removed from the base or insertion. Ludwig and some other writers have distinguished leaves into pri- mary and accessary. The primary are those of which I have already treated: the accessary are those which L. denominates stipulse and bractese. A knowledge of the leaves of plants is of the utmost importance in the study of Botany. In the investigation of the species of vegetables, there are no parts, which furnish us with such elegant characters or marks as do the leaves. Nature seems to have taken delight in giving to the leaves, forms almost innumerable.* Without being acquainted with the principal and more determinate of these forms, it is impossible to make an extensive progress in the attainment of bolanical know- ledge. It is from the leaves, that some of the most eminent botanists, particularly Mr. Ray, Adrian Van Royen, and L. have taken the greater number of their specific names or characters of plants. The last-mentioned writer lays it down as an axiom, that the leaves exhibit the most elegant natural differencest. He allows, that good marks of distinction are afforded by the root, and the trunk, and other parts of the plant As the leaves of plants are subject to great variation, in respect to their forms and substance, and even in respect to their situation. I cannot but think, that many botanists have laid too implicit a depen- dence upon their characters drawn from them. It is certain, that soil, climate, elevation above the level of the sea, and other circumstances, considerably vary the aspect of the leaves of vegetables. How differ- ent, in many instances, are the leaves of the same species of plant, when growing in a northern and more southern climate. How dif- ferent the same species when confined to the valley or the plain; or elevated, far above the level of the sea, upon the sides or summits of lofty mountains? How different the same species when growing in a dry and in a wet situation? L. observes, that opposite and alternate leaves generally indicate very different plants, with the exception of such genera as contain * « Natura in nulla parte magis fuit polymorpha, quam in folus, quorum itaque species numerosissima", studiose aTyronibus addiscendse." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 218. . t " Folia elegantissimas naturalissimas differentias exhibent." Philosophia Botanica, &c. p. 218. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 57 some species that have opposite, and others alternate leaves." But neither should too much dependence be placed upon this circumstance, m imposing specific names, or in drawing the characters of plants. Not unfrequently, the same individual has opposite leaves below, and alter- nate leaves above; or opposite above, and alternate below. This, in- deed, is admitted by L. who gives a small list of plants, the excep- tions to his general axiom.f I am persuaded, that the leaves are much less constantly opposite or alternate, even in the same species, than many writers have imagined. J In the year 1751, the celebrated nosologist, Francis Boissier Sau- vages, published his Methodus foliorum sen plantse florae Mon- speliensis juxta foliorum ordinem. In this work, Sauvages has at- tempted an arrangement of plants, from the situation or position of their leaves. But no succeeding botanist, that I know, has implicitly adopted the method of the French writer. Nor is it probable, that a method founded upon such principles will ever be adopted by genuine botanists, in pursuit of determinate characters, or in search of nature's scheme. Innumerable natural families of plants, such as the Gerania, Saxifragae, Ranunculi, Veronicae, not to mention the treasures which the great continent of New-Holland is pouring upon us, forbid such an arrangement. An arrangement of vegetables founded upon the re- semblances or differences of their leaves, will be even much more abominable, than the arrangements of those naturalists who have as- sociated together quadrupeds, and other mammalia, from the affinities of their teeth and claws. B. II. Of the Anatomical structure of Leaves. When the leaf of a plant is torn in a horizontal direction, we observe exteriorly a membrane, which is generally thin, and almost pellucid. This membrane has been called-lhe epidermis, or scarf-skin, of the leaf. It has, with more propriety, been denominated the cortex, or bark of the leaf. This bark does not adhere to the subjacent parts with equal firmness in all plants; nor, even on the two surfaces of the leaves in the same plant. It possesses this singular property, that when you tear it off, it quickly folds itself inwards; but when it is dry, it is twisted in a contrary direction. This circumstance has induced some writers (Mr. De Saussure, at least,) to imagine, that the leaf contains two distinct systems of vessels. The pili, or hairs, which cover the surfaces of many leaves, appear to be seated in the bark. It is this part also, that is so frequently marked with white and other spots, in diseased plants Sometimes, at least, as in the Cyclamen, or Sow- bread, the disease is not deeper situated than the bark: in some plants, however, it extends further, even into the parenchymatous portion of the leaf. ' Philosophia Botanica, &c p. 102. f Ibid. p. 103. X See the explanation of the figure of Ludvigia alternifoha. 8 58 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. The bark of the leaf appears to be composed of an epidermis, pro- perly so called, and a thicker substance, which, for distinction sake, might be lenominated the cutis, or skin. It is the opinion of some physiologists, that this compound leaf-bark is a continuation of the outer and inner barks of the stem and branches, to which the leaf is attached: a supposition which seems extremely plausible, since the leaf appears to be, in fact, nothing but a kind of flat or compressed petiole, as is easily discovered by macerating a leaf and petiole in water. Now, the'petiole can, in many plants, be shown to be com- posed of the outer and inner barks, the wood, and the medullary substance of the common trunk or stem. The bark of the leaf is furnished with a number of glandular-like bodies, which are of different forms and sizes in different, and even in the same, species of vegetable. De Saussure has endeavoured to show, in an express work* on the bark of the leaves and petals of plants, that these organs are real glands, which perform the office of animal glands; the secretion and the preparation of the juices of the leaf. It is known, that these cortical glands are found upon both disks or surfaces of the leaves of the herbaceous vegetables: but it has been asserted, (by Mr. Bonnet,) that in the aborescent vegetables they are exclusively confined to the under surface. This, when it is considered, that between trees or shrubs and the herbaceous vegetables, nature has not placed any decided distinction, seems not at all probable. But Mr. De Saussure has shown, that these glands exist upon the upper surface of the leaves of the Juniper. The cortical glands adhere to the beautiful net-work of which I am presently to give an account, and are surrounded by a fibre, or small vessel. Between the gland and the vessel, there is, however, an interval. The shape of the gland is that of an oval oblong: the surrounding vessel is of an eliptical form. There is an evident communication between the vessels of the cortical net and this circumambient vessel. Mr. De Saussure also observed a small and slender vessel proceeding from the extremity of the gland, and communicating with the circum- ambient vessel of the gland. This beautiful structure of the bark of the leaf occasions us to regret, that hitherto, we have attained to so little certain knowledge concerning the real uses of the glandular-like structure. Meanwhile, there seems to be little reason to doubt, that the glands are a necessary part of the vascular system, which is next to be mentioned. Under the bark of the leaf, we meet with a beautiful net-work of vessels, which, whether they be arteries, veins, or absorbing lymphatics, are evidently a continuation of the vessels of the common stem, and petiole. This net-work is known by the name of the cortical net of the leaf. It is the rete corticis of Mr. De Saussure. It is composed of a great number of vessels, which by crossing each other, and often * Observations sur 1'ecorce des feuilles etpetales. A Geneve; 1762. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 59 anastamosing (for the language of the animal anatomists may, with strict propriety, be extended to vegetables,) form the net-like appear- ance of which I am speaking. The forms of the areas between the thread-like vessels composing the net are very different in different veg- etables; and even in different parts of the same vegetable. These areas are more regular upon the upper than upon the under side of the leaf, and they are narrower and longer towardsthepetiole, or foot-stem of the leaf, than towards the middle and anterior part. Each area is commonly made up of six threads, so as sometimes to give to it an hexagonal form. More generally, however, the areas are formed by right lines. The fibres or threads of the corticle net are, unquestionably, vessels. They are transparent, and it is highly probable, are a true system of absorbents, furnished with their proper glands. In the leaves of many plants, they are sufficiently distinct, without the aid of colouring injec- tions: but they are seen to the greatest advantage, in many other plants, by immersing a common stem with a number of leaves, or a single leaf with its petiole, in the diluted juice of the Phytolacca de- candra: or in a solution of the sulphat of iron, and then transferring them to a decoction of galls. In the former case, the cortical net. assumes a fine purple colour; in the latter it is as distinctly seen, being of a dark brown or ink colour. In the leaves of the Maple, according to Ludwig, the cortical net is simple; in those of the Holly, it is double; and it appears to be triple in those of the Orange. Under the cortical net, and in the areal interstices between the vascular fibres, we meet with another substance, which has received the name of the parenchy- ma, the pulp, or pith of the leaf. This substance is of a tender and cellular nature, but is by no means inorganic, or destitute of vessels. On the contrary, it appears to be distinctly composed of larger vessels than those which compose the cortical net; at. the same time that the areal interstices are larger than those of the net. It is this pulpy substance which is so frequently consumed by the armies of insects, which spread their hateful ravages through the gardens, the fields, and the forests of our earth. Leaving entirely, or in a great measure, untouched, the net-like work which has been mentioned, we often observe the leaves of a tree reduced, by caterpillars, and various other species of insects, to the appearance of mere dead skeletons. It is by macerating, for a considerable time, in water, the leaves of plants, and thus reducing the parenchymatous part to a more tender pulp, and afterwards expressing it out, that we form those beautiful preparations of leaves, which are so well calculated to show the fabric of the cortical net. C. III. Of the uses of the leaves. There is, I believe, no part or organ of the vegetable body, concern- ing the uses of which physiologists have been more divided in opinion, than respecting the leaves. One of the earliest opinions which seem to have been advanced by the naturalists concerning the uses of the leaves of vegetables, is that of Andreas Caesalpinus. In his work De 60 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Plantis, first published in 1583, this celebrated man, to whom both natural history and medicine are indebted for the discovery or pro- mulgation of many important truths, imagined, that the leaves were merely a kind of clothing, or a protection of the vegetable against the influence of cold and wet. The Italian Philosopher supposed, that the solar influence being weakened in its passage through the leaves, was thus prevented from acting with so much violence as it otherwise would, uppn the fruit and young buds. " Accordingly, he observes, many trees lose their leaves in autumn, when their fruits are perfected, and their buds hardened, while such as retain the fruit long, keep also their leaves, even till a new crop is produced, and longer, as in the Fir, the Arbutus, and the Bay. It is reported (he adds) that in hot climates, where there is almost perpetually a burning sun, scarcely any trees lose their leaves, because they require them for shade." There is, unquestionably, some foundation for these observations; and, in particular, I think, for that part of the theory which ascribes to the leaves a protecting power from the influence of the sun's rays. It would not, however, if I mistake not, be difficult to mention a con- siderable number of trees which lose their leaves in, or near, the torrid zone. On the other hand, many trees and shrubs drop their leaves before the winter season, though their fruit is not yet perfected; and consequently it is exposed to all the rigours of a cold climate. This is the case with many North American Oaks, with the Franklinia Ame- ricana, the Gordonia Lasianthus, Hamamelis communis, and many others, which require an entire year to bring their fruits to perfection.* The leaves have been considered as the perspiratory organs of the vegetable.! But Dr. Hales made an experiment which renders it very improbable, that they are merely perspiratory organs. This learned writer having cut off some branches of trees with apples upon them, and then stripped off the leaves, found that one apple perspired or ex- haled about the same quantity of fluid as two of the leaves, the surfaces of which were nearly equal to the surface of the apple. X This simple experiment proved, that both the fruit and the leaves perspired: it, cer- tainly, gave no ground for asserting, that the leaves are exclusively the organs of perspiration. The leaves have been deemed by some, the organs destined for the excretion of excrementitious juices. Dr. Hales, however, has shown, that in moist weather the leaves do not * Some vegetables bear the loss of their leaves, by whatever means effected, tolerably well. This is especially the case with the White Mulberry (Morus alba,) the leaves of which may be repeatedly plucked by the hand, in the course of the same year: and we often see, in Pennsylvania, a third, and some- times a fourth, crop of leaves upon our Elms, in consequence of the depreda- tions of the pernicious little coleopterous insect, which proves so destructive to them in our streets, gardens, &c. t J. S. Guettard, and many other writers. X Statistical Essays, &c. Vol. I. p. 30. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 61 perspire at all. It has also been observed, that " as the vapour exhaled from vegetables has no taste," this idea is not more probable than that which considers the leaves as perspiratory organs.* This, to me, does not appear to be very satisfactory reasoning. Certainly, a fluid which, to our organs, has no perceptible taste, may be noxious to, and there- fore proper to be thrown out of, the body of the vegetable. But the fluid perspired by the means of many vegetables is by no means entirely tasteless; and we well know, that it is often a fluid which exerts a very decided, and even powerful, effect upon our organs of smell. These circumstances do not, however, invalidate the opinion, that the leaves are pulmonary organs. On the contrary, they even give additional weight to that opinion. The quantity of perspirable matter which is thrown off some plants, and especially, perhaps, from their leaves, is almost incredible. Dr. Hales says the great annual Sunflower (Helianthus annuus,) that mag- nificent vegetable, which was cultivated by the Indians of America, from Peru to the great lakes of Canada, perspires about seventeen times as fast as the human skin, in its ordinary* functions of perspiration. Another vegetable remarkable for the rapidity and greatness of its per- spiration, is the beautiful Hydrangea Hortensia, now so common in the United States, where it stands even the rigours of our winters—in Pennsylvania at least. Some species of Rose also perspire very large- ly. But it has been thought, that hardly any plant perforins the func- tion of perspiration so extensively as the Cornus mascula, or Cornelian Cherry. According to Duhamel, the quantity of fluid which is eva- porated by the leaves of this vegetable, in twenty-seven hours, is al- most equal to twice the weight of the whole plant, t Is the perspiration of the North American species (which are numerous) of the genus Cor- nus, peculiarly great ? The matter of perspiration of plants, is very various in diflerent genera and species. Sometimes, it may be con- sidered as a mere insipid water. We have seen this perspiration in the Weeping Willows (Salix babylonica) of Philadelphia, to such a de- gree, that the brick pavements have been wetted by them, as though by a shower of rain. The leaves of orange-trees sometimes perspire a saccharine matter, and so do some Solanaceous plants. Cistus creticus, of the Greek islands, perspires a resinous matter, the Labdanum of the shops, which is collected by beating the shrub by means of leather straps.X Dictamnus albus, called Fraxinella, exhales an inflammable vapour, which catches fire, when a taper is applied to it The leaves, as well as the fruit of many vegetables, perspire, or per- haps more properly secrete, a waxy matter, which may easily be dis- covered upon their surface. The fine glaucous covering of many Plumbs, and other fruits, is certainly of this nature. The perspiration of plants, * Dr. Darwin. f Phisique des Arbres, &c torn i. p. 145. X See Tournefort's Voyage to the Levant. English translation, vol. i. p. 79, 82. London: 1741. 62 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. like that of animals, is influenced by a variety of circumstances, a few only of which I shall mention here: viz. different conditions of the at- mosphere, not only in regard to heat and cold, dryness and moisture, but also, if I mistake not, a greater or lesser degree of electricity. Plants perspire more or less, according to their state of vigour, as we daily observe in the management of our flower-pots. Lastly, the per- spiration of plants is essentially increased by subjecting them to the in- fluence of stimulating agents, such as camphor, nitre, and the like, as I have had particular occasion to observe in regard to the Liriodendron Tulipifera, &c.—See Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 4. Some writers* are of opinion, that the leaves absorb a large quantity of nutriment, which is conveyed to every part of the plant. As the leaves are so abundantly supplied with vessels, which appear to be absorbents; and as the leaves of many vegetables when entirely de- tached from the parent grow extremely well, we can hardly doubt, that they are, in some measure, the organs of nutrition to the plant. Some ingenious philosophers have supposed, that the leaves acquire the electrical fluid from the atmosphere; whilst others, with perhaps as much propriety, have imagined, that these organs derive a certain phlogistic or inflammable principle from the light of the sun; because the leaves of so many vegetables are observed to present their upper disk or sur- face to the light With respect to these two hypotheses, a very in- genious philosopher! has observed, first, " that no electricity is shewn by experiments to descend through the stems of trees, except in thun- der-storms; and that if the final cause of vegetable leaves had been to conduct electricity from the air, they ought to have been gilded leaves with metallic stems:" secondly, "that if the final cause of vegetable leaves had been to absorb light, they ought to have been black and not green; as by Dr. Franklin's experiment, who laid shreds of various colours on snow in the sun-shine, the black sunk much deeper than any other colour, and consequently absorbed much more light.! We shall afterwards, however, have occasion to show, that light is essen- tially necessary to the just nourishment and complete health of the greater number of plants. It has been supposed,§ that the leaves are a kind of stomach or digestive organ to the plant; that the nutritious juices, which are absorbed by the roots, are conveyed to the leaves, where they undergo a more complete assimilation, which better befits them for the nutrition of the plant. But the function of vegetable digestion is by no means exclusively confined to the leaves; and it has not been proved, that these beautiful organs do, in fact, perform any very essential change in the obvious or intimate properties of the fluids or other matters, which are originally taken up by the roots. We are * Hales, Lars Kullin, Dr. Adam Hunter, Dr. Priestley, &c. t Dr. Darwin. -f Phytologia, &c. Sect. iv. § By Gustavus Bonde, Professor Ludwig, Sir John Hill, &c. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 63 certain, that the leaves are incapable of essentially altering the taste, smell, colour and other properties of many of the bodies which their vessels absorb: and it would be rather unphilosophical to contend, that they are the digestive organs of the plant, unless we were able to prove (what has not yet been proved,) that the nutritious matters which are conveyed from the root to the leaves, are again returned by the leaves to the stem, and other parts of the body. More probable than any of the opinions, that I have mentioned, is that which ascribes to the leaves a kind of respiratory function. This opinion, which was early adopted by some of the ingenious philoso- phers to whom we are indebted for much of our knowledge of the physiology of vegetables, very naturally resulted from a few simple, but conclusive experiments. Mr. Papin found, that a plant which he had put into an exhausted receiver, lived a long time, provided only the leaves were permitted to receive the influence of the air. But when the whole plant was put into the receiver, without the precaution just mentioned, it died very soon. Hence, it was sufficiently evident, that the leaves absorbed or inspired air. Moreover, it had long been known, that the leaves of vegetables were destroyed by anointing their upper surface with oil. This seemed so analogous to the effect of oil in killing insects, to which it was applied, that it was naturally infer- red, that the oil operated by stopping air-vessels in the leaves, as well as in the insects. About the year 1746, LarsKullin, a Swedish writer, endeavoured to prove, that the leaves of trees absorb the external air, and that they afterwards exhale both air and water. L. has very expressly denominated the leaves, the lungs of vegeta- bles.* To the great loss of natural science, both L. and Haller were taken from their labours in this world, soon after! the commencement of that brilliant era of the xviii century, when Priestley, and other illustrious men, turned their attention to the relative relations which subsist between the atmosphere and vegetables. Had the Swede and the Swiss philosophers lived a few years longer, they would, in all pro- bability, have essentially changed some of their opinions, respecting the functions of plants and animals. The learned and ingenious Dr. Erasmus Darwin has taken much pains to prove, that the leaves are not only the lungs of vegetables, but that the office of these leaves is extremely similar to that of the lungs of man, and many other animals. The following is the substance of the author's arguments and speculations on the subject. 1. The leaves t< consist of an artery, which carries the sap to the extreme surface of the upper side of the leaf, and there exposes it under a thin moist pelli- cle to the action of the air; and of veins, which there collect and return it to the foot-stalk of the leaf, like the pulmonary system of animals. 2. In this organ the pellucid sap is changed to a coloured blood, like v Philosophia Botanica, &c p. 93. f Haller died in 1777, and Linnaeus on the eleventh of January, 177b. 64 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. the chyle in passing through the lungs of animals. 3. The leaves of aquatic plants are furnished with a larger surface, and with points like the gills of aquatic animals. 4. The upper sides of aerial leaves repel moisture, like the larynx of animals. 5. Leaves are killed by smear- ing them with oil, which in the same manner destroys insects, by stop- ping their spiracula, or the air-holes to their lungs. 6. Leaves have muscles appropriated to turn them to the light, which is necessary to their respiration. 7. To this may be added an experiment of Mr. Papin, related by Mr. Duhamel.* He put an entire plant into the ex- hausted receiver of an air-pump, and it soon perished; but on keeping the whole plant in this vacuum, except the leaves, which were exposed to the air, it continued to live a long time, which he adds is a proof that the leaves are the organs of respiration."! I have little hesitation in believing, that the leaves are somehow essentially concerned in the function of vegetable respiration. But I think it is far from being satis- factorily proved, that there exists in the leaf, a two-fold system of ves- sels, answering to the pulmonary artery and the veins of man, and other animals. 1 do not, however, deny, that such a system does exist in the structure of the leaf. I even think it probable that it does. I cannot, however, consider as decided the experiments which Dr. Dar- win has adduced, in support of his opinion. I have made similar ex- periments with lactescent and other vegetable leaves, immersing them in colouring matters, such as the juice of the Phytolacca, or Poke, decoction of galls, solution of the sulphats of iron and copper, &c. In making these experiments, it was easy to perceive, that a system of vessels, which runs between the bark and the wood of the stem, enters the petiole, its continuation the middle rib, and is finally beautifully spread upon the disks or surfaces of the leaf. But I have not been able to convince myself, that the colouring matter is exclusively diffused, in the first instance, upon the upper disk. In some of my plants, indeed, the colouring matter was most distinctly perceived upon the superior surface of the leaf, as in Dr. Darwin's experiments with Euphorbia helioscopia, Picris, and Senecio bicolor. In other plants, however, it was sufficiently evident, that the colouring matter, after passing through the petiole, moved more especially along the lower side of the middle rib, and from this was carried through the vascular net of the leaf, nearer to the lower than to the upper surface of the leaf. These ex- periments were so frequently repeated (under a favourite impression too, that there is in plants, as well as in animals, a true circulation,) that I cannot imagine, that I have been deceived in my observation. It must be confessed, however, that the upper surface of the leaves of vegetables, does seem admirably adapted for exposing the vegeta- ble blood to the action of the atmosphere; and it is highly probable, that from the influence and absorption of air, or one of the component * La Physique des Arbres, &c. Premiere Partie. p. 169, 170. \ Phytologia, &c. Sect, iv* ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 65 parts of the atmospheric mass, the Juices of the leaves do undergo some very essential and indispensible change. Perhaps, the blood of the leaf is oxygenated, or derives from the atmosphere, or from the water, in which it grows, a portion of vital air; much in the same manner that the blood of man and other land-animals is oxygenated by the vital air, which exerts its effects upon this fluid, through the medium of the lungs. The blood of man and many other animals does, unquestion- ably, derive its lively crimson color from the contact and absorption of vital air. It is even probable;; that this vital air (so necessary to the maintainance of animal life) is the'great .source or foundation of the irritability of the system; since in the beautiful experiment of Charles Frederick Wolf, the attribute of irritability was first observed, in the incubated chick, at the very moment that the blood acquired its red colour.* Dr. Darwin, indeed, seems to have no doubts, that in the lactescent plants, with which he made his experiments, the milky fluid, after having been exposed to the atmosphere, upon the upper surface of the leaves, was evidently of a much whiter colour on the under sur- face. In the former case, as we have seen, he supposes the blood was carried, by an artery, from the petiole to the extremity of the leaf; and in the latter case, returned by a system of veins, corresponding to the pulmonary veins, from the extremity to the petiole. I have already, however, mentioned the experiments, which have compelled me to entertain some doubts as to the reality of a circulation in the leaves of plants. Whatever may be the precise function of the leaves in the vegetable economy, it is generally agreed that a different office belongs to the upper and to the under sides of these organs. Thus, Dr. Darwin asserts, that it is the upper surface only, that respires. He justly remarks, that this surface, in many plants " strongly repels moisture," as in cabbage- leaves, where the particles of rain that lie over them, without touching them, have the appearance of globules of quicksilver. It appears, like- wise, from actual experiments, that the leaves of many plants, when they were laid with their upper surfaces upon the water, withered,al- most as soon as in the dry air, though the same leaves, when they were placed with their under surfaces upon the water, continued green many days. These experiments, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bonnet, incontestibly proved, that with respect to the plants which were the subjects of his experiments, there was an essential difference as to the absorbing capacity of the two surfaces of the leaves: the upper surface absorbing much less than the under surface. He put the stalks of many leaves, fresh plucked, into glass tubes filled with water, having previously covered with oil or varnish the upper surfaces of some, and the under surfaces of others. Our ingeni- ous philosopher uniformly observed, by the sinking of the water in the tubes, that the exhalation from the under surfaces, was more than ' Theoria Generalionis. 1750. it<>. 9 66 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. double what it was from the upper surfaces. In a supplement to his great work,* on the uses of the leaves, Bonnet has further observed, that the inferior surface of the leaves of some aquatic plants is much better adapted for the purpose of absorption than the superior surface. He made his experiments with the leaves of a species of Nymphaea, or Water-Lily. It must not be forgotten, however, in this inquiry, that Saussure has discovered upon the upper surface of the leaves of some vegetables, a system of vessels, which appeared to that judicious author to be the same as the absorbing system of the lower surfaces of other leaves. Upon the whole, there seems to be little reason to doubt, that both the upper and the under surfaces of the leaves of vegetables are furnished with their absorbing vessels; and it is highly probable, that, in many plants, air is absorbed as well by the latter as by the former of these surfaces. I have already intimated that the office of the leaves, is a varied and a complex one. Dr. Hales was of the same opinion, a long time ago. In his Statical Essays, he does not hesitate to consider the leaves as the vegetable organs of nutrition, respiration, perspiration, and excre- tion. The experiments of Hales render it probable, that thus various are the functions of the leaves. I am persuaded, that future experi- ments will decidedly prove, that the leaves are not merely the lungs and perspiratory organs of the vegetable. D. IV. Miscellaneous circumstances relative to the natural history of leaves. 1. More than twenty-five thousand species of vegetables are now known to the botanists, and of this number a very large proportion is furnished with leaves. None of the trees, strictly so called, are desti- tute of these beautiful parts. Some vegetables, however, are leafless. Such are the two species of Ephedra,! or Shrubby Horse-tail, and the great family of Fungous plants. These last have many of the habit- udes of animals, and even the circumstance of their being leafless vege- tables is one in the series of their relations to that vast empire of organ- ized bodies. 2. The leaves of certain vegetables acquire a very great size. It is curious, too, to remark, that it is only in the hot or hottest portions of the globe, that we find the largest leaves. I believe that the cold cli- mates, and even those whieh are moderately warm, do not furnish us with any instances of very large-leaved trees. It does seem, that the magnitude of the leaves of certain species of trees, increases as we ap- proach the line. 4: In the cold climates, we find no Palms, with leaves so large as to be capable of sheltering whole families from the incle- * Recherches sur l'usage des feuilles dans les plantes, &c. A Gottingue & Leide: 1754. 4to. f Ephedra distachya, and Ephedra monostachya. The first species is a na- tive of the south of France, and of Spain : the latter is a native of Siberia. X The amiable Bernardin De Saint Pierre. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 67 mency of the weather.* Why should we doubt, (when a vast system of benevolence is so conspicuous in this earth), that in giving to the vegetables of hot climates such capacious leaves, the Author of the universe had consulted the health, the comforts, and the pleasures of the human inhabitants, destined to live beneath the scorching rays of the sun ? But man is not the only animal that derives advantages from the large spreading leaves of tropical trees. The birds and many other animals are equally benefitted. Destitute of this shelter, many species would be nearly incapable of subsisting in the countries in which they reside; and, in particular, they would be incapable (unless their instinc- tive operations were essentially varied) of rearing their young. 3. The precise time of the year and month in which any given spe- cies of vegetable unfolds its first leaves is denominated, by L., Fron- descentia.X To this subject, the Swedish naturalist has paid much at- tention. He made a great number of observations, in eighteen different provinces of his native country, situated between the sixtieth and se- ventieth degree of north latitude, in the years 1750, 1751, and 1752. It was his object to discover, which species of trees begin to open their buds, and unfold their leaves, at the most proper time for the sowing of Barley. The result of his inquiries was, that the Birch-tree (Betula AInus) gave the most proper indication for this purpose. He justly imagined, that in every province of Europe, there exist other trees, which will, in like manner, indicate the proper time for sowing grains of different kinds, and also esculent herbs. This is, certainly, a sub- ject worthy of the attention of naturalists, whose inquiries are directed to utility. Much important information would result from an extensive investigation of the subject. The agricultural rules of savage nations are frequently founded, in a great measure, upon the frondescence, to- gether with the time of flowering, of different vegetables, indigenous in their countries. Thus, the Indians, in different parts of North Ame- rica, are of opinion, that the best time for planting the Maize, or In- dian-corn, is when the leaves of the White-OakJ first make their ap- pearance; or rather, as they express it, when the leaves of this common tree are of the size of a §squirrel's ears, I shall have occasion to touch again on this subject, when treating of the Calendarium Florae, or Calender of Flora. 4 By the term Defoliatio,\\ or Defoliation, L. means the season of the year at which the vegetables of any particular country shed their leaves. Thus, this term is directly opposed to that * One of the largest leaves that are known to us is that of the Talipot (Co- rypha umbraculifera?) a native of Ceylon. Robert Knox assures us that a single leaf is capable of covering from fifteen to twenty persons. He consi- ders the Talipot as one of the greatest blessings that Providence has bestowed upon the inhabitants of a country, which is parched by the sun, and inundated by the rains, for six months in the year. f From Frons, a leaf. X Quercus alba. § Sciurus cinereus, the most common species of squirrel in North America. || From de, and Folium, a leaf. r,8 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. of frondescentia. With respect to the defoliation of vegetables, it is proper to observe, that the same species does not always drop its leaves at the same time, even in the same district of a country; but, in parti- cular, that the same species sheds its leaves at very different periods, in different countries. In both instances, the difference of the time of defoliation seems to depend, principally, upon a difference of season, or of climate. Extreme heat and extreme cold are both observed to be favourable to the fall of the leaf. In the hot summers, the leaves of many plants lose their verdure, and fall a full month earlier than they do in milder seasons. 5. The fall of the leaf is almost always pre- ceded by a very essential change in its colour. Yellow, red, and brown are the most common colours of the dying leaf. About the close of September (sooner or later according to the season), the forest- trees in Pennsylvania, and other middle parts of the United States, begin to lose their verdure. The leaves assume new colours, particu- larly yellow and red, or crimson. Nothing can be more picturesque than an American forest, at this season. The beauties of the scenery will be described by some future Thompson ; or exhibited on canvass by the pencil of an American Salvator Rosa. It will be sufficient for me to observe, that the leaves of almost all the species of Juglans (Walnuts and Hickory) and Maple, assume different shades of yellow; whilst those of Nyssa integrifolia, called Gum, the Laurus Sassafras, the Cornus florida, or Dogwood, and others, are clothed in a livery of crimson, or red. 6. Some vegetables do not drop their leaves at all, during the whole year. Their verdure is not, in the least, injured by the changes of the weather. The Fir, the Juniper, the Yew, the Cypress, the Kalmiae, and many others,.belong to this class of Ever- greens, as they are very emphatically called. In general, the leaves of the evergreens are harder and less succulent than those of deciduous vegetables. It is observable, also, that their surfaces are covered by a very thin, parchment-like cortex, or bark. It is found, that they per- spire less than the leaves of deciduous vegetables. Some writers have, accordingly, conjectured, that the sempervirent quality of these vege- tables is owing to the smallness of their perspiration. Dr. Arbuthnot imagined, that the verdurous quality was owing to the leaves contain- ing more juices than can be exhaled by the sun. The celebrated Dr. Grew supposed, that a thick epidermis, dense cellular substance, and few tracheae, or spiral-vessels, are the true cause of the perpetual ver- dure of these vegetables. Duhamel thought, that this state of the vege- table depended upon a hard knot, at the base of the leaves. Others, again, have supposed, that a gummy matter, residing within the vege- tables, is the cause of the lasting verdure. But if this were the case, we should find, that Cherry-trees, Plumb-trees, Peach-trees, and other vegetables that abound in gum, would be evergreens also. Perhaps, none of these explanations of the cause of the evergreen quality of leaves is wholly satisfactory. The circumstance seems principally referable to climate. The same species is a perdifoil, or drops its leaves, in one ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 69 climate, and preserves them in another. Thus, the Passion-flower* of America, and the Jasmine of Malabar!, are evergreens in their native climates, but become perdifoils when they are transplanted into Britain, and other northern parts of Europe, On the other hand, many of the perdifoils of cold climates, when transplanted to warmer climates, be- come evergreens. Thus, the Quince-tree is a perdifoil in northern countries, but becomes an evergreen when transplanted to the south of France, the island of Minorca, and other southern climates. I am assured, that the Currant-bushes which were sent from Britain, where they are deciduous, to the Island of St. Helena, became, in a short time, evergreens, but ceased to bear fruit. Professor Thunberg informs us, that the Oak (Quercus Robur,) the White Poplar (Populus alba,) and other trees which were imported from Europe to the Cape of Good- Hope, " shed their leaves in the winter, as they do in their native places, whereas the African trees do not part with theirs. It is not long, however, (continues our author,) before they recover their leaves again. This circumstance is singular enough: first, because the cold here (at the Cape of Good Hope) in winter is not more severe than it is in Sweden in the autumn; and in the second place, because they shed their leaves to the southward of the equator at the very time that they put them forth to the northward of it"i The various colours which the leaves of vegetables assume in the autumn, prior to their fall, have been supposed by some eminent che- mists, to depend upon the absorption of oxygen. How far is this hy- pothesis well founded? Are the autumnal colours of the same species of vegetable, inhabiting different portions of the globe, in nearly the same parallel of latitude, the same ? Laurus Sassafras is said to inhabit Cochinchina; Juglans nigra and Bignonia Catalpa, Japan. It has been very justly observed, that some vegetables are by their very nature, or the structure of their parts, perdifoils, or deciduous. This is the case with the two species of Platanus, or Plane-tree, that are now known to us. Thus in the Platanus occidentalis, one of the most ma- jestic and common of the North American trees, the buds are concealed in the end of the petiole, and as they increase in size, they unavoida- bly force off the leaf, the petiole of which is now dilated at its origin, assuming a funnel-like appearance. In this funnel or cavity, the bud was concealed. This Platanus (called in the United States Button- wood, or B. tree, Sycamore, and Water-Beach) is by this structure of its buds, absolutely a perdifoil. The leaves fall off in the latter end of October, at which time we sometimes find the cavity at the end of the petiole, large enough to admit the end of the little finger; and it is al- most impossible to see a single leaf remaining upon any of these trees in the winter season. The same structure of the petiole occurs in other * Passiflora coerulea. t Jasminum grandiflorum. X Travels in Europe, Africa, and Asia, &c. Vol. I. p. 104. English trans- lation. London : 1796. 70 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. vegetables, which, for the same reason, are perdifoils; such as the Vir- gilia, or Yellow-wood, a tree of Tennessee, and other western parts of North America. In different species of Rhus, or Sumach, the fall of the leaf is not so determinate, though here also the nascent bud presses upon the petiole. But in the Sumach, the pressure of the bud is ob- lique; and consequently, the petiole is not so readily forced off. 7. Mr. Bruce informs us, that all the leaves of the trees in Abyssi- nia, are very highly varnished, and of a tough, leather-like texture, which enables them to support the constant and violent rains, under which these trees are produced.* This is a wise provision of nature. But in what, the highest or the lowest object, is not thy wisdom, Na- ture, conspicuous ? III. Of the Fulcra, the third general part of the herb. The fulcra, or fulcres, are defined by L. to be helps of the plant, for its more commodious sustentation, or support. At different times, he enumerated a very different number. In the Fundamenta Botanica, published in 1736, they were six, and stood in the following order, viz. Bractea, Cirrhus, Spina, Aculeus, Stipula, and Glandula. In a subsequent edition of the same work, he enumerated nine fulcres, the three additional to those just mentioned, being the Scapus, the Petiolus, and the Pedunculus, which he had formerly considered as species of trunks. In his immortal work, the Philosophia Botanica, published in 1750, we find but seven species enumeratad : viz. Stipula, Bractea, Spina, Aculeus, Cirrhus, Glandula, and Pilus. In the Termini Botanici, published in the Amoenitates Academicae,X by John Elmgren, one of the pupils of the great naturalist, and in the De- lineatio Plantas, which is prefixed to the second volume of the Sys- temas Naturae, the fulcres were to experience one more revolution. In these works, the terms Aculeus and Spina give way to the general term of Arma; and Pilus is supplanted by the less delicate, and less determinate, term Pubes, by which L. means every species of pubes- cence, or hairy appearance, on the surface of plants. Glandula also is swallowed up in Pubes, and the partial trunks, Petiolus and Peduncu- lus, are again to appear among the fulcres. The list now stood as fol- lows, viz. Petiolus, Stipulae, Cirrhus, Pubes, Arma, Bractese, Pe- dunculus. I find it not a little difficult to satisfy my mind, as to the parts of the plant which ought to be introduced under this general head of fulcres. I do not think the science of Botany would lose much of its value, by the entire abolition of the term. Certain it is, that several of the arti- cles enumerated by L. cannot, with any degree of propriety, be consi- dered as props, for the more commodious sustentation of the plant. Upon what principle, can we denominate the spina, the aculeus, the glandula, and the pilus, species of props? Perhaps, bractea and stioula * Travels, &c. Appendix, p. 151, 152. Quarto edition. f Vol. VI. Dissertatio cxiit. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 71 have not a much higher claim to this title. But I dare not think of abolishing a term, sanctioned by the authority of so many able bota- nists; though one* of the most distinguished of them has confessed, that the term is rather " forced." I shall treat, under the head of fulcres, of the following parts of the plant, viz. 1. Petiolus. 2. Pedunculus. 3. Cirrus. 4. Stipula. 5. Bractea. 6. Spina. 7. Aculeus. 8. Glan- dula. 9. Pilus. I. The Petiolus,! or Petiole, called also the Leaf-stalk, or Foot-stalk, is a fulcre supporting the leaf. I have had frequent occasion to make mention of this part, in the preceding pages. I have observed, that L., at different times, considered it as a species of trunk. But if the name fulcre must be retained, I think we may be glad to have an opportunity of referring to this head, both the petiole and peduncle. I am aware, that this is not the language of all botanists. Thus, Dr. Milne is of opinion, that neither the petiole nor the peduncle have been, with pro- priety, enumerated among the fulcres, " with which (says this often judicious writer) they have no connexion."*^ In the generality of plants, the petiole is nearly of the same colour as the leaf to which it belongs. Indeed, it appears to be nothing but the leaf in a compressed state. The evolution of the leaf from the petiole is very distinctly observed in the Sallisburia adiantifolia or Ginko.§ The petiole of many plants is nearly cylindrical; it is, however, more com- monly somewhat compressed, its upper surface, at least, being flatted *. the under round or convex. " By this configuration, the footstalks of compound leaves are generally, with accuracy, distinguished from the young branches, with which beginners are very apt to confound them."|| In the greater number of vegetables, the leaves and the fructifi- cation are supported by distinct footstalks. In a few plants, however, the same footstalk supports both the leaf and the flower, or the fruit. This is the case in Turnera ulmifolia, and in Hibiscus Moscheutos, or Syrian Mallow. The petiole sometimes supplies us with very ele- gant marks for discriminating the different species of a genus. The petiolus alatus, or winged petiole, is a species of leaf-footstalk, which has a thin membrane or border, on each side of it. This little charac- ter distinguishes the Orange (Citrus Aurantium,) from the Lemon (Citrus Medici.) In the latter species, the petiole is linear, that is nearly of the same breadth its whole length. This is the petioluslinearis of L. 2. The Pedunculus, 1T or Peduncle, is a partial stem, or trunk, which supports the fructification, without the leaves. I think it most proper * Dr. James Edward Smith. t By the Roman writers, the term petiolus was employed to denote the foot- stalk of the fruit. In this sense, it is used by Columella. X A Botanical Dictionary, dec article Fulcra. § The Maiden-hair tree, a native of Japan. || Milne. 11 Mr. Ray, and other of the older botanists use Pediculus, instead of Pedun- culus. The former is, certainly, the more classical name. It is sanctioned by Pliny, the naturalist, and other good writers. 72 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. to treat of it, in this place, among the number of fulcres. Professor Martyn properly calls it " the fulcre of the fructification." The principal species or varieties of the peduncle enumerated by L., are now to be mentioned. a. With respect to its place of origin, a peduncle is 1. radicalis, a root peduncle; proceeding immediately from the root. 2. caulinus, a stem peduncle; proceeding from the stem. 3. rameus, a branch pedun- cle; proceeding from a branch. 4. petiolaris, petiolary; proceeding from the petiole. 5. cirrhiferus, or tendril bearing. 6. terminalis, ter- minating, or proceeding from the top of the stem. 7. axillaris, axil- lary, proceeding from the axil, or angle, which is made by the leaf and the stem, or the branch and stem. 8. oppositifolius, opposite to a leaf. 9. lateriflorus, having the flower on the side of it. 10. interfoliaccus, among the leaves: perhaps, intrafoliaceus, within the leaf. 11. extra- foliaceus, without, or on the outside of the leaf. 12. suprafoliaceus, inserted into the stem, higher than the leaf, or than its petiole. b. With respect to their situation, peduncles may be, 1. oppositi, opposite to each other, or, 2. alterni, alternate. 3. sparsi, scattered, without any regular order. 4. verticillati, in whorls. c. With respect to their number, peduncles may be 1. solilarii, soli- tary, or single. 2. geminati, double, two together, or in pairs. In the umbellula, umbellule, or rundlet, several equal peduncles proceed or diverge from the same centre, or point. The peduncle, according to the number of flowers which it bears, is denominated, 1. uniflorus. 2. biflorus,3. triflorus, &c. 4. multiflorus, that is, one, two, three- flowered, and many-flowered. d. With respect to its direction, a peduncle may be, 1. appressus, pressed close to the stem. 2. erectus, upright. 3. patens, spreading. 4. cernuus, drooping, or pointing to the ground. 5. resupinalus, upside down. 6. declinatus, bowed, or curved downwards. 7. nutans, nod- ding, or curved downwards, more so than in the last mentioned, but less so than in the drooping peduncle. 8. adscendens, rising gradually. 9. flaccidus, weak or feeble, bending with the weight of the flower, which it supports. 10. pendulus, loose, tending downward with the leaf. 11. strictus, stiff and straight. 12. flexuosus, bending readily, in different directions. 13. retrofractus, bent backwards, as if broken. e. With respect to its measure, a peduncle is, 1. brevis, short. 2. brevissimus, very short. 3. longus, long. 4. longissimus, very long. f. With respect to its structure, a peduncle is, 1. teres, round, cylin- drical, or perhaps rather columnar. 2. triqueter, three-sided. 3.tetra- gonus, four-cornered. 4. filiforrnis, like a thread, or of the same thick- ness in all its parts. 5, attenuatus, tapering gradually towards the top. 6. incrassatus, growing gradually thicker towards the top. 7. clavalus, club-shaped; or thick at the end. 8. nudus, naked. 9. squamosus, scaly. 10. folialus, leafy. 11. bracteatus, furnished with bracteae, or bractes. 12. geniculatus, kneed, or bent at the joints; and, 13. arti- culatus, jointed. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 73 The Cirrus,* or Tendril, called also Clasper, is a fine spiral string, or fibre, proceeding from different parts of the plant, and by means of which it fastens itself to some other plant or body. The term cirrus is synonimous to the terms of Capreolus, Clavicula, and Viticu- lus of the older botanists. The various species of tendrils mentioned by L. I shall notice under two heads: first, according to their place of origin, or situation; se- condly, according to their form, or the number of leaves which they support. I. fo the first head, we refer the following: viz. 1. cirrus axillaris, when the tendril proceeds from the axil, or angle formed by a branch with the stem, or by a leaf with a branch. 2. cirrus foliar is, proceed- ing from the'leaf; as in the Pisum Ochrus, or Winged-Pea. 3. cirrus petiolaris, proceeding from the petiole, or footstalk of the leaf. 4. cirruspeduncularis, from the peduncle. 2. To the second head belong the following, viz. 1. cirrus simplex, a simple or undivided tendril. 2. cirrus trifidus, a three-cleft tendril; a tendril divided into three parts. 3. cirrus multifidus, many-cleft, or often divided. 4. cirrus diphyllus, a two-leaved tendril; furnished with two leaves. 5. cirrus tetraphyllus, a four-leaved tendril; having four leaves 6. cirrus polyphyllus, a many-leaved tendril; having many leaves. 7. cirrus convolutus, a convoluted tendril; twisted into rings, or spirals. 8. cirrus revolutus, a revolute tendril; when a spire of the screw having made half a revolution, turns back in a contrary direction.f Tendrils are a very important appendage to many vegetables. The Solanum Dulcamara, Bignonia radicans, called Trumpet-flower, and some species of Hedera, or Ivy, emit tendrils, which serve the place of roots, planting themselves into the bark of trees, or in the Avails of buildings. In the Cucumber, and other cucurbitaceous plants, the ten- drils serve both for sustentation, and for shade. By means of these parts, the trunks of the plants are bound, as it were, together, and prevented from being at the sport of the winds. "The same claspers serve likewise for shade: so that a natural arbour is formed by the branches of the Cucumber, in the same manner as an artificial one is made by tangling together the twigs of trees; for the branches, by the linking of their claspers, being couched together, the tender fruits lie under the umbrage of a bower, made of their own leaves.]; * L. writes the word Cirrhus, which is less proper, not sanctioned, as far as I know, by any good or classical writer. Martial, Phsedrus, Pliny, die. write it cirrus. The Latin word signifies a tuft, or lock of hair curled, a curl or frizzle, -*">.-•£> and originally from khm-t!^, to cover: not, as some writers have supposed, from *-■'.■£> a cup. 12 90 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. different kinds of calyx: viz. the Perianthium. 2. the Involucrum. 3. the Amentum. 4. the Spat ha, 5. the Gluma. 6. the Calyp- tra: and 7. the Volva. 1. The Perianthium,* or Perianth, is the most common species of calyx. It is placed most contiguous to the fructification; or, in other words, immediately under the flower, which, in many plants, is con- tained in the perianth, as in a cup. On this account, this species of ca- lyx has been denominated the flower-cup. It is also called the Em- palement. Various species of perianthium are enumerated by L. A. The Pe- rianthium fructificationis, or perianth of the fructification, includes both the stamens and the germ: that is, the male and female organs of generation. This is the most common species of perianth. It is ex- emplified in Nicotiana, and various other plants. B. The Perianthium floris, or perianth of the flower, contains the stamens, but not the germ. This species of perianth is exemplified in the Epilobium, Gaura,! and all those other vegetables which have the germ or seed-bud placed be- low the receptacle of the floAver. C. The Perianthium fructus, or perianth of the fruit, contains the germ, but not the stamens. This is exemplified in the females of many of the plants of the two classes Mo- noecia and Dioecia.f Linnaea, Clove-tree, Morina, and several other vegetables, have two perianths, which very well illustrate the two last mentioned terms. In these vegetables, one of the perianths is appro- priated to the flower, whilst the other belongs to the fruit. a. With respect to the number of the leaves, of which it is composed, the perianth has received the following names: viz. 1. perianthium mo- nophyllum; a one-leafed perianth, composed of only one leaf; as in To- bacco, Thorn-Apple, Primrose, and many other plants. 2. Perian- thium diphyllum, a two-leaved perianth, consisting of two leaves; as in the Poppy, Claytonia, Fumatory. 3. perianthium triphyllum, a three-leaved perianth; consisting of three leaves, as in Dock, Magnolia, Tulip-tree, Annona, or Papaw, Podophyllum peltatum, or May-apple, &c. 4. perianthium telraphyllum, a four-leaved perianth, consisting of four leaves: as in Water-Lily, Heath, the plants of the class Tetrady- namia. 5. perianthium pentaphyllum, a five-leaved perianth, con- sisting of five leaves; as in Ranunculus, Glass-wort, Beet, Flax, and a great number of those plants, the flowers of Avhich have more than one petal. 6. perianthium hexaphyllum, a six-leaved perianth, consist- ing of six leaves; as in Lions-leaf, Berberry, Hillia parasitica, &c. 7. perianthium heptaphyllum, a seven-leaved perianth; consisting of se- ven leaves; as in Trientalis, or Winter-green. 8. perianthium octo- phyllum, an eight-leaved perianth, consisting of eight leaves, as in Mimusops, and Diapensia. 9. perianthium decaphyllum, a ten-leaved perianth; consisting of ten leaves; as in Galax. 10. perianthiumpo- * Perianhium, from"■*§<> around; and, *v3-"*, a flower. ! See Plate XVI. Fig. 2- t See Plate XXIX. fig. 2- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 91 lyphyllum, a many leaved perianth; consisting of many leaves, or more than ten. b. A one-leaved perianth is either, 1. integrum, entire; that is un- divided, as in Genipa and Olax. 2. bifidum, two-cleft; cut into two segments or divisions, as in Tuberous Moschatel, Purslane, &c. 3. trifidum, three-cleft; cut into three segments, or divisions; as in Her- mannia and Cliffortia. 4. tetrafidum, four-cleft; cut into four seg- ments or divisions; as in Galium, and Elephant's head. 5. quinquefi- dum, quinquefid, or five-cleft; as in Tobacco, and the greater number of flowers that are furnished with a calyx of one leaf. 6. sexfidum, six-cleft, or cut into six segments; as in Ginora americana. 7. octofi- dum, eight-cleft; as in Tormentil. 8. decemfidum, ten-cleft, as in Cinquefoil, and Herb-Bennet: and 9. duodecemfidum, twelve-cleft; as in Purple Loosestrife, and Water-Purslane. c. In respect to figure, a perianth is either, 1. tubulosum, tubular; or running in the form of a tube. 2. patens, spreading. 3. reflexum, reflex, or bent back; as in Asclepias, and Leontodon. 4. inflatum, inflated, hollow, or puffed up like a bladder; as in Physalis, called Ground-Cherry. 5. globosum, globose, or globular. 6. clavaticm, club-shaped; as in Silene. 7. erectum, erect or upright. d. In regard to the proportion which it bears to the corolla, the pe- rianth is, 1. abbreviatum, abbreviated, or shorter than the tube of the corolla; as in Tobacco,* and most other plants. 2. longum, long; longer than the tube of the corolla. 3. mediocre, middle-sized; about the length of the tube of the corolla. e. At its top, the perianth is, 1. obtusum, obtuse. 2. acutum, acute. 3. spinosum; spinous or thorny. 4. aculeatum, prickly. 5. acuminatum, acuminate. f. The perianth is, 1. aequale, equal, having all the segments of the same size. 2. inaequale, unequal; when some of the segments are smaller than others. 3. labiatum, lipped; when the segments are ir- regular, and formed into two lips. g. The perianth, with respect to its margin, is, 1. integerrimum, very entire. 2. serratum, serrated. 3. ciliatum, ciliate. h. The perianth has received a variety of names, according to its surface. ' But these names have already been explained, in treating of the terminology of leaves. i. The situation of the perianth, with respect to the germen, is, 1. superum, superior; Avhen the germen is under the lower part of the perianth. 2. inferum, inferior, when the germ is above the base of the perianth. k. In respect to its duration, the perianth is either, 1. caducum, ca- ducous, or falling off before the complete opening of the flower; as in the Poppy and the Barrenwort. 2. deciduum, deciduous, or falling off with the floAver, that is the petals, the stamens, and the style; as in Ber- Src Plate XI. tig. I. f'2 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. berry and the Cross-shaped flowers. 3. persistens, permanent; or con- tinuing until the fruit has attained to maturity; as in the lip and masqued floAvers, and several others. /. 1. In respect to its composition, the calyx sometimes consists of a number of leaves, which are laid over each other, like tiles, or scales. This is the perianthium imbricatum, or imbricate calyx. Hawk-Aveed, SoAV-TKistle, and many other Syngenesious plants, furnish'us Avith beau- tiful instances of this species of calyx.* Sometimes the scales of the calyx spread wide, and are diffused on-all sides, and not closely laid over each other, as in the preceding species. This last is the perianthium squarrosum, or squarrose calyx; of which we have examples in This- tle, Onopordum, Cooyza, &c.t 3. In some plants, as in the Pink, Co- reopsis, and others, the base of the calyx, which is simple, is surround- ed, externally, by a series of distinct leaves, which are shorter than its own. To this species of Calyx, L. has given the name of calyx auc- tus, and Vaillant, calyx calyculatus, an increased calyx, caliculate, or calycled calyx. 4. The perianthium scariosum, or scariose perianth, is a species of calyx, which is tough, thin, and semi-transparent; as in Statice Armeria, or Thrift, Centaurea, glastifolia, &c. 5. The perian- thium turbinatum, turbinate, or top-shaped perianth, is inversely co- nical, and shaped like a boy's top, or a pear. The Grislea secunda and Memeclyon capitellatum exhibit instances of this species of perianth. m. The perianthium is either, 1. proprium, proper, that is belonging to one flower; or, 2. commune, common, belonging to several flowers, collected together. n. Some floAvers, such as the Amaryllis, the Tulip, the Lily, J and many others of the liliaceous plants; also the Medeola,§ are said to be destitute of the perianth. But I shall aftenvards have occasion to ob- serve, that what the SAvedish naturalist names, in these flowers, the co- rolla is deemed the calyx, by some other eminent botanists. In the greater number of plants, the perianth is single. In Morina, Sarracenia,|| and some of the plants of the Mallow-family, as Althaea, Alcea, Malva, Lavatera, Gossypium, Hibiscus, &c. it is double. 2. The second species of calyx, which I have mentioned, is the In- volucrum.^ This is called by Dr. Martin, Involucre. It is chiefly re- stricted by L. to the umbelliferous flowers, and is defined, by this wri- ter, a calyx remote from the flower.** This species is placed below the common receptacle, which, in the umbelliferous plants, is a number of footstalks, Avhich all proceed from one common point or centre, and rise to the same height. Each of the footstalks is terminated by an * See the Plate of Silphium terebinthinaceum. ! See the Plate of Helianthus divaricatus. i t See Plate XIII. fig. 2. § See Plate XIV. || See Plate I. If Involucrum, from involvo, to Avrap up. 1" " Calvx umbellac a flore remotus." ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 93 umbel, Avhich is similar, in its form and structure, to the large umbel, and is commonly, like it, furnished with an involucre. When a calyx of this kind is placed under the.uni\*ersal umbel, it is called, by L. in- volucrum universale, an universal involucre. When it is placed under the smaller or partial umbel, it is denominated involucrum par Hale, a partial involucre. This is sometimes termed, involucellum, or invo- lucret Dr. Withering calls it the Partial Fence. In most of the um- belliferous flowers, such as the Hemlock, Fennel, Anise, and in other plants, not strictly umbelliferous, as the Cornus florida, or Dogwood, and other species of this genus, there is, besides the two involucres, a proper perianth, which is situated under each of the florets, or smaller floAvers, of which the umbel is composed. The involucre is composed of one or more leaves. When composed of one, it is denominated in- volucrum monophyllum, a one-leafed involucre, as in Bupleurum: when of two leaves, involucrum diphyllum, a two-leafed involucre, as in Euphorbia: when of three, involucrum triphyllum, as in Buto- mus and Alisma: Avhen of four, involucrum tetraphyllum; as in Cor- nus: when of five,involucrumpentaphyllum; as in Daucus; and when of six, involucrum hexaphyllum; as in Haemanthus. The partial invo- lucre, or involucret, consists either of two leaves, as in Artedia; of five, as in Hare's ear; or of many, as in Bishop's-weed, and Fennel-Giant The involucrum dimidiatum, dimidiate, or half-leaved involucre, is an involucre which is deficient on one side; as in iEthusa, or. Fool's Parsley. It is difficult to say, in what very essential circumstance the involucre of those plants Avhich are not umbelliferous, such as Cornus, or DogAvood, some species of Anemone, &c. differs from the bractea, or bracte. It Avould seem, indeed, that L.'s principal reason for sepa- rating the involucre from the bracte was this, that he might make use of the former part in drawing his generic characters of the umbelliferae. 3. The amentum,* or Ament, called also Catkin, is a species of ca- lyx, which consists of a great number Of chaffy scales, that are dispersed along a slender thread, or receptacle. On account of its supposed re- semblance to a cat's tail (though it bears as close a resemblance to the tails of many other animals as to that of the cat,) it has receivedone of its English names, viz. catkin. The French call it Chaton; and many botanists have denominated it Catulus. The term amentum was used by the great Tournefort, before it was employed by L. The term is perfectly synonymous as the terms julus and nucamentum, which are employed by some botanists. L. defines the ament to be a composition of a calyx, and a common receptacle. The squamae, or scales, which form this species of calyx, are mixed alternately Avith the flowers, and resemble the chaff in an ear of corn.! The ament occurs very frequent- * The term amentum, as used by the Roman writers, signifies a thong, a loop, a strap, or lash, to hold a sling, spear, or javelin by. ' ! For a fine representation of the ament, see the figure of Betula populifolia, in this work. 94 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ly in the tAventy-first and twenty-second classes of the Sexual System, the classes Monoecia and Dioecia, the particular characters of which are afterwards to be explained. In this place, however, it is proper to observe, that in the first mentioned class, the ament supports both male and female flowers, on the same root, or individual. This is the case in the Hornbeam, Walnuts, and Hickories, Chesnut, Chinquepin, and many others. In the class Dioecia, the ament supports male and female flowers, on distinct roots, or individuals. This is the case in the Wil- lows, Poplars, and many others. It not unfrequently happens, that in plants of the class Monoecia, the male and female floAvers are mixed to- gether, or situated very close to each other; Avhilst in other plants, they are situated at a considerable distance from each other; but, in both in- stances, upon the same root, or individual. In the latter case, the ament frequently supports flowers of one sex, and a calyx of the perianth kind supports those of another sex. Thus, in the Corylus, or Hazle, the male and female flowers are placed remote from each other, upon the same root or individual. The male flowers form an ament, whilst the females are inclosed in a perianth. In the class Dioecia, there are some plants, such as Pistachia-nut, Juniper-tree, and Ephedra, or Shrubby Horse- tail; the male flowers of which are formed into an ament; whilst the fe- male flowers are surrounded Avith a perianth. In general those flowers, whether they be male or female, or both, which are supported by an ament, are destitute of the petals, or painted leaves. The Oak, the Beech, the Hazel, the Cypress, the Pistachia-nut, and several others, are illustrative of this observation. 4. The Spatha,* or Spathe, is a particular species of calyx, which opens, or bursts longitudinally, in form of a sheath, and produces a stem, which supports one or more flowers. It consists either of one piece, as in the Narcissus, Snow-Drop, and the greater number of plants that are furnished with this species of calyx. 2. of two pieces, as in the Stra- tiotes, or Water-soldier; or 3. of a number of scales, which are laid over each other like tiles; as in Musa, or Plantain-tree. The first species of spathe is called by L. spatha univalvis, a one valved spatha; the second, spatha bivalvis, a two valved spathe; and the last, spatha imbricata, an imbricate spathe. The spatha dimidiata, or halved spathe, is a spathe which invests the fructification only on the inner side. Accord- ing to the number of flowers which it produces, the spathe has received ' different names, such as 1. spatha uniflora, a one-flowered spathe. 2. spatha bifiora, a two-flowered spathe. 3. spatha multiflora, a many- flowered spathe. L., in his Fragments of a Natural Method, has established an order of plants, to which he has given the name of Spa- thaceae. This order embraces a number of very fine vegetables, some of which have already been mentioned, in a former part of this work. * Spatha, in the Latin language, has various significations, such as a two- handed, or bastard-sword, a spatula, the branch of a Palm-tree, &c. "•*■>> a woman, and -"»- a man. *[ Perigonium, from -**-§-, about, and >-■•"-, seed. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 101 or Nectary." The petal constitutes the principal part of the corolla. It surrounds both the stamens and the pistils, or the male and female organs of generation.. It consists of one or more pieces. According to the number of its petals, the corolla has received the following names. 1. corolla monopetala, one-petalled, or monopetalous, con- sisting of only one petal; as in Convolvulus,* Tobacco,! and many others. 2. corolla dipelala, dipetalous, or two-petalled; as in Comme- lina,J Circaea, and others. 3. corolla tripetala, three-petalled; con- sisting of three distinct petals; as in Sagittaria,§ Alisma, &c. 4. corolla tetrapetala, tetrapetalous, or four-petalled; as in the plants of the class < Tetradynamia. 5. corolla pentapetala, or five petalled; consisting of five distinct petals, as in Marsh-Marygold, the Umbellatae, &c. 6. corolla hexapetala, hexapetalous; or six-petalled; consisting of six pe- tals; as in Lily, Tulip, Amaryllis, Pancratium, &c. 7. corolla poly- petala, polypetalous, consisting of many petals. (This term is some- times used by L., in opposition to the term monopetalous. By many writers it has been put for a corolla of more than six petals.) Of the po- lypetalous plants, some have nine petals, as the Liriodendron, and some an indefinite number, as Water-Lily, and Globe-Ranunculus. When the corolla consists of only one piece, as in the monopetalous corolla, the whole corolla, in the Linnaean sense of the word, is a petal. A flower which has no petals, or corolla, is termed by the botanists, ape- talus, or apetalus filos, an apetalous flower. This term was adopted by L. from Tournefort. It is equivalent to the term imperfectus, or imperfect, of Rivinus, Knaut, and Pontedera: the term stamineus of Ray; the incompletus of Vaillant; and the capillaceous of some other botanists. The existence of the apetalous flowers has been denied by Christian Knaut.|| But we well know that there are not a feAv vegeta- bles whose flowers are entirely destitute of the petals. If the notions of Mr. Jussieu and some other botanists, concerning the calyx and the corolla, be admitted as just, it must then be granted, that very many plants, and some of them the most beautiful with which Ave are acquaint- ed, are strictly apetalous. The number of petals of which a corolla consists is determined from the base of the corolla. The rule of Rivinus is to reckon as many pe- tals as the parts into Avhich the flower, when it falls, resolves itself. This criterion will in most instances be found very exact. But in some instances it is found to be insufficient for our purpose. For the corolla of the Vaccinium Oxycoccos, or Cranberry, is unquestionably only one- petalled; but this floAver, upon falling, resolves itself into four distinct leaves. From the diffidulty that occurs in some instances of deter*nn- ing Avhether a corolla consists of one or more petals, we find that Tournefort reckons the corolla of the Mallow-tribe of plants monope- * See Plate XI. Fig. 3. ! See Plate XI. Fig. 1. X See Plate X. Fig. 1. § See Plate XVIII. || In his Mcthodus Plantarum genuina. Halla:: 1716. 102 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. talous; whilst L. considers it as pentapetalous. a. Different names are assigned to different parts of the corolla. Such are the folloAving. 1. The tubus, or tube, is the lower part of a monopetalous corolla; as in Tobacco, &c. 2. The unguis, or claw, is the lower part of a many- petalled corolla, by Avhich it is fixed to the receptacle; as in Lily, &c. 3. The limbus, or limb, is the border, or upper dilated part of a mono- petalous corolla. 4. The lamina, or border, the upper, spreading part of a many-petalled corolla. (L. has not uniformly used the term lim- bus, in one sense, for he sometimes employs it for the dilated part of a many-petalled corolla, b. In regard to its divisions, the corolla is, 1. bifida, bifid, or two-cleft; Avhen each petal is divided into two; as in Chickweed, and Enchanter's Nightshade. 2. trifida, three-cleft; when each petal is divided into three parts; as in Holosteum, and Hypecoum. 3. tetrafida, four-cleft; as in Cucubalus.'* 4. quinquefida, five-cleft; as in Basard-Rocket 5. multifida, many-cleft; as in Convolvulus Soldanella. (This term is equivafent to the term laciniatus filos of Tournefort.) 6. bipartita, two-parted; simple, but divided almost down to the base. 7. tripartita, three-parted, simple, but divided into three parts, almost down to the base. 8. laciniata, laciniated; divided into segments, c. In respect to equality, the corolla is, 1. re- gularis, regular; equal in the figure, size, and proportion of the parts; as in Privet, Lilac, Jasmin, &c. 2. irregularis, irregular; when the parts of the limb differ in figure, magnitude, or proportion; as in Aco- nite, Lupin, and Dead-Nettie. 3. inaequalis, unequal; having the parts corresponding, not in size, but proportion; as in Butomus umbellatus.! 4. aequalis, equal; when the petals are of the same size and figure; as in Primula, Lim'osella, &c. (There does not appear to be any essential difference between the terms aequalis and regularis: and, perhaps, as Dr. Martyn observes, the term regular expresses the idea better.) 5. difformis, difform, anomalous, or irregular; when the petals, or their segments, are of different forms, d. In respect to figure, the corolla is, 1. globosa, globose, globular, or spherical; round like a ball; as in Trollius, or Globe-Ranunculus. 2. campanulata, campanulate, bell- shaped, or bell-formed; swelling or bellying out, without any tube; as in the Campanula, Convolvulus,J Atropa, and many others. (This term is, in strict propriety, applied to the monopetalous corollas only: yet, sometimes it is extended also to flowers that are polypetalous. 3. in- fundibuliformis, funnel-shaped; having a conical border rising from a tube; asinLithospermum, Stramonium, Henbane, Tobacco,§ and many others. 4. hypocrateriformis, salver-shaped; rising from a tube with a flat border; as in some of the plants called Asperifoliae; in Diapensia, Aretia, Androsace, Hottonia, Phlox, Samolus, &c. 5. rotata, wheel- * See Plate XVII. Fig. 3. ! See Piate XVI. Fig. 3. According to Jussieu, the cover of Butomus is a calyx, or perianth. X See Plate XI. Fig. 3. § See Plate XI. Fig. 1. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 103 shaped, spreadingflat without any tube; as in Borago, Veronica,* Phy- salis,! Verbascum, and others. 6. cyathiformis, cyathiform, glass- shaped, or cup-shaped; cylindrical, but widening a little at the top. 7. urceotata, pitcher-shaped, bellying out like a pitcher. 8. ringens, ringent, irregular, gaping with two distinct lips; a one-petalled corolla, the border of Avhich is commonly divided into two parts, to which the botanists have given the names of upper and lower lip. The former is sometimes called the galea, or helmet: the latter, the barba, or beard. The opening between the two lips is named rictus, or the gap: the opening of the tube, faux, the throat or jaws : the prominent swelling in the throat, palatum, or the palate; and the upper part of the tube, col- lum, or the neck. Most of the flowers in the fourteenth class of the Sexual System, Didynamia, are furnished with this species of corolla.J 9. personata, personate, or masked: said by L. to be a species of ringent corolla, but closed between the lips by the palate. "But surely (as Dr. Martyn observes,) ringent, or gaping with the lips closed, is a con- tradiction in terms. It would be better to define it a species of labiate corolla, Avhich has the lip closed." 10. cruciata or cruciformis, cru- ciform or cross shaped; consisting of four equal petals, which spread out in form of a cross. This species of corolla is exemplified in most of the plants of L.'s fifteenth class, Tetradynamia. § 11. papilionacea, papilionaceous, or Butterfly-shaped; irregular, and most commonly consisting of four petals, to which L. has given three different names: viz. the carina, the vexillum, and the alae. The carina, or keel, is the lower petal, Avhich is shaped somewhat like a boat; the vexillum, or standard, is the upper petal, which spreads and rises upwards; and the alae, or wings, are the two lateral petals, which stand singly, being separated by the keel. 12. rosacea, rosaceous, or rose-like; consisting of four or more regular petals, which are inserted into the receptacle by a short and broad claw; as in the Wild-Rose. (To plants which are furnished with this species of corolla, Tournefort has given the name of Rosacci. They constitute his sixth class.) 13. undulata, waved or undulated; the surface rising and falling in waves, or obtusely, not in angles; as in Gloriosa superba, and Gloriosa simplex. 14. plicata, plaited; or folded like a fan; as in Convolvulus. 15. revoluta, revo- lute, rolled back or downwards; having the petals rolled back; as in Asparagus, Medeola,|| and Lilium.1I 16. torta, twisted; as in Nerium, Asclepias, Vinca, &c. e. In respect to its margin, the corolla is, 1. crenata, crenate; as in Linum, Dianthus chinensis, &c. 2. serrata, serrate; as in Tilia, Alisma, &c. 3. ciliata, ciliate; as in Rue, Meny- anthes, Tropceolum, Gentiana, ciliata, &c. (These terms have already been explained under the head of the nomenclature of leaves.) f. In re- spect to its surface, the. corolla is, 1. villosa, villose. 2. tomentosa, * See Plate IX. Fig. 2. f See Plate XI. Fig. 2. f See Plate XIX. fig. 1. § See Plate XIX. fig 3. || See Plate XIV. f See Plate XIFI. fig. 2. 104 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. tomentose. 3. sericea, silky, or covered with very soft hairs, pressed close to the surface. 4. pilosa, hairy. 5. barbata, bearded; as in Dianthus barbatus. 6. imberbis, beardless: opposed to bearded. 7. cristata, crested; furnished with an appendage, like a crest or tuft; as in Polygala, Iris cristata, &c. g. In respect to its proportion, the co- rolla is, 1. longissima, very long; several times longer than the calyx; as in Lobelia longiflora, &c. 2. brevissima, very short; not as long as the calyx; as in Sagina procumbens, &c. h. In respect to its situation, the corolla is, I. supera, superior; having its receptacle above the germ. 2. infera, inferior; having its receptacle below the germ. i. In point of duration, the corolla is, 1. caduca, caducous; continuing only until the expansion of the flower, and then falling off; as in Herb-Christo- pher, and Meadow-Rue. 2. decidua, deciduous; when the petals fall off with the rest of the flower. 3. persistens, permanent; continuing until the fruit has attained to maturity; as in Water-Lily. 4. marces- cens, withering or shrivelling; withering on the stalk, without dropping; as in Campanula, Orchis, Cucumber, Gourd, Bryony,'&c. In some plants* even of the same species, the carolla is very caducous, or transitory; in others, it is more permanent. We are not acquainted with all the circumstances which thus essentially vary the longevity of the corolla. It is, however, a well knoAvn fact, that double flowers, in general, last much longer than single ones. Thus, in single Poppies, the corolla falls off in a feAV hours, whilst in double ones it lasts for se- veral days.* The double blossoms of the Cherry last much longer than the single blossoms of the same tree. It would, indeed, seem to be a general law of nature, that a longer duration of life is conceded to those vegetables, as well as animals, which are prohibited by their structure, or other circumstances, from the function of generation. In double blossoms, the organs of generation being obliterated, impregna- tion cannot take place; but in single blossoms, the parts being perfect, there is no obstacle to the generative act. In like manner we find that the mule, which (in general at least) is not fertile, lives longer than the horse or the ass, by which he is begotten; and it has long since been ob- served, that the term of life of the locust and other species of insects, as Avell as of various species of birds, may be very considerably pro- tracted by prohibiting them from all intercourse with their respective females, k. In respect to its composition, the corolla is, 1. composite compound; consisting of several florets, included within a common pe- rianth,^ and sitting upon a common receptacle; as in the plants of the class Syngenesia. 2. ligulala, ligulate, or strap-shaped; when the florets have their corollets flat, spreading out towards the end, with the base only tubular; as in the plants of the first order of Syngenesia.! 3. tubulata, tubulous; when all the corollets of the florets are tubular and nearly equal. 4. radiata, radiate, consisting of a disk, in which the * Dr. James Edward Smith. t See Plate XXII. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 105 corollets or florets are tubular and also regular; and of a ray in Avhich the florets are irregular and commonly ligulate. /. In regard to its co- lour, the corolla of different vegetables assumes almost every knovA*n colour. L, ever in pursuit of analogies, has distinguished the corolla by the name of auleum filoris, or palace in which the nuptials of the plant are celebrated. But this species of language teaches us nothing very determinate concerning the uses of the corolla. Our author has also observed that the corolla serves as wings to waft the flower about, and thus to assist in the business of impregnation. It seems highly probable that one use, among others, of the corolla, is that of sheltering and defending the stamens and other important parts, which are situated within this beautiful structure. But it is by no means probable that this is the only use of the corolla. Sprengel observes that the corolla is " an attraction to insects, and a convenient seat or bed for them while extracting the honey and promoting the impregnation of the floAver."* Byt who will seriously believe that Nature has exerted so much care and skill in the construction of the beautiful petals of floAvers, merely to form a palace for insects, whilst they are aiding in a Avork which in innumerable instances, is fully accomplished without the least of in- sectile aid? Dr. Darwin is of opinion that the corolla forms a pulmo- nary system " totally independent of the green foliage," and that this respiratory system belongs to the sexual or amatorial parts of the fruc- tification only! He asserts that each petal is furnished Avith an artery " which conveys the vegetable blood to its extremities, exposing it to the light and air under a delicate moist membrane, covering the internal surface of the petal, where it often changes its colour, as is beautifully seen in some party-coloured Poppies, though it is probable (he observes) that some of the iridescent colours of flowers may be owing to the dif- ferent degrees of tenuity of the exterior membrane of the petal, refract- ingthe light like soap-bubbles. The vegetable blood (continues our learn- ed author) is then collected at the corol-arteries, and returned by corres- pondent veins, exactly as in the green foliage, for the sustenance of the anthers, and stigmas, and for the important secretions of honey, wax, essential oil, and the prolific dust of the anthers, and thus constitutes a pulmonary organ." In support of this opinion Dr. Darwin has adduced several very ingenious arguments, for the full exposition of which I must refer to his Phytologia,X a work replete Avith learning, and marked in every page with the genius of the British Lucretius. It must be con- fessed, however, that much of mere hypothesis is attached to Darwin's observations concerning the uses of the parts of vegetables. He has too frequently assumed, as points completely established, points that are still involved in great uncertainty. Thus, a fundamental part of this author's reasoning concerning the use of the corolla, is the assumption of the fact, that in this part of the fructification there is a tAvofold system of vessels, corresponding to the pulmonary artery and veins of animals. * Sprengel, as quoted bv Dr. J. E. Smith. ! Sect. IV. 14 106 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Now, many experiments Avhich I have made, compel me to entertain some doubts relative to the existence of an arterial and venal system in the corolla. What I have already said concerning the leaves, may, with equal propriety, be extended to the corolla. 1 have often succeed- ed in colouring this part of the plant Avith the juice of the Phytolacca, and other colouring matters: but I have not been able to convince my- self that the colouring matter is exclusively carried, in the first instance, along the upper surface of the corolla; and I never could decidedly per- ceive that it was returned by a venous system on the under side of the petals. I do not mean, however, to deny the existence of arteries and veins in the corolla. I wish to proceed with caution. Many experi- ments remain to be made before the uses of the corolla can be complete- ly demonstrated to the satisfaction of naturalists and philosophers. I am disposed, in the meanwhile, to believe that both this part and the calyx are essentially concerned in the office of vegetable respiration. Indeed, as nature does not seem to have drawn any certain line of dis- crimination between the calyx and the corolla, it must, perhaps, be admitted, that both of these parts perform the same office, whatever that office may be. I have already particularly mentioned the curious fact of the longer duration of the double flowers, than of single flowers, in the same species of plant. The ingenious Dr. Smith thinks it pro- bable that this circumstance, " combined with other observations," may " lead to a discovery of the real use of the corolla of plants, and the share it has in the impregnation."* I shall not pretend to determine how far there may be a solid foundation for this idea. But the fact itself is very interesting, and will be again reverted to in the sections on vegetable life and generation. The importance of the corolla, as an organ essentially concerned in the business of respiration, or in that of impregnation, is perhaps somewhat diminished by the folloAving fact. Many plants, in certain situations of climate, heat, &c. are observed to drop all, or the greater number of their petals; and yet their seeds ripen, and come to full perfection. Such flowers are called mutilated flowers (mutilus fios,) and their mutilation has generally been ascribed to the agency of heat. This is doubtless a frequent cause of the falling of the petals of plants. But it cannot be the only cause: for some of the plants which are natives of warm and temperate climates, are observed to drop their petals in cold climates. Indeed, L. has asserted that the falling of the petals is generally owing to a deficiency of the requisite heat! He mentions the following plants as instances of filores mutilati; viz. Ipomoea hepaticaefolia, Campanula Pentagonia, Ruellia clandestina, Violae (Violets of various species,) Tussilago Anandria, and Lychnis apetala. To this list may be added the following plants, viz. Campa- nula perfoliata, Salvia verbenaca, Silene portensis, Cistus salicifolius, * Philosophical Transactions for 1788. Sea also Tracts relating to Natural History, p. 177, 178. London: 1798. ! Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 79, 80. § 119. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. lU7 €istus guttatus, Lamium amplexicaule, and many others. The learned Mr. Adanson informs us that the following plants lose their petals at Paris, viz. Glaux maritima, Peplis,, and Ammannia. In investigating the characters of vegetables, a knowledge of the various forms and ap- pearances that are assumed by the calyx and the corolla is indispensibly necessary. As this subject will be more particularly* treated of in a future part of this work, it is the less necessary to dwell upon it in this place. In drawing the generic characters of vegetables, the different species of calyx and corolla are constantly attended to by L. and all other modern botanists. In many instances these parts even afford ex- cellent marks for the discrimination of the species. Neither the calyx nor the corolla are ever essentially regarded by L. in the classical or ordinal characters of his Sexual System. It is to be observed, however, that this illustrious naturalist has founded a method of plants exclusively upon the form and other circumstances of the calyx. To this method, which he published in 1737, he has given the name oimethodus caly- cina. The method of Magnol, a Professor, at Montpelier, can hardly be called a method founded on the calyx. L., however, mentions Magnol, along with himself, among the Calycistae, or those botanists who have founded their classes upon the calyx. With respect to the corolla, many botanists have founded the classes, or primary divisions, of their systems, entirely upon the regularity, the figure, the number, and other circumstances of the petals. The most celebrated systems of this kind are those of Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, and Joseph Pitton Tournefort. The method of Rivinus proceeds upon the circumstance of the regularity and the number of the petals. That of Tournefort is founded upon the figure and regularity of the petal. Both of these methods are now universally neglected. They have given way, in the revolutions of science, to the more difficult Sexual System of L. But genuine botanists will continue to regard Avith some attention the ar- rangements of these Corollistae, as L. is pleased to denominate them.* System is a slippery thing. The time may again arrive when the me- thod of Tournefort will maintain a station, if not as elevated as it once did, at least much more elevated than it does at present. The Sexual System of L. cannot be immortal. It. will, at some future period, be deserted for a system more agreeable to the scheme or intentions of nature. III. The Nectary.—L. defines the nectary "the melliferous part of the vegetable peculiar to the floAver;" it secretes or contains a pecu- liar fluid, the honey of the plant, which constitutes the principal food of bees, and various other species of insects. He assumes to himself the honour of having first recognized this part * L. has given this name (which, it is evident, is derived from the word co- rolla,) to those systematic botanists, Avho have distributed vegetables according to the regularity, the figure, and other circumstances, of the corolla. Some of the most eminent botanists have been Corollistae. 10?* ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. in the vegetable structure. "Nectarium (says he) ne nomine notum erat, antequam idem determina\*imus."* But it is certain that both Tournefort and Sebastian Vaillant had noticed the nectary in certain species of plants; the first of these celebrated men before the birth of L., and the last, when the Swede was not more than ten years old. In 1694 Tournefort observed the nectary in the Passion-flower, the Ascle- pias, or SwalIoAV-A\*ort, and some other plants; and in 1718, Vaillant, who Avas both a man of genius and an able botanist, noticed it, and re- garded it as a part depending upon the corolla or petals; but which did not, in his opinion, merit any particular appellation. To the part of Avhich I am speaking, the English Avriters have given different names. By some! it has been called the " honey-cup." But this name cannot, Avith propriety, be applied to every species of necta- rium, since, in many plants, this part bears no resemblance whatever to a cup, or vessel of any kind. To the term nectary, as a generic term equivalent to the Latin nectarium,X there is less objection, especially as the word nectar, applied to a sweet or honied liquor, is so familiar in the English language; as are also the words " nectared," " nectareous," and " nectarine." a. The nectary assumes a variety of forms in different species of vegetables. Thus, 1. in many flowers it is shaped like a horn, or the spur of a cock. This is the nectarium calcaratum, corniculatum, or cornutum, the spurred, spur-shaped, or horned-nectary; of which Ave have examples in the following vegetables, viz. Valerian, Water- Milfoil, Butter-wort, Calves-snout, Lark-spur, Violet, Fumatory, Bal- sam, and Orchis. 2. The nectarium scrotiforme, or purse-like nec- tary, is somewhat globular, with a depressed line in the middle. 3. nectarium ovatum, or ovate nectary. 4. nectarium turbinatum, or turbinate nectary; and 5. nectarium carinatum, or keeled nectary. This kind of nectary, being entirely distinct from the petals, is deno- minated nectarium proprium, or proper nectary, b. In some plants the nectary is really a part of the corolla, since it lies within the sub- stance of the petals. The following plants are instances of this kind of nectary, viz. Fritillaria, Lilium, Swertia, Iris, Hermannia, Uvularia, Hydrophyllum, Myosurus, Ranunculus, Bromelia, Erythronium, Ber- beris, and the Avonderful Vallisneria. This is what L. calls nectarium petallinum, or petalline nectary, c. In many plants the nectary is placed in a series or row, within the petals or corolla, and yet is entirely unconnected with their substance. A nectary of this kind is said by L. to crown the corolla. The following plants, among many others, fur- * Philosophia Botanica, dec. p. 125, § 181. f Dr. Darwin, dz:c. X " Those who prefer the Latin termination, use nectaria in the plural which is not English. Why do they not use filamenta, stigmata, &c. ?" Professor Martyn. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 109 nish examples of this kind of nectary, viz. Passiflora,* Narcissus, Pan- cratium, Olax, Lychnis, Silene, Stapelia, Asclepias, Cynanchum, Ne- penthes, Cherleria, Clusia, Hamamelis, Diosma. d. In the following plants the nectary is situated upon and makes a part of the calyx instead of the corolla: viz. Tropaeolum, Monotropa, Biscutella, and Malpighia. This is the nectarium calycinum, or calycine nectary, e. In some plants the nectary is situated upon the anthers, or summits of the sta- mens. Hence one of these plants, the Bastard flower-fence of the En- glish, has received the generic name of Adenanthera. f. The nectary of many plants is placed upon the filaments. This is the case in LaU- rus, Dictamnus, Zygophyllum, Commelina,! Mirabilis, Plumbago, Campanula, Roella, and others, g. In the following plants the nectary is placed upon the germ, or seed-bud: viz. Hyacinth, Flowering-Rush, Stock July-flower, and Rocket. This is the nectarium pistillaceum, or pistallaceous nectary, h. In Honey-flower, Orpine, Buckwheat, Collinsonia, or Horse-weed; Lathrsea, Navel-wort, Mercury, Clutia, Kiggelaria, Sea-side Laurel, and several others, the nectary is placed upon, or attached to, the common receptacle. This is the nectarium receptaculaceum, or receptacular nectary, i. L. considers, as a true nectarium, the tube, or lower part of the monopetalous, or one-petalled flowers, such as Datura, Nicotiana, &c, because, in general, this part contains, and probably forms, a sweet or honied liquor, which consti- tutes one of the alimentary articles of bees, phalaenae, and other insects. k. In many plants, such as Ginger, Turmerick, Reseda, Grewia, Net- tle, Bastard Orpine, Vanilla, Willow, &c, the nectary is of a singular construction, and cannot, with propriety, be referred to any of the pre- ceding heads. L. affirms that those plants which have their nectary distinct from the petals, that is, not lodged within the substance of the petals, are generally poisonous. The following plants are adduced as examples of this observation: viz. Monkshood, Hellebore, Columbine, Fennel- flower, Parnassia, Barren-wort, Oleander, Marvel of Peru, Bean-Caper, Succulent Swallow-wort, Fraxinella, and Honey-flower. Some of these plants are indeed poisonous, such as Monkshood, Oleander, Hellebore, &c. But I am inclined to think that the observation of L. is not of much practical importance; since it is certain that some of the plants which he has introduced into the list are by no means highly deleterious; and their honey does not seem to contain any noxious quality. F. A. Cartheuser, a long time ago, denied the truth of the Linnaean position. S. A. Spielmann asserts, that there is nothing poi- sonous in the flowers of the Aconitum, or Monkshood.*^ Certain it is that bees extract the honey of this plant, as they* do also from the nec- taries of Aquilegia vulgaris, and Aquilegia canadensis, or Common, and Canadian Columbine. It must, however, be admitted, that we * See Plate XXV. f See Plate X. Fig. 1. i De Aconito. Argentorati: 1769: 8vo. 110 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. cannot safely infer the innocent nature of a vegetable, because bees extract, and receive no injury from, the honey of such a vegetable. It has ahvays appeared to me that L. has been less happy, and has discov- ered less talent and precision in his history of the nectary, than in his account of most of the other parts of the vegetable. Notwithstanding his assertion, that the nectary is a part of the corolla, it is certain that all flowers are not provided Avith this organ or appendage, and in many plants which are provided with it there is no immediate connection whatever between it and the corolla. " L. (to use the words of a very sensible botanist) might, Avith equal propriety, have termed it, (the nectary) a part or appendage of the stamina, calyx, or pointal, as the appearance in question is confined to no particular part of the flower, but is as various in point of situation as of form. The truth is, the term nectarium is exceedingly vague; and, if any determinate meaning can be affixed to it, is expressive of all the singularities which are observed in the different parts of flowers."* Dr. Smith observes, that " L. called every thing, not calyx, petals, or organs of propagation, nectarium."\ It may be added, that what L. calls nectaria, some other writers have thought proper to denominate petals. Thus, Vaillant denominated the nectaries of the Nigella and Aquilegia, petals. The coloured leaves of these plants, which are now regarded as petals, the French botanist called the calyx or flower-cup. G. C. Oeder follows Vaillant in consi- dering the nectaries of many of the plants of the class Polyandria as petals. Moenich calls these spurred or horned nectaries, of which I am speaking, parapetala. L. has, moreover, sometimes called the abortive or infertile stamens of certain plants, nectaria. In this re- spect, Mr. L'Heritier has also erred, particularly in drawing the gene- ric character of Erodium. Upon the whole, the term nectarium is an extremely vague one. I cannot help agreeing with Mr. De Jussieu, that the term should be re- jected from the science of Botany. It is greatly to be wished that some person, possessed of the requisite talents, would undertake the investi- gation of the subject of the various species of nectaries, and arrange these parts, under some more appropriate names. Necker restricts the term nectarium to those glandular bodies which occupy the base of the stamens, and secrete a honied liquor. He admits that there are other parts of vegetables which furnish a honied liquor in flowers, but these, he says, are of no consequence in determining the characters of plants.} In investigating the genera of plants, a knowledge of the various species of nectarium is of very essential, and indeed, indispensible, conse- quence. Thus, the essence of the genus Ranunculus consists in its nec- tary, which is a small prominence that is situated at the unguis, or claw, of each petal of this plant. * Milne's Botanical Dictionary, die. article Nectarium. f Syllabus, dec p. 23. X Corollamim, die p. 13, 14. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. HI The chemical analysis of the honey of the nectaries has been very little attended to. What has been done leads us to believe that this secreted juice (in many plants at least,) contains nothing distinct from sugar or honey. F. A. Cartheuser examined the honey of the nectaria of diflerent plants, particularly that of the Melianthus, or Ho- ney-Flower. He says the honey of this plant is a true honey. Some authors inform us, that the honey of the Melianthus is a stomachic. This would seem to show that it contains some foreign quality, distinct from mere sugar or honey. There is often, however, combined with the honey of plants, a noxious property. This is frequently the pro- perty of the plant which secretes the honey. The tube of the flower of the Agave americana contains a great deal of a watery, honey-like fluid, which is sweet, and of an acid nature. This fluid is purgative, and emetic, when exhibited in the dose of two table-spoonsful. The nectar of some plants is entirely refused by the bees. Thus, bees do not touch the honey of the Fritillaria, or Crown-Imperial.* Yet I do not know that any experiments have shown that this honey is noxious to animals. The Fritillaria is, indeed, a poisonous plant. But we are told that the- Willow-wren runs up the stem of this fine vegetable, and sips the ho- ney. We knoAv that the honey which is procured from certain vege- tables is poisonous. The Greek! and Roman*}: naturalists speak of a poisonous honey; and we are acquainted Avith some of the plants from which this honey is procured. In North America, an intoxicating and deleterious honey is procured from the flowers of the Kalmia angusti- folia, and other vegetables. In the Transactions of the American Phi- losophical Society, § I have inserted a memoir on the " Poisonous and Injurious Honey of North America." To this memoir I beg leave to refer the reader. It has been observed that the nectar of plants " tempts insects to assist the impregnation."|| This is, no doubt, the case. But it may well be questioned, whether this is the final end, or intention of nature, in furnishing" plants with the nectary fluid. We find that the nectar of some plants is altogether untouched by insects. Such as Fri- tillaria. Besides, in very many plants, which abound in nectar, the styles, from their proportion or situation, are readily, nay, necessarily impregnated, without any insectile assistance. In Fritillaria, the aid of insects cannot be wanted. I presume that the business of vegetable impregnation Avould proceed very well, even were the whole world of insects entirely annihilated. So little necessary dependence, in this respect at least, is there between the great worlds of animals and vege- tables. So feeble, so visionary, is the theory of those philosophers, who have imagined, that Nature has connected together, in necessary dependence, her innumerable productions, like links in a chain of man's * J. Duverney, Linnaeus, dsc. f Xenophon, Dioscorides, Diodorus Siculus, dsc. X Pliny. § Vol. V. No. VII. || Dr. I. E. Smith. 112 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. construction! The botanists have found no small difficulty in determin- ing the real use of the nectaries, and of the honied liquor which they con- tain . Julius Pontedera imagined that the honey of plants is equivalent to the liquor amnii, or liquor of the amnion, in pregnant animals, and that it enters the fertile or impregnated seeds.* Here it might be ob- served^, that the importance of the liquor amnii, as an agent in the nu- trition of the fetus, is not admitted by the generality of the modern physiologists.! It is, however, of more importance, to observe, that the hypothesis of Pontedera is rendered improbable by this circum- stance, that the nectary and the honey which it contains are found in many male flowers, such as those of the WilloAv and the Nettle, where there are no seeds to be impregnated. Perhaps, however, this does not decidedly show that the nectareous fluid is useless in giving fertility to the seed. It is certain that nature, intent upon a specific object or end, sometimes .bestows upon the different sexes of a species the same organs. Thus, she concedes to the males and femalesof certain animals the secretory organs, which we call mammae, or breasts. In both sexes these organs sometimes secrete a peculiar fluid, called milk. Yet, this secretion can be required in one of the sexes only. But actual ex- periments have shown that the nectary is not essentially necessary to the fertility of the seed. We have seen that in many plants the necta- ries are distinct from the corolla. The Aconitum, or Monkshood, is one of these plants. The nectaries of this plant were removed, but the seeds were as effectually ripened as though the operation had not been performed. J Ludwig supposed that the office of the nectary is to ex- crete those juices of the plant which are too thick, or gross. § But nei- ther is this a very satisfactory explanation of the use of the organ. Boehmer supposes that the true nectaries secrete a juice Avhich is ne- cessary to the nutriment of the plant.'|| Dr. Darwin has proposed a new and very ingenious idea concerning the use of the nectary of ve- getables. " The nectary, or honey-cup, he says, is evidently an ap- pendage to the corol, and is the reservoir of the honey, which is se- creted by an appropriate gland from the blood, after its oxygenation in the corol-------and is absorbed for nutriment by the sexual parts of the flower." It is the opinion of this Avriter, that this saccharine secretion serves as food to the anthers and stigmas. Let us see upon what grounds this idea proceeds. In many tribes of insects, as in the silk-worm, moths, butterflies, &c, the male and female parents die as soon as the eggs are impregnated and excluded, the eggs remaining to be perfected * Anthologia, seu de Floris Natura, dsc. Patavii: 1720. 4to. t Of late, however, Dr. Darwin has endeavoured to show, that the liquor amnii is of real importance in the nutrition of the fetus. See his Zoonomia, &c. Vol. 1. Sect. XXXVIII. X F. A. Cartheuser. § Institutions Regni Vegetabilis, dsc. 1757. 8vo. |) Dissertatio Inauguralis de Nectariis Florum. Wittembcrg: 1758. 4to. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 113 and hatched at some future period. In vegetables we observe nearly the same phenomenon. In this family of animated objects, the stamens and pistils fall off and die, as soon as the seeds are impregnated, and along with these genital parts, the petals and honey-cups. It is ob- served, that the insects which I have mentioned, so soon as they ac- quire the passion and the apparatus for the reproduction of their species, lose the poAver of feeding upon leaves, as they did before, and become nourished by honey alone. ' " Hence (continues our author,) we acquire a strong analogy for the use of the nectary, or secretion of honey, in the vegetable economy; which is, that the male parts of flowers, and the female parts, as soon as they leave their fetus-state, expanding their petals, (which constitute their lungs,) become sensible to the passion, and gain the apparatus for the reproduction of their species; and are fed and nourished with honey- like the insects above described; and that hence the nectary begins its office of producing honey, and dies, or ceases to produce honey, at the same time Avith the birth and death of the anthers, and the stigmas; which, whether existing in the same, or in different flowers, are sepa- rate and distinct animated beings. Previous to this time, the anthers with their filaments, and the stigmas with their styles, are in their fetus state sustained in some plants by their umbilical A*essels, like the unex- panded leaf-buds, as in Colchicum autumnale, and Daphne Mezereon; and in other plants by the bractes, or floral-leaves, as in Rhubarb, which are expanded long before the opening of the flower; the seeds at the same time existing in the vegetable womb, yet unimpregnated, and the dust yet unripe in the cells of the anthers. After this period the petals become expanded,"-------the umbilical vessels, which before nourish- ed the anthers and the stigmas, coalesce, or cease to nourish them; and they acquire blood more oxygenated by the air, obtain the passion and , poAver of reproduction, are sensible to heat, and light, and moisture, and to mechanic stimulus, and become, ir»reality, insects fed with ho- ney; similar in every respect, except that all of them yet known, but the male flowers of Vallisneria,* continue attached to the plant on Avhich they are produced. So water insects (continues our author,) as the gnat, and amphibious animals, as the tad-pole, acquire new aerial lungs, when they leave their infant state for that of puberty. And the numerous tribes of caterpillars are fed upon the common juices of vegetables found in their leaves, till they acquire the organs of reproduction; and then they feed on honey, all I believe except the silk-worm, which in this country (Britain,) takes no nourishment after it becomes a butterfly. And the larva or maggot of the bee, according to the observations of * We are now acquainted with two species of Vallisnaria, the V. spiralis, and V. Americana. Of this last species, which is a native of many parts of North America, growing abundantly in the river Delaware, die. die. I have given a particular account, in a memoir read before the American Philosophical Society, on the 6th of February, 1801. 15 114 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Mr. Hunter, is fed with raw vegetable matter, called bee-bread, which is collected from the anthers of flowers, and laid up in cells for that pur- pose, till the maggot becomes a Avinged bee, acquires greater sensibility, and is fed Avith honey."* Such is Dr. Darwin's hypothesis concerning the use of the nectar, or honied liquor of plants. The hypothesis is certainly ingenious, and is entitled to the attention of naturalists. But it is merely in the light of an hypothesis that it ought to be viewed. And yet it has already been adopted by some writers, particularly by the ingenious female author of a work entitled Botanical Dialogues.i Future experiments Avill show how far the opinion of the English Phi- losopher is founded upon a solid basis. I must confess, that very pow- erful objections to the hypothesis present themselves to my mind. Cer- tainly all plants are not furnished with the organs called nectaries, particularly with those species of nectaries which are known to secrete or contain a honied fluid. Moreover, we have seen that the nectaries of certain species of plants may be entirely removed, without obviously affecting, in any degree, the health or fertility of the plant. When we consider, hoAvever, the highly nutritious nature of sugar, honey, and other saccharine matters, it would seem not improbable, that the nectar is really conceded to plants to assist in giving nutriment or strength to them. This opinion is, at least, more philosophical than that of those writers who have imagined that plants are furnished with nectar merely as an alimentary article for insects, or as an incitement for them to give their aid in insuring the fertility of plants. IV. The Stamen, which some English writers have called the Chive, is defined by L. "an organ for the preparation of the pollen:" " Vis- cus pro Pollinis praeparatione."J The stamens, in most flowers, are placed round the seed-bud, and consist, according to L., of three parts, the Filamentum, the Anthera, and the Pollen. In reality, however, the stamen consists of only two parts, the filamentum and the anther, the pollen being merely a matter* secreted by, or contained in, the anther. A. I shall first speak of the Filamentum. This, Avhich receives its name from [the Latin word filum, a thread, is the more slender, or thread-like part of the stamen which supports the anther, and connects it with the flower. The term filament is equivalent to the term stamen, as employed by Tournefort and other botanists, a. The filaments, in respect to number, are very different in different vegetables. Some plants have but one filament, some two, three, &c. &c, whilst some have from twenty to a thousand, b. In point of figure, the fila- ment is, 1. capillare, capillary; long and fine like a hair. 2. pla- num, flat; having the two surfaces parallel. 3. cuneiforme, cu- neiform; or Avedge-shaped. 4. spirale, spiral; ascending in a spi- ral line. 5. subulatum, subulate, or awl-shaped. 6. emargina- * Phytologia, die. Sect. VII. See also Sect. VI. t London: 1797. 8vo. X Philosophia Botanica, &ic. p. 53. § 86. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 115 turn, emarginate. 7. reflexum, reflected. 8. laciniatum, lacini- ated. 9. dentatum, toothed. 10. mutilatum, mutilated; with the fc rudiment only of a filament. 11. castratum, castrated; elevating a barren anther, or none at all; as in some species of Geranium, c. In point of insertion, the filaments are, 1. calyci opposita, opposite to the leaflets or segments of the calyx. 2. calyci alterna, alternate with the calyx: placed alternately with the leaflets of the calyx. ?,. corollina, inserted into the corolla. 4. calycina, calycine; inserted into the calyx; 5. receplaculacea, receptacular; inserted into the receptacle. 6. nec- larina, nectarine; inserted on the nectary. 7. stylo inserta; inserted on the style; as in the plants of the class Gynandria. ■ d. In point of proportion, the filaments are, 1. aequalia, equal; all of the same length. 2. inaequalia, unequal; some larger than others. 3. connala, connate; conjoined into one body, so as to form a tube at the base; as in the plants of the class Monadelphia. 4. longissima, very long; longer than the corolla. 5. brevissima, very short; much shorter than the corolla. 6. longitudine corollas, of the same length as the corolla. 7. longitudine calycis, of the same length as the calyx. e. In respect to its surface, the filament is, 1. pilosum, hairy. 2 vil- losum, villous. 3. hirsutum, hirsute, f. In respect to its structure, the filament is, 1. membranaceum, membranous. 2. neclariferum, nectariferous, g. In respect to its direction, the filament is, 1. erec- tum, erect. 2. patens, spreading. 3. palentiusculum, somewhat spreading. 4. patcntissimum, very much spreading. 5. arcuatum, bowed; bent in the form of a bow. 6. connivens, converging; ap- proaching the other filaments with the point. 7. reflexum, reflected. 8. declinatum, declined. 9. inflexum, inflected. 10. flaccidum, flaccid. 11. assurgens, assurgent 12. ascendens, ascending. 13. recurvum, recurved. 14. incurvum, incurved. B. The Anther is the second part of.the stamen. This is the part which Ray denominated the Apex, and Malpighi, Capsula slaminis. Dr. GreAV, and others of the older botanists, called it the Summit, Semet, Pendent, or Tip. '-'I prefer Anther to Anthera, in English; becausr; we thus avoid any dissension between the learned and unlearned, re- specting the pronunciation of the penultima, and the formation of the plural."* L. defines the anther to be a part of the flower, big with pollen, or farina, which it emits or explodes Avhen ripe.! The anther may be defined a capsule or vessel, destined to produce or contain a substance, whose office is the impregnation of the germ or female or- gan. It commonly forms a part of the stamen, and is usuallv placed upon the top of the filament. But it must not be forgotten that, in many plants, the anther exists Avithout any filament to support it. a. The number of the anthers is very different in different plants. The gene- * Professor Martyn. f " Antherapars floris gravida Polline, quod matura dimittif.'' Philosophia Botanica. d:c. p. 53. § 86. 116 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. rality of plants have a single anther to each filament. This is the case with most of the plants that are figured in these Elements. To this general rule, however, there are many exceptions: viz. 1. Mercurialis, or Mercury, and Ranunculus, have two anthers to each filament. This is what L. denominates anthera didyma, or twin anther. 2. Fuma- ria has three anthers to each filament 3. Bryonia has five anthers to three filaments. Here a single anther is affixed to one of the filaments, and the remaining four anthers are equally divided betAveen the other two filaments. 4. In the Theobroma, or Chocolate-nut, there are five anthers to each filament. 5. The Pea, the Bean, Vetch, Trefoil, Li- quorice, and many other flowers of the class of Diadelphia, have, in genera], ten anthers to two filaments; or, more properly speaking, to two sets of united stamens. 6. In the Cucurbita, or Gourd, there is one anther common to three filaments. 7. In the Dandelion, Feverfew, Groundsel, and other really compound floAvers, of the class of Synge- nesia, one anther is common to five filaments: or, to speak more pro- perly, five anthers, which are united into a cylinder, are placed upon five distinct and separate filaments. 8. In some plants some of the fila- ments are terminated by anthers, whilst others are naked, or destitute of these parts. Thus, the two genera,' Chelone and Marty nia, are fur- nished with four complete stamens; together with the rudiment of a fifth filament, which is destitute of the anther. Verbena has four fila- ments, only two of which are antheriferous. The Bignonia Catalpa of L. has two perfect stamens, or stamens with anthers; and three fila- ments which want the anthers. Other irregularities of this kind will be noticed in the progress of this work. b. In point of figure, the an- ther is, 1. oblonga, oblong. 2. globosa, globular. 3. sagittata, sa- gittate. 4. angulata, angular. 5. cornuta, horned. 6. bicornis, two-horned. 7. linearis, linear. 8. acuta, acute. 9. acutiuscula, rather acute. 10. cordata, cordate. 11. ovata, ovate. 12. hastata, hastate. 13. biloba, two-lobed. 14. reniformis, reniform. 15. bi- fida, bifid. 16. bipartita, two-parted. 17. aristata, awned; ending in an aAvn. 18. setifer, bristle-bearing; ending in a bristle. 19. ro- J strata, rostrate, or beaked; ending in a filiform beak. 20. truncata, > truncated. 21. obtusa, obtuse. 22. emarginata, emarginate. 23. acuminata, acuminate. 24. furcata, forked; divided at the end, and diverging, c. In point of direction, the anther is, 1. erecta, erect. 2. rigida, rigid. 3. patens, spreading. 4. assurgens, assurgent. 5. infiexa, inflected. 6. nutans, nodding. 7. declinata, declined. 8. pendula, pendulous. 9. incurva, incurved. 10. connivens con- "r verging. 11. spiraliter contorta, twisted spirally, d. In point of *V insertion, the anther is, 1. sessilis, sessile. 2. versatilis versatile: incumbent, but freely moveable. 3. adnata, adnate. 4. distincla, distinct; not cohering with other anthers. 5. connate, connate; Avhen several anthers are conjoined into one. (i. cylindraceae, cylindrical; formed into a cylinder, or equal tube. 7. tubulatae, tubular; coalesc- ing so as to form a tube; as in the compound floAvers of the class of Sun- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 117 genesia. 8. cohasrcntes, cohering at the base, apex, &c. 9. incum- bens, incumbent; fixed by the middle upon the filament. 10. lateralis, lateral; connected by the Avhole side to the filament e. In respect to* substance, the anther is, 1. membranacea, membranous. 2. depressa, depressed. 3. compressa, compressed. 4. convexa, convex. 5. plana, flat. 6. sulcata, furrowed. 7. transversim sulcata, trans- versely furrowed. 8. longitudinaliter sulcata, longitudinally fur- rowed. 9. subulata, subulate. 10. bilamellata, bilamellated; with two membranous plates. f. In respect to measure, the anther is, 1. filamentis brevior, shorter than the filaments. 2. corolla brevior, shorter than the corolla. 3. longitudine filamenti, of the same length as the filament. 4. longior filamentis, longer than the filaments. 5. asqu&les, equal; of the same size as one another. 6. longissima, very long; much longer than the filament. 7. brevissima, very short; much shorter than the filament. g. In respect to its place, the anther is, 1. tecta, covered; concealed by a scale of the arch, as in the Asperifoliae, or Rough-leaved plants. 2. inclwsa, enclosed; situated within the throat of the corolla. 3. nuda, naked; neither covered nor enclosed, h. In respect to its cells and' aperture, the anther is, 1. unilocularis, one-celled. 2. bilocularis, tAvo-celled. 3. trilocularis, three-celled, 4. bivalvis, two-valved. 5. didyma, didymous; gihbous outwardly, with two protuberances. 6. sterilis, barren; not forming pollen, or fecundating matter. 7. deflo- rata, deflorate; having ejected, or excluded the pollen. 8. fozcunda, fertile, with pollen. 9. apice dehiscens, opening at the top. 10. la- tere dehiscens, opening at the side. L. denominates the bursting of the anthers, Dehiscentia* i. In respect to situation, 1. the anthers are generally situated upon the tops of the filaments. 2. In some plants, hoAvever, the anthers are fixed to the middle or sides of the filaments. 3. In many plants; having no filaments, the anthers adhere to the stig- ma, or summit of the female organ. 4. In other plants, also destitute of filaments, the anthers are fixed to the receptacle. 5. In some they are situated upon the nectary. C. The Pollen, which L. calls the third part of the stamen, is the farina, or prolific powder, which is contained in the anthers of flowers, and which, according to the Swedish naturalist, after being moistened with a liquor Avhich is peculiar to, and lodged upon, the stigma, or summit of the female organ, bursts like a bladder, and gives out, elas- tically, a substance which is imperceptible to the naked eye. This sub- stance L. calls Fovilla, or aura seminalis. Necker defines the pol- len, a collection of minute inflammable globules, in which the " lympha foecundans, or fecundating fluid, is contained.! The pollen of some plants is certainly inflammable; bufin the pollen of many other plants we discover nothing of an inflammable quality. In many plants, such * Dehiscentia, from dehisco, to gape, or open wide. f Corollarium, die p. 14. 118 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. as Veratrum luteurh,* &c, the pollen has a peculiar and powerful smell, very similar to that of certain animal secretions. The pollen of vegetables is of various colours, but most commonly of the diflerent shades of yellow, orange, red, and purple. It is beau- tifully conspicuous upon the anthers, or summits, of some flowers, par- ticularly the Tulip, the Lily, &c. When completely matured, and fit for performing the important office for which it is destined, it is readily removed from the anthers, by the application of the finger, or other moist body. To the naked or unarmed eye, the pollen appears to be a mere inor- ganic farina, or powder. But when it is subjected to the aid of the mi- croscope, it is found to put on a great variety of forms, in different spe- cies of vegetables. These forms, it is asserted, frequently predominate, not only through the different species of a genus, but even through the different genera of a natural family or order. Thus, in Helianthus, or Sunflower, the polleniferous particles assume the appearance of prickly balls or burs. In the Geranium sanguineum, or Bloody Cranesbill, they are like perforated globules of fire; in the Mallows, they resemble Avheels furnished with teeth; in the Ricinus communis, or Palma Christi, they are shaped like grains of Wheat; in the Viola tricolour, or Pansies, they are angulated; in the Turkey-Wheat,! they are flat and smooth; in the Borage, like a thin leaf, rolled up; in the Narcissus, reniform, or kid- ney-shaped; and in the Symphitum, or Comfrey, like double or twin globules.*): It is unnecessary to pursue this subject through numerous other vegetables, the pollen of which has been particularly examined, through good glasses, by many ingenious naturalists. Tuberville Need- ham, and other writers have shown, that the pollen of vegetables, upon being put into water, immediately bursts, and scatters its fovilla, or fe- cundating aura, abroad. The great importance of the pollen, which L. has called the " genitura of the plant," will be very particularly con- sidered in treating of the generation of vegetables. As the nectar of vegetables is an article of great importance in the nourishment of bees and other insects, so also the powder of the anthers constitutes one of the alimentary articles of bees. These industrious insects visit the flowers of an immense variety of plants, quaffing the nectar, and carrying away upon their thighs* great quanties of the pol* len. This they lay up, in the cells of their combs, as food for the young bees, whilst in their larva, or maggot-state. To the pollen thus stored up, the name of " bee-bread" has been given, both in Britain and in the United States. This, as has been already observed, is "raw vegetable matter," or pollen, so little altered that it retains its peculiar taste and smell, in the cells of the comb. Thus, we can often tell, by an exami- nation of the bee-bread, from Avhat particular species of plants it has been procured. By thus depriving vegetables of their pollen, there * Melanfhium dioicum? of Walter. . J. G. Wahlbom. X Zea Mays, or Indian-corn. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 119 can be little doubt, that bees, in many instances, essentially diminish the fertility of plants.* This, perhaps, is more especially the case Avith respect to many of the plants of the class Dioecia: for here, the male and female organs of generation being situated upon distinct individuals, and frequently at a considerable distance from each other, the chances of impregnation are necessarily fewer than in the plants of the hermaphro- dite classes, where the males and females are situated, in close vicinity, within the same calyx or corolla. On the other hand, however, it is the opinion of many writers, that bees are no mean agents in favouring, the impregnation of vegetables. We shall afterwards see, that the na- turalists of the school of L. have frequently been under the necessity of availing themselves of the agency of bees to explain some of the dif- ficulties which still obstruct the beautiful doctrine of vegetable genera- tion. By robbing plants of their pollen, do not bees contribute not a little to that vast variety of double blossoms with which our gardens are stocked and beautified ? Some facts, and some plausible reasoning, might be urged in support of this conjecture. To the pollen of vegeta- bles and the labour of the bees, mankind are indebted for a very im- portant article, I mean wax, or bees-wax. The celebrated R. A. F. de Reaumur, a long time ago,! asserted, that the pollen of vegetables, after undergoing the digestive process in the stomach of the bee,, was con- verted into wax. This opinion has lately been confirmed by the inqui- ries of Mr. John Hunter.:): With respect to the analysis of the pollen and of wax, much still remains to be done by the chemists to complete this subject. Experiments, however, seem to render it probable, that the basis of both of these matters is a fat oil, which, combining with oxy- gen, passes to the state of a resin. If the nitric or muriatic acids be di- gested, for a considerable time, upon a fixed oil, this passes to the state of a matter intimately resembling Avax. It remains to be proved, what is the precise nature of the matter by which the pollen is converted into wax, in the stomach of the bee. Experiments will, in all probability, show, that the pollen of plants (of many plants at least,) contains a very large portion of oxygen. An anonymous author, § many years ago, asserted, that the pollen of plants, (by. giving out its phlogiston, as he supposed,) brought the calyx of iron to the state of a metal. Tingry discovered that the pollen contains volatile oils, and different essential oils, that are soluble in spirit of wine. The poAverful odour and the taste of the pollen of many plants, would lead us to believe that this pro- * It has been observed, in Pennsylvania, and other parts of the United States, that the bees rob certain species of plants, particularly the Polygonum Fago- pyrum, or Buckwheat, of such immense quantities of pollen, that great numbers of the little insects are drowned in crossing our creeks and rivers, owing to the too heavy loads of the powder which they attempt to carry to their hives. t In the year 1740. X Philosophical Transactions, for the year 1792. § See Bibliotheca Botanica, die Auctpre A. Hallero. Tom. ii. p. 189. 120 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. lific matter possesses very active qualities, with respect to the human and other animal bodies; and it is not improbable, that it might be ad- vantageously employed in the treatment of some of our diseases. If I do not greatly mistake, the pollen of some of the cerealia is employed as a medicine, in certain diseases, in some parts of Poland. In the study of Botany, it is a point of the utmost importance to be intimately ac- quainted with every circumstance relative to the stamens, by which I mean the male organs, taken in the aggregate, and consisting of the fila- ments, the anthers, and the pollen. Without.an intimate acquaintance with the natural history of these truly important parts in the vegetable economy, we shall be incapable of understanding that Avonderful func- tion, by which the world of vegetables has been thus far preserved from destruction; and by which it will, doubtless, be perpetuated, (with the occasional loss of some species, in future, as heretofore, so long as our globe shall exist,) to serve as the sustenance of man and other animals, and for innumerable other purposes. Nor does the utility of an ac- quaintance with the stamens terminate here. Upon these organs Of the vegetable the great L. has constructed the most essential parts of his Sexual System: the classes, or primary divisions, and many of the or- ders, or secondary divisions. The twenty-four classes of this celebrated system are founded upon the circumstances of the number, the place of insertion, the proportion, the connection, the disposition, or the absence of the stamens. Hence, it is obvious, that we cannot understand the system of the SAvedish naturalist, without a thorough acquaintance with the sexual organs. V. The Pistullum is the fourth part of the fructification enumerated by L. He defines it, " a viscus or organ adhering to the fruit, for the reception of the pollen." " Viscus fructui adhaerens pro Pollinis recep- tione."* This part, to Avhich the English botanists have given the name of Pistil and Pointal, is the female part of the vegetable, which assumes the appearance of a column, or set of columns, and is commonly situ- ated in the centre of the flower, within the stamens. When perfect, it consists of three parts, the Germen, the Stylus, and the Stigma. A. The Germen, which is called by the English botanists the Germ, Ovary, or Seed-bud, is the rudiment of the fruit, yet in an embryo- state. It constitutes the lower part, or base of the pistil, and supports. the style and the stigma, a. The germ varies in respect to number in different plants. Some plants have but one. germ, some two, three, &c. &c. whilst some have many. b. In point of figure, the germ is, 1 subrotundum, roundish. 2. ovatum, ovate. 3. oblongum, oblong. 4. turbinatum, turbinate. 5. conicum, conical; in the form of a cone. 6. lineare, linear. 7. cordatum, cordate. 8. obcordatum, obcordate. 9. globosum, globular. 10. fissum, cleft. 11. bifidum, bifid. 12. trifidum, trifid. 13. partitum, parted. 14. bipartitum, two-parted. 15. angulatum, angular. 16. triangulare, triangular. 17. didymum, * Philosophica Botanica, die. p. 53. § 86. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 121 didymous. 18. compressum, compressed. 19. acutum, acute. 20. rostratum, beaked. 21. subulatum, subulate, c. In respect to its surface, the germ is, 1. scabrum, rough. 2. villosum, villous. 3. imbricatum, imbricated, d. In regard to its place, the germ is, 1. superum, superior; that is, included in the corolla, or the calyx. 2. inferum, inferior; placed beneath the corolla, or the calyx, e. In re- spect to its insertion, the germ is, 1. sessile, sessile. 2. pedicellaium, pedicelled; standing on a pedicel, or footstalk. 3. setae insidens, sit- ting on a bristle, f. In regard to its measure, the germ is 1. minimum, very small in proportion to the corolla. 2. longitudine staminum, as long as the stamens. 3. longitudine calycis, as long as the calyx. 4. longitudine nectarii, as long as the nectary. Pursuing his favourite subject of the analogies which subsist between animals and vegetables, L. has denominated the germ, the ovarium, or uterus of plants. To this language I shall offer no objection. We shall afterwards see, that in the germ are contained the embryo-seed of the plant, which pre-exist in this organ, (as do the ova in the ovaria of many, if not all, animals,) and after receiving the influence of the pollen, or powder of the sta- mens, are rendered fertile, and thus befitted for the important business of the perpetuation of the species. B. The Stylus,* or Style, is the middle portion of the pistil, which, in many plants, connects the stigma with the germ. I say, in many plants, for the style is not present in all plants, and is not essentially necessary to the generation of the plant. In this respect, it is upon a footing with the filament a. The style, as well as the germ, varies in respect to number, in different plants. Some plants have but one style, some two, three, &c. &c, whilst some are furnished with many of these organs. In general, the number of the styles is equal to that of the germs, or ovaries, each germ being furnished with its particular style. This is the structure of the compound flowers, the cone-bearing plants, the Rose, the Ranun- culus, the Liriodendron, or Tulip-tree, and many others. 1. To this general rule, however, there are exceptions; that is, there are vegeta- bles which have more than one style to a single germ, or seed-bud. 2. There are other plants, such as the Asperifoliae, and most of the Lip- flowers, Avhich have a single style, common to many germs. 3. In other plants, again, the style at its origin is single, but soon branches out into as many ramifications as there are divisions or cells in the ca- vity of the germ. We discover this structure in the plants of the two families of Geranium and Mallow, and many of their relations, princi- pally belonging to the class Monadelphia of the Sexual System, b. In point of proportion, the style is, 1. longissimus, very long, Avith re- spect to the stamens. 2. brevissimus, very short. 3. longitudine staminum, as long as the stamens. 4. crassitie staminum, as thick as the stamens. 5. crassus, thick with respect to the stamens. 6. '' Stylus, from "*7«".of, a column. 16 122 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. tenuis, Blender with respect to the stamens, c. In respect to its divi- sion, the style is, 1. simplex, simple; not divided. 2. bifidus, bifid. 3. trifidus, trifid. 4. bipartitus, two-parted, d. In respect to its figure, the style is, 1. teres, columnar. 2. cylindricus, cylindrical. 3. capillaris, capillary. 4. clavatus, club-shaped. 5. subulatus, subulate. 6. alatus, Avinged. 7. tetragonus, four-cornered. 8. en- siformis, ensiform. 9. pubescens, pubescent; covered with pubes- cence. 10. villosus, villous, e. In respect to its direction, the style assumes most, if not all the directions which have been noticed an treat- ing of the filaments. / In respect to its situation, 1. the style, in the greater number of plants, is in apicegerminis, placed on the top of the germ. 2. ad latus ger minis, at the side of the germ: that is, the styles, which are numerous, proceed from within the side of their correspond- ing germs. This structure is observable in the Rose, the Raspberry, the Strawberry, the Cinquefoil, the Tormentil, and other plants belong- ing to the order Polyginia, in the twelfth class, or Icosandria, of the sexual system, g. In point of duration, the style is, 1. persistens, permanent; remaining until the fruit be ripe; as in the plants of the class Tetradynamia. 2. deciduus, deciduous; falling off with the other parts of the flower; as in the greater number of vegetables. C. The Stigma is the third and last portion of the pistillum. It is the summit or top of this female part of the plant,'and is destined to re- ceive the influence of the pollen, and transmit it to the germ. In the Latin language, the word stigma has several significations, none of which are agreeable to the senses in which it is employed by L. I won- der, with Professor Martyn, why the Swede did not make use of the more classical and appropriate Avord, fibula* Dr. Grew called the stigma, the knob, or button; and Dr. Withering the Summit, a. The number of the stigmas is very different in different vegetables. Some plants have only one stigma; some two, some three, some four, some five, &c. b. In respect to division, the stigma is, 1. simplex, simple. 2. fissum, cleft. 3. bifidum, two-cleft. 4. trifidum, three-cleft, &c. &c. 5. partitum, parted. 6. bipartitum, two-parted, &c. 7. lo- batum, lobed. 8. bilobum, two-lobed, &c. &c. c. In respect to figure, the stigma is, 1. capitatum, capitate; approaching in its form, at the top, to the shape of a globe. 2. globosum, globular. 3. urce- olatum, urceolate; pitcher-shaped. 4. ovatum, ovate. 5. obtusum, obtuse. 6. truncatum, truncated. 7. oblique depressum, obliquely depressed. 8. emarginatum, emarginate. 9. planum, flat 10. reniforme, reniform. 11. orbiculatum, orbicular. 12. peltatum, peltate.! 13. coroniforme, crown-shaped. 14. cruciforme, cruciform; in the form of a cross. 15. slellatum, stellate. 16. canaliculatum, channelled. 17. concavum, concaA*e. 18. umbilicatum, umbilicate; concave, and orbicular. 19. plicatum, plaited. 20. radialumt ra- diate; marked with striated rays, which diverge from the centre. 21. * Fibula, a button, a clasp, a buckle, *&c. die. f See Plate I. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 123 angulatum, angular. 22. striatum, striated. 23. plumosum, fea- thery. 24. pubescens, pubescent. 25. filiforme, filiform. 26. ca- pillare, capillary. 27. convolutum, convolute. 28. revolutum, re- volute. 29. fiexum sinistrorsum, bent to the left. 30. flexumdex- trorsum, bent to the right. 31. barbatum, bearded. 32. imberbe, beardless, d. In respect to measure, the stigma is, 1. longitudine styli, as long as the style, &c. e. In respect to expansion, the stigma is, 1. fimbriato-crispum, fimbriate-curled, or fringed. 2. foliaceum, foliaceous, or like a leaf. 3. cucullatum, coAvled. f. In respect to its duration, the stigma is, 1. persistens, permanent; remaining until the fruit be mature; as in Sarracenia,* Podophyllum,! and others. 2. marcescens, shrivelling, remaining, but becoming withered; as in the greater number of plants. The pistil, or female organ, consists of the germ, the style, and the stigma, is of no less consequence in the study of Botany than is a know- ledge of the stamens. In a physiological point of vieAV, each set of these sexual organs is entitled to an equal portion of our attention. They are equally concerned in the perpetuation of the species. The pol- len of the anthers would have been secreted or formed in vain, were there no stigma or germen to receive and preserve its vivifick influence. VI. The PericarpiumJ is the fifth part of the fructification enume- rated by L. He defines it " a viscus, or organ, gravid (big) with seeds (that is, a vessel producing seeds,) which it lets drop when they are ripe." " Viscus gravidum seminibus, quae matura dimittit."§ He has also called it the "Ovarium foecundatum,"|| or "impregnated germ or ovary." By the English botanists it is denominated the Pericarp, Seed- vessel, or Seed-case. Each of these terms may be employed; for each is just and significant. I shall, however, more generally make use of the word pericarp, as being most agreeable to the prevailing English botanical nomenclature which is adopted in these Elements. Dr. John- son's definition of the Avord, in his Dictionary, is extremely lame, and exceptionable. He says the pericarp is "a pellicle or thin membrane encompassing the fruit or grain of a plant, or that part, of a fruit that envelopes the seed." The pericarp is the developed germ, ovary, or seed-bud: that is, the germ fecundated, swollen, and arrived at matu- rity, after having received the influence of the pollen, or fecundating poAVder. L. has, therefore, very properly compared this part of the fructification to the fecundated ovary in animals. It is certain that, in general, the vegetable germ is not evolved into a true pericarp, if the pollen has been prevented from having access to the stigma. The pe- ricarp is an organ of great importance. Hence, like all the truly im- * See Plate I. ! See Plate XVIII. X From """§•> around or about, and >-*g»-of, fruit, or seed. § Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 53, § 86. || Ibid. p. 92. § 146. " Pericarpium Ovarium foecundatum, unde ova pro- duct foecunda." 124 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. portant parts of vegetables, and of animals, it is very generally present. Its use is obvious; to keep and preserve the seeds until they are ripe; to serve as " the guard of the seed,"* and then to commit them to the bosom of the earth, or to the air, and waters. Some plants are destitute of the pericarp. This is the case in the Asperifoliae, or Rough-leaved plants, in the Verticillate plants, and in the Compound-flowers. In these families of vegetables, the place of the pericarp is supplied by the calyx, which encloses the seed, and accompanies them to perfection; or by the receptacle, of which I am afterwards to speak more particularly. I cannot pretend to state, in this place, the proportion of plants that are destitute of the pericarp, compared to those which are furnished with this viscus. It may, however, be proper to observe, that the compound flowers form a very extensive family in most countries, (particularly, perhaps, in North America;) and that many of the genera belonging to the other orders which I have mentioned, embrace a great number of species. L. enumerates eight different species of pericarp, viz. 1. the Capsula, 2. the Siliqua, 3. the Legumen, 4. the Folliculus, 5. the Drupa, 6. the Pomum, 7. the Bacca, and 8. the Strobilus. 1. The Capsula,! or first species of pericarp which I have mentioned, is called by the English botanists Capsule, little chest, or casket. It is a membranaceous, hollow pericarp, Avhich spontaneously opens or splits, in some determinate manner, or differently in different vegeta- bles: " Pericarpium cavum, determinate dehiscens.""): ' Dr. Grew dis- tinguishes all the dry-seed vessels; whether they be capsules (in the Lin- naean sense of the word,) or pods, by the name of " seed-cases," or " membranous uteri," in opposition to the pericarps of a pulpy kind, such as the fruit of the Apple, the Quince, the Cherry, the Gooseberry, and others; these last he nominates fruits. This distinction of the great English philosophical naturalist, is more agreeable to the prevailing ideas with regard to all the various kinds of pericarp, than the distinc- ' tion of L. and the botanists of his school. Nevertheless, the term peri- carp, as a generic term, may, Avith great propriety, be employed, a. In respect to its figure and substance, the capsula is, 1. turbinata, tur- binate. 2. injlata, inflated. 3. globosa, globular. 4. didyma, twin, or didymous. 5. scrotiformis, purse-like; elevated with two protuber- ances. 6. cylindracea, cylindrical. 7. columnaris, columnar; cyl- indrical and capitate. 8. ovata, ovate. 9. subrotunda, roundish. 10. oblonga, oblong. 11. obcordata, obcordate; inversely cordate. 12. obtusa, obtuse. 13. acuminata, acuminate. 14. ventricosa, ventricose; oblong and very convex. 15. compressa, compressed. 16. membranacea, membraneous. 17. elastica, elastic. 18. triquetra, triquetrous. 19. tetragona, four cornered.§ 20. trisulca, three-fur- * Mr. John Ray. ! Capsula, in Latin, signifies a little coffer, or chest, or cask*"' X Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 53. § 86. § See Plate X. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 125 rowed. 21. triloba, three-lobed. 22. quinquedendata, five-toothed. 23. coronata, crowned; the extremity furnished Avith leaflets, digested into a crown. 24. circumscissa, cut round; or bursting all round, ho- rizontally, like a snuff-box; as in Anagallis. 25. articulata, jointed; intercepted by joints. 26. coriacea, coriaceous; resembling leather; as in ^Gsculus.* -27. carnosa, fleshy; resembling flesh; as in Ponte- deria. 28. lignosa, woody; of a woody texture; as in Cedrela. Cap- sules, in splitting or opening, are divided externally into one or more pieces, to which L. has given 'the name of Valvae and Valvulas,X or Valves. The valve is the outer coat, shell, or covering of a capsule, or any other species of pericarp, or the several pieces which compose it. It is rather the door, or opening, by which the seeds of the capsule are to go out, or escape. According to the number of its valves, the cap- sule is, 1. bivalvis, bivalve, or two-valved; splitting into two parts or pieces; as in Celandine, and in all the siliques and legumes. 2. trival- vis, trivalve, or three-valved; opening with three valves; as in Violet, iEsculus, Cistus Helianthemum, and others. 3. quadrivalvis, quadri- valve; or four-valved; opening with four valves; as in Ludvigia, Oeno- thera, &c. 4. quinquevalvis, quinquevalve, or five-valved; opening with five valves, as in Hottonia, Flax, Lime-tree, (Tilia,) Syrian-Mal- low, (Hibiscus,) and Cotton (Gossypium.) The internal divisions of the capsule are denominated Loculamenta,X or Cells. These are the chambers appropriated for the reception of the seeds. According to the number of these cells, the capsule is, 1. unilocularis, unilocular, or one-celled; as in the Primrose. 2. bilocularis, bilocular, or two-celled; as in the Henbane, Tobacco, and Thorn-apple, or James-town-weed. 3. trilocularis, trilocular, or three-celled; as in the Lily, the Hyacinth, &c. 4. multilocularis, multilocular,or many-celled; as in the different kinds of Nymphaea and Nelumbium, which are known by the names of Water-Lily. The capsule has received different names, according to the number of the seeds which it contains. Thus, we have, 1. cap- sula dicocca, a dicoccous or two-grained capsule; consisting of two co- hering grains or cells, with one seed in each. 2. tricocca, tricoccous or three-grained; swelling out in three protuberances, internally divided into three cells, with one seed in each; as in the genus Euphorbia, or Spurge. 3. pentacocca, pentacoccous, or five-grained; swelling out in five protuberances, or having five united cells, each containing one seed. The partitions by which the capsule is internally divided into cells, are called by L. Dissepimenta; each of these partitions, dissepimentum: " a wall separating a pericarp internally into cells;" Dr. Martyn calls this part of the plant the partition: but I think it better to use the word Dissepiment. The dissepiment is either, 1. parallel, dissepimentum * See Plate XV. D. E. ! From the Latin valvce, doors or gates, which open and shut on both sides ; folding-doors. L. does not make any distinction between valva and valvula. X Loculamcntum, in Latin, signifies a case, a drawer, a bag, die 126 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. parallelum, or, 2. contrary.* The former approaches in breadth and its transverse diameter to the valves; as in Lunaria and Draba. The lat- ter is narrower than the valves; or, as L. more fully expresses it in the Delineatio Plantx, narrower, when the valves, by being squeezed or contracted, become concave. (" Angustius ubi valvulae coarctatae eva- dunt concava*..") This is exemplified in Biscutella "and Thlaspi. L. borrowed these two terms from Tournefort: he observes, that they are to be understood with some allowance as to the manner in which they are employed. This is candidly observed. " I should have conceived, (says Dr. Martyn,) a parallel partition in a siliqua or pod to have been in the direction of the valves—a contrary or transverse one, at right angles with the valves." By some English writers on Botany, the name of transverse dissepiment is given to the dissepiment called by L. contrary. The Columella,X is the central pillar in a capsule. It is the part which connects the several internal partitions with the seed: "Pars connectens parietes internos cum seminibus."jp It takes its rise from the receptacle, and has the seed fixed to it all round. For Representations of different kinds of capsules see Plates IV, VIII, X, XI, XII, XIV, XV, &c. &c. 2. The Siliqua, Silique, or Pod, is a two-valved pericarp, having the seed fixed along both sutures. The proper silique is bilocular, or two-celled, being furnished with a partition Avhich runs the whole length of this kind of pericarp. It is to be observed, however, that some pericarps which have the same form, take the name of siliqua, although they have no partition, and, of course, are unilocular, or one- celled; as in Fumitory (Fumaria,) and Celandine, or Cheledonium. L., after Ray, has distinguished the silique into the siliqua, properly so called, and the silicula, or silicle. These two pericarps do not essentially differ from each other: they differ only in form and size. The first-mentioned species is much longer than it is broad: we have examples of this kind of pericarp in the following vegetables, viz. Mustard, Radish, Wall-flower (Cheiranthus,) Water-cresses, Bignonia longissima, and many others. The silicle is almost round, or at least makes a much nearer approach to the obicular form; as in the Lunaria (called Honesty and Satin-flower,) in Alyssum (Mad-wort,) Thlaspi (Shepherd's Purse,) Iberis (Candy-tuft,) and others. This difference in the form and shape of the silique and silicle, is assumed by L. as the foundation of the two orders into which he has distributed the plants of the fifteenth class of his system. a. In regard to its figure, the species of pericarp of which I have been speaking (whether silique or silicle) is, l.compressa, compressed. 2. torosa, torose; swelling out into knobs, like the veins and muscles. * Dissepimentum contrarium. ! Columella, in Latin, signifies a little pillar, a tomb-stone, or pillar of in- scription. X Philosophia Botanica, die p. 53, § 86. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 127 3. torulosa, swelling as above, but in a smal ler degree. 4. articulata, jointed; intercepted witH tight joints.* 3. TheLegumen, or Legume, is a pericarp of two valves, in which the seeds are fixed along one of the sutures only. By this circumstance, it differs from the last men- tioned species of pericarp, in which we have seen the seeds are fixed to both sutures. The old English word for the legume was cod,! and the pericarp of the Pea: Avhich is a true legume, is still called a Peas-cod. " Pod (as Dr. Martyn observes) is used both for the legume and the silique indifferently: but they are so distinct, that they ought not to have the same appellation. It seems better, therefore (the same in- genious writer remarks,) to anglicize the Latin terms: and Avith respect to this, it is become sufficiently familiar to the English ear."*t In the United States, it may, hoAvever, be observed, that the word cod is much less generally applied to the legume, or any other species of pericarp, a. In regard to its figure, its substance, &c. the legume is, 1. subrotundum, roundish. 2.ovatum, ovate. 3. oblongum, oblong. 4. lineare, linear. 5 rhombeum, rhombed, or rhomb-shaped. 6. rhomboidale, rhomboidal; of a rhomboid form. 7. lunulatum, cres- cent-shaped. 8. muticum, awnless; without a point. 9. obtusum, obtuse. 10. acuminatum, acuminate. 11. spina mucronatum, mucronate with a thorn. 12. venosoreticulatum, venose-reticulated; the veins disposed so as to form a net-work. 13. venoso-varicosum, venoso-varicose; the veins dilated so as to form varices. 14. striatum, striated, \5.villosum, villose. 16. tuberculatum, tubercled; covered with cartilaginous points. 17. scabrum rough. 18. planum, flat 19. membranaceum, membranous. 20. foliaceum, foliaceous. 21. diaphanum, diaphanous. 22. coriaceum, coriaceous. 23. gibbum, gibbous. 24. teres, columnar. 25. teretiusculum, somewhat co- lumnar. 26. cylindraceum, cylindrical. 27. alatum, winged. 28. angulis membranaceis, with membranous angles. 29. compres- sum, compressed; as in Gleditsia triacanthos, called Honey-Locust. 30. nodosum, knotty; elevated in knots. 31. inflatum, inflated. 32. turgidum, turgid; swollen, as in Ononis, and Crotallaria sagittalis (called in the United States, Rattle, and Rattle-Box.) N. B. The turgid and the inflated legume are thought, by some writers, to be no ways different: "but in the latter" as Dr. Martyn observes " I apprehend the pericarp to be in substance, as well as in form, somewhat like a blown bladder; whereas in the former it is merely more swelled out, and has a wider cavity than usual." We have a good example of the legumen inflatum in Colutea, or Bladder-Senna. 33. torosum, * See Plate XXVI. f Thus May, in the following lines: " Thy corn thou there may'st safely sow, " Where in full cods last year rich pease did grow." X The Language of Botany, die. 128 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. torose, or necklace-form; gibbous, with protuberances disposed linear- ly. 34. farctum, stuffed; full of a pulpy or fleshy substance. 35. j)ulposum, pulpy; filled Avith pulp. 36. carnosum, fleshy; filled with a fleshy substance. 37. lignosum, woody. 38. subulatum, subulate. 39. falcatum, falcate, or sickle-shaped; compressed, subu- late, and curved. 40. sessile, sessile. 41. pedicellatum, pedicelled; elevated on a pedicel. 42. rectum, straight; without a bend. 43. strictum, stiff and straight. 44. rigidum, rigid. 45. ascendens, ascending, with an ascending point. 46. incurvatum, incurved. 47. arcualum, bowed; bent like a bow. 48. inflexum, inflected. 49. reflexum, reflected. 50. revolutum, re volute. b. In regard to its measure, the legume is, 1. longissimum, very long, with respect to the corolla. 2. longum, long. 3. maximum, very large, as in Gleditsia. 4. minimum, very small; as in the differ- ent kinds of Clover (Trifolium.) 4. latissimum, very broad, c. In regard to its structure, the legume is, 1. articulatum, jointed. 2. uni- locular, unilocular. 3. biloculare, bilocular. 4. isthmis intercep- tum, divided transversely, within, into different cells. Plants that are furnished with the legume, as a pericarp, are known by the name of Leguminosae, or Leguminous Plants. The greater number of these vegetables are arranged by L. under his seventeenth class, or Diadel- phia. It may here be observed, that Dr. Arbuthnot and some other English writers, have confounded the* siliquose and leguminous plants with each other. Dr. Johnson does not seem to have had correct ideas on the subject.* This, however, is the more excusable, since the an- cients themselves, as L. observes, confounded under one name the pe- ricarps of the Tetradynamous and Diadelphous plants: that is, the silique and legume. Thus, Columella denominates the pods of Beans, "sili- quae." Virgil uses siliqua in the same sense.f We are certain, from a passage in Pliny, that Virgil is speaking of Beans, and of course, that the word siliquis is properly translated by pod. But the word legumen very frequently occurs in the writings of the Roman authors. In these it seems to imply every species of pulse, such as Beans, Pease, &c. Even L. himself has sometimes confounded the terms siliqua and le- gumen. Thus in his Praslectiones in Ordines Naturales Plantarum, he calls the pericarp of the Lomentaceae a " siliqua:" but at a subse- quent period he denominated it a legumen. For representations of the Legume, see Plate XXI. 4. The Folliculus,*t or Follicle, is a one-valved pericarp, which opens longitudinally only on one side, and having its seeds loose within it, that is not bound to the suture. In the writings of L., the terms fol- * See his Dictionary. ! Georgic. lib. I. 1. 193—195. X Folliculus, in Latin, signifies a little leather bag, a husk of wheat, or other grain. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 129 liculus and conceptaculum (conceptacle,) are entirely synonymous. The latter term occurs in the Philosophia Botanica, the former in the Delineatio Plantae, and in the early and late editions of the Genera Plantarum. We have examples of this species of pericarp in the ge- nera Nerium, Stapelia, Cynanchum, Periploca, Apocynum, Asclepias, Embothrium, and others. 5. The Drupa, or Drupe, is a species of pericarp which is destitute of valves, and contains a nut or stone, within which there is a kernel. The drupe is mostly a moist and succulent fruit, as in the Plum, the Cherry, the Apricot, the.Peach, and the Olive: but sometimes it is dry, as in the Almond. To these two species of drupa have been given the names of 1. succulenta, succulent, or juicy; containing a fluid, and 2. sicca, dry, orjuiceless; opposed to the preceding term. The term drupa is sanctioned by classical authority. It is employed by Pliny, who uses the word for the fruit of the Olive.* The term is synonymous to Tournefort's " fructus mollis ossiculo," or, soft fruit with a stone. It is also equivalent to the term Prunus, as employed by other botanists. The nut, or stone, which in the drupe is surrounded by the soft, pulpy flesh, is a kind of woody cup, which commonly con- tains a single kernel, called Nucleus. The hard shell thus enveloping the kernel is denominated Putamen. As L. is not always consistent, so the reader will not be surprised to fine that the definition which has just been given of the drupe does not apply to every pericarp designated by this name in the Genera Plantarum. For not again to mention the Almond, L. calls the pericarp of the Elm (Ulmus) a drupe, although its substance is like parchment, and its seed are not contained within a stone. Beside the vegetables which I have mentioned, the folloAving indigenous plants furnish good examples of the drupe, viz. the Sour- Gum and Sour-Olive of the United States, (Nyssa integrifolia and N. denticulata;) different species of Laurus, such as Sassafras (Laurus Sassa- fras,) Spice-wood (Laurus Benzoin,) and others. The term drupe gave name to an order, Drupacese, in the former editions of L.'s Fragments of a natural method. This order (the thirty-eight,) comprehended the Almond, the Peach, the Plumb, the Apricot, the Cherry, and the Bird- seed: but they were afterwards referred to the order Pomaceae, some account of which is given in the last part of this work.! 6. The Po- mum, or Pome,:): or Apple,§ is a pulpy pericarp, without valves, but con- taining a membranous capsule,|| with a number of cells or eavities, for the lodgment of the seeds. This species of pericarp has no external opening or valve. At the end opposite to the peduncle, or footstalk supporting the pome, there is frequently a small caA*ity, to which the gardeners have given the name of the eye of the fruit. The Apple, the Pear, the Quince, the Gourd, the Cucumber, the Melon, and many * Lib. XV. cap. vii. ! See Class xn. Icosandria. X Dr. Martyn. § Dr. I. E. Smith. i| " Pericarpium farctum evalve, Capsulars continens." 17 130 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. others, furnish us with instances of this species of pericarp. Several of these plants belong to L.'s order Pomaceae, just mentioned, a. In regard to its figure, thepomum is, 1. oblongum, oblong. 2. ovatum, ovate. 3. globosum, globular. 4. subrotundum, roundish; not to mention many other forms; for the form of fruits is immensely varied by climate and by soil. b. With respect to its cells, this species of pe- ricarp is triloculare; three-celled, &c. 7. The Bacca, or Berry, is a succulent or pulpy pericarp, without valves, and containing naked seeds, or seeds Avhich have no other cov- ering. The seeds, in this species of pericarp, are sometimes dispersed promiscuously through the pulpy substance, as in the Water-Lily: but they are more generally placed upon receptacles, or footstalks, within the pulp; as in the Currant, the Gooseberry, the Raspberry, the Hy- drastis, called in the United States, Yellow-root, and many others. To the former kind of seed L. has given the name of semina nidulantia, or nestling seed. a. The berry assumes a considerable variety of forms. It is, however, very frequently round, or oval, and is often furnished with an umbilicus, or small cavity, at the end opposite to the footstalk, as is the case in the Apple, and other species of the Pomum. This spe- cies of berry is called by L. bacca umbilicata. b. According to the num- ber of seeds Avhich it contains, the bacca is, 1. monosperma; one-seeded; containing a single seed; as in Plinia, &c. 2. disperma, two-seeded; containing two seeds; as in Chiococca. 3. polysperma, many seeded. containing several seeds; as in the Persimmon, (Diospyros virginiana,) Witheringia, May-apple (Podophyllum peltatum,) and others. In the use of the term bacca, or berry, L. is sometimes as inconsistent as in the use of the term drupe. Thus, he calls the pericarp of Lesser-Bur- dock, (Xanthium,) a berry: but it is dry, and contains within it a nut, which is furnished with two cells! Again, he calls the pericarp of Cap- sicum, a berry. But this has no pulp, and is hollow within. The fol- lowing pericarps, though certainly very different from each other, are all denominated by L. berries, viz. Sumach (Rhus,) Nightshade (Sola- num*) Sow-bread (Cyclamen,) Medlar (Mespilus,) Orange and Lemon (Citrus Aurantium and C. medica,) Yew (Taxus,) and Pine-apple, or Bromelia. c. The berry* is said to be proper, or improper. The for- mer is formed of the pericarp, or seed-vessel. The latter is formed of any of the other parts of the fructification. Thus, in the Mulberry, the Rose, the Blite (Blitum,) and Myrtle-leaved Sumach (Rhus Coria- ria,) the large, fleshy, and succulent calyx becomes a berry. In the Strawberry and Cashew-nut (Anacardium,) it is formed from the re- ceptacle: in the Raspberry and Adonis, of a seed: in the Marvel of Peru (Mirabilis) of the nectary: in the Garden Burnet (Poterium- Sanguisor- ba) of the tube of the corolla, which hardens and shuts, for the purpose. Certain fruits, such as Mulberry, Raspberry, Blackberry, not to men- tion many others, Avhich are generally regarded as berries, have, with more propriety, been denominated Compound and Spurious Berries: for in these, each of the component parts, which are called acini, or ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 131 granules, may, very properly, be considered as a distinct berry, con- taining a single seed, immersed in the pulpy matter. The berry does not spontaneously gap or burst, as do the four first species of pericarp which I have mentioned, viz. the capsule, the silique and silicle, the legume, and the follicle, or conceptacle. Birds and other species of animals, as we shall afterwards see, are very instrumental in the disse- mination or dispersion of various kinds of berries. "Finis Baccae," says L., "ut semina ab animalibus serantur: e. gr. Viscum.,,H For representations of different kinds of berry, see, in this work, Plates I, IX, XIV, XVIII. 8. The Strobilus,! or Strobile, is the last species of pericarp enume- rated by L. He defines it, a pericarp formed from an ament, by the induration of the scales. This is the definition as given in the Termini Botanici. In the Delineatio Plantae, it is thus expressed, "Strobi- lus imbricatus amenti coarctati." That is, the strobile is made up of scales that are imbricate, or lie over each other, from an ament contract- ed or squeezed together, in this state of maturity." " This term in- cludes (as Dr. Martyn observes,) not,only the cone of former writers, but also some other fruits, which recede considerably in structure from that sort of pericarp; as that of Magnolia," Tulip-tree (Liriodendron,) and others. It must be evident, therefore, that it is improper to trans- late strobilus by cone, as has been done by some writers. The strobile assumes a variety of forms in different vegetables. Although L., in the later editions of his works, has discarded the term cone, and adopted that of strobile, he has, nevertheless, retained an order of vegetables, which he calls Coniferae, or Cone-bearing of which notice will be taken in a subsequent part of the work. To this order belong the Fir, the Pine, the Cypress, the Thuja, and others. Beside the eight species of pericarp above mentioned, four other species are enumerated by Professor Scopoli, of Pavia. These are the Theca, the Granatum, the Cysta, and the Scrinum. Of each of these it is proper that I should take some notice. 9. The Thecal is defined to be a dou- ble involucre of the seed, the exterior covering bursting open; the in- terior one, which is either pulpy, membranaceous, hairy, or woolly or brittle, involving the seed. " Fructus cum involucro duplies ;,exterius, dehiscens, interius, pulposum, membranaceum, pilosum, lanatum aut fragile, semina obvolvens:"§ We have examples of this species of peri- carp in the Euonymus, or Spindle-tree, and in the Celastrus, or the Staff- tree, and several others. L. was not unacquainted with this species of pe- ricarp. He did not, however, consider it as a pericarp, but as the proper * Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 75. § 113. ! Strobilus has very different significations in the Latin language; it signifies a Avild Pine-tree, a Pine-apple, an Artichoke, and also a whirlwind. X Theca, in Latin, signifies a sheath or case, also a box or bag, and the husk of corn. §> Neckcr. See his Corollarium, &c. p. 28. 132 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. and exterior coat or covering of the seed,* which falls off spontaneously, or encloses the seed partially. I think, however, that the theca may very properly be considered as a species of pericarp. In this opinion, I folloAv not only the learned Scopoli himself, but also Giseke, and some other writers. By some English botanists the theca has been denomi- nated the Case. 10. The Granatum,! or Granate, is also a. double in- volucre; one of the covers being of a corky or coriaceous texture, the other succulent. In this species of pericarp, however, of which we have the most familiar instance in the Punica Granatum, or Pomegranate, neither of the involucres, or covers, splits or opens. 11. The Cysta,:); or Cyst, consists of three covers, one of which is membranaceous, ano- ther succulent or fleshy, and the third, and most interior, also mem- branaceous or brittle. Neither of these covers splits or opens. " Cysta, fructus minime dehiscens e germine oriens, triplici involucre Exte- rius, membranaceum, fragileve semina involvens." The Berberis, or Barberry, supplies an example of this species of pericarp. 12. The Scrinum,§ or Serine, is also composed of three covers, viz. an exterior one, which is of a woody texture, and does not split at all; a middle one, which is pulpy, and an interior one, which is membranaceous, enve- lopes the seed, and spontaneously splits or opens: " Fructus ex involu- cro triplici compositum. Exterius, lignosum minime dehiscens, me- dium pulposum, interius sponte dehiscens, membranaceum, semina fo- vens."|| I do not know that names for all of these four species of pericarp have been as yet introduced into the English botanical nomenclature. 1 think we may use the following, viz. Theca (without any alteration,) the Granate (sufficiently distinct from the compound stone called gra- nite,) the Cyst, and the Serine. VII. The Semen, or Seed, is the sixth part, and the " end and aim," of the fructification. It is defined by L. the deciduous part of a vege- table, containing the rudiments of a new or other vegetable of the same species, and fertilized by the aspersion or sprinkling of the pollen, or fecundating powder: " pars vegetabilis decidua, novi rudimentum, Pol- linis irrigatione vivificatum."1[ The parts of a seed, properly so called, are enumerated by the Swedish naturalist, as follows: viz. 1. the Cor- culum. 2. the Cotyledon. 3. the Hilum. 4. the Arillus. 5. the Coronula, and 6. the Ala. Of each of these parts I shall give some ac- * Arillus. t Granatum is used by Pliny (Lib. XX. cap. xiv.) as the name of the Puni- ca Granatum, or Pomegranate-tree. X Cysta, or rather Cista, signifies, in Latin, a basket, or chest for books, mo- ney, die. § Scrinum, or scrinium, signifies a casket or coffer, an escretoire, a book- case, die. || Necker. Corollarium, die. p. 17, 18. If Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 54. § *■<('. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 133 count, though not in the precise order in which I have mentioned them. I shall also take notice of some other parts of the seed, unnoticed by L.; for since his lime the subject has excited much more attention than . he has devoted to it. A. The Hilum.* This part, which is frequently called the Eye, is an external cicatrix, mark or scar, of the umbilical chord of some seeds, where they adhere to the pericarp. In other Avords, it is the scar formed by the breaking off or separation of the stalk to which it was affixed, and by which it receives its nourishment, whilst in the pericarp or vegetable Avomb. In the Delineatio Plantae, L. denominates the hilum, "cicatrix umbilicalis," and, in his Philoso- phia Botanica he thus defines it: "Cicatrix externa seminis ab ejus- dem affixione in fructu." This part of the seed is more or less con- spicuous in different seeds. In thefolloAving, it is very large and con- spicuous, viz. the Garden-Bean! (Vicia Faba), in the Cardiospermum, or Heart-seed; and in the Staphylea trifolia, or Bladder-nut B. Besides the hilum, we observe, in various species of seeds, par- ticularly when in their green state, a very minute foramen, or hole, of which I think L. has taken no notice. This aperture is perceptible, even without the assistance of a glass, in the full-grown Garden-Bean. In this species of seed, it is situated at the end of the hilum, and im- mediately at the point of the radicle, which is presently to be men- tioned. X ^ It is uncertain whether this foramen be present in all seeds. Some writers§ have supposed, that it is. Possibly, it is constant in all seeds. We cannot doubt that it exists in many in which neither the armed or unarmed eye has detected it. It is so minute, that it may readily escape our notice, especially in small seeds, when they are per- fectly ripe and dry. The use of this foramen is unknown to us. Dr. Grew, who was acquainted Avith it, supposed, that the moisture, which the Bean absorbs, when it is committed to the earth, and by which it becomes distended, finds a passage through this aperture The late Mr. Curtis made an experiment to ascertain the truth of this opinion. He covered the aperture in six Peas (Pisum sativum,) with a strong spirit varnish, and placed them in a pot of moist earth, along with six other Pease, which were of the same weight. The following day, he took them out of the pot, and upon weighing them, he found, that the varnished were nearly as heavy as the unvarnished seed, and that there was but little difference in the size of the Pease thus treated. From this experiment, the ingenious experimenter concludes, "that the moisture which the Pea absorbs, enters the Cotyledons by some other channel than the aperture, most probably the whole surface of the husk is permeable."|| * The word hilum, in the Latin language, signifies the little black of a Bean, and, also, a very nothing. In this sense it is used by Cicero and by Lucretius. t See Plate v. Fig. A. 1. Fig. D. 1. X See Plate v. Fig. A. 4. § Mr.Curtis. || A Companion to the Botanical Magazine, die. p. 6. 134 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. I think it probable, that the whole surface of the husk is really per- meable: but it must be observed, that Mr. Curtis's experiment is not conclusive. His Pease were not left for a sufficient time in the earth, and it does appear, that the seed in which the foramina were not varn- ished had absorbed, in the course of about one day, more moisture than the others. C. By the Arillus, Aril,* or Tunic,! L., as I have already observed, means a particular covering of the seed, to which other writers have given the name of pericarp. I shall not employ arillus, in the L. sense of the Avord, but shall speak of the coverings of the seed under othe names. • By some writers,;): the exterior covering of the seed is denominated the Cutis, or Husk. Gaertner,§ who has devoted more attention to the seed than any other writer, divides the Proper integuments of seeds (Integumenta seminum propria,) into the Testa, or Shell, and the Membrana interna, or Internal Membrane. These are the coats Avhich invest the nucleus (kernel;) they do not separate, except under germination, and even then, not spontaneously: they are burst irregularly by the swelling of the cotyledons. 1. When the seed is furnished with two proper coats, the shell is the outer one: when there is only one coat, this is accounted the shell; and Avhen there are more than two coverings, the second from the nucleus is named the shell. The shell* is deemed an essential part of the seed, because the kernel, which originally was wholly fluid, could not have been formed unless a coat had been placed round it. This integument is never wanting, a. In regard to its consistence, &c. the testa is, 1. membranacea, membranous. 2. pellucida, pellucid; as in Rice (Oryza.) 3. opaca, opaque; dry and almost friable; as in Messer- chmidia. 4. charlacea, paper-like, and somewhat elastic and very tough; as in the Indian-corn (Zea Mays.) 5. coriacea, coriaceous; thicker than the preceding. 6. spongiosa, fungosa, and suberosa, spongy, fungous, or cork-like; formed of a porous substance. 7. car- nosa, fleshy. 8. Crustacea, crustaceous; thin, and not capable of being softened by water, or cut by a knife, but easily broken by the fingers; as in the Palms. 9. ossea and lapidea, differing from the preceding, only in thickness and hardness, b. The testa is, 1. bilocularis, or two-celled; as in Sapindus. 2. Most generally, however, it is unilo- culars, unilocular, or one-celled, containing a single kernel. 2. The internal membrane is generally present, but is, nevertheless, often wanting. This integument always closely invests the kernel, but readily secedes from the shell. It is, 1. membranacea, or membran- ous; or, 2. subpongiosa, somewhat spongy. The former is the most common. The Chalaza is situated in the internal membrane. This is * Dr. Martyn. fDr. I. E. Smith. X Curits, die § See his great and classical work, De Fructibus and Seminibus Plantarum, Stutgardise: 1783, di Tubingae: 1791. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 135 a part of the seed of which the learned Gaertner has taken particular notice. It is a small deep-coloured areola, or a small spongy or callous tubercle on the outer surface of the ^internal membrane of the seed; it is found in many but not in all seeds, and is either placed near the ex- ternal umbilicus, or diametrically opposite to it. The latter situation is the most common. 3. The Accidental integuments, as Gaertner calls them, are superadded to the testa, or shell, of the seed, a'nd either wholly or partially cover it in such a manner, that they may be easily removed. The first of these accidental coverings is called by Gaertner, the epidermis, or cuticle. It is a thin pellicle, which invests the whole seed, and never spontaneously separates from it. The epidermis is, 1. membranacea, membranous. 2. mucilaginosa, mucilaginous. This is only observed, when seeds, by being thrown into water, have their surface softened and resolved into a jelly, or mucilage. This is very observable in the seed of the Quince (Pyrus Cydonia,) and in those of the Siliquose plants. Gaertner retains the term arillus, or aril, as one of the accidental integuments, which covers the seed, either wholly or partially, adhering only to the navel. Of the aril, I have already spoken under the head of pericarp, and have nothing fur- ther to say concerning it, in this place. D. The Nucleus, or Kernel, is the part which fills the internal cavity of the various integuments Avhich have been mentioned. It is of an almond-fleshy substance,* and generally composed of four distinct parts, viz. 1. the Albumen. 2. the Vitellus. 3. the Cotyledon; and, 4. the Embryo. Of these I shall treat in the order in which I have mentioned them. 1. The Albumen, or White of the Seed, is that part of the kernel which in- vests the .cotyledons, and is thought to afford the same support to the germinating embryo, that the white of the egg does to the chick. Both in respect to its consistence and colour, the albumen, in many seeds, greatly resembles the white of a boiled egg. It is not deemed an essential part of the seed. It is wanting in many seeds, but, upon the whole, appears to be present in a majority of the many seeds which were examined, Avith a truly scientific patience, by Gaertner. It is present in the plants of the following natural orders, viz. the Grasses, the Palms, the Liliaceous plants, the Umbelliferae, the Coniferae, and the Multisiliquae, not to mention some others. The albumen is want- ing in the seeds of the Compositae, the Verticillatae, the Siliquosae, the Cucurbitaceae, and the Asperifoliae. In the Leguminous plants, a very great number of the genera are destitute of albumen, whilst a few are supplied Avith it. Among the plants of the class Monadelphia, there is a greater number of genera with albuminous than with exalbuminous seeds. Although the albumen is thus wanting in many seeds, it must be admitted, Avhen present, to be a substance of considerable impor- tance. It supports and defends the embryo, whilst this essential part * That is retaining the impression of the nail. Gaertner calls it amygdali- nocarnosum. 136 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. is imprisoned in the seed, and serves for the first nutriment of the em- bryo, when it begins to germinate. It has no connection with the embryo, whether it surround, oris surrounded by, the embryo: it is always so distinct; as to be very readily detached from it. The part of the kernel of which I am speaking, was not unknoAvn to Dr. Grew, who gave it the name which it now retains. Gleichen calls it the "seminal placenta," whilst Meese and Boehmer designate it by the name of cotyledon. L. asserted, that the vegetable egg is destitute of albuminous matter, and that it is of no use in the seed. He would have said, with more truth, as Gaertner observes, that albumen is not found in all seed. Moreover, some seeds have but a very small quantity of this substance. 2. The Vitellus, or Yolk, is placed between the embryo and the albumen, and is different both from the cotyledons and the albumen. It is so closely connected with the embryo that it cannot be detached from it without injuring the substance of the latter. It is never carried without the shell of the seed, whilst this is germinating, nor does it be- come a seminal leaf, as the cotyledons do, but is entirely exhausted by the seminal plant and converted into its nourishment; in both which re- spects it resembles the albumen. In albuminous seeds, or seeds fur- nished with albumen, the vitellus occupies the middle place between it and the embryo, in such a manner that it can be easily separated from the albumen, without any injury to its form. It is evident, therefore that it has some affinity with the cotyledons, and also with the albumen. Of all the internal parts of the seed, the vitellus is the most uncommon. In the seeds of what are commonly Called the more imperfect plants, such as the Fuci, the Mosses, and the Ferns, the vitellus presents itself in its most simple form and fabric. In these plants the Avhole kernel is a pure vitellus, which is formed of mere herbaceous or Almond-flesh, and exactly adapted to the cavity of its shell. Even here, although the diagnosis of it is difficult, it cannot, in the opinion of Gaertner, be re- ferred to the albumen, because it does not contain Avithin itself a dis- tinct embryo, but is perfectly solid. Moreover, near the umbilicus of the seed, the vitellus has growing to it a " germinating cicatricle," which is not separable from the remaining substance of the kernel, nor even distinguishable from it, except by its paler colour, and more medullary consistence; as we observe in the seeds of Lycopodium. Nor can the substance in question be considered as a solid cotyledon, because in the germinating seeds of the Mosses, we plainly observe cotyledonous leaflets, arising below it from the seed; and it is seen adhering to these new and true cotyledons, a long time after their appearance, and the seminal plant consuming and destroying it. The vitellus, from all these circumstances, appears to be of an intermediate nature, between the al- buminous and cotyledonous matter. In other vegetables, as in Ruppia and Zamia, the fabric of the vitellus is more evident. In the first of these plants it is very like to a fleshy albumen, and in Zamia, it is still more like albuminous matter. In Zostera, Ceratophyllum, and others, ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 137 the vitellus approaches nearer to the form of a true cotyledon, being formed of a white almond flesh, and divided into two lobes. In Cera- tophyllum and Nelumbo, indeed, there is but little perceptible differ- ence betAveen the vitellus and the cotyledons. Upon the Avhole, how- ever, the vitellus, in the opinion of Gaertner, constitutes a distinct kind of viscus.* 3. As the texture of the albumen is much more simple than that of the vitellus, so the fabric of this last mentioned part is less perfect than that of the cotyledons, Avhich now claims our attention. The cotyledons! are organized parts of the kernel, simple or divided, which together with the radicle and plumule form the body of the em- bryo, which is next to be treated of, and by the germination of the seed, are commonly converted into the first leaflets of the new plant, which, in general, are different from the succeeding leaves. This is the defi- nition of Gaertner. L. defines them to be the lateral body of the seed, bibulous or imbibing moisture, and caducous, or falling off quickly: "corpus laterale seminis, bibulum, caducum."J Professor Giseke de- fines it " folium primum germinantis seminis :"§ the first leaf of the germinating seed. But this is rather a definition of the seed-leaf. In English, the part of which I am speaking is commonly called the Seed- Lobe, "when we speak of it as a portion of the seed, in a quiescent state—and the seed-leaf, when the seed is in a growing state. "|| From different writers the cotyledons have received different names. Jun- gius, in the seventeenth century, denominated them Valvae seminis, or Valves of the seed. Gleichen called them Lobi seminales, or Seed- lobes: whilst by others they have been called Foliola seminlia, or Seminal-leaflets. L. adopted the name of cotyledon, which is used by Gaertner, and most of the other modern writers on botany; and which, indeed, seems preferable to any of the other appellations. In English, we shall avoid all ambiguity by employing the Latin Avord cotyledon, only using, in the plural, cotyledons. The cotyledons seem to derive their original from the embryo, of Avhich they always constitute an in- tegral part In particular, the simple or undivided cotyledons are sup- posed to be formed by the mere extension of the corcle,^) or first me- dullary point of the seed, and are nothing else than the scape of the em- bryo more or less distinct from its radicle; as in the Palms, the Grasses, and the Lilliaceous plants. On the other hand, however, the double * In describing the different parts of the seed, such as the albumen, the vitel- lus, die, I frequently employ, with but little alteration, Iho words of Gaertner, in his extensive history of these parts. Candour requires me to make this ac- knoAvledgment; and, whilst I make it, I must not omif.to rgfer the reader, who is is anxious for more minute information concerning the history of the seed, to the learned and ingenious work of the German botanist. ! From *"~_"'">-,i a cavity. X Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 54. § 86. § Termini Botanici. || Professor Martyn. f Sec what is afterwards said on the Embryo. is 138 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. or conjugate cotyledons are formed by the fissures, which divide the part of the corcle, opposite to the radicle, into two lobules, which are generally equal, a. In regard to its fabric, the cotyledon is generally composed of three distinct parts, viz. epidermis, or cuticle, parenchy- ma, and tracheae, or vessels. 1. The cuticle invests the Avhole surface of the cotyledons, and, in the opinion of Gaertner, serves them partly as a filtre, through which the liquor of the amnion passes, and partly hinders them from coalescing with the neighbouring bodies. 2. The parenchyma proceeds from the internal bark of the embryo, and is formed of cellular texture, in the interstices of Avhich are deposited a thick oil, and other inspissated liquors. This parenchyma alone forms nearly the Avhole mass of the cotyledons, and is commonly of an herba- ceous, almond, or somewhat coriaceous consistence, and principally serves the purpose of depurating and containing the nutritious juices. 3. The tracheae, or vessels, are dispersed through the whole cellular tex- ture of the cotyledons, and connect them intimately with the contained embryo.* They seem to arise from the fleshy substance of the embryo, immediately below the origin of the plumule, and terminate with their fine extremities in the parenchyma, or the surface of the cotyledons. It is supposed! that they are of use to the seminal plant by performing the two-fold office of exhaling and absorbing vessels. Whatever may be their precise use, it is probable that they perform for the seed an office similar to that Avhich is performed by the apparently same system of vessels, which are so conspicuous in the leaves and other parts of ve- getables. The tracheae are at all times conspicuous in the thinner coty- ledons; and in the thicker ones they are rendered obvious to the senses by germination, and different coloured fluids, which they greedily ab- sorb. - We cannot doubt that this absorption depends Upon a living principle (irritability,) inherent in the vessels of which I am speaking: for the absorption or propulsion of fluids is observed to be considerably increased by the application of various stimulating agents, such as cam- phor, nitre, &c. b. The number of the cotyledons is different in dif- ferent seeds; upon the whole, however, the number of these parts is more constant than that of any other part of the fructification. Hence, as we shall afterwards see, some eminent botanists have founded their methods of vegetables principally upon the number of the cotyledons. A seed, in the language of the botanists, is, 1. Acotyledonous. 2. Monocotyledoncus. 3. Dicotyledonous, or, 4. Poly cotyledonous. 1. The seeds which are destitute of cotyledons are'named Acoty- ledonous seeds, and the plants which arise from such seeds, Acotyledo- nous plants. The acotyledonous seed has no conspicuous or distinct embryo, but contains within itself only a punctum saliens, or mere germinating cicatricle ; or a certain simple primordium of a radicle, implanted in the kernel, and which is several times larger than itself; * See Mate V. Fig. P. ! By Gaertner and others. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 139 as in Ruppia, Zostera, Zamia, the Fuci, the Mosses, the Ferns, and the Fungous plants. A plant is named acotyledonous, Avhich, Avithout any preceding vestige of a true leaflet, arises from the earth, a frond of different species, but perfectly similar to the parent plant. Plants of this kind are seldom propagated from seed, but more commonly spring from simple or fruit like (carpomorphi*), buds, as is the case with respect to the Fungous plants, the Lichens, the Confervae, and some of the Algae!. L.t Adanson, Jussieu, Gaertner, and other able botanists, have no hesitation in asserting, that there are seeds, which are acotyledonous, or destitute of cotyledons. On the other hand, however, Dr. Hedwig, of Leipsic, of whom it has been said, that he was " born to abolish Cryptogamy," asserts, that there are no seeds whatever destitute of cotyledons; that the powder of the Mosses (a tribe of plants Avhich the botanists, Avhom I have mentioned, arrange under the head of Acotyledones) is the genuine seed of these plants, which are furnished with their proper cotyledonous matter as in other plants. "Pulvisculus" (these are his Avords) " igitur Muscorum intra capitula contentus, verum eorum est semen, quod, veluti aliorum ve- getabilium semina, sua tunica, cotyledone unto et ultra,- et plantulae rudimento instruitur."§ Notwithstanding, however, the truly inge- nious and meritorious labors of this author, it still, I think, remains to be ascertained, whether the Mosses are really furnished with cotyle- dons, or not. Meanwhile, I follow the authors above -mentioned, in retaining a head or class of acotyledonous seeds. 2. The Monocoty- ledonous seeds are such as have only one cotyledon', or lobe, in the seed. A seed of this kind contains Avith it a very entire embryo, Avithout any perceptible chink, and is either entirely free, or at least loose from the rest of the kernel, at the extremity opposite to its radi- cle. Monocotyledonous are much more numerous than acotyledonous, plants. To the former head, are referred the great natural families of the Grasses, the Palms, the Scitamineae,|| the Lilliaceous, and many other plants. Gaertner observes, that these seeds are of two kinds, viz. 1. the true monocotyledonous, having the embryo formed from its first production,* of one individual body, and so composed of a medullary and cortical substance, that in every transverse section of the embryo, the double substance appears both distinct, and very- entire: and 2. false monocotyledonous (pseuaomonocotyledonea), containing, as well as the former, a solid and undivided embryo, but at its first production, parted into distinct lobules, and afterwards, from the lobules being united at maturity, transformed into a solid and indi- * Gaertner. t Class xxiv. Cryptogamia. i " Musci et adfines (says Linnasus) solis Cotyledonibus destituuntur." Phi- losophia Botanica, die p. 89. §. 136. § D. Joannis Hedwigii, die. Fundamentum Historiae Naturalis Muscorum Frondosorum, die. Part II. p. 55. Lipsiae : 1783. || Class I. Monandria. 14W ELEMENTS uK BOTANY. vidual body ; as in Tropceolum, Paullinia; and others. Gertner also divides the monocotyledonous plants into true and spurious. The true monocotyledonous plants observe one and the same mode of ger- minating and of growing, and, consequently, have the same habit of external form. To this head we refer the Grasses, the Cyperoideae, the Lilliaceous plants, the great family of Orchides, the Scitamineae, the Palms, and others. The spurious monocotyledonous plants only agree in the mode of germinating with one another, and with the former; whilst, in regard to their other qualities, they differ in almost every point; as in Nelumbium, Trapa, Ceratophyllum, Cuscuta, Oro- banche, and others. Hence, a plant is generally named monocotyledo- nous, which springs from the shell (testa) of the seed, with a single true leaflet, or with a single filiform shoot, or turio. The Monocotyle- donous plant which arises from the shell with a leaflet, is denominated phyllophorus, or leaf-bearing (phyllophora) * and that which arises with a filiform shoot is called turioniferous, or shoot-bearing (turioni- fera). These last are either completely destitute of leaves (aphyllae) ; as in Cuscuta and Melocatus ; or they are bulbiferous (bulbiferae), when the embryo of the seed is first elonogated into a fleshy staff, then the outer extremity of it is enlarged into a bulbous globule ; and from this globule arises the first leaflet. 3. The seeds Avhich are furnished with two cotyledons, are denominated Dicotyledonous, and are by far the most frequent. They cherish within them an embryo, separating sponta- neously into two lobes, or, at least, divided by a conspicuous chink, in the extremity opposite to the radicle. The dicotyledonous seeds are, in general, very readily distinguished from the others, because, in by far the greater part of them, the cotyledons are manifestly distinct from each other, as in the Garden-Bean, and many others.* In some of the seeds of this class, however, the diagnosis, as it is called, is attend- ed Avith some difficulty. This difficulty occurs, when the cotyledons, now arrived at maturity, have coalesced into one undivided body; or, again, Avhen in the more minute embryos, the chink of the division is so very small, that it cannot be properly distinguished, even when the eye is assisted by a magnifying glass. In the former case, it is advised to cut the seed before its complete maturity, or the mature kernel is to be determined and referred to its proper class, agreeably to the signs, already mentioned, when speaking of the false monocoty- ledonous seed!. In the latter case, it is useful, in many instances, to throw the doubtful embryo into a coloured liquor, very readily diffusi- ble, such as that of the Phytolacca, or Poke, that this liquor may be received within the chink, and thus render it more conspicuous to the eye. If notwithstanding these precautions, we cannot satisfy our * See Plate v. Fig. F. t All the false monocotyledonous seeds according to Gaertner, properly be- long to other classes, and most of them are dicotyledonous. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY- 141 minds, then the seed is to be referred to the head of monocotyledonous seeds, even though we are certain, that it has originated from a genuine dicotyledonous plant. The greater number of dicotyledonous plants arise from the earth with two seminal leaflets (folia seminalia*) but sometimes they leave their cotyledonous lobes hidden beneath the surface of the earth, and rise, to meet the light and air, with their plumule only. This difference has given occasion to distinguish the dicotyledonous seeds into 1. epigean, and 2. hypogean. The epi- gean (epigceae) cotyledons are always the forerunners of the appear- ance of the new plant, and either resemble thick herbaceous lobes, as in the Kidney-Bean, and other Leguminous plants; or they resemble true leaves, in general, however different from those which are to fol- low, as in the compound flowers, and others; and they spontaneously fall off, after the plumule has unfolded itself. The hypogean (hypo- gceae) cotyledons are only to be met with, in some of the exalbumi- nous seeds formerly mentioned, the testa, or shell, of Avhich they very exactly fill, and never throw it off. They, therefore, always consist of thick and fleshy lobes, and these are either united, as in the Horse- Chesnut (iEsculus Hippocastanum,) &c. or they are distinct as in the Walnuts and Hickories (Juglans,) and others. These, for the most part, even before germination, cherish in their bosom, a manifest plu- mule, which, of itself, is capable of evolution. 4. The Polycotyledo- nous seeds are those which have more than two cotyledons; or, in other words, those in which the embryo is divided into more than tAvo lobes. In general, they are easily distinguished from the other seeds already mentioned. The cotyledons are found to be more than tAvo in various plants. Thus, there are three cotyledons in the Hemlock Spruce-Fir (Pinus canadensis ;) four in Rhizophora gymnorrhiza, and in Avicennia; five in the Common Pine (Pinus sylvestris :) six in the Garden-cress (Lepidium sativum,) and ten, twelve, or more, in the different species of pine. In all these plants, the lobes are observ- ed to be perfectly equal, except in Canarium and Lepidium. They are likewise, distinct in all, except Hernandia, the cotyledonous kernel of which is solid, and only many-parted, internally, by indistinct streaks.. But polycotyledonous plants do not arise exclusively from these seeds ; they are actually known to arise from acotyledonous seeds, as from Mnium hygrometricum, from Bryum trichodes and B. argon- teum, and from various Fuci. Moreover, true dicotyledonous seeds sometimes counterfeit the polycotyledonous, namely when the nucleus, or kernel, owing to the abundance of nutriment, is divided into various irregular lobes, as in Mangifera domestica; or into minute bractes, which do not cohere with each other, as in the Shaddock (Citrus de- cumana :) but this structure is, unquestionably, monstrous, and cannot deceive the botanist Avho is well versed in inquiries of this nature. « See Plate 5. Fig H. and Fig. 0. 142 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. David Meese was of opinion, that there are no seeds furnished with more than two cotyledons ;* and Mr. Adanson asserts, that the poly- cotyledonous seeds only differ from those which are dicotyledonous, in this, that the lobes of the former are again deeply divided, and that their lobes are, in reality, only two in number. The opinion of the French botanist has been implicitly adopted by many succeeding botanists, among whom I may mention the learned Mr. de Jussieu.! It is certain, however, that there are seeds entitled to the appellation of polycotyledonous seeds. This 'is evident from the unequal number of the lobes, as a ternary and quinary one, in some species of Pine. The polycotyledonous plants, however, are, on all hands, acknow- ledged to be but few in number. As the number of cotyledons is upon the Avhole pretty constant, and rarely varies in the same family, so many botanists have founded their methods of plants chiefly upon the number of these parts. Thus, Ray, Boerhaave, Heister, Meese, Adanson, X and others, have assumed the number of the cotyledons as the basis of their systems, and have divided the vegetables of which they treat generally into Acotyledo- nous, Monocotyledonous, Dicotyledonous, and Polycotyledonous. This division is, likewise, the foundation of the celebrated, and, in many respects, natural method of Mr. de Jussieu, to which I shall have frequent occasion to refer, in the last part of this work. This distribu- tion, however, does not afford classes of Vegetables sufficiently natural for the purpose of the botanist: and is, moreover, liable to considera- ble difficulties. We cannot learn, with absolute certainty, the true number of the cotyledons, unless when we have an opportunity of in- specting the seed in a germinating state; nor will the fabric of the em- bryo, in every case, enable us to form a safe judgment of the number of the future cotyledons ; for it is found, as has been already observed, that sometimes, as in the Mosses, a polycotyledonous plant proceeds from an acotyledonous seed ; that from a monocotyledonous plant occa- sionally proceed plants which are close allied to the dicotyledonous plants, as in Dodder (Cuscuta,) and in Melocatus. Lastly, it is cer- tain, that from a seed which is manifestly dicotyledonous, there may spring plants which are attended by only one cotyledonous leaflet; as in the genera Nelumbium and Trapa. Upon thti whole, while it will readily be admitted, that although the number, the fabric, and physio- logy of the cotyledons are points which ought never to be neglected by the genuine botanist, it is highly improbable, that a methodical distri- * Plantarum Rudimenta, die die. 1763. 4°. f Genera Plantarum, die. p. 415. Mr. Curtis (A companion die. p. 20.) positively asserts, that the seed of the Pine has only one cotyledon, and that what have been taken for the cotyledons " was, in fact, the plumule expand- ed into a considerable number of narrow leaves." X This truly learned botanist has founded two systems on the cotyledons, the one on the number, and the other on the form, of these parts. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 143 bution of plants from the number or form of these parts of the seed, will ever be generally received. c. In general, when there are two or more cotyledons in a seed, they are equal, or of the same size, &c.: in some instances, however, Ave do observe a difference, both in regard to the size and thickness of the coty- ledons. But germination finally abolishes the difference; and it is ob- served, that the cotyledons of the same seed, when evolved, are both very generally equal and very similar to each other, d. The size of the cotyledons is various in different vegetables. Most of the exalbu- minous seeds have very large cotyledons; as in the Compound-flowers, the Verticillate plants, &c. On the contrary, in the Umbellifene, the Stellatae, and some other natural families, the cotyledons are smaller. That is, in the first case they either fill the whole of the shell of the seed, so that when it is opened Ave observe nothing but the cotyledons and the radicle; or, in the second case, they are nearly of the length and breadth of the seed-shell, but owing to their albuminous matter do not completely fill it; or, lastly, they are sometimes hardly discernible, even by means of a glass: as in Heath (Erica,) Columbine.(Aquilegia,) Ra- nunculus and others. Gaertner enumerates four heads of sizes of the cotyledons, viz. very large (maxima'.), middle sized (mediocres,) small (parvae,) and minute (minutae.) e. The absolute situation of the cotyledons is supposed to be always in th© highest part of the radi- cle, although this be inverted, or those be turned to the side of the ra* dicle, or rolled about it. But the relative situation respects the situation which the cotyledons hold among themseh*es, or in respect to the exter- nal regions of the seed. Cotyledons Avith respect to each other are, 1. contiguae, contiguous; their internal surfaces touching mutually in every point; as in by far the greater number of known vegetables. 2. oppositae, opposite; their internal surfaces mutually respecting each other; but, by reason of the inflected margins, either not able to touch each other at all, or not in all points; as in Meadow Crane's-bill (Gera- nium pratense,) Coldenia, and others. 3. collaterales, collateral; when one cotyledon is placed at the side of the other, in the same vertical plane, so that it is only at their internal margins that they can mutually respect or touch each other; as in the Misletoe (Viscum album,) Me- nispermum Coculus, and, in some measure, in Cachrys. 4. di- vergentes, diverging; joined at the base, but taking a contrary direc- tion at the apex; as in Nutmeg (Myristica,) and Menispermum fenes- tratum. 5. verticillatae, verticillate; placed in a circle, about a common point, so that they mutually touch each other; as in Pine, and Rhizo- phora. Cotyledons, with respect to the external regions of the seed, are, 1. incumbentes, incumbent; when one of the cotyledons respects the back, and the other the belly of the seed, so that the plane of mutual contact ia parallel with the axis of the fruit, as in Henbane (Hyoscya- mus) Campion (Cucubalus,) &c. 2. accumbentes, accumbent; when one respects the right and the other the left side of the seed, and the margins are turned to the back and belly of it, so that the plane of con- 144 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. tact is contrary to the axis; as in the Leguminous plants and others. 3. transversales, transverse; Avhich have an oblique, or irregular situation in the seed, as in Myrsine, and Lathraea, &c. f. Almost all the known cotyledons have a continuity of substance, and a perfect equality of sur- face: yet some variation from these rules do occur. Thus, some coty- ledons are, 1. dentatae, toothed, or serrated in the margin; as in the Lime-tree (Tilia.) 2. partitae, parted; their foliaceous plates more or less deeply divided into equal parts. 3. rimosae, or anfractuosae, chinky; having their thick lobes divided by chinks, and deep furrows, into various irregular lobes, cohering with each other, and not separated by an intervening membrane; as in Beech (Fagus,) &c. 4. ruminatae, ruminate; like the preceding, except that the chinks are principally placed in the external surface; and separated by intervening membra- nous plates; as in the Chestnut (Fagus Castanea.) 5. lobatas, lobed; when each primary lobe is again divided into other smaller lobes, on the exterior surface only; as in the Walnut. 6. feneslratae, window- ed; pierced with many round holes; as in a species of Menispermum, called, on account of this very singular structure, M. fenestratum. g. Very often the figure of the cotyledons is not different from that of the whole embryo, especially in the monocotyledonous and various other seeds: but, in most seeds, it is worthy of a separate consideration, and either according to the stf aightness or curvature of the plane of contact, or according to the circumcesure of the cotyledons. Thus, the cotyle- dons are, 1. rectae, straight; when the internal surfaces, or plane of mu- tual contact, as well with respect to their length or breadth, hardly de- viate from the right line. 2. arcuatae, bowed; generally narroAv, and always longer than they are broad: the axis, also, is curved in all, but the breadth of the surfaces is always straight and flat. 3. reniformes, reniform; the nearest to straight, as in the Leguminous plants. 4. fal- catae, sickle-shaped. 5. uncinatae & semicirculares, hooked and se- micircular. 6. cochleatae, cochleate; which make one or two spiral turns; as in Cistus. 7. vermiculares, vermicular; bowed in an irregu- lar manner; as in Scorpiurus vermiculata. 8. fiexuosae, flexuose. 9. carinatae, keeled; the axis projecting into an angle, but the flatfish sides bent either forwards or backwards; as in Privet (Ligustrum.) 10. conniventes or subconduplicatae, converging, or somewhatconduplicate: these, from their situation, are opposite, and their sides are inflected in such a manner that the half of one plate is received Avithin the duplica- ture of the other; as in Meadow Cranesbill and Coldenia. 11. repan- dae, repand; the plates being curved in contrary directions, only near the margin, but, in the middle, are sufficiently flat, and are marked with a round angle; as in Tilia, BuckAvheat (Polygonum Fagopyrum,) &c 12. plicatae, plaited; plaited like a ruffle into contiguous vertical or transverse wrinkles, as in Sebestena, &c. 13. lacunosae, pitted; hav- ing their internal surfaces marked with rude and thick folds; as in Beech, &c. 14. volutae, volute; differing from all the preceding, be- cause their foliaceous and very broad plates arc rolled in various ways ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 145 about a globe, or cylinder, or each other, and curved in all directions.* 15. convolutae, convolute; strictly so called. 16. cylindricae; cylin- drical; simply rolled into a hollow cylinder; as in Pisonia. 17. spi- rales, spiral; the foliaceous plates rolled, in a spiral direction, about the radicle or plumule; as in the Pomegranate (Punica,) Myrobalanus, &c. 18. duplicato-convolutae, doubly-convolute; having both margins re- flected spirally into the middle of the internal surface; as in the Nelum- 'bo. 19. vaginantes, sheathing; the outer plate cylindrically convo- lute, and embracing the internal, doubly convolute; as in Aubletia, Ri- vinia, &c. 20. contor tup Heat ee, writhed, or contortuplicate; plaited and convolute in an almost inextricable manner; as in Mallow (Malva,) Cotton (Gossypium,) Convolvulus, and others.! "The proper figure of the cotyledons, which is defined by the limits of the circumference of the margins alone, and is equally common to the straight and curved cotyledons, has exactly the same modifications" that the true leaves (formerly considered) have, being, like them, linear, lanceolate, oblong, ovate, cordate, &c, except that the margins of the cotyledons are very rarely toothed or incised, and hardly ever irregular. As true leaves, so likewise the cotyledons have a different form in the different species of one natural genus or family. Thus, _in the Tartarian Maple (Acer tataricum,) the cotyledons are gibbously flexuose, whilst in the Red-Ma- ple (Acerrubrum,) they are spiral, &c. Thus, again, in the Mountain- Dock, or Sorrel (Rumex digynus,) they are quite straight, but in Bloody-Dock (Rumex sanguineus.) and in Blunt-leaved Dock (Rumex obtusifolius,) they are slightly curved, &c. &c. It is to be observed, however, that these differences, which are so very frequent in the true leaves, very rarely occur in the cotyledons. Indeed, it is very common for all the cotyledons of one genus or family, and even of two natural classes, to be very similar, and absolutely of the same form; as in the Umbelliferous plants and others. This circumstance must show the ne- cessity, or at least the propriety, of carefully studying the history of the cotyledons, in every attempt towards a natural arrangement of vegeta- bles. Indeed, without a minute attention to the cotyledons, we shall never possess what it is a matter of so much consequence to possess—A Philosophical History of the Vegetable Kingdom, h. The most com- mon colour of the cotyledons is a pure milky white. Yellow-coloured cotyledons are not uncommon, especially in the ripe seeds of siliques * To this head are referred cotyledons that are, 1. concava, concave, or spoon-shaped (cochleariformes;) as in Myristica officinalis. 2. conglobates, conglobate; formed into a sphere, which is smooth on the outside, but plaited within in various ways; as in Cabbage (Brassica,) die. f It is not expected, that students in botany, much Jess those Avho merely pur- sue plants as an object of pleasure, are to become thoroughly acquainted with this extensive and very difficult nomenclature of the cotyledons. In a work, hoAvever, such as the present, it Avould have been improper to have omitted this terminology, which-Ave owe to the persevering industry and nice discrimination of the learned Gartner. 19 146 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. and legumes. Some cotyledons are of a dark or grass-green colour.* In the seeds of the two genera Sonchus and Scorzonera, the cotyledo- nous matter is of a livid or leaden colour; and in the seeds of Bidens and Zinnia, it is of a purplish colour. But these colours are unusual, and they are all, by the great process of germination, converted into green; though sometimes into a fine-blood colour, as in some species of Ama- ranthus, &c. i. In regard to their odour and tastes, it is certain that, in general, the cotyledons have but little or no odour; or, at least, not a sweet or aromatic odour. For although the fruits of Cinnamon (Laurus Cinnamomum,) and Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata,) possess a very fra- grant smell, yet this is entirely lost in the completely-matured cotyle- dons. In some seeds the taste of the cotyledonous matter is bitter, as in Quassia excelsa; in others, it is acrid, but very generally it is insipid and mealy, or sweetish, as in the recent kernels of the Almond (Amyg- dalus communis,) the Filbert (Corylus Avellana,) and different species of Walnut and Hickory, such as Juglans regia, J. nigra, Shell-bark Hickory (Juglans alba ovata,!) and others. IV. The Embryo is the most noble and essential part of a fertile seed. It is the part which exclusively forms the nova progenies, ox neAv plant, and to Avhich all the other parts are added for its temporary use only. To this part L., after Andreas Caesalpinus, gave the name of Corculum, or the little heart. Dr. Martyn calls it Corcle. Some writers have named it plumula seminalis,X °r the seminal plumule. Adanson and Gaertner designate it by the name of embryo, a term Avhich I do not hesitate to adopt in preference to either of the others which I have mentioned. § According to Gaertner, the embryo derives its origin from the medullary point {punctum medullare,) produced by fecundation; and this point he thinks might more properly be named the corcle of the seed, "because in it alone resides the fountain of all vegetable life, and from it alone proceeds the whole vascular system of the embryo." In some cases the corcle is so little augmented, that even in the matured seed it is either altogether imperceptible, or it appears only like a paler point or dot, which Gaertner names the cicatricle {ci- catricula,) and which has nothing of the embryo but the principle of life, (for the capacity of being roused to the possession of life,) and the faculty of germinating. In other cases the medullary point gradually passes into a columnar radicle, which projects above the kernel at its free apex, and at its base grows firmly to the same. Lastly, in other cases, the corcle, on all sides loose, grows at both of its extre- mities, from one of which it puts forth the radicle, and from the other the newly organized parts, which are named cotyledon and plumule. , * When, besides this colour, cotyledons have, likewise, a foliaceous figure, the seeds are said to be germinating (germinantia,) as in Nelumbo. ! Of Marshall. X Professor Ludwig calls it Plantula seminalis. § See Plate V. Fig. C. 3. 4. Fig. F. 1. 1. 2. 3. Fig. G. 1. Fig. H. 1.2. Fig. L. 1. Fig. N. Fig. O. 8 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 147 Hence there arises a four-fold difference of the embryo, from the in- crease of the corcle within the seed, viz. 1. imperfectus, imperfect; an embryo which, to use the words of -Gaertner, is " merely potential," as being formed from the germinating cicatricle alone. 2. incompletus, incomplete; formed of a simple, fixed radicle alone. 3. perfeclus, per- fect; constructed of a free radicle and plumule. 4. completus, com- plete; composed of a radicle, cotyledon, and plumule. The consistence of the embryo in all is soft and herbaceous, fleshy, except in Rhizopho- ra, the radicle of which is converted at maturity into an almost woody hardness. The internal fabric of the embryo is very simple, being formed from the medulla alone, and surrounded by its proper bark, in the more simple embryos. But in other embryos vessels are observa- ble. These vessels arise from the lobules of the plumule or cotyledons by an insensible beginning, and gradually anastamosing or uniting with each other, they run through the whole substance of the embryo, and finish in its outermost radicle. This vascular structure is beautifully conspicuous in the embryo of the Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana,) when it is viewed through a magnifying glass.* The external fabric is generally owing to three distinct parts, which are peculiar to the em- bryo, and denominated the Plumule, the Scape, and the Radicle. Of these parts I shall speak, separately, afterwards, a. In regard to the figure of the embryo, it is to be observed, that this arises principally from the cotyledons, joined to the radicle, especially in the solid or true monocotyledonous embryos, Avhich are almost entirely made up of the cotyledon alone, and frequently have a peculiar form, which is not to be met with in others. *■ The solid or true monoctyledonous embryo is, 1. trochlearis, pulley-like; consisting of a short cylinder narrowed in the middle, or as if composed of two globules; as in Commelina, &c. 2. pyramidalis, pyramidal; rising from a broad radical base into an acute point, which is either longer or shorter, or cylindraceo-acumi- nate. 3. fungiformis, fungiform; from a narrow radical base, enlarged into a thick head or pileus; as in Carex, &c. 4. palelliformis, patelli- form; from a very minute radical tubercle, extenuated into a round sau- cer; as in Flagellaria. 0- The dicotyledonous and the remaining mo- nocotyledonous embryos are, 1. recti, straight. 2. crassi, thick. 3. foliacei, foliaceous. 4. curvi, curved. 5. arcuati, bowed. 6. fal- cati, sickle-shaped. 7. uncinati, uncinate. 8. cyclici, cyclical. 9. conduplicati, conduplicate; having the radicle accumbent on the sides or chink of the cotyledons, or having generally the extremities either not at all separated; or at least only separated by a narrow space; as in Hemp (Cannabis,) and various Leguminous and Siliquose plants. 10. spirales, spiral. 11. gnomonici, gnomonic, or like a dial; having the scape inflected at a right angle; or having the radicle joined at an obtuse angle with the cotyledons. 12. serpentini fy sigmoidei, serpentine and sigmoid; having the axis bent in a contrary direction near the two * See Plate V. Fig. O. 148 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. extremities, or irregularly curved throughout its whole length; as in Lily (Lilium,) and Tulbagia, &c. b. In regard to their situation, embryos are, 1. centrales, central; either filling the whole cavity of the shell, or placed only in its axis, and Avithin the albumen; as in the greater number of seeds, particularly in the Umbelliferous plants. 2. excentrici, excentric; placed, indeed, within the albumen, but without the axis of the seed, yet so that they cannot touch the walls of the shell; as in Coffee (Coffea,) and Asparagus. 3. peripherici, peripherical; accumbent on the walls of the shell throughout their whole length, and, consequently, placed both without the axis and Avithout the albumen; as in the Grasses, Pisonia, &c. c. The size of the embryo varies in different vegetables very considerably, but admits of the four degrees of measures which were mentioned in treating of the cotyledons. Indeed, as the cotyledons alone define the figure, so they generally define likewise the size of the embryo, and, not unfrequently, an embryo which, of itself, is very small, is observed to become very large, by the accession of cotyledonous matter; as in Scytalia sinensis. Thus, from the bulk alone of the cotyledons, we have embryos of the following heads of sizes, viz. 1. maximi, very large; as very generally in the Cucurbitaceous plants, the Compound-flowers, the Verticillate plants, the Siliquose, and other plants. 2. mediocres, middle sized; as in the Nightshades (Solanum,) and other Luridae, &c. 3. parvi, small; in various Umbelliferae, the Stellated plants, &c. 4. minuti, minute, in most of the monocotyledonous plants, such as the Orchideas, the Cyperoideae, Multisiliquae, and others.* d. The number of the embryos is very universally one. Some- times, however, the number is increased by superfetation. Gaertner once observed two embryos in the seed of the Pinus Cembra : both were in the same cavity of the albumen, but one of them was invert- ed, the other, as is the usual case in the plants of this genus, was erect. It appears frpm the descriptions and engravings of some botanists, that a plurality of embryos does sometimes take place in the seeds of Misle- toe (Viscum.) It is, I think, highly probable that such a plurality of embryos does occur with respect to many other plants ; since we know, with certainity, that superfetation may and does take place in the vegetable world, as well as in some families of animals, e. In regard to its proper parts, the embryo, as I have already observed, consists of three parts, viz. 1. the Plumula, 2. the Scapus, and, 3. the Radicula. I shall now speak, at large, of these in the order in which I have mentioned them. 1. The Plumula, or Plumule, so called from its supposed resem- blance to a little feather, is the upper part of the embryo, which (when the seed, after having been placed in a proper situation, and has begun to vegetate) rises upwards, forming all that part of the vegetable which * Of all these natural families of plants, and many others, explanations are given in the course of this work. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 149 appears above ground. Gaertner defines it " the first bud of the new plant arising from the scape of the embryo imprisoned in the seed, and ready to pass afterward into true leaves of the plant." Dr. Grew called this part the Plume.* The English name plumule seems pre- ferable, especially as it is literally the import of' the Latin word plu- mula, which almost all botanists have adopted. L. defines it "the ascending scaly part of the corcle : " pars corculi squamosa ad- scendens."! Many embryos are destitute of the plumule. This part is very constantly wanting in all the monocotyledonous seeds, except, perhaps, a few of the Grasses. It is, likewise, very often absent from the' dicotyledonous seeds; or, at least, it is entirely concealed within the scape. Gaertner denominates these concealed plumules, immersae, or immersed. On the other hand, the plumulae emersas, or immersed plumules, of the same writer, are always con- spicious, and the radicles are placed in the vertex, -yet in such a man- ner as to remain betAveen the lobes of the cotyledons, and not to come into view except by removing these parts from each other ; owing to the narrowness of the place, these kinds of plumules are always com- pressed, and have conduplicate' leaflets, which. Ate either simple or compound. The simple plumule (simpfe&pf&muia), has sessile leaf- lets in opposite pairs : these leaflets are, lifyeyeti-acuminata, cylin- drical-acuminate. 2. lineari-oblonga, linear-oblohg. 3. lanceolata, lanceolate. 4. ovato-acuminata, ovate-acuminate. 5. cOnvol/utaspel- tata, convolute-peltate; as in Tropaeolum. 6. spiralis spiral; as in Gyrocarpus Jacquini. The compound plumule (compostta plumula, on the other hand, supports more than one leaflet upon a common pe- tiole, and these are; 1. conjugata, conjugate ; either two-paired, or bijugous (bijuga;) as in Arachidna, or many-paired multijuga, as in Juglans, &c. 2. digitata, digitate ; this is very uncommon, but occurs in the Horse-Chesnut (iEsculus Hippocastanum,) and in Lupin (Lupinus.) 3. coacervata, heaped together ; as in Lathyrus, Vicia^ and others. These Gaertner acknowledges, seem properly to belong to the many-paired ; but they may be designated by another name, since the leaflets are so closely .crowded, and perhaps intermixed with the " stipules, that from the minuteness of the parts, they cannot be easily distinguished from each other. *): 2. The Scapus, or Scape, is much more frequently wanting in vegetables than is the plumule. Indeed, the greater number of embryos are scapeless, or destitute of this part. Gaertner, however, thinks proper to denominate those embryos caule- scent, which are furnished with a very long radicle; especially a radi- cle which grows somewhat thicker downwards ; as in Cestrum, and *• Dr. Darwin and other writers have adopted this name. f Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 54 §. 86. X For representations of the plumule, see Plate v. Fig F. 2. Fig. G. I. Fig. H. I. Fig. N. Fig. O. 150 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana ;*) or those in which the cotyledons are separated by a slender stripe from the somewhat swollen capitate radicle ; as in Misletoe, Barberry, &c. The same learned Avriter admits, that, in the greater number of embryos; certain limits between the end of the stem or scape, and the beginning of the radicle, are not given ; and that a great portion of almost all those scapes, whilst the business of germination is proceeding, descends- into the earth, and is there evolved into a real radicle, or root. Consequently, every part of the embryo, that is placed beneath the cotyledons, may with pro- priety, be enumerated among the radicles. L. and most other writers make no mention of the scape, but divide the embryo (corculum) into two parts only, viz. the plumule, and the radicle. But. although the scape be frequently wanting,- there does seem to be a propriety in de- signating by this separate name; a part of the embryo. 3. The Radicu- la, or Radicule, is by far the most constant part not only of the embryo, but of the whole kernel : for we find it in those seeds which have no other vestige of the embryo. The name of radicle was given to this part of the seed by Dr. Grew, and has been retained by LudAvig, Gaertner, and the greater number of the modern botanists. L. how- ever, thought proper to designate this part of the embryo by the name of Rostellum, and defines it ''the simple descending part of the corcle ; "pars corculi simplex descendens."! In almost all the seeds which have, hitherto, been examined, we find only a single radicle (radicula solitaria) to each embryo. This is the observation of Gaertner, who examined the seeds of 1054 plants, belonging to dis- tinct genera. Some embryos, however he admits are furnished with more radicles than one. Thus, three, four, or six together of such (radiculaeternae, quaternae, senae,) properly formed and distinct from each other, are found in the seeds of Rye (Secale,) Wheat (Triticum,) and Barley (Hordeum,) " but in no other seeds hitherto known."! It is probable, hoAvever, that the radicle is less constantly solitary than Gaertner imagined. The fibres, or roots, of this part of the embryo may, in numerous instances, be distinct, but, owing to their minute- ness, and cohesion by means' of mucilaginous or glutinous matter, they may seem to constitute only a single, undivided body. I think, I have, in one instance, distinctly observed several radicles to a single embryo of the Persimmon, a. In regard to its figure, the radicle is, 1. punc- ticularis, puncticular; appearing like a mere white point in a kernel, which, in every other respect, is solid ; as in the Mosses, and other more imperfect plants. In all other cases the radicle projects. 2. tubercu- laris, tubercular ; but little different from a thicker solid dot or point; is in Pepper (Piper,) and Flagellaria. 3. conica, conical ; arising from the cotyledons with a broad base, and ending quickly in a point; as in Enchanter's-Nightshade (Circaea,) and many other plants. 4. teretiu- * See plate v. Fig. N. and Fig. O- ! Philosophia Botanica, p. 54. §. 86. X Gae*****^. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 151 scuta, roundish. 5. filiformis, filiform. 6. cylindrica, cylindrical. 7. fusiformis, vcl clavata, fusiform, or clubshaped as in Coffee, various Leguminous plants, &c. .8. capitata, capitate; as in Zinnia, Viscum, and Berberis. 9. ovato-globosa, ovate-globular; as in Cassyta, and in all the minute and globular embryos ; for in these the radicle forms the principle part of the embryo, as in Sundew (Drosera,) and others. 10. recta, straight; as is the case with most short radi- cles. 11. curva, curved ; as in most of the long radicles, b. In regard to its length, the radicle is, 1. longissima, very long; that is, longer than the cotyledons; as in Rhizophora, Anguilla- ra, and others. 2. aequalis, equal: that is, as long as the cotyle- dons ; instanced in most of the Umbelliferous plants, and others. 3. brevis 8f previssima, short and very short; that is, shorter than the cotyledons ; instanced in all the monocotyledonous plants such as the Verticillatae, &c. in the Persimmon;* &c. c. The proper situation of the radicle always seems to be at the base of the embryo ; but the rela- tive situation has a reference to the other internal parts of the seed ; and, in an especial manner, to the recepticle of the fruit and seed. As to the other internal parts of the seed, and especially with regard to the albumen, the situation of the radicle suffers exactly the same modifica- tions, which the embryo itself does ; hence radicles are, 1. central. 2. excentric. 3. peripherical. But, from their combination with the co- tyledons, a new relation arises amongst these parts, and thence the radicle becomes, 1. directa, direct; continuing to run out in one line with the axis of the cotyledons, whether it be straight or curved; and at the base of the cotyledons does not suddenly take any other course, as in the straight, sickle-shaped, hooked, bowed and cocjileate embryos. 2. inclinata, inclined ; the axis being joined, at aright or obtuse angle, with the axis of the cotyledons. 3. reflexa, reflected ; suddenly re- curved near the base of the cotyledons, towards their other extremi- ty, and is either accumbent on their sides or chink ; as in the condu- plicate embryos, especially of the Siliquose and Leguminous plants. 4. involuta, involute ; constituting the axis of the embryo, about which the cotyledons are so rolled, as to conceal a very large part of the radicle; as in Ayenia, Pomegranate (Punica,) and others. As to the proper receptacle of the fruit or seed, which is a relation of situa- tion of great consequence to be attended to, the radicle is, 1. supera s. ascendens, superior or ascending, respecting the apex of the fruit with its point. Those radicles are denominated simply superior, which tend directly upwards, and rise from the highest part of the seed ; as in the Unbelliferae, Asperifoliae, and others. Those are named ascend- ing, Avhich arise from the base or side of the seed, and tend upwards at their apex; as in Hemp, Corrigiola, &c. 2. infera s. descendens, in- ferior or descending, respecting the base or peduncle of the fruit with its apex. A radicle is strictly named inferior, which rising from * See Plate v. Fig. N. and Fig. O. 152 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. the bottom of the seed, tends directly downwards ; as in the Compound- flowers, the Verticillate plants, and others ; and it is named descending, when, rising from the highest part of the embryo, it tends towards the base with its apex ; as4 in Meesia, Marvel of Peru (Mirabilis,) and others. 3. centripetae, centripetal ; either absolutely or relatively such. In a simple fruit, the former respect the axis, or common re- ceptacle of the seed with their apex ; as in Tulip (Tulipa,) Tobacco, and others. In a conjugate or many-capsuled fruit, the latter, are, indeed, turned to. the common axis, but in partial pericarps only respect • the internal side ; as in Helicteres, Monkshood (Aconitum,) Larkspur (Delphinium,) and others. 4. Thecentrifugae, or centrifugal radicles, are, unilaterales unilateral, or one-sided"; all respecting one side of the pericarp ; or; in a naked seed; the circumference of its horizontal plane ; as in Beet (Beta,) Goosefoot (Chenopodium,) and others ; bila- terales, bilateral, or two-sided; turned to two directly opposite re- gions of the pericarp ; as in Bog-Bean (Menyanthes trifoliata, &c.) the Siliquose plants, and others ; multilaterales, multilateral, or many sided; directing their points to different places, or to every surface of the dissepiments and internal parietes, or walls; as in Cistus Helianthe- mum, the Cucurbitaceous plants, and others : vagae, vague ; which have, not the same certain situation in all seeds, but are directed with their points towards different parts ; as in Ginger (Zingiber,) Water- Lily (Nymphaea,) and others. Such are the yarious modifications to which the tender embryo is liable. It continues " imprisoned within its seed," and remains (to use the happy expression of Gaertner) "in a profound sleep," until it is awakened by the approaching germina- tion, and meets Jthe light and air to grow into a plant, similar to its parent. But, even in its encumbered or involved state, the embryo possess life, which, however, is not obviously active, and by no means of equal duration in all. Or, if we deny to the quiescent and slumber- ing seed, an inherent principle of life (whatever that may be,) we must, at least, admit that its embryon, and other, parts are endowed with.a peculiar (and, as yet, incomprehensible) capacity for receiving life, from the agency of heat, water, air, and other stimuli. Having finished the consideration of the various parts of the kernel (I mean the more technical history of these parts, for several important points in their natural history remain to be discussed,) I proceed, in the next place to treat of some other parts of the.seed, in general. These parts are, 1. the Pappus. 2. the Coma. 3. the Cauda. 4. the Ala. and, 5. the Crista. All these are, by Gaertner, denominated accessary parts of the fruits and seeds (" partes fructuum atque seminum accessorial,") because they may be present or absent, without injury "to the structure of the seed. It would, perhaps, have beeu better to have treated of these accessary parts, along with the testa, and other integuments qf the seed ; but, upon the whole, I have thought it more proper to treat of them, in this place after the consideration of the kernel, especially as the principle of these parts are chiefly instrumental in the propaga- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 153 tion of the ripe seed. 1. The Pappus,* or Aigrette, is a sort of fea- thery or hairy crown, with which many seeds, especially those of the Compound-flowers, are furnished, evidently intended for the great bu- siness of the dissemination or dispersion of the seed, to a considerable distance. The word pappus is commonly translated Down;! "but hence, (as Dr. Martyn observes) arises a confusion between this and the lanugo or tomentum on the surface of leaves, &c." which both in Britain and the United States, is generally called down. Some Avriters translate this word by Feather, but there are objections to this word. The French call it aigrette. " The ladies have adopted that term : why may not we?" L. explains the pappus to be "a feathery or hairy flying crown to the seed;" " Corona (seminis) pennacea, pilosave volitans."*f Different kinds of pappus are enumerated by the bota- nists : Thus we have, 1. pappus sessilis, a sessile aigrette ; or a down placed immediately upon the seed, in the form of a crown ; as in Hawk- weed -.Hieracium,) in Goates-Beard (Tragopogon,) and others. 2. the pappus stipitatus, or stipitate aigrette, is supported on a thread, called the stipe, and elevated by it considerably above the vertex of the seed ; as in Common Dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum,) and many others. The. pappus is likewise, 1. capillaris, or capillary, and 2. plurnosus, or feathery. The capillary aigrette, or pappus, is simple, having the hairs undivided ;§ as in Silk Cottoh-tree (Bombax pentan- drum,) Groundsel (Senecio,) Golden-rod (Solidago,) and various other Compound flowers. The feathery aigrette, on the contrary, is not simple, but branched, like a feather; having in other words, setaceous or chaffy rays, Avith lateral hairs, which are always capillary. Other species of pappus are enumerated; such as, 1. aristatus, awn- ed; having one, tAvo, three, and sometimes more, short rigid rays, often hooked backwards; as in Bidens. 2. stella'us, stellate; consisting of five filiform, and attenuated and spreading rays; as in Geropogon. 3. spinosus, thorny; having aeinular and pungent rays; as in Zinnia. 4. setaceus, differing from capillary (above mentioned) only in the greater rigidity, and more numerous teeth; as in Chrysocoma. 5. ciliatus, ciliate; between setaceous and feathery. 6. lanatus, Avoolly; in Avhich the vertex of the seed is crowned with a white ring, formed of a very short and dense wool; as in Cineraria glauca. b. In regard to its dura- * In the Latin language this Avord has the following significations, viz. a grand-sire, an old man, thistle-down, and several others. In this last serise, it is employed by Lucretius (Lib. 1. 387.) ! Thus Sandays: " Like scattered down, by hoAvling Eurus blown By rapid whirlwinds from his mansion thrown." % See Philosophia Botanica, die p. 54. §. 86 § Although the capillary pappus is very slender, like a human hair, it is, nevertheless, marked Avith very minute teeth, Avhich are sometimes nearer, sometimes more remote from each other. -20 154 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. tion, the pappus is, 1. peristens, permament; continuing with the seed; and, of course, this species of aigrette is peculiarly favourable to the dis- persion of seeds. 2. caducus, s.fluxilis, caducous, or very temporary: this is less common than the other, and is principally given to the larger and heavier seeds, as those of Thistle (Carduus,) Cotton-Thistle (Ono- pordum,) and others: it is, however, found in the smaller seeds also, as in thoseof Sow-Thistle (Sonchus,) Lettuce (Lactuca,) and others. By some writers this last mentioned kind of aigrette is denominated pappus de- ciduus, or deciduous aigrette. A knoAvledgeof the aigrette is of es- sential consequence in the study of botany. L. very generally employs the many varieties which obtain in this minute and delicately organized part of the plant, in discriminating the different genera of the plants of his class Syngenesia. Gaertner has, certainly, very unjustly denied L.'s attention to the pappus. Vaillant, a long time ago, always attended to this part of the fructification in draAving the characters of his genera; and it is certain, that he examined and defined it with uncommon care: " Whence (says Gaertner,) his genera are much preferable to those es- tablished by L." The aigrette, as I have already observed, is evidently intended for the great business of the dissemination or dispersion of the seeds. This is, indeed, one of the wonderful contrivances employed by the liberal hand of nature for distributing her vegetable productions over the surface of the earth. There can be little doubt, that many species of plants, particularly among the Compound-flowers, owing to their being supplied with the aigrette, are now the common inhabitants of many parts of the world, in which, originally, they Avere unknown. 2. The Coma is very nearly related to the pappus; for, like it, it is formed of hairs which are placed upon the vertex of the seed, and col- lected into a bundle. According to Gaertner, it differs from a pappus, because in the coma the hairs derive their origin from the shell of the seed, and not from the proper calyx of the flower; and because all the comate seeds are furnished with a true pericarp; as in Willow-herb (Epilobium,) and others. These, therefore, according to the same bo- tanist, are improperly considered as pappous seeds. 3. The Cauda, or Tail, resembles a slender stipe, proceeding from the vertex of the seed, hairy from the base to the apex, and, in the naked seeds, produced from the persisting style of the ovary; but in the cover- ed seeds, from the testa, or shell. In both these cases, the cauda is much longer than the seed; as in Virgin's Bower (Clematis,) in Pasque- floAver (Anemone Pulsatilla,) &c. The hairy tail, Avhich proceeds from the base of the ovary, as in Cat- tail (Typha,) and Plane-tree, or Button-wood (Platanus occidental is,) is to be accounted a mere and simple peduncle of the fruit. 4. The Ala, or Wing, is a broad, flexible, and membranous expan- sion, fixed to the vertex, back, or sides of certain fruits and seeds, and thus facilitating their dispersion. When it occupies the vertex and back, it is especially denominated a wing: but when it surrounds the sides, it is called a Margin (Margo.) L. thus defines the wing: "Ala, mem- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 155 brana, qua volitante disseminatur, affixasemini."* Seeds that are fur- nished with Avings, are, 1. unialata, one-winged, as in Mahagoni (Swi- etenia,) and others. 2. trialata, three-winged; as in Moringa. To this head may also be referred the seeds of Rhubarb (Rheum,) and Buck-Avheat 3. quadrialata, four-Avinged. I believe we have not, hitherto, discovered any examples of four-winged seeds, except in the genus Combretum. A membranous margin (Margo membranaceus,) is not uncommon in seeds, and occurs very differently formed. Thus, it is, 1. planus <$* integer, flat and entire; as in Allamanda, and others. 2. apice §* basi emarginatus, emarginate, at the base and apex; as in Lilac (Syringa,) &c. 3. cymbiformis, boat-shaped; as in Marigold (Calendula,) &c. 4. bullatus, bullate; appearing like blisters; as in Cynoglossum omphalodos. 5. in dorsum reflexus, reflected upon the back, and forming spurious cells, as in Arctotis, &c. The preceding terminology applies principally to seeds. But peri- carps, also, are furnished with the ala or Aving. Such pericarps have received the following names, viz. 1. monopterygia, one-winged; being furnished Avith only one wing; as in Ash (Fraxinus,) and others. 2. dipterygia, two-winged; as in the ccfnjugate fruit of Maple (Acer,) and in Halesia diptera, an American vegetable. 3. tripterygia, three- Avinged; as in Begonia, &e. 4. tetraptera, four-winged; as in the beau- tiful Halesia tetraptera, and in Tetragonia. 5. pentaptera fypolyple- ra, five-winged, and many-winged; as in Guaiacum, and in Crown-Im- perial (Fritillaria,) and others. The membranous margin is not un- common in some of the more compressed pericarps; as in Shepherds- purse (Thlaspi,) and others: but in seeds it is much more common. 5. The Crista, or Crest, is very nearly allied to the wing, but is nar- rower, less flexible, and formed of a coriaceous or cork-like matter, and ahvays placed on the back of fruits. The crista has received different names. Thus, it is, 1. serrala, serrated. 2. laciniata, laciniated. 3. dentibus incisa, toothed. 4. crispata, curled; asinDaucus, and others. Besides the preceding, Gaertner has enumerated other accessary parts of fruits and seeds: such as 1. Rostrum, a Beak; generally proceeding from the peristing style, as in Stone-crop (Sedum,) Hellebore (Helle- borus,) and others. 2. Costas fy Juga, Ribs and Ridges; elevated, rounded, or muricated furrows, placed on the back of seeds or pericarps, and separated from each other by flatfish intermediate spaces; as in Horn-Beam (Carpinus,) the umbelliferous plants, and others. 3. Stro- phiola, Strophioles; these are fungous, glandular, or callous epiphyses, generally of an oblong form, and to be found only upon the ventral side of the seed; as in Wild-Ginger, or Asarabacca (Asarum canadense,) and others. 4. Spinas, or Thorns. 5. Glochides, Barbs. 6. Verrucas, or Warts. 7. Squamae, Scales. 8. Pubes, Pubescence. Q.Pruina, Hoariness, and others. Most of these accessary parts of the seed, and pericarp, have already been mentioned, in treating of the different kinds * Philosophia Botanica, die p. 54, § 86. 156 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. of fulcres, as L. calls them. It is unnecessary, therefore, to say any thing further on the subject in this place. Beside the semen, or seed, properly so called, two other terms are referred to this general head by L. these are, 1. the Nux, and, 2. the Propago. 1. The Nux, or Nut, is a seed covered Avith a shell. L. thus de- fines it, "Semen tectum epidermide osseo."* Gaertner defines it, "a hard conceptacle, either not opening at all, or, if it do open, never se- parating into more than two valves." The following account of the nut is principally taken from this truly meritorious author. The nut has an affinity, on the one hand, Avith capsules, and, on the other hand, with drupes. Sometimes it is even referred to the naked seeds. From the capsule, it differs in the total want of valves, and in the base often hav- ing a scraped or filed appearance to some distance. From the drupe, it differs in the manifest nakedness of the putamen, or shell; or if there be a rind, in the incomplete opening at the apex. Lastly, it differs from the naked seeds in the remarkable thickness of the putamen; the easy separation of it from the kernel, and the manifest umbilical vessels placed within the cavity of the putamen, as in Cotton-grass (Eriopho- rum,) many of the Asperifoliae> &c. a. In regard to its integuments, the nut is, 1. nuda, naked. (By far the greater number of nuts are naked, or, at least, clothed with a cuticle which is hardly discernible.) 2. glabra, smooth. 3. splendens, shining. 4. rugosa, wrinkled. 5. subpubescens, somewhat pubescent. 6. corticata, corticated; co- vered with a rind {cortex:) this rind is either membranous, and fre- quently extended into a wing, or ribs, as in Pine, Houndstongue (Cy- noglossum,) and others; or coriaceous and thick, as in Juglans. The latter are nearly allied to dry drupes. 7. involucrata, involucred. Nuts are more generally supplied with an involucre than any other spe- cies of pericarps; as in Chesnut, Beech, Yew, Juniper, Hazel, Oak, and others.! b. In regard to its consistence, the nut is, 1. sicca, dry. 2. firma, firm. 3. dura, hard. 4. coriacea, coriaceous; as in Ches- nut, and others. 5. Crustacea, crustaceous; as in many of the Rough- leaved plants. 6. cavernoso-coriacea, cavernose-coriaceous; as in Ca- shew (Anacardium,) and in Acajuba. 7. ossea, bony; as in Walnut Hazel, &c. 8. lapidea, stony; as in Myosotis, and others, c. In the nut, there is no spontaneous opening before the germination of the seed; nor does the number of the valves, in any instance yet known, exceed two. The English Walnut (Juglans regia,) alone has a manifest suture. Trapa alone opens with a hole at the vertex. Many of the nuts open at the base, or at their insertion, with a round aperture, or chink; as in Lycopsis arvensis (Small Bugloss,) and others, d. In regard to its in- ternal fabric, the nut is, 1. simplicissima, very simple. 2. unilocu- lars, unilocular, or one-celled; as in by far the greater number of nuts. * Delineatio Plantae. t Several of the seeds here denominated nuts, are referred by L. to other heads. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 157 3. bilocularis, bilocular, or two-celled; as in Cerinthe and Trapa. Very few nuts are tAvo-celled. 4. trilocularis, trilocular, or three-celled; as in Beech and Oak. 5. semiquadrilocularis, half-four-celled; as in Chesnut. From this view of the subject, it is evident that nut is a pretty comprehensive term, embracing a considerable variety of seeds, such as those of the Chesnut, Beech, Chinquepin, Walnut and Hickory, Hazel, Cak,* Juniper, Yew, Oil-nut,! and others. 2. Propago is the name of the seed of the Mosses. It is thus defined by L: " Semen Musci decorticatum, detectum 1750."J The Swedish naturalist supposed that these seed differed from other seeds in having a naked corcle (embryo,) Avithout bark or cotyledons. He informs us that he made this discovery in 1750. A few years after this period, David Meese asserted that the seed of the Mosses are furnished with their proper cotyledons. The industrious Hedwig, as has already been observed, also asserts, that the seed of this great family of plants are, like those of other plants, supplied with cotyledons. Gaertner admits the existence of acotyledonous plants, and refers to this head the Mosses.§ By this author the Propago is considered as a species of gemma, or bud, perfectly simple, and destitute of true leaflets, assuming different forms, sometimes entirely naked, and sometimes shut up in a bark-like case; which, at length, separates spontaneously from its parent, and is scat- tered like a seed. The bulb-like granules (" grana bulbifonnia") of G. C. Oeder|| are referred to this head. I resume the consideration of the seed in general. a. In regard to the number of the seeds, this is a very variable cir- cumstance in different vegetables: 1. Some plants have only a single seed.IT This is the case with the Sea-Pink (Statice Armeria,) and Bis- tort (Polygonum Bistorta.) 2. Some have two seeds, as Woodroof,** and the Umbelliferous plants. 3. Some have three, as Spurge (Euphor- bia.) 4. Some have four, as the greater number of the Lip-flowers of Tournefort, and the Rough-leaved plants of Ray. 5. Some have many seeds, as Ranunculus, Anemone, Poppy, Lobelia, Ludvigia, Gerardia, and others. The fertility of nature in the production of seeds is almost incredible, and is a circumstance well calculated to display the unbound- ed liberality of nature, and the immense quantity of life that may spring from a solitary embryo. A single stalk of Indian-Corn (Zea Mays,) ■■ The cup of the acorn is denominated by late writers, cupula. ! A new Pentandrous genus of plants, allied to Nerium. It is a native of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and other parts of the United States. X Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 54. § 86. " Propagines Muscorum sunt semina destituta tunica di cotyledonibus, adeoque nudi corcula Plumula, ubi Rostellum infigitur calyci plantae." Ibid. p. 57. § 88. § See Class xxiv. Cr yptogamia. || Elementa Botanicae, die. Pars prior, p. 35. Hafniae. 1764. If That is, in each pericarp. ** Asperula odorata. 158 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. produced in one summer 2000 seeds: in the same period, a plant of Elecampane (Inula Helenium,) produced 3000 seeds: the Common Sun- flower (Helianthus annuus,) 4000: the Poppy 32,000. A single spike of Cats-Tail (Typha,) produced 10,000 seeds and upAvards. A single capsule of the Tobacco was found to contain 1000, and one of the White-Poppy (Papaver somniferum,) 8000 seeds. Each capsule of the Vanilla contains from 10,000 to 15,000 seed. Mr. Ray informs us, from actual experiments made by himself, that 1012 Tobacco seeds are equal in weight to one grain; and that the Aveight of the whole quantity of seed in a single stalk of Tobacco, is. such, that the number of seeds, according to the above mentioned proportion, must be 360,000. The same learned naturalist estimates the annual produce of a single stalk of Spleen-wort (Asplenium,) to be upwards of one million of seed. Dr. Woodward has calculated, that a single Thistle-seed will produce at the first crop 24,000 seed; and, consequently, five hundred and seventy- six millions of seeds at the second crop!! Well might Virgil say, that the Thistle becomes " dreadful in the corn-fields." Our admiration cannot but be excited by this fertility. Yet it is more wonderful, as has been observed,* that in sonie plants such a prodigious number of ovules can be fecundated by very few stamens; and that in other plants, even a very moderate quantity of ovules cannot be fecun- dated by a numerous set of stamens. It is worth observing, in this place, that very generally plants which are distinguished for the number of their seeds, are those which have the fewest stamens or anthers. Thus Vanilla has but one anther, and the Tobacco five; whilst, on the other hand, among the Polyandrous plants (most of which have many sta- mens,) there are not a few vegetables, which are scarcely equal to the fecundation of a single ovule, f These facts must lead us to believe that the fecundation of seeds is OAving more to the quality or peculiar vir- tue of the pollen than to the mere quantity of this fecundating powder. Thus, 1 have found, that the pericarp of the CroAvn-Imperial (Fritillaria imperialis,) swelled as completely from the influence of only one an- ther as from the whole number, which is six, of those male organs of generation, in this vegetable. These facts must, likewise, shoAV us (and it is a circumstance fortunate for mankind,) that every vegetable ovule is not destined by nature to give rise to a future progeny. The same remark, unquestionably, applies to the animal, as well as to the vege- table world. Millions of embryos pre-exist, but never are evolved into active life. As the number of the seeds is so extremely variable in vegetables, it must be evident that genera constructed merely from this quality of the * By Gaertner. t It must, however, be remembered, that the Poppy is, at once, remarkable for the number of its stamens and its seed; and that among the Orchides, many of which have only a single anther, there are not a few individuals, which very rarely do furnish us with a prolific seed. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 159 fructification, must be artificial and precarious. Thus Gleditsia tria- canthos (Honey-Locust,) has a legume with several seed; whilst another species (Gleditsia monosperma,) has only a single seed in its legume. Many other instances of a like kind might be mentioned. Nay, even in the same species, the number of the seed is often indefinite. Thus, in Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana,) we find the fruit with one seed, with two, three, four, five, six, seven, and eight seed. It must be con- fessed, however, that in many families and natural genera of vegetables, the number of the seeds is pretty constant and invariable. b. In regard to ifs figure, the seed is, 1. subrotundum, roundish. 2. ovatum, ovate. 3. oblongum, oblong. 4. scobiforme, scobiform, or saw-dust like; resembling saw-dust 5. filiforme, filiform. 6. tur- binatum, turbinate. 7. clavatum, club-shaped. 8. angulatum, an- gular. 9. cylindraceum, cylindrical. 10. triquetru'm, triquetrous. 11. acerosum, acerose. 12. teres, columnar. 13. ellipticum, ellip- tical. 14. lunulatum, crescent-shaped. 15. cordatum, cordate. 16. reniforme, reniform. 17. orbiculalum, orbicular. 18. globosum, globular. 19. arillatum, arilled; furnished with an aril. 20. pla- num, flat. 21. hinc planum, inde rotundum, flat on one side, and round on the other. 22. hinc rotundum, inde angulatum, round on one side, angular on the other. 23. compressum, compressed. 24. gibbum, gibbous. 25. angulis membranaceis, with membranous an- gles. 26. acuminatum, acuminate. 27. obtusum, obtuse. 28. ro- stratum, rostrate. 29. erectum, erect. 30. marginibus membrana- ceis, with membranous margins. 31. emarginatum, emarginate. 32. caudatum, tailed; terminated by a naked or feathery filament. 33. carinatum, keeled. 34. squamatum, scaly. c. Seeds, it is hardly necessary to observe, vary remarkably in size. It may, however, be remarked, that Gaertner has established four heads of sizes of the seed, viz. 1. magnum, large; not smaller than a walnut, or which exceeds a geometrical inch; whether it be extended in thickness; as in Lontarus maldivica* and Cocoa nut (Cocoa;) or in length, as in Rhizophora. 2. medium, middle-sized; between an inch and two lines;! neither larger than a Hazle-nut or smaller than a Millet-seed. 3. par- vum, small; exceeding half a line; but not greater than two lines, con- tained Avithin the limits of the seeds of Bell-flower (Campanula,) or a Poppy. 4. minutum s. exile, minute; smaller than the preceding, and often like dust or powder, as in Chara, in the Ferns, in the Mosses, &c. d. In regard to its surface, the seed is, 1. glabrum, smooth; having no conspicuous inequalities or splendour on its surface; as in Radish, Cabbage, and others. 2. lasvigatum, polished, smooth and shining; as in Amaranthus, Sapota,&c. 3. lucidum s. splendens, lucid or shining; the surface shining, but not perfectly smooth; as in Corn-Gromwell * The pericarp of this plant (which is a berry,) is frequently a foot and a half in thickness. ! The line is the twelfth part of an inch. 160 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. (Lithospermum arvense,) &c. 4. striatum, striated; having either longitudinal streaks, as in Hemlock and other Umbellifera**, or trans- verse or oblique streaks; as in Exacum; or radiated ones, as in Trades- cantia. 5 sulcatum,furrowed; marked with thick streaks, either sim- ple or branched; as in Fool's Parsley, (iEthusa Cynapium,) Ipecacuan- ha (Psychotria,) and Pimpinellaagrimonoides.* 6. cancellation, lat- ticed; having the longitudinal streaks, or furrows, decussated by trans- verse and generally narrower ones; as in Glaucium, Argemone, Onopordum, &c. 7. reticulatum, reticulated; differing from the for- mer in the irregularity only of the streaks; as in Pennywort (Hydro- cotyle,) &c. 8. scrobiculatum, scrobiculate; marked Avith rather large pits, distant or contiguous; as in Euphorbia Tithy malus. 9. punc- tatum; dotted or punctate; either excavate-punctate (ea-mva/o-^nmc/a- tum,) or elevate-punctate {elevafo-punctatum,) Avith the dots disposed in series, or irregular. Such seeds are common in the Luridae, and other natural families. 11. apicu/atum, apiculate; rough, Avith very short and frequently capitate bristles; as in Drosera. 12. tubercula- tum, tubercled; rough Avith thicker elevated dots, or tubercles; as in Hydrocarpum. 13. papillosum, papillous; covered Avith flexible scales, or fleshy tubercles; as in Eryngo (Eryngium,) and in Codon. 14. vermiculatum, vermiculate; marked with elevated serpentine streaks, or a species of foreign letters; as in Balsam-apple (Momordica,) &c. 15. marginatum, marginate; either thickened at the margin; as in Cucurbita, or extenuated at the margin {marginaceo-extenuatum,) as in Allamanda. 16. rugosum, wrinkled; rough Avith tubercles, streaks, and pits irregularly intermixed; as in Aconitum, &c. e. In regard to their colour, there is a very considerable variety in the seeds of plants. This is the more remarkable, because the seed is the only part of the vegetable Avhich, without having received the free access of light, is decorated with fine colours. It is moreover to be ob- served, that the colours of seeds are such as rarely occur in the colour- ed parts of floAvers, but on the contrary the most generally prevailing colours of the flower are extremely uncommon in seeds. The following are the principal colours of different seeds, viz. 1. me- linum, honey-coloured. 2. rufescens, reddish. 3. helvolum, pale- red. (These three are the most common colours of seeds, and the least common in flowers.) 4. ochraccum, ochrey. 5. ferrugineum, rusty. 6. castaneum, chesnut-coloured. (These, after reddish, are the most frequent colours of seeds, and are hardly ever observed in flowers.) 7. nigrum, atrum fy anthracinum, black, and different varieties of black. These are colours nearly peculiar to seeds; for we have no instances of flowers entirely black, though there are some that have black spots. I may add, that we have many instances of black or *To this head belong the folloAving, viz. 1. costatum, ribbed, and, 2. the malendinaceum, molondinaceous, or mill-stone-like, seed, so named from the thickness or breadth of the dorsal furrows; as in Caucalis, die. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 161 blackish pericarps; as in Podalyria australis, Cassia marilandica, and others. k 8. fuscum, brown. 9. testaceum, tile-coloured. 10. spa- diceum, bay. (These are common in the seeds and bark, but very un- usual in flowers.) 11. album, while. 12. lacteum, milky. 13. ni- veum, snowy. (These are more frequently to be met with in flowers than in matured seeds: yet seeds, before maturity, are, very generally, white.) 14. rubrum, coccineum fy rutilum, red, scarlet, or crimson, and fiery: these colours are very common in flowers, but much rarer in seeds. In Gloriosa, however, in Abrus precatorius, and in others, we meet with fine scarlet and other red seeds. 15. roseum, rosy. This is a very frequent colour in flowers, but very rarely observed in seed. In Pomegranate, hoAvever, we have an instance of it. 16. cozruleum, blue. Blue seeds are extremely rare, but they do occur in Croton cy- anospermum, and in a variety of Kidney-Bean. (Phaseolus vulgaris.) 17. subccerulea, or somewhat blue, and plumbeo-livescentia, lead-li- vid, seeds are met with in Zingiber, and some other plants. 18. viride, green. (Although green is so predominant a colour in the vegetable world, it is extremely uncommon in seeds. In some plants, however, as in Adonis verualis, and in Yellow-Balsam, or Touch-me-not (Impa- tiens noli me tangere,*) grass-green seeds do occur. Yellowish-green {lutescenti-viridia,) seeds occur in different species of Bird's-foot-Tre- foil (Lotus,) and others. 19. variegatum, variegated; as in Lathy- rus, Phaseolus, &c. All the preceding colours, not to mention others, are assumed by seeds, when they are ripe. Colour is, therefore, very generally considered as a proof of the maturity of seeds. It is to be ob- served, however, that the seeds of many vegetables remain colourless, during the whole term of their life. Moreover, the colour frequently varies from the influence of culture, and by age is often changed from a paler to a darker, becoming, from straAv-coloured, reddish; from red- dish, rust-coloured; and, from rust-coloured, brown. "Hence, (as Gaertner observes,) colour can neither be taken for a certain sign of maturity, nor for a distinctive specific mark: but it serves to distinguish a seed from the neighbouring parts, and especially from Pyrenes."! Our author considers that coat as the proper outermost integument of the seed, Avhich is distinguished, by its peculiar colour, from the neigh- bouring coats. f. In regard to its consistence, the seed is 1. ex-succum, juiceless. 2. duriusculum, hardish. 3. amygdalino-carnosum, almond-fleshy; a seed retaining the impression of the nail. 4. fungosums. suberosum, fungous, or cork-like; a seed Avhich can be opened by scratching. 5. * Balsamina Noli tangere of Gaertner. ! Pyrenes, according to Gaertner, are nothing but partial pu^amens, or the bony coats of single cells, often again divided into partial chambers, entirely separated from the neighbouring ones which resemble them. But for more minute information concerning these parts of the pericarp, I must refer the cu- rious reader to Gaertner's work, De Fructibus, die. die. 21 162 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. coriaceum, coriaceous; which.can be cut Avith a knife. 6. crustaceum, crustaceous; Avhich can be broken by the fingers. 7. nucamentaceum s. osseum, nucamentaceous, or bony, which can hardly be broken in pieces between the teeth. 8. baccalum, berried. g. For particular information concerning the situation of the seed, I must refer the reader to the work of Gaertner. I shall only observe, that the situation of these parts is of great consequence in defining the limits of the genera of plants; and is of the highest importance in a philosophical view of the seed; for Gaertner has shown that the situation of the seed is the most constant of all its extrinsic quali- ties. This botanist determines the situation, partly from the figure, partly from the insertion of the seed, and in part from the direction of the radicle of the embryo. As. L. has denominated the pericarpium the "ovarium foecundatum," or fecundated ovary, so he denominates the seed, the " egg of plants."* To these analogical terms there can be no particular objections. A knoAvledge of the pericarp and seed is of the utmost importance in the study of botany: I mean in the method- ical distribution of plants, and in investigating their affinities to each other. In a philosophical and physiological point of view, the dignity of these parts will be immediately seen and acknowledged. We shall afterwards see, that L. almost always attends to these parts of the fruc- tification in drawing the generic character of vegetables. By other bo- tanists, the fruit has been deemed of still more importance. Thus, Ri- vinus has founded the orders of his system upon the fruit. The great Tournefort has done the same. Camelli constructed a method upon the valves of the fruit: and although L. has declared, that in determin- ing the genera of plants, the flower ought to be greatly preferred to the fruit, his opinion on this subject has not received the sanction of all the botanists since his time. Thus, Gaertner is of opinion, that for the pur- pose I have mentioned, the two parts in question are nearly equally en- titled to attention, "for Nature (he observes,) has made flowers and fruits equal in dignity." This is unquestionably the case. A. I.—Of the Migration of Seeds.—Nature has employed va- rious modes for effecting the diffusion of the seeds of vegetables over the surface of the earth. The principal of these modes are the following, viz. 1. Rivers, and other running waters. The seeds of many vegetables are carried along by rivers, and torrents, and the ocean, and are fre- quently conveyed to the distance of many hundred, or thousand, miles from the countries in which they Avere originally placed. In this man- ner, many of the plants of Germany are conveyed to the shores of the sea in Sweden, various plants of Spain and France are carried to the shores of Britain; and the plants of Africa and Asia are often conveyed * See Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 92. § 146. " Omne vivum ex ovo; per consequens etiam vegetabilia: quorum Semina esse Ova, docet eorum Finis, so bolem parentibus conformem producens." Ibid. p. 88. § 184. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 163 to the shores of Italy. Sir Hans Sloane has given an account of four kinds of fruits, which are frequently thrown by the sea upon the coasts of the islands of the northern parts of Scotland. These seeds, or fruits, Avere Mimosa scandens; Horse-eye-bean (Dolichos pruriens,) Ash-co- loured Nickar-tree (Guilandina Bonduc,) and the " Fructus orbicularis sulcis nervisque distinctus,"* of Caspar Bauhin. All these are Ame- rican vegetables,! and three of them were known by Sloane to be na- tives of Jamaica. These and several other kinds of seeds, Avhich are likewise found abundantly upon the coast of Norway, were thought by our author to have been brought by currents, through the Gulf of Flo- rida, into the North American ocean. Dr. Tonning has mentioned se- veral other seeds which are annually thrown upon the coasts of Nor- way: such as those of Cashew-nut (Anacardium occidentale,) Bottle- gourd (Cucurbita lagenaria,) Dog-wood-tree (Piscidia Erythrina,) and Cocoa-nut (Cocos butyracea.) These are often in so recent a state, that they would unquestionably vegetate, Avere the climate favourable to their growth and existence. And, doubtless, they are frequently car- ried to countries in which they do vegetate as well as in the countries where they were originally placed by the hand of the Creator. Dr. Darwin observes, that the fact of the emigration of these seed is <• truly wonderful, and cannot be accounted for but by the existence of under currents in the depths of the ocean; or from vortexes of water passing from one country to another, through caverns of' the earth." It does not, however, I think, seem necessary to adopt this conjecture of the English poet; but I can, Avith great pleasure, refer my readers to his pretty lines on the voyage of Cassia from the " brineless tides" of Lake Ontario, to the coasts of Norway. J 2. Winds. I have already taken notice of the dispersion of plants by means of the winds. It is hardly necessary to say any thing further on the subject in this place. T may observe, however, that the vegeta- bles which are carried by the wind, are either winged, as in Fir-tree (Pinus Abies,) in Trumpet-flower, (Bignonia radicans,) Tulip-tree (Liriodendron Tulipefera,) Arbor vitae (Thuya occidentalis.) and some of the Umbelliferae, not to mention many others: or they are furnished with-an aigrette, as in the plants formerly enumerated when treating of this part; or they are placed within a winged calyx or pericarp; as in Statice Armeria, Ash, Maple, Elm, Log-wood, Woad (Isatis;) or, lastly, they are contained within a swelled calyx or seed-vessel; as in Ground- cherry (Physalis viscosa, &e.,) Melilot (Trifolium Melilotus,) Bladder- nut (Staphyleatrifolia,)Bladder-sena (Colutea arborescens,) Heart-seed (Cardiospermum,) and many others. With respect to all these vegeta- bles, it is certain that, owing to the peculiar structure of their pericarps or seeds, they are very extensively diffused over the surface of the earth; * Strychnos colubrina? of L. t They are likewise natives of the East Indies. X The Loves of the Plants. Canto iii. I. 411. 418. 164 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. and in this way, there can be no doubt, that we are to explain the cir- cumstance of many'of these vegetables being found in remote and oppo- site parts of the globe, as in North America and Asia. Thus, the Eri- geron canadense, or Canadian Flea-bane, which was brought to Europe in the seventeenth century, has spread over a great part of that conti- nent; and the Common Dandelion is often seen growing upon the high- est towers of towns and cities. This last mentioned vegetable, is not, I think, a native of. North America, but it has already been carried to very distant parts of the continent, and in a kw years will be as exten- sively diffused as any of our vegetables. 3. Birds and other animals are no mean agents in the dissemination of vegetables. Birds, in particular, are greatly instrumental in this business. They SAvallow the seeds, which they discharge entire, and thus scatter them, with their excrements, over the face of the earth. In this manner the seeds of Common Misletoe, and those of some species of Loranthus, are deposited in the crevices of the barks of vegetables, where they grow, and continue to receive their nourishment In the United States the former of these vegetables is very frequently found growing, as a parasite, to the branches of the Sour-Gum (Nyssa integri- folia,) the Apple-tree, and others. Different species of Turdus, or Thrush, are especially concerned in its diffusion. Loranthus america- nus, which is a native of the West Indies, is deposited upon the branches of the most lofty trees, particularly Coccoloba grandifolia; where it is most firmly fixed, and unquestionably receives its nourishment from the supporting vegetable.* Rumphius assures us, that a particular spe- cies of Pigeon is very instrumental in disseminating the true Nutmeg in the East India islands. It is in this way that the Poke (Phytolacca decandra,) the berries Of which are eaten by the Robin (Turdus migra- torius,) the Thrush (Turdus rufus,) the Wild Pigeon (Columba migra- toria,) and many others, appears to have'been so extensively diffused through North America. The Rev. Mr.' Robinson, in his Natural History of Westmoreland and Cumberland, has very particularly mentioned a thick grove of Oak trees, which were known to have sprung from the acorns that had been planted by a great number of crows, about twenty-five years before. Of the North American birds that are known to us, no one I believe is more instrumental in planting groves of Oaks, and other trees, than the Crested-Crow, or Jay-bird (Corvus cristatus,) which is extremely provident in laying up great stores of acorns, and other seeds, in the holes offence-posts, and other similar places. There seems to be little doubt, that the very regular growth of many of our forest-trees along the courses of fences, is to be ascribed, in part, to the agency of this and other species of birds, as well as some species of quadrupeds. Besides the birds, many other animals have been greatly instrumental in the dispersion of the seeds of vegetables. Squirrels, rats, and other animals, suffer many of the seeds * Professor N. J. Jacquin. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 165 which they have devoured to escape, and thus disseminate them. Our Indians are of opinion, that the squirrels plant all the timber of the country. This I do not suppose; but it is certain, that they contribute not a,little to this end, by depositing in the earth, for food, store-houses of various kinds of nuts and seeds, such as those of the Chesnut, Oaks of different kinds, Walnuts and Hickory-nuts, the seeds of the Com- mon Dogwood (Cornus florida,) and many others. Immense numbers of these seeds, even though there were not a great destruction of the squirrels, would vegetate and grow to a good size. But as there is an- nually a prodigious destruction of these quadrupeds, whole forests cannot but spring from the stores Avhich they have laid up. It has, indeed, been asserted,* that the Striped Dormouse, or Ground-Squirrel (Sciurusstri- atus,) previously to depositing in the earth its winter food, takes the precaution of depriving "each kernel of its germ, that it may not sprout." Were this assertion founded in truth, it would constitute one of the most interesting facts in the history of animal instinct or reason. But, although the little quadruped of which I am speaking, may, on many occasions, deprive the kernel of its germ, or embryo, (not, I pre- sume, to prevent its growth, but because the embryo, in almost all seeds, has a very delicate and agreeable taste,) it is certain that, in the greater number of instances, no such mutilation of the seed is accomplished, and that, therefore, innumerable seeds that have been planted by ani- mals, may, and actually do, grow into trees, and other vegetables. Ani- mals contribute to the dispersion of seeds in still another way. The seeds of many plants attach themselves to animals, especially quadru- peds, by means of hooks, crotchets, or hairs, which are either affix- ed to the seeds themselves, as in Hounds-tongue (Cynoglossum,) Mouse-ear (Myosotis,) Vervain, Water-Hemp Agrimony (Bidens,) and many others; to their calyx, as in Burdock (Arctium Lappa,) Ag- rimony, Rhexia, Dock (Rumex,J Nettle, Pelletory (Parietaria,) Lin- naea, &c. &c.; or to the pericarp, or seed vessel, as in Liquorice (Gly- cyrrhiza,) Enchanter's Nightshade (Circaea,) Cleavers (Galium Apa- rine,) Triumfetta Bartramia, Martynia, Pea-Vines (Hedysara, of vari- ous species,) not to mention many others. In this manner, there can be no doubt that many seeds are very extensively diffused over vast tracts of country. Thus, there are good reasons to believe, that neither Common Hounds-tongue (Cynoglossum officinale,) nor Burdock, are natives of the United States: but both of these plants, Avhich appear to have spread in the manner I have mentioned, are now to be seen in many of the most remote parts of the Union. The very incorruptible nature of the seeds of plants, is a circum- stance highly favorable to their migration.! We have seen, that the seeds of Misletoe, Loranthus, Poke, and others, vegetate very well, * By my very respectable friend, the late Dr. Jeremy Belknap, of Boston. f J. J. Plenck. Physiologia et Patholigia Plantarum, p. 92. Viennae: 1794. 8vo. 166 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. after they have been subjected to the digestive power of birds. Nay, it is a fact, that some seeds, when carried to a distance from their native countries, have generally refused to vegelate, until they have been passed through the alimentary canal of birds. In Britain, this was found to be the case with the seeds of the Common Magnolia, or Beaver-tree (Magnolia glauca.) This fact will excite less surprise, when it is recollected, how extremely tenacious seeds are of the vital principle ; or, in other words, how difficult it is to prevent seeds from living. Thus, the late illustrious Spallanzani discovered, that there are certain kinds of seeds, which do not refuse to vegetate, even after having undergone the operation of boiling in water : and Duhamel mentions an instance of seeds germinating after they had experienced, in a stove, the heat of 235 degrees by the scale of Farenheit Spal- lanzeni even found, that the seed of mould, which is a true vegetable, survive a heat infinitely greater than this. We are, moreover, well assured, that the seeds of certain species of plants, after having been preserved in the cabinets of the curious, for whole centuries, have ve- getated very readily, when committed to the earth, or when simply irrigated with water. 4. Many seeds are dispersed to a considerable distance by means of an elastic forGe, which resides in some part of the fructification. In the Oat, and in the greater number of the Ferns, this elasticity is re- sident in the calyx. In Centaurea Crupina, it resides in the pappus, or aigrette ; whilst, in many others, such as Geranium, Herb-bennel (Geum urbanum,) Fraxinella (Dictamnus albus,) Touch-me-not (Im- patiens,) Cucumber (Cucumis,) Wild-Cucumber (Momordica,) Horse- tail (Equisetum,) and many others, it resides in the capsule. The pe- ricarp of Impatiens consists of one cell with five divisions, each of which, when the seed are ripe, upon being touched, suddenly folds itself into a spiral form, leaps from the stem, and scatters, by virtue of this elastic property, its seed to a great distance, Dr. Darwin has mentioned this phenomenon, in his learned and charming poem, The Loves of the plants :* The pericarp of the Geranium, and the beard of the Wild-Oat (Avena fatua,) are tAvisted, doubtless, for a similar purpose, and, being extremely sensible to the changes of the atmosphere, readily dislodge their seeds on wet days, when the earth is best fitted to re- ceive them. Advantage has been taken of this property of the peri- carp of the Geranium, of which an ingenious and neat hygrometer had been constructed.! The Wild-oat, called "Walking-Oat," is now familiarly known to every body. The awn (arista) of the Barley is furnished with stiff points, which are all turned towards the point of it, like the teeth of a saw. As this.long awn lies upon the ground, it extends itself, during the prevalence of the moist night-air, and pushes * Canto in. 1. 131-134. t See Dr. Withering's Botanical Arrangement, die. Vol. III. p. 597 di 598. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 167 forwards the grain of Barley which it adheres to. In the day-time, it shortens as it dries, "and as these points prevent it from receding, it draws up its pointed end ; and thus, creeping like a worm, will travel many feet from the parent stem."* Surely, these facts may, with some propriety, be mentioned as instances of the migration of the seeds of plants. B. II. Of the Germination of the Seed.—The seed after having been impregnated by the animated pollen, or fecundating powder, of the anthers, is at no great distance of time, in a fit state to germinate. Some seeds, indeed, begin to vegetate long before they are detached from the pericarp, or vegetable womb; in which they have received their existence, and passed through some of the tranquil stages of their life. This is the case with the Tangekolli and Agave, formerly mentioned. Mr. Baker assures us that upon dissecting a seed of Trembling-grass (Briza) he plainly discovered, by the assistance of the microscope, a perfect plant furnished Avith roots, sending forth two branches, from each of which there proceeded several leaves, or blades, of grass,! In the Persimmon, the germination of the seed commences long before the fall of the fruit, and even before the fleshy part of it is quite matured : for in the unripe fruit we plainly discern, even with the naked eye, the two beautiful leaves of the embryo, that are after- wards to form the upper part of the tree. J. " So in the animal king- dom (as Dr. Darwin observes,) the young of some birds are much more mature at their birth than those of others. The chickens of pheasants, quails, and partridges, can use their eyes, run after their mothers, and peck their food, almost as soon as they leave the shell; but those of the linnet, thrush, and blackbird, continue many days totally blind, and can only open their callow mouths for the offered morsel. "§ In the greater number of vegetables, however, there is no germination of the seed, exterior to its shell, until after the opening of the pericarp, and the fall of the seed. The germination is then accomplished by different circumstances, which are more or less necessary to this great function of vegetable life. These circumstances are Earth, Air, Water, and Heat. Of each of these, and of some other supposed agents in the business of germination, I shall speak, in a very brief manner, in the order in which I have mentioned them. 1. Although earth is not essentially necessary to the germination of the seed, it is extremely useful, affording a proper situation, a maternal bosom, for this vegetable egg, where it can repose, fix itself, and re- ceive the influence of the various agents, which are more indispensibly * Darwin. ! In the seeds of the Nymph*ea Nelumbo, and in those of the Tulip-tree, the embryo-leaflets are so similar to thoseof the adult vegetables, that L. merely from an examination of these leaflets, was enabled to discover to what vegetables the seeds belonged. See Amoenitates Academicae, die. Vol. VI. Dissertatio cxx. X See Plate v. § Phytologia, die Sect. ix. 168 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. necessary to the evolution of its parts. I do not deny, that earth of certain kinds, may be actually absorbed by, and serve as aliment to, the growing seeds of vegetables. I even think it probable that this is the case. But this is one of those points, in vegetable physiology, which has not yet been satisfactorily decided by experiments. Innumerable facts, however, might be adduced to sIioav, that earth is not absolutely necessary to the germination of seeds. We have seen, that the seeds of various parasitic plants vegetate very Avell in the chinks of the bark of other vegetables. Some seeds vegetate upon the most barren rocks, where they can hardly be said to have a particle of earth. But, what is more to our purpose, the seeds of many plants vegetate in the water, and continue, during the Avhole course of their lives, very completely detached from the earth.* Moreover, seeds of various kinds germinate very readily and rapidly, upon cotton, wool, feathers, sponges, cut paper, and other similar matters, provided they be kept constantly moistened, with water, and exposed to the proper quantity and species of air. Seeds never vegetate in a very dry earth. The greater number of them will vegetate in any kind of earth, pro- vided it be moist. Even in moist earth, when they are buried at a great distance below the surface, they remain in a profound sleep, and make no visible effort to vegetate, until they are brought much nearer to the surface. They are always later in coming up, in proportion as they are planted deep in the ground. Bierkander, a Swedish writer, has instituted some curious experiments relative to the germination of seeds, of various kinds, at different depths under ground. He found, that the seeds of Flax would never germinate when they had been buried lower than a certain depth, in the earth. He also, found, that the seeds of this plant would not vegetate in sand. 2. The vast influence of air upon the vegetation of the seed might be shown by many facts. Seeds do not vegetate in vacuo, or, if they do vegetate, their growth is precarious and feeble. The celebrated che- mist William Homberg, towards the close of the xvnth century, made a number of experiments with different seeds placed under the receiver of the air-pump. He observed, that the seeds of Lettuce, Purslane, and Cresses, do sometimes come up in vacuo, but that the number of them is small, and that the leaflets that made their appearance, perished soon after. Boyle, Musschenbroek, and Boerhaave concluded, from their experiments, that the access of air is indispensibly necessary to the germination of the seed. Pease, however, are said to grow in va- cuo. It is, no doubt, owing to the Avant of air, that seeds which are planted very deeply in the ground, refuse to germinate. But they vegetate very readily when the ground has been ploughed or turned up, and the seeds, in this way, are more immediately exposed to the con- tact of the atmosphere. The seeds of Black-Oats after having lain deeply buried in the soil of Scotland, for half a century, have grown vi- * See Class xxiv. Cryptogamla. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 169 gorously as soon as they Were raised near enough to the surface to re- ceive the influence of the air. It is well known, that many seeds do not readily germinate, if soon after theyhave been planted rains have fallen. In this case, a kind of crust is frequently formed upon the earth, which prevents the access of air. Different seeds seem to re- quire very different quantities of air, in order to further their germi- nation. On this subject, indeed, our knowledge is not verv precise. The acorns of some species of North-American Oaks vegetate much quicker when merely laid upon the surface of the earth than when buried at some depth below. The seeds of the Long-leaved Pine (Pinus palustris) vegetate very readily upon the surface of the naked sand, without the least covering of earth; and the nuts of different American species of iEsculus, or Horse-Chesnut, such as the Buck- eye (JEsculus flaya,) groAv as well, if not better, upon, than beneath, the surface of their most proper soils. In order that seeds may readi- ly germinate, it is not only necessary, that they be exposed to the in- fluence of the air, but that the air be pure, or, at least, as pure as that of the atmosphere. The experiments of Mr. Achard and many other philosophers have plainly proved, that these vegetable ova will not ger- minate in azotic gas (or phlogisticated air,) in carbonic acid-gas (fixed air,) nor in hydrogen gas (inflammable air.) The Abbe Spallanzani, however, has shoAvn, that the seeds of various species of plants do ve- getate very well in confined or stagnant air, provided there be a plenty of this air.* The same remark applies to the eggs of many species of insects, and other animals, notAvithstanding the assertions of the great Boerhaave, and other writers to the contrary. Unquestionably, how- ever, pure air is peculiarly favorable to the germination of the seed. Thus, Huber, who has devoted much attention to this interesting sub- ject, has shoAvn, that seeds which had refused to vegetate in azotic gas, did vegetate Avhen to this gas he added a small portion of oxygen gas.! He has likewise shown, that the first developement of seed is more rapid in this gas than in the common air. It would, indeed, seem that it is oxygen gas alone that gives to seeds their first determination to germinate; just as the same gas seems to be the first exciting cause of the movements of the irritable fibre of the embryo-chick, in ovo. It is not improbable, that many of the seeds of the plains and valleys, when carried to the summits of high mountains, refuse to vegetate there, in some measure, from the circumstance of their having in the elevated regions of the atmosphere, a smallar quantity of oxygen gas than in the climate beloAv. The very ingenious F. A. Humboldt has * Experiments and observations upon animals and vegetables confined in stagnant air. English Translation. ! According to the modern chemists, the atmosphere of our globe is com- posed of azotic gas and oxygen gas, in the proportion of about seventy-three parts of the former and twenty-seven parts of the latter. The carbonic acid gas (or fixed air,) is deemed an accidental part of the atmosphere. 170 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. shown, that Pease and French Beans that had' been sowed in sand, and watered with water to which was added oxygenated muriatic acid, grew much more quickly than those which Avere irrigated with vvater alone. The same seeds perished when they were Avatered Avith water to which was added the simple muriatic acid: Avhich plainly proved, that it was the oxygen of the acid, and not the acid itself, which had so greatly disposed the seeds to germinate. When the seeds of the Gar- den-cress (Lepidium sativum) were watered with the diluted oxygenat- ed muriatic acid, they exhibited their leaflets at the end of six hours; but the same seeds were only thus far advanced in germination, at the expiration of thirty-six hours, when they had been watered Avith com- mon water. At Vienna, where professor Jacquin and others have paid much attention to this curious and really important subject, it Avas found, that certain old seeds, which had always refused to vegetate, were brought to vegetate by irrigating the earth in which they were planted, with water to Avhich was added the oxygenated muriatic acid. This was found to be particularly the case with the seeds of Dodo- naea angustifolia, and Mimosa scandens. Mr. Humboldt has, also, shown, that seeds which were planted in the calces of metals (which are all compound bodies consisting of the reguline matter, or metal, and oxygen,) such as the oxydes of lead, called red-lead, and lytharge, if they be irrigated with Avater, will more readily vegetate than when committed to the earth; and that they will not vegetate when planted in the powder of the same metals, not in the state of oxydes. These various facts, the discovery of which may be said to constitute an im- portant era in the science of Vegetable Physiology, prove in the most satisfactory manner, that oxygen gas, or vital air, is absolutely neces- sary to the complete developement of the embryo of the seed. It is proper, however, to observe, that the purest oxygen gas, and even common air entirely freed from its carbonic acid, are less proper for the germination of the seed, than oxygen gas to which is added a por- tion of azotic gas; or than the atmospheric air in union with a pittance of carbonic acid gas. It, moreover, appears, that common atmosphe- ric air is better adapted to the germination of the seed, but particular- ly to the progress of the plant, after it has acquired more size and strength, than is oxygen gas. These facts are calculated to show the great affinity of animal and vegetable life: nor are they Avithout their value in a practical point of view. It is highly probable, that the seed, as Avell as the more adult plant, is capable of decomposing the carbonic acid, that may be offered to it, detaching the oxygen of this acid from its radicle or base, which is carbon.* As air is so indispensible an * Chaptal and some other chemists have asserted, that plants live in azotic gas, " and freely vegetate in it." My colleague Dr. James Woodhouse in- forms me, that, in a solitary instance, a single seed of Water-Mellon had germinated very well in this gas. We are certain, however, that almost uni- versally the gas in question is highly unfavorable to the germination of the seed, and to its future progressive growth. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 171 agent in fonvarding the germination of the seed, it must be obvious, that Avhere we wish to prevent seeds from vegetating, Ave should care- fully seclude them from the air, especially a warm and moist air;* by covering them, and keeping them in a cold and dry place. In this man- ner, they may be preserved for ages. There can be no doubt, moreover, that the seed will be preserved for a much longer time in an air less pure than in one more pure. Accordingly, it is the practice of many who keep seeds for curiosity, to put them in glass vessels, with a litttle sulphur, or camphor, and well corked. From what will presently be observed, it would appear probable, that the preservation of seed will be still further effected by keepim*; them more in the light, than in dark situations. 3. Water is another of the indispensible agents in forwarding the vegetation of the seed. No seeds will germinate if they be placed in a situation where the air is perfectly dry. Hence seeds which are kept perfectly dry in the cabinets of the curious, and in similar situations, never vegetate, but the same seeds begin'to sprout in a very short time, when they are irrigated with water. The seeds of aquatic plants will not vegetate unless in Avater, or in a very moist soil. But the seeds of many of the land-plants perish if they be kept too moist. Each seems to require a certain determinate quantity of Avater to further its germination. In general, those seeds which have a loose testa, or shell, require more water for their germination than those Avhose shell is more close. 4. A certain degree of heat is indispensibly necessary to the germina- tion of the seed. During the severe weather of the winter-season, the seeds which have been placed in the earth do not germinate, but remain inactive in a state perhaps very similar to the torpid condition of many animals, but on the coming on of spring, the "penetrative sun"! rouses the embryo, from its slumber, into active life. It is unnecessary to dwell upon this subject, for the agency of heat, in the business of germination, is familiar to every one. I shall only add, that from the influence of heat upon the seed, we learn, that the period of its germination is not a determinate law in respect to time. The same seed Avhich, in an ordinary degree of heat, requires six hours to germinate, may be brought to this state in three hours, by exposing it to a greater degree of heat. In this respect, as well as many others, there is a great affinity between the seeds of plants and the eggs of hirds. * Some seeds, we are told, keep best when they are exposed to the air, whilst others have their determination to germinate preserved by a total exclu- sion from the air. Mr. Miller informs us, that the seeds of Parsley, Onion, Lettuce, and other vegetables, that were kept in vials hermetically sealed, for a whole year, did not germinate, while those of the same age, hung up in bags, in a dry room, vegetated freely. For much valuable information concerning the best method of preserving seeds, I must refer the reader to Mr. Ellis's Directions for bringing over Plants and Seeds, <$*c. See, also, Mr. Curtis's Companion to the Botanical Magazine, die. pages 27-33. f Thompson. 172 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. This observation may, I believe, be extended to the eggs of some of the amphibious animals, such as the serpents. 5. Although the influence of light upon plants that have made their appearance above the earth is extremely great, and indispensably ne- cessary to the healthy state of the vegetable, it is certain, from actual experiments, that light is not necessary to the first germination of the seed. Mr. Fourcroy and other writers have indeed asserted that light is necessary to this function of the vegetable egg. But the contrary has been shown by numerous experiments, as those of Curtis, Ingen- housz, and other writers. Nay, it has been ascertained, that seeds, which have never felt the influence of the solar light, vegetate more quickly than those which have received its influence. Many plants, originating from seeds, grow and come to perfection in the darkest mines, and in other similar situations. Dr. Ingen-houszand Mr. Senebierhave both shown that seeds which were planted in the dark vegetated sooner than those which Avere plant- ed in the light. The Abbe Bertholon has opposed this idea. This re- spectable writer supposed that the seeds would actually vegetate quicker in the light than in darkness, provided they could, in both instances, be exposed to the same quantity of Avater. To determine this point with certainty, Mr. Senebier made the following experiment. He placed Peas, Beans, and French-Beans (Haricots,) upon sponges which were equally wetted, and enclosed them in vessels of a given size. He exposed some of them to the light of the sun, and by them others in cases of tin plates, painted of a deep red colour. They were all exposed to the same degree of heat. The water which might evaporate from the sponges was prevented from escaping, so that, upon this ground, there could be no source of deception. The germination proceeded much more rapidly in the darkened cases than in those which Avere ex- posed to the influence of the light. The very different effects of light upon the seed, and upon the more evolved and adult vegetable, is one of the various circumstances Avhich seem to render it highly probable that light and heat are fluids essentially distinct from each other,* how- ever frequently they may be combined together. 6. Electricity deserves to be mentioned in this place. It must be remarked, however, that authors are much divided in opinion concern- ing the real effects of this fluid upon the germination of the seed. Dr. Darwin observes that " the influence of positive or vitreous electricity in forwarding the germination of plants and their growth, seems to be pretty well established."! Mr. D'Ormey is said to have found various seeds to vegetate sooner and to grow taller when they were put upon his insulated table, and supplied Avith electricity. Mr. Bilsborrow's experiments, which are recorded by Dr. Darwin, seem to prove, that * See the fine experiments of Dr. Herschel, and other writers. See also Darwin's Phytologia, die. Sect. xin. X Phytologia, die. Sect. xm. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 173 Mustard-seed which were subjected to positive or vitreous electricity, and to negative or resinous electricity, vegetated much sooner than seeds which were not electrised, " but otherwise exposed to the same circum- stances." The Abbe Bertholon, whom I have already mentioned, is of opinion, that both natural and artificial electricity increase the ger- mination of the seed, and the future growth of the plant. Dr. Ingen- housz, from his experiments, was obliged to deduce a very opposite conclusion; and Mr. Senebier, in a very late publication, concludes, that the influence of the electrical fluid is, "at least, doubtful."* 7. There are, doubtless, many other agents which exert an effect more or less decided on the germination of the seed. It is probable, that most of the various manures which increase the living powers of the more adult plant, exert a similar effect upon the embryo within its shell. But the very different effects of light upon the seed and upon the evolved plant, should teach us the propriety of treating this subject with caution. Meanwhile, I think it may be confidantly asserted, that various stimulants such as nitre (nitrate of potash,) common salt (muri- ate of soda,) green vitriol (sulphate of iron,) blue vitriol (sulphate of copper,) gypsum or plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime,) charcoal, and many others, if they be applied in their proper dose, exert a considera- ble effect in hastening the germination of" the seed. The time at which different species of seeds, after having been com- mitted to the earth, begin to vegetate, is exceedingly various. Thus, Millet (Milium,) and Wheat, vegetate in one day; Kidney-Bean, Mus- tard, and Spinach (Spinacia,) in three days; Lettuce and Fennel (Ane- thum Fceniculum,) in four days; Cucumber, Gourd, and others, in five days; Beet and Radish, in six days; Barley in seven days; Orache (At- riplex,) in eight days; Cabbage, in ten days; Beans (Faba,) from fifteen to twenty days; Onion, from nineteen to twenty days; and Parsley (Apium Petroselinum,) from forty to fifty days. Of the common garden seeds, I believe there are none Avhich take a shorter time to vegetate than several of the Tetradynamous plants, such as Mustard' and Turnip; nor any, I think, a longer time than Parsley. The long"torpidity of the last mentioned seed has given rise to a vulgar proverb, in Britain, " that Parsley-seed goes nine times to the Devil, before it comes up." The seeds of many vegetables take a whole year to vegetate. Such are the Peach, the Almond, the Walnut, the Chesnut, the Peony (Paeo- nia officinalis,) diflerent species of Canna, or Indian-Reed, and others. Other seeds require two years before they vegetate: such are the Com- mon Dogwood (Cornus florida,) and other species of the genus: the Common Pappaw, or Custard-apple (Annona triloba,) and the Filbert (Corylus avellana.) Some seeds, even under circumstances favourable to their growth, remain a much longer time in the earth before they ve- getate. But, with respect to these seeds, the period of their germina- * " Je ne dirai rien de 1'EleGtricite puisque son influence est au moins dou- teuse.'" Physiologie Vegetale, dzc Tom. 3. p. 399. 174 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. tion may be greatly advanced by different means, Avhich are familiar to the gardeners. Thus, several of the hard-shelled seeds, particularly the nuts, which require one or more years to vegetate, can be brought to vegetate much earlier, simply by rendering their shells thinner, by a file, or other similar means. The seeds of the Pappaw, which I have already mentioned, may, in this manner, be brought to germinate in a few days. Some writers, however, are of opinion, that this method of treating the harder putamens is not advisable. Mr. Miller advises us to put such seeds between two tiles, with a sufficient quantity of earth, and to place them in a fresh hot-bed, that they may open spontaneously. It is uncertain how long seeds may exist without losing their vegetative property. There are good reasons, however, to believe, that the life of certain kinds of seeds may be protracted far beyond that of any other part of the vegetable, or than the life of any species of animal. It is true, indeed, that the Mosses Avhich have been kept for near two hun- dred years, in herbaria of the botanists, have seemed to revive by the simple process of irrigating them with water.* Perhaps, the Wheel- animal (Rotifer,) which, in this respect, is nearly allied to the Mosses and to seeds, might be preserved for as great a length of time in the sand of tiles and sewers,! where it is not permitted to receive the influence of moisture. But, with respect to seeds, it is certain, that when excluded from the influence of the air, and kept from moisture, they may exist for centuries. The phenomenon, so familiar to Americans, of the suc- cessive appearance and growth of different species of timber in the same tract of country, is greatly in favour of this idea. I have little hesitation in supposing, that different kinds of seeds, if imbedded in stone or dry earth, and removed far from the influence of air and moisture, might be made to retain their vegetative quality for a thousand years. But, after all, it is not certain, that this singular immortality, upon earth, is the exclusive privilege of the seed. " Life is a property we do not un- derstand. "J And Ave never shall understand it, if we attempt to con- struct systems before we know how or where to collect facts. " Life, however feeble and obscure, is always life; between it and death there is a distance as great as between entity and non-entity."§ I shall terminate these observations onthe seed by observing, that in the germination of this egg, the plumule constantly mounts upwards to meet the air, whilst the radicle shoots downward to its mother earth. The mechanical philosophers have attempted an explanation of this sin- * Speaking of the Mosses Dr..Haller has the following words: " Immorta- litatis pene aemulo privilegio haec eadem folia gaudent; quae post centenos, di ducentos forte annos, sola in aqua maceratione, in pristinum vigorem restitui possint, quod experimentum in nonnullis C. Bauhini Muscis feci." Alberti v. Haller Historia Stirpium Indigenarum Helvetiae Inchoata. Tom. in. p. 18. Bernse: 1768. ! See the wonderful observations of Lewenhoek, Baker, Roffredi, Spallanza- ni, Fontana, die die. X John Hunter. \ Spallanzani. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 175 gular phenomenon. But their ingenuity, as might be expected, has been fruitlessly employed. I am not certain that Dr. Darwin has thrown much light upon the subject He observes,that "the plumula is stimu- lated by the air into action, and elongates itself, where it is thus most ex- cited ; and the radicle is stimulated by moisture, and elongates itself thus, where it is most excited, whence one of them grows upwards in quest of its adapted object, and the other downward."* But I do not think there is much difference between this species of language, and that of those wri- ters who have ascribed the ascent of the plumule and the descent of the radicle to " a mysterious instinct," or to " a sort of affectation." The time may possibly arrive, when these movements of the embryo in its germinating state, will be deemed instances of "determinate instinct," as much as the first movements of certain species of birds, when they have escaped from their egg; as much so as the instinct which impels the duckling to seek the water, or the chick of the American pheasant (Tetrao Cupido,) to seek the wood, though neither of them have been hatched under females of their own kind.! VIII.—The Receptaculum,! or Receptacle, is the seventh and last part of the fructification enumerated by L. He defines it, " the base by which the other parts of the fructification are connected." " Basis qua partes fructificationis connectuntur."*): To this part of the fructification Br. Boerhaave gave the name of Placenta, and the ingenious Sebastian Vaillant, that of Thalamus. The following species of receptacle are enumerated by L. viz. 1. Receptaculum Proprium. 2. R. commune. 3. Umbella. 4. Cyma: and, 5. Spadix. In this place I am to speak of only the two first mentioned receptacles. Of the three last, I shall treat under a separate head, viz. that of inflorescence, or the mode of flowering. A. The receptaculum proprium, proper or peculiar receptacle, ap- pertains to one fructification only. Of this kind is the receptacle of all the simple flowers. This species of receptacle has received different names from the particular parts of the fructification which it supports and connects. Thus, 1. The receptaculum fructificationis, or recep- tacle of the fructification, is common both to the flower and the fruit; or, in other words, embraces the corolla and the germ. 2. The recep- taculum floris, or receptacle of the flower. Here the receptacle sup- ports the parts of the flower only. In these cases, the germen, or seed- bud, which is placed below the receptacle of the flower, has a proper * Phytologia, die Sect. ix. ! Mr. Dodart planted, in a pot, six acorns, with the points of their embryos upwards, in as perpendicular a direction as he could. At the end of two months, upon removing the earth, he found that all the radicles had made an angle to reach downward, " as if (to use the words of Father Regnault,) they had been sensible of the botanist's fraud." ! Receptaculum, from Recipio, to receive. X Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 54 §. 86. 176 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. base of its own. The last mentioned species of receptacle is denomi- nated 3. Receptaculum fructus, or receptacle of the fruit. We have ex- amples of it in Gaura, Oenothera, #and others.* 4. Receptaculum seminum, or receptacle of the seed. This is the base to which the seeds are fastened, within their enclosure, or pericarp. This species of receptacle is denominated, by some botanists, placenta, because it is the common receptacle of the vasa umbilicalia, or umbilical vessels, thrpugh which nourishment is conveyed to the seeds. It has no defi- nite form except when the common receptacle is absent. It arises often from the receptacle of the fruit, or from the mother pericarp itself.—This species of receptacle assumes a variety of forms, of which it is not my intention to take notice, in this place. I shall content myself with observing, that when it is of a filiform or thread shape, it is called funiculus umbilicalis, or the navel-cord. The form of this cord is very frequently that of a slender thread. In the Leguminous plants, however, it resembles a fungous peduncle.! In Date (Phoenix,) and Lontarus, it better deserves the name of a cord, being composed of several fibres, and thicker than a quill. The cord is often simple: but in a few vegetables, it is divided into two branches (rarely into more) at the extremity, nearest to the seed. Of these branches, sometimes only one bears a seed, and the other serves the purpose of a fulcre, as in some species of Vicia and Lathyrus. Sometimes, both of the branches have a proper seed affixed to them, as in Tulip-tree. In Magnolia (and some other plants,) two seeds hang from one individual cord, of a cotton-like substance. By means of the cord, the seed coheres intimately with its pericarp, until the nutritious vessels being closed at maturity, the cord is broken, and the seeds being thus set at liberty, are scattered upon the earth, or other places, from Avhich they draw their future nourishment, in the manner we have seen. B. The receptaculum commune, or common receptacle, connects several florets or distinct fructifications, so that if any one of them be removed, an irregularity is occasioned. We have instances of this species of re- ceptacle in the Compound-flowers,' and also in the Umbel, Cyme, Spadix, and Rachis, Avhich are afterwards to be mentioned. X ^ ne re- ceptacle is, 1. punctatum, dotted or punctate; sprinkled with the hol- low points, or dots: as in Leontodon, Cacalia, Ethulia, Crysanthemum, and others. 2. pilosum, hairy; having hairs betAveen the florets, as in Carduus, &c. 3. paleaceum, paleaceous or chaffy; the florets being separated by intermediate scales, resembling chaff; as in Teasel (Dip- sacus, Scabious (Scabiosa,) &c. 4. nudum, naked: neither dotted, hairy nor paleaceous; as in Leontodon, Lactuca, Sonchus, &c. &c. 5. planum, flat, convexum, convex. 7. conicum, conical, columnar; attenuated towards the apex. 8. subulatum, 'subulate. 9. alveo- * See Plate xvi. f See Plate xxi. X See Plates xxiii di xxiv. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 177 latum, alveolate, or honey-combed; divided into open cells, like an honey-comb, with a seed lodged in each cell; as in Cotton-Thistle (Onopordum,) and others. In draAving the generic characters of plants, the receptacle is a part which ought ahvays to be attended to. It is seldom omitted by L. in his Genera Plantarum. In discriminat- ing the genera of the class Syngensia, it is a character of very great importance. I have now finished the consideration of all the seven parts of the fructification enumerated by L. I shall conclude the first part of these Elements with some account of the Inflorescentia, or Inflorscence of vegetables, and the Calendarium Floras. IX.—By the term Inflorescentia, L. means the various modes in which floA\*ers are fastened to the plant, by means of the peduncle.* That is what Ludwig, and many other botanists have denominated Modus Florendi. These modes are thirteen in number, viz. 1. Spadix. 2. Cyma. 3. Umbella. 4. Spica 5. Amentum: 6. Strobilus. 7. Corymbu.?. 8. Racemus. 9. Panicula. 10. Thyr- sus. 11. Fasciculus. 12. Capitulum: and 13. Verticillus. The three first of these have already been mentioned under the head of re- ceptacle, hut are to be more particularly noticed in this place. 1. The Spadix is the receptacle of the Palms and some other plants, and pro- ceeds from that species of calyx Avhich is called spatha, or spathe. It is either branched (ramosus,) as in the Palms, or simple (simplex,) as in Indian-Turnip (Arum triphyllum,) Pole-cat-Aveed, or Skunk-Cab- bage (Dracontium, foetidum,) and others. The simple or unbranched spadix admits of some variety. Thus, in Calla, Dracontium, Pothos; and Golden-club (Orontium aquaticum,) the florets cover it on all sides. In Indian-Turnip, they are disposed on the lower parts only, and in Grass-wrack (Zostera marina,) on one side only. According to the number of flowers Avhich it supports, the spadix has received the fol- lowing names, viz. 1. vniflorus, one-floAvered. 2. bifiorus, two flowered. 3. multiflorus, many flowered. 2. The Cyma,! or Cyme. This is defined by L. to be an aggregate flower composed of several florets sitting on a receptacle, producing all the primary peduncles from the same point, but having the partial peduncles scattered or irregular; all fastigate, or forming a flat surface at top. We have instances of the cyme in Guelder-Rose or Snow- Ball (Viburnum Opulus,)in Ophiorhiza, and various species of Cornel or Dogwood, such as Cornus sanguinea, Cornus sericea, &c. &c. The cyma is either, 1. bracteata, bracteate; furnished with bractes; or, 2. nuda, naked; Avithout bractes. Flowers which are disposed in a cyme, a**e called cymose flowers; cymosus fios. In the former editions of * u Inflorescentia est modus quo flores pedunculo plantse annectuntur, quern Modum Florendi dixere antecessors." Philosophia Botanica, die. p. 112. §163. f Cyma signifies properly a sprout or tender shoot, particularly of the Cab- bage. In these senses the term is used Tw Pliny, and Columella. 23" 178 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY.' L's. Fragments of a Natural Method, place was given to an order, Cymosae, .consisting of Honey-suckle; Morinda, Loranthus, and a few other genera. In later editions of the work, most of these genera were removed to the order Aggregaiae. 3. The Umbella, or Umbel, is a receptacle stretched out into filiform proportioned peduncles from the same centre. I have already given some account of this species of receptacle, or mode of floAvering, when treating of the involucrum, or involucre.* Several circumstances, however, respecting the umbel are to be noticed in this place, a. The umbel is either, 1. simplex, simple, or undivided; as in Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium.) 2. composita, compound; each peduncle bearing another little umbel, orumbellule. In this case, the first or larger set of rays, constitute the universal umbel (umbella universalis;) while the second or subordinate set of peduncles constitute the partial umbel (umbella partialis.) 3. prolifera, proliferous, superdecompound, or more than decompound, b. The umbella is also, 1. concava, con- cave. 2. fastigiafa, fastigiate; or rising gradually like the roof of a house. 3. convexa, convex. 4. erecta, erect. 5. nutans, nodding. 6. terminalis, terminal. 7. axillaris, axillary; and, 8. oppositifolia oppositifolious. Flowers which grow in the manner of an umbel, are denominated Umbellati, Umbellate, or Umbelled floAvers. By many writers they are denominated Umbelliferae, or Umbelliferous plants. Umbellatae is the name of the twenty-second order in L's Frag- ments: and of the forty-fifth in his natural orders. The greater num- ber of these plants belong to the second order of the fifth class of the sexual system. Ray, Jusseiu, and other writers have called these plants, lTmbeHifer*e, and Caesalpinus, Ferulaceae. I shall, in a more proper place, give a list of the principle genera of this great natural family.! 4. The Spica J or Spike; is a species of inflorescence in which sessile flowers, or flowers Avithout peduncles, are (scatteringly) alternate on a common simple peduncle. We have examples of this mode of inflor- escence in an ear of Wheat, Rye, or Bariey, and many other Grasses; and in Lavender (Lavendula,) Mullein (Verbascum,) Agrimony, and many other plants. The flowers of a spike are situated immediately upon the stalk, with- out any partial peduncles, or footstalks, as has already been observed. This circumstance distinguishes the mode of inflorescence of which I am speaking, from the raceme, which is presently to be mentioned. Often, hoAvever, in a spike, along with the sessile flowers, we find flow- ers that are pedunculated; as in some species of Cyperus, &c. The * See Class v. Pentandria. f See Class v. Pentandria. X From spes, hope; fiom <-**■'£»> to extend; or from whence Spicus, Spica, and Spicum, "for (as Dr. Martyn observes) it is used in " all the three genders." These terms signify an ear of corn. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 179 spica is, 1. secunda* single-rowed, or one-ranked;! that is, all turned towards one side, or directed or inclined the same Avay. We have an instance of this in American Cock's foot-grass (Dactylis cynosurioides.') 2. disticha, two-ranked or rowed, all the flowers pointing tAvo ways; and, consequently, opposed to secunda. This is instanced in Bog-Rush (Schoenus,) &c. 3. tetrasticha, four-ranked.' 4. hexasticha, six-rank- ed. The Spicula, Spicule, or Spikelet, is a partial spike, or a subdi- vision of a true spike. This occurs in some of the Grasses, as Darnel, &c. The filiform receptacle which connects the florets longitudinally into a spike, is denominated Rachis.X " Receptaculum filiform floscu- los longitudinaliter annectens in spicam."§ It has received the name of rachis, from its bearing some resemblance, when it is naked or deprived of the florets, to the spine. We have good examples of this species of receptacle in different species of Panic-grass, such as Panicum crus cor- vi, P. crus galli; in Darnel (Lolium,) and in many other Grasses. 5. Of the Ament and Strobilus I have already taken particular notice, when treating of the various species of calyx,|| and of pericarp. I shall only observe, in this place, that the ament is more properly referred to the head of inflorescence than that of calyx.^f 6. The Corymbus, or Corymb,** is said by L. to be " made up of a spike, Avhilsteach flower is furnished with its proper footstalk, or peduncle, in an elevated pro- portioned situation." L.'s definition is not very intelligible, and hence different botanists have given a diflerent interpretation of the Avords. In this species of inflorescence, the smaller or partial flower-stalks are pro- duced along the common stalk, on both sides, and although they are of unequal lengths, they rise to the same height, so as to form at the top a flat and even surface. We have examples of this mode of flowering in the following, among other vegetables, viz. Nine-bark or Seven-bark (Spiraea opulifolia,) Scurvy-grass (Cochlearia officinalis,) Gold of Plea- sure (Myagrum sativum,) and other Tetradynamous plants. The co- rymb differs from the umbel in this circumstance, that in the former the numerous partial footstalks take their origin from diflerent parts of the common stalk; whilst in the latter, as Ave have already seen, all the peduncles proceed from a common centre. The corymb, it has been observed, is a mean between the umbel and the raceme. Like them, * * " We have no proper English term for this. One-ranked tends to mis- lead, because a plant may have more ranks or rows of floAvers than one di- rected to the same point of the horizon, or nearly so." Professor Martyn. ! Darwin. X p*;t'"> the back-bone, or spine. § Delineatio Planta1. || See Plate XXVII. 1 The Strobile gives name to a particular species of spike {spica strobili- formis,) or strobile-shaped spike, of which Ave have an example in Justicia Ecbolium. ** Professor Marfvn. 180 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. its flowers are furnished with their proper footstalks, which rise gra- dually from the bottom to the top, as do those of the raceme, and are extended to the same height, as are those of the umbel. The term co- rymbus is sanctioned by classical authority. Pliny uses it for a cluster of Ivy-berries. " Hederae racemis in orbem circumactis, qui vocantur corymbi."* Columella puts it for the head of an Artichoke, or Thistle: " Haecmodo purpureo'surgit glomerata corymbo."f 7. Racemus,! Raceme, or Cluster, is the name of the eighth species of inflorescence enumerated by L. It is a species of flowering in which the flowers, placed along a common footstalk, are furnished with short proper footstalks, that proceed as lateral branches from the common stalk. The raceme and the spike are nearly allied to each other: for in both, the flowers are placed along a common footstalk, or receptacle; but in the spike, as we have seen, the flowers are sessile, whereas in the raceme they are pedunculated. In general, too, the flowers are less abundant in the spike than in the raceme. But to this there are many exceptions. I have already noticed the essential difference between the raceme and the corymb. The racemus is, 1. simplex, simple; or, 2. compositus, compound. 3. unilateralis, one-sided; having all the flowers growing on one side of the peduncle; as in Serrated Winter- green (Pyrola secunda.) 4. secunda all bent or directed the same way. 5. pedatus, pedate. 6. conjugutus, conjugate. 7. erectus, erect. 8. laxus, loose. 9. dependens, hanging down, and pointing to the ground. 10. nudus, naked. 11. foliatus, leafy. We have good and familiar examples of the raceme in the Vine, the Currant, the Poke, different species of Prunus, or Plumb, such as the common Wild-Cherry (Pru- nus virginiana,) &c. In the Latin language, racemus signifies a cluster or bunch of Grapes, Ivy-berries, &c. Thus Pliny: "Hederae "est minor acinus, sparsior racemus."§ 8. Panicula, || or Panicle, is the name of the eight species of inflores- cence. In this, the flowers or fruits are scattered on peduncles, variously subdivided. In other words, it is a kind of branching or diffused spike, composed of a number of small spikes, which are fixed along a common receptacle or footstalk. We have instances of this form of inflorescence in Oats, *Panic-grass, and many other plants. The following are the principal species or varieties of panicula enumerated by the botanists, viz. 1. panicula congest a, a heaped panicle; having a great abundance * Naturalis Histona; Lib. xvi. cap. xxxiv. ! De Re Rustica, die Lib. x. De cultu Hortorum, 1. 237. X From §*"£> §*">**. acinus, racime. § Lib. xvi. cap. xxxiv. || From *r*v'*», coma, a bush or head of hair die; or rather from panus, the woof about the quill in the shuttle. Pliny, in one place (Lib. xvi cap. xxxvi,) uses this word to designate the down upon reeds. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 181 of flowers. 2. p. densa, a dense or close panicle. (This is an higher degree of the above; or, in other words, a panicle which has the flowers both close and abundant) 3. p. spicata,a spiked panicle; approaching in form to a spike; as in Phleum crinitum, and other Grasses, which are, called Spike Grasses. 4. p. contracta, a contracted panicle; a greater degree of the foregoing. 5. p. coarctata, a squeezed panicle; having the peduncles extremely near to each other. 6. p. patens, a spread- ing panicle; having the peduncles spreading out so as to form an acute angle Avith the stem. 7. p. diffusa, a diffused panicle; having the pe- duncles spreading out more and more irregularly. S.p. divaricata, a divaricating panicle; spreading out still more, at an obtuse angle with the stem. 9. The Thyrsus,* or Thyrse, is a mode of inflorescence very nearly allied to the panicle, being, in fact, a panicle contracted into an ovate, or egg-shaped form. In the thyrse, the loAver footstalks, which are longer, extend horizontally, whilst the upper ones are shorter, and rise up vertically. We have instances of this beautiful species of inflores- cence in Lilac (Syringa vulgaris,) in Butter-bur (Tussilago Petasites,) and other plants. 10. The Fasciculus,! or Fascicle, is a species of inflorescence, in which several upright, parallel, fastigiate, approximating flowers, are col- lected together;:): as in Sweet William (Dianthus barbatus,) and others. 11. The Capitulum,§ or Hend, is that species of inflorescence, in which several flowers form a kind of ball, or head, at the extremity or summits of the footstalk; as in Globe-amaranthus, or Bachelor's But- tons (Gomphrena globosa,) and others. The capitulum is, 1. globosum, globular or round; as in Gomphrena globosa. 2. dimidiatum, halved; hemispherical, or resembling half a head; as in Lippia hemisphaerica- 3. ovatum, ovate, or egg-shaped; as in Lippia ovata. 4. hispidum, hispid, or bristly; as in Field-Basil (Clinopodium vulgare.) 5. folio- sum, leafy; intermixed with leaves. 6. nu turn, naked; having no leaves: of course opposed to the leafy. 7. pedunculatum, peduncled, or furnished Avith little footstalks; as in Teucrium capitatum. 8. sessile, sessile; having no short footstalks; as in Teucrium pumilum. 9. pyra- midatum, pyramidal; shaped like a pyramid; as in Lippia americana. 10. subrotundum, subrotund, or roundish; as in Selago fruticosa. 12. The Verticillus|| is the thirteenth and last species of inflorescence enumerated by L. It is called in English the Whirl or Whorl. IT It is * The Greek ©•ug«**c> from Suao, impetuferor, erumpo, to burst forth. X Diminutive, from fascis, a bundle. X Colligit (says Linnaeus) flores erectos, parallelos, fastigiatos, approxima- tes." § Capitulum, in Latin, signifies a little head, the top, or chapter of a pH- lar, die. < || From verto, to turn. IT It is most commonly written whorl; but whirl seems the more proper or- thography; since (as Martyn observes,) it must be derived from the verb to whirl, which signifies to turn rapidly. 182 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. made up of many subsessile flowers, Avhich surround the stem,'in the form of a ring. We have instances of this inflorescence in Penny Royal (Mentha Pulegium,) Horehound (Marrubium vulgare.) Callicarpa ame- ricana,* and many other plants. This species of inflorescence, indeed, gives name to an extensive natural family of plants, which are particu- larly mentioned in the course of this work.! The verticillus is, 1. ses- silis, sessile, without peduncles. 2. pedunculatus, peduncled; with peduncles. 3. nudus, naked; without involucre, bracte, or bristle. 4. bracteatus, bracted; furnished with bractes. 5. involucratus, involu- ted; furnished with an involucre. 6. confertus, crowded. 7. dis- tans, distant. 8. remotus, remote. 13. I have now given some account of all the various species of inflo- rescence that are enumerated by L. But I must not close this subject, without observing, that in some plants the flowers grow upon the leaves. This is the case in the genus Ruscus, or Butcher's broom. L. does not designate this species of inflorescence (for such it seems entitled to be called,) by any particular name; but in Ruscus, he calls it "leaf-bear- ing." A similar mode of flowering occurs in Osyris japonica, a native of Japan. Professor Thunberg, who observed it in this vegetable, speaks of it as a very rare species of structure in the vegetable world. SECTION IV. OF THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF PLANTS. Plants are organized living bodies, endued with the attribute of irri- tability. Their organization is by no means simple. Like animals, of various kinds, they are composed of solid and fluid parts. These solid parts, in which it is probable all the living powers of the plant re- side, are principally, if not entirely, made up of fibres, the very inti- mate nature of which is not completely known to us. Whether the liv- ing powers of the plant, or, in other words, the life of the plant, be a property distinct from the visible matter Avhich composes it, is a ques- tion which we are unable, in the present state of human knowledge, to decide. There are no good reasons, however, to suppose, that the life of plants and that of animals, even of the more perfect animals, is essentially distinct from each other. The vegetable fibres being inter- Avoven together, in a great A*ariety of ways, constitute the membranes, the cellular texture, the receptacles, or reservoirs, and the different spe- cies of vessels (both circulating and secretory,) of the plant, which are afterwards to be mentioned. Out of these simple solid parts, are con- structed the various organic parts of the plant, such asthe root, the stem, and the leaves, some of the fulcres, and the different parts of the fructi- * See Plate X. Fig. 3. ! See Class xiv. Didynamia. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 183 fication, which have been particularly enumerated and described in the preceding part of this work. Of these organic parts, I proceed to give some account; and for this purpose, I shall make choice of the trunk of a tree, Avhere the different organized parts are most distinctly seen. Nearly the same structure, however, is common to the root, the branch- es, &c, and the trunk. This is evinced, not only from the evident fa- bric of the parts, by/ from the well known fact, which has already been mentioned, " that trees and shrubs, when they are inverted, put forth leaves from the ascending caudex, or proper root; and radicles, or roots, from the ascending caudex or stem." This experiment has often been made with the Willow, and several other trees. The organic substance in the trunks of trees is found to be of various kinds. Six species of such organized substance are enumerated by some of the latest writers* on vegetable physiology. They are the following, viz. 1. Epidermis, s. Cuticitla. 2. Cortex. 3. Liber. 4. Alburnus. 5. Lignum; and, 6. Medulla. I shall speak of these in the order in which I have mentioned them. 1. The Epidermis, Cuticula, or Scarf-skin, is the exterior membra- naceous covering of the tree.! It is thin, and dry, and generally trans- parent, and without colour. It does not appear to be a part very com- plexly organized, but it is, unquestionably, organized. In its substance, we sometimes discover very minute pores, which are supposed to serve the double purpose of absorbing fluids from without, and of exhaling or throwing off other fluids from the vegetables. There can, indeed, be little doubt, that absorbing vessels do arise from the exterior surface of the epidermis, and convey their fluids to other parts of the vegetable. The mouths of these absorbents are some of the pores which have been mentioned. The organic structure of the epidermis is rendered more probable from this circumstance, that when it is destroyed in the living vegetable, it is regenerated again, as is knoAvn to be the case with the epidermis of man, and many other animals. The newly formed epider- mis is generally observed to cohere more firmly to the bark, than the old or destroyed covering. Many writers have considered the epidermis as a simple integument; but it is very probable, that in all vegetables, it is composed of different layers, though these, by reason of their extreme tenuity, may readily elude the observation of our senses. Duhamel has shoAvn that the epi- dermis of the Birch-tree is composed of several layers, of which he was able to count six. In the Paper-Birch (Betula papyrifera?) I have often counted at least twice this number of distinct epidermidal coats. In the Seven-bark or Nine-bark (Spiraea opulifolia,) the epidermis is, like- wise, found to consist of several layers. Hence, the common names, which I have just mentioned, of this shrub, in the United States. The epidermis serves to defend the bark from the injuries of the air. By its callous structure, it appears to be Well fitted to keep open the * Plenck, die. f "Epidermis tunica exterior plantae sicca tenuissima." 184 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. absorbing orifices which terminate upon its surface. It is also highly probable, that this integument is of essential use by preventing an ex- cess of evaporation from the parts which it covers. Indeed, actual experiments have shown, that from a given surface of the bark of a tree deprived of its epidermical coverings, there was a much greater evaporation, than from the bark over which those coverings Avere suffer- ed to remain. Moreover, it is ascertained, that thje epidermis of the trunk and branches of several vegetables is absolutely impermeable to water. In many vegetables, however, there is reason to believe, that the case is otherwise. 2. The cortex,* or Outer-Bark, is the'second integument or covering of the vegetable. It is plated, lax, dry, and hard, and often in chinks.! It seldom adheres very firmly to the third integument, or liber, but the degrees of its adhesion are various. In the herbaceous plants, the part corresponding to the cortex is called Cutis, or the Skin. In these, it is of a much softer texture than in the trees properly so called. The cortical plates, or layers, appear, from the latest observations of the botanists, to be formed of a net of longitudinal fibres, Avhich wind more or less round the axis of the vegetable, and compose meshes of a larger or smaller size. The fibrous structure is very readily perceived when the bark is macerated in water, for by such maceration Ave destroy the cellular substance which separates the fibres. Each of these more con- spicuous fibres is composed of several others, which are much more minute, and which cannot readily be discovered, without the assistance of good glasses. These fasciculi or bundles of fibres are not solated, or entirely detached from each other. They are often connected to each other by certain portions of the vegetable, which throw them- selves off from them, and" incline towards other bundles, accompany them in their inflections, and combine to form other bundles. In this manner a large net-work is formed, the interstices of which are filled up with parenchymatous matter, as in the leaf of Avhich Ave have already treated. Now the bark is composed of a number of such nets placed over, and contiguous to, each other. This structure is beautifully conspicuous in Daphne Lagetto| of the West-Indies. The interior bark of this vegetable is composed of twelve tunics or layers, which being extended and cleared from the cuticle, expose to view a fine net-work, of Avhich neck-cloths, aprons, and other similar articles are made. The net works, Avhich I have mentioned, are not all per- fectly similar to each other, either in the same or in different vegetables. On the contrary, a considerable variety in the net-works has been ob- served in those vegetables which have, hitherto, been particularly ex- amined. The larger fibres composing the meshes of the net-Avork, are * From corium, a hide, and tego to cover. -f-" cortex secundum integumentum plantae, laminosum, laxum, siccum, durius, saepe rimosum." X Lagetta of Jussieu. Bois dentelle, or Lace-wood, of the French. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 185 supposed to be the vessels which conduct the sap into the utricles, the vessicules and small vessels of the parenchyma, in order to receive its final preparation. In this parenchymatous structure, it is supposed, by Senebier and other late writers, that the sap is combined with the car- bon, which is here precipitated, by the action of light, from the car- bonic acid or fixed air. Of the bark, as well as the epidermis, I have already given some account, Avhen treating of the anatomical structure of the leaf. Other circumstances relative to the fabric of the bark, and to the importance of this part of the vegetable, will afterwards claim our attention. 3. The Liber,* or Inner-Bark, is the third integument discoverable in the trunk of trees. It. is more membranaceous, juicy, and. flexible, than the outer-bark, and may often be separated from the bark and from the blea.! This integument has received the name of liber from'its fine and thin plates, which are thought to bear some resemblance to the leaves of a book. Or it is more probable, that the Latin word liber took its name from this portion of the bark; in like manner as the English word book (from the Saxon boc,) may, perhaps, be ultimately traced to the word Pak, or Pauk, Avhich in the language of certain Asiatic tribes, such as the Curdes, signifies the leaf (folium) of a vegetable. This will appear the less improbable, when it is recollected, hoAv much it is the practice of some nations to change the P into B, and the latter into the former; a practice particularly observed among the American Indians, and from a want of attention to which, it has often been sup- posed that their languages, which are really closely-allied dialects, are radically different from each other. The liber is the last layer of the bark, or that nearest to the wood. Like the bark itself, it is composed of a number of concentric net- works, placed one over the other. This part of the vegetable varies in regard to its appearance and quantity, in different vegetables. In the Lime or Linden-tree (Tilia) it is not very different from the wood. In general, it is more abundant in vigorous trees, than in those which are less vigorous, of the same species. In the spring-season, it is more easily separated from the bark than at other times. At this time, also, it is more tender. When, in the progress of the season, it has acquired its peculiar or adult hardness, it forms the wood. In the ligneous or woody plants, it is not a difficult matter to fix upon the precise situation of the liber, in regard to the exterior bark and the blea, or the Avood. Wounds in the bark heal more or less readily; the two lips or edges of the Avound uniting together. In short, there is here a renovation of the bark. But the healing of a Avound in the liber is essentially different from this; for here the wound forms a round edge, the two lips not uniting together. The liber, as we shall afterwards see, always finishes * Profesor Martyn thinks the most probable derivation of this word is "from the jEolic ***■"§ for *-**■--, which by changing t into £ became>"fj<§"*." t «' Tegmentum tertium membranaceum succidum flexile." 24 186 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. where the alburnum, or blea, begins. There is every reason to believe, that the complete developement of the liber forms the wood. The liber, like the Avood, contains a great number of the vessels called tracheae; but the exterior bark (cortex) contains very few, if any, of these vessels. The liber, is, unquestionably, the most important portion of the bark. This is evident not only from its annual conver- sion into wood; but also, from the injury which trees receive, Avhen they have been deprived of their liber. The mere destruction of the bark is, indeed a source of great injury to trees. Nevertheless, many vegetables continue to live and flourish after very considerable portions of their exterior bark have been destroyed. This is said to be parti- cularly the case in regard to the Apple-tree, the barking of which is found not only not to destroy the tree, but even to increase the chances of its life and vigor. But the destruction of the liber is ahvays found to be highly injurious, and even generally fatal, to the tree. This is especially the case, when, along with the liber, we remove the blea. Trees, rarely, if ever, recover, when these two parts have been de- stroyed in the same individual. Hence, the efficacy of the practice of girdling as it is called, in the United States. When the farmer wishes to cultivate a piece of ground that is covered with timber, the shade of which would be injurious to his grain or other vegetables,* and if he does not find it convenient to cut down the trees, he proceeds to girdle them. This operation is performed by making with an axe, one or more complete circles through the bark and the liber of the trunk of the tree, and cutting some distance into the blea. Trees rarely survive this operation, especially if it have been performed early in the spring, before the first flow of the sap from the root towards the extre- mities. It is not uncommon, indeed, to observe trees, in foliage, though they have been girdled; but such trees very seldom live more than one year after the operation. It is proper, however, to observe, that differ- ent trees differ very greatly in regard to the duration of their life; after having been wounded, in the manner I have mentioned. In other words, some trees are very readily killed by girdling; whilst others survive this operation for a considerable time. Among the more hardy trees, er those which it is more difficult to kill by girdling, I may mention the Sugar-Maple (Acer saccharinum,, and the Common Sour- Gum (Nyssa integrifolia.) The Pines, in general, are readily destroy- ed; when they have been girdled. During the winter-season, the liber acquires neither firmness nor thickness; because, during this season, the business of vegetation is, in a great degree, suspended. This observation, however, must be under- stood to apply to those climates only which have a severe Avinter. The liber, in some vegetables, is found to be the seat of certain properties, * I know but two North American trees, the shade of which is not injurious to vegetation. These are the Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana,) and the Com- mon-Locust (Robinia Pseud-ccacia.) It is at least certain that the shade of these is much less injurious than that of other trees. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 187 which are not observable in any other part of the vegetable structure. Thus, the aromatic property of the Cinnamon-tree (Laurus Cinnamo- mum,) seems to reside entirely in this portion of the vegetable fabric. In like manner, the colouring principle of many vegetables is entirely, or principally, seated in the liber. This is the case in the Quercus tinc- toria,* and various specimens of Walnut and Hickory (Juglans,) not to mention others. 4. Immediately under the liber, or inner bark, Ave find, in many ve- getables, particularly trees and shrubs, a peculiar substance, to Avhich L.-has given the classical name of Alburnum: the " mollis ac pessima pars ligni," as Pliny calls it. f L. defines it" the intermediate substance of the inner bark and the Avood:" "intermedia substantia libri & ligni. J" The Alburnum, Avhich many English Avriters denominate the Blea, but which is better known in Britain and in the United States by the name of the " Sap," is the more soft and imperfect wood, which is ge- nerally of a whiter colour than the other wood, from which circum- stance it has received its name of alburnum, oralburnus. By reason of its colour and its comparative softness, it has also been denominated the fat of trees, adeps arborum. The French call this part of the sub- stance of the vegetable, Aubier. In general, the sap is most conspi- cuous in those trees which have a very hard wood, such as the Oak and the Elm. It is, however, sufficiently conspicuous in other trees, the Avood of which is more soft, such as the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron,) the Pines (Pinus,) Red-cedar (Juniperus virginiana,) Lime-tree, and others. The sap, in the greater number of trees, is of a whiter colour and of an harder texture than the bark. It is found to contain lympha- tic vessels, cellular matter, proper vessels, and utricles; but these are in general, less perceptible in the sap than in the bark. The sap marks the disappearance of the bark, and the commencement of the newly formed wood. When Ave cut a branch of an old tree, in the season of the running of the sap, we observe the vessels of the blea full of juice, discharging the contents at the cut§ The sap may be distinguished from the wood by attending to the following circumstances. It has le*s density than the Avood, its colour is brighter than that of the wood. It is less abundant in resinous matter, but more abundant in water, than the wood. The organization, however, of these two parts of the vegetable fabric is very similar, though the vessels of the sap are more distinct, and its tracheae less remarkable, than those of the wood.|| Authors differ greatly in opinion concerning the formation of the blea. L. imagined it Avas formed by the bark. But it is certain that the Avhole of the bark does not give birth to the blea, and Duhamel, and * Dier's-Oak: commonly called Black-Oak, and Red-Oak. f Lib. xvi. cap. xxxviii. X Philosophia Botanica, die. § Spnrbier. || Scnnbier. 188 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. other Avriters have proved, that the cortical beds never change into Avood. It is the opinion of Mr. Senebier and some other modern writers, that the blea is the developement of the woody fibres existing in the state of a mucilage, before they are perceptible to us; or, in other words, that it is the developement of a pre-existing part of the vegetable. These fibres, Avhich are supposed to be enclosed in the seed, are chang- ed, by little and little, until they are metamorphosed into blea, and from this changed into wood. 5. The Lignum, or Wood, is defined by L. " the liber, or inner bark of the preceding year, deprived of its juice, hardened, and glued fast together:" " liber praecedentis anni, nunc exsuccus, induratus, agglu- tinatus."* The wood is better defined by Lamarck, that part of the trunk which is perfectly woody, and situated under the liber: it is a compact and firm mass of fibres and vessels produced by the continual pressure of the blea, and constitutes the strength and support of trees. In the annual and biennial vegetables, the substance which answers to the lignum is called, carnea substantia, or the fleshy part. When we make a transverse section of a stem or branch of a tree, we readily distinguish the woody portion. It differs from the cortex and the pith by its colour. It is harder than either of these parts. Its density is much greater. Nor is its organization precisely the same, as we shall presently see. The wood, as well as the bark and the blea, is compos- ed of a number of concentric layers, or beds, which are laid over one another, somewhat in the same manner of the coats of an Onion. These layers differ greatly from one another in regard to thoir hardness, their density and their colour. In different species of vegetables, and even in the same species of different seasons, they are more or less firmly attached to each other. It is also observed, that the layers are of a more lax texture on the south than on other sides of the tree; and that they are often considerably broader on the south than on the north side. The ligneous circles in the trunks of trees are commonly dis- posed in an eccentric manner; that is the centre of the circles is placed at a distance from the centre of the tree. This eccentricity has been ascribed by Mr. Duhamel to the casual insertion of roots, and to the irruption of branches, which determines the sap to move more abundantly on one side of the tree than on another. This, it is highly probable, is sometimes the case. " But (to use the words of the learned Professor Walker) Avhen the centre of these circles stands nearer the north than the south side of the tree, and the circles them- selves on the south side are considerably broader than those on the north, which is usually the case, the eccentricity is to be ascribed to a differ- ent and more general cause. For as there is a more copious flow of the sap on the south than on the north side of trees, OAving to the one being more in the sun, and the other in the shade, this must naturally affect the shape of their trunks; the sap on the south side being more * Philosophia Botanica, die. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 189 plentiful, there the growth of the wood must, of course be more consider- able."* The layers which I have mentioned, are not to be consider- ed as simple or indivisible. On the contrary, when'a^ piece of the wood of an Oak or other tree has been macerated, for some time, in Avater, Ave readily discover by the assistance of glasses, that each layer may be divided into other smaller layers, and these again into still smaller. In many trees, during the season of the ascent of the sap, the various beds are much more distinctly seen than at other times, because they now subsist in a loose and unconnected state. This should teach us the propriety of avoiding the cutting down of timber, when we wish to employ it, for purposes of duration, during the running of the sap.! Originally, the ligneous beds are soft and tender, and acquire their solidity, only in a gradual manner. These beds are disposed in con- centric circles or rings, the exterior ones, or those immediately next to the bark, being of a posterior formation are softer and less coloured than those that are situated nearer to the centre. The principal body of the wood is made up of these interior beds or layers. The outer beds form the alburnum, which has already been noticed, and out of which the woody structure, however hard or firm, is annually formed. It is commonly supposed that one of the principal more conspicuous layers or circles, of wood, is added every year. J There can, indeed, be little doubt, that this is the case; and thus, by an attention to the number of the circles, we are enabled to form a pretty certain judg- ment of the age of the tree. Proceeding upon this ground, trees have been examined, the age of which could not have been less than five hundred years. In a chronological point of view, an attention to the thickness and the number of the ligneous circles of a tree may be ren- dered a matter of much curiosity and importance. In an Oak which L. examined in the island of Eland, in the Baltic-Sea, he was enabled to point out the ligneous circles which had been formed during the several severe wintersof 1578, 1687, and 1709.§ By carefully count- ing the number of circles of some of the trees which were growing upon the extensive earthen fortifications at the confluence of the rivers Ohio and Muskingum, it has been determined, that the age of those ancient works was not less than four hundred years: or, rather, it was * See Experiments on the motion of the sap in trees, By John Walker, D. D. M. D. die. in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Vol. 1. Part ii. pages 12 di 13. f During the period of the ascent of the sap, all the different strata of the vegetable are observed to be more separate than at other times. The epider- mis separates from the bark; the bark from the liber; the liber from the blea; this from the Avood; and the circles of wood, as we have seen, from one another. X Rcichardt (in his Gartenschacz) denies that the ligneous rings ascertain the annual increment of the tree. § These circles were thinner than the others. 190 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ascertained, that at least, four hundred years had elapsed since those works had fallen into ruins. The wood, like the bark, is composed of fibres and of vessels. These form a species of net-work; the meshes of which are filled with parenchymatous matter. These fibres and vessels are not essentially different from those of the bark. Of the vessels of the wood, those which are the most numerous are called lymphatic vessels. Uniting with these, Ave find another system, or set of vessels, which are deno- minated proper vessels (vasa propria.) When we make transverse sections of the Fig tree,' and many other vegetables, we readily ob- serve juices to floAv from these vessels. It is evident, from the dis- charge which takes place, that these vessels are disposed in an annular manner or direction. The proper vessels of the Avood differ from those of the bark in regard to size. In the wood, they are not so large as in the bark. Moreover, the vessels of the wood are disposed in bundles, and form nets placed one over another. The tracheae are thought to be peculiar to the woody structure. It is certain, however, that they exist abundantly in the leaves, in some of the fulcres (such as the sti- pules, bractes, &c.) and in the petals of plants. But in all these it is supposed that they are entirely confined to the ligneous threads or por- tions of wood, which constitute a part of the leaves, fulcres, and petals. Lewenhoek, a long time ago, discovered tracheae in the tender part of those branches which ultimately changes into wood. Duhamel could not discover them in the wood. If it be true, that tracheae do not exist in the bark, we are necessarily led to believe, with Senebier and other writers, that this system of vessels is only to be found in that part of the liber, which is to become wood. Upon the Avhole, it appears that the wood of vegetables is formed by the union of the fibres, the lymphatic vessels, the proper vessels, and the tracheae, together Avith parenchymatous matter. Beside these, there exist in the Avood resinous and other matters; which are more or less abundant in particu- lar vegetables. 'The principal of these matters is a resinous substance, which, in many vegetables, serves to give a degree of compactness to the ligneous structure. 6. The Medulla, or medullary part of the vegetable, next claims our attention. This is well known by the English names of Marrowy or Pith. In French it is called moelle, or moile. It is thus defined by L. "substantia intima vesiculosa; internumve parietem trunci cavi obdu- cens:" That is, "the inner vesicular substance, or that which clothes the inner surface of a hollow trunk." Lamarck defines the pith "a part or an organ essential to the life of the plant, placed in the centre of the woody body; and composed of very loose vessels, and of utri- cles." In the neAv productions of trees, the pith is found to consist of a number of oval, green, and succulent bladders, which are very simi- lar to those of the bark and wood. At the expiration of one or two years, more or less, these bladders become empty, exsiccate, assume a spherical shape, and finally take the consistence and the color of pith, ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 191 which, in the greater number of vegetables, is of a white or cream colour. In some vegetables, however, it is of a yellow or rust-colour. This is the case in the Horse-Chesnut (iEsculus Hippocastanum:) in others again, it is brown, as in Walnut; and in Barberry, it is yellow or inclining to a yellow. It is in the heart as it were of those vegetables which abound in the pith, that this substance is principally found. In these vegetables, it is contained in a kind of tube, Avhich serves to dif- fuse it into the substance of the wood and bark. In general, herbs and. shrubs have a greater proportion of pith than trees. In the Elm, the Oak, the Hazel, the Pear and Apple-trees, hardly any pithy substance is to befoUnd. The quantity of it is inconsiderable in Walnut, Hblly, Ash and Pine. It is entirely wanting in Guaiacum (Guaiacum offici- nale,) Ebony, and in the roots of Tobacco and Thorn-apple. The vege- tables Avhich have the greatest quantity of pith are the Elder; the Haw- thorn, the Fig-tree; the Sumach (Rhus glabrum and R. typhinum,) Catalpa (Bignonia Catalpa,) and Creeper, (Bignonia radicans.) In general, however, the pith bears a kind of proportion to the age of the' vegetable; that Is, it is more abundant in young than in old vegetables, and in the younger than in the older branches of the same vegetable. Though the pith, by reason of its soft and spongy texture, see'ms so well calculated to imbibe fluids of different kinds, yet actual experi- ments have shown, that fluids, Avhich are readily absorbed by the bark and wood, can never be made to enter the pith. This point is unani- mously conceded to by Baisse, Bonnet, Reichel, Walker and other Avriters, who have particularly turned their attention to this subject. Mr. Du Hamel, however, imagines, that the pith is furnished Avith both vaisseauxpropres, or proper vessels, and vaisseaux lymphatiques, lymphatic vessels, or vessels which convey the sap. In the many experiments vA*hich I have made with a view to trace the progress of absorbed fluids in vegetables, I have never yet met with an instance in which I could discover the pith in the least coloured. In making these experiments, I have principally confined myself to a diluted ink, and to the colouring matter of the berries of the Phytolacca, or Poke. By these fluids, particularly the latter, I have seen the channel between the bark and the wood, very distinctly coloured, the whole substance of the Avood itself also colored, and the very edges of the pith. But the pith itself was never coloured. I am far, however, from assert- ing, that the pith is entirely destitute of vessels*. On the contrary I think it more probable, that, like the other parts of the vegetable structure, it is supplied with its peculiar vessels. They may have escaped our observation, as being more minute and delicately formed than the vessels of the other parts. Professor Batsch, of Jena, calls the pith-vessels, vasa medullaria. L. imagined, that the pith draAvs its nourishmemt from the bark. But physiologists are not satisfied with the arguments which the SAveedish naturalist has adduced in favour of this opinion. On the contrary, the experiments of Dr. Walker rather favor the opinion, that the pith is supported by the 192 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. wood, " because during, the whole spring season, the wood was re- plete with sap, while the bark was dry. Besides, when the trunk of a tree, for a certain space, is decorticated quite round, the pith, in the decorticated part lives, and all the parts of the tree above it, so long as the wood continues green, and conveys sap which it will do for years."* Authors differ in opinion concerning the use of the pith. L seems to have supposed, that the principal use of this partis to give birth to the buds:f an opinion, which as we shall afterwards see is countenanced by many facts. Sir John Hill warmly attacked L's. idea of the im- portance of the pith. He asserts, that, in many instances, the pith is by no means, uniformly continued, but divided by partitions, and com- pletely invested with a membrane, to which the English botanists gave the name of the corona, or crown. Whatever merit may be attached to Hill's experiments and observations, it is certain, that many experi- ments most incontestibly prove, that the pith of vegetables is of much .less importance in the economy of the vegetable than L. imagined. We frequently observe trees of different kinds, particularly Willow- trees, the trunks of which are entirely destitute of the pith and even of the Avood, Avhich in fact consist of mere bark, and are, nevertheless, in a living and pretty flourishing state. Nay, we find buds on the sur- face of the bark thus deprived of its pith. Besides, we know well that if a branch of Willow be entirely deprived of its pith, and fixed in the ground, it will live and grow, and throw out new branches. Dr. Walker is of opinion, " that the pith has little or no share in sup- porting the wood; the bark or the general vegetation of the tree, and that its principal use is to aid the formation of the fruit" Many ex- periments render this theory not a little plausible. The buds of vege- tables are pretty constantly found to be connected with and even root- ed in the pith, by means of the diametral insertions, or those ra- diated lines of the wood, which extend from the pith to the bark. Moreover, it is certain, that we seldom observe buds upon a tree, Avithout being able to detect their connection with the pith; and, lastly, buds are almost always most abundant, where the pith is most co- pious. It is the opinion of L. that the preceding parts of the vegetable structure exclusively form some of the individual organs of the fructi- fication, which have,already been described. Thus according to this naturalist, the cortex, or outer bark'forms the calyx; the liber, or inner bark, the petals; the lignum, or wood, the stamens; and the medulla, or pith, the seed. L's. peculiar notions on this subject have been impli- citly received by many naturalists. Nor ought this to excite our wonder, Avhen it is recollected, how greatly particular parts of the idea are supported by facts. We have already seen that Mr. De Jussieu admits the doctrine of the * Experiments, die. pages 38 di 39. ! Philosophia Botanica, p. 37. §. 79. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 193 origin of the calyx from the outer bark, and that of the corolla from the inner bark. Facts which have been mentioned greatly counten- ance the idea of the origin of the germ from the pith. This latter idea has received much additional weight of illustration from a memoir by the late learned Mr. L'Heritier. The theory of L. however, Avith respect to the anatomical structure of the fructification, should not be hastily received. It seems, upon the whole more probable, that seve- ral different parts of the vegetable structure contribute to form the in- dividual organs of the flower and the fruit. Dr. Hedwig has ably controverted the opinion, that the outer bark gives origin to the calyx, and the inner bark to the corolla. Dr. Grew had, a long time before, asserted, that the calyx ("empalement,") "whether of one or more spe- cies," is "compounded of the three general parts, the skin, the cortical and ligneous bodies: as is evident (says this learned naturalist) from the Artichoke, in whicli the continuation of all these parts is clearly discove- rable; the empalers being of that amplitude, as fairly to shew them all ."* SECTION V.—OF THE VESSELS OF PLANTS. Plants, like all other organized bodies, are furnished with a vascu- lar system, or system of vessels. These according to L. are of three kinds: viz. 1. Succiferous or Sap-vessels, which are destined to convey the juices of the plant. 2. Air-vessels (Tracheae,) for receiving and for distributing air. 3. Utricles (utriculi,) or small bladders, con- taining various kinds of secreted fluids. Since the time of L. hoAV- ever, our knowledge of the vessels of vegetables has been considerably enlarged, though it is to be regretted, that the subject is still involved in great darkness. The following are the principal species of vessels which the later vegetable physiologists have attributed to plants. I. Sap- vessels. II. Proper-vessels. III. Air-vessels. IV. Medullary-vessels. V. Absorbent vessels. VI.Excretory vessels: and, VII. Secretory vessels. 1. The Sap-vessels are those vessels by which the sap or common juice {succus communis) is conveyed from the root to most other parts of the plant These vessels are very small, and are supposed by many writers, to be entirely destitute of ramifications. They are disposed in a longitudinal direction, and circularly, or in rings, in the vegetable structure. They are found in different parts of the plant, but particu- larly betAveen the bark and the Avood, and in the wood itself. No ex- periments have hitherto detected them in the pith, though Mr. Du Hamel, as has already been observed, imagined, that they exist in this portion of the vegetable structure. By L. and other writers, these ves- sels have been named vasa succosa. The French call them vaisseaux seveux, ou lymphatique. The sap vessels have been subdivided into arterial (vasa succosa, arleriosa,) and venous (vasa succosa, veno- * The Anatomy of Plants, die. p. 35. 25 194 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. sa.) The former are more exterior, or situated nearer to the exterior coverings of the vegetable; and are also more firm and tenacious in their structure. The latter are more numerous, and tender, and are situated in the cellular texture of the vegetable. The motion of the sap is a phenomenon which has excited much of the attention of phi- losophers, within the last one hundred and fifty years. The subject, however, is still involved in great uncertainty. We knoAV indeed with sufficient certainty, that the sap is conveyed from the root to most other parts of the plant. But it still remains to be discovered, whether the sap again returns to the root, by the same, or by another system of vessels. The sap moves through the bark, the wood, and between the bark and the wood. The last is its favorite channel. II. The proper vessels are larger than the sap-vessels, and are not so numerous. These contain the proper juice, or vegetable blood, which differs very greatly in different plants. Thus, it is lacteous or milky in the spurge (Euphorbia,) and in many of the plants of the natural order Contortae, such as Asclepias, Apocynum, Nerium, &c. It is yellow or orange-coloured, in Celandine (Chelidonium,) in Puccoon (Sanguinaria canadensis,) and many others. It is red in Patience- Dock (Rumex Patientia,) green in the Periwinkle (Vinca,) and in Phallus impudicus. The substance of the proper juice is gummy in the Cherry and Plumb, and peach: it is resinous in the Pine, in the Fir, and many other Coniferous vegetables. The proper juice differs very essentially from the common juice. It is commonly endued with a powerful smell or taste, and exerts decided effects upon the animal system. The sap or lymph, on the contrary, is destitute of smell and taste, and is nearly inert with respect to the body. Owing to the great variety of this juice in regard to colour and substance, it is deno- minated the proper juice (succus proprius,) because each species of plant has been supposed to contain a fluid, which is peculiar or proper to it. This, however, is not strictly the case. On the contrary the proper juiees of different species of plants (and in some instances, of the species of distinct genera) are so similar, that they cannot be dis- tinguished from each other. III. The Air-vessels, or Tracheae, as they are more frequently call- ed, are of a larger diameter than either of the preceding systems of vessels. These vessels are formed of thin and narroAV plates, and are twisted in a spiral manner.* They are found in the wood, in the blea, and in the leaves. In these latter organs, and in the stems of many plants, such as those of the Nymphaea Nelumbo of L. they may be easily seen by breaking the parts, and gently pulling those parts asun- der. The tracheae were formerly supposed to contain air only, and hence they received their name which, in the bodies of animals, is ap- * Mr. Duhamel justly observes, that one may form a pretty correct idea of the tracheae, by viewing a ribband rolled round a little cylinder. For a figure of these vessels, see Darwin's Phytologia, Plate ii. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 195 plied exclusively to those vessels which convey air. It has, however, been satisfactorily demonstrated by the more correct observations of Reichel, Hedwig, and other Avriters, that the tracheae carry certain juices, as well as air. And hence, they have been denominated Pneu- mato-chymiferous vessels (vasa Pneumato-chymifera.) By the French they are called vasseaux aerophores, ou trachees. Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that they " constitute the absorbent vessels of the adult vegetable, and the umbilical ones of the embryon bud." He remarks, that " they have been erroneously believed to be air vessels," which (he thinks) they cannot be, because " they exist equally in the roots of plants, as in their barks, and have no communication with the horizon- tal perforations of the cuticle of the bark." This ingenious Avriter also observes, that the tracheae "of the trunks of trees or herbaceous plants may be thought to resemble the receptaculum chyli of animal bodies."* In the preceding pages, I have had frequent occasion to make mention of the tracheae. It was observed that " they are thought to be peculiar to the woody structure." We have seen, hoAvevcr, that they abound in the leaves; in the petiole, in the peduncle, in the petals, and in other parts. But it has been conjectured, that they reside exclusively in the ligneous threads, which enter into the structure of these parts. This is a point which is not yet satisfactorily determined. I am inclined to think, that the tracheae do exist in the bark, though their existence has not yet been decidedly demonstrated by any writer. If, as Darwin conjectures, they be the real absorbents, it would seem that they pervade almost every part of the vegetable structure. IV. The medullary vessels (Vasa medullaria) are the cells Avhich constitute the medulla, or pith, of which I have already treated. They do not appear to be very properly named vessels. They are less numerous than the preceding system of vessels. They are never ob- served to be collected together in bundles. In the Elder and other plants, they are found to pass off horizontally from the centre to the cirumference of the plant, like diverging rays. But the ingenious Mr. Defontaines has shown that in the monocotyledonous plants, such as the Rushes, Asparagus, and others, the medullary vessels do not form diverging rays. In these plants, the medullary matter is much more abundant, and completely envelopes the ligneous fibres, which are not formed in concentric layers, but are distributed without order, and are more distant from each other nearer to the centre of the plant than towards the circumference. V. The absorbent vessels are very numerous in the radicles of plants, and on the surface of their leaves. It is highly probable, that every part of the plant, both external and internal, is supplied Avith them. Their office seems to be to absorb or take up Avater, gases of different kinds, earth, carbone, and Avhatever else constitutes the food of plants. They also absorb various kinds of colouring matters, and * Phytologia, &c. Sect. II. 196 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. even metallic salts. Dr. Darwin, as we have already seen, is of opinion that the tracheae, or spiral vessels, are absorbents. This idea, which many facts contribute to render plausible, deserves a more careful in- vestigation. VI. Excretory vessels. The learned Dr. Hales has very satisfacto- rily demonstrated the existence of this system of vessels upon the sur- face of the trunk, branches, leaves and flowers of vegetables. This celebrated naturalist found, that a very considerable part of the mois- ture which has been absorbed by the roots of vegetables, passes off by perspiration. The more recent experiments of Priestley, Ingen- housz, Senebier, and other able experimenters, have been, by many writers, thought to show, that oxygenous gas or vital air, is excreted from the leaves of plants. This doctrine, however, has, of late, been ingeniously controverted by Professor Woodhouse,* Mr. Ellis, and other chemists and botanists. It has also been said that excretions/of different kinds, take place, during the night, from the roots of plants. It is, indeed, highly probable, from Avhat has already been said, that some of the radicles, as they are generally denominated, of the bulbous and other roots, are exhaling rather than absorbing vessels. The ob- servations of Professor Brugmans, of Leyden, render it probable, that the liquids which are exhaled from the roots of some plants are very injurious to other plants, which grow near to them. In this way, the Wheat is thought to be injured by the Blue Erigeron, or Fleabane (Erigeron acre;) Oats by the Corn-Saw-Avon, or Way-thistle (Serratu- la arvensis,) and the Carrot (Daucus Carota) by the Elecampane (Inula Helenium.) Mr. Brugmans carefully examined the roots of some plants, which had been injured by Darnel. These roots assumed the ap- pearance of having been preyed upon by an insect. With the view to determine, whether the appearance in question was owing to the Darnel, the Professor placed this plant and another in a glass vessel. Upon examining the plant, he found its roots affected, as in the former instance. He, therefore, thought himself authorized to infer, that the injury had been occasioned by the influence of some active fluid, excreted, or emitted, from the radicles of the Darnel. It is much to be wished, that a subject so curious and important as this Avere pursued, in a train of carefully conducted experiments. The results could not but prove highly interesting in an agricultural point of view. VII. Secretory vessels. The existence of secretory vessels in plants cannot be doubted, although our knowledge of this system is far from being complete. The office of these vessels is to secrete fluids of dif- ferent kinds, which are useful in the economy of the vegetable. They are generally supposed to be accompanied by a glandular apparatus. In the vegetable, however, as well as in the animal, Ave often find * See Mr. Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts. Vol. ii. For July, 1802. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 197 peculiar (and probably secreted) fluids, although the existence of the glandular structure has not been detected. The honied fluid which is found in the true nectaries, as in those of the beautiful Cana- dian Columbine (Aquilegia canadensis,*) and many other plants, and also in the tubes of many monopetalous corollas, such as that of James- town-Aveed (Datura Stramonium,) is, in all probability, secreted by a peculiar action of the vessels of the parts. This action whatever may be its precise nature, is evidently and greatly influenced in the plant, as well as in the animal, by theincitant power of various agents,such as camphor, nitre, &c.—The anthers have been considered as glands, destined to secrete the pollen, or fecundating powder. But these are points still involved in great uncertainty. Much, indeed, remains to be clone before the structure, and offices of the various systems of ves- sels in plants can be completed. A rich and ample field is opened for the labours of some future, happy experimenter. SECTION VI.—OF THE GENERATION OF PLANTS. In the first part of this work, I have given a description sufficiently minute, of the organs denominated by L. and his followers, the Sta- mens and Pistils. I have also hinted at the functions of these organs: but the subject is noAv tb claim a larger share of my attention. Ac- cording to L. the stamens and pistils are the male and female organs of generation: those parts, in other words, which this naturalist deems necessary, so far as sexual intercourse is concerned, in perpetuating the species of plants. I say this naturalist, without meaning to insi- nuate, that the doctrine of the sexes of plants, as depending upon the stamens and the pistils, originated with L. for this is what no one now asserts; and although it might be shown, that Ave even OAve much less to the Swedish naturalist, as an investigator of the beautiful truths of the doctrine, than many naturalists seem to imagine.")" * See the Plate. X " The real use of the Stamens of Plants, says Dr. Smith, was long a sub- ject of dispute among philosophers, till L. according to the general opinion at present, explained it beyond a possibility of doubt." Again, " L. towards the year 1732, reviewed all that had been done before him, and clearly established the fact so long in dispute, in his Fundamenta and Philo- sophia Botanica. He determined the functions of the Stamens and Pistils, proved those organs to be essential to every plant, and thence conceived the happy idea of using them for the purpose of systematical arrangement. In the latter point (adds Dr. Smith) his merit Avas altogether original; in the former, he made use of the discoveries and remarks of others, but set them in so neAv and clear a light as in a manner to render them his own." An Intro- duction, dzc. p. 312, 315. 198 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. But my object, at present is to discuss the outlines of the sexual doctrine, without particularly inquiring into its antiquity, and without endeavoring to assign to each of the many writers who have written more or less extensively upon this interesting subject, the actual share of merit which belongs to each, as discoverers or elucidators of facts. In an history of the sexual doctrine, during the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries, the most illustrious names are those of Grew, Came- rarius, Geoflroy, Bradley, Burckhardt, Moreland, Vaillant, L. Logan, and Spallanzani. In times anterior to this period, great, in all proba- bility, were the merits of Caesalpinus, and perhaps of Zaluzianski, the Pole. Future inquiries will, I think, show us, that the Arabian philo- sophers were all acquainted with the fact of the necessity of a sexual intercourse in the Date, and other vegetables: and every student of vegetable physiology knows, that Dioscorides, Pliny, Theophrastus, Aristotle, and even Herodotus, have spoken of the mode of fecunda- ting the Palm, which we have just called the Date. One, indeed is irresistably led to believe, that the doctrine of the sexes of plants is one of the most ancient facts relative to vegetable physiology, of which any memorials are preserved. But it is not my object, in this work, to detail the progress of the steps by which mankind have arrived at the precise knowledge, which they now possess, concerning the Sexes of vegetables. This is an investigation the discussion of which I re- serve for another work. In the meanwhile, I shall merely observe, that I have not yet met with any thing like a full, candid, and satisfac- tory view of the subject. Dead to the public eye, as it were, are the merits of many eminent writers, who preceded L. in the beautiful in- quiry concerning the sexes and sponsalia of vegetables. How little has yet been said concerning the learned friend of Leibnitz, who as early as the year 1702, (a few years before the birth of L.) was not only well acquainted with the existence of sexes, and of sexual inter- course, in plants, but even suggested the outlines of that arrangement of plants, which is now denominated the Systema Sexuale. The argu- ments or proofs, in support of the doctrine of the sexes of plants, and of the necessity of an intercourse between them, in order to produce a fertile offspring, are many: and the principal of them have been noticed by L. or by his pupil Wahlbom, in the valuable paper entitled Sponsa- lia Plantarum. It is not necessary, in the very brief view of the subject which I am exhibiting, that I should follow the precise arrange- ment of the paper which I have mentioned: an arrangement, it must be confessed rather scholastic than neat or perspicuous. 1.1 shall open this part of my subject by noticing the argument which L. calls Palmicolse or the culture and fecundation of the Palm-tree. Some of the very earliest observations of mankind concerning the existence of sexes in vegetables, or at least of the necessity of something like an intercourse between the different individuals of the same species of vegetables, in order that fertile fruit might be produced, are those which respect the ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 199 Date, or Phoenix dactylifera, and other Palms.* From the time of Herodotus,! who has left four or five curious lines upon this subject, down to our own age, many authors have informed us,—and the fact seems to be completely verified,—that the female Date will not bear abundant, well flavored, and fertile fruit, unless the male plant be placed near to her: and even in many instances, unless the female or fruit-bearing Palm be artificially impregnated by the male flowers. The observations which the immortal Tournefort has communicated to us on this subject are all important; and the more so, as this celebrated man never yielded to the belief, that the stamens and the pistils are the sexual parts of plants, and even treated the doctrine of the sexes of vege- tables with a species of contempt, unworthy of his caution and science.*): Hoav unlike his pupil Vaillant! who, but a few years after the death of Tournefort, and while L. was yet a boy, completely established the great and fundamental facts Avhich support the doctrine which we are considering. See what has been said by Hasselquist, by the elder Michaux, by the estimable Desfontaines (Flora Atlantica,) and other botanists and observers. The reader will find a good view of the argument Palmicolae in Mr. Milne's Botanical Dictionary, article sexus: and he should peruse, with attention, the late Dr. Rotheram's answer to Mr. Smellie's objections against the doctrine of vegetable sexes in general, and especially the plausible arguments of Smellie to weaken the force of the famous Berlin experiment, made by impregnating a female Palm (Rhapis flabelliformis?) with pollen brought from Leip. sic. The argument Palmicolae may, with some propriety, be consi- dered as the corner-stone of the doctrine of vegetable sexus. 2. The argument Caprificatio, or Caprification, by which we mean the very singular husbandry or management of the Caprificus, or Wild- Fig, is extremely curious; and if all the assertions which have been made in regard to this species of husbandry, might be depended upon, they would of themselves go very far to establish the truth of the doctrine of vegetable sexes, as well as the necessity of insects in the busi- ness of fecundation. See what has been written upon this subject^by Tournefort, Pontedera, Mr. dela Hire, Desfontaines, and others. See also, the article Caprificatio in Milne's Dictionary. I will only further observe, that the subject deserves a more critical, and even a more skeptical attention, than it has yet received at the hands of any philosophic botanist. The inquiry might be pursued with great advan- tage in the Southern parts of the United States, where the Fig, though not idigenous, attains to great perfection. * Dr. J. R. Forster assures us, that the people of Otaheite, when first visit- ed by the English, were acquainted with the sexes in the Coco-Palm, and in other vegetables. Observations, <$fc. p. 498, die. ! Herodotus, in Clio. X Tournefort considered the pollen as a mere excrementitious matter of the flower. 200 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 3. The argument Praecidentia deserves attention: and this, indeed, holds a primary place in the Linnaean view of the subject The vege- table fruit is not formed, until the flower has made its appearance. " These two parts it has already been observed are connected in the same manner as generation and birth are connected together in ani- mals." This well-established fact sufficiently proclaims the vast im- portance of the floAver, or at least some of the parts and organs of the flower, in the business of generation. Some facts, indeed, seem at first sight to oppose the general position which has been laid down. Thus, the fruit and the leaves of the Colchicum autumnale, or Meadow Saffron, make their appearance and are brought to perfection in the early spring, although the blossoms do not show themselves until the autumn. But on a closer examination, we find, that the pollen of this plant is shed in the autumn; at which time the germen, or seed bud, begins to be enlarg- ed; but as this important organ is not completely gravid, until the fol- lowing spring, superficial inquirers have imagined, that tbe Colchicum opposes an objection to the rule of praecidentia. In Franklinia, also, the beautiful floAvers which yield to none in fragrancy, seem to be pre- ceded by ripe fruit. " A Pine-apple (says Dr. Smith) was once very unexpectedly cited to me, as an instance of fruit being formed before the flower, because the green fruit in that instance, as in many others, is almost fully grown before the flowers expand. The seeds, however, the essence of the fruit, are only in embryo at this period, just as in the germen of an Apple-blossom. 4. The very general, and indeed almost universal, existence of the stamens and pistils in plants, either in the same calyx or corolla, or in the floAvers of different individuals of the same species, is now on all hands acknowledged: and cannot but be considered as a main argu- ment in support of the doctrine of the sponsalia of flowers. It is true, however, that these organs have not been detected in all plants: nor is there, I think, reason to suppose, that they do actually exist in all plants. But, doubtless, they will be discovered in many in which they have not hitherto been observed. In different species of Lemna, already mentioned, both the stamens and pistils have been recently fully investigated: and these plants have very frequently united flowers. About the mosses, we are no longer in doubt. It is not necessary to suppose, that the stamens and pistils exist in every plant It would be •almost ridiculous to suppose, that this Avere the case. It is sufficient for our purpose, that these organs have already been discovered in the greater number of vegetables that are known to us: and wherever we have detected them, they appear to be, indisputably, the true organs of sexual reproduction. 5. The arguments of Situs and Proportio, or the situation and pro- portion of the stamens and pistils, are next to be noticed, a. In the greater number of flowers, these organs are situated in the same calyx, or corolla, as in all the truly androgynous plants, such as the Lily, the Tulip, the Rose, the Apple, and ten thousand others. In these plants, ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 201 with comparatively a few exceptions, the pollen, even without calling into view the aid of insects, or the spontaneous or elastic movements of the supposed sexual organs, is almost unavoidably thrown upon, or applied to, the pistil. The germen, of course, is readily fecundated, if the pollen be, indeed, as the Linnaean School suppose it is, the true genitura* or fecundating material, of plants. It is a scandalous as- sertion of the ingenious William Smellie, that no one sees the pollen upon the stigma! b. In the flores nutantes, or drooping floAvers, the stamens are, for the most part, shorter than the pistils: Avhile in the erect flowers, they are commonly longer. Owing to this proportion between the two sexes, it is easy to perceive that the pollen more readily reaches the stigma. If, in these drooping flowers, such as Snow-Drop, Campanula, and Fritillaria, the stamens Avere longer than the pistils, impregnation could not, without insectile or other aid, be effected: the pollen would fall from, instead of upon, the stigma, c. In the compound flowers of the vast class of Syngenesia, there are but few examples of plants which do not ripen their seed. L. very naturally supposes, that the fertility of these plants is owing to the peculiar structure, or rather disposition of the anthers, which form a ring, that is, in a manner, perforated by the female organ.! See our Plate XXXV. Fig. 5. d. In the plants of the class Monoecia, where the stamens and pistils are situated upon different parts of the same in- dividual plant, the disposition of the blossoms is, in general, such as to favour the ready application of the pollen to the styles. Thus, in the Zea, or Indian-Corn, in the Coix, or Job's-tears, in Carex, and many others, the male flowers are placed above the females, and the falling pollen unavoidably passes to the styles, e. In other monoecious plants, it is true, that the disposition of the male and female flow- ers is reversed. Thus, not to mention others, in the Zizania, call- ed about Philadelphia, Reed, and well known to every sportsman, as the favourite resort of the delicious Rice, or Reed-bird (Emberiza Oryzivora,) the male flowers are placed below the female. But in this plant, and in others with similarly disposed organs, impregnation is not prevented. And it is a fact, that many of those monoecious plants, Avhich have the male organs thus (to appearance) less advantageously situated, secrete a prodigious quantity of pollen. I have seen many bushels of the pollen of different species of Pine carried by high Avinds, from the distance of several miles, and in the course of a few hours, into the streets of Philadelphia. An appearance like this has often * I employ the terms genitura and pollen, Avhen speaking of vegetables, as perfectly synonymous. ! L. refers the argument derived from the Syngenesious plants to his article Oculus. "Syngenesiae stigmata per cylindrum antherarum surgunt; quum itaque emergit stigma semper genituram fecundantem^ secum fert, unde fecun- datio hie raro fallit." Wahlbom, in Sponsalia Plantarum, in Amcenitates Academiccp, vol. i. p. 90. Lugduni Batavorum, 1749. 26 202 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. alarmed the vulgar and the superstitious, in the countries of the old world. And a portion of mankind is not yet so enlightened, as not to tremble,—as at the coming of the last day,—Avhen the winds shall scatter over the fields and the gardens, the cities and the towns, that very matter, which nature has provided for the perpetuation of her vast and beauteous world of vegetables. 6. In the greater number of plants, the pollen and the stigma are observed to be in perfection at the very same time: and this not only in the plants whose flowers are an- drogynous, but in the great families of the classes Monoecia and Dioecia. See something further on this subject, which constitutes the argument Tempus of Linnaeus, in another part. 7. In not a few plants, the stigma and the style appear to be imperforate, or solid, at all times ex- cept when the pollen is about to be discharged. Then the stigma gapes to receive the genitura; after which it closes, and perhaps opens no more. See Avhat has already been said on this subject in regard to the Gratiola, in the former pages. The same, phenomenon is observable in the Viola tricolor, in the American Martynia, and in other plants. L's. pretty story about the Amaryllis formosissima, or Jacobean Lily, which is repeated by Dr. Smith, requires, in my opinion, to be more carefully looked into. It is certain, however, that the stigma in many plants, is endowed with an irritable power, which is chiefly observable at the time the pollen is to exert its influence. Many curious facts might be mentioned here concerning the opening and closing of the stigma in different species of Lobelia, but especially in the superb Lobelia Cardinalis, or Cardinal flower, and. in the Lobelia siphi- litica, praised for its supposed power of curing the disorder from which it receives its trivial name. I have distinctly observed the same phenomenon in Mimulus aurantiacus. Between these phenomena and the changes which take place in the oviducts of certain reptilia, or amphibious animals, we have a beautiful instance of analogy, unknown to L., but which gives much strength to his system of vegetable spon- salia. The illustrious Spallanzani, who, Avithout wishing to do it, has often beautifully supported the doctrine of vegetable sexes, has inform- ed us, that in the frog, he found the oviducts imperforate, except at the season of their amours.—I have learned, by the application of artificial and undue stimuli, to render the opening and closing of" the stigmas and styles of certain plants peculiarly obvious. 8. Something is said in the latter part of this Avork, concerning the late appearance of the leaves of those trees and shrubs whose stamens and pistils are not situated Avithin the same individual flowers. "Nature has wisely ordered it, that in these particular plants, the sexual organs shall, in general, make their appearance before the full evolution of the leaves, so that the fecundation is not hindered by the intervention of the leaves." The value of this argument, however, is much diminish- ed by our observing the same phenomenon in many vegetables, whose flowers are androgynous. Thus, not to mention other examples, the Peach displays its lovely blossoms in perfection, and in great profusion, ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 203 before the leaves are evolved. And the American Cercis, which so eminently enlivens the opening spring of the United States, and adds, in particular, a glowing charm to the borders of our rivers, exhibits hardly the vestige of a green leaf, until the rites of marriage have been performed. Yet the Cercis, like the Peach, has androgynous flowers. If I understand Dr. Smith, he nieans to tell us, that the trees of hot countries, " whose leaves being always present, might impede the passage of the pollen," are more frequently furnished with androgynous flowers, than the deciduous trees of colder climes. But how does this observation accord with that of Dr. Foster, Avhich I have quoted in a part of these Elements?—Our knoAvledge of final causes is but too limited. 9. Under the argument Pluviae, or Rains, we meet with some very curious facts, which can hardly fail to be considered as proofs of the doctrine which Ave are considering. Many flowers are observed to fold together their petals, or to droop their heads, during the night- time, or during the continuance of rains or heavy dews. By this delicate connivance, as it has been called, the stamens are protected, and consequently the pollen is preserved from injury. Many flowers, and among others the following, Convolvulus arvensis, Anagallis arvensis, and Calendula pluvialis, regularly close their flowers on the approach of rain. Hence, one of these plants, the pretty Anagallis, or Red Pimpernel, has in England, received the name of the " Poor-map's weather-glass."* L. asserts, that flowers lose this peculiar irritability, or contractility after the stigma has been fertilized: a fact, which, if completely es- tablished, would go far to prove, that we are thoroughly acquainted with the final intentions of these movements of the petals of plants. But I could urge,—and may elsewhere offer,—objections against the perfection of our knowledge on this item of the physiology of vegetables. "At stigmate (these are the words of L., or of Wahlbom,) mirum sane! semel fecundato, nee vespere nee pluviaingruente,sese contrahunt flores." " I have had reason to think (says Dr. Smith) that, during a long continuance of Avet, the sensibility of the Anagallis is sometimes exhausted; and it is evident, that very sudden thunder storms take such floAvers by surprise, the previous state of the atmosphere not having been such as to give them due warning."! L. asserts, that plants of the tAvo classes Didynamia and Diadelphia, whose anthers are covered, do not close at night-time. But this ob- servation is by no means correct. The class of Diadelphia, in particu- lar, supplies us with many exceptions to the Linnaean rule: and so does the class of Decandaria, so far as its papilionaceous-like flowers are concerned. * Dr. Smith, die. f The Tulips closed their petals during the deliquium, or Solar eclipse of 1706. 204 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. As moisture causes the vegetable pollen to explode, or renders it clotted, it is easy to conceive, that rains, or heavy dews, must, from the peculiar organization of many plants, interfere Avith the free and regular functions of the anthers. We seem to have an illustration of this observation in the great family of the Cerealia. In the Rye, the anthers being protruded considerably beyond the glume, are apt to be much injured, and a sparing crop to be the consequence, if heavy rains, or long continued wet weather, occur during the flowering of this plant. During a similar condition of the atmosphere, the Barley suf- fers much less, as its anthers are more protected within the glume. We owe these observations to L. and I believe that the truth of them has been confirmed by the experience of the husbandmen of the United States, as well as of Sweden, and other European countries. L. also informs us, that rains do not so essentially interfere with the production of a crop of Cherries, as with a crop of Pears, " because in the former the opening of the anthers is, in each blossom much more progressive, so that a longer period elapses for the accomplishment of the fertilization of the germen, and there is consequently less chance of its being hindered by a few showers." Upon the whole, though the argument derived from rain, is extremely curious, I do not deem it so conclusive as did L. and as do many of his scholars and admirers. The native vegetables of the hottest countries are so far from being deficient in the production of various species of grains and fruits, that they are among the most fer- tile with Avhich we are acquainted. No one has yet shown us, that the constant and violent rains of Abyssinia, against Avhich nature is said to have furnished the trees of that country Avith varnished leaves, pre- vent the production of very abundant crops of grains and fruits. 10. Under the L. head of Submersi, some very interesting facts occur. Not a few plants pass the greater part of their life under the water: but when the season of generation arrives, they rise near the surface, that the impregnation may take place without injury from the water. When this important act has passed, these plants again retire under the water, where the germs enlarge, and the seed are sown. Ruppia, maritima, or Sea Tassel-grass, which grows in America as well as in Europe.—The economy of Valisneria has been noticed by the learned Italian, Micheli, and since his time by many other bota- nists. But some circumstances in the history of this plant have not, I think, been altogether accurately stated. The barren or male blos- soms which grow on short foot-stems; do not fall off, and swim about to meet the female flowers in the same vicinity. The supposed de- tached male floAvers are nothing more than the pollen of the plant, (or perhaps the anthers) detached from the male flowers, which continue attached to their short parent scape. See the imperfectly detailed history of this plant in the Genera Plantarum of Micheli; in Wahl- bom's paper, Sponsalia Plantarum, p. 76. in Willdenow's Princi- ples of Botany, page 320; in Dr. Smith's Introduction, &c. &c. Will- denow expressly says, that the male flowers drop off: and in this, he ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 205 has followed L. In whatever light, however, we vieAV the economy of Valisneria, which is a common plant in many of the rivers, and other waters of America, the history of this plant becomes highly in- teresting to the physiological botanist. But we still desiderate some facts in regard to the history: and I cannot help smiling, when an eminent botanist tells us, that the plant is " well figured," by Micheli. It is not pretended, that there are no aquatic vegetables which blossom and impregnate under water. If I do not mistake, there is a great number of such. Chara, remarkable for the quantity of lime which it yields is one of them. In this plant, and in others which blossom and perform the rites of sponsalia under water, the pollen is ob- served to be peculiarly glutinous. But many plants which blossom in the dry air, have also pollen nearly of a similar quality. 11. I cannot attach any great value, in this inquiry, to the L. argu- ment of Fumus. I know, that many vegetables produce more ample crops of fruit Avithin the walls, or bounds, of large toAvns, than in adja- cent country situations. I now proceed to mention some arguments and facts, which 1 cannot but deem of higher value than the greater number of those which have already been mentioned. Some of these facts, indeed, as completely establish the doctrine of the sexes of plants, as do any facts with respect to animals, prove the doctrine of the sexes of this still greater family of organized bodies. I will go farther, and assert, that afeAv of our known facts, belonging to some of the different heads which I am to mention, most loudly proclaim a truth, which some late Philosophers* have begun to doubt, that plants are not only organized but irritable beings. I am compelled to advance still further in my view and apprehension of these facts. I am persuaded, that plants have something like an instinctive perception: and it even seems probable that nature has not Avholly denied to vegetables at a particular season of their life, a portion of that gaudium, or voluptas, which all legitimate naturalists have allowed to animals, of whatever classes or families, during the seasons of their love and amours.—'I have great satisfaction in believing, that these opinions, even if they be wholly un- founded, do not, in the smallest degree interfere with the be«t views and interests of religion and morals. 12. To facilitate the impregnation of the stigma, nature has, in very many plants, established an economy, which renders the great business of Avhich we are speaking, inevitable. Both the stamens and the pistils are endoAved with an irritable power: and in many plants Avith an elastic power. When the pollen is ripe, and fitted to perform the important offices forAvhich it is destined; or, as Ave may express ourselves, under the influence of the stimulus of the pollen, the sta- mens, in many plants, approach the style, and apply the pollen to the stigma. These movements of the stamens, in many plants, appear to be truly spontaneous, or to depend upon an extremely light * Sir Humphry Davy, die. 206 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. external irritating cause. We have beautiful illustrations of these movements of the stamens in the common Barberry, (Berberis vul- garis,) in different species of Cactus, or Indian Fig, and in many other plants. In Ralmia latifolia, and other species of this noble American genus, the movements of the stamens, by which the pollen is very readily applied to the stigma, are more evidently of an elastic nature. Celosia, or Cock's-comb, has five stamens, the filaments of Avhich, at their lower part, are connected together by means of a membranous web (membranaplicata.*) This structure like many other parts of the structure of vegetables, is very sensible to the changes of the atmos- phere. During moist weather, the membrane becomes relaxed, in consequence of which the stamens change their position, and shelter themselves beneath the concave lobes of the corolla. In dry weather, on the other hand, the membrane becoming contracted, the stamens connive, or are brought together, and thus the pollen is readily spent upon the divided summits of the style, f In the Saxifrages, of which the United^States furnish us with several species, J in which the phe- nomenon which I am to mention, is readily observed, the stamens, one or two at a time, lean over the stigma, and having shed their pollen re- tire and their place is supplied by others of the stamens.§ Yet al- though all of the ten stamens have a share in the business of fecunda- tion, experiments show us that the pollen of any one of them is suffi- cient for the purpose. Nearly the same phenomenon is observable in the beautiful genus Parnassia, or Grass of Parnassus, of which we have noAv discovered in the United States, at least three distinct species. It is pleasing to notice this phenomenon in Parnassia asarifolia. It seems altogether unnecessary, in this place, to pursue this inquiry, by individual examples, any further. The curious student of botany will find many other examples, nearly similar to those which I have mentioned, of the movements of the vegetable genitalia, in the writings of botanists: and especially in the memoir of Mr. Desfontaines, and in the neglected inaugural essay, De Plantarum Motibus et Vita, of the present Professor Hope, of Edinburgh. I hope, at some future period, to publish the results of my own numerous experiments and observations, relative to the same highly interesting subject. It has been observed, and I believe the observation is generally correct, that we have more instances of the movements of the stamens, to- words the pistils, than of the pistils towards the stamens, at the period of the fecundation of plants. In this respect a fanciful analogy *This membrane is considered by some botanists, as a true nectarium nectarium plicatum. ! Sponsalia Plantarum, p. 97. X Especially Saxifragra Pennsylvania, called chocolate-root; and Saxifraga Virginiensis. These are both early flowering plants, delighting in very or**' site soils and situations. § Sponsalia Plantarum, p. 97. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY- 207 between plants and animals has been imagined. In not a few plants, however, the pistil is the moving organ, taking the pollen from the anthers, which remain immovable. Not to mention many other plants, we have a beautiful illustration of this phenomenon in the American Collinsonia Canadensis, and in other species of the genus. See Plate IX; and the explanation of'this plate. I am now to pay some attention to two of the most important of all the Linnaean argu- ments in support of the doctrine of vegetable sexes: the arguments which the Swede has denominated Castratio and Abscissio. 13. Innumerable experiments have now been made; Avhich most satisfactorily prove, that when Ave cut off, or remove, the anthers of a plant, taking care at the same time to prevent the influence of the male genitura of any other plant of the same species, the germ of the plant thus treated will not swell: or if it do, that its seed will never prove efficient. This forms the first of the two arguments which I have just mentioned. Under this head, I shall content myself with mentioning three experiments, one by L. and the others by myself. L. took off the anthers from a flower of the Glaucium corniculatum* or Red Ce- landine, at the same time, taking the precaution of removing all the other blossoms of that day's opening. He repeated the same practice on another morning, " only sprinkling the stigma of that blossom, which he had last deprived of its own stamens, with the pollen from another. The flower first mutilated produced no fruit, but the second afforded very perfect seed." " My design, (says L.) was to prevent any one in future from the believing, that the removal of the anthers from a flower was in itself capable of rendering the germen abortive." I have quoted Dr. Smith's account of this neat and satisfactory experiment, not having the work of L. in which it is related, at hand. I repeated this experiment, nearly in the same way, and I hope with equal pre- cision in two plants closely allied to the Glaucium, and belonging to the same natural order of Papaveraceas, and to the Linnaean class and order of Polyandria Monogynia. I mean the Elegant Blood-Weed (as Hill* calls it,) or Sanguinaria Canadensis; and in the Jeffersonian Bartonis. The result was satisfactory, and convinced me that without the aid of anthers, no ripe seed could be produced in either of these plants. 14. In like manner, if we cut off the stigma of a plant, before it has received the fertilizing influence of the pollen, no ripe seed will be produced from the germen of the injured pistil. The argument Abscis- sio of L. 15. Experiments, if possible, more decisive than these have been made and with the same results. Without mutilating, or essentially * Glaucium phoenicium of Smith, Flora Britannica, torn. ii. n. 2. p. 564. Red Horned Poppy. f Vegetable system, vol. 16. page 31. plate 31. Icon non pessima, " in opere pessimo." 208 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. violating the organs of Avhich lam speaking, they have been prevent- ed from having access to each other. Thus, in the experiments of James Logan* and other botanists, or lovers of the Science, the fasci- cle of anthers, which Ave call the "tassel," immediately upon its making its appearance, was wrapped up in paper, or muslin, before it could shed its influence upon? the silken styles below. The conse- quence has been uniform. No fertile seed have been found in this plant; if sufficient precaution had been, taken to prevent the access of the pollen of any other specimen of the Mays in the immediate neigh- bourhood. 16. The production of Hybridae, or Mule Plants, by the intermix- ture of tAvo plants of the same, or of different genus, supplies us Avith a most important, indeed an invincible, argument in favour of the doc- trine of the sexes and sponsalia of plants. On this subject, the rea- der may consult the paper entitled Plantae Hybridae, in the Amoeni- tales Academicae, <$*c.f But this is not one of the most happy produc- tions of the Linnaean school. I agree with WilldenoAV, that the author of this paper " has given nothing but hypothesis, his observations not according with experience." It is to the ingenious and patient Koel- reuter that we are indebted for our most important information, the re- sult of actual experiments, on this subject. I shall principally confine myself to the relation of his experiments, which is indeed, the most important of which the beautiful science of vegetable physiology can boast. He fixed upon the Nicotiana religiosa (as I call it, J) or Onon- dago-Tobacco, and deprived it of all its five stamens. He then ap- plied to its pistil, or stigma, pollen of another American Tobacco, the Nicotiana paniculata. The germ of the N. religiosa swelled, and in due time produced good seed, which vegetated, and exhibited a new species of Tobacco. It was neither N. religiosa nor N. paniculata, but " kept in all its parts the middle between the two species." This sim- ple experiment, while it sufficiently establishes the fact, that the sta- mens are the male, and the pistils the female, organs of plants, is also worth Avhole volumes of speculations in our view of the two doctrines, —espoused, it must be confessed, by men of nearly equal talents and learning,—called Epigenesis and Palengenesis. It is certain, that both the niale and the female plant contributed, and nearly equally, to the formation of the Nicotiana hybrida. And the same seems to be the case in the production of other mule plants. Thus, although the vegetable, * Founder of the excellent Loganian Library, in Philadelphia. Among the number of valuable and very rare books Avhich this library contains, the curious botanist will not be displeased to learn, that there is a copy of the celebrated and rare Epistola of Burckhard to which I have alluded in a former part of this section. f Vol. iii. X Nicotiana rustica, Linn—Bulliard, t. 289. Icon bona, non optima. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 209 as well as the animal, genitura contains animalcula, it must be admit- ted, that these animalcules are not the pre-existent plants, Avhich only require for their evolution, the stimulus of the pollen.* In general, hybrid plants are not fertile; in this respect, following the laAv Avhich governs hybrid animals. But instances of fertile mule plants are known to us: and it is probable that there are many others, not suspected by us. Sorbus hybrida, Pyrus hybrida, Rhamnus hybridus. 17. The odour of the male genitura of animals is well known to be very peculiar. It has been denominated a specific odour. Nearly the same odour is observable in the anthers, or pollen, of many plants. This has already been remarked in regard to the Veratrum luteum.! It is still more perceptible in the flowers of the Chesnut and Chinque- pin, in the spadix of Orontium aquaticum, and in the flowers of the Arabian Lawsonia, Magnolia tripetala. 18. The doctrine of the generation of vegetables derives additional and great support, from the chemical analysis of the pollen, a subject to which L. paid no attention, and which, indeed seems not to have engaged the notice of any of the many philosophers who were contem- porary with him, and whose inquiries were directed to the most inter- esting subjects of the functions of the stamens and the pistils. The late inquiries of Fourcroy and Vauquelin have shown us, that the pollen of the Date, the Pine, and other vegetables, yields by analysis very nearly the same products as does the human genitura. The most interesting of these products is the phosphate of lime. 19. The flowers of Plants, and especially the stamens and pistils, are much altered in their appearance, after the act of fecundation has been accomplished. In relation to this point, Ave have a beautiful fact mentioned by L. The female organs of the Hemp, which had re- ceiA'ed the influence of the pollen, faded and withered soon after: Avhile in those individuals which were separated from the males, the stigmas continued green and vigorous for a considerable time. Of the Ameri- can Comptonia I have observed, that the female flowers, Avhich appear a good while before the males, continue in beautiful vigor for a long time: but no sooner does the pollen reach them, than their whole aspect is changed. Many similar facts might be mentioned. In the Hippocastanum of Pindus, the bush of the petals is changed to a greenish hue, immediately after impregnation: and it is not diffi- cult to determine, merely by an attention to this change of hue, Avhether the stigma has been impregnated or not. It is probable, that the well- defined painted maculae, or spots, which we find upon the petals of many other blossoms, as those of Pontederia cordata, undergo a similar change in consequence of impregnation. 20. That various species of insects, particularly, perhaps,, bees, tri- pulae, 4*c. by conveying the pollen of many plants to the stigma, ren- * Helonias lutea,—Gawler in Curt. Bot. Mag. n. 1Q62. ! Spallanzani, Bonnet, Haller, die. 27 ' * 210 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. der the impregnation of the latter more certain, and especially in the monoecious and dioecious plants, I have already admitted to be a fact But I must confess, that hitherto I have not met with any facts which lead me to believe, that in any plant, the great business of impregna- tion is necessarily dependent upon insectile aid. On this subject I feel no disposition to alter my general sentiments, as delivered in the first edition of this Avork; and which are retained, without the least variation, in the present edition. The late excellent Mr. Willdenow's curious observation concerning the impregnation of Aristolochia Clema- titis, goes farther than any other fact that I have yet met with, to shoAv, that Avith respect to some plants, insects are necessary to give fertility to the female organ. The professor, indeed, maintains it is an axiom, that, " the dichogamic plants can be no other way fecundated than by insects."* For the history of the Aristolochia Clematitis and that of the Tipula pennicornis, I must refer my readers to Will- denow's work,! and to that of Dr. Smith, who does not doubt the accuracy of the great German botanist's account, "though (says Dr. Smith) I have never caught the imprisoned Tipula." I am at a loss to conceive howthe impregnation of the female of diflerent species of Sar- racenia is effected. The broad peltated stigma completely covers over the numerous stamens, and prevents their pollen from being applied to the upper surface of this organ. Are insects necessary here? It is certain, that the species of the genus of Sarracenia, are visited by many species of insects. See Plate I. also the explanation of this plate. I have thus brought to a conclusion, a very rapid view of the principle arguments, or rather heads of arguments, in support of the doctrine of the sexual functions of the stamens and the pistils. Enough, I think has been said to satisfy the most incredulous mind, that the stamens, or anthers, in a vast majority of plants, are the male, and the pistils, or stigmas, the female organs of generation in vegetables. Yet, I must confess, in concluding this interesting inquiry, at which the great Lord Bacon, with his views of the subject, would have smiled, —that the question is still open to numerous experiments, which ought to be made, in order to complete our knowledge of the subject. It seems, indeed, to be admitted, by some able writers, and among others recently by Mr. Knight,*): that the experiments of Spallanzani are not of so much weight, as the late Dr. Beddoes and others imagined they were. I may add, that the experiments of the Italian naturalist were repeated with very different results, by the late Dr. William Alexander, of Halifax, in England; whose memoir on this subject, I had the plea- sure of hearing read, at a meeting of the Natural History Society of Edinburgh. But, although in the conduct of his experiments, Spal- lanzani may have committed mistakes, and may, indeed, have been im- * Principles die page 318. f Principles die. pages 316, 317. X Transaction of the Royal Society of London. For the year 1809. Part ii. Page 399. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 211 posed upon, withprofessoinal malevolence, by some of his colleagues, I am still inclined to suspect, that as there are some secrets with re- spect to the generation of plants, so it is not yet established as a fact, that fertile seed are never formed without the influence of the pollen. —Clitoria mariana. SECTION VII. OF THE SUPPOSED PRINCIPLES, OR ELEMENTS OF VEGETABLES. I shall now now give a section on the chief Principles contained in vegetables. 1. Caloric is, doubtless, present in all vegetables; and when it is free, may be said to constitute their temperature. Plants have unquestionably, a temperature of their own. It is not difficult to measure it in some plants, such as different species of Arum, fyc, during the period of their florescence. Dead vegetable matter freezes with much more readiness, than living matter of the same bulk, weight, and species. Some species of plants resist very great degrees of cold: as they do also, highdegreesof heat.—Rhamnus alaternus,—Tremellae. —2. Light is found in the oils and other inflammable substances of numerous species of vegetables. 3. The electric fluid is said to " show itself by various electric phenomena observed in plants." Nor do I doubt that this is actually the case. I must repose some confidence in electric appearance said to be discovered, by one of the daughters* of L. in the Tropaeolum majus or Indian Cress; and in other plants, by other observers. Yet I am not ignorant, that the late Dr. Ingenhauz doubt- ed the existence of any plants naturally and exclusively luminous.— 4. Carbon forms a large part of the whole mass of vegetables. It is much more abundant in some vegetables than in others. It is one of the nutritious principles of vegetables, as Avell as of many animals. 5. Hydrogen is readily obtained in a gaseous form, in combination with caloric, from many vegetables, especially perhaps from the Leguminosae, from the Tetradynamiae, and from some of the Fungi. 6. Oxygen is readily evolved from plants, of almost every species, by the agency of the solar light. It also exists, combined with certain bases, in the various acids which are found in vegetables. Whether it really con- stitutes the acidifiable principles of all these acids, Ave are not to in- quire. 7. During the night-time, plants exhale Azote. A much greater portion, however, of this principle remains in a combined state, as in the Tetradynamiae, Fungi, &c. 8. Phosphorus exists abundantly in plants: and in plants of very opposite classes. See Tetradyna- f Flores ante crepusculum fulminant, observante. E. C. Linneaea. Linn. Species plant, vol. i. p. !90. See Darwin's Botanic Garden, Part ii. Canto iv. 1. 43, die. 212 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. mia, and Fungi. The existence of phosphorus is sufficiently ma- nifest by the shining of old rotten wood of various kinds: by the shining of the root of the common American Potatoe, or Solanum tube- rosum. 9. Suljihur is found in very many plants. It exists, in the state of sulphuric acid, in union Avith potash,—with soda,—with lime, fyc, forming the sulphates of these substances, commonly denominat- ed variolated tartar, glauber's salt, and gypsum, or plaster of pans. It also exists in the state of a sulphate of iron, or copper, in the Ches- nut, Chinquepin, &c. But sulphur even exists in substance, in certain vegetables, as in the roots of Rumex Patientia, in Cochlearia, &c. It is I think, almost certain, that much of the sulphur Avhich is found in certain marshy tracts of the United States, &c, is owing to the decom- position of wood. 10. Soda, now no longer considered as a sim- ple substance, but as an oxyde of a peculiar metal,* exists in many plants, but especially such as grow on the shores of the sea, in the va- grant Fuci, formerly mentioned, and in the more inland plants, espe- cially when the soil is largely impregnated with sodane, or common salt. The muriatic salines, or marshes, famous for furnishing the zoologist with the remains of extinct animals (especially Elephas Mas- todontus, &c.) supply the botanist with many plants in which soda exists, such as Salicornia Glaux, Triglochin, &c.—Plants readily absorb soda. 11. Potash, or oxyde of potassium, also exists abundantly in vegetables, especially the arborescent inland trees, such as the Hickory, the Oak, &c. Some herbaceous plants yield a great deal of it, such as Sigesbeckia occidentalis, called Stick- weed, in Virginia. It is asserted, that plants naturally yielding potash, when transplanted to the muriatic soils, are found to yield soda; while those of the latter soils, if transplanted to the inland tracts of country at a distance from muriatic impregnation and influence, yield potash. These things deserve the attention of the chemists, and may lead to very curious results. 12. Silica, or the flinty earth is found in the culm of the Bambusa arundinacea, or Bamboo; in the Arundo Phragmites, or common Reed, fyc. In some of these plants, it is in a detached state, constituting the Tabasheer. It exists very largely, in the epidermis of the Equisetum or Horse tail, as Sir H. Davy has shown: and it is probable, that the injuries which are done to horses which eat of the Equisetum, is much more OAving to the mechanical action of the silex than to any other property of this cryp- togama. Does not silex exist in Betula Alnus, or Alder,—in the Betula serrulata, or Candle Alder, which gives its Indian name to one of the branches of the Susquehanna?—and in other species of the genus? 13. Alumina, or Alumine, has been found in a few vegetables. It will be remarkable if it do not exist in many of them, in the shape of sul- phate of alumine, or common alum. Heuchera Americana, called Alum-Root 14. Magnesia is also said to exist in some plants, as in * Sodium of Sir Humphrey Davy. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 213 the American Indian Corn. Can it well be wanting, in some of the many vegetables of Pennsylvania, and other countries, which grow in Magnesian soils?—It is not true, as has been asserted, that seeds and other vegetable parts will not vegetate in magnesia. I find, that cer- tain seeds germinate very well in a soil consisting of more than one half of carbonate of Magnesia. 15. Barytes, or the heavy earth, has been found in plants, and espe- cially in the Gramina or Grasses. 16. The existence of Lime, or calca- reous earth, in plants, was once denied. L., Ellis, and others, were of opinion that this earth, or oxyde of calcium as it is now considered, does not exist in the vegetable kingdom. And these eminent men even fancied, that the want of lime in vegetables might serve to dis- tinguish this vast kingdom of organized bodies from that of animals, in whose constitution lime is known to abound. Many plants contain lime. A pound of Shara tomentosa is found to contain several ounces of it Lime seems to be so far from being foreign to vegetables, that it exists in not a few of those which we eat. Does it not exist in the seeds of certain plants, as in those of the Lithospermum arvense, called in Pennsylvania, Stone-Seed, and Pigeon-Wheat? It certainly, exists in some of the Lichens; and if I mistake not, they derive a portion of their nourishment from this earth. Even in the arborescent vegetables, we find lime; and it adds not a little to the stability, weight, strength, and durability of such woods, as Desaussure has shown. In some plants, we are told, there is not a vestige of lime. The fungi* are said to be of this number. More experiments on this subject are wanted: and, lime, I think does exist in the Deer-Turnip, one of these vegetables.— See in another part. 17.v Iron is found in the ashes of many plants. I have already mentioned its existence, in the form of a sulphate in the Castanea, of two species.. Iron is not unfriendly to the growth and vigor of plants. They readily absorb its sulphate, as I have proved by- many experiments.—Is it at all probable, that the great and peculiar attractions which certain trees seem to have for the electrical fluid, or lightning, is, in any degree, owing to the existence of an unusual quan- tity of metallic matter in the composition of such trees? It is not pro- bable that this is the cause of the attraction.—Castanea, Liriodendron, Juglans nigra, are often struck. Fagus ferruginea, or the Amer. Beech, never. 18. Manganese, has also been found in plants. 19. Gold, it has been asserted has been detected in the Vine, or Vitis vinifera,in Quercus Robur, in Carpinus Betulus, or Horn-beam, in the Hedera Helix, or Poet's Ivy, and in a feAv others. Perhaps, no dependence is to be placed upon these assertions. But I think we go too far when we assert, that the existence of gold in any vegetable is " impossible." 20. Tin is said to exist in the Spartium junoeum, or Spanish-Broom. The elements or substances, whatever we may think proper to call them, Avhich have been enumerated in the preceding list, were until lately considered as * Especially, it is said, the genera, Peziza, Octospora, and Byssus. 214 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. elementary or simple substances as they had not been decomposed: and many of them it was imagined, were indecomposible. But the great revolution in chemistry, effected by the genius and labours of many illustrious men, have given us new and very different views of most of these substances; which are no longer considered as simple, but com- pounds, and sometimes complexly compounded. The following substances have, for a long time, been considered as compounds. Many of them are, undoubtedly, such: and not one of them, indeed, is perhaps simple. In the present state of our knowledge, indeed, it seems ridiculous for philosophers to talk of simple bodies, 1. Volatile Oils. These are found in almost every part of some plant or other. We more frequently meet with such oils in the vegetables of warm than of cold climates. But plants abounding in volatile oils, are to be met Avith in Labrador and in Terra Magellanica. 2. Resins insoluble in Avater and whose proper menstruum is alcohol, are found in the roots, in the stalks, the wood, and even in the blossoms, the fruit and seed of many plants. Such vegetables are, in general, more fre- quently met with in the warm than in the cold climates. Nay, even the same individual species is found to have a larger or smaller proportion of resinous matter, in proportion as it approaches to, or recedes from, the equatorial regions. We have a beautiful illustration of this observa- tion in the Liquidambar Styraciflua, or Sweetgum already mentioned. 3. Gum Resins. These which are a compound of resinous and of gummous matter, are abundantly distributed through the vegetable kingdom. Such are Assafoetida, a valuable medicinal article, the pro- duce of the Ferula Assafoetida, Gamboge, and many others, which are mentioned in various parts of this work. 4. Camphor was at one time, considered as a gum-resin; but is now deemed a peculiar principle. and is almost entirely insoluble in water. Camphor exists in many ve- getables, and among others in the Laurus Camphora, L.Cinnamomum, L. Sassafras, L. Pseudo-Benzoin; and in many of the Verticillatae. Dr. Roxburgh has informed me, by letter, that the genuine camphor is not the produce of the Laurus Camphora. The camphorate principle seems to be very congenial to vegetation. It proves a healthy stimulus to plants of various kinds, as I have shown by actual experiments. See Transactions of the Amer. Philos. Society vol. 4. art. xxvii See also, Willdenow's Principles, p. 394. 5. Fixed or Fat Oils. These exist in many vegetables; especially in their fruits. Such oily matter is especially abundant in the fruits of the Almond (Amygdalus com- munis,) the Walnuts and Hickories (Juglans regia, J. nigra, J. cinerea,) Live oak, the Olive (Olea Europea,) the Castor oil plant (Ricinus com- munis,) and many others. 6. Wax exists in and upon the fruits of many vegetables, such as the. Laurus nobilis, the JVIyrica cerifera, &c. The leaves of some vegetables produce a pure Avax, as the Carnauba of Brazil.—Ceroxylon Andicola.—It has been supposed to exist in the pollen of all floAvers. 7. Glutinous and Viscous Matter exist in the berries of many plants, viz. the Misletoe, the different species of Smi- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 215 lax, such as Smilax caduca, &c. Caouthouc is obtained from various ve- getables, such as Siphonia elastica, Urceola elastica, &c. and I have dis- covered it, ready formed, in the berries of Smilax caduca, &c. See Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine, for July, 1812. 8. Soapy Matter. This, which is known for its useful quality of taking greasy spots out of linen, &c, occurs in the leaves of the Soap-wart (Saponaria officina- lis,) in the fruit pf the Sapindus Saponaria, in the roots of iEsculus Pavia, or Scarlet Pavia(See plate XV, Avith the explanation,) in many other roots, as those of Cichory, (Cichorium Intybus,) Burdock (Arc- tium,) &c. Quillai.*, 9. Mucilage abounds in whole families of plants; thus rendering such plants very useful articles of diet or of medicine. We find it in the roots of the Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis,) in the stalks of the Goat's-thorn (Astragalus Creticus,) in the leaves of the Round-leaved Mallow (Malva rotundifolia,) and those of the Sassafras, in which it is very abundant, and totally free from the camphorate-like principle; in the seeds of the Quince, and most abundantly in the capsules and seeds of the Okra, or Hibiscus esculentus. We find it in the flowers of the YelloAv or Common Mullein (Verbascum Thapsus.) 10. Gum, very nearly allied to mucilage, is also abundantly disper- sed through the vegetable kingdom. It commonly exudes, in the form of globular masses, of different sizes, from the stems of certain trees, as the Damson-trea (Prunus domestica,) the Black-Cherry tree (P. avium,) and others. The stem of the Persimmon yields a fine gum; as do the leaves of the Agave Americana, or great flowering American Aloe.—Water is the proper menstruum of the gums, Avhich are products both of the vegetable and of the animal kingdoms. The venom of the viper, of the different species of crotalus, or rattle snake, &c, is truly a gummous matter. 11. Gluten. This, Avhich is said to compose the vegetable fibre, is a compound of carbon and of azote. 12. Albumen. This occurs in a very great number of culinary plants, and in the mealy seeds of some of the 1 etradynamous plants. 13. Starch.or Amylum,seems to con- sist of gluten, farina, and a saccharine mucilage. This is found in the seeds and roots of rruiny plants, such as iEsculus Hippocastanum, and the American species of the same genus. The Potatoe, the Bryony (Bryonia alba,) and very many others. The American Indian Turnip, or Arum triphyllum, yields a beautiful and abundant amylum. 14. Sugar or Saccharine Matter, formerly called the saccharine principle. A great number of plants yield sugar, though, compara- tively, but a few pure sugar. The purest sugar is found in the juice of the Sugar-Cane, (Saccharum officinarum, and some other species,) and in that of the Mays, or Indian corn. Various species of Acer, or Maple, especially the noble Acer saccharinum, or Sugar-Maple, yield an abundant quantity of sugar, Avhich is obtained by tapping their boles, early in the months of February and March.—A single * Quillaja Saponaria, Molina. 216 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Birch-tree* has been known to yield in one season, of saccharine juice, sixty barrels. The roots of many plants furnish sugar such as the Beet (Beta vulgaris,) Parsnip, (Pastinaca sativa,) &c. Upon the whole, sugar is very extensively diffused through the vegetable world. — Sugar is a very compounded substance, consisting of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen. A Saccharine Matter, more nearly allied to the nature of honey, is prepared in the nectaries of a very great number of vegetables, as the Manna Ash, (Ornus europaea, &c.) Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra,) Melianthus Major, &c. 15. The bitter Principle, or Principium Amarum, is very extensively diffused through the vegetable world: and it may be said to exist in every part of the vegetable fabric, not even excepting the corculum, or embryon. The following are some of the most bitter vegetables with which we are acquainted: viz. Com- mon Worm-Wood (artemisia Absynthium,) Water-Trefoil (Menyanthes trifoliata,) European and North American Centaury (Chironia Centan- rium and C. angularis,) different species of Quassia (Quassia amara, &c.,) American Columbo, or Frasera,! Hydrastis canadensis,&c. 16. Narcotick Principle, or Principium Narcoticum. This, which is well known for its remarkable effect in producing drowsiness, increas- ed action of the heart and arteries (at least in its primary operation,) exhilaration, &c, h? very often connected with the principle of bitter- ness, though, certainly, not necessarily so. It exists in many plants, as in the juice of Papaver somniferum, the seed of Sanguinaria Cana- densis, in Atropa Belladonna, and other Luridae; in Cherophyllum temulum, and other Umbellatae; in Spigelia, and in many other plants. Some late writers chiefly of the chemical school, have imagined, that the narcotic principle, and the Prussic acid are the same. This is by no means a settled point. 17. Acrid Principle. This, which is less deserving of the name of a principle than many of the others, produces a certain pungent sensation which, however, doubtless, depends upon a combination of very differ- ent circumstances in different plants. Different species of Cochlearia, or Horse-Radish and Scurvy-grass; Arum Triphyllum, lately mention- ed and other species; various species of Polygonum, Capsicum, Piper, Ranunculus, &c. 18. Gallic Acid. This exists in very many vege- tables, especially in the roots and stalks. It was, at one time, suppos- ed to constitute the principle of astringency in vegetables. The late Professor Woodhouse imagined that the astringency of vegetables is composed of this acid in union with alumine, already mentioned. 19. Prussic Acid. This has now been found in a good many plants, some of which are endoAved with very active powers. In the leaves of Prunus Lauro-Cerasus, or the nefarious Cherry-Laurel; and in the flowers of the Peach. It also exists in the leaves of the North American * Betula lanulosa: ! Frasera officinallis, mihi; Flora Virginica. Part 1. p. 49. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 217 Prunus serotina, or Wild-Cherry;*—and in the root of Veronica vir- ginica? 20. Phosphoric Acid has been found in several plants, but seldom in a free or detached state. The leaves of many trees contain it. 21. Citric Acid. This exists in the Lemon, the Gooseberry, the American Cranberry, Solanum Duleamara, Physalis Pennsylvanica and many others. 22. Malic Acid occurs in the common Apple, the Quince, the Barberry, the Strawberry, &c. 23. Oxalic Acid. We find this in the different species of Oxalis, as Oxalis Acetosella, 0. cor- niculata; in Rhubarb, in the American Sorrel tree (Andromeda arborea,) irt the geranium acidum, and others. 24. Acetic Acid has been found in the sap of different trees. I have observed it in great abundance, in different North American Oaks, and in the Populus dilatata, or Lombardy Poplar. 25. Tartaric Acid. In the Tamarind, Agave Americana, and others. 26. Benzoic Acid, is found in Benzoin (Sty- rax Benzoe,) Balsam of Peru, Balsam of Tolu, Balsam Capaevi, and others. 27. Ammoniac, or the volatile alkali, a compound consisting of azote and hydrogen, is obtained from many vegetables; as from certain Gramina, from many Tetradynamiae, from some of the Luridae, as Nux-vomica, &c. Some of the Neutral Salts are found in vegetables. Sulphate of Lime exists in a good many plants. Nitrate of magnesia exists in Indian corn, as Mirabelli has shown. Ni- trate of Potash, or common nitre, in Borago officinalis, in Helianthus annuus, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, Achillea Millefolium, Fu- maria officinalis, and others. Sulphate of soda is found in the Tamarix gallica, and sodane in many sea-plants. Ocymum salinum, a plant of Chili, which is particularly mentioned by Molina, is said to furnish large quantities of the last mentioned article.—In the ashes of many vegetables, we detect the sulphate of potash or, vitriolated tartar. Phos- phates of lime and potash have been detected in many vegetables; and in vegetables of opposite qualities. The first of these salts exist in the poisonous Aconitum Napellus and in most of the cerealia. Phosphate of potash is found in Barley, and in other grains. Different vegetables and among others the following contain malate of lime, or the malic acid; in union with lime: viz. Sempervivum tectorum, sedum album, S. acre, S. Telephium, and various species of Crassula and Mesembryan- themum; all plants of the Linnean order of Succulentae, formerly mentioned—Arum maculatum! Imperfect as are the preceding notices, they may be of some use to thcstudent of botany and chemistry; and for him only are they intended. The Sexual system of L. is founded, upon the beautiful doctrine of the Sexes of Plants. According to this system, all known plants are distributed into different Classes, Orders, Genera, Species, and Varieties. The classes are twenty-four in number, and are formed from the number, the place of insertion, the proportion, the connec- tion, the disposition, or the absence of the stamens, or male organs of generation. The orders, or secondary divisions, are much more 28 218 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. numerous, and in the first thirteen classes are founded exclusively upon the number of the styles, or female organs. In the remaining eleven classes, they are founded upon other circumstances, the principal of which have, indeed, already been mentioned, but will be more advan- tageously explained, in the particular illustration of those orders. CLASS I.—MONANDRIA. The first class of the Sexual System is denominated Monandria. This term, like the names of all the classes, and most of the orders, of the Linnean system, is derived from the Greek language.* The class Monandria embraces all those plants Avhich have hermaphrodite flowers, that is, male and female organs, contained within the same calyx or corolla; and only one stamen or anther. This class is subdivided into two orders, viz. Monogynia and Digynia.! These orders as has already been intimated, are formed from the number of the styles, or female organs. The plants of the first order have only one style, or female organ; those of the second have two. Monogynia.—This order contains the following, among other, genera of plants, viz. Amomum, Renealmia, Curcuma, Thalia, Myrosma, Maranta, Kaempferia, Canna, Alpinia, Costus, Boerhaavia, Hippuris, and Salicornia. Two species of the genus Valeriana, viz. Valeriana rubra and V. Calcitrapa, belong to this first order of Monandria. Digynia.—This order is much less extensive than the first, and con- tains the following genera, viz. Corispermum, Callitriche, Blitum, Cinna, and Mniarum. Character.—L. has not offered his Sexual System, as a Natural System. Nevertheless, we shall find, that some of the classes of this celebrated system are nearly natural, and that in others, various natural assembla- ges of plants may be found. The class of Monandria has no high claim to the character of a natural class. Indeed, it brings together vegeta- bles of very unlike habits, or appearances, and of very opposite qualities. Hippuris and Salicornia, on the one hand, are very far removed from Canna and Amomum, on the other hand. The class Monandria, however, contains a fine order of plants very nearly allied to each other, I mean the Scitamineae, comprehending the Renealmia, Amomum, Curcuma, Thalia, Maranta, Myrosma, Kaempferia, Canna, Alpinia, and Costus. Several of these plants have a most agreeable and highly aromatic taste, such as the Amomum Zin- giber or ginger, Costus arabicus, the Kaempferia Galanga, or Galangale, and others. Indeed, almost all these plants are more or less aromatic; and it is from this quality that they have received their name. Scita- mentum, or Scitum edulium, signifies an etable Avhich has a racy or * Monandria, from /«•*•''■. one or alone; and *""»§, a man or husband. ! Digynia, from eight. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 231 stamens and styles) arranging under different classes and orders of the system. Tetragynia.—Adoxa, Elatine, Paris, and Haloragis (and frequently Myriophyllum) belong to this order. Character.—The class Octandria embraces several natural assemblages of vegetables. Epilobium, Gaura, Oenothera, Rhexia, and Osbeckia, form a part of L's. seventeenth natural order, Calycanthemae.* These plants, among other characters, have the corolla and the stamens insert- ed into the calyx. The Vaccinium, or Whortle-berry: and the immense family of Erica, or Heath, are placed by L. in his eighteenth order, Bicornes,\ so called because in many of the plants of this order, the anthers have the appearance of two horns. X Mr. De Jussieu's order Ericas comprehends the genera Erica, Vaccinium, and several of L's. Decandrous vegetables, Avhich are afterwards to be mentioned; and some genera belonging to neither Octandria nor Decandria. Gnidia, Dirca, Daphne, Passerina, and some others, form L's. thirty-first order. Vepreculae.\ Paris belongs to the order Sarmentaceae. Elatine, together with Hippuris, Proserpinaca, and several others, constitute L's. fifteenth order, Inundatas. These plants grow naturally in the water. We know but little of the medical properties of the plants of this class. Their other properties are better investigated. The fruits of various species of Vaccinium, comprehending the Whortle-berries and Cranberries, are esculent and wholesome. To some constitutions, however, some of the Whortle-berries are disagreeable. The com- mon American Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon of Aiton) is an im- portant vegetable, on account of its fine acid fruit. The buds of Tro- pasoium make a good pickle. Different species of Polygonum, parti- cularly the Polygonum Fagopyrum (Buck-wheat,) and the Polygonum tataricum, furnish us with a very nutritious and agreeable article of diet. The first of these vegetables is much cultivated, and the last should be cultivated in the United States. The pulverized leaves of theLawsoniainermis (which the Arabs call Henna, or Alhenna) are much used by the Egyptians, Persians, and other people of Africa and Asia, to dye the nails of their hands and feet of a yellow colour. In Egypt, this practice appears to have been of a very ancient date. The flowers of the Lawsonia have that peculiar animal smell which I formerly hinted at. The gum Elemi of the shops is supposed to be the pro- duce of the Amyris Elemifera, a native of Carolina. The Opobalsa- mum, or Balsam of Mecca; is obtained from another species, the Amyris Opobalsamum. Different species of Daphne, particularly * Calycanthemae, from calyx, the fioAver-cup, *vflof, the flower. ! Bicornes, from bis, twice, cornu, a horn. X Of this order, I shall take further notice, in treating of the class De- candria. § Veprecula, from vepres, a brier. 232 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Daphne Mezereum and D. Gnidium, are important articles in the ma- teria medica, and perhaps too much neglected. Dirca is said to be used as a cathartic* The root of Paris quadrifolia is emetic, and it is thought may be substitutedMbr ipecacuanha. Useful medical qualities are ascribed to Oenothera biennis: but of these qualities I can say nothing, from my own experience. Of the genera which I have mentioned, the following are known to be natives of the United States: Epilobium, Gaura, Oenothera, Rhexia, Chlora, Vaccinium, Menziesia, Dirca, and Polygonum. Not a single species of Erica is to be met Avith in this great tract of country! But in place of " the blooming Heather," nature has liberally supplied our. country with various species of Andromeda, Vaccinium, not to mention other genera, which are nearly allied to Erica. The Hudsonia ericoi- des (one of Jussieu's Ericas) is extremely common in many parts of the United-States, and has greatly the fades, or aspect of an Heath. For an illustration of this class, see Plate XVI. CLASS IX.—ENNEANDRIA. Enneandria! is the name of the ninth class. This class contains those hermaphrodite flowers which are furnished with nine stamens, or male organs, and is subdivided into three orders, vix. Monogynia, Trigynia, and Hexagynia. Monogynia.—Tinus, Laurus, Anacardium, Panke, Volutella, Ginan- nia, and Cassyta belong to this order. Trigynia.—This order contains the important genus, Rheum, or Rhubarb, of which several species are known to the botanist. Hexagynia.—The genus Butomus, or Flowering Rush, belongs to this order. Character.—With respect to the genera which belong to the class Enneandria, they constitute different assemblages of vegetables more or less natural. Laurus, Anacardium, Rheum, together with Callitriche, Blitum, Corispermum, Rumex, Polygonum, and several others, which have already been mentioned,as belonging to preceding classes; and also, certain genera Avhich are arranged in the succeeding classes, constitute L's. twelth order, Holoraceae,X which I do not think entitled to the name of a natural order. The genus Laurus gives name to an order in the system of Mr. De Jussieu. It is the fourth order of his sixth class. In the system of the same learned naturalist, there is an order entitled Polygoneae, which embraces one of the genera of the class * See collections for a Materia Medica, die p, 31. See, also, p. 22. ! Enneandria, from "ws*, nine. X Holoracece or Holeraceae, more commonly written Oleraceae, from olus, or holus, a pot-herb. Several of the genera of this order are arranged by Jus- sieu in his order, Atriplices. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 233 Enneandria; the genus Rheum. Butomus, together with Calamus, Juncus, Triglochin, and some others, belong to L's. fifth order, Tripe- taloideae* The class Enneandria, though a very small class, contains a number of important vegetables. Different species of Laurus are highly im- portant for medical or domestic purposes. Camphor is the produce of the Laurus Camphora, Cinnamon of the Laurus Cinnamomum, and Cassia of the Laurus Cassia. To the Laurus Benzoin, the people of the United States have ascribed useful medical powers. The Laurus Sassafras, or Sassafras, is entitled to the attention of physicians. The leaves of the Laurus Borbonia are used as a spice, in some parts of the United States. The Laurus nobilis, which the Greeks called a*?™, is the species Avhich was dedicated to Apollo, and employed as a crown or garland for the heads of Roman emperors, pontiffs and poets. The different species of Rhubarb are valuable cathartics, particularly the Rheum palmatum, or Palmated Rhubarb. I think it not improbable, that North America possesses some native species of this genus. Be this as it may, the cultivation of Rhubarb ought to be attended to in the United States. The United States possess few plants of the class Enneandria. It is true, that several species of Laurus are natives of this great tract of country: but our species are by no means constantly furnished with nine stamens. Thus, Laurus Sassafras is sometimes found dioicous, and Laurus Borbonia belongs to Decandria. For an illustration of the class Enneandria, see Plate XVI. CLASS X.—DECANDRIA. The tenth class is denominated Decandria.! It contains those her- maphrodite flowers which are furnished with ten stamens, or male organs. But this circumstance alone is not sufficient to distinguish the plants of the class Decandria from all the other classes of hermaphro- dite vegetables. Other circumstances, or characters, which wilJ be particularly attended to in treating of the classes Monadelphia, Diadel- phia, Syngenesia, and Gynandria, must be carefully attended to. It is proper, however, to observe, in this place that in order to constitute a pure Decandrous plant, it is necessary that the ten stamens be distinct from each other, that is, not united together either by their filaments below, or by their anthers above. X * From tres, three, and petalum, a petal; because several of the genera have three petals. See Monoecia. f From fox-*, ten. X Milne and other writers inform us, that the stamens of the plants of the class Decandria, must be of an equal length. But this circumstance is of little or no consequence in investigating the Decandrous plants, many of which have their stamens of unequal lengths, such as Rhododendron Rhodo- ra, die 30 234 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. The class decandria is subdivided into six orders. These orders like all the orders of the preceding nine classes; and of the three suc- ceeding classes, are formed from the circumstance of the number of the styles, or female organs. The orders are Monogynia, Digynia, Tri- gynia, Tetragynia, Pentagynia, and Decagynia. Monogynia.—The first order is by far the most extensive of the Avhole. The following are a feAv of the genera which it contains: So- phora, Podalyria, Anagyris, Cercis, Bauhinia, Poinciana, Myroxylon, Parkinsonia, Caesalpinia, Toluifera, Cassia, Guilandina, Dictamnus, Adenanthera, Haematoxylum, Melia, SAvietenia, Guajacuni, Ruta, Zygophyllum, Quassia, Limonia, Monotropa, Clethra,Pyrola, Ledum, Dionaea, Melastoma, Andromeda, Rhododendron, Kalmia, Rhodora, Epigaea, Gaultheria, Arbutus, Styrax, Inocarpus, Cassuvium, Samyda, Copaifera, and others.* Digynia.—The second order contains the following genera: viz. Scleranthus, Trianthema, Chrysosplenium, Hydrangea, Saxifraga, Tiarella, Mitella, Cunonia, Saponaria, Dianthus, &c. Trigynia.—Cucubalus, Silene, Stellaria, Arenaria, Malpighia, Banis- teria, and others belong to this order. Pentagynia.—Averrhoa, Spondias, Cotyledon, Sedum, Penthorum, Bergia, Oxalis, Agrostemma, Lychnis, Cerastium, and Spergula, be- long to this order. Some species of Oxalis belong to the XVIth class. One species of Lychnis (Lychnis dioica) belongs to the XXIId class. Lychnis alpina and L. quadridentata have often only four styles. Decagynia.-;—This is the most inconsiderable order of the Avhole. It contains the genera Neurada and Phytolacca. The latter is a very irregular genus. The species which causes the genus to be arranged in the present order is the P. decandria, or Common Poke. A second species belongs to the VHIth class; a third to Xllth, and a fourth to the XXIId class Character.—At the very head of this great class, we find Sophora, Anagyris, and some other genera, Avhich belong to L's. thirty second order, Papilionaceae, of which I shall make more particular mention, Avhen treating of the plants of the XVIIth class. Cercis, Bauhinia, Hymenaea, Poinciana, Myroxylon, Parkinsonia, Caesalbinia, Cassia, Guilandina, Adenanthera, Haematoxylum, and some others belong to the thirty-third order, Lomen(aceae,X so called because several of the genera which it embraces furnish fine tinctures that are used in dying. Such are different species of Caesalpinia, or Braisiletto; the Guilandina Moringa, the wood of which dies a fine blue colour; Haematoxylum Campechianum, called Log-wood, or Campeachy- wood, &c. Melia, Swietenia, Malpighia, Banisteria, together with * The genera Rhododendron, Kalmia, Rhodora, and Ledum are the De- candrous plants of JussieuVbrder Rhododendra. Azalea and Itea (Pentan- drous plants,) Menziesia (of the class Octandria,) and Befaria (of the class Dodecandria) belong to the same fine order. ! LomentacecB, from lomentum, a colour used by painters. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 235 iEsculus, and Tropaeolum, and some other genera, Avhich have already been mentioned in treating of preceding classses, belong to the twenty third of L's. natural orders, the order Trihilatae* Gua- jacum, Tribulus, Fagonia, Zygophyllum, Quassia, Dionaea, Oxalis, Averrhoa, and others, belong to the order Gruinales, which will be more particularly noticed when treating of theXVIth class. Clethra, Fyrola, Ledum, Andromeda, Rhododendron, Kalmia, Epigaea, Gaul- therca, Arbutus, Styrax, together with Azalea, Vaccinium, Erica, and others, Avhich are afterAvards to be mentioned, constitute the order Bicornes. I have already made some mention of this order. L. asserts, that there is no poisonous plant in the order Bicornes, unless, perhaps, the genus Ledum.! Aliquando Bonus Dormitat Homerus. Some of the Bicornes are very poisonous vegetables, such are Kalmia latifolia and angustifolia, some species of Azalea, Andromeda, &c. Epigaea repens is said to be poisonous to sheep. Gaultheria is not an inert plant. I can say nothing certain concerning Clethra and Rhodora. I shall have occasion to speak of the properties of other Bicornes when treating of the sexual classes to which they belong. From several of the plants of this order, bees obtain an abundance of honey, which in some species, is endued with a noxious quality. L. is. certainly, in- correct, when he asserts, that Kalmia is the only genus among the Bi- cornes, that is furnished with nectaries. Gaultheria procumbens, not to mention others, has these parts. Hydrangea, Chrysospleniun, Saxi- fraga, Tiarella, Mitella, Cotyledon, Sedum, Penthorum, Bergia, together with Heuchera, formerly mentioned, and several others, which will be noticed in their proper places, belong to L's. thir- teenth natural order, SucculentasX or Succulent Plants. It must nOt however, be supposed, that all the plants of this order are succulent, or especially juicy. Heuchera is far from being succulent. The same remark may be extended to Nymphaea. Saracenia, and others. Several of L's. Succulentae belong to*Mr. De Jussieu's order Saxifragae. The class Decandria contains a beautiful tribe of vegetables, which consti- tute L's. twenty-second natural order, Caryophyllei, formerly men- tioned. This is a pretty extensive tribe of plants. Besides the Triandrous and Tetrandrous genera Avhich it contains, the folloAving Decandrous genera belong to it: viz. Gypsophila, Saponaria, Dianthus, Arenaria, Stellaria, Cucubalus, Silene, Spergula, Cerastium, Agrostem- ma, Lychnis, and others. Most of these genera belong to Jussieu's * TrihilatcB, from tres, three, and hilum, the eye, or external scar of the seed already mentioned. Several of the vegetables of this order have three seeds, Avhich are distinctly marked with an external cicatrix, or scar, where they are fastened within the fruit. f " Yix quicquam Olidi continet ulla totius ordinis, excepto Ledo, nee ulla venenata est, nisi idem forte Ledum, quod tamen incertum adhuc est." Pr*e- lectiones, die. p. 343. X Succulentcr, from succus, juice. 936 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. order, Caryophylleas. In a medical point of view, the class Decan- dria is by no means unimportant. That valuable medicine, the gum- resin Guaiacum, is the produce of the Guajacum officinale. The Toluifera Balsamum furnishes us with the Balsam of Tolu, the Co- paifera officinalis with the Balsam of Capaevi, and the Myroxylon peruiferum with the Balsam of Peru. These four vegetables are natives of America, but are not known to be indigenous within the limits of the United States. The Senna of the shops is the produce of the Cassia Senna. The leaves of some of the American species may be substituted for this. The bark of Swietenia febrifuga, of Rox- burgh, has been found an excellent substitute for the Peruvian bark. The Melia Azedarach is an invaluable anthelmintic* Different species of Quassia, particularly the Simaruba and amara, are some of the most powerful bitter tonics of the materia medica. Kalmia latifolia and angustifolia, though hitherto scarcely employed by physicians, promise to be useful medicines, in a variety of cases. Of the former species I can speak from experience.! Rhododendron Chrysanthum has a place in some of the European Pharmacopoeias. The Arbutus Uva ursi should be in the hands of every physician. Different species of Pyrola have been employed by physicians. To the Pyrola umbellata (Pippsissewa) great virtues are ascribed, in some parts of the United States. The Benzoin of the shops, which for a long time, was sup- posed to be the produce of the Laurus Benzoin, formerly mentioned, is now ascertained to be the produce of a species of Styrax, the Syrax Benzoe. Silene virginica is said to possess the powers of an anthelmintic. Phytolacca decandra is, unquestionably, an article enti- tled to the attention of physicians.J Many of the genera of the class Decandria are natives of the United States. This tract of country is especially rich in plants of the fine order Bicornes. For an illustration of the class, see Plate XVII. CLASS XI.—DODECANDRIA. The twelth class is named Dodecandria.§ This class contains plants Avith hermaphrodite floAvers, which, agreeably to the name of the class, ought to have twelve stamens or male organs. It must not," hoAvever, be supposed that all the plants of this class have the precise * See Dr. Duvall's Inaugural Dissertation. Philadelphia: 1802. f See Dr. Thomas's Inaugural Dissertation. Pailadelphia: 1802. X For some information concerning the medical properties of several North American vegetables belonging to the class Decandria, see different parts of my Collections for an essay towards a Materia Medica, die. See, also, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. V. No. vii. §From ^ ! Professor Martyn. 240 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. anthemum, Aizoon, and Spiraea, belong to this order. One species of Spiraea, S. opulifolia, is referred by Willdenow, to the order Trigynia. But this species is by no means constant in the number of its styles. Polygynia.—The genera Rosa, Rubus, Tormentilla, Dryas, Fragaria, Potentilla, Geum, Comarum, and Calycanthus, belong to this order. Character.—Athough the class Icosandria cannot be said to be a natural class, in the strict sense of the term, it will not be denied, that it embraces several great assemblages of vegetables, which are related to each other by striking family affinities. The genus Cactus, which stands at the head of the class, does not seem to have much relation with the other genera. This genus, however, together with Tetrago- nia, Mesembryanthemum, and Aizoon, are referred by L. to his order Succulentae, formerly mentioned. Cactus gives name to an order (Cacti) in the system of Mr. De Jussieu. This order, besides Cactus, embraces the genus Ribes, or Currant, which belongs to Pentandria. Eugenia, Psidium, Myrtus, Calyptranthes, and some others, belong to L's. nineteenth order, Hesperideae* What a pity that L.did not con- trive to put his genus Citrus, which, indeed, furnishes us with golden- like fruit, in this poetic order! Punica, Amygdalus, Prunus, Chrysobalnus, Crataegus, Sorbus, Mes- pilus, Pyrus, and Spiraea, together with Ribes, are referred to the Swedish naturalist's thirty-sixth natural order, Pomaceas.X All the genera mentioned under the head of the order Polygynia, with the ex- ception of Calycanthus, belong to the thirty-fifth natural order, Senti- cosas.X Alchemilla, Aphanes, and Agrimonia, are also referred to this order. The order Rosaceas in the system of Mr. De Jussieu embraces all the genera of the two Linnaean orders just mentioned, together with several others. The class Icosandria might, with some degree of propriety, be denominated the Esculent class. In the sexual system * From Hesperides, the three daughters of Hesperus, the brother of Atlas whose orchards bore golden fruit, which were kept by a watchful dragon, which Hercules slew, and thus obtained the fruit. The poets have immortalized the name of Hesperides; but, after all the learned labours of the commentators, we are still in the dark as to the situation of these celebrated gardens. Virgil places them in the most western parts of Africa, and adds, that, beside the dragon, the garden contained a priestess and a temple: " Hinc mihi Massylae gentis monstrata sacerdos, Hesperidum templi custos, epulasque draconi Quae dabat, et sacros servabat in arbore ramos, Spargens humida melia soporiferumque papaver." ^nied. Lib. iv. 483—485. I do not doubt, that under the mythological fable of the Hesperides is buried some highly interesting piece of history; perhaps the introduction, after great dangers by sea or land, of some valuable fruits into Greece. ! Pomaceae, from pomum, an apple. X Senticosx, from sentis, a brier or bramble. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 241 there is no class of the same extent to which we ore indebted for such a number of fine esculent vegetables, of the fruit kind. The fruits of some species of Cactus, or Indian-Fig, are deemed good eating. Some species of Eugenia also afford excellent fruits. But the finest and most substantial fruits of this class are those of the genus Amygdalus, com- prehending the Peach and Almond; the different kinds of Prunus, known by the names of Plumb and Cherry; of Pyrus, or Apples and Pears; of Mespilus, or Medlars; of Rubus, or Bramble (such as the Rubus idaeus, or 'Raspberry, the R. caesius, or Dewberry, the R. Chamaemorus, or Cloud-berry,) of Fragaria, or StraAvberry, and others. To the materia medica, the class Icosandria has not given many im- portant articles. Some, however, it has given, and these deserve to be mentioned. The genera Eugenia and Myrtus furnish us Avith those valuablearomatics, the Clove and the Pimento. The shells of the Punica, or Pomegranate, and the root of the Tormentilla, or Tormentil, are still employed as astringent articles, by physicians. The bark of the Prunus virginiana, or American Wild-Cherry, is certainly entitled to the attention of physicians, as a remedy for intermittents, and other diseases.* Different species of Geum, or Avens, have acquired some reputation as substitutes for the Peruvian bark. Buchave has publish- ed an express dissertation concerning the virtues of the Geum urbanum, Common Avens, or Herb-Bennet. The American species of Geum are known to be useful medicines, but are generally neglected by phy- sicians. The root of the Spiraea trifoliata, or Indian-Physic, is a good emetic. It is said, that there grows in the State of Kentucky, another species which is still more valuable, as an emetic, than the S. trifoliata. With respect to the remarkable effects of the fruit of the Strawberry in curing the gout of L. how much cause have I to wish, while I write this very paragraph,! that this fine fruit Avould afford only a portion of similar relief to others afflicted Avith the same hydra-disease. A large proportion of the Icosandrous genera are natives of the United States. Species of the following genera are, unquestionably, indige- nous to this great tract of country: viz. Cactus, Philadelphus, Prunus, Crataegus, Sorbus, Mespilus, Pyrus, Spiraea, Rosa, Rubus, Fragaria, Potentilla, Geum, Comarum, and Calycanthus. It is doubtful whether any part of America possesses a native species of Amygdalus. The Abbe Clavigero expressly informs us, that the Peach (Amygdalus Per- sica) was imported into Mexico from the old world. I am inclined to think, that this fine vegetable is really a foreigner in all the countries of America, in Avhich it is noAv found. America, I believe, may claim a native species of Pear. But no Apple, properly so called, has been found indigenous in the new Avorld. We can boast, however, of the beauty and perfume of the blossoms of Pyrus coronaria, or Crab- apple. For an illustration of the class Icosandria, sec Plate X VIIL * See Dr. Morris's inaugural Dissertation. Philadelphia: ISO'. f June 11th, 1802. 31 242 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. CLASS XIII.—POLYANDRIA. The thirteenth class is denominated Polyandria.* This class embra- ces those hermaphrodite vegetables Avhich are furnished with a number of stamens, that are inserted into the receptacle of the flower. I have already observed, that it is by this circumstance, though it is not ex- pressed in the name of the class, that the Polyandrous vegetables are distinguished from those of the class Icosandria. With respect to the number of the stamens of this class, it is said by L. that they are gene- rally from twenty to a thousand. It is true, that many of the plants of the class Polyandria are furnished with a very great number of stamens, far above twenty; such as Poppy, Capparis, Cistus, Ranunculus, and others. But in the class Icosandria, there are not a few genera which are as abundantly supplied Avith these sexual organs, such as Cactus, Eugenia, Rosa, and others. By attending however, to the very differ- ent manner of insertion of the many-stamened plants of these two classes; Ave shall have no difficulty in referring them to their proper classes. Professor Gmelin, in his edition of the Systema Nature, has united the two classes Icosandria and Polyandria into one, which re- tains the name of Polyandria! I cannot but consider this as a very in- judicious alteration; and I am happy to unite in sentiment, on this sub- ject with a numberof able botanists.! The classes Icosandria and Poly- andria should be kept apart, and not merely in subordinate divisions, but in the higher associations, or classes. Nature is remarkably regular and constant in the place of insertion of the stamens. Besides, by uniting, or rather confounding, the two classes in question, we render the sexual system much more artificial than it really was, when it came from the hands of its Great Architect: we, thus, deprive it of one of its charms, its occasional approach to a Natural System. For although the system of L, is professedly artificial, it has, certainly, some claim to the character of a natural assemblage of vegetables; and I cannot help thinking, that in proportion as it is rendered more artificial, it will lose apart of its value. It has already been observed, that the class Icosandria contains a great number of esculent and innocent vegetables. We shall soon see, on the other hand, that the class Polyandria abounds in poisonous or active vegetables. In this respect, the two assemblages are very differ- ent from each other, and this circumstance should have had some weight with rash innovators, before they made the disposition to which I have objected. In fact, the mode of insertion of the stamens in the class Icosandria is a feature of great importance. Even in other classes, * From noxt/c5 many. ! Professsor Martyn, Dr. J. E. Smith, Dr. Danvin, Professor Willdenow, and others. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 243 a like mode of insertion sometimes gives an indication of the whole- some properties of the vegetable. This is the case with the genus Ribes, comprehending the different kinds of Currants, Gooseberries, &c. which are some of the most innocent fruits in the class Pentan- dria.* Whilst, however, I object to the melting down of the two classes Icosandria and Polyandria into one class, I confess again that I should have no objection to see the last of these classes, in some measure blend- ed with the class Dodecandria: that is I think it would be well to in- troduce all the true Dodecandrous plants, having more than ten stamens, into Polyandria. This Avould, certainly, facilitate the labour of the student. For, after being told, that the Dodecandrous plants have from twelve to nineteen stamens inclusive, Avith what propriety do we in- clude in the class Polyandria a number of genera in which no botanist perhaps, has ever observed as many as nineteen of the male sexual organs: in which, at least, the number nineteen is exceedingly rare. In Podophyllum, Sanguinaria, and some other genera, Ave rarely ob- serve more than fifteen or sixteen stamens.! The class Polyandria is subdivided into seven orders, viz. Monogy- nia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Pentagynia, Hexagynia, and Poly- gynia. Monogynia.—This first order contains the following genera: viz. Marcgravia, Ternstromia,. Alstonia, Trilix, Rheedia, Mammea, Papa- ver, Cheledonium, Capparis, Actea, Cambogia, Calophyllum, Grias, Sparmannia, Mentzelia, Sloanea, Cistus, Corchorus, Sarracenia, Tilia, Ochna, Muntingia, Elaeocarpus, Myristica, Argemone, Lagerstroemia, Thea, Lecythis, Sanguinaria, Jeffersonia,t Podophyllum, Bixa, Nym- phaea, Trewia, Laetia, Seguieria, and Delima. Digynia.—This order is much less extensive than the first. It con- tains the following genera, viz. Calligonum, (which is referred by Willdenow to the class Dodecandria,) Fothergilla, Curatella, and Paeonia. Trigynia.—The genera Delphinium and Aconitum are referred to this order; as is also a species of Reseda', Reseda Luteola, called Yellow- weed, or Dyers-weed. * The stamens of the Ribes are inserted into the calyx. fin some of the earlier editions of the Genera Plantarum, several genera which were afterwards introduced into Dodecandria, had actually a place in Polyandria. I here mention the names of these genera, viz. Bocco- nia, Crataeva, Euphorbia, Peganum, Portulaca, Triumfetta, Heliocarpus, and Reseda. See Genera Plantarum, die. Editio secunda. Lugduni Batavorum: 1742. X Jeffersonia has, very generally, only eight stamens. Sometimes however it has more; but never, I believe as many as twenty. From its near affinity to Podophyllum, and Sanguinaria, it may with as much propriety be introduced into the class Polyandria, as these two genera. 244 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Tetragynia.—This order contains the genera Tetracera, Caryocar, and Cimicifuga. Pentagynia.—Aquilegia, Nigella, Reaumuria, and Brathys belong to this order. Hexagynia.—The genus Stratiotes, or Water-Soldier, and Brasenia belong to this order. Polygynia.—This beautiful order contains the following genera, viz. Dillenia, Illicium, Liriodendron, Magnolia, Michelia, Uvaria, Annona, Nelumbium, Anemone, Atragene, Clematis, Thalictrum, Adonis, Ranunculus, Trollius, Isopyrum, Helleborus, Caltha, Houttuynia, Hydrastis, Drymis, and Unona. Also a new and singular North American genus, of which two species are now known. They are aquatic plants, with peltate leaves. Character.—By some writers the class Polyandria has been deemed a natural class. As such I cannot consider it, though it is unquestionably, more natural than some of the other classes of the sexual method. It is one of those classes which comprehend several pretty natural families of vegetables, that are related to each other by affinities more or less strik- ing. I shall here mention the principal natural assemblages of this class. The genus Capparis belongs to L's. twenty-fifth natural order, Puta- minese.* This plant gives name to an order in the system of Mr. De Jussieu, the order Capparides: the fourth order of his thirteenth class. It embraces, beside Capparis the genus Marcgravia, together with Crataeva, Reseda, Drosera, and Parnassia, of preceding classes, not to mention others. Bixa, Tilia, and Thea form a part of L's. order Columniferas. Cistus belong to his twentieth order, RotaceaeA This genus gives name to the tAventieth order of Jussieu's thirteenth class: the order Cisti, which does not appear to me to be a natural assemblage of vegetables. The genera Papaver, Chelidonium, Glau- cium, Argemone, Sanguinaria and Podophyllum, together with Bocco- nia (of the Xlth class) belong to L's twenty-seventh natural order, RhoeadeaeX' Papaver gives name to an order in the System of Mr. De Jussieu: the order Papaveraceas, which embraces beside Papaver, all the genera of L's. Rhoeadeae (Podophyllum excepted,) and some others. The following Polyandrous genera belong to L's. twenty-sixth natural order, Multisiliquas§: Actaea, Paeonia, Delphinium, Aconitum, # Putaminex, from putamen, a shell because the fleshy seed-vessel or fruit, of these plants is frequently covered with a hard and woody shell. f Rotacece, from rota, a whell; because several of the plants of this order have a flat wheel-shaped petal {corolla rotata,) without a tube. X Rhoeadex, from Rhoeas, the name of Dioscorides and Pliny for the com- mon Corn-Poppy. § Multisiliquse, from multus, many, and siliqua, a pod because the plants of this order have more seed-vessels than one. The name, however, of this order is by no means an appropriate one; for the plants do not bear pods {liliquae,) but in general, many dry capsules: some of them are furnished with no proper seed-vessel, but have numerous distinct seeds. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 245 Cimicifuga, Aquilegia, Nigella, Atragene, Clematis, Thalictrum, Isopyrum, Helleborus, Caltha, Anemone, Trollius, Ranunculus, and Adonis, &c. together with Myosurus, Dictamnus, Ruta, and Peganum of preceding classes. The whole of the genera of this order with the exception of the three last-mentioned genera, belong to Jussieu's order Ranunculaceas, which also embraces Podophyllum, and Zan- thorhiza. Liriodendron, Magnolia, Michelia, Uvaria, and Annona, are the principal genera, in L's. fifty-second natural order, called Coa- dunatae* In the system of Mr. De Jussieu, the order Magnolias (les Magnoliers) embraces, beside Magnolia, the following genera: viz: Liriodendron, Dillenia, Illicium, Michelia, and Talauma. Anona, Unona, Uvaria, and others, belong to Jussieu's order, Anonas. The class Polyandria contains a great number of poisonous vegetables, and this, as I have already said, is one of the reasons why the class ought not to have been confounded with Icosandria, which abounds in escu- lents. L. has observed, that there is not one esculent vegetable in the great order Multisiliquae, and that most, if not all, the plants of this order, are poisonous, though not one of them is lactescent.! I be- lieve the whole of what is here said, is nearly true. I know not more than one or two esculent vegetables in the order. Nigella arvensis is, indeed, cultivated for its seed, which have an agreeable aromatic taste and smell; the young flower-buds of Caltha palustris, or Marsh-mari- gold, are, in some countries, pickled and sold for capers. But these two plants can hardly be said to furnish exceptions to the Swedish naturalist's observation. Ranunculus Ficaria, or PileAvort Crow-foot, it must, however, be observed, is eaten in some countries, both as a sallad, and Avhen boiled. By boiling, even the acrid tuberous roots of Ranunculus bulbosus, are rendered so mild that they are eaten in Scot- land. It is probable, that by the same treatment, not a few other acrid Polyandrous plants might be rendered esculent and innocent. It must not, therefore, be supposed, that in the class Polyandria there are no innocent vegetables. On the contrary, there is a considerable number of such. The ripe fruit of Podophyllum peltatum is good eating, and is greatly esteemed by many persons. The wild-pigeons (Columba migratoria) are said to feed upon this fruit. Different species of Annona also furnish an innocent and wholesome fruit The fruit of the Annona triloba called in the United States, Papaw, and Custard- apple, is extremely luscious, and when perfectly ripe is, I believe, en- tirely innocent. The ripe seeds, or nuts, of the American Nelum- * Coadunatae, from coadunare, to join or gather together. This order seems to take its name from the general appearance of the seed-vessels, which are numerous and being slightly attached below, form together a single fruit, in the shape of a sphere, or cone. f Speaking of this order, L. says, " Odor fcetidus, etiam in Omnibus fere, adeoque nulla hie esculenta, di pleraeque, si non omnes, venenata?, quamvis nulla harum lactescat." Praelectiones, &c. p. 383. 246 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. bium (Nymphaea Nelumbo? of L.) are greatly esteemed by the Indian and white inhabitants of the United States. The different species of Tilia, or Lime-tree, are innocent; and Magnolia, Liriodendron, with some other genera, in this class, are not more active or deleterious than are many of the genera in the class Icosandria. In a medical point of vieAv, the class Polyandria is one of the most important in the sexual system. This importance, however, is not so much owing to the numberof medicinal articles which this class em- braces, as to the value of a few of those articles. The most important article of the class, and one of the most indispensible in the hands of physicians, is Opium, the produce of a species of Papaver, or Poppy: the Papaver somniferum. This vegetable might be cultivated in the United States, with much pecuniary profit. The Gamboge of the shops is the produce of at least three different vegetables, one of which is the Cambogia Gutta of the class under consideration. This plant is a native of India.* The Ladanum of the shops is the produce of a species of Cistus. Tea may, with some propriety, be mentioned as a medicine. As a medicine I believe it possesses no mean virtues; and such are its powers, that it is capable of doing much injury.t Exper- tus loquor. The root of the Sanguinaria canadensis, called in the United States, Indian-Paint, Puccoon, Turmeric, &c. is said to be en- dued with useful medical powers. The root of the Podophyllum peltatum, or May-apple, is an excellent purgative. I believe the root of Jeffersonia binata possesses similar powers. Delphinium, Aconitum, and Cimicifuga are active plants. The Aco- nitum Napellus, or Monks-hood, has been highly praised by Dr. Storck, of Vienna, as a remedy for various diseases. All Storck's medicines seem entitled to some attention. That pernicious vegetable the " Stagger-Aveed," so destructive to the horses in some parts of the United States, is either an Aconitum or a Delphinium. The root of Hydrastis canadensis, called Yellow-root, furnishes a beautiful yelloAV- dye, and is said to be useful as a tonic in dyspeptic, and other affections. Some attention has been paid to different species of Clematis,! but the plants of this genus are worthy of much more attention, than has been bestowed upon them. The leaves of Clematis crispa and Clematis Viorna are very acrid, and might I doubt not, be employed Avith ad- vantage, in some diseases, such as chronic rheumatism, palsy, old olcers, &c. These vegetables are the favorite food Of one of the most active species of American blistering flies, the Lytta marginata of Fa- bricius. Does this insect derive any portion of its active property from the vegetables upon which it feeds? The medical properties of the * Gamboge is procured from a species of Hypericum, the Hypericum bac- ciferum, and from the Stalagmitis Cambogioides. ! See Dr. Lettsom's splendid and very interesting work, The natural History of the Tea-Tree, die die. London: 1799. 4to. X Particularly Clematis recta. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 247 various species of Thalictrum, or Meado w-Rue, have beea but little attended to. The root of Thalictrum flavum has been used as a pur- gative, aperient, tonic, &c. In some parts of the United States, one of the indigenous species of this genus has acquired the character of a specific against the bites of venomous serpents. Most of the species of Ranunculus are plants of considerable acrimony. Ra- nunculus acris, R. sceleratus, R. Flammula, R. bulbosus and R. Fi- caria (the last of which is the mildest species of the genus) have all excited the attention of physicians, as remedies for different diseases. Some species of Anemone are also plants of considerable acrimony. The properties of Anemone nemorosa, A. pratensis, and A. Hepatica have solicited the attention of physicians. Anemone pratensis, or Meadow- Anemone, is one of the active vegetables which were the subjects of Baron Storck's inquiries.—Different species of Hellebore have long maintained a place in the materia medica. The root of the Helleborus niger is an active purgative. It has been doubted whether the Helle- bore of Hippocrates was this or any other species of the genus. Some writers have supposed, that the Greek physician made use of a species of Adonis. The Helleborus foetidus, or Stinking Hellebore, has acquired much reputation, both in Europe and in the United States, as a remedy against worms. * Helleborus trifolius is one of the vege- tables that are common to North America and Asia. The root of this species is usedj in some parts of the United States, as a remedy for sore-throat. As one of the plantas tinctoriae, or dies, it is well worthy of attention. The medical properties of the Liriodendron Tulipifera, or Tulip-tree,! and the Magnolia glauca, or Common Mag- nolia,J have been the subjects of late investigation. These two fine vegetables are, certainly, worthy of the notice of physicians. Other species of Magnolia should be examined. A considerable number of the genera belonging to the class Polyandria are natives of the United States. This tract of country is especially rich in vegetables of the following genera: viz. Sarracenia, Nymphaea, Magnolia, Annona, Ane- mone, Clematis, Thalictrum, Ranunculus. The whole genus of Sar- racenia, so far as is yet known, is exclusively confined to America,, For an illustration of the class Polyandria, see Plate XVHI. • CLASS XIV.—DIDYNAMIA. Didynamia§ is the name of the fourteenth class. This class, as well as the fourth class, contains those hermaphrodite flowers which are furnished with four stamens, or male organs. But in the class Tetran- * See my Collections for an Essay, dec. die. page 38. ! See Dr. Roger's Inaugural Dissertation. Philadelphia: 1802. X See Dr. Price's Inaugural Dissertation. Philadelphia: 1802. § Didynamia, from J'*, twice, and tvmpit, power. 248 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. dria, as we have already observed, the stamens are all of one uniform length, or, at least, there is no regular inequality between them. In the plants of the class Didynamia of which I am now treating, two of the stamens are constantly long, and two short. The stamens are disposed in pairs, the outer pair being longer, the middle pair shorter, and converging. In all the preceding thirteen classes of the sexual system, the orders are founded upon the number of the styles, or female organs. To this circumstance, however L. has paid no attention in constructing the orders of Didynamia, or, indeed, of any of the succeeding ten classes. The orders of Didynamia are two in number, viz. Gymnospermia and Angiospermia. Gymnospermia.—The order Gymnospermia* contains these Didyna- mous plants, which are destitute of a proper pericarp, or seed-vessel, but have their seeds naked. In Prasium, however, the seed are enveloped in a succulent epidermis, which may, with propriety, be considered as the pericarp of this plant. Another essential character belongs to the plants of this order: they have four seed. In Phryma, however, there is but one seed. The folIoAving genera belong to this order, viz. Perilla, Leonurus, Glechoma, Hyssopus, Mentha, Sideritis, Lavandula, Teu- crium, Ajuga, Phlomis, Betonica, Lamium, Galeobdolon, Stachys, Nepeta, Satureja, Ballota, Marrubium, Moluccella, Scutellaria, Thy- mus, Ocymum, Prunella, Cleonia, Trichostema, Dracocephalum, Origanum, Clinopodium, Thymbra, Melittis, Melissa, Horminum, Prasium, and Phryma. Angiospermia.—The order Angiospermia! contains those plants an- swering to the classical character, which have their seed covered, that is lodged in a proper pericarp, or seed-vessel. This is a constant charac- ter, and very naturally distinguishes the plants of this order from those of the preceding division. This second order, which is more exten- sive than the first, contains the following among other, genera, viz. Castilleja, Obolaria, Orobanche, Hebenstretia, Torenia, Acanthus^ Premna, Cressentia, Halleria, Selago, Lippia, Lathraea, Bartsia, Eu- phrasia, Rhinanthus, Melampyrum, Schwalbea, Barle'ria, Loeselia,. Gmelina, Lantana, Avicennia, Tozzia, Limosella, Browallia, Linder* nia> Vandellia, Gesneria, Scrophularia, Stemodia, Celsia, Sibthorpiar Capraria, Digitalis, Bignonia, Ruellia, Buchnera, Erinus, Petrsea, Manulea, Antirrhinum, Columnea, Gerardia, Pedicularis, Mimulus,. * Gymnospermia, yvf*m, naked, and ring/**., seed Gymnotetraspermse (a term derived from the Greek words w-voc, na-a-a.^, four, and *»•-§/---"» a seed) is the name of a division in the methods of Hermann and Boerhaave. This division comprehends those plants which have four naked seed, as in Borago, Symphytum, and other Asperifoliae, formerly mentioned; and also the plants which flower at the joints, such as Mentha, Origanum, and other verticillate plants, now under consideration, (order of naked seeds.) ! Angiospermia, from **»**, a vessel, and «-srig/u*, a seed. Seed in a. covered capsule. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 249 Dodartia, Chelone, Sesamum, Penstemon, Martynia, Craniolaria, Pedalium, Amasonia, Linnaea, Bontia, Cornutia, Clerodendron, Volka- meria, Citharexylon, Ovieda, Millingtonia, Vitex, Duranta, Besleria, Hyobanche, Cymbaria, Thunbergia, and Melianthus. Character.--L. has asserted, that the class Didynamia is a very natural class, and that it contains no genus which does not in strict pro- priety, appeartain to it* He places the essential character of the class in the circumstance of the plants having four stamens, two of which are long and two short; in the anthers converging, or inclining toAvards each other; in their being but one style, or female organ, and in the corolla being of an irregular shape. L. has not wanted followers, even where he has been most prepense to paradox. Other writers have considered the class under consideration as a natural class. Professor Van Royen, in his Florae Leidensis. Prodromus, published in 1740, has endeavored to dispose of the plants enumerated and described in that work, under a number of natural families, or orders. His method is, unquestionably more natural than the sexual method of the Swede; indeed, several of the orders may be considered as very natural assem- blages. In this work, the plants of the class Didynamia of L. are throvm into one entire family or order, which is designated by the name 'Ringentes, or the Grinning-FloAvers. I cannot consider the class under consideration as a natural class, though it is, indeed, much more natural than several of the other classes of the sexual system. For an enumeration of the various characters, or features, which show an af- finity of the plants of this class to one another, I must refer the reader to the Genera Plantarum of L. But though I cannot admit, that this class, taken in the aggregate is a natural one, it must be admitted, that the two orders into which it is subdivided, may Avith great propriety, be consi- dered as two vast natural families,or assemblages, each characterized by a set of features which almost exclusively belong to it. In other words, the two orders are very dissimilar from each other: so dissimilar that "it would have been difficult (to use the words of Dr. Milne,) except from the number and proportion of the stamina, to have reduced them under one head, with any degree of certainty and decency. The petals, seed-bud, seed-vessel and ssed, are totally different in the two orders. The habit too, or general appearance of the plants, is per- fectly different."! L. himself, notwithstanding what he has said in the Genera Plan- tarum, appears to have been fully sensible of the few family affinities * " Classis haec est Naturalissima, nee ullum genus ab eo excludi potest." Genera Plantarum, die. In some of the early editions of this work, the genus Cunila, and some others, which were afterwards transferred to the class Dian- dria, were placed in Didynamia. There is, indeed a very great affinity between the Diandrous plants with ringent flowers: and the plants of the first order of Didynamia. It is a pity, that the principles of the sexual system did not per- mit its illustrious author to associate these plants more nearly together, or under the same class. f A Botanical Dictionarv, dec. article Didynamia. 32 250 ELEMENT* OF BOTANY. that subsist between the two orders of the class in question. Accord- ingly, in his work on the natural orders, he has disposed of the greater number of the plants of the class Didynamia under two great natural families, which he calls Verticillatae and Personatas.— These are his forty second and his fortieth orders. The term Verticillatae* Avas used by Ray, from whom L. borrowed it. It comprehends, besides the plants of the order Gymnospermia, several Diandrous plants, such asLycopus, Amethystea, Ziziphora, Monarda, Rosmarinus, Salvia, Cunila, &c. The term Verticillatae is synonymous to the Labiaii, or Lip-flowers, of Tournefort, so called from the une- qual and irregular divisions of the petal, or corolla, which is imagined (and in some species actually does) to resemble the lips of an animal. In the system of Mr. De Jussieu, these plants form an order (the sixth of his eighth class) by the'name of Labiates. At the properties of the verticillate plants I have already hinted, in a former part of this work. I may now add, that most of these plants contain a very fragrant, odorous matter, that they are of a warm and penetrating nature, and that few, if any, of them are poisonous. These plants were formerly much more employed in medical practice^than they are at present. By the old physicians, and by many of the mo- derns, in some parts of the Avorld, they were deemed cephalic, or imagined to be peculiarly adapted to the diseases of the head. There does not appear to be any good foundation for this notion, which seems to ha\Te originated in days of a less correct science than the present. Perhaps, however, some of the verticillate plants are too much neglect- ed in the modern practice of physicians. It is not likely, that they Avill soon lose their reputation, which they have long maintained, as domestic medicines. Many of these plants delight to grow in dry situations, which are frequently among the healthiest in every country: in situations, I think, peculiarly exempted from the various forms of intermittent fevers. The order Personatae contains many of the plants of the second di- vision, or Angiospermia. They are furnished Avith that particular species of corolla, which we have called corolla personata, personate or masked corolla. This is said to resemble the head or snout of an animal. Most of the plants of this "natural order are referred by Mr. De Jussieu to his order Scrophulariae. This is the seventh order of his eighth class. The genus Digitalis, however, Avhich the French bo- tanist includes among the Scrophulariae, is referred byL. to his order Luridae formerly mentioned. It has been justly observed, that there is a great affinity between the plants of the order Angiospermia, and many of the plants of the first order of the class Pentandria. Several species of the genera belonging to the second division of Didynamia, are constantly furnished Avith five stamens,! and many others, beside * Vertilicillatx, from verticillus, a whirl, or whorl. f Bignonia sempervirens (a North American plant) has five complete stamens ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 251 the four stamens, characterising the class, have the rudiment of a fifth' stamen.* The agreement between the tAvo classes does not end here. Several of the covered-seeded plants of Didynamia are poisonous, and Ave have already seen, that there are a great number of deleterious plants in the firstorder of Pentandria. 1 think we are much less acquainted Avith the medical properties of the plants of the second than with those of the firstorder of Didynamia. Much attention, however, has been paid to the poAvers of a few of the Angiospermous plants. Every physician now acknoAvledges the highly valuable powers of the Digy- talis purpurea, or Purple Foxglove: one of the most inestimable articles in the Materia Medica. Useful qualities have been ascribed to differ- ent species of Antirrhinum, or Snapdragon, and Scrophularia, or Fig- wort not to notice several others. Gerardia flava (one of the most com- mon North American plants) is said to have been used Avith advantage, in obstinate intermittents. Euphrasia will, in all probability, live much longer in the lines of Milton than in the lists of future Avriters on the materia medica. A species of Orobanche (the Orobanche virginica,) called in the United States Cancer-root, has acquired some reputation as a remedy for cancerous affections. The sensible qualities of the plant lead me to suspect, that it is endued with useful medical poAvers. The Orobanche major, or Greater-Broom-rape, a native of Europe, is a very astringent plant, and is! said to have been found useful, externally applied, in cases of ulcers. It deserves to be mentioned, that many o"f the plants of Angiospermia turn black by drying, and hence it is diffi- cult to preserve the beauties of these plants in our Hor/i Sicci, or Herbaria. Bartsia, Melampyrum, Rhinanthus, Buchnera'americana, and some species of Gerardia, are among the number of these plants. The plants of other classes likewise turn black when drying. This is the case with Podalyria and Monotropa, in the class Decandria. Apo- theosis of Botanists. The second order of the class Didynamia embraces a great number of genera Avhich are named in honour of distinguished botanists and naturalists, or cultivators of these sciences. The name of L. is affixed to a little plant of this order, Avhich is a native of three por- tions of the earth; of the northern parts of Europe, of Asia, and of North America. May the species be preserved to perpetuate the beloved name of that illustrious man.—But the name of L. together with the me- mory of his services, will, in all probability, survive many of the species of vegetables which are, at present extensively diffused over the surface oftheearth. The order under consideration has consecrated the names of other illustrious men; of Haller (worthy to he the rival of L.) of Conrad Genser, one of the fathers of natural history; of Fabius Colum- na, of Gerard, Of Professor Martyn (the able commentator on the Georgics of Virgil,) of Thunberg, and a brilliant constellation com- posed of many others, some of whom are still living. The practice * Such are Tanaecium, Chelonc, Sesamum, Martvnia, d:c. f By Floyer, die 252 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. of giving personal names to plants is of an high antiquity. Perhaps, it is nearly as ancient as the first study of plants. It is a practice which I hope will never fall into neglect, though I am sensible it has often been abused. A late ingenious writer* has observed, that " it may be styled the apotheosis of botanists; and L. may be compared to the high priest who has thus immortalized a numerous group of cele- brated men. The following are some of the Didynamous genera that are found native within the limits of the United States, viz. Mentha, Westringia, Stachys, Nepeta, Scutellaria, Prunella, Trichostema, Dra- cocephalum, Clinopodium, Phryma, Obolaria, Orobanche, Bartsia, Melampyum, Lindernia, Scrophularia, Bignonia, Ruellia, Buchnera, Antirrhinum, Gerardia, Pedicularis, Mimulus, Chelone, Penstemon, Marfynia, and Linnaea. For illustrations of the class Didynamia, see Plates IV. and XIX. CLASS XV.—TETRADYNAMIA. Tetradynamia! is the name of the fifteenth class, this class ^as has been already observed, embraces those hermaphrodite flowers which have six stamens, four of which are long and two short. By this character, we readily distinguish the plants of the class Tetradyna- mia from those of the class Hexandria. We shall presently see, how essentially the subjects of these two divisions of the sexual method differ from each other; in regard, at least, to their aspect, or physiognomy. Between the properties of these plants, there is a much greater affinity than seems to have been suspected. This class is divided into two-orders, viz. Siliculosa and Siliquosa. These orders are founded upon the circumstance of the form or shape of the pericarp, or seed-vessel. This it has already been observed, is a spe- cies of pod, in which the seed are alternately affixed to either suture, or joining of the valves. Siliculosa.—The plants of this order are furnished with thatparticu- lar species of pericarp, which we have called silicula; silicle, or little pod, or pouch. The following are the principal genera which belong to this order, viz. Draba, Lunaria, Subularia, Myagrum, Vella, Isatis, Crambe, Bunias,~j: Iberis, Alyssum, Clypeola, Peltaria, Cochlearia, Co- ronopus, Lepidium, Thlaspi, Biscutella, and Anastatica. Siliquosa.—The plants of the second order are furnished with that * Dr. Pulteney. See his very entertaining work entitled, Historical and Biographical Sketches of the Progress of Botany in England, die. Vol. II. p. 47. ! Tetradynamia, from 'r^^ga, four, and Swu^is, power. X L. has placed the three genera Isatis, Bunias, and Crambe in the second order of the class, but I think it more proper to place them in the first order, as has been done by Dr. Smith {Flora Britanica, die) and some other writers; for each of these genera is, unquestionably, furnished with a true silicula, or silicle. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 253 species of pericarp, which we have called siliqua or silique. It may here, again, be observed, that the silicle and the silique, do not essen- tially differ from each other: they differ only in form and size. The latter is much longer than broad; as in Mustard: the former is almost round or makes a nearer approach to the orbicular figure; as in Honesty (Lunaria;) and Shepherds-Purse, or Thlaspi. This order contains the following genera, viz. Raphanus, Erysimum, Cheiranthus, Hesperis, Arabis, Brassica, Turritis, Dentaria, Ricotia, Cleome, Cardamine, Sinapis, Sisymbrium, and Heliophila. Character.—The class Tetradynamia is, unquestionably, the most natural class in the sexual method. If we except the genus Cleome* (Bastard-Mustard,) which is a very irregular family of plants, allied both to the Polyandrous and Gynandrous plants, the whole class does not contain a single genus which ought agreeably to the laws of any natural system, to be excluded from it. All botanists as L. himself has observed, have perceived the affinity which subsists between the plants of this class, f Morison, Hermann, Ray, and Boerhaave had, long prior to the publication of any of L.'s writing, denominated these plants Siliquosae, and Siliculosae. Tournefort has denominated them Cruciformesj Haller, Cruciatas, and Jussieu, Cruciferae. Tourne- fort and Haller have disposed of these plants under two general heads, viz. Siliculosae and Siliquosae, founding their divisions upon the form of the pod, as L. himself has done in his sexual method. The terms Cruciformes, Cruciatae, &c. Avere imposed upon these plants, from the form of the corolla, which has already been noticed. In his work on the natural orders, L. has thrown all the genera of the class Tetrady- namia (Cleome excepted!) into one great division, by the name of Sili- quosae. These constitute his thirty-ninth order. The following characters belong, in general, to these plants. Hither- to, there has not been discovered a single instance of a true tree in the whole order. Some, species, however, are shrubby. The root is fibrous, fusiform, Or tuberous. None of them are furnished with a bulb, in the L. sense of the word: yet to an American species of Ara- bis, the specific name of bulbosa has been affixed. The caulis, or stem, is generally herbaceous. The leaves are alternate. They have neither stipules, tendrils, or prickles. In most species, the flowers are disposed in a corymb, which is gradually elongated into a raceme; so that while the flowers are corymbous, the fruit is racemous. The calyx istetraphyllus, or four-leaved, and in most species deciduous. The petals are four, and unguiculate, or clawed: but some species have flat petals. •Some are destitute of petals. In general, they have glands upon the re- ceptacle. The stamens, as has already been observed, are six in number, four long and two short. The two opposite ones are shorter, or, at least, more spreading. (Some species of Lepidium, however, are strictly Hex- * See the explanation of Plate XXVI. f Praelectiones, die. p. 481. X Putamimineae, L. 254 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. androus; that is, there is no regular inequality in respect to the length of the stamens. Cardamine hirsuta has frequently no more than four sta- mens, the two shorter ones being deficient. In Cleome, the number of the stamens is various.) The fruit is a silicle, or silique: two valved, and two-celled, and containing many seed. In Isatis and Crambe, the fruit contains but a single seed. The general properties of the Siliquose plants are well known to us. They have an acrid, lixivial taste. This, in some species, is very powerful; as in the Cochlearia Armoracia, or Horse-radish, and the Sinapis, or Mustard. In other species, the acri- mony is very inconsiderable, as in Brassica Rapa, or Turnip, and other species of the genus. I believe, however, that all these plants are considerably acrid whilst growing in their wild state, or in particular soils. Thus the Horse-radish is much more acrid in wet situations than it is in our gardens. Even the Turnip, when it is restricted to wet ground contracts a remakable acrimony. Cultivation has rendered these plants much milder, and more agreeable to our palates. It would seem, indeed, that the properties of the Tetradynamous plants are re- markably influenced (more, I think, than the properties of most other plants, the Umbelliferae perhaps excepted) by the soil and climate in which they grow. The active powers of these plants reside more especially in the roots and seeds. If these be made into cataplasms, and applied to the surface of the body, they excite a considerable de- gree of heat, redness and inflammation. Hence, they are denominated " rubefacients, and topical stimulants." If the application be conti- nued for a longer time, they often induce, as cantharides, and other similar insects do, a vesication, or discharge of serous fluid from the part. Their operation extends much further. They increase the force and frequency of the circulation, and the heat of the body. Taken into the stomach, they excite vomiting and purging, and promote the discharge by the kidneys. They sometimes produce a considera- ble ardor urinas; and, like cantharides, turpentine, and other articles, they induce stranguria. They sometimes increase the secretion from the surface of the body. I have known them to induce considera- ble and very troublesome headache. There are reasons to believe, that the peculiar acrimony of these plants is conveyed, but little altered by the powers of the system, into the course of the circulation. Very few, if any, of the plants of this class are poisonous. It must not be denied, however, that to some of the Tetradynamous plants have been ascribed effects which, if actually induced by these plants, Avould lead us to believe, that they are really poisonous. The seed of the Raphanus Raphanistrum, or White-Charlock, a native of various parts of Europe, are sometimes mixed with grain, and made into bread. This bread is said to have frequently produced, in different parts of Europe a dreadful disease, to which L. and Cullen have given the name of Raphania.^ This is defined by the last mentioned nosolo- * It is the convulsio raphania of Sauvages. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 255 gist, " a spasmodic contraction of the joints, with convulsive agita- tion, and most violent, periodical pain." In the Amoenitates Acade- mics,* there is a very ample account of this singular disease, which is confidently ascribed to the White-Charlock. It may, however, be doubted, whether the disease has any necessary connection with the use of this vegetable. This must be decided by future inquiry and more extended information. I cannot, in this place, state the grounds of my doubt. But I can, Avith much satisfaction, refer my reader to the dissertation which I have mentioned. It is proper, in this place, to observe, that the analysis of the Tetradynamous plants furnishes the chemist with some peculiar products, Avhich are not at all, or less abun- dantly, obtained from other plants. Submitted to distillation, they give out a large quantity of volatile-alkali, or. ammoniac. It is gene- rally supposed that this alkali is formed during the operation of distilla- tion, by the union of the nitrogene, or azotic gas, and the hydrogene, or inflammable air. Mr. Deyeux has shown, that sulphur naturally exists in some of those plants, as in Cochlearia. There are good reasons to suppose, that a great deal of the sulphur which is so abundantly diffused through the earth, has been formed by the decomposition of vegetables. The seeds of Mustard, Rocket, Garden-cresses, and other plants of the class, afforded the celebrated Margraaf, a fine phosphorus. Berthol- let finds the phosphoric acid principally in those vegetables which yield ammoniac, by distillation. I believe, however, it is certain, that a con- siderable number of plants which yield the phosphoric acid, do not yield ammoniac. The acid in question has been discovered! in some of the Didynamous plants lately mentioned; as in Antirrhinum Lina- ria (Ransted-weed.) The researches of the chemist have shown, that this acid is much more extensively diffused through the vegetable world, than was formerly supposed. Meyer thinks he can detect it in the green resinous parts of the leaves of vegetables. The class Tetradynamia is, upon the whole a very important class. It furnishes us with several alimentary articles, which are extremely nutritious, such as the Turnip, the different varieties of Cabbage, &c. It likewise furnishes us Avith several of those stimulating articles such as Mustard, Horse-radish, &c. to which Ave have given the name of con- diments. To the materia medica, properly so called, this class has not given many very indispensible articles. Some, hoAvever, it has given, and these, I think, are more important than they are generally deemed. The principle of these are Mustard (Sinapis nigra, &c.,) and Horse-radish. These are especially valuable, Avhen externally applied, in the shape, of cataplasms. Thus employed, they are, in the treatment of some diseases, among the most valuable implements in the hands of physicians. They are also found very useful, when exhibited internal- * Vol. VI. Dissertatio CXXIII. f By Mr. Hessenfratz. 256 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ly, in the management of dropsy, scurvy, gout, palsy, and other dis- eases. The flowers or Cardamine pratensis (Meadow-Ladies-smock, and Cuckow-flower) have been recommended, by Sir George Baker, and some other physicians, as a remedy for spasmodic asthma, chorea, and other similar diseases. A species of Cleome is employed in some parts of the United States, as a remedy in cases of worms.* The poAv- erfully-fetid smell of some species of this genus, renders it probable, that they may be useful medicines, not only in cases of worms, but also in other diseases. The seed of Sisymbium Sophia (Flix-weed) have likewise been employed as an anthelmintic; and are said by Mr. Durande, to be a powerful remedy in restraining uterine haemorrhages. The following Tetradynamous genera are natives of the United States, viz. Draba, Thlaspi, Cochlearia, Arabis, Brassica, Dentaria, Cleome, Cardamine; Sinapis, and Sisymbrium. Our country cannot be said to abound in the plants of this class. It must be mentioned, how- ever, that several new species of the genera which I have enumerated have, within a few years been discovered in the United States.—Peter Osbeck, one of the pupils of L. informs us, that he did not find one Tetradynamous plant growing " spontaneously" in China. Some spe- cies of Brassica, however, are known to be natives of this vast empire. I have introduced the observation of Osbeck in this place, because it is a fact that the Flora of China and that of North America, in the same latitudes, are extremely similar to each other. For an illustratibn of the class Tetradynamia, see Plate XIX. Fig. 3. CLASS XVI.—MONADELPHIA. To the sixteenth class of his system, L. has given the name of Mo- nadelphia.f By the English botanists, this is called the class of One Brotherhood,*): and the class of Threads United.§ This vast and inter- esting class embraces those hermaphrodite vegetables, which have all their stamens, or male prgans, united beloAv, that is by their filaments, into one body, or cylinder, through which the pistil, or female organ, passes. Other classical characters of these plants will be particularly detailed afterwards. The orders of the class Monadelphia are nine in number, and are founded upon the circumstance of the number of sta- mens. The names of these orders, with the exception of the seventh, are the same as those of several of the preceding classes. The cir- cumstance is well calculated to show, how unwilling L. was to neglect the sexual organs, in the formation of his system. Perhaps it would not have been difficult to have discovered a better foundation upon which to have constructed the ordinal divisions of the class in question. * See my Collections for an Essay die p. 64. ! Monadelphia, from^-v**- one or alone, and *'«, a brotherhood. X Darwin. § Withering. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 257 The names of the orders Monadelphia are Triandria, Pentandria, Hep- tandria, Octandria, Eenneandria, Decandria, Endecandria, Dodecandria, and Polyandria. Triandria.—The first order contains the two genera, Aphyteia and Galaxia. Pentandria.—Lerchea, Waltheria, Hermannia, Melochia, Sympho- nia, and Erodium belong to this order. Heptandria.—To this order belongs the genus Pelargonium, " an ex- cellent genus," which includes most of the Geraniums that are natives of the Cape of Good-Hope: a portion of the world which is immensely rich in the genera and species of plants, many of which have not been discovered in any other parts of the earth. Octandria.—To this order is referred the genus Aitonia, Avhich ao- pearstohave but little family affinity to the other plants of the class. Enneandria.—The genus Dryandra belongs to this order. Decandria.—This order contains the genera Connarus, Hugonia, and Geranium. This last-mentioned genus was confounded by L. and other botanists, with the Iavo genera Erodium and Pelargonium, Avhich have been already mentioned. We are indebted to the late Mr. L'Heritier (one of the most able of the modern botanists) for the better arrange- ment of these plants. He has divided the Linnaean genus of Geranium into three distinct families, viz. 1. Erodium (comprehending Geranium romanum,G. cicutarium, G. moschatum, &c. of L.,) Avhich has five fertile stamens: 2. Pelargonium (comprehending Geranium pinnatum, G. lobatum, G. odoratissimum, and many others,) the species of which have, in general, seven fertile stamens; and 3. Geranium, properly so called, the species of which have, most commonly, ten fertile sta- mens. Some species of the genus Oxalis, which L. has referred to his tenth class, are strictly monadelphousin their structure, and, as having ten complete stamens, are referred to the order Decandria of the pre- sent class. The genera Spartium, Genista, Anthyllis, Ulex, and Ononis, also belong to this order of Monadelphia, though they are arranged by L. in his class Diadelphia. Endecandria.*—To this order is referred the genus Brownea, the proper number of whose stamens is, I believe, somewhat doubtful. The species of this genus are, however, sometimes found with ten sta- mens. Dodecandria.—This order contains the genus Pentapetes. Polyandria.—This is the most extensive and Magnificent order of the clsss. The following are the principal genera which it contains, viz. Gustavia, Gordonia, xMorisonia, Mesua, Stewartia, Napaea, Sida, Anoda, Laguna, Palava, Solandra, Bombax, Adansonia, Barringtonia, Carolinea, Gossypium, Lavatera, Malacra, Fugosia, Pavonia, Malva, Malope, Urena, Alcea, Hibiscus, Malvaviscus, Althaea, Camellia, and several others, particularly genera of the Abbe Cavanilles. * Endecandria, from »vcT-»*, eleven. 33 258 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. Character.—" Classis haec naturalissima est, nee ullum genus ex datis est, quod addi vel demi, potest." These are the words of L.* The class Monadelphia is indeed, upon the Avhole: a natural class. The proof of this assertion may, I apprehend, be deduced, Avith some de- gree of confidence, from the single circumstance, that almost all bota- nists, in pursuit of a natural method, have associated under one head, the greater number of the Mbnadelphous plants, though they have constructed their methods upon principles very different from those which L. has made choice of, in the establishment of his sexual method. The Monadelphous plants are arranged by Tournefortin the sixth section of his first class. Haller has thrown them into an order (Co lumniferae) of his eighth class. ByL. the greater numberof the genera of this class are arranged under his thirty-seventh natural order, (Columniferae,\) Avhich was formerly mentioned. The genus Geranium, however, is relerred to the fourteenth order of the same writer, the order Gruinales,X whilst several genera, not belong- ing to the class Monadelphia, are thrown into the order Columniferae. In the system of Jussieu, these plants constitute an order called Malva- ceae, the fourteenth order of the thirteenth class. They constitute the fourteenth order of Van Roy en's system by the English botanists, these plants are generally denominated Malvaceous Plants, and plants of the Mallow-tribe. The " natural classical character" ('as L. calls it) of Monadelphia, is noAv to be mentioned. The vegetables of this class have in general, a permanent calyx, Avhich in many of the genera, is double. In other genera, however, of the class, the calyx is single. Thus it is double in Mal\*a, Alcea, &c. It is single in Gordonia, Mo- risonia, Stewartia, Adansonia, and others. The petals are five in num- ber, and are somewhat heart-shaped, closely embracing each other ibove, so as to form the appearance of-a single petal. Tournefort con- sidered many of the Malvaceous plants as being monopetalous; but the corollo is unquestionably, polypetalous, although the petals when they fall, cohere together, which is OAving to the intimate connection which subsists between the filaments and the petals. The petals, indeed, ap- pear to be a continuation of the filaments, or the filaments a continuation of the petals. The filaments as has already been observed, are united into a bundle, or cylinder, below, but are separate above. The anthers are lightly attached to the filaments by the middle. The receptacle of the fructification, or that part to which the flower and fruit are attached, is prominent in the middle of the floAver. The seeds are kidney- shaped. It has already been observed, that the order Columniferae * Genera Plantarum. f Columniferce, from columna, a pillar, and fero, to bear, or support: be- cause the stamens and pistils of these plants exhibit the appearance of a column, or pillar, in the centre of the flower. X Gruinales, from grus, a crane. " Erit mihi magnus Apollo, qui hujus Ordinis dicat characterem." Linnaei Praelectiones, die p. 325. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 259 contains a number of genera which do not belong to the class Mona- delphia, and that some of the plants of this class are not comprehended, by L. in the order Columniferae. I shall, in this place, merely hint at the nature and properties of those plants of the order which are arrang- ed under the class of Monadelphia. I have already made mention of the properties of some of the other genera, and shall hint at those of a few more, in treating of some of the subsequent classes. The subjects of the class Monadelphia vary in size, from some of the smaller vegetables that are known to us, to several of the most stu- pendous trees that have,* hitherto, been discovered. Thus, some of the creeping Mallows (Malva rotundifolia,&c. &c.)are low and very hum- ble plants, which seldom arrive to the heighth of six inches: whilst the Silk-cotton tree (Bombax pentandrum) is so large, and spreads its branches so Avidely, that,, according to William Bosnian,* twenty thousand men, closely armed, might without inconvevienee to one another, stand under its branches. This vast vegetable is a native of Africa (where the traveller just mentioned, saw it,) and of South America. The Adansonia digitata (Ethiopian Sour-gourd) is one of the most stupendous trees that is known to us. It is a native of Senegal in Africa. Some of these trees are known to acquire the diameter of twenty-five feet, or seventy-five feet in circumference. The Adansonia is,, also, a tree Avhich attains to a great age. In the year 174 9, the learn- ed Mr. Michael Adanson saw two of these trees, in the neighbourhood of Goree, upon one of which was inscribed the date of the fourteenth, and upon the other that of the fifteenth century! yet, there was good reason to suppose, that the trees were not young when the dates were cut. It may be conjectured, upon very plausable grounds, that these trees sometimes attain to the age of eight or nine hundred years: an immense period for the existence of any species of organized bodies! The class Monadelphia is by no means the least important in the sexual system. On the contrary, it furnishes us Avith many valuable vegetables, some of them among the most valuable with Avhich Ave are acquainted. The diflerent species of Gossypium, or Cotton, are sub- jects of this class. The species which is at present, cultivated with so much success, in the United States, and with such great emolument to the country,is the Gossypium herbaceum, a native of the East Indies. It is not probable that this plant will ever be a staple article of any of the States of the American Union to the northward of Virginia; unless in process of time, an essential change shall take place in the climates of North Ameriea. Nevertheless it should be remembered that vegeta- bles, of various kinds, do, by degrees, habituate themselves to climates, the seasons of which are in a great measure stationary. A remarkable instance of Avhich Avehavein that truly beautiful vegetable the Frank- linia altamaha,! Avhich, since the period of its first introduction into * " Veri amans homo," as Haller calls them. ! Gordonia pubescens of Aiton. 260 ELEMENTS OF BOTAXV. Pennsylvania, has altered the time of its flowering, by nearly two months. Owing to the large quantity of mild mucilage with which they abound, there can be little doubt, that many of the Monadelphous plants might be used, with great advantage, as articles of diet. Some of them, indeed, have been introduced into notice as delicacies of the table. We know not with certainty what plant it was Avhich the Ro- mans so greatly esteemed, and Avhich Horace has characterized by the name of the " levis Malva," or Smooth-Mallow. We have good reason to belive, it was a plant of the class Monadelphia. The young and tender fruit of the Hibiscus esculentus, or Okra, is much esteemed as an article of diet in the United States. The Camellia, a shrub very nearly allied to the true Tea, belongs to this class, and its floAvers are used by the Chinese, for the purpose of scenting Tea. The Frakli- nia is also, closely allied to the Tea, and I greatly mistake if its leaves which are considerably astringent, might not be employed as a good substitute for the Teas, in common use. The class Monadelphia has given to the materia medica, but few important articles. , Some spe cies of Geranium, however, are entitled to the attention of physicians. I here particularly allude to the Geranium robertianum, or Herb-Robert, and the Geranium maculatum. The root of the last mentioned species, which is a very common plant in the United States, is very astringent, and has been found useful in the cholera morbus of children.* A decoc- tion of the roots of a species of Napaea, Avhich the negroes call Lass, is said to be a sovereign remedy in the venereal disease. For an illus- tration of the class Monadelphia, see Plate XX. CLASS XVII.—DIADELPHIA. The seventeenth class of the sexual system is denominated Diadel- phia.f By the English botanists, it is called the class of Two Brother- hoods. This class contains those hermaphrodite flowers, which have their stamens united beloAV into two sets of cylindrical filaments. So much, at least, is implied by the name of the class; but, unfortunately the student will often find, that the plant which the Swedish naturalist has referred to this great section of his sexual method, has strictly speaking only one set of united filaments. In many of the genera, the stamens are all united; that is, all in one set, generally with a slit down the, upper side of the tube. " These (says a very respectable botanist!) really are notDiadelphous but Monadelphous, and are a great stumbling block to accurate beginners." &c. I cannot help adding in the words of Dr. Milne, " that the names given by former botanists, to the numerous * See Collections for an Essay, die die page 8. ! From .«-*■•-, generation, ! Dr. Darwin, dre 268 ELEMENTS OF TIOTANV. of these flowers are furnished Avith the ligulate, or strap-shaped, corolla, and a very few of them Avith a radiate corolla The following are the principal genera, which belong to the order: viz. Scolymus, Cichorium, Catananche, Seriola, Hypochoeris, Gero- pogon, Andryala, Tragopogon, Picris, Leontodon, Scorzonera, Crepis, Chondrilla, Prenanthes, Lactuca, Hieracium, Sonchus, Lapsana, Hyo- seris, Atractylis, Barnadesia, Carlina, Cnicus, Arctium, Carthamus, Cynara, Carduus, Onopordum, Serratula, Ethulia, Spilanthus, Agera- tum, Cacalia, Chrysocoma, Eupatorium, Kuhnia, Santolina, Calea, Athanasia, Bidens, Staehelina, Pteronia, Tarchonanthus. Polygamia superflua.—In the plants of this order, the florets in the centre or disk, are hermaphrodite; while those of the circumference, margin, or radius, are simply female florets; that is, they are destitute of the stamens, or male organs. This species of intercommunication, or polygamy, is denominated Superfluous, because the impregnation of the female florets in the circumference is altogether unnecessary to the perpetuation of the vegetable by seed; the fructification being perfect- ed in the florets of the centre. To this order are referred the folloAving among other genera: viz. Tanacetum, Artimesia, Gnaphalium, Xeranthemum, Carpesium, Bac- charis, Conyza, Erigeron, Tussilago, Senecio, Aster, Solidago, Cine- raria, Inula, Arnica, Doronicum, Perdicium, Helenium, Bellis; Bel- lium, Tagetes, Leysera, Zinnia, Pectis, Chrysanthemum, Matricaria, Cotula, Anacyclus, Anthemis, Achillea, Tridax, Amellus, Eclipta, Sigesbeckia, Verbesina, Buphthalmum, Unxia, and Mutisia. Polygamia frustranea.—This order furnishes us with the third case of Polygamy of flowers. For here the hollow florets in the disk or centre of the flower are supplied with both the stamens and style, while the flat florets in the radius or circumference, are neuter, that is, are destitute of both the stamens and styles or male and female organs. To this species of polygamy, L. has, I think, very properly, given the name of frustraneous or ineffectual, because the florets, which are situated in the ray, being destitute of sexual organs, can be of no po- tential use in the function of generation. This order which is much less extensive than either of the preceding, contains the following genera, viz. Sclerocarpus, Helianthus, Rudbeckia, Coreopsis, Osmites, Gorteria, Zoegea, and Centaurea. Polygamia necessaria.—In the plants of this order, the florets of the disk are male, or have stamens, whilst those of the ray are female, or merely supplied Avith the pistil. This species of polygamy is with great propriety, and indeed, very happily, denominated necessary, be- cause neither the florets of the disk or ray being hermaphrodite, the intercommunication of the tAvo sexes, situated in different parts of.the flower, is absolutely necessary for perfecting the fructification. The greater number of the flowers of this order are radiate. This order em- braces the genera Milleria, Baltimora, Silphium, Polymnia, Chryso- ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 269 gonum, Melampodium, Calendula, Arctotis, Osteospermum, Othonna, Hippia, Eriocephalus, Filago, and^Micropus. Polygamia segregata.—This order does not furnish a distinct case of polygamy. It is, in reality, only a modification of the first case, or necessary polygamy. In the greater number of the plants of the order of separate polygamy, the florets are hermaphrodite, as well as in those of the first order, but then they are separated from each other by means of partial flower-cups, or perianths, which support one or more florets, and are placed within a common calyx, or perianth. To this order belong the genera, Elephantopus, Oedera, Sphaeranthus, Echinops, Gundelia, Stoebe, and Jungia. Monogamia.—This sixth and last order contains simple flowers, in which respect it differs from all the preceding orders, the flowers of which are truly compound. In fact the genera which L. has referred to the order Monogamia which I am examining, are so essentially dif- ferent in their structure and in their aspect, from the plants of the pre- ceding five orders, that the Swedish naturalist has (to use the words of an author whom I have often quoted) offered " a manifest violence to Nature by forcibly tearing many genera of plants from their proper place, and incorporating them vvith others, which are of a different and even opposite nature. In fact (continues our author,) of all the numer- ous systems of botany, there is not a single character which wounds nature so cruelly as that of L. in the instance just given."* This cri- ticism is not too severe. The value of the sexual system has, cer- tainly been lessened, the number of its opponents (many of whom were ardently engaged in the pursuit of a natural method of plants) has been increased, by those monstrous deviations from nature, of Avhich there are too many instances in the almost universally-received method of L. It must not, however, be supposed, that the Swedish naturalist has mixed and confounded the simple-flowered plants of the order Monogamia with the compound flowers of the preceding orders, without having proceeded upon a rule of apparent consistency, which he and his admirers have endeavoured to defend. The name of the class Syngensia imports an union of the anthers, or summits of the stamens. This may be said to be the classical character of the great body of plants which are associated under this class. Now, Balsam (Impatiens,) Cardinal-flower (Lobelia,) and the other plants of the order Monogamia, are said to agree with the compound flowers of the pre- ceding orders, in the character in question. These simple-fiWered plants are, therefore, thrown into the same great division of the sexual method, along with the others. So attentive, indeed, was L. to the circumstance of the union of the anthers, that he has detruded from its proper place, among the compound-flowers, a particular genus, that of Kuhnia, merely because the anthers of this plant are distinct; and has thrown'it into the class of Pentandria, where it is no less monstrous- * Dr. Milne. See his Botanical Dictionary, article Syngensia. 270 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. ly associated than are the genera Impatiens, Lobelia, &c„ with the compound flowers of Syngenesia.* But it is not true, that the anthers of all the plants which L. has referred to the order Monogamia are united into a cylinder. On the contrary, the anthers are separate in many species of Lobelia and Violet. Again in some species of Sola- num, or Nightshade, and in other genera, which are referred byL. to the class Pentandria, the anthers are actually connate, or united into a cylinder!! Some of the warmest admirers of L. and those who have manifested the least disposition to innovate the sexual system, have been obliged to forsake their great and successful leader, in the arrangement of the genera Avhich he has referred to the order Monoga- mia. Thus, Dr. James Edward Smith, though he retains all the classes of L. that of Polygamia excepted, has, with great propriety, abolished the last order of Syngenesia, and referred the genera which it contains (in the method of L.) to the first order of Pentandria.! The following are the genera which L. has referred to the order Monoga- mia: viz. Strumphia, Seriphium, Corymbium, Jasione, Lobelia, Viola, and Impatiens. X Character.—The class Syngensia, with the exception of the order Monogamia, is a very natural assemblage of plants.§ It embraces the great family of compound flowers, which is Unquestionably, a natu- ral tribe, essentially distinct from the plants with simple flowers. The essence of these compound-flowers is said, by L. to consist in the two circumstances of the union of the anthers into a cylinder, and a single seed, placed below the receptacle, and attached to each floscule. The greater number of these plants are furnished Avith a common calyx, or perianth. In Echinops, hoAvever, the common calyx is wanting; and it is present in Scabiosa, which L. does not refer to the true compound- flowers; but to his forty-eighth order, or Aggregatae. The com- pound-floAvers are furnished with a common receptacle (receptaculum commune.) But Milleria, one of these plants, is destitute of the species of receptacle; and, on the other hand, we have instances of it in Scabiosa, Teasel (Dipsacus,) Globe-flower (Gomphrena,) though neither of these plants are referred, by L. to the head of compound- flowers. The botonists|| before the time of L. had sought for the essen- tial character of the compound-flowers, in the presence of a common calyx and a common receptacle: but the Swedish naturalist rejects both * Dr. Milne (not very consistently, I think, with the sentiments Avhich he has delivered in other parts of his work) says that Kuhnia " is very properly referred by L. to a class containing simple flowers, because the antherx are separate and distinct." Botanical Dictionary die article Compositus Flos. X See this author's Flora Britannica, a Avork of extensive merit. X These genera ought to have been mentioned in the list of the plants belong- ing to the first order of Pentandria. § " Classis haec naturalis est, nisi ultimus accederet ordo, heic loci secundum assumta principia Systematica necessarius." Genera Plantarum. || Tournefort, Vaillant, die ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 271 of these as inadequate to the purpose, and, in their place, substitutes the union of the anthers, and the situation of the seeds. In attending thus exclusively to these characters, I am inclined to think, that our author has too rudely refused the hand of nature. The true Syngenesious plants are compound flowers, consisting of a number of individual floscules, or florets. The following features con- stitute the principal natural character of such a floscule. The calyx is a corona seminis, or aigrette, sitting upon the apex of the germ. The corolla is monopetalous, furnished with a long and very narrow tube, sitting upon the germen. This corolla is, 1. tubulata, tubulate; with a campanulate, or bell-shaped limb, quinquefid, the lacinae reflex and spreading. 2. ligulata ligulate, or strap-shaped, the limb linear, flat, turned outwards, dentate, truncated. 3. or lastly, there is no corolla, being destitute of the limbs, and frequently of the tube also. The stamens, in the greater number of the species are five in number: they are capillary, very short and inserted in the neck of the corollula. The anthers, are, also, five in number: they are linea, erect, cohering, by their sides into a tubulose cylinder, which is quinquedentate, and of the length of the limb. In regard to the pistil: the germ is oblong, placed below the corollula, and above the common receptacle. The style is filiform, erect, of the length of the stamens, and perforates the cylinder formed by the anthers. The stigma is bipartite; the segments are revolute and spreading. These plants are destitute of a true peri- carp, though in some of the genera as in Bone-seed (Osteospermum,) and strumpfia, the seed are enveloped in a coriaceous crust. There is a single seed Avhich is oblong, often four-cornered, and frequently nar- rowed at the base. The greater number of the true Syngenesious plants, I mean those of all the orders except Monogamia, are referred by L. to his forty-ninth natural order, which he calls Compositas. This order embraces not a single simple-flowered plant Almost all the genera which it contains are referred by L. himself to his class, Syngenesia: but this order contains Kuhnia, Avhich our author for reasons already mentioned, places among the Pentandrous plants. The Syngenesious plants are principally referred by Mr. De Jussieu to his order Cicho- raceae, Cinarocephalae, and Corymbiferas, the three first orders of his tenth class. In the construction of these orders, the learned French botan- ist has nearly followed the disposition of his learned countryman Vaillant who had paid great attention to the compound-flowers. Independent- ly on their compound flowers, there is something in the aspect of the Syngensious plants which emphatically distinguishes them from all other plants. It is not easy to tell, what this something is. I think, it is Sir John Hill who has observed, that these plants have a kind of " Aveed-like appearance." There is much foundation for this observa- tion. Notwithstanding the beauty of their flowers, the prevailing colours of which are yellow and orange, the stems and the leaves of a very treat number of these plants are rough or downy, being beset 272 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. with different kinds of pubescence.* One would say, that they have been less completely reclaimed from their wild and savage state, than most other plants, with the exception of those of the XXIVth class. L. observes,]that "there is no poisonous plant in the order Compo- sitae, with the exception of Tagetes, Doronicum, and Arnica."! It may be doubted, Avhether Arnica be more poisonous than many of the other bitter articles of this class. Lactuca, virosa is a narcotic plant, and a good opium has been procured from the Common Garden-Let- tuce (Lactuca sativa.)! A good many of the Semifloscular plants of the first order are esculent. It is somewhat remarkable, that although the lactescent plants, or plants abounding in a milky juice, of the other classes, are very frequently poisonous, that the milky plants of Syn- gensia, with a very few exceptions, are entirely innocent. This cir- cumstance will show the propriety of receiving, with hesitation, all those general canons, which have been proposed by the Materia Medica writers, respecting the properties of plants, as deduced from their gene- ral aspect, or obvious qualities. Nevertheless, the rule of L. ought to be remembered: viz. " Plantae lactescentes plerumque venenatae sunt."§ " In general, the lactescent plants are poisonous." Many of the bitter plants of this order are entirely destitute of any deleterious quality, indeed I have long since been persuaded contrary to the opin- ion of the late Dr. Cullen, that the deleterious quality which is found in so many bitters, is merely an accidental quality attached to those bitters, and that bitters, as bitters, are not necessarily injurious, even when long continued. The class syngensia is, in many respects, an important one. It furnishes us with many beautiful plants, and with not a few articles of diet and of medicine. So extensive, however is the class, that I shall principally confine myself, at present, to the men- tion of a very few of the medicinal articles which it embraces. The Common Dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum) has been much celebrated as a diuretic and resolvent medicine. A species of Lettuce (Lactuca virosa) has been used in the same affections. Some species of Serratula and Eupatorium are entitled to the attention of Physicians.|| The famous Chamomile of the shops is the Anthemis nobilis. Different species of Colts-foot (particularly Tussilago Farfara and T. Petasites) have been deemed useful medicines. The wormwood of the shops is the Artemisia Absynthium. The Philadelphia Fleabane (Erigeron Philadelphicum) has acquired some reputation in the United States as a remedy in calculous or nephritic cases, and in gout * Among the compound-flowers of Syngensia, there are, however, many species with smooth and even shining leaves and stems. ! Praelectiones, die page 577. X See Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. IV. No. LXIV. § Caroli a Linne, Materia Medica. Liber primus de Plantis. Amstelaeda- mi: 1749. || See Collections for an Essay, die die. pages 27, 35, 52, 53. \ ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 273 In hinting at the properties of the plants of the class Pentandria, I omitted to take any notice of the genera referred to by L. to the order. Monogamia of the class Syngenesia. Some of these plants have been the subjects of inquiry among physicians and others. Some of the species of Lobelia, particularly L. siphilitica, and L. Cardinalis, are found to be endued with active qualities. Some species of Viola are- also active plants, particularly V. Ipecacuanha. The United States are extremely rich in the plants of the class Syn- genesia. Indeed, I believe, there is no tract of country, of an equal extent, Avhich is so abundant in plants of this class. The species of the North American Syngenesious genera are very numerous, and are by no means Avell defined. There are reasons to believe that many of these species are hybrids, or mules. For illustrations of the class Syngene- sia, see Plates XXII, XXIII, XXIV. CLASS XX.—GYNANDRIA. The twentieth class is called Gynandria.* Dr. Darwin names this class Femenine Males. It contains those hermaphrodite flowers, in which the stamens are placed upon the style: or to speak more properly, upon a pillar-shaped receptacle, resembling a style, which rises in the centre of the flower, and supports both the stamens and the pistil. The orders of this class are founded upon the number of the sta- mens or male organs. L. has subdivided the whole class into nine orders, viz. Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hex- andria, Octandria, Decandria, Dodecandria, and Polyandria. In this disposition of the Gynandrous plants most of the botanists (I mean those who have retained a distinct class by the name of Gynan- dria) have followed L. But the learned Professor Swartz, of Stock- holm, who has devoted very particular attention to the plants Avhich I am considering, has shoAvn, that what has generally been taken for two anthers is nothing more than a single anther bilobated,or consisting of Iavo lobes, and consequently, that the greater number of the genera which L. has thrown into the order Diandria of this class, must be re- ferred to the order Monandria. I adopt SAvartz's alteration. Monandria.—-To this order Swartz refers the folloAving genera, viz. Orchis, Disa, Satyrium, Pterygodium, Disperis, Corycium, Ophrys, Serapias, Neottia, Cranichis, Thelymitra, Diuris, Arethusa, Epipactis, Malaxis, Cymbidium, Oneidium,Epidendrun, Vanilla, Aerides, Limo- dorum, Dendrobium, Stelis, Leptantes.! Diandria.—L. and other Avriters have referred to this order, a number * From yvv», a Avoman, and ""vxg, a man. f Several of these genera are new ones, constructed by Mr. Swartz. It is not to be supposed that this author's innovations will be implicitly received by all botanists. The botanists, like the the chemists, arc fond of revolutions. 35 274 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. of genera, most of Avhich are now found to belong to the preceding order of Monandria. Of all these genera, Swartz is of opinion, that one only belongs to the second order. This is the genus Cypripedium. Triandria.—The genera Sisyrinchium, Ferraria, Salacia, and Stilago, belong to this order. The two first mentioned genera are, more properly Monadelphous plants. Stilago turns out to be the male of Antidesma. Tetrandria.—The genus Nepenthes belongs to this order. I have mentioned this singular plant in a former part of the work. Pentandria.—The three genera Gluta, Ayenia, and Passiflora, which were originally placed here, are not gynandrous; for their stamens are inserted below the germen, merely on a columnar receptacle. Schreber and Smith have, therefore, referred these plants to the class Pentandria. On the other hand, Willdenow and Persoon, two not less able judges, have placed Passiflora in the order of Pentandria of the class Mona- delphia, where I think it more truly and naturally belongs. They re- fer the two other plants to Pentandria Monogynia. In Persoon's list, therefore, the order Pentandria is abolished. But Dr. Smith fancies, that it may still exist, by "a reinforcement from the Linnaen Pentandria Digynia." Perhaps, Pergularia, Cynanchum, and Asclepias. Hexandria.—Here we find the great genus Aristolochia, still imper- fectly explored. Not a feAV of its species are natives of the United States, and other parts of America. Pistia, Avhich was formerly placed in the order, is referred to Monadelphia Octandria. But its place is supplied by Bragantia, a genus from Loureiro. Octandria.—Here L. placed Scopolia: but this turns out to be a Daphne. Still it is thought that the order may remain, since the parasitical Cytinus, formerly mentioned,* which had been referred to the order of Dodecandria, is said to have only eight anthers, which are truly inserted upon the style. Cytinus, however, is placed by Persoon in Monoecia Monadelphia. And this author retains no order of Octandria for entire genera. Decandria.—This order is noAV abolished. The two genera which it formerly contained, viz. Kleinhovia and Helicteres, are elsewhere disposed of. The former genus, according to Smith, belongs to the class Dodecandria, as having fifteen stamens; the latter Decandria Mo- nogynia: but Persoon and others have found a better place for them in the order Dodecandria of the class Monadelphia. I would refer them to the order Polyandria of that class. Dodecandria.—This order is abolished. Polyandria.—Smith, Persoon, and others, have abolished this order, and have referred the genera which it contained to other classes of the system. Thus Xylopia is thrown into Polyandria Polygynia, near to Annona, Porcelia, &c; Grewia to the first order of the same class, Pothos to the class Tetrandria; Dracontium to Heptandria, and Arum to Monoecia Polyandria. * Asanim Hypocistis of L. It is the Cytinus Hypocistis. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 275 I am far from being satisfied that all these removals are real improve- ments: for the number of the stamens is not constant in the different species of Pothos, Dracontium* and Calla. And as to Arum, some species are, I think, truly Gynandrous, and others Dioecious. I shall speak of the properties of some of the plants just mentioned, as though they were legitimate representatives of the class Gynandria. Gynandria is the first of the twenty-four classes which Profossor Thunberg has abolished. The genera which the class contained are referred by this very respectable botanist to preceding classes of the sexual system. But of this alteration, more afterwards. Character.—This "odd and miscellaneous class" has not much claim to the character of a natural class. L. however, deemed the first order, which he called Diandria, a natural assemblage of plants. They constitute his seventh natural order, named Orchideas. They consti- tute an order, of the same name, in the system of Mr. de Jussieu. It is the third order of his fourth class. Arisctolochia, together with Asarum of the eleventh, and Cytinus of the twenty-first class, belong, in the system of Jussieu, to an order called Aristolochias. It is the first order of this botanist's fifth class. Pothos, Dracontium, Calla, Arum, Ambrosinia, and Zostera are arranged in the order Piperitae, of which I have already made particular mention. Jussieu refers these plants, together with Orontium (Golden Club,) and Acorus, of the sixth class, to an Order called Aroideas. In regard to their properties, many of the Gynandrous plants, particularly those of the order Orchi- deae, have, for a long time, maintained the reputation pf being aphro- ilisiack. But it may well be doubted, if there be any foundation what- ever for this character.f It seems to have originated in those dark ages, when the doctrine of Signatures, Avhich is altogether unworthy the notice of an enlightened people, exerted its influence upon the minds of men. It must not be denied, however, that from some of these1 plants, we obtain extremely nutritious articles. Thus, the Salep of the shops is the produce of the Orchis Morio; and it has been shown, that from the bulbs of other species a very good salep might be pro- duced. Very miscellaneous are the other genera of this class. It, certainly, hoAvever, contains a number of very active plants, and there- fore remote from the Orchideae. The genera Arum, Dracontium, Pothos, and Calla, are acrid vegetables, which in their recent state, do, unquestionably, exert powerful effects upon the system. The proper- ties of the Indian Turnip (Arum triphyllum) of the United States, have been attended to4 The fresh root of this plant, boiled in milk, and thus taken for some time, has been found useful in consumption of * In Pothos putorii, as I call it, (Dracontium foetidum of L.) the stamens are constantly four in number. See my Flora Virginica, Part 1. p. 57,58.. f In Some parts of the United States, the roots of a species of Cypripediuna (C. pubescens, Mich.) are reputed emmenagogue. J See Collections for an essay, die Part 1. pages 21, 52. 276 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. the lungs. When fresh, Pothos putorii, called Skunk-Cabbage, and Polecat-Aveed, is an extremely poAverful plant. The bear* of North- America is well acquainted Avith the purgative property of this vegeta- ble. The Aristolochia Serpentaria is the celebrated Virginia Snake- root, a medicinal article of real value. The root of another species of the genus, the Aristolochia Sipho, is entitled to the attention of phy- sicians. The pods of the Epide'ndrum Vanilla of L. (vanilla aromatica of Swartz) have a very agreeable taste, and smell. They are one of the articles in the materia medica of the Mexians, and enter into the composition of chocolate. The United States are pretty rich in the plants of the class Gynandria. This tract of country contains, at least the following genera, viz. Orchis, Satyrium, Ophrys, Serapias, Neottia, Arethusa, Epipactis, Malaxis, Cymbidium, Limodorum, Cypripedium, Aristolochia,and Arum. For illustrations of the class Gynandria, see Plates XXV, and XXVI. CLASS XXL—MONOECIA. The class Monoecia,! the twenty-first of the sexual system, is essentially distinguished from all the preceding classes. It embraces those vegetables, in which the male and female flowers, in other Avords the stamens and the styles are placed apart; that is within distinct covers (calyx or corolla, or both) on the same root, or individual. This peculiarity of disposition in regard to the generative organs, led L. to name this class Monoecia; and some of the English botanists, the class of one house. From what has just been said it is evident, that'the plants of the class under consideration are not hermaphrodite, as are the plants of the preceding twenty classes::]: nor are the stamens or the styles, or male and female organs, situated upon distinct individuals of the same species, as in the next class, or Dioecia. The plants of^lo- noecia are androgynous§ that is, consist of male and female flowers upon different parts of the same plant. The orders of this class are eleven in number; and are founded upon the circumstance of the num- ber; the union, and the situation of the stamens, and are distinguished by the names of the preceding classes. The following are the orders: viz. Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria, Heptandria, Polyandria, Monadelphia, Syngenesia, and Gynandria. Monandria.—This order contains the genera Chara, Caulinia, Zan- nichellia, Ceratocarpus, Artocarpus, Elaterium, Cynomorium, Phylla- chne, Casuarina, and iEgopricon. * Ursus Americanus of Gmelin. ! From /"-*---» alone, and *'*■«*, a house, or habitation. X Many individual species, however, of the preceding classes do, in strict propriety, belong to the class Monoecia. § From *v»;, and man, and yvv», a woman. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 277 Diandria.—The genera Anguria, Lemna, and Podostemum belong to this order. Triandria.—To this order belong the folloAving genera: viz. Zea, Tripsacum, Coix, Olyra, Zeugites, Kobresia, Carex, Scleria, Sparga- nium, Typha, Axyris, Comptonia, Tragia, Hernandia, and Acharia. Various species of Amaranthus belong to this order. The genus is re- ferred to the order Pentandria. Tetrandria.—The genera Urtica, Diotis, Morus, Buxus, Pachysan- dra, Betula, Alnus, Serpicula, Aucuba, Littorella, and Cicca, belong to this order. Pentandria.—To this order belong the following genera, viz. Nephe- ilium, Schisandra, Xanthium, Ambrosia, Parthenium, Clibadium, Cro- tonopsis, Iva, Amaranthus, and Leea. Hexandria.—Zizania and Pharus, which are both grasses, belong to this order.—Concerning Zizania, See my Fragments. &c. Part 1. Tables, pages, 6. &c. Heptandria.—The genus Guettarda belongs to this order. Polyandria.—To this order, which contains those genera that have more than seven stamens, belong the following genera: viz. Begonia, Sagittaria, Myriophyllum, Ceratophyllum, Theligonum, Poterium, Castanea Fagus, Quercus, Juglans, Corylus, Carpinus, Platanus, Li- quidambar. Monadelphia.—The character of the male flowers of this order is the same as that of the true Monadelphous plants of the XVIth class; that is, the filaments are united into a bundle below, whilst the anthers are separate. Hence those writers who have suppressed the class Mo- noecia, have referred the plants of the order under consideration to the class Monadelphia. The following genera belong to this order, viz. Hura, Pinus, Cu- pressus, Thuja, Acalypha, Dalechampia, Plukenetia, Cupania, Croton, Ricinus, Siphonia, Jatropha, Sterculia, Hippomane, Stillingia and Gnetum. Syngensia.—To this order are referred the genera Trichosanthes, Momordica, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Sicyos, and Bryonia, the anthers of which, like thoseof the true Syngenesious plants, are united into a cy- linder, while the filaments are distinct. Gynandria.—This has been very properly denominated " a para- doxical order."* How, indeed, can a plant belong to the class Monoe- cia, the character of which is to have the male and the female organa sexualia in different covers of the same vegetable, and yet answer to the character of the class Gynandria, the peculiar feature of which is to have the male organs in question attached to the female, within the same calyx, or corolla? I confess that I am at a loss to understand the Linnean dispo- sition in this respect, and I cannot believe that L. understood it him- self. Bastard Orpine (Andrachne) one of the plants referred to this * Dr. J. E. Smith. 278 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. order, has the stamens placed upon the female organ; "a circumstance which involves an absurdity when affirmed of any plant of the class in question, and Avhich, if true, should most certainly have determined the author to place the genus in the class Gynandria."* &c. NotAvithstanding the preposterous character of this order of the class Monoecia, the learned Professor Gouan, of Montpelier, has endeavored to show, that there is good foundation for tlje establishment of such an order. The professor observes, that both in Bastard-Orpine, and in Clutia, the pistil, or female organ, is altogether wanting in the male flowers, yet the stamens are inserted into the same place, Avhich the pistil Avould occupy, if the flowers were truly hermaphrodite. To illustrate this, the author considers the receptacle of the flower as divid- ed into four concentric circles, thus,, the calyx, or flower-cup, consti- tutes the first, or exterior circle; the petals occupy the second; the stamens are placed in the third; and the pistil possesses the inner, or mid- dle circle. Hence it follows (our author observes,) that even when the stamens are inserted into the inner side of the petals they still occupy a circle, which is concentric to that of the petals, and placed exterior to that of the pistil. In such circumstances, therefore, the stamens cannot be reckoned out of their place. But if the middle circle, or centre of the receptacle, Avhich is essentially destined for the pistil, should in the absence even of that organ, be occupied by the stamens, these last are then out of their place, and may properly be considered as being attached to the pistil, when inserted into the place, which that organ, if it did exist, would certainly occupy. I Have not, at present, an opportunity of consulting the original work! of Professor Gouan, in which is contained the preceding defence of the Swedish naturalist, in the establishment of the order Gynandria, of the class Monoecia. In the view Avhich 1 have given of the subject, I have adopted, with little varia- tion, the words of Dr. Milne, and I shall conclude Avhat I have to say, on the subject of this order, with a quotation from this author's work. " I shall only observe upon this ingenious remark of the French author, that by the same way of reasoning all the plants of the classes Monoecia and Dioecia, might be referred to the class Gynandria, in the sexual method; as in these classes the female organ is entirely wanting in the male plants, and the stamina occupy the centre or middle of the recep- tacle."{ Two Genera are referred to the order Gynandria, viz. An- drachne and Agyneja. The character of the last genus is very doubtful. The class Monoecia has been abolished hj Thunberg, Gmelin, and other writers. . Character.—The vegetables of the class Monoecia are arranged by L. and other witers under very different natural orders or families. Cha- ra and Zannichellia belong to the Linnaen order, Inundatae, formerly # Dr. Milne. See his Botanical Dictionary, article Monoecia. ! I suppose, the Hortus Monspeliensis, die. die Monspelii: 1762. X Botanical Dictionary, die. article Monoecia. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 279 mentioned. Anguria, -Trichosanthes, Momordica, Cucumis, Cucur- bita, Sicyos, Bryonia, together with Passiflora of the preceding class, are referred to the thirty-fourth Linnaen order, Cucurbitaceae. Mr. de Jussieu's order of the same name, comprehends these and other genera. Betula, Fagus, Quercus, Juglans, Corylus, Carpinus, and Platanus, be- long to the fifteenth natural order, Amentaceae. Pinus, Cupressus, Thuja, &c, are referred to the fifty-first natural order, Coniferae. The orders Amentaceae, and Coniferae, in the method of Jussieu, embrace these genera. Zea, Tripsacum, Coix, Olyra, Zizania, and Pharus, are grasses, and belong to the order Gramina. Carex, Sparganium, and Typha, are of the third natural order, Calamari*e,* which are considerably allied to the Grasses. The United States contain a considerable number of the genera of this class. The fol- lowing may be mentioned, viz. Chara, Lemna, Zea, Tripsacum, Carex, Sparganium, Typha, Urtica, Morus, Betula, Xanthium, Iva, Ama- ranthus, Zizania, Pharus, Sagittaria, Fagus, Quercus, Juglans, Corylus, Carpinus, Platanus, Liquidambar, Pinus, Cupressus, Thuja, Acalypha, Ricinus, Stillingia; Momordica, Curcubita, Sicyos, and Bryonia. All these are unquestionably, indigenous genera, within the limits of the United States, unless, perhaps, the two genera Zea and Cucurbita. The well known Indian-corn (Zea Mays) was only found in a cultivated state; and the same remark applies to the different species of Cucurbita, such as the Cu. lagenaria, or Calabash, C. pepo, or Pompion, and others. The American plants of this class, deserve more attention than has hitherto been bestowed upon them. The Oaks of this country have, indeed, been lately examined by Mr. Michaux, in a work which re- flects honour upon that author. He has, however, omitted several of the American species of this genus. The genus Juglans deserves as much attention. It will, I think, be necessary to divide this genus into two distinct genera. The Chestnut of the United States is a species essentially distinct from that of the old Avorld. I call it Castanea Americana: for I am persuaded that the Chestnut and the Beech ought not to be referred to the same genus. The Chinquepin of the United States (Castenea Chinquepin, mihi) is not a Fagus, but a Casta- nea. The Beech of North America is now acknowledged to be dis- tinct from that of the old world. It is the Fagus ferruginea of L'He- ritier. The American species of Birch and Alder cannot, with any propriety, be referred to the same genus. They belong to two distinct genera, viz. Betula and Almus. For illustrations of the class Monoecia, see Plates XXVII, and XXVIII. * From Calamus, a reed. 280 ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. CLASS XXIL—DIOECIA. The twenty-second class is named Dioecia.* In English it is called the class of two houses. It contains those plants, Avhich have no hermaphrodite flowers, but produce the male and female flow- ers on distinct individuals of the same species. Thus the charac- ter of this class is very essentially different from that of any of the preceding twenty-one classes: for in the first twenty of these the flowers were hermaphrodite, and in the twenty-first, male and female upon different parts of the same vegetable. But in the class noAV under consideration, the same individual does not support the two sexes. The orders of the class Dioecia are fifteen in number and are founded upon the circumstances of the number, the union, and the situation of the stamens, or male organs: and of course upon the same principles^ as the-orders of Monoecia, and the classes which precede Monoecia. The following are the names of the orders of Dioecia; viz. Monan- dria, Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Enneandria, Decandria, Dodecandria, Icosandria, Polyandria, Monadelphia, Syngenesia, and Gynandria. Monandria.—This order contains the genera Najas and Pandanus, and, also some neAv genera of Schreber. Diandria.—-Vallisneria, Cecropia, and Salix, are referred to this order. Triandria.—r-Empetrum, Stilago, Osyris, Caturus, Excoecaria, Willdenowia, Elegia, Restio, and Maba, belong to this order. Here also Willdenow places the magnificent Phoenix. Tetrandria.—-Hippophae!, Trophis, Viscum, Bruccea, Batis, Myrica; and Montinia, are of this order. Various species of Nettle (Urtica,) Black Mulberry, (Morus nigra-,) and some species of Buckthorn (Rhamnus,) belong to this order. Pentandria.—To this order Willdenow refers Pistacia, Zanthoxy- lum, Astronium, Canarium, Antidesma, Iresin.e, Spinacia, Acnida, Cannabis, Humulus, Zanonia, and a few others. Smith observes, that " Humulus is almost the only certain instance here." But even the number of .its stamens is by no means constant. He adds,<' Spinacia, Acnida, and Cannabis would be unexceptionable, but they are less absolutely dioecious, being sometimes monoecious:" as I believe most dioecious plants are. Phylica dioica, Rhamnus Alaternus, and Salix pentandra are,, also, referred to this order. * From e plants. These organs in some of the fungi, are extremely minute; and it has been ascertained that some of them are reproduced by a matter obtained from the Avashings of them. We are not yet prepared to give a complete or satisfactory arrangement of the fungi. That by the laborious Persoon is allowed to have merit; de- serves to be mentioned, and may be adopted, until some future Avriter, enjoying still greater opportunities, shall give us a still more scientific methodusof the objects which Ave are considering. Persoon gives us two heads of fungi: viz. Angiocarpi and Gymnocarpi. 1. Angio- carpi. These are such fungi as have their seeds, or reproductive or- gans, internally situated. 2. Gymnocarpi. In these the reproductive organs are imbedded in a peculiar dilated membrane, denominated, by Persoon, the hymenium. The most familiar instances of the hyme- nium occur in the two great genera of Boletus and Agaricus, which are, perhaps, no where more abundant than in America, and even in the ELEMENTS OF BOTANY. 299 United States. In the former of these genera, the supposed seeds are lodged in a porous hymenium: in the latter, in the parallel plates called in the language of botanists lamellae, and commonly gills. The struc- ture of these is such as to almost lead us to hazard the hypothesis, that they are the resipiratory organs of the plant These, too, are the parts, in which Lichtenstein imagined he saw spontaneous, animal-like, move- ments. Was he mistaken? Mr. Persoon has been praised for his re- serve in introducing new terms. His hymenium we have already mentioned and explained. By peridium he means " the round mem- branous dry case of the seeds" in some of the fungi belonging to the sec- tion of Angiocarpi. By the term pileus, or the hat, all writers on botany mean the head of the gymnocarpous fungi, such as common Agaricus campestris, and many others. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLATE I. Fig. I. The principal figure on this plate may serve to illustrate the Xlllth class, or Polyandria. It is the figure of the Sarracenia purpu- rea, or Purple Side-Saddle flower. Of this very singular plant, which is a native of various parts of North America, I have already made mention. A. Represents one of the hollow leaves (folium tubulo- sum) cut off at the end. B. The scape (scapus,) supporting the flower, C. D. E. F. This is an anterior view of the flower. C. E. Two of the five petals. D. One of the leaves of the superior perianth (perianthium superius.) F. The peltate or target-shaped stigma (stigma peltatum.) G. One of the leaves of the superior perianth. H. The inferior perianth, which consists of only three leaves (perian- thium inferius, triphyllum,) whereas the superior perianth is penta- phyllous, or consists of five leaves (pentaphyllum.) I. A scape supporting the parts of the flower K. L. M.—K. The receptacle (receptaculum.) L. The germ {germen.) M. The peltate stigma. This singular genus of plants, of which several species are now known to the botanists, was named in honour of I. Antonius Sarrasin, a French botanist, and physician of Quebec. Fig. 2. The American Cranberry, or Vaccinium macroGarpon of Aiton. The leaves are alternate {folia alterna:) the corolla is.campa- nulate or bell-shaped {corolla campanulata,) and consists of one-petal, the segments of which are reflected. The stamens are eight in num- ber; the germ inferior or placed below the corolla {germen inferum*) the fruit, a berry {bacca.) This plant and the Sarracenia frequently grow together, in boggy ground. The plant is represented nearly of its natural size; though we often see specimens considerably larger, and not a few somewhat smaller. The draAving is correct, and will convey a satisfactory idea of the plant, which is, on many accounts, one of the most interesting in North- America. All the leaves of the Sarracenia purpurea are radical {folia radicalia,) and hollow, each forming a kind of funnel, or rather bot- 302 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. tie, the form of which will be better understood by an inspection of the plate, than by the most studied description. The young leaves are quite closed at the top, and it is only as they advance in size and age, that they become pervious. The inside of the leaf is generally beset with innumerable fine processes, or setae, the points of Avhich look down- wards: but these setae are principally observed about the upper con- stricted part of each leaf, which may be called its neck, and which is distinctly visible in the two principal leaves, on the right and left of the drawing. The use of these setae will afterwards be hinted at. The Sarracenia purpurea is never found in uniformly dry ground, but al- ways in boggy ground, and sometimes in pOnds of water of some depth. In this latter situation, we sometimes find it with its roots hanging loose in the water, entirely unconnected Avith the ground. Wherever we find the plant, its leaves (the older ones) almost constant- ly present to us two interesting phenomena: They contain a quantity of water,—and this even in the dryest weather, when neither rains nor visible dews have fallen;—and a number of insects, generally small and almost always dead. It is these two circumstances which render the Sarracenia an object of curiosity among botanists, and especially among the physiological botanists. What is the use of this structure of which I have been speaking? Why have the leaves been formed hollow? And why do Ave so generally find insects in them? I shall not pretend to give satisfactory answers to these questions; but the subject is too curious not to demand the offering of a conjecture. I formerly imagined, that as the Sarracenia is destined to grow in wet places, which, however, are liable, at times, to become nearly dry, so the hollow leaves, or ascidia, are intended to serve as reservoirs {hydrias) of water, that the plant may not suffer from a deficiency of its favourite and most indispensible aliment, in the hotter weather, or when there has been a long-continued draught* But various circum- stances induce me to relinquish this idea: for the younger leaves, to whose groAvth and health water must be peculiarly necessary, are, as 1 have already said, impervious, and contain no water: and, again, the plant when it grows in the water,—that is, in situations not liable to become dry,—and where of course it cannot stand in need of the apparatus of reservoirs; I say the ascidia, even in this situation, always contain a por- tion of water. These circumstances alone would almost induce me to relinquish my former theory; and I may add, that the Sarracenia pur- purea is much less frequently found in grounds, even occasionally dry, than I had imagined. I have not yet made the experiment, but the ex- periment would I think show, that our plant would flourish very well, were we to close the openings of the ascidia, and completely prevent them from receiving any supply of water from external sources. Mr. Ca- tesby seems to have formed to himself an hypothesis of the use of the hollow leaves of the Sarracenia. Speaking of Sarracenia purpurea, he * This appears to have been the opinion of L. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 303 says, " The hollow of these leaves, as well as of the other kind (Sarra- cenia flava,) always retain some water; and seem to serve as an asy- lum or secure retreat for numerous insects, from frogs and other ani- mals, which feed on them."* As the insects which are observed in the hollow leaves, or bottles of these plants, are very generally found dead, we can scarcely call them "secure retreats." Nor are the leaves too small to prevent some of the smaller frogs, should they think proper, from making their way into them. Indeed if Ido not mistake the American tree-frog (Hyla americana) is not unfrequently found in these leaves. But the following fact plainly proves, that the insects that have taken up their residence in the ascidia are by no means safely protected from the attacks of certain animals. Sarracenia variolaris of Michaux {Flor. bor. amer. torn. i. p. 310.) is furnished with tubular leaves, like the other species of the genus. The leaves of this species, which is a native of the SAvamps of Georgia and Carolina, contain great numbers of insects. The fact is not unknown to various species of birds, especially to the Brown Thrush,or French Mocking-Bird (Turdus rufus,) and other birds belonging to this and other genera of the order passeres. It is common to see numbers of these birds collecting about the Sarracenia, with no other known vieAv than to procure the impri- soned insects. They pick holes in the leaves, and then slit them for some distance, and thus readily obtain their prey. They cannot obtain their prey* through the mouths of the ascidia.! This fact is well attested. Nor will it be deemed one of the least interesting in the his- tory of the instincts of the class of birds! Although I have not, hitherto, learned, Avith any certainty, that birds in like manner frequent and dis- sect the leaves of other species of Sarracenia, besides Sarracenia vario- laris, I have no doubt that all the other species of the genus, are in like manner visited and treated: and when Ave consider the great capa- city of the leaves of Sarracenia flava, S. purpurea, &c, and the multi- tude of insects which they often contain, we may, with great propriety, call them store-houses of the food of birds. Future observations, will no doubt, sIioav us, that different species of Nepenthes, the Aquarium sitiens, and other similar plants, are, in like manner, subservient to the nourishment and support of birds. But I do not mean to insinuate, that these various plants Avere furnished with hollow leaves, merely to satiate the appetite of birds: and yet I could as soon believe this, as agree Avith a certain learned botanist, from whom I am often compelled to differ in sentiment, that the nectar of plants is of no other use to them, than in so far as it may tempt insects * The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahamia Islands, die. Vol. ii. page. 70 tab. 70. ! In like manner bees which cannot procure the honey through the mouths of various tubular corollas, slit the tubes, and thus obtain the honey. This is the case with Azalea nudiflora, A. viscosa, die 304 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. to assist the impregnation of plants.* The same author seems to fancy, that he has discovered the final cause of this singular construction in the leaves of our Sarracenia. As the subject is certainly very curious, I shall devote some attention to it, reserving however, a more ample in- vestigation for a monagraphia of the genus Sarracenia. After observ- ing, that il L. conceived this plant to be allied in constitution to Nym- phaea, and consequently to require a more than ordinary supply of water, which its leaves were calculated to catch, and to retain, so as to enable it to live Avithout being immersed in a river or pond;" and after observing, that " tfce consideration of some other species renders this hypothesis very doubtful;" Sarracenia flava, and more especially Sarra- ceniaadunca, Exot.bot.t. 53, being "so constructed that rain is nearly excluded from the hollow of their leaves, and yet that part retains water, which seems to be secreted by the base of each leaf,"—what then (says the respectable President of the English Linnean Society) is the purpose of this unusual contrivance? An observation communi- cated to me two years ago, in the botanic garden at Liverpool, seems to unravel the mystery. An insect of the Sphex or Ichneumon kind as far as I could learn from description, was seen by one of the gard- nersto drag several large flies to the Sarracenia adunca, and, with some difficulty, forcing them under the lid or cover of its leaf, to deposit them in the tubular part, which was half filled with water, all the leaves on being examined, were found crammed with dead or drowning flies. The S. purpurea is usually observed to be stored with putrefying in- sects, whose scent is perceptible as we pass the plant in a garden; for the margin of its leaves is beset with inverted hairs, which, like the wires of a mouse-trap, render it very difficult for any unfortunate fly, that has fallen into the watery tube to crawl out again. Probably the air evolved by these dead flies may be beneficial to vegetation, and, as far as the plant is concerned its curious construction my be designed to entrap them, while the water is designed to tempt as well as to re- tain them. The Sphex or Ichneumon, an insect of prey, stores them up unquestionably for the food of itself or its progeny, probably depo- siting its eggs in their carcases, as others of the same tribe lay their eggs in various caterpillars, which they sometimes bury afterwards in the ground. Thus a double purpose is answered; nor is it the least curious circumstance of the whole, that an European insect should find out an American plant in a hot-house in order to fulfil that purpose. " If the above explanation of the Sarracenia be admitted, that of the Nepenthes will not be difficult. Each leaf of this plant terminates in a sort of close-shut tube, like a tankard, holding an ounce or two of Avater, certainly secreted through the footstalk of the.leaf, whose spiral-coaled * The same author says, " There can be no doubt"—! ! no doubt!!—" that the sole use of the honey with respect to the plant, is to tempt insects, who in procuring it fertilize the floAvers, by disturbing the dust of the stamens, and even carry that substance from the barren to the fertile blossoms." EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 305 vessel are uncommonly large and numerous. The lid of this tube either opens spontaneously, or is easily lifted up by insects and small Avorms, who are supposed to resort to these leaves in search of a purer beverage than the surrounding swamps afford. Rumphius, who has described and figured the plant, says, "various little worms and insects crawl into the orifice,, and die in the tube, except a certain small squilla, or shrimp, with a protuberant back, sometimes met with, which lives there."*—I have no doubt that this shrimp feeds on the other insects and Avorms, and that the same purposes are answered in this instance as in the Sarrace- niae. Probably the leaves of Dionaea muscipula, as well as of the Dro- serae; Engl. Bot. t. 867, 869, catch insects for alfcmilar reason."f Fig. 2. C. The American Cranberry, or Vaccmium macrocarpon of Aiton: the Oxycoccos palustris of Persoon. The leaves are alter- nate {folia alterna:) the corolla is campanulate, or bell-shaped {corolla campanulata,) and consists of one petal the segments of Avhich are reflected. The stamens are generally eight in number, the germ in- ferior, or placed below the corollo {germen inferum:) the fruit, a berry {bacca.) This plant and the Sarracenia purpurea frequently grow to- gether in boggy ground. D. PLATE II. Fig 1. The bulb {bulbus s. radix bulbosa) of the beautiful Atam- asco-Lily (Amaryllis Atamasco,) a native of the southern parts of the United States. A. The bulb. B. B. Two offsets or suckers, from the lower end of the bulb. C. The radicle {radicula,) which in the opinion of many writers is the only true root portion. Fig. 2. a trans- verse section of the same bulb, intended to shoAv its tunicated or coat- ed structure, a. a b. b. Two eyes, or places, from which proceed the flowers, c. The radicle. Fig. 3. The root of the Fumaria Cuculla- ria, commonly called Dutchman's Breeches. A. A. Two bulbs, b. b. Small Succulent scales, protecting the lower parts of the bulbs, each of which is capable of becoming a perfect plant. This figure may be said to represent the grumose root (radix grumosa.) Fig. 4. The fusi- form root {radix fusiformis) of the Wild-Carrot (Daucus Carola.,) A. A. The main body of the root, or descending caudex, in the language of L. B. B. Mark the commencement of the ascending caudex or stem. Fig 5. The stem and root of a species of Orchis. The root may be called a palmated root {radix pa/mata.) A. The principal body of it. B. B. The smaller succulent portions. C. Theascending caudex. Fig. 6. The Ophrys hyemalis, commonly called, in some parts of the United States, Adam and Eve. A. B. The two principal bulbs con- stituting Avhat L. calls the bulbus duplicatus s. testiculars. C. C. * See, also, Pennant's Outlines of the Globe, die Vol. i. page 236. plate 9. ! An introduction to Physiological and Systematical Botany. By James Ed- ward Smith, M. D. F. R. S. &e die—Page 195—198. London: 1807. 39 306 EXPLANATION OF PLATES The smaller more fibrous-like portions of the root. D. The radicle. E. The plicated or folded leaf {folium plicatum.) Fig. 7. The root and a portion of the stem of the beautiful Limodorum tuberosumof L. (Cymbidium pulchellum of Swartz,) Avhich grows abundantly in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia. A. A. The radicle. B.C. Two small suckers. Fig. 8. The scaly bulb {bulbus squamosus) of the Lilium superbum. A. The radicle. B. The scaly portion. Fig. 9. The root, &c, of the Devil's Bit, or Veratrum luteum of L. (Melanthium dioicum? of Walter.) It is a good example of the premorse root {ra- dix prasmorsa.) A.^The extremity of the root, which appears as if it had been bit off. BjThe radicles. C. Portions of the leaves, which are all radical {foli radicalia,) in this plant. Fig. 10. The granulated root {radixgranulata) of the White Saxifrage (Saxifraga granulata.) A. A. Granules of the root attached to the fibres, or radicles. Fig. 11. The horizontal root {radix horizontalis i of the May-apple (Podophyl- lum peltatum.) A. The ascending caudex, or a portion of the stem. B. B. b. b. The main body of the root as it creeps, or spreads, in an ho- rizontal direction, under the ground. C. C. C. Fibres, proceeding from the main root.—See Plate XVIII. All the plants that are referred to in this plate are natives of the United States with the exception of the White Saxifrage, in Fig. 10. This is a native of many countries in Europe. PLATE III. Fig. 1. The root of Tuberous Moschatel (Adoxa Moschatellina. A. A shoot proceeding from the root. B. Continuation of the same. This is a species of Tuberous root. Fig. 2. Creeping Crowfoot (Ranun- culus repens.) A. A. The stem. B. B. radicles proceeding from the bosom of the leaves. Fig. 3. Common PileAvort (Ranunculus Ficaria.) A. A. The stem. B. Bulbs in the axils (axillae) of the leaves. Fig. 4. The Common Onion (Allium Cepa.) A. Bulbs in the umbel of flowers.—Fig. 5. A branch of the Cardamine pratensis. A. A. Radi- cles shooting out from the leaves. Fig. 6. A species of Sheeps Fescue-grass intended to show one of the modes by which plants increase. A. A viviparous shoot proceeding from the floAver.— Fig. 7. The strobile {strobilus) of the American Larch (Pinus pen- dula of Aiton. Fig. 8. A view of the inner side of one of the scales which compose the strobile, with the seed attached to it. Fig. 9. A single, detached seed Avith its wing, or ala. Among the bulb bearing plants of the United States, I may mention a very common plant, growing in marshy situations, and easily procur- ed by the student in the vicinity of Philadelphia, &c, where it flow- ers in June and July. I mean the Lysimachia bulbifera of Curtis, Bot. mag. n. 104, the L. stricta of other writers.* The bulbs, which are * Viscum {terrestre) caule herbaceo tetragono brachiato, foliis Ianceolatis. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 307 placed in the axils of the leaves, are attenuated at both ends, and are often near half an inch long. By these gemmae viviaces, the plant is readily propagated. A still more interesting bulbiferous plant, is a beautiful species of Begonia, from China, which I have had, in my green house for some years. The short egg-shaped bulbs are axillary and smooth and shining. Even in the green house, the leaves, stem, and root, perish, but in the winter, and especially in the early spring, the surface of the pot is found covered Avith the bulbs, which rapidly vegetate even upon the surface of the earth. Bryophyllum calycinum of Salisbury (Parad. Lond.) Cotyledon rhizoi|^lla of Roxburgh,) a native of India, vegetates principally by the li^nbulbs, Avhich "are placed in the crenatures of very succulent leaves. Ttiese bulbs are not to be discovered by the naked eye, though by laying the leaf upon the earth, the new plant is observed to proceed only from the crena. By placing the leaf between blotting paper and keeping it there for some time, the bulbs are disengaged, and are easily seen. The plant is very tender, and must be kept (in Pennsylvania,) during the winter, in a hot- house. But during the summer-season, even in the open air, it vegetates with great rapidity, even upon the most arid gravel-walks. PLATE IV. This plate is entirely appropriated to the beautiful American Paint- ed-cup (Bartsia coccinea,) which grows abundantly in Pennsylvania, and many other parts of the United States. A. A. A. A. A. A. The large and crimson coloured bractes (bracteas,) which are much more painted than the corolla, or the calyx. B.B. B. The perianth. C. A perianth. D. d. The corolla. E. A portion of a corolla turned do*vn- wards, to show the four stamens and the style. F. The four stamens two of which are longer than the other two. G. The pistil. H. The pericarp, which is a capsule, t.Avo locular or celled {capsula bilocu- laris,) and two valved {bivalvis.) I. The capsule opened, with the contained seed. This Plate may serve to illustrate the class of Didynamia, and the order of Angiospermia. PLATE V. A. B. C. D. F. Representations of the Common Garden-Bean (Vi- cia Faba. A. The bean, covered with its husk {cutis-) 1. The hilum, scar, or eye. 2. 3. The umbilical cord {funis umbilicalis) by Avhich the bean was attached to the scar, and to the legume, or pod. 4. The Linn. Sp. pi. ii. p- 1452. L. who had no opportunity of seeing the fructi- fication of this common American plant, has throAvn out a suspicion that it might be a species of Loranthus! 308 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. small foramen or hole, through Avhich a part, at least, of the fluid seems to enter the bean. B. The bean deprived of its husk. 1. The radicle. C. One half of the bean, or a single cotyledon. 1. The husk. 2. Vessels. 3. 4. The embryo. 17. The husk: 1. Shows where it is thick- est. 2. ^hoAvs in Avhat manner the embryo is contained within the duplicature of the husk. F. The tAvo cotyledons, showing the vascu- lar structure upon their surface. * i. 2. 3. The embryo or corcule. 2. The plomule {plumula.) 3. The radicle {radicula.) E. One half of a dry Bean. i. The radicle. 2. The duplicature. 3. 3. The cotyle- dons. G. One of^-us lobes or cotyledons of the Kidney-Bean i. The embryo. H. ^K same when further advanced in growth, i. The seminal leaves {folia seminalia,) or plumule developed into leaves 2. The radicle. I. A Kidney-Bean. i. The hilum. K. The kernel {nucleus) of the Filbert-nut (Corylus Avellana.) L. One of the lobes of the same. i. The embryo. M. The seed of the Common Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana.) N. One of the lobes of the same, with the embryo of its natural size. 0. A magnified view of the same embryo, exhibiting the beautiful vascular structure of the plumule. PLATE VI. This plate is intended to shoAv the wonderful effects of light upon vegetables. In the superior figure a leaf of a Vine is put through the hole of a stick, in a glass vessel filled with water. The leaf is placed horizontally in the water, Avith its upper page or surface, looking to- wards the bottom, and its under surface, towards the top of the glass. A taper is placed at a small distance from the vessel. After some time, owing to the action of the light upon the plant, it turns itself in the vessel, and presents its upper surface to the light In the two lower figures, the effect of light is demonstrated in another way. A leaf of Mallow (Malva) is suspended in a glass vessel, filled Avith water, in a perpendicular direction, in such a manner, that the upper page of the leaf, as in the former instance, regards the bottom of the glass. After some time the plant, in order to receive the influence of light, tAvists itself, and presents its upper surface to the light. This change is supposed to take place in one and the same vase, but it was thought proper to notice the phenomenon in two distinct drawings. PLATE VII. The Dionaea Muscipula, or Venus's Fly-trap is figured upon this plate. This singular vegetable is a native of the State of North-Caro- lina, Avhere it grows in boggy ground. The leaves are all radical {folia radicalia.) The stem is a scape {scapus.) Each leaf is terminated by a very remarkable apparatus, Avhich is endued with such an highly irritable poAver, that if an insect alight upon it, or if it be touched wit' EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 309 a pin, the part immediately closes, and retains the irritating object— See the Plate.—A property somewhat similar to this, is enjo/eo' hy many other plants, such as some species of Sundew (Drosera rotundi- folia, &c.,) to which the Dionaea is nearly related by its,botanical char- acters:—the Apocynum androsaemifolium;—and I have discovered it in the Asclepias syriaca, or Syrian^ Swallow-wort, commorny called Wild-Cotton, and Cotton-plant. \. PLATE VIII. This plate is intended to illustrate the class ^ronandria.* Fig. 1. Canna glauca, a native of North-Carolina, and other Southern parts of the United States. A. A. a. The perianth. B. C. D. Depending petals, or divisions of the monopetalous corolla. E. F. G. Other parts of the corolla. H. g. Tube of the corolla. I. The anther attached to the edge of the petal F. Avhich serves it in place of a filament. K. Th stigma. L. The germ, which is inferior {germen inferum,) and sc*£ brous. Fig 2. Canna indica, another species of the same genus. A. A. a. The perianths. B. The Corolla. C. The anther. D. The stigma. E. The germ. e. The persisting stigma, adhering to the germ. Fig. 2.* Part of the abovre. a. The germ enlarged into a pericarp, which is a capsule {capsula.) b. The persisting stigma. Fig. 3. Different parts of the Common Horse-tail (Hippuris vulga- ris.) A. A. a. a. The floAvers, in the bosom of the verticillate leaves {folia verticil lata.) B. B. The germ, which is inferior, b. The calyx. C. The style, c. The stigma. D. The filament {filamentum,) termi- nated by d, the anther, Avhich is two-cleft or cloven {bifida.) * The tAvo species of Canna are natives of North America. Hippuris is not known to be a native. PLATE IX. The whole of this plate is appropriated to the illustration of the class Diandria, and the order Monogynia. Fig. 1. Cunila Mariana, commonly called in the United States, Dittany, Mountain-Balm, &c. &c. A. A. A. The corymbs (corymbus) of flowers. B. The perianth, without the corolla," or the sexual organs. C. The perianth with the corolla, the tAvo stamens, and the pistil. D. The perianth with the pistil only. Fig. 2. An American species of SpeedAvell ( Veronica). The leaves are opposite {opposita,) and sessile {sessilia.) A. A. The spikes sup- porting the flowers, each of which has tAvo stamens, and one pistil, a. The perianth, with the corolla, before it has opened, h. A posterior view of the corolla, with its perianth, c. The corolla, with the tAvo stamens and one style. Fig. 3. Collinsonia canadensis, commonly called Horse-weed, and 310 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. Knot-root, because horses are remarkably fond of the plant, and because its root is very hard and knotty. A. A. The two corymbs {corymbus.) b. The perianth. B. The corolla, which is somewhat ringent {subringens.) C. The stigma, supported by its style, between the two stamens with their anthers. D. The Favo anthers, with the pistil between. E. The terminal corym- bus {corymbus terminalis.) 4 This is the plant to which Dr. Darwin has alluded in the following lines: " T^ftrother swains,* of Collin's! gentle name Thesame their features, and their forms the same, With rival love for fair Collinia*): sigh, Knit the dark brow and roll the unsteady eye, With sweet concern the pitying beauty mourns, And soothes with smiles the jealous pair by turns.'' Loves of the Plants. Canto i. 1. 5i—56. These lines relate to a circumstance familiarly known to the bota- nists. At the time when the pollen is matured and consequently, fitted to fertilize the germ, the female organ voluntarily moves first to one of the anthers, and having received its influence, then bends to- wards the other anther, from which, also, it receives the impregnating powder. Similar movements of the pistil are observed in many other vegetables: but instances of the movements of the stamens toAvards the pistil are still more numerous. PLATE X. This plate is illustrative of the two classes Triandria and Tetrandria. Fig. 1. Commelina virginica, a beautiful North American plant, common in Virginia, and other parts of the United States. A. A. The calyx, which is a spathe {spatha,) heart-shaped (cordata.) B. B. b. The petals. C. C. The three nectaries, as L. calls them: they resemble stamens, or rather cross-shaped anthers, situated upon their proper fila- ments. Jussieu and other writers call these, infertile stamens, which I deem a more proper language than that of L. E. F. The leaves, which are alternate {alterna,) and lanceolate {lanceolata.) Fig. 2. Ludvigia alternifolia. A. A. The stem from which pro- ceed the leaves. B. B. B. B. These are generally alternate, and lanceo- late {lanceolata.) But the leaves of this species are not constantly * The two stamens. f This plant was named, by Linnaeus, in honour of Mr. Peter Collinson, of London, an eminent merchant, and a lover and patron of botany and natural history. X The pistil. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 311 alternate: sometimes the same plant supports both alternate and oppo- site leaves C. One of the segments of the calyx, Avhich is a perianth, and four-parted {perianthium 4-pariitum.) D. B. The corolla, which is tetrapetalous, or four petalled {tetrapetala.) The stamens are four, and there is one style. E. The capsule, invested by the calyx. F. The pericarp, which is a capsule, four cornered {capsula tetra- gona.) Fig. 3. Part of Callicarpa americana, called Bermudian Mulberry. A. The perianth. B. The perianth, with the corolla, four stamens and one style.—Tetrandria Monogynia.—C. The fruit o*iberries, not arriv- ed at their full size, growing around the stem, in a whirl {verticillus.) D. A Berry of its natural size when ripe. The calyx is permanent, or adheres to it. PLATE XI. Fig. 1. Common Tobacco (Nicotiana Tabacum. A. A. A. Pe- rianths. B. The corolla, before it has opened. C. The tube of the corolla. D. The limb {limbus) of the same. E. The swollen germ in the perianth, e. e. e. Bractes {bractese.) F. The tube. G. The corolla cut open to shoAv H. the stigma, surrounded by the five anthers. I. The pericarp opened. K. The same horizontally cut. Fig. 2. A species of Ground Cherry (Physalis pennsylvanica?) A. The rotate corolla {corolla rotata.) B. A posterior vieAV of the corol- la, showing the perianth. Fig. 3. A species of Convolvulas from Florida. A. The perianth. B. The tube of the corolla. C. The limb of the same, within which are seen the stigma, and five anthers. All these figures are illustrative of the class Pentandria, and the order Monogynia. PLATE XII. Zanthorhiza apiifolia, commonly called Yellow-root. This fine shrub is a native of North Carolina, and other southern parts of the United States. The root and the wood furnish a fine but not lasting, yel- low dye. They are also very bitter, and nearly allied to the Columbo, but less pure. See Medical Repository. Vol. V. No. ii.) A. A branch of the plant. The leaves are petiolate, or furnished with petioles {petiolata,) unequally pinnate {impari-pinnata.) a. The corolla which consists of five petals, somewhat magnified, b. A branch of the plant Avith seed-vessels, c. A single seed-vessel, which is a capsule, one celled {unilocularis.) d. One of the capsules opened, e. A seed. f. A portion of the root, sending off a scion {radix stolonifera.) 312 EXPLANATION OE THE PLATES. PLATE XIII. Fig. 1. Hypoxis erecta, or Upright-Star of Bethlehem. This is a very common plant in Pennsylvania, and many other parts of the United States. It grows in woods, &c. A. The bulb, which is es- teemed by some a remedy against the bite of the rattle-snake. B. The scape. C. Bractes, which are awl-shaped, [bracteae subulatae.) The leaves are all radical {radicalia,) and grass-like {graminea.) Fig. 2. Lilium canadense, or Canadian Lily. This is a beautiful and common plarif in many parts of the United States. A. The squa- mose bulb {bulbus squamosus.) B. One of the individual scales of the same. One of the flowers is unbpened; the other is open, and shows the six stamens, and one style. The corolla is bell-shaped and six petalled {corolla campanulata, 6-petala.) Both of these plants illustrate the class and order, Hexandria Mono- gynia. PLATE XIV. This plate represents the Medeola virginica, commonly called Indian Cucumber, from the taste of its, root, or bulb, which is very similar to that of a Cucumber. It is a very common plant in many parts of the United States, growing in wettish woods.—The leaves are beautifully verticillate {verticillata.) There is no calyx in the language -of L. but a corolla (which Jussieu calls the calyx:) which is six parted {6-par- tita,) and revolute {revoluta).----A. A single stamen. B. The three styles. C. The fruit, which is a berry {bacca,) containing three seeds {3-sperma.) D. One of the seeds. This plant is a good illustration of the class Hexandria, and the order Trigynia. PLATE XV. Fig. 1. iEsculus parviflora of Walter. This is a native of the Ca- rolinas and of Georgia. A. A flower, the corolla consisting of four petals, with seven stamens and one style. B. the germ considerably enlarged, with the persistent style, after the fall of the stamens. C. c. The sexual organs of the same plant, showing how, in the early flowers, the stamens exist with only the rudiment, c. of the pistil.— This plant, therefore, in strict propriety, belongs to the class of Poly- gamia.—D. the pericarp {pericarpium,) which is three-valved {tri- valve.) E. the seed, which is a nut {nux,) distinguished by a very large hilum. The leaves of this species of iEsculus afford a very good example of EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 313 that species of compound leaf {folium compositum) Avhich L. calls the digitate leaf (folium digitatum.) Fig. 2. The flower of the ^sculus flava of Aiton- This is a com- mon tree in many parts of North America, from the latitude of 40 de- grees southward. It is known by the names of Buck-eye, and Deers- eye, from some resemblance of its nut to the eye of the common deer. A. The perianth. B. The corolla, which consists of five petals. The stamens are seven in number. Fig. 3. The flower of the iEsculus Pavia. A. The perianth. B. The corolla, which consists of only four petals. PLATE XVI. The upper division of this plate is illustrative of the class Octandria: the lower of the class Enneandria. Fig. 1. Rhexia virginica, a beauti- ful North American plant. The leaves are opposite and sessile {folia opposita, sessilia.) A. A. The calyx, which is a perianth, a. A corolla not yet opened, b. D. The pistil. B. B. The corolla which consists of four petals, that are inserted into the calyx. C. The pistil surrounded by the eight stamens. E. The vascular calyx opened to show the position of the eight stamens, F.—The filaments are terminated by falcated anthers {aniheras falcatae.) G. The germ. H. The pistil. 1. The pericarp, croAvned by the four points of the calyx. Fig. 2. Gaura biennis. This is also a common North American plant. A. The calyx. B. B. The four petals of the corolla. C. C. The eight stamens. D. The stigma, which is four lobed {4-lobum.) E. The flower not yet opened. F. The pericarp, which is a capsule. Fig. 3. Different parts of the fructification of the Botumus umbel- latus, or Flowering-Rush, which is a native of Britain. A. A poste- rior view of the corolla, as L. calls it. It is the coloured calyx {calyx coloratus) in the language of Jussieu. B. An anterior view of the same. C. The nine stamens', the petals or calyx being removed, c. The receptacle [receptaculum.) E. f. The same magnified. D. The six germs, magnified. F. A single stamen, magnified. G. An anther mag- nified, showing its peculiar structure, which is bilamellate or two-plated {anthera bilamellata.) PLATE. XVII. Fig. 1. Cassia marilandica, a very beautiful but common American vegetable. It grows abundantly in the vicinity of Philadelphia.—A. A. Glands {Glandulae,) seated on the common petiole, or middle rib, B. B. We have here a good example of that species of compound leaf, which is denominated a pinnate leaf {folium pinnatum. c. An an- terior vieAVofa blossom not yet opened. D. The three superior petals. 40 314 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. E. One of the tAvo inferior petals. F. G. Seven of the ten stamens. H. The three remaining stamens, the anthers of which are long and bowed. I. The pistil.—This figure illustrates the class and order De- candria Monogynia. Fig. 2. The sexual organs of the white Saxifrage (Saxifraga granu- lata,) of Avhich the root is figured in Plate II. A. A. The ten stamens. B. The tAvo pistils.—Decandria Digynia. Fig. 3. Cucubalus stellatus, a Very common American plant. It grows abundantly in the vicinity of Philadelphia. A. The leaves which are stellate (folia stellata.) a. Smaller stellate leaves. B. b. Bractes {bracteae.) C. The perianth. D. One of the ten stamens. E. The three styles in the centre of the stamens. F. The three styles de- tached from the other parts. Decandria Trigynia. Fig. 4. A. The flower (of its natural size) of the Common Poke (Phytolacca decandra.) B. The same magnified, showing the ten sta- mens, the striated germ, and ten stigmas.—Decandria Decagynia. PLATE XVIII. Fig. 1. Philadelphus inodorus, a beautiful North American vege- table. The petals are four in number. A. The calyx and the sexual organs, detached from the petals, a. a. a. a. The calyx which is a perianth monophyllous, or consisting of one leaf, and four parted (pe- rianthium monophyllum, quadripartitum.) b. b. c. c. The sta- mens which are numerous, and attached to the calyx, d. The four stig- mata. B. The calyx, with the germ, e. after impregnation, and the styles, f.—Icosandria Tetragynia. Fig. 2. A. B. C. A floAver before it has opened, of the May-Apple, called also Wild-Lemons, Mandrake, &c. It is the Podophyllum pelta- tum of L. and is a very common plant in many parts of the United States. A. The peduncle (pedunculus.) B. The perianth. C. The petals. D. The expanded blossom, of its natural size. The petals vary in number from six to ten. The most prevailing number is six. The number of the stamens is very various. E. A stamen. e. The filament f. The anther. F. The fruit Avhich is a berry (bacca.) i. The persisting stigma. G. A seed. PLATE XIX. This plate is appropriated to an illustration of the 14th, the 15th and the 18th classes of the sexual system. Fig. 1. Gerardia flava. A. The corolla, which is monopetalous (monopetala,) ringent (ringens,) the limb (limbus) five-parted {5-par- titus.) The stamens are four in number, two longer than the other two. There is one pistil. B. The pericarp, whjch is a capsule (cap- EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 315 sula) seated in its calyx, which is a perianth, monophyllous, and five- parted.—Didynamia Angiospermia, Fig. 3. Different parts of the Stock Iuly-flower (Cheiranthus incanus.) A. The four stamens and the pistil, of their natural size. B. The same magnified. Four of the stamens are long, and two short, Avhich is the character of the class Tetradynamia.—The base of the shorter stamens are surrounded with four nectariferous glands (glandulae nec- tariferae.) C. The corolla, Avhich is tetrapetalous (tetrapetala,) and cruciform, or cross-shaped (cruciatas cruciformis.) Fig. 2. Hypericum kalmianum. A. The corolla, which consists of five petals, and the stamens distributed into several different bundles, or phalanges. The pistil in the centre. B. The calyx, which is a perianth, five parted {quinqueparlitum) with the pistil. C. The peri- anth, which is a capsule Avith the calyx attached to it. Gerardia flava and Hypericum kalmianum are both North American plants. Cheiranthus incanus is not a native. PLATE XX. Napaea hermaphrodita, a native of many parts of the United States. A. Shows the filaments united into a single bundle, below, which is the character of the class Monadelphia, which this plate is intended to illustrate. B. The pericarp, which is a capsule. C. One of the cells of the capsule, with the seed contained within. D. A single seed. PLATE XXI. Robinia viscosa, a native of the southern parts of the United States. This plate furnishes us with a good example of the pinnate leaf (folium pinnatum,) and of that species Avhich L. denominates folium pin- natum cum imparl; unequally pinnate, when the wings composed of leaflets are terminated by a single leaflet. A. The seed-vessel, which is a legume (legumen.) B. The same opened, showing the tAvo valves of which it consists, and the seeds fixed along one of the sutures. Fig. C. represents a lateral view of a flower of Robinia viscosa. One of the alas and a part of the vexillum are chiefly seen. Fig. D. rep- resents more distinctly the carina, and the two alae. The sides of the vexillum are also seen. Fig. E. represents the carina separated from the other petals of the flower. Fig. F. exhibits the vexillum. Robinia viscosa (unknoAvn to L.) is a native of the southern parts of the United States, such as the tAvo Carolinas, Georgia, &e The viscus matter of its branches, from which the tree derives its name, is a good deal of the nature of caoutchouc. 316 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PLATE XXII. Tragopogon virginicum ? or Virginian Goats-beard. It is a common plant in Pennsylvania, and other parts of the United States. A. The amplexicaule leaf (folium amplexicaule.) B. b. Stipules {stipulae.) C. The calyx, with the contained corolla, &c. D. A posterior vieAv of a flower, exhibiting the common calyx. E. E. The corolla, e. e. e. The stigmas. F. A single floscule. f. The petal, g. The cylinder of anthers, h. The style protruded through the anthers. G. The seed, with the pappus, or aigrette, attached to it.—This plate illustrates the first order (Polygamia aequalis) of the class Syngenesia. PLATE XXIII. Helianfhus divaricatus ? a native of Pennsylvania, and other parts of the United States, is figured upon this plate, which is intended to illus- trate the second order (Polygamia Frustranea) of the class of Syngene- sia. A. A posterior view of the flower, exhibiting the imbricate calyx (calyx imbricatus.) B. B. The ray (radius) of the corolla. C. A ligulate floret of the ray. D. A tubulose floret of the disk {discus.) d. The cylinder of anthers, e. The stigmas. E. A ripe seed. H. A transverse section of the same, showing its angles. G. The two oppo- site andSessile leaves {folia opposita, sessilia.) H. H. H. H. Smal- ler leaves. PLATE XXIV. Silphium terebinthinum, a North American plant A. B. A poste- rior vieAv of a flower, exhibiting A. the common calyx, which is an imbricate perianth {perianthium imbricatum.) B. One of the ligu- late petals of the ray. C. C. An anterior view of the corolla, exhibit- ing the ray {radius,) the petals of which are merely furnished with the female organ; and the disk (discus,) the florets of which are tubulous, and furnished with stamens, and an imperfect style, or style without stigma. D. A ligulate petal of the female floret in the ray. E. The perfect stigma. F. The seed. G. The male floret of the disk. H. The cylinder of five anthers, through which is protruded the female organ I, which however, is a style Avithout a stigma. Accordingly, the seed cannot be fertilized Avithout an intercourse taking place be- tween the male floret of the centre and the female floret of the ray. Il- lustrative of the order Polygamia Necessaria of the class Syngenesia. K. The unopened calyx with the contained corolla, &c. L. L. L. L. Small stem-leaves, or stipules. The principal leaves are radical. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 317 PLATE XXV. Passiflora incarnata, a native of the United States. It is sometimes called Passion-flower, but more commonly May-apple. A The three- lobed (irilobum,) and serrated (serratum) leaf. B. Another leaf sun- posed to be eaten off at the end, by some species of insect. C C Tavo glands, situated at the termination of the petiole (petiolus,) or com- mencement of the leaves. These glands form a part of L 's spe- cific character of this species of Passiflora, which he thus defines- " P folnsj serratis aequalibus: petiolis biglandulosis." D. D. Cirri ten- drils, or claspers. E. The five-leaved calyx (perianthiumpentaphyl- lum,) coloured, and resembling petals, e. Glands, near the base of the flowers. F. One of the five petals of the corolla, which terminate obtusely and not in points, as do the leaves of the calyx. G. The nec- tary {nectarium,) which is said "to crown the corolla." H. The three styles. I. The germ, with the stamens below. The stamens are five in number, but only four of them are visible in this drawing. L. arranges this plant in the order Pentandria of the class Gynan- dria. By others, it is thrown into the class Pentandria, and the order Trigynia; and by others again into the order Pentandria of the class Monadelphia. PLATE XXVI. Cleome pentaphylla. The ^enus Cleome is arranged by L. in the class Tetradynamia, but the species which is here figured, is certainlyl'not a Tetradynamous plant. A. A. The compound leaves {folia camposita,) which are quinate or digitate (folium quinatum, s. digitatum.) a. a. a. a. a. The sessile leaflets {folia sessilia). B. B. Peduncles {pedunculi) supporting the pericarps, C. C, which are sili- ques. D. D. Perianths, which consist of four leaves (calyx tetraphyl- lus,) from which arise the four petals, the claws (ungues) of which are very long, and linear. ^E. The six stamens of a fertile floAver. F. The germ. G. The gernWf an abortive flower. H. H. The six sta- mens. I. The corymb (corymbus) of flowers. This plate may serve to illustrate the order Hexandria, of the class Gynandria. PLATE XXVII. Fig. 1. Betula populifolia, a native of Pennsylvania, and other parts of the United States. A. A. The male ament, or catkin {amentum.) B. B. The female flowers. C. C. Receptacles, such as support the male flowers. Fig. 2. A portion of the Virginian Polypody, or Male-Fern. This 31S EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. is a true dorsiferous Fern, the fructification being fastened upon the back of the frond. A. A. Two of the fructifications upon the back of the frond.—Cryptogamia Filices. Fig. 3. Clavaria Acrospermum, represented of the natural size, as groAving upon old, dry wood. Fig. 4. The same magnified.—These two figures, which may serve to illustrate the order Fungi in the class of Cryptogamia, are copied from Professor Hoffman's Flora of Germany, or a Botanical Pocket Companion, for the year 1795. Volume II. Erlangen. PLATE XXVIII. Sagittaria sagittifolia, or Common Arrow-head. This is a very com- mon plartt in many parts of North America, as well as in Europe and Asia. A. A. portion of the root and the commencement of the leaves. Beside this root, there.is always a bulb at the lower part of the root, growing in the solid earth, beneath the mud of the place in which the plant.grows. This bulb, when boiled or roasted, is agreeable food, and the plant is cultivated by the Chinese. B. The scape (scapus.) b. Bractes. {bracteae.) C. D. Petioles supporting the sagittate leaf {folium sUgittatum.) E. One of the female flowers in perfection, exhibiting the three-petalled corolla (corolla tripetala,) and the styles. F.. A female flower after the removal of the petals, exhibiting the three-leaved perianth {perianthium triphyllum,) and the styles, f. A back view of a female flower. G. G. G. The perfect male flowers, exhibiting the three petals, and themaBy anthers. I. A back view of a male flower. H. One of the male flowers, not yet opened. This plate is an excellent illustration of the Class Monoecia, and the order Polyandria. It may, also, serve to illustrate the class Polyan- dria, and the order Polygynia, to which division of the sexual method it is referred by Thunberg, Withering, Gmelin, and other writers. PLATE XXD% Fig. 1. and Fig. 2. The male and female plants of the Acnida can- nabina, a common plant in the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, and other parts of the United States. Fig. 1. The male. Fig. 2. The female. A. A. The spikes {spica) of flovvers. a. A male flower, ex- hibiting the five petals, and the five stamens, b. The female flower, exhibiting the perianth, Avith the germ and five styles, c. The peri- carp, which is a capsule (capsula.) This is a good example of the class Dioecia and the order Pentandria. Gmelin and other writers have re- ferred this plant to the class Pentandria, and the order Pentagynia. All the figures, in the lower division of this plate, are different parts of the Veratrum album, or White-Helk^bore, and are intended to illus- EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 319 Irate the class Polygamia, and the order Monoecia. A. The herma- phrodite flower, exhibiting the six-petalled corolla (which Jussieu calls a calyx, "Calix aequalis coloratus,") with the six stamens, and three germs. B. The corolla without the stamens. C. The six stamens separated from the other parts. D. The three germs. E. The germ magnified. F. A stamen magnified, f. The anther. G. The male flower. I. The six stamens. H. h. The corolla of the male flower. This plant is referred, by Gmelin and other writers, to the class, Hexandria, and the order Trigynia. PLATE XXX. * «s> The first four figures upon this plate are illustrative of the class Do- decandria ; the remainder of the class Cryptogamia. Fig. 1. A. B. C. D. E. Diflerent parts of the Asarum canadensq, or Canadian Asarabacca, commonly called Wild-Ginger, and sometimes Colts-foot. A. The germ below the calyx, and hid within the sub- stance. B. The stellate or star-shaped stigma (stigma^, stellatum,) six-parted (sex-partitum.) b. b. Six of the twelvej^ametrs: the other six have been removed, but the places which the*-filaments/,//> xui *» i'late 11 t.x^ /Yo.ap Fi'o- o. / .l/inffu* .<",- ''(>/ft/.t XIV Hate IV . Xnarax'd ty S.Jitner. i&Ol. 49 lls-ic V. \~'l Ji.Jcncs.^fc. Plate VI. ihy^y />/ Pla-..-Vtf. 'Jan- VIII L'la writ Plate XI. Fit), o Pl-ltt-\t 'InlrXlll r /? , ' -> // / ej (x/rf/j VI I'lale XIV ///. 6'aiynt ou- r I Nate \v J/iaU*tJ& />/((/•> nn. t't.i-. eei J B /tV >">. V\i I'M v\ 'I'l.tirmJ'r (>/,//> m. I'late XIX. L ■■*-•■-..■> Nate XX. cl $v. (.'J,//.j XVII. Plate XJO rA/^//xix. ■^JSSfik'iji <•»; i 1/5"?--.. " h.m "Oi.lt. I'lauO./ill. Plate XX1\ .._.K. ?. ^ (>/(//> XXI I'lau- \MIIL s ->. Plate XXXI We / ¥ mW§ Hat.- XXXII. i'.Ut„h,ut; '&/*,,&.,.. Plate XXXIV r/w.r.Sc. • 0 XIX . Rate XXXV. 'WuHts.S,/ '/,„-,:■ xxiu I'lalr XXXv, •j - \ ^ - / - / Wf^P0y iAl - **« te#a ,k|1 *-*iffir r,-*v'M I'l-. x.vveiii. fc-irnjilft- \ \ e Rate XXXIX. Fyro!. XIII Plate XL r^M & >?