OUTLINES
OF
PROXIMATE ORGANIC ANALYSIS. BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
12mo, cloth, $1 50.
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION
OF
ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS.
A MANUAL, OF THE
CONSTITUENTS OF THE DISTILLED SPIRITS
AND
FERMENTED LIQUORS OF COMMERCE,
AND THEIR
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DETERMINATIONS. OUTLINES
OF
Proximate Organic Analysis.
FOR THE
IDENTIFICATION, SEPARATION, AND QUANTITATIVE
DETERMINATION
OF THE
MORE COMMONLY OCCURRING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.
BY
ALBERT B. PRESCOTT,
PROFESSOR OF ORGANIC AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN.
New' Yoek v-
D. VAN NOSTRAND, PUBLISHER,
23 Murray Street, and 27 Warren Street.
1875. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by
D. VAN NOSTRAND,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. PREFACE.
This little work lias been prepared more espe-
cially for tlie use of a class of chemical students
who devote a semester to the analysis of vege-
table products and other organic mixtures, taking
previously at least two semesters in qualitative
and quantitative analysis. After working with
this class for several years, without other aid than
a manuscript digest of directions and references,
the author is convinced that a compilation in this
subject is desirable—not alone for students in
special applications of chemistry, but for the con-
venience of every general analyst.
Proximate organic analysis is not altogether
impracticable, and organic chemistry is not solely
a science of synthetical operations even at pre-
sent. It is true, as the chief analytical chemists
have repeatedly pointed out, that in the rapid
accumulation of organic compounds the means
of their identification and separation have been 6
PREFACE.
left in comparative neglect. It is true, also, that
the field is limitless; hut this is not a reason for
doing nothing in it. Fifty years ago, the work-
ers in inorganic analysis were unprovided with a
comprehensive system, hut they went on explor-
ing the mineral kingdom and using their scanty
means to gain valuable results.
That this compilation is a fragmentary and
very brief exponent of this part of analytical
science as it exists at present, the author is fully
aware, hut he hopes that, as a beginning, it may
prove to he worth enough to afford an opportu-
nity for its improvement hereafter.
University of Michigan, September, 18T4. CONTENTS.
paragraph.
PAEAGKAPH.
Preliminary Examinations.
1. Carbon, uncombined, - 11
23. Quinovic acid, - - - 38
24. Columbic acid, 39
3. Carbon in combination, , - 11
3. Preliminary examination
of Solids, -11
25. Gentianic acid, 39
26. Carminic acid, 40
4. Preliminary examination
of Liquids, 12
27. Chrysophanic acid, - - 41
28. Gambogic acid, 41
5. References for Solids and
Liquids; Fixed and Vola-
tile ; Acid, Fatty, Basic,
and Neutral, 13
29. Santalic acid, 42
Solid Volatile Acids.
30. Benzoic acid, 42
31. Cinnamic acid, 44
Solid Non-Volatile Acids.
32. Succinic acid, 45
33. Salicylic acid, 47
6. Tartaric acid, 14
34. Veratric acid, 47
35. Phenic acid, - - - 48
7. Racemic acid, 18
8. Citric acid, - - - 18
36. Nitrophenic acid, - - 51
37. Sulphophenic acid, - 53
10. Malic acid, - - - - 22
9. Aconitic acid, 21
Liquid Non-Volatile Acid.
38. Lactic acid, 53
11. Meconic acid, 24
13. Digitalic acid, 26
13. Tannic acid, 26
14. Gallic acid, 30
Liquid Volatile Acids.
15. Pyrogallic acid, 32
16. Quinotannic acid, - - 33
39. Formic acid, - - - 55
17. Catecbutannic acid, - 33
18. Catechuic acid, 34
19. Morintannic acid, 35
40. Acetic acid, 58
41. Butyric acid, 61
30. Caffetannic acid, - - 35
42. Valeric acid, 63
43. Separations, 67
31. Bobeic acid, 36
32. Quinic acid, 36
44. Volatile Fat Acids of the
acetic series, - - -67 8
CONTENTS.
PABAGSAPH.
PAKAGEAPH.
Fatty Acids : Liquid and Solid.
45. Non-Volatile Fatty Acids, 68
76. Caoutchouc, 95
77. Colophony, 95
46. Ricinoleic acid, 69
47. Oleic acid, 69
78. Copaiba resin, 96
79. Copal resin, 96
48. Linoleic acid, 69
80. Dammara resin, 96
81. Dragon’s Blood resin, - 97
49. Erucic acid, - - - 70
50. Laurie acid, 70
51. Myristic acid, 70
82. Gamboge resin, 97
83. Guaiacum resin, 98
53. Palmitic acid, 70
53. Stearic acid, 70
84. Hemp resin, 98
85. Indigo-blue resin, - - 99
54. Cerotic acid, 70
55. Separations by Saponifica-
tion, ----- 71
86. Jalap resin, 99
87. Jalapin resin, 99
56. Separations by Fusion, - 71
88. Convolvulin resin, - - 100
89. Lac resin, - 100
57. Separations by Solvents, - 71
58. Quantitative Determina-
tions, ----- 73
90. Mastic resin, - 101
91. Myrrh resin, ... 101
92. Olibanum resin, - 102
93. Peru balsam resin, - - 102
Neutral Substances : Liquid or
Fusible.
94. Podophyllum resin, - - 102
95. Sandarac resin, - 102
59. Fixed Oils: (a) Liquid ; (6)
Solid, 73
96. Scammony resin, - - 102
97. Storax resin, - 102
60. Methods of Examination
of Fixed Oils, -74
98. Tolu balsam resin, - - 103
99. Separation of Resins, - 103
61. Calvert’s Methods, - - 78
100. Volatile Oils: Classes of, - 104
101. “ Properties of, - 104
62. Tests with Argentic Ni-
trate, ----- 81
102. “ Solubilities of, - 105
103. “ How identified, - 105
63. Analysis of Butter, - - 81
64. Analysis of Milk, - - 84
104. “ How separated, - 105
105. “ List, with color
andsp.gr., - 107
65. Separation of Fixed from
Volatile Oils, - -85
106. Examination by Alcohol, - 108
66. Glycerin, - - - - 85
67. Methods of Analysis of
Soaps, 87
107. Examination by lodine
and Bromine, - 109
68. Resins: general character-
istics, ----- 93
108. Examination by sulphuric
acid, etc., - 111
69. Resins : how separated
from other bodies, - -93
109. Examination by Plumbic
sulphide, - 114
70. Aloes resin, 93
110. Examination by Sodium, - 114
111. Resinifled Volatile Oils, - 115
71. Amber resin, 93
73. Ammoniac resin, - - 94
112. Turpentine oil, - 115
113. Valerian oil, - 115
73. Assafetida resin, - - 94
74. Benzoin resin, 94
114. Peppermint oil, - 115
115. Camphor, - - - - 116
75. Canauba wax, - - - 95
116. Creosote, - 116 CONTEXTS.
PARAGRAPH.
117. Anthracene, - 117
PARAGRAPH.
137. (Sulphuric and Chromic
acids, - - - -146
118. Alizarin, - 117
119. Benzole; Petroleum, Naph-
tha, ----- H8
138. Nitric acid, - 146
120. Nitrobenzole, - - - 119
139. Sulphuric acid and Nitrate, 147
140. Chlorine, then Ammonia, - 148
Bases : Liquid and Solid.
131. Anilin, - 130
141. Ferric Chlox-ide, - 148
143. Platinic Chloride (Quanti-
tative), - 148
123. Anilin of commerce, - - 120
143. Auric Chloride (Quantita-
tive), - - - - - 150
128. Anilin Compounds, - - 121
124. Toluidin, - 131
125. Methods of Determining
Anilin, - 131
Glucosides and other Solid Neu-
tral Substances.
144. Absinthin, - 151
136. Alkaloids; classes of, - 123
127. Conia, ----- 123
138. Lobelina, - - - - 123
129. Nicotia, - 133
145. Aloin, - - - - 151
146. Amygdalin, - 153
130. Trimethylamia, - - - 123
131. Comparative reactions of
Volatile bases, - - - 124
147. Asparagin, - 153
148. Cantharidin, - 153
133. ATon - Volatile Alkaloids:
List, 125
149. Cathartin, - - - - 153
150. Colombia, - 153
133. Table of Solubilities of, - 138
151. Cubebin, - - - - 154
153. Elaterin, - - - - 154
134. Separation of, - - - 130
(1) Method of Stas-Otto, - 131
153. Fraxin, - 154
154. Lactucin, - 155
(2) Rodgers and Girdwood, - 133
(3) Uslar and Erdmann, - 133
155. Phloridzin, - 155
156. Populin, - 155
(4) Graham and Hofmann, - 134
(5) by Dialysis, - - - 134
157. Quassin, - 155
158. Sarsaparillin, - 156
(6) Method of Dragendorff, - 134
(7) Dragendorff (Alkaloids and
Glucosides), - 136
159. Taraxacin, - - - - 156
160. Vanillin, - 156
(8) by use of Alkalies, - - 137
161. Separation of Glucosides,
etc., ----- 156
135. Identification as Alkaloids, 139
a. by Potassio Mercuric Io-
(9) Ether, Water, Chloroform, 138
Nitrogenous Neutral Bodies.
dide, - . . - 139
163. Albumenoids, - 157
163. Ovalbumen, - - - 158
b. Phosphomolybdic acid, - 140
c. Metatungstic acid, - - 141
164. Seralbumen, - - - 158
165. Casein, - - - - 159
d. Potassio Cadmic lodide, - 141
e. Picric acid, - 143
166. Milk Albumen, - 159
167. Determ. Casein and Albu-
men in Milk, - - - 159
f. Tannic acid, - 143
g. lodine in lodide, - - 144
168. Quantitative Anal, of Milk, 160
136. Alkaloids with Sulphuric
acid and Frohde’s reagent, 144
169. Commercial Examination
of Milk, - 160 10
CO STENTS.
PARAGRAPH.
PAP. AGP. APR.
170. Gelatin, - - - - 160
171. Leather, - - - - 161
187. Glucose, - 168
188. Lactose, - 171
Carbohydrates.
189. Sucrose, - 173
190. Mannite, - 174
173. Gums, - - - - -161
173. Gum Arabic, - 162
Alcohols and their Products.
171. Gum Tragacantb, - - 163
175. Dextrin, - 163
191. Methylic Alcohol, - - 175
193. Ethylic Alcohol, - - 176
176. Starch, - 163
177. Pectous Substances, - - 166
193. Aldehyde, - - - - 177
194. Sulphethylates, - 177
178. Pectose, - 166
179. Pectin, - - - - 166
195. Ether, ----- 179
196. Nitrous Ether, - 180
180. Pectic acid, - 166
181. Parapectin, - 166
197. Chloroform, - - 180
198. Chloral Hydrate, - - 183
183. Parapectic acid, - 166
183. Metapectin, - 167
199. lodoform, - 184
300. Croton Chloral Hydrate, - 184
184. Metapectic acid, - - 167
185. Cellulose, - 167
301. Amylic Alcohol, - - 184
303. Fusel-Oil, - - - - 185
186. Nitrocellulose, - 168
303. Nitrite of Amyl, - - 186 OUTLINES
OF
Proximate Organic Analysis.
preliminary examinations.
1. CARBON (uncombined) is recognized by its sensible pro-
perties (as charcoal, graphite, or diamond), by not vaporizing
when heated, and by resisting ordinary solvents—neutral, alka-
line or acid—except that graphite is oxidized by digestion with
chlorates and sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, or with bichro-
mates and sulphuric acid, or with mixed nitric and sulphuric
acids.—Also, on ignition in the ah*, or in a close tube with oxide
°f copper, carbonic anhydride is obtained from carbon alone, as
well as from its compounds.
2. THE COMPOUNDS OP CARBON—except the alka-
line carbonates—yield carbonic anhydride when ignited in the air
or in a tube with supply of oxygen (as with dry oxide of copper).
The non-volatile “ Organic ” Compounds of Carbon leave a resi-
due of carbon after partial combustion—i.e., they carbonize by
ignition.
3. Preliminary examination OP SOLIDS to determine
whether inorganic or organic, or both.
a. Heat gradually, to prolonged ignition, in a glass tube open
at both ends, or on platinum foil.
(1) The substance is permanent: Inorganic.
(2) Carbonizes and burns away, leaving no residue : Organic.
See 5, a. PRE LI MIX AR Y EX A RINA TIG NS.
(3) Cai'bonizes and leaves a fixed residue: Organic and Inor-
ganic. See c.
(4) There is doubt as to carbonization; test according to b.
(5) The substance vaporizes—wholly or partly : test accord-
ing to b. Also consider ammonium salts, the volatile elements,
and the inorganic volatile acids, oxides, sulphides, etc. Examine
according to 4, b.
b. Mix the (dry) substance (free from carbonates yielding
CO„ on ignition) with dry oxide of copper; introduce into a
short combustion-tube or a hard-glass test-tube; connect, by a
cork and bent narrow tube, with a solution of lime or baryta, or
basic acetate of lead, and ignite. If a precipitate is formed, test
it as a carbonate.
c. Ignite a portion in a porcelain capsule, until free from car-
bon—cooling and adding a drop or two of concentrated nitric
acid from time to time, if necessary to facilitate the combustion.
Submit the residue to inorganic analysis. Examine another por-
tion for organic bodies—applying the solvents, as in 134 (9)
or (7). For an index of some of the most common organic
solids, see 5, a.
4. Preliminary examination of LIQUIDS, to determine
whether partly or wholly organic or not, and to separate
dissolved solids.
a. Evaporate a portion, on a slip of glass, at a very gentle
heat. If, after cooling, a solid residue is obtained, test it accord-
| ing to 3. If there is an insufficient residue, obtain for this
examination a larger quantity by distillation, as directed in b.
b. Distil from a small retort or connected flask, admitting a
7 O
thermometer, using a very gradually-increasing heat, and chang-
ing the receiver as often as the boiling point is seen to rise.
Cool the residue and distillates. Test the solid portions accord-
ing to 3; the liquid portions, also, according to 3, aor b—then
referring as indicated in the next paragraph. For index of
Organic Liquids, see 5, b. PR EL IMINA R Y EX A MINA TIG NS.
5. a. SOLIDS.
Acids: Aconitic—9.
Boheic—2l.
Cafifetannic—2o.
Catechuic—18.
Catechutannic—l7.
Carminic—26.
(Chrysophanic)—27.
Citric—B.
Columbia—24.
Digitalic—l2.
(Gallic)—14.
Gambogic—2B.
Gentianic—25.
Malic—lo.
Meconic—ll.
Morintannic—l9.
(Pyrogallic)—ls.
Quinic—22.
Quinotannic—16.
Quinovic—23.
Racemic—7.
Tannic—13.
Tartaric—6.
Santalic—29.
Fatty Acids:
Cerotic—s4.
Erucic (melts at 34° C.)—49.
Laurie—so.
Myristic—sl.
Palmitic—s2.
Stearic—53.
Fixed salts of volatile acids.
NON-VOLATILE.
Fixed Oils—s9, b; 60 to 63.
Soaps—67.
Resins—99, and 68 to 98.
Alkaloids (fixed)—132 to 143.
Carbohydrates :
Cellulose—lBs.
Dextrin—l7s.
Gum—l 72.
Gun-cotton—lB6.
Pectin, etc.—l 77 to 184.
Starch—l 76.
Sugars—lB7 to 190.
Albumenoids—l62 to 167.
Gelatin—l7o, 171.
VOLATILE.
Acids : Benzoic—3o.
(Chrysophanic)—27.
Cinnamic—3l.
(Gallic)—14.
Nitrophenic—36.
(Pyrogallic)—ls.
Salicylic—33.
Succinic—32.
Sulphophenic—37.
Veratric—34.
Camphors—lls, 101, and 111.
Anthracene—117.
Alizarin—llB.
Anilin compounds—l 23.
Chloral hydrate—l9B.
lodoform—l99.
Salts of Volatile Alkaloids.
NON-VOLATILE.
h. LIQUIDS.
VOLATILE.
Acid; Lactic—3B.
Fatty Acids:
Linoleic (melts, 18° C.)—48.
Oleic—47.
Ricinoleic—46.
Fixed Oils—s9.
(Soft Soaps)— 67.
Glycerin—66.
Acids: Acetic—40.
Butyric—4l.
Foi'mic—39.
Valeric—42.
Volatile 0i15—105,104, and 100 to 114.
Creosote—ll6.
Volatile Alkaloids—131 and 126 to
130. 14
SOLID NOX- VOL A TILE A ('IDS.
Anilin—131.
Solvents:
Alcohol—l 93.
Aldehyd—l93.
A.rnyl. Alcohol—201.
Benzole—119.
Chloroform—197.
Solvents—Continued.
Ether—l9s.
Co. Ethers—106, 416, 42a,
44, etc.
Meth. Alcohol—191.
Mtrobenzole—l2o.
Petroleum—ll9X.
SOLID NON-VOLATILE ACIDS.
6. TARTARIC ACID. H„C4H4O0. Characterized by the
form of its crystals and its rotation of polarized light (a) ; by its
odor when heated, and its color when treated with sulphuric
acid (d) ; by the properties of its salts of calcium, potassium,
lead, and silver (c) ; by the extent of its reducing power (d).—
Separated (as free acid) from salts or other substances insoluble
in alcohol by its solubility in that menstruum, and from aqueous
solutions by its solubility in amylic alcohol (e); from alcoholic
solutions by the insolubility of tartrates in alcohol (c); from
citric acid by the precipitation of calcium tartrate in cold water
and of potassium tartrate in aqueous alcohol (c); from sub-
stances not precipitable by oxide of lead by the method given
under Acetic acid at g (40).—Determined by acidimctry (f);
gravimetrically as lead, calcium, or potassium tartrate (g); by
sp. gr. of water solutions (see Storcr’s “ Dictionary of
Solubilities ”).
a. Ordinary tartaric acid, or “ dextrotartaric acid,” crys-
tallizes in colorless, transparent, hard, monoclinic (oblique
rhombic) prisms, permanent in the air, soluble in 1.5 parts cold
water, 0.5 part hot water, 3 parts alcohol, not soluble in ether.
The solution rotates the plane of polarized light to the right.
h. When heated to 170° to 180° C., the crystals melt with
formation of metatartaric acid, etc.; by higher heat in the air,
various distillation products are generated, and the mass burns
with the odor of burnt sugar and the separation of carbon.— TAUTARIC ACID,
15
Pure tartaric acid dissolves in cold concentrated sulphuric acid,
colorless, the solution turning black when warmed.
c. The normal tartrates of potassium, sodium, and ammo-
nium, and the acid tartrate of sodium, arc freely soluble in
water; the acid tartrates of potassium and ammonium are spar-
ingly soluble in water; the normal tartrates of non-alkaline
metals arc insoluble or only slightly soluble in water, but mostly
dissolve in solution of tartaric acid. Tartrates arc insoluble in
absolute alcohol. Aqueous alkalies dissolve most of the tartrates
(those of mercury, silver, and bismuth being excepted), generally
by formation of soluble double tartrates. For this reason,
tartaric acid prevents the precipitation of salts of iron and many
other heavy oxides by alkalies. Hydrochloric, nitric, and
sulphuric acids decompose tartrates.
A solution of tartaric acid added to cold solution of lime,
leaving the reaction alkaline, causes a slight white precipitate of
calcic tartrate (distinction from Citric acid, which precipitates
only when heated). The same precipitate is produced with a
tartrate and calcic chloride solution; but not readily, if at all,
with free tartaric acid and calcic sulphate solution (distinction
from Racemic acid). The precipitate of calcic tartrate is soluble
in cold solution of potassa, is precipitated gelatinous on boiling,
and again dissolves on cooling (distinctions from Citrate), and is
dissolved by acetic acid (distinction from Oxalate).
Solution of potassa, or potassic acetate, precipitates concen-
trated solutions of tartaric acid, as the acid tartrate of potassium
in microscopic crystals of the trimetric system, soluble in alkalies
and in mineral acids, not soluble by acetic acid. The precipitate
is soluble in 230 parts of water at 15°, or in 15 to 20 parts of
boiling water, but insoluble in alcohol, the addition of which
promotes its formation in water solutions (distinction and sepa-
ration from Citric, Oxalic, and Malic acids).—Tartaric acid is
distinguished from citric acid, in crystal, and the former is
detected in a crystalline mixture of the two acids, as follows: *
* Hager’s “ Untersuehungen,” B. 2, S. 103. 16
SOLID NON-VOLATILE ACIDS.
A solution of 4 grammes of dried potassa in CO cubic centi-
meters of water and 30 cubic centimeters of 90 per cent, alcohol
is poured upon a glass plate or beaker-bottom to the depth of
about O.G centimeter (one-fourth inch). Crystals of the acid
under examination are placed, in regular order, three to five cen-
timeters (one to two inches) apart, in this liquid, and left without
agitation for two or three hours. The citric acid crystal dissolves
slowly but completely and without losing its transparency.
The tartaric acid crystal (or the crystal containing tartaric acid)
becomes, in a few minutes, opaque white (in a greater or less
degree), and continues for hours and days slowly to disintegrate
without dissolving and with gradual projection of spicate crystals,
fibrous and opaque, also trimetric prisms. (See, also, Citric
acid, e.)
Solution of lead acetate precipitates free tartaric acid or tar-
trates as white normal tartrate of lead, very slightly soluble in
water, insoluble in alcohol, but slightly soluble in acetic acid,
readily soluble in tartaric acid and in tartrate of ammonium
solution, and freely soluble in ammoniacal solution of tartrate of
ammonium (distinction from Malate), somewhat soluble in
chloride of ammonium.
Solution of silver nitrate precipitates solutions of normal
tartrates (not free tartaric acid) as white argentic tartrate, soluble
in ammonia and in nitric acid. On boiling, the precipitate turns
black, by reduction of silver, some portion of which usually
deposits as a mirror-coating on the glass. The mirror is formed
more perfectly if the washed precipitate of argentic tartrate is
treated with ammonia just enough to dissolve nearly all of it,
and the solution left on the water bath. (The reduction is a
distinction from Citrate). Free tartaric acid does not reduce
silver from its nitrate.
d. The copper sulphate with potassa is not reduced by tar-
taric acid. Potassium permanganate solution is reduced very
slowly by free tartaric acid; but quickly by alkaline solution of
tartrates, with separation of brown binoxide of manganese (dis- TARTARIC ACID.
17
tinetion from Citrates which separate the brown binoxide of man-
ganese slowly or not at all, leaving green solution of manganate).
e. Tartaric acid may be extracted from tartrates by decom-
posing with sulphuric acid and dissolving with alcohol, sulphates
being generally insoluble in alcohol. Free tartaric acid may
be extracted from water solutions by agitation with amylic
alcohol, which rises to the surface.
Quantitative.—-f. Free tartaric acid, unmixed with other
acids, may be determined volumetrically by adding a normal
solution of soda, to the neutral tint of litmus. Weighing 7.500
grammes, the required number of cubic centimeters of normal
solution equals the number per cent, of acid.
g. In absence of acids forming insoluble lead salts, tartaric acid
may be precipitated by acetate of lead solution, washed with
dilute alcohol, dried on the water bath and weighed as normal
lead tartrate. PbQH.O,. : BfCfHA :: 1 : 0.422535.
4 4 6 2 4 4 *
In absence of acids forming insoluble calcium salts, tartaric
acid may be precipitated from solution of neutral sodium tar-
trate by chloride of calcium. If ammonium salts are present,
the ammonia should first be mostly expelled by adding sodium
carbonate and heating—the excess of carbonate being neutralized
With acetic acid. The precipitate of calcium tartrate should be
heated and left aside for completion, washed with a little water
and then with dilute alcohol, and dried (in a tarcd filter) at 40°
to 50° C. Ca C 4H4Oc+4H20 : H2C4H406 :: 1 : 0.577.
In presence of citric acid, oxalic acid, sulphuric acid, phos-
phoric acid, etc., the tartaric acid may be determined as potas-
sium bitartrate. The solution of acid is made nearly neutral by
addition of soda, or the solution of salt (tartrate) is made slightly
acid by addition of acetic acid; this water solution is obtained
in concentrated form and treated with a little alcohol but not to
cause a precipitate, and then precipitated with concentrated solu-
tion of acetate of potassium. The precipitate is washed with
alcohol, and dried on the water bath. KH C 4H4Oe : H3C4H406
:• 1 ; O.TOT. Results approximate. 18
SOLID NON-VOLATILE ACIDS.
7. RACEMIC ACID. Isomer of tartaric acid, from which
it is distinguished as follows: By forming triclinic crystals,
H2C4H406. H2O ; soluble in 5 parts cold water or 48 parts of
alcohol of sp. gr. .809; slightly efflorescent on the surface ; losing
the water of crystallization at 100°. By its solution (uncom-
hincd) Being able to form after a short time a slight precipitate
in solution of calcic sulphate and a precipitate in solution of
calcic chloride; the precipitate of calcic racemate being, after
solution in hydrochloric acid, precipitated again by ammonia,
that is, not soluble in chloride of ammonium solution. By being
inactive toward polarized light.
8. CITRIC ACID. H3C6H507. Characterized by the form,
solubilities, and fusibility of its crystals (a); by the properties
of its salts of calcium, barium, lead, silver, potassium (h); by the
limits of its reducing power (c).—Separated (as free acid) from
sulphates and other substances insoluble in alcohol by its solu-
bility in this menstruum {d); from tartaric acid, approximately,
by the slight solubility of the potassic tartrate in dilute alcohol
(e); from acids which form soluble lead salts by method given
under Acetic acid at g.—Determined by acidimetry (jf) ; by
precipitation as barium citrate to be weighed as barium sulphate,
or as barium citrate.
a. The citric acid of commerce is crystallized (from rather
concentrated solutions) as H,.C6H,07 • H„0, in large, transparent,
colorless, and odorless prisms of the trimetric system. These
crystals slowly effloresce in the air between 28° and 50° C., and
lose all their water of crystallization at 100° C. A different form
of crystals, containing one molecule of water to two molecules
of acid, is obtained from boiling, concentrated solutions.—Citric
acid melts when heated, and at 175° gives off pungent, character-
istic vapors, containing acetone (see Acetic acid, 40, c), while
Aconitic acid (9) is formed in the residue. (The odor is dis-
tinctly unlike that of heated Tartaric acid.)—Citric acid is
soluble in less than its weight of water, in 1.5 parts of 90 per CITRIC ACID.
19
cent, alcohol, insoluble in absolute ether, but soluble to a slight
extent in ether containing alcohol or water; also slightly soluble
in chloroform containing alcohol.
b. The alkaline citrates are freely soluble in water; iron, zinc,
and copper citrates, moderately soluble; other metallic citrates
mostly insoluble, calcium citrate being somewhat soluble in cold
Water, but nearly insoluble in hot water. Aramonio-ferric citrate
ls readily soluble in water. Citric acid prevents the precipita-
tion of iron and many other heavy metals by the alkalies, soluble
double citrates being formed. The alkaline citrates are sparingly
soluble in hot, less soluble in cold alcohol.—Solution of lime,
added to solution of citric acid or citrates, causes no precipitate
in the cold (distinction from Tartaric, Racemic, Oxalic acids);
imt on boiling a slight precipitate is formed (distinction from
Malic acid). Solution of chloride of calcium does not precipi-
tate solution of free citric acid even on boiling, nor citrates in the
cold, but precipitates citrates (neutralized citric acid) when the
mixture is boiled. The precipitate, Ca3(CcII,,07)2. 2H20, is
msoluble in cold solution of potassa (which should be not very
dilute and nearly free from carbonate), but soluble in solution of
cupric chloride (two means of distinction from Tartaric acid) ;
also soluble in cold solution of chloride of ammonium and
readily soluble in acetic acid.—Solution of acetate of lead pre-
cipitates from solutions of neutral citrates, and from even very
dilute alcoholic solution of citric acid, the white citrate of lead,
rH O)4H O, somewhat soluble in free citric acid,
6 5 7/ 2 * 2 7
soluble in nitric acid, in solutions of all the alkaline citrates and
°f chloride and nitrate of ammonium, soluble in ammonia (for-
mation of basic citrate of lead then soluble with the citrate of
ammonium produced). (Malate of lead is not soluble in malate
°f ammonium.)
c. Nitrate of silver precipitates from neutral solutions of
citrates, white normal citrate of silver, not blackened by boiling
(distinction from Tartrate).—Solution of permanganate ot
Potassium is scarcely at all affected by free citric acid in the cold. 20
SOLID X OX- VOLATILE ACIDS.
With free alkali, the solution turns green slowly in the cold,
readily when boiled, without precipitation of brown binoxide of
manganese till after a long time (distinction from Tartrate).
d. Citric acid is separated from “ extractive matters ” and
from acids which form soluble barium salts by precipitation, as
barium citrate, which is then carefully decomposed with sul-
phuric acid.—From citrates soluble in water, the acid may be
obtained by decomposing with sulphuric acid (not added in
excess), then removing the water by evaporation at a tempera-
ture below 100°, and extracting the citric acid from the residue
by cdcohol.
e. One part of citric acid dissolved in two parts of water,
and treated with a solution of one part of acetate of potassium
in two parts of water, will remain clear after addition of an
equal volume of strong alcohol (absence of Tartaric, Racemic,
and Oxalic acids). For a method by treatment of the crystals
with alcoholic solution of potassa, see Tartaric acid (1), c.
Quantitative.—-f. Uncombined citric acid, not mixed with
other acids, may be determined volumetrically by adding a
standard solution of soda or potassa to the neutral tint of litmus.
Weighing 7.000 grammes (TL of •,]- of CcH807 . H2O) the number
of cubic centimeters of normal solution of alkali required equals
the number per cent, of crystallized acid.*
g. The precipitation of alkaline citrates by barium acetate is
made complete in solution of alcohol of sp. gr. o.9oB—as
follows \\
The citric acid is obtained as alkaline citrate; if free, by neu-
tralization with soda; if combined with a non-alkaline base, by
warm digestion with an excess of soda or potassa, filtering and
washing—the filtrate being neutralized by acetic acid. In either
case, the carefully neutralized and not very dilute solution is
treated with a slight excess of exactly neutral solution of acetate
of barium, and a volume of 95 per cent, alcohol, equal to twice
* Results u little too high.—J. Creuse.
f J. Creuse, American Chemist, 1., 434 (1871), A CONITIC A CID.
21
that of the whole mixture, is added. The precipitate is washed
on the filter with 63 per cent, alcohol, and dried at a moderate
heat. The citrate of barium contains a variable quantity of
water, and is transformed into sulphate of barium by transferring
to a porcelain capsule, burning the filter, and heating with sul-
phuric acid several times, till the weight is constant. 3BaSO :
2H.C.HsO, • H.O : : 1:0.001.
Hager directs that barium or calcium citrate (washed with
alcohol) be dried at 120° to 150° and weighed. 8a,(CcH50,)2 :
-H3CcH.07 . HaO :: 1 ; 0.53232.
9. ACONITIC ACID. H3C6H3Ob. A colorless solid, crystal-
lizing with difficulty in warty masses, at 160° C. (320° if.) resolved
into liquid itaconic acid. Soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ;
its solutions having a decided acid reaction. It has a purely acid
taste.—The aconitates of the alkaline metals, magnesium, and
zmc are freely soluble, the others insoluble or sparingly soluble,
111 water. Calcic acouitate is soluble in about 100 parts of
°old water and in a much smaller quantity of boiling water.
Manganous aconitatc crystallizes in rose-colored octahedrons,
sparingly soluble in water. Argentic aconitate is spax-ingly
soluble in water, soluble in alcohol or ether, blackened by
boiling with water.—Free aconitic acid is precipitated by mer-
curous nitrate, but not by most metallic salts until after neu-
tralization.
Aconitic acid is separated from Monkshood (.Aconitum
‘Kapelhis), Larkspur (Delphinium consolida), JEquisetum, Black
Hellebore, Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), and other plants, in
''•vhich it exists as calcium salt, by evaporating the clear decoc-
tion to crystallize. The crystals of aconitate of calcium are dis-
solved and precipitated by acetate of lead, and the lead salt
decomposed by hydrosulphuric acid. It is also separated from
impurities by adding (to the dry mixture) five parts of absolute
alcohol, then saturating the filtered solution with hydrochloric
acid, and adding water, when aconitate of ethyl will rise as an 22
SOLID NO.X-VOLATILE ACIDS.
oily layer, colorless and of aromatic odor. Tliis ether may he
decomposed by potassa.
Aconitic acid may be separated from Maleic acid by the
more ready crystallization of the latter, and from Fumaric acid
by being more soluble in water.
10. MALIC ACID. H„C4H4Os. Identified more especially
by its deportment when heated (a); by the deportment of its
lead salt when heated under water (h), and of its calcium salt in
water and in alcohol (d).—Separated from tartaric, citric, oxalic,
and other acids by alcoholic solubility of the neutral malate of
ammonium (c) and by its reaction with calcium in water solu-
tions (c?); from tannic acid, also, by aqueous solubility of calcic
malate, and from formic, acetic, benzoic acids by alcoholic inso-
lubility of calcic malate (d).—Determined gravimetrically as
lead malate (c).
Crystallizes in four-sided or six-sided prisms, deliquescent in
air; colorless, odorless, and of sour taste; freely soluble in
water and alcohol, soluble in ether. The malates are mostly
soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. Nitric acid oxidizes
malic acid, and alkaline solution of permanganate is decolorized
by it, but chromic acid acts on it with difficulty. Malate of
silver darkens but slightly on boiling (Tartrate blackens). Con-
centrated sulphuric acid darkens malic acid very slowly after
warming, Ilydriodic acid changes it to succinic acid with sepa-
ration of iodine (the result being the same with Tartaric acid).
Sodium amalgam changes malic to succinic acid.
a. Free malic acid, heated in a small retort over an oil-bath
to 175° or 180° C., evolves vapors of maleic and fumaric acids,
which crystallize in the retort and receiver. The fumaric acid
forms slowly at 150° C,, and mostly crystallizes in the retort, in
broad, colorless, rhombic or hexagonal prisms, which vaporize
without melting at about 200° C., and are soluble in 250 parts
of water, easily soluble in alcohol or ether. If the temperature
is suddenly raised to 200°, the maleic acid is the chief product. MALIC ACW.
23
Maleic acid crystallizes in oblique, rhomboidal prisms, which
melt at 130° and vaporize at about 160°, and are readily soluble
in water and in alcohol. The test for malic acid, by heating to
ITS0 or 180°, may be made in a test-tube, with a sand-bath, the
sublimate of fumaric and maleic acids condensing in the upper
part of the tube. Malic acid melts below 100°, and does not
lose weight at 120° ; at the temperature of the test water-vapor
18 separated—maleic and fumaric acids both having the composi-
tion of malic anhydride (CjHOj.
h. Solution of acetate of lead precipitates malic acid, more
perfectly after neutralizing with ammonia, as a white and fre-
quently crystalline precipitate which upon a little boiling melts
to a transparent, waxy semi-liquid (a characteristic reaction, ob-
scured by presence of other salts). The precipitate is very
sparingly soluble in cold water, somewhat soluble in hot water
(distinction from Citrate and Tartrate); soluble in strong ammo-
llla, but not readily dissolved in slight excess of ammonia
(distinction from citrate and tartrate) ; slightly soluble in
acetic acid.
c. If the precipitate of malatc of lead is treated with excess
ammonia, dried on the water bath, triturated and moistened
with alcoholic ammonia, and then treated with absolute alcohol,
°nly the malate of ammonium dissolves (distinction from
Tartaric, Citric, Oxalic, and many other organic acids, the normal
ammonium salts of which are insoluble in absolute alcohol).
Also, malic acid may be separated from tartaric, oxalic, and
°dric acids, in solution, by adding ammonia in slight excess, and
then 8 or 0 volumes of alcohol, which leaves only the malate of
ammonium in solution.
d. Solution of chloride of calcium does not precipitate malic
acid or malates in the cold (distinction from Oxalic and Tartaric
acids); only in neutral and very concentrated solutions is a pre-
Clpitate formed on boiling (while calcic citrate is precipitated in
neutral boiling solutions if not very dilute). The addition of
alcohol after chloride of calcium produces a white bulky precipi- 24
SO LTD JVO X- VOL A TIL E A CIDS.
tatc of calcic malate in even dilute neutral solutions (indicative
in absence of sulphuric and other acids whose calcium salts are
less soluble in alcohol than in water).—Acetic, Formic, and
Benzoic acids are left in solution and malic acid precipitated by
addition of one or tAvo volumes of alcohol, with chloride of
calcium. In separation from Tannic acid, both acids may be
precipitated by chloride of calcium, with a slight excess of
ammonia and alcohol; the malate is then washed out of the
precipitate with water.
Quantitative.—e. The alcoholic solution of malate of am-
monium—prepared as directed in c—may be precipitated with
acetate of lead, washed with alcohol, dried and weighed as malate
of lead. PbC.Hp, ; HaC4H108 :: 1: 0.3953.
11. MECONIC ACID. H;C7HOv. Identified by its
physical properties and precipitation by hydrochloric acid (a) ;
its reactions with iron and other metals (fi); and by its products
when heated (c). It is separated from opium through formation
of the calcium salt or lead salt (d).
«. Meconic acid crystallizes in white shining scales or small
rhombic prisms, containing three molecules of crystallization
water, fully given off’ at 100° C. It is soluble in 115 parts of
water at ordinary temperatures, less soluble in water acidulated
with hydrochloric acid, more soluble in hot water, freely soluble
in alcohol, slightly soluble in ether. It has an acid and astringent
taste and a marked acid reaction. Its salts, having two atoms of
its hydrogen displaced by acid, are neutral to test-paper. Except
those of the alkali metals, the dimetallic and trimetallic mcco-
nates are mostly insoluble in water. Meconates are nearly all
insoluble in alcohol. They are but slightly or not at all decom-
posed by acetic acid.
Solutions of meconates are precipitated by hydrochloric
acid, as explained above.
I). Solution of meconic acid is colored red by solution of
ferric chloride. One ten-thousandth of a grain of the acid in ME CONIC ACID.
25
one grain of water with a drop of the reagent acquires a distinct
purplish-red color (Wormley). The color is not readily dis-
charged hy addition of dilute hydrochloric acid (distinction from
Acetic acid), or by solution of mercuric chloride (distinction
from sulphocyanic acid).—Solution of acetate of lead precipi-
tates meconic acid or mcconates as the yellowish-white meeonate
of lead, Pb3(C7H07)2, insoluble in water or acetic acid.—Excess
°f baryta water precipitates a yellow trimetallic meeonate.—
Solution of nitrate of silver in excess precipitates free meconic
acid on boiling, and precipitates meconates directly, as yellow
trimetallic meeonate; if free meconic acid is in excess, the preci-
pitate is first the white dimetallic meeonate ; both meconates
being soluble in ammonia and insoluble in acetic acid.—Solution
°f chloride of calcium precipitates from solutions of meconic
a
y acetic and stronger acids. With exceptions hereafter named,
they precipitate solution of tartrate of antimony and potassium ;
they precipitate basic acetate of lead, and form insoluble com-
pounds with many heavy metals. They all absorb oxygen, espe-
cially in presence of alkalies, and act as powerful reducing agents
'—quickly decolorizing solution of permanganate, and reducing
the heated alkaline copper solution. Tannic acids are more per-
manent in alcoholic than in aqueous solutions.
If a very little starch-paste be tinged blue by a slight addition
°f hundredth-normal solution of iodine (1 part iodine dissolved
ith potassic iodide in 100,000 parts aqueous solution), on adding
a liquid containing tannic acid the blue color of the iodized starch
presently disappears—hydriodic acid and gallic acid being formed.
On adding a crystal of potassic nitrite the blue is restored.*
Also, if a drop of tannic acid solution is mixed with a few drops
°f iodine solution of the above strength, and afterward a drop of
very dilute alkali be added, on evaporation to remove carbonic
acid, a bright red color will appear.j By oxidation the tannic
acids acquire a dark color, brown, black, green, or red. Gallotannic
acid with alkalies in the air slowly forms tannoxylic acid, Avhich
precipitates acetate of lead solution dark-red. With lime-water
P forms a white turbidity, becoming green and darker. Tannic
acids form with molybdate of ammonium a red color removed
hr oxalic acid.
The physiological tannic acid (Wagner, 1806) or quercitan-
* Ctßtessmater : Ann. Ch. Phartn., clx., 40-56.
+ Griessmater : Zeitschr, Anal. Chem., x., 43. 28
SOLID NON-VOLATILE ACIDS.
Nic acid is found in the bark of the oak, pine, willow, and beech,
in bablah (acacia fruit), in valonia (cups of the quereus cegilops),
and in sumac. It is a glucoside, and it does not yield pyrogal-
lic acid by dry distillation. The pathological tannic acid of
Wagner, or gallotannic acid, is found in common or Turkish gall-
nuts and in Chinese and Japanese gall-nuts. It is a glucoside
(being transformed by contact of a ferment or by sulphuric acid
into gallic acid and glucose), and in dry distillation it yields
pyrogallic acid.
Ferric salts give blue to. blue-black precipitates with gallo-
tannic acid, quercitannic acid, and the tannic acids of poplar
bark, birch bark, hazel-nut, uva ursi leaves, lithrum salicaria
leaves, the bark of cornus florida and cornus mascula, and many
other plants. Ferric gallotannate (inJc) is bleached by oxalic
acid. On digestion with nitric acid, a yellowish solution is
formed, in which excess of ammonia precipitates ferric hydrate.
Ferric salts give green precipitates with quinotannic acid, mori-
tannic acid, caffetannic acid, catechutannic acid, catechuic acid,
cephaelic acid, the tannic acids of the barks of pines and fir and
willow, the rhubarb root, the root of potentilla tormentilla, and
of numerous other plants. Cephaelic acid with ammonia is
colored violet to black by ferric salts.
Gelatin does not precipitate Catechuic acid or Caffe-
tannic acid.
Tannic acids are removed from solution by digestion with
oxide of copper, oxide of zinc, or animal membrane ; or by pre-
cipitation with solution of gelatin, sulphate of cinchonia, or
acetate of copper.—They are separated as insoluble lead salts,
according to the general method given under Acetic Acid.
Quantitative.—The total tannic acids in solution are deter-
mined—by the specific gravity (a) ; by absorption in oxide of
copper (b); by a volumetric solution of sulphate of cinchonia
(c) ; by a volumetric solution of tartrate of antimony and
potassium (in presence of chloride of ammonium to prevent the
precipitation of gallic acid) (d). TA XXIC .4 ('IDS.
29
a. A water solution of gallotannic acid at 17.5° C. (63.5° F.)
contains as follows (after Hager) :
c-
SPEC. GRAY.
P. C.
SPEC. GRAY.
P. c.
SPEC. GRAY.
20
1.0824
13
1.0530
6
1.0242
19.5
1.0803
12.5
1.0510
5.5
1.0222
19
1.0782
12
1.0489
5
1.0201
18.3
1.0761
11.5
1.0468
4.5
1.0181
18
1.0740
11
1.0447
4
1.0160
17.5
1.0719
10.5-
1.0427
3.5
1.0140
17
1.0698
10
1.0406
3
1.0120
16.5
1.0677
9.5
1.0386
2.5
1.0100
16
1.0656
9
1.0365
2
1.0080
15.5
1.0635
8.5
1.0345
1.5
1.0060
15
1.0614
8
1.0324
1
1.0040
14.5
1.0593
7.5
1.0304
0.5
1.0020
14
13.5
1.0572
1.0551
7
6.5
1.0283
1.0263
0
1.0000
When other substances besides tannic acid and water are
present, the specific gravity of the solution is first taken; the
solution is then deprived of tannic acid by digestion with animal
membrane. Four to five parts of dried and rasped hide are
added for one part supposed tannic acid. After digestion, the
filtrate and washings are brought to the exact bulk of the original
solution and to the standard temperature. The former specific
gravity minus the latter, and plus one, equals the specific gravity
indicating the per cent, of tannin. Gallic acid is not taken out
by the membrane.—lf pectous substances are present, they would
also be precipitated by the animal membrane; hence they must
be removed before taking the specific gravity in the first place.
This is accomplished by making an alcoholic extract of the ori-
ginal material, then evaporating off’ the alcohol and substituting
Water (Hammer).—Instead of animal membrane, oxide of copper
may be used to remove the tannic acid (and gallic acid), accord-
ing to b.
b. A weighed quantity of recently ignited oxide of copper—
about 5 times that of the tannin—is added to the prepared solu-
tion ; the mixture is gently warmed for an hour and set aside for a
day with frequent agitation, then filtered and the copper tannate and SOLID NON-VOLATILE ACIDS.
oxide washed, dried on the water-bath and weighed. The increase
of weight is the amount of tannic (and gallic) acid (Hager).
c. 4.523 grams of good sulphate of cinchonia, with 0.5 gram
sulphuric acid, and 0.1 gram acetate rosanilin or fuchsin, are dis-
solved in water to make one litre. Each c.c. of this solution
precipitates 0.01 gram tannic acid. One gram of solid material
is obtained in clear solution of about 50 c.c. measure. To this
the standard solution of cinchona is added, the color being thrown
down in the precipitate. When the tannic acid is all precipi-
tated, the anilin color appears in solution. One gram having
been taken, each c.c. of the volumetric solution indicates 1 per
cent, of tannic acid. Gallic acid is not precipitated by cinchonia
(R. Wagner).
d. One equivalent of tartrate of antimony and potassium,
after drying on the water-bath (K SbO C 4H4O0=325), is preci-
pitated by one equivalent of tannic acid (C07H.,4018=630) ; or,
0.002555 anhydrous tartrate is precipitated by 0.005 of the tannin.
Dissolving 2.555 grams of anhydrous tartrate of antimony and
potassium in water to make one litre of solution, each c.c of the
same corresponds to 0.005 of tannic acid. The prepared solu-
tion of tannic acid—which may contain pectous substances with-
out interference with this method—is treated with chloride of
ammonium, and the volumetric solution is added, with agitation,
until turbidity is no longer produced. The precipitate separates
well. Gallic acid is not thrown down when chloride of ammo-
nium is present (Gerland).
14. GALLIC ACID. C 7H0O5; crystallizing with H.,0. An
inodorous solid, having an astringent and slightly acid taste, an
acid effect on test-papers, and crystallizing in long, silky needles
or triclinic prisms. It is soluble in 100 parts of cold or 3 parts
of boiling water, freely soluble in alcohol, moderately soluble in
ordinary ether, and but slightly soluble in absolute ether, inso-
luble in chloroform or petroleum naphtha. Its non-alkaline
metallic salts are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, and GALLIC ACID.
slightly soluble in officinal ether; they are decomposed by acids
and by alkalies.
Heated to 210°—215° C. (410°-419° F.), in absence of water,
it is sublimed as pyrogallic acid and carbonic anhydride ; at
higher temperatures, other products are formed.
Gallic acid is characterized by its physical properties (as
above given) ; by its reactions with iron salts (a), with alkalies
(6), with t artratc of antimony and potassa and with alkaline
arsenate in the air (c), and with molybdate of ammonium {d).
it is distinguished from the tannic acids by negative results
with gelatin, albumen, and starch [e) ; by not precipitating the
alkaloids, and by its far weaker reducing power {/) (distinction
from pyrogallic acid also),—Gallic acid is determinedif free
from tannic acids, by absorption in recently ignited oxide of zinc,
according to method b in determination of tannic acid. It is
separated from tannic acids and determined by solution with car-
bonate of ammonium from the precipitate with acetate of
copper {g).
a. Ferric salts in solution give a deep blue color with gallic
acid. Ferrous salts give a blue-black precipitate (distinction
from gallotannic acid).
b. Alkaline solutions of gallic acid turn yellow to brown and
hlack in the air, from absorption of oxygen and formation of tan-
nomelanic acid, greatly accelerated by boiling. The latter acid, on
neutralizing with acetic acid, precipitates acetate of lead, black.
Solution of lime with gallic acid, forms a white turbidity,
changing to blue and then to green.
c. Tartrate of antimony and potassium is precipitated white
hi very dilute solution.
A faintly alkaline solution of arsenate of potassium or sodium,
with gallic acid, exposed to the air, soon develops an intense
green color, commencing at the surface. Dilute acids change the
green to purple-red and a careful neutralization with alkalies
restores the green color, but it is destroyed by excess of alkali.*
* Proctor : Jour, Chem. Soc., 1874, p. 509. SOLTI) NON VOLATILE ACIDS.
d. Molybdate of ammonium reacts as with tannic acid.
e. Gallic acid does not precipitate gelatin, albumen, or starch-
paste, but it forms a precipitate with a mixture of gum-arabic
and gelatin.
f. Gallic acid does not reduce alkaline copper solution, but
reduces salts of gold and silver, and quickly decolorizes perman-
ganate solution.
Quantitative.—g. The prepared solution is fully preci-
pitated with a filtered solution of cupric acetate; the precipitate
washed and then exhausted with cold solution of carbonate of
ammonium. The last solution, containing all the gallate of cop-
per with a very little tannate, is evaporated to dryness, the
residue moistened with nitric acid, ignited, and weighed as oxide
of copper. This weight multiplied by 0.9 gives the quantity of
gallic acid (the full ratio being 0.9126, but allowance is mads for
solution of a little tannate by the carbonate of ammonium.
The ratio between oxide of copper and tannic acid is 1.304).
(Method of Fleck modified by Sackur and Wolf.)
IS. PYROGALLIC ACID. CcHfOs. Pyrogalline. Pyro-
gallol.—Characterized by its physical properties (a); its
peculiar avidity for oxygen (J); its reactions with alkalies, lime,
iron, copper, etc. (c). It is distinguished from tannic acid by
not precipitating gelatin or moderately dilute tartrate of anti-
mony and potassium or cinchonia, and by its different reactions
with both ferrous and ferric salts ; from gallic acid by its greater
solubility in cold water and its far greater reducing power {lt).
It may be determined grayimetrically as a lead precipitate (d),
and volumetrically by permanganate.
a. Pyrogallic acid crystallizes in long prismatic plates or
needles, of a white or yellowish-white color, and an acid and very
bitter taste. At 115° C. (339° F.) it melts, and at about3lo° C.
(410° F.) it sublimes with partial decomposition and formation of
metagallic acid. It is soluble in three parts cold water, freely
soluble in alcohol and in ether, not soluble in absolute chloroform. PYROGALLIC ACID.
33
b. It is permanent in dry air free from ammonia, but in
moist or ammoniacal air it gradually darkens, and in water
solution it turns brown to black, sooner if boiled, still more
rapidly in presence of alkalies, absorption of oxygen taking
place to an extent proportional to the coloration, which is
destroyed by oxalic acid. It quickly reduces the alkaline copper
solution; also salts of the noble metals, and reduces acid solu-
tion of permanganate with evolution of carbonic anhydride.
c. With lime solution, a purple-red color at first appears,
afterward the brown color formed by alkalies as mentioned in b.
With ferrous salts a blue color is formed; with ferric salts a red
solution, brown when heated. Acetate of copper gives a brown-
green precipitate; acetate of lead a white, curdy precipitate ;
both soluble in acetic acid.
Quantitative.—d. The alcoholic solution of pyrogallic acid
is precipitated with excess of alcoholic solution of acetate of lead ;
the precipitate washed quickly with alcohol, dried by water-bath
and weighed. Pb(C.H6O3j3 : 2C0HcO3 : : 457 : 252 :: 1 :
0.55142,
16. QUIN OT AN WIG ACID. Cinchotannic acid. Kino-
tannic acid.—See Tannic acids (13) for appearance, taste, solu-
bilities, and reactions with alkalies and with iron salts. It pre-
cipitates tartrate of antimony and potassium only in concentrated
solutions. In oxidation with alkalies it forms a red-brown color,
due to cinchona-red, which dissolves in alkalies and in acetic acid,
but not in water. Concentrated sulphuric acid changes quino-
tannic acid to cinchona-red and glucose. In dry distillation,
phenic acid is formed, recognized by the odor. Quinotannic acid
is removed from solution by acetate of lead, and from its lead
precipitate by hydrosulphuric acid. For separation from Cin-
chona bark, sec under Quinic Acid, d.
17. CATECHUTANNIC ACID. Has the properties of
tannic acids in general, giving a grayish-green precipitate with 34
SOLID NONVOLATILE ACIDS.
ferric salts, and distinguished by not precipitating tartrate of
antimony and potassium. It softens when heated, and by dry
distillation yields an empyreumatic oil. The product of its
atmospheric oxidation in water is red.
Catechutannic acid is separated from Catechu as follow's:
The aqueous infusion of catechu is heated with dilute sulphuric
acid and filtered ; the filtrate treated with concentrated sulphuric
acid to precipitate the acid sought; the precipitate is wrashed on
a filter with dilute sulphuric acid and pressed between paper. It
may then be dissolved in water; the solution treated with car-
bonate of lead and filtered; the filtrate evaporated in vacuo. It
may be farther purified by dissolving in alcoholic ether and
evaporating off’ the solvent.
18. CATECHUIC ACID. Catechucic acid. Catechin.
Tanningenic acid.—A white, tasteless powder, or in fine, silky
needles, melting at 217° C. (423° F.), and in dry distillation
yielding an empyreumatic oil. Very slightly soluble in cold
w'atcr, soluble in three parts boiling water, moderately soluble in
alcohol, sparingly soluble in ether. With alkalies and metallic
salts, and as a reducing agent, it gives the reactions of the (iron-
green) Tannic Acids, from which it is distinguished by not giving
precipitates with tartrate of antimony and potassium or with
alkaloids, or with gelatin (the last-named being a distinction
from catechutannic acid). With strong sulphuric acid it forms
a deep purple liquid.
Catechuic acid may bo separated from catechutannic acid
and the other constituents of catechu by its sparing solubility
in cold and ready solubility in hot water. Bengal catechu is
digested tw'enty-four hours in cold water, and the (slightly
washed) residue is then exhausted with boiling water. When
the solution cools, a yellow' deposit of catechuic acid appears.
This is washed in cold water. It may be decolorized by hot
filtration through animal charcoal. It is dried on bibulous paper
by aid of the air-pump. TA NXTC ACI PS.
19. MORINTANNIC ACID. C]SH10Ou. Capable of
crystallization ; yellow, with great tinctorial power, and of an
astringent, sweetish taste. Melts at 200° C., and at higher tem-
peratures distils phonic acid. In reactions with alkalies, oxidiz-
ing agents, gelatin, tartrate of antimony and potassium, iron
salts, etc., it behaves like other Tannic Acids (13). With ferric
salts it gives a greenish precipitate ; with acetate of lead a yellow
precipitate; with sulphate of copper a yellowish-brown precipi-
tate ; with stannous chloride a yellowish-red precipitate.
It is separated from Fustic by spontaneous deposition from
the concentrated decoction.
20. CAFPETANNIC ACID. Caffeotannic acid. Has in
general the physical properties of the Tannic Acids, hut is not
incapable of crystallization. It melts when heated, and then
gives the odor of roasted coffee, and in dry distillation yields
oxyphenie acid as an oil Avhich solidifies in the cold.
With fixed alkalies in solution it turns yellow to reddish-yel-
low, by oxidation; with ammonia, forms a green color, due to
viridic acid, which, when neutralized, gives with acetate of lead a
blue precipitate. Warmed with concentrated sulphuric acid, it
dissolves with a blood-red color. Distilled with dilute sulphuric
acid and hinoxide of manganese, it evolves quinone—a pungent
and irritating vapor, condensing to a golden-yellow to dingy-
yellow, crystallizable substance, heavier than water, in which it
is but slightly soluble when cold.
Caffetannic acid gives the green color with ferric salts. It
reduces nitrate of silver, in the specular form, when heated. It
is distinguished from the larger number of Tannic Acids by not
producing precipitates with tartrate of antimony and potassium
or with gelatin, but it precipitates cinchonia and quinia (distinc-
tion from Catechuic acid). It gives a yellow precipitate with
barium salts.
By gradual addition of acetate of lead, in decoction of coffee,
it is precipitated next after (the very little) citric acid. Decom- 36
SOLID XOX- VOL A TILE ACIDS.
posing the precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid, and evaporating
tlie filtrate, it is obtained in impure, yellowish mass.
21. BOHEIC ACID. C 7H10O6. Boheatannic Acid. Amor-
phous, pale-yellow solid, caking by exposure to the air, melting
at I.oo° C. to a waxy mass, very soluble in water and alcohol.
Both aqueous and alcoholic solutions gradually decompose by
evaporation in the air. It colors ferric salts brown. With
baryta, in alcoholic solution, it forms a yellow precipitate,
BaC7HBOc . HnO. With acetate of lead, in alcoholic solution,
it forms a grayish-white precipitate, PbC7H8Oe . K„C, which can
be washed with alcohol and dried at 100° C.
It is separated from the quercitannic acid, in black tea, by
precipitating the latter with acetate of lead in the boiling decoc-
tion, filtering; after twenty-four hours filtering again, and neu-
tralizing the clear solution with ammonia, when the yellow basic
salt is precipitated, PbO.PbC7HBO0. The latter may be
decomposed in alcohol by hydrosulphuric acid, and the filtrate
concentrated in vacuum or over oil of vitriol.
22. QUTNIC ACID. C 7H1206. Kinie add.—ldentified
by its physical properties and reactions (a) ; by its generation
of qninone (h) ; by its reactions with a few metals (c).—
Separated from cinchona bark, by crystallization from a solution
freed from quinovic acid {d) ; from cinchona bark, coffee, or bil-
berry, by precipitating its calcium salt from a sufficiently purified
solution by adding alcohol (e); from substances forming insoluble
compounds with neutral acetate of lead by the solubility of its
normal lead salt.—Determined gravimetrical! y as calcium
salt (e).
a. Colorless, monoclinic prisms or prismatic tablets, melting
at 161° C. (322° F.), at higher temperatures evolving combus-
tible gas, phonic acid, hydroquinone, etc. It is freely soluble in
water, slightly soluble in alcohol, nearly insoluble in ether. Its
solutions have a sour taste and redden litmus. It is deliquescent. QJ'JXJr ACID.
h. Distilled with moderately dilute sulphuric acid and
binoxide of manganese, it yields an abundant yellow crystalline
sublimate of quinone, recognized in very small quantities by its
irritating odor, exciting tears. Farther, aqueous solution of
Quinone is colored brown by ammonia, and yellow-green by
chlorine water; it stains the skin brown.
c. Quinic acid decomposes carbonates. Its metallic salts arc
soluble in water, except the basic quinate of lead, but are insolu-
ble in alcohol. It prevents the precipitation of many metallic
oxides by alkalies. Quinate of silver is white, and bears the
heat of the water-bath. The quinate of calcium crystallizes
well from water solution as Ca(C,H,.O.), . 5H,0, which loses
all its water of crystallization at 120° C. (248° F.) Or, it may
be precipitated from solution of alkaline quinates by adding
chloride of calcium, ammonia, and alcohol. The basic quinate
of lead is precipitated by adding, to solution of alkaline quinate,
basic acetate of lead, or normal acetate of lead with ammonia.
It is somewhat soluble in solution of basic acetate of lead. It
is variable and instable in composition.
(I. The aqueous solution obtained by macerating cinchona
hark two or three days (and from which the alkaloids may have
been removed by acidulating with hydrochloric acid and then
adding an excess of soda and, after a few hours, filtering) is
treated with solution of acetate of lead to precipitate the quino-
vic and quinotannic acids, and filtered. The filtrate is evaporated
to a syrupy consistence, to crystallize the quinic acid.
If it be desired to separate the Quinovic acid, the solution of
acetate of lead (as above) is not added to complete precipitation,
and the precipitated quinovate of lead is decomposed, in water,
by adding very dilute sulphuric acid, drop by drop, with great
care, to avoid excess. The precipitate being removed, the filtrate
ls concentrated for crystallization of the quinovic acid.
If the Quinotannic acid is to be obtained, the precipitation by
acetate of lead is left incomplete, as directed next above, and the
filtrate concentrated as previously directed for quinic acid. SOLID NO N- VO LA TIL E A ('IDS.
With the crystals of cjuinic acid there will now finally deposit
amorphous or oily quinotannic acid. This may he separated by
washing with ether; on evaporation of the ether the quinotannic
acid is obtained. [Thesis of R. M. Cotton, Univ. of Mich., 18T4.]
e. After precipitating the alkaloids from decoction of cin-
chona hark with lime, according to the United States Pharma-
copoeia! preparation of quin ice sulphas, the filtrate is concentrated
to a small bulk, filtered if necessary, and then alcohol is added
to precipitate quinate of calcium. Or, the filtrate is concentrated
to a soft solid, washed repeatedly with alcohol, and dissolved in
enough water to allow the quinate of calcium to crystallize.
Fresh bilberry plant (vaccinium myrtillus), collected in
May, is boiled with water and lime; the solution is evaporated,
and alcohol added to precipitate the quinate of calcium, which
requires purification by rccrystallization from water.
Thoroughly dried or moderately roasted coffee beans, coarsely
powdered, are exhausted by boiling with water; the decoction,
mixed with milk of lime, is concentrated, filtered, evaporated on
a water-bath to a syrup, and precipitated with alcohol as above.
The quinate of calcium obtained from any of the above
sources may be purified from tannic acids and some coloring
matters by adding solution of neutral acetate of lead to the
aqueous solution of quinate of calcium, filtering out the lead
precipitate, and removing the excess of lead from the filtrate by
hydrosulphuric acid, when the last filtrate may bo concentrated
to crystallize. Quinic acid may bo obtained from quinate of
calcium by precipitating the aqueous solution of the latter by
basic acetate of lead, and removing the lead from the precipitate
by hydrosulphuric acid.
23. Qumovic ACID. C3OHi 8O8. Kinovio Acid.
Quinovin or Kinovin. Quinova bitter or Kinova bitter.—An
amorphous solid, having a very bitter taste, nearly insoluble in
water, very soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in ether, soluble
in chloroform. (According to De Yrtt, chloroform dissolves G ENTIA NIC A cm.
39
from 11 qulnova bitter ” a portion which he designates as
“ quinovin,” leaving “ quinovic acid ” insoluble in that menstruum
and little soluble in alcohol.) Dry hydrochloric acid gas, acting
on a strong alcoholic solution of quinovic acid, transforms the
latter into an acid and a sugar. The new acid has very nearly
the same solubilities as the original acid, but a different compo-
sition (C21H3804), and forms definite salts with metals.
Quinovic acid forms a soluble calcium salt, and hence it is
dissolved from cinchona hark by boiling with milk of lime.
From the solution, sufficiently concentrated, hydrochloric acid
separates the quinovic acid, insoluble in water. It may be
purified by crystallization from alcohol, or by repeated precipita-
tion from alcohol by water. For the separation of quinovic,
quinic, and quinotannic acids, each from the same portion of
bark, see Quinic Acid, <7. In the manufacture of cinchona alka-
loids, the acidulation of the water by which the decoction is
made interferes with the solution of quinovic acid, which may be
at least partly left in the residue.
24. COLUMBIC ACID. C 42 Colombic acid.—An
amorphous solid, precipitated in white flakes, left as a yellowish,
varnish-like residue on evaporation of its solutions. It is soluble
in alcohol, nearly insoluble in water or ether, its solution being
markedly acid. It is precipitated by neutral acetate of lead, as
(PbO) s (C4„H44Oin) „ when dried at 130° C. Acetate of copper
does not precipitate it.
In columbo root, columbic acid probably exists in combination
With berberina and perhaps also with inorganic bases. It can be
separated by exhausting alcoholic extract of columbo with water
°r lime-water, and precipitating with hydrochloric acid.
25. GENTIANIC ACID. Cl 4H10O5. Gentisic acid. Gen-
fianin, Gentisin.—Light-ycllowq tasteless, solid, crystallizing in
slender needles, not decomposed at 200° C., but carbonizing with
partial sublimation at 300° to 400° C. It is soluble in. 30 parts 40
SOLID NOX- VOLATILE ACIDS.
water at ordinary temperature, readily soluble in alcohol, and
moderately so in ether. Its solutions are neutral to litmus. It
dissolves in aqueous alkalies with a golden-yellow color. Strong
sulphuric acid dissolves it yellow. Nitric acid, of specific gravity
1.42, and colorless, dissolves it green; on adding water, a green
powder, dinitrogentianic acid, is precipitated. This, on addition
of alkalies, assumes a fine cherry-color. Chlorine forms a yellow
precipitate in alcoholic solution of gentianic acid. The barium
salt, Ba C 2 ,H805 . H„0, is an orange-colored precipitate. The
lead salt is insoluble.
Gentianic acid is separated from gentian root as follows:
The powdered root is exhausted of gentian-bitter by cold water;
then pressed, dried, and exhausted with strong alcohol, and the
alcoholic solution evaporated nearly to dryness. The residue is
washed with a little ether to remove fat, and repeatedly crystallized
from alcohol to separate from resin.
26. CARMINIC ACID. CuH„0O(. Carmine.—A purple
amorphous solid, fusible but not decomposed at 13G° C.; soluble
in all proportions in water and alcohol, and in sulphuric and
hydrochloric acids without alteration, the solutions having a
bright purple-red color. Ether does not dissolve it.—ln alco-
holic solution it precipitates alcoholic potassa red changing to
dark violet, and forms red precipitates with acetates of lead,
zinc, copper, and silver. It is turned blue by sulphate of alumi-
num, and yellow by stannous chloride.—Carminic acid is a
glucoside, boiling dilute mineral acids transforming it into
carmine-red and sugar. Carmine-red in mass is purple-red with
a green reflection, soluble in water and in alcohol with red color,
not soluble in ether.
Carminic acid is separated from Cochineal by exhaustion
with boiling water; the solution precipitated by adding slightly
acidulated subacetate of lead short of excess, the precipitate
washed with water till the washings give no precipitate with
mercuric chloride, then decomposed by hydrosulphurie acid and GAM'BOGIC ACID.
41
filtered. The filtrate is evaporated and dried on the water-bath,
and the residue extracted with alcohol.
27. CHRYSOPHANIC ACID. Chrysophane. Rheic
Acid.—A pale yellow or orange-yellow solid, crystallizing in six-
sided tables or moss-like aggregates of scales, subliming with
partial decomposition when heated.—Sparingly soluble in cold
'Water, soluble in 1,125 parts of 86 per cent, alcohol at 30° C.
(86° F.), or 224 parts of the same alcohol boiling, soluble in
ether, benzole, and turpentine oil, the solutions having a yellow
color.—lt dissolves in aqueous alkalies with a very deep purple
color, recognized in very dilute solution; the potassa solution
upon evaporation deposits violet to blue flocks, which dissolve in
water to a red solution.—lt docs not form stable salts. In alco-
holic solution with alcoholic subacetate of lead it forms a reddish-
white precipitate, becoming rose-red when boiled with water. In
arnmoniaeal solution it is precipitated lilac by neutral acetate of
lead, and rose-color by alum.—Strong sulphuric acid dissolves it
unchanged; strong nitric acid converts it into a red substance,
containing chrysammic acid (produced from Aloes by nitric acid).
Chrysophanic acid is separated from Rhubarb by exhausting
the powdered root with alcoholic ammonia, precipitating with
subacetate of lead and decomposing the lead compound by.
hydrosulphurio acid. From the Wall Lichen (Parmelia
parietina), the alkaline solution obtained as above is precipitated
hy acetic acid, the precipitate washed with water, redissolved in
alkali and reprecipitated by (hydrochloric) acid. From the
Rumex, an ethereal extract is obtained, and repeatedly dissolved
ui alcohol and precipitated by water. A method of purification
18 to dissolve in boiling absolute alcohol and crystallize.
28. GA.MBOGIC ACID. A resinous solid, hyacinth-red
ln mass, yellow in powder. Insoluble in water, soluble m
alcohol, ether, chloroform, bisulphide of carbon—its solutions
showing the yellow color when very dilute, and having a strong SOLID VOLATILE ACIDS.
acid reaction. It dissolves in the aqueous alkalies, with red
color, and in solutions of fixed alkaline carbonates with expulsion
of the carbonic anhydride. From alkaline solutions it is preci-
pitated yellow by acids.—The solution of gambogiatc of ammo-
nia forms with barium salts a red precipitate; with zinc salts,
yellow; lead salts, reddish-yellow; silver salts, brownish-yellow;
and copper salts, brown precipitates.—It is bleached and decom-
posed by chlorine, and decomposed with formation of nitrophcnic
acid by nitric acid. It is dissolved with red color by cold con-
centrated sulphuric acid; addition of water precipitating it
unchanged.
29. SANTALIC ACID. Santalin.—A fine red, tasteless,
and odorless crystallizable solid, melting at 104° C. Insoluble
in water, very soluble in alcohol, soluble in ether—the solutions
having a blood-red color and acid reaction. Soluble in aqueous
potassa, or ammonia, forming violet solutions, which precipitate
alkaline earths.—The alcoholic solution precipitates lead salts,
but not salts of barium, silver, or copper. The lead and barium
salts are violet.
Santalic acid is separated from Sandal-wood (red saunders)
by obtaining, first, an ethereal extract, then from this an alcoholic
extract, which is washed with water, dissolved again in alcohol,
and precipitated therefrom by alcoholic solution of acetate of
lead. The lead compound is washed by alcohol, then decom-
posed in alcohol with dilute sulphuric acid.
SOLID VOLATILE ACIDS.
30. BENZOIC ACID. HC7H&02. Identified by its phy-
sical properties, especially in sublimation (a); by its oxidation
to nitrobenzole (b), and its deoxidation to bitter almond oil (c);
by its reactions with metallic salts (d) .—Distinguished from BENZOIC ACID.
43
Cinnamic acid by the action of permanganate upon the latter
(see 31, b) ; from Ilippuric acid by distillation with potassa;
from Salicylic acid by the color of its ferric salt {d).—Separated
from non-volatile and highly volatile substances by sublimation
(a) ; from Succinic and many other acids by the alcohol solubility
of its barium salt (c?); from Succinic and Ilippuric acids by its
solubility and extraction from water solutions by chloroform or
ether (c).—Gravimetrically determined as lead salt (e).
a. A white solid, crystallizing in lustrous scales or friable
needles; odorless when pure, but frequently found having odor
of benzoin, and rarely a urinous odor, of an acid and warm taste,
and a strongly acid reaction. It is soluble in 200 parts of water
at 15° C. (59° F.), in 20 parts of boiling water, in 3 parts of
cold alcohol, in 25 parts of ether, in 7 parts of chloroform, and
readily soluble in bisulphide of carbon, benzole, petroleum
naphtha, and in fixed and volatile oils. Most of the benzoates
are soluble in water, and many of them are soluble in alcohol.
Hydrochloric acid precipitates benzoic acid from solutions
of benzoates, excess of the reagent not affecting the water solu-
bility of benzoic acid as already given. Sulphuric acid dissolves
benzoic acid. Benzoic acid decomposes carbonates.
Benzoic acid melts at 121° C. (250° F.), and sublimes at
240° to 250° C, (464° to 482° F.) The vapors cause a sense of
irritation in the throat and coughing. W hen slowly condensed,
the sublimate is crystalline in minute needles. Benzoates heated
'with phosphoric acid evolve benzoic acid.—W hen mixed with
3 parts slaked lime and heated gradually in a retort, benzoic
(119) is distilled.
b. if benzoic acid is boiled with concentrated nitric acid, the
mixture evaporated to' a small bulk, and then strongly heated in
a test-tube, nitrobenzole (120) is evolved, and will be recognized
by its odor of bitter almond oil.
c. When benzoic acid, dissolved or suspended in water, is
farmed with a slip of metallic magnesium, and very slightly
acidulated with sulphuric acid, so that hydrogen is c\ol\ed, 44
SOLID VOLATILE ACIDS.
hitter almond oil (benzoyl hydride, is produeed, and
recognized by its odor.
d. Basic ferric chloride solution precipitates benzoates almost
completely, as a flesh-colored basic benzoate (ferric Salicylate is
blue violet).—Acetate of lead and nitrate of silver give precipi-
tates in solutions not too dilute.—Ammoniacal chloride of
barium with alcohol gives no precipitate (distinction and separa-
tion from Succinic and many other acids). Magnesium benzoate
is also soluble in alcohol (Succinate insoluble in alcohol).
Quantitative.—c. Benzoate of lead, precipitated from neutral
benzoate by acetate of lead, washed with cold water or alcohol
acidulated with one-half per cent, of acetic acid, and dried at
100° C., may be weighed for determination of benzoic acid:
Pb(C7HOO2)2 : 2HC7H0O2 : : 1 : 0.54343.
31. CINNAMIC ACID. HC9H702. Characterized by its
physical properties and reactions in the dry way (a) ; its reac-
tions with oxidizing agents (h); its reactions with metallic
salts (c).—Distinguished from benzoic acid by action with
oxidizing agents (b), by the color of its ferric salt and by its
precipitate with manganous salts (c).—Separated from non-vola-
tile substances by sublimation (a) ; from substances soluble in
water and in dilute acid by precipitation of cinnamates by acids
(a); from substances insoluble in ether by the action of that
solvent; from benzoic acid by manganous precipitation (c).
a. A colorless solid, crystallizing (from vapor or solution) in
monoclinic prisms or laminae, melting at 129° C. (264° F.),
vaporizing at about 300° C. (572° F.) It is very sparingly
soluble in cold, moderately soluble in boiling water, freely
soluble in alcohol and in ether. The cinnamates of the alkali
metals are soluble in water, those of the alkaline earthy metals
sparingly soluble, the other cinnamates mostly insoluble, the
silver salt nearly insoluble.
It is precipitated by water from its alcoholic solutions, and by
hydrochloric acid from water solutions of its salts of alkali metals. SUCCINIC ACID.
45
When slowly distilled, cinnamic acid evolves cinnamene,
having a persistent aromatic odor resembling that of benzoic and
naphthalene together. Cinnamates subjected to dry distillation
emit the odor of bitter almond oil.
I). A saturated hot-water solution, acidulated with sulphuric
acid, is treated with a few cubic centimetres of a one per cent,
solution of permanganate of potassium and warmed a few
minutes. If cinnamic acid is present, the odor of bitter almond
°il becomes apparent.—Nitric acid with gentle heat, peroxide
of lead in boiling solution, chromate and sulphuric acid with
heat, evolve bitter almond oil (hydride of benzoyl) from cinna-
mic acid—in most cases with simultaneous production of benzoic
acid.—Cinnamates with strong nitric acid give off odor of
cinnamon oil and bitter almond oil.
c. Ferric salts with cinnamates give a yellow precipitate;
manganous salts with excess of cinnamates give a white precipi-
tate (none with benzoates) ; copper salts, a greenish-blue precipi-
tate; acetate of lead, a precipitate not soluble in water, Pb
2)2, from which alcohol washes out a part of the cinnamic
acid; nitrate of silver, a stable white precipitate, AgC0H7O2,
insoluble in boiling water; baric and calcic salts, precipitates,
easily soluble in hot water.
32. SUCCINIC ACID. H2C4H404. Characterized and
identified by its physical properties (a) ; its resistance to oxida-
tion (5); its reactions with iron, manganese, lead, barium,
calcium, etc. (c).—Distinguished from cinnamic acid by the
color of its iron salt and by not precipitating manganous salts
(31,/*).—Separated from non-volatile materials by sublimation
[d) ; from benzoic acid by insolubility of its barium salt in
alcohol (30, d), and by its insolubility in chloroform or ether;
from cinnamic acid by the solubility of manganous succinate
(30, c).—Determined by extraction with ammonia from the
ferric succinate (d).
a. Crystalline ia the monoclinic system, generally rhombic SOLID VOLATILE ACIDS.
or hexagonal plates. At 130° C. (266° F.) it begins to emit
suffocating vapors, at 130° C. (356° F.) it melts, and at 235° C.
(455° F.) it sublimes as succinic anhydride (C4H403), which
melts at 120° C. (248° F.) The succinic acid of commerce has
usually more or less of yellow to brown color, and of the empy-
reumatio and slightly aromatic odor of oil of amber; when
pure it is white, and at ordinary temperatures odorless. Suc-
cinic acid is soluble in about 13 parts of water at ordinary tem-
peratures, in 21 parts of hot water, in 30 parts of cold or 20
parts of boiling alcohol, sparingly soluble in ether, not soluble
in chloroform or benzole.—Succinic anhydride is more soluble
in alcohol, but less soluble in water than the acid.—The succi-
nates of the alkali-metals and magnesium arc soluble in water;
of the alkaline earth-metals, and of most other metals in diatomic
salts, sparingly soluble; ferric succinate, insoluble.
I). Nitric acid, chromic acid, and chlorine are without action
upon succinic acid. Cold permanganate solution does not affect
free succinic acid, but with free alkali oxalic acid is formed with
deposition of binoxide of manganese.
c. Ferric chloride, better if slightly basic, precipitates from
solutions of succinates a brownish-red bulky precipitate of basic
ferric succinate.—Manganous salts do not precipitate succinates.
—Acetate of lead and nitrate of silver, each, give white precipi-
tates of normal succinates slightly soluble in water.—Ammoniacal
chloride of barium with alcohol produces a white precipitate
even in dilute solutions.
Quantitative.—d. The ferric succinate is precipitated from
dilute solution of succinate by addition of ferric chloride, then
acetate of sodium in excess, and then sufficient ammonia to
nearly or quite neutralize the mixture. After boiling one-fourth
of an hour, the precipitate is filtered out and washed, then boiled
with excess of a five per cent, solution of ammonia and filtered
and washed with ammoniacal water. The filtrate is evaporated
on the water-bath until it ceases to lose weight, and weighed as
3STH,HC4H4Ol. Or, for greater exactness, this salt while in VERATRIC ACID.
47
solution is treated with a weighed quantity of recently calcined
magnesia, and the mixture evaporated and dried at 150° C.
(302° F.) The increase of weight represents the succinic
anhydride.
33. SALICYLIC ACID. C 7H803. (In most salts of this
acid one atom of hydrogen, in a few salts two atoms, are replaced
lj.V metals.)—Crystalline, in monoclinic four-sided prisms or slen-
der needles. Melts at 125° to 150° C. (257° to 302° F.) and
sublimes at about 200° C. (392° F.) Its vapor causes irritation
111 the throat: it has a sweetish-sour taste. It has a decided acid
faction upon test-papers.—It is slightly soluble in cold, moder-
ately soluble in hot water, freely soluble in alcohol and in ether.
' The salicylates of the alkali metals are insoluble in water;
those of the alkaline earth metals sparingly soluble (that of cal-
least) ; many of those of other metals not soluble. The
bimetallic salts arc less soluble than the monometallic.—With
ferric salts, salicylic acid forms a deep violet color.
Distilled or heated with methylic alcohol and concentrated
sMphuric acid, salicylate of methyl is evolved, having the odor
°f wintergreen oil.
34. VERATRIC ACID. O9H10O4. Crystallizes in slender
speculee or four-sided prisms, which effloresce at 100° C. and melt
at a higher temperature, then subliming without decomposition,
*t is sparingly soluble in cold, freely in hot water, soluble in
alcohol, insoluble in ether—the solutions having a slight acid
faction. The alkaline veratrates are soluble in water and crys-
tallizable ; the load and silver salts insoluble. It dissolves in
concentrated nitric acid, and when this solution is diluted it
deposits nitroveratric acid, soluble in alcohol, from which it crys-
tallizes in yellow lamina?.
Veratrie acid is separated from sebadilla seeds (veratrum
as follows : They arc exhausted with alcohol acidulated
Av,th sulphuric acid, the solution is precipitated with milk of lime 48
SOLID VOLATILE ACIDS.
and filtered, the filtrate—containing voratrate of calcium—ls con-
centrated, treated with hydrochloric acid, and left in a cold place
to crystallize. The crystals may ho purified by dissolving in
alcohol, and filtering through animal charcoal.
35. PHENIC ACID. HC0H60. Purified Carbolic acid.
Phenol. Phenylic alcohol. Coal-tar creosote.—Characterized
and identified by its physical properties (a); by its reactions
with nitric acid (A), with ferric salts (c), with bromine (d) and
chlorine (c), as a reducing agent (/’), and with sulphuric acid
{(/).—Distinguished from Creosote by reacting with ferric salt
in more dilute solution (c), by gelatinizing collodion, by greater
solubility in ordinary glycerin, in bisulphide of carbon, and in
ammonia water, and by crystallizing when pure (a),—Separated
from Cresylic acid and other constituents of crude carbolic acid
or from Pats by its greater solubility in water (A) ; from solu-
tion (in a greater quantity of) water by saturation with common
salt (i); from admixture with (a smaller quantity of) water or
with other substances by treatment with chloroform or bisulphide
of carbon (j) ; from Creosote, in part, by solution in water (A);
from soaps by successive treatment with acid, water, and chloro-
form (A); from fixed and volatile oils by hot water.
a. Phenic acid is a colorless-white solid, crystallizing in long
needles of the trimetric system, melting at 34° to 41° C. (93° to
106° P.), and distilling at 182° to 186° C. (359° to 367° P.) It
has a strong and persistent odor, resembling creosote but some-
what aromatic, a biting taste, and (when concentrated) a bleach-
ing and shrivelling effect on the skin. It docs not redden litmus.
—lt is soluble in 20 parts of water at ordinary temperatures, and
dissolves two or three per cent, of water, being thereby liquefied
—hence is deliquescent in the air. It is soluble in all proportions
of alcohol, ether, chloroform, bisulphide of carbon, and glycerin
(absolute or ordinary); in 20 parts of benzole ; readily soluble
in fixed oils and many volatile oils, and in aqueous solutions of
potassa and soda.—The last-named mixtures or compounds, FEE NIC ACID.
49
sometimes termed phenates, are not of definite proportions, but
are crystallizable, and are soluble in alcohol and other, Phenic
acid does not decompose carbonates, but mixes with aqueous
alkaline carbonates.—lt coagulates albumen and gelatin and
Collodion (ether-solution of gun-cotton).
h. To a few drops (or a small fragment) of the material to
J0 tested add a drop or two of concentrated nitric acid. Then
add a slight excess of potassa, and if color has appeared dilute
"dh water. The yellow color of nitrophenic acid (36, a) is
apparent in 10,000 parts of water; of the potassic nitrophenate
111 50,000 parts of water ; the column having the depth of half
an inch.* The nitrophenic acid may be extracted from water by
benzole or ether.
o. Very dilute solution of ferric chloride gives a blue color
"dh aqueous solution of phenic acid—the color being permanent
(distinction from that of Morphia), but destroyed by boiling
(distinction from that of Tannic acid). Oxalic acid destroys the
color, and many organic substances prevent its formation; it is
dot extracted by benzole or chloroform.
In this test, the result is distinguished from a similar one with
Creosote by the following precautions (Fluckiger) : Ist, take
I part of solution of ferric chloride of specific gravity 1.34,
ftnd 9 parts of the liquid to be tested (with pure carbolic acid
Ibe mixture has a yellowish hue; with pure creosote, no color).
add 5 parts of 85 per cent, alcohol (with pure carbolic acid,
a clear brown liquid; with pure creosote, a green solution).
°d, add 60 parts of water; with pure creosote, the result is a
dingy brownish color; if phenic acid is present, a fine blue color
appears.
cl Bromine water gives a yellowish-white precipitate in even
very dilute solutions of phenic acid (the same with Creosote).
e. Chlorine gas (from chlorate of potassium and hydrochloric
aeid) forms a deep yellow color—chloride of phenyl.
* Prescott : Proceedings Am. Fhar. Asso., xix., 550, and Chem.
*xvi,, 260. SOLID VOLATILE ACIDS.
f Alkaline cupric solution is not reduced by (pure) phenic
acid (is reduced by crude “carbolic acid”). Mercury and silver
salts are only slowly reduced by boiling with phenic acid (are
reduced by impure).
Permanganate solution is reduced by pure phenic acid, in
solutions acid or alkaline, with separation of binoxide of
manganese.
(j. With sulphuric acid—equal parts of the concentrated
acids at 290° C. for a quarter of an hour furnishing the best
result—Sulphophenic acid is formed .(37).
Quantitative.—h. Cresylic acid and other admixtures (as
fats) nearly or quite insoluble in water may be approximately
separated arid determined by solution with 20 parts of water.
In a cylindrical graduate of | litre (or larger) capacity, place
10 c.c. of the carbolic acid or mixture under examination, add
200 c.c. of water, agitate, and set aside. Read from the bottom
the number of c.c. of impurities.
i. Phenic acid may be approximately separated from water
solution by adding chloride of sodium as long as the latter dis-
solves. If the operation be performed in a cylindrical graduate,
as above, the layer of phenic acid is read from the top.
j. Phenic acid may be approximately deprived of water and
the amount of the latter ascertained by mixture with chloroform
or bisulphide of carbon. In a graduate of a little more than
20 c.c. capacity (a test-glass or test-tube may bo graduated for
the purpose), place 10 c.c. of the phenic acid under examination
and add 10 c.c. of the chloroform or bisulphide of carbon, agi-
tate, stopper, and set aside a few hours. Read off from the top
the amount of water separated.—Phenic acid may be separated
from various mixtures in the same manner \ for this purpose the
mixture should be made neutral to test-paper, if not so already.
The chloroform or bisulphide of carbon may be removed by
evaporation in a warm place.
k. In separation of phenic acid from soaps, (he latter is
decomposed by digestion with dilute sulphuric acid and hot XI Til OF HEXIC A cm.
51
■water; when cold, the fat acid is separated, by use of a wet filter
it necessary, and washed with water; and the water solution and
" askings exhausted with chloroform. The chloroform may be
distilled from the phenic acid, and if necessary the distillation
repeated.
36. NITROPHENIO ACID. HC6H2(N02)30. (Trinitro-
phenic acid.) Trinitrophenol. Carbazotic acid. Picric acid.—
Identified by its physical properties, especially its intense color-
lng effects (a) ; its precipitation of alkaloids (b) ; its reactions
'" ith special reagents (c).—Separated from water solutions by
extraction with chloroform, etc. (a); by crystallization as a
potassium salt (d).—Determined as salt of einchonia (e).
a. In bright yellow crystalline scales or in octahedrons of the
irimetric system. It melts when slowly heated and afterward
sublimes; when quickly heated it explodes. It has a very bitter
afid somewhat acrid and sour taste, and when heated a suffocating
°dor and effect. It reddens litmus.
It is soluble in 100 parts of water at 15° C. (59° F.) and in
25 parts at 80° C. (176° F.), less soluble in water acidulated
With mineral acids, and freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloro-
form, benzole, petroleum naphtha, and amylic alcohol. These
solvents, which are not miscible with water, remove nitrophenic
acid from water by aid of acidulation with sulphuric acid. The
solutions have a yellow color, perceptible when very dilute ;
except solutions in benzole, petroleum naphtha, and dilute sul-
phuric acid, which are colorless.
The colorless as well as colored solutions stain white paper,
afid more permanently stain the skin and fabrics of nitrogenous
composition.
The normal metallic picrates are all soluble in water, that
of potassium being one of the least soluble, and requiring 260
Parts of cold or 14 parts of boiling water for solution. This salt
insoluble in alcohol.—Many of the picrates explode more
violently than the free acid, and oxidizable agents in intimate 52
SOLID VOLATILE ACIDS.
contact facilitate explosion, which may occur hy trituration or
pressure.
b. Solution of salts of most of the alkaloids precipitate nitro-
phenic acid or its soluble salts—the cinchona alkaloids, the opium
alkaloids, except morphia and pseudomorphia, the strychnos
alkaloids, veratria, berberina, colchicia, and delphinia, oeing fully
precipitated from solution even when dilute and well acidulated
with sulphuric acid. Morphia is precipitated from moderately
concentrated solutions having little or no free acid. The preci-
pitates are yellow, and are dissolved by hydrochloric acid.
Compare 135, e.
c. With ammoniacal cupric sulphate solution, nitrophenic
acid forms a green precipitate.—Potassic cyanide, or potassic
sulphide, or grape sugar, with nitrophenic acid and excess of
potassa, in hot solution, gives a blood-red solution (yellow when
greatly diluted) from formation of isopurpurate of potassium
(the crystals of which are green by reflected light).—If ferrous
sulphate is boiled in solution with nitrophenic acid, treated with
excess of ammonia and filtered, the filtrate concentrated and
acidulated with acetic acid, bright-red crystals of picramic
acid are formed. Stannous chloride and several other
reducing agents may be substituted for the ferrous salt.
Picramic acid is nearly insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol or ether.
d. The graded solubility of potassic nitrophenate in hot and
cold water and in alcohol («) enables this salt to be almost per-
fectly removed from solution, in beautiful crystals, by gradual
cooling of the hot water solution, with gradual addition of alco-
hol after crystallization has ceased in the cold water.
Quantitative.—e. Nitrophenic acid or a soluble salt of this
acid is precipitated by a solution of sulphate of cinchonia acidu-
lated with sulphuric acid, the precipitate is washed with water,
dried at a very gentle warmth, then heated (and melted) on the
water-bath and weighed. C„OH„,N„ (C6H=[Noj3o)2 : 2HC6H,
(NO,),© : : 1 : 0.6123. LACTIC ACID.
53
37. SULPHOPHENIC ACID. HC6H5S04. Phenyl sul-
phuric acid. Sulphophenylic acid. Sulphocarholic acid.—Only
preserved in its salts, which are stable and crystallizable com-
pounds, decomposed by nitric acid with the formation of nitro-
phenic acids (35, b), and very gradually decomposed by boiling
111 solution with formation of sulphates and phenic acid.* Free
SlJlphophenic acid evolves phenic acid when heated to the boiling
point of the latter.—The sulphophcnates are all soluble in water,
ai*d mostly soluble in alcohol.
LIQUID NON-YOLATILE ACID.
38. LACTIC ACID. HC3H5C3. Characterized by its
Physical properties (a) ; by the solubility and crystalline form
°f its salts (b); by the extent of its reducing power (c).—
Separated from many acids by the solubility of its lead salt in
Water, alcohol, and ether (d) ; from glycerin, sugar, etc., by the
of its zinc salt in alcohol (/); from tissues, etc., as
helow (e).—Determined by saturation with alkali («/); by weight
°f zinc or magnesium salt (A).
a. Absolute lactic acid is a colorless, odorless, syrupy liquid,
°f a very acid taste. Pure, it has the spec. grav. 1.248; when
per cent., the spec. grav. 1.212. Not volatile without decom-
position ; not decomposed by heat below 130° C.; at 145° C.
Vaporizes dilactic acid, at higher temperature lactide, both of
Which are converted to lactates by the alkalies.—Soluble in all
Proportions of water, alcohol, and ether; slightly soluble in
chloroform. (Glyceric acid, C 3H0O4, which resembles lactic
acid, is insoluble in ether.) Concentrated sulphuric acid mixes
With lactic acid without blackening it. Heated on platinum foil,
>t leaves a slight carbon residue which burns wholly away.
* Prescott : Chem. News, xxvi., 269. 54
LIQUID NON-VOLATILE ACID.
b. The metallic lactates arc all soluble in water; being
mostly sparingly soluble in cold, freely in boiling water. Cal-
cium lactate is soluble in 9b parts (saroolactate in 12| parts) of
cold water, soluble in alcohol, not in ether. Barium lactate is
soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether. Zinc lactate is
soluble in 58 parts of cold, 6 parts of boiling water; insoluble
in alcohol (saroolactate in 6 parts cold water and in 2.2 parts cold
alcohol). Silver lactate is soluble in water and in hot alcohol.
Lead lactate is freely soluble in water, sparingly soluble in cold,
readily in hot alcohol, slightly soluble in ether. (Glyceratc of
lead is but slightly soluble in cold water.)
Calcium lactate (saturated with base) crystallizes in small
white mammillated tufts, seen under the microscope to consist
of delicate needles, some of which resemble a bundle of bristles
bound midway between the ends. The acid lactate of calcium
(supersaturated with acid) forms white hemispheres, compactly
made of radiate needles, trimetric. Zinc lactate crystallizes
from concentrated solutions in shining crusts, from dilute solu-
tions in four-sided prismatic needles ; the crystals, Zn(C,,H.03)2-
3H„O, lose their water rapidly at 100° C., and the salt decom-
poses above 210° C. (Zinc Saroolactate crystallizes in slender
needles, Zn(C,HsO,),.2H=O, losing their crystal water very
slowly at 100° and giving off empyreumatic vapors below 150°.)
Silver lactate crystallizes from neutral solutions, in slender
needles, grouped in nodules, quickly blackening in the light.
c. Lactic acid does not reduce the alkaline solution of sul-
phate of copper, but quickly reduces potassium permanganate
from acid or alkaline solutions.
d. Lactic acid may be separated from acids which form
insoluble lead salts (and other insoluble bodies'), according to the
general method given at 40, g, either in alcoholic or aqueous
solution. In a similar manner it is removed from insoluble
barium salts, as soluble barium lactate, after saturation with
carbonate of barium. The barium is then removed from the
filtrate by precipitation with sulphuric acid and filtration, and Foil MIC A CID.
the sulphuric acid is removed from the lactic acid in the last
filtrate by repeatedly adding a mixture of 1 part of alcohol and
h parts of other and evaporating.
e. Also, the fluid obtained by digestion and expression of
tissues may be treated with sulphuric acid to fix albuminous
tnatters, filtered, treated with alcohol and five times its weight
°f ether and again evaporated, filtering when necessary, till the
sulphuric acid is removed.
f. A (weighed) quantity of the material containing lactic acid,
Ulixod with substances soluble in alcohol, is saturated in aqueous
solution with oxide of zinc, the mixture evaporated to dryness,
the residue digested in alcohol and filtered. The filtrate will
contain the substances soluble in alcohol; the residue will contain
zinc lactate, soluble in water.
Quantitative.—g. In the acidimetry of lactic acid, one-
tenth equivalent, 9.000 being taken, the required number of
cubic centimeters of normal solution of alkali equals the number
per cent, of HCJEI.O...
h. Saturating with oxide of zinc or oxide of magnesium,
filte ring and washing with water, crystallizing or evaporating,
&nd drying at 100° C.:
Mg(C,H10,)1 : 2HC.H.O, : : 1 : 0.8911.
Zn(CsHsO,), : 3HCsH.O, : : 1 : 0.7403.
LIQUID VOLATILE ACIDS.
39. FOUMIC ACID. HCHO„. Identified by its odor (a) ;
hy its reducing power upon salts of the noble metals, permanga-
nates, chromates, etc.—the radical CHO„ being oxidized to H„0
and CO,,—(5); by the color of its ferric salt in solution (c); by
the odor of its ethyl salt {(!)•—Separated from substances less LIQUID VOLATILE ACIDS.
volatile by distillation (f); from organic acids in general by the
solubility of its lead salt in water () ; from acetic acid by the
insolubility of its lead salt and its magnesium salt in alcohol
(h).—Determined by acidimetry ( j), or by oxidation to carbonic
anhydride (Jc).
a. The odor of formic acid is pungent, irritating, character-
istic, slightly acetous, and of an intensity varying greatly with
the strength and temperature of its solutions. In contact with
the skin, it causes intense irritation.
b. Nitrate of silver in concentrated solution gives, with
solutions of formates, the white crystalline precipitate of formate
of silver, not formed with free formic acid. The precipitate
darkens upon standing a short time, and when warmed it is
quickly reduced to metallic silver. In case the formic acid is
free, or the formate in dilute solution, so that formate of silver is
not precipitated, the reduction of metallic silver occurs slowly in
warm solution. An excess of ammonia retards or prevents the
reduction. Mercuric chloride in hot solution is gradually
reduced by formic acid, more readily by formates, a white preci-
pitate of mercurous chloride forming first, then a dark gray
precipitate of metallic mercury. Alkaline chlorides and acetic
acid retard or prevent the reduction. Solution of potassic per-
manganate is slowly decolorized at ordinary temperatures, and
warm solution of chromic acid is gradually turned green, by
sufficient formic acid or formates.
Chlorine and bromine oxidize formic acid to carbonic anhy-
dride and hydraeid. Nitric acid also decomposes it, likewise
peroxide of mercury in boiling solution (removal from acetic
acid, see i).
c. Ferric chloride solution with formates produce a red solu-
tion of ferric formate.
d. "With alcohol and sulphuric at a gentle heat, formic
acid becomes formate of ethyl, C 2HBCH02, an ether having a
strong, agreeable odor, like that of peach-kernels, and distilling
at about 55° C. FORMIC ACID.
57
e. Strong sulphuric acid, at a gentle heat, decomposes
hcho2 into HaO and CO. Strong alkalies at a gentle heat
convert formic acid into oxalates; at a higher heat carbonates
are formed with liberation of carbonic oxide.
f. Absolute formic acid distils at 100°; the aqueous solu-
tion, 77.5 per cent, of acid, at ordinary atmospheric pressure,
hoils at 107.1°, and mixtures containing larger or smaller pro-
portions of water are reduced to this per cent, of acid and boil-
uig-point by repeated distillations. A glycerin-bath may be
Used. Formic and acetic acids are not easily separated by frac-
tional distillation. Dilute sulphuric acid is employed for the
Production of formic acid from formates.
g. The formates are all soluble in water. Plumbic formate
requires 40 parts of cold water or a smaller proportion of hot
Av’ater for solution. Argentic formate is sparingly soluble in cold
'vater. decomposed by hot water (b). Mercurous formate is the
least soluble salt of this acid, requiring about 500 parts of cold
Ayater for solution. It is much more soluble by hot water, in
it decomposes.—In alcohol, the formates of lead, magne-
sium, calcium, and barium are insoluble, the alkaline formates
Soluble.
Formic acid is separated from far the larger number of
organic acids by precipitation of the latter as lead salts. A\ ith
fi’ee acids, the method given for acetic acid (40, (J) maj be
employed, avoiding the use of heat in any part of the operation.
h. Formic acid is separated from Acetic acid by saturating
magnesia, or with lead oxide or carbonate, adding much
»nlcohol, filtering and washing with alcohol. In the preparation
°f formic acid, acetic acid is approximately separated by the
crystallization of plumbic formate from water solution contain-
lng also plumbic acetate.
i. Formic acid is removed from acetic acids, or from other
acids not very easily oxidized, by hot digestion with mercuric
°xide, until effervescence ceases. HgO and HCH02 form H2O
and C 0„ and Hg. The filtrate will contain mercuric acetate if LIQUID VOLATILE ACIDS.
acetic acid were present; in fact, the presence of mercury in the
filtrate indicates some other acid besides formic. Acids forming
insoluble mercury salts may be obtained from the residue, by
treatment with hydrosulphuric acid, filtration, and dissipation of,
the excess of hydrosulphuric acid in the last filtrate.
Quantitative.—-j. Free formic acid may be detexmiined by
the ordinary methods of acidimetry. See 40, i, j. Or the acid
may be saturated with pure carbonate of barium, and .the
formate of barium precipitated as a sulphate—BaSQ4 :
2HCH02 : : 1 : 0.395.
Tc. Formic acid is quantitatively separated from acetic acid
by precipitation with alcoholic solution of plumbic acetate,
washing the precipitate with alcohol. The formate of lead may
be determined, after oxidation with chromate and an acid, as
carbonic anhydride. The lead formate, with solution of bichro-
mate of potassium, is placed in an apparatus for determination
of carbonic anhydride (from carbonates whose bases form
insoluble sulphates), and decomposed by nitric acid, gradually,
as the dry gas escapes, in the usual manner. CO„ ; HCHO„ ; :
1 : 0.956. Or, the carbonic anhydride may be received in an
ammoniacal solution of chloride of barium. BaCOs : HOHO2
; : 1 : 0.233.
40. ACETIC ACID. HC2H302. Identified by its odor (a),
by the odor of its ethyl salt (5), by the odor arising from the igni-
tion of its salts alone (c) or with arsenious acid (c?), by the color
of its ferric salt in solution (e), by the free solubility of its lead
salt and the sparing solubility of its silver salt (f).—Separated
from less volatile or more volatile substances, by distillation (A) ;
from the larger number of acids, by the solubility of its lead salt
fj).—Determined as free acid, or in salts of insoluble bases, by
its saturating power (i, j).
a. Aqueous acetic acid evolves the odor of vinegar, which is
pungent in proportion to the strength and temperature of the
solution. Acetates impart the same odor in a very slight degree. ACETIC ACID.
b. The acetate of ethyl, CaH5 C H302, is obtained by warming
acetic acid or its salts with sulphuric acid and a small propor-
tion of alcohol. It is recognized by its pungent and fragrant odor,
ethereal, refreshing, and obscurely acetous. It distils at 74°, and
may be cleared from acids and from water by contact with dry
carbonate of potassium. It is neutral to test-paper, and is solu-
ble in about ten parts of water.
c. When ignited in a tube closed at one end, most of the
metallic acetates evolve acetone, C 3H00, a vapor of an agreeable
odor, readily burning with a white flame. Liquid acetone
boils at 56°.
cl. If acetates are heated with fixed alkali and arsenious acid,
the offensive odor of cacodyl is observed, As2(C2II6)2 H„0.
e. Solutions of ferric salts, with solutions of acetates (not
'vith hydric acetate), form a dark red solution of ferric acetate,
decolorized by strong sulphuric or hydrochloric
acid (distinction from Meconate), not decolorized by solution of
mercuric chloride (distinction from Sulphoeyanate), precipitated
as basic acetate by boiling.
f. The metallic acetates are soluble in water, argentic and
mercurous acetates being sparingly soluble and forming as crys-
talline precipitates from concentrated solutions. Argentic acetate
forms white, fine, scaly crystals, soluble in one hundred parts of
cold water and in a smaller proportion of hot water. Mercurous
acetate forms scaly crystals, sparingly soluble in water, more
soluble in dilute acetic acid. The normal and basic acetates of
lead are freely soluble in water. In alcohol, mercurous and
argentic acetates are nearly insoluble, mercuric acetate is
slowly decomposed, normal lead acetate freely soluble, basic
lead acetates sparingly soluble, the other metallic acetates
soluble. Zinc acetate crystallizes in hexagonal plates, very
soluble in water.
g. The solubility of its lead salt enables (free) acetic acid to
be separated from organic acids in general (not lactic, formic,
butyric, valeric)—in qualitative or quantitative work—as follows ; LIQUID VOLATILE ACIDS.
Digest the acids in a closed flask at a gentle heat with sufficient
oxide of lead, until the mixture is just alkaline to litmus ; filter
and wash. For complete separation from tartaric acid, or other
acid having its lead salt appreciably soluble in water but insoluble
in alcohol, the solution should be alcoholic and the washing wholly
by alcohol, avoiding the use of much excess of oxide of lead.
Residue (a) • plumbic salts of organic acids (excess of oxide of lead).
Filtrate (B) • plumbic acetate (basic and not freely soluble in alcohol).
Treat filtrate B, in a long-necked flask, with washed hydrosulphuric
acid gas, to complete precipitation ; filter and wash with water.
Return the filtrate and washings to the flask, insert therein a glass
tube and blow air from a bellows through the same until the
hydrosulphuric acid is expelled.
Filtrate (c) : acetic acid (lactic acid ; formic acid ; butyric acid ; valeric
acid).
Treat residue a with washed hydrosulphuric acid gas, until the
residue appears wholly black, as seen from beneath the vessel.
Filter and wash, and expel the hydrosulphuric acid from the
filtrate by a current of air from a bellows, as described above.
Filtrate (d) : acids whose lead salts are insoluble in water (or alcohol).
h. Acetic acid boils at 119°. It may be distilled from a
paraffin or glycerin bath. In distillation from sulphuric acid, the
acetic acid is liable to be oxidized to a slight extent, with pro-
duction of carbonic and sulphurous anhydrides, the latter con-
densing with the acetic acid. For the aeidimetry of the distillate,
acetates should be distilled with phosphoric acid (or with
hydrochloric acid, and the subsequent determination of the latter
by standard solution of silver). Fractional distillation—with or
without fractional saturation—may be employed in the separa-
tion of acetic acid from other acids more or less volatile than
itself. (See, also, Valeric acid, c.)
Quantitative.—i. Free acetic acid, in absence of other
acids, may be determined by neutralization with an ascertained
quantity of alkali. Different alkalies have been used in standard
solution for this purpose—as soda, potassa, sodic carbonate, lime
dissolved with sugar, ammonio-cupric sulphate. In the solid
state, calcined magnesia, crystallized sodic carbonate, and potassic nrmiic acid.
bicarbonate have been employed. Also baric carbonate, the
barium dissolved as acetate being then determined as sulphate.
In testing colorless or slightly colored solutions with any of
the standard solutions named above, except that of ammonio-
eupric sulphate, the point of saturation is indicated by litmus;
but in case the acetic solution is colored somewhat, a little sul-
phate of copper may be added, when the neutral point will be
nidicated by the cloudiness due to the commencing precipitate
°f hydrate of copper. With the ammonio-cupric standard
solution, the solution determined must be very dilute, when
saturation will be shown by the turbidity. In the use of cal-
cined magnesia, saturation is indicated by the dissolving of the
solid, as well as by the color of litmus.
In the method with carbonate of barium, the acid is saturated
'vvith the pure carbonate; the acetate of barium filtered and
hashed from the excess of the reagent, precipitated by dilute
sulphuric acid and weighed as barium sulphate. BaS04 :2H
CaH302 : : 1 : 0.515.
The most convenient standard of solutions of alkalies are
the “normal solutions,” operating upon one-tenth equivalent of
the acid—HC H O —G.OOO "rams of the material,
j. The acetic acid producible from acetates of bases insoluble
in water may be estimated volumetrically, as follows: lo a
solution of G.OOO grams of the acetate, add normal solution of
ulkali to complete precipitation, noting the number of cubic
centimeters used. Filter and wash till the washings do not
uffect litmus-paper. To the filtrate and washings, add of a
Uormal solution of acid to the neutral point. The number of
cubic centimeters of alkali used, minus the number of cubic
centimeters of acid used, expresses the per cent, of acetic acid
sought.
41. BUTYRIC ACID. HC4H702. Identified by its odor
(«); by the odor of its ethyl salt fb); by' its liquidity,
solubilities, and the properties of its salts of lead, barium, and LIQI’TD VOLATILE ACIDS.
other metals (c).—Separated from acids having higher or lower
boiling points by fractional saturation and distillation [d); from
many acids by the solubility of its lead salt in water, and from
other acids by the solubility of its lead salt in alcohol (c. See
process g, under Acetic acid).—Determined by saturation (e);
by ultimate analysis.
a. The odor of butyric acid is like that of rancid butter, but
somewhat less offensive, and obscurely acetous, closely resem-
bling that given by slightly rancid butter when heated. It is a
strong and persistent odor, not much diminished by dilution of
the acid, but increased by warming it. The metallic butyrates
are odorless, unless undergoing decomposition.
b. Butyric ether—C 2H5C4H702—is formed by warming
butyric acid or a butyrate with alcohol and excess of sulphuric
acid. It has the odor of pineapples, by which it is readily iden-
tified. It rises to the surface of aqueous mixtures, and may be
decanted, and purified from acid by addition of chalk and from
water by chloride of calcium. It is soluble in all proportions
of alcohol and ether, very slightly soluble in water. It distils
at 119° C.
c. Absolute butyric acid is a colorless, mobile liquid, solidi-
fied at very low temperatures, at 15° C. having a specific gravity
of .974. It is soluble in all proportions of water, alcohol, ether,
and wood-spirit. It is not soluble in concentrated solutions of
freely soluble salts. The metallic butyrates are all soluble in
water; plumbic, argentic, and mercurous sparingly soluble;
calcic freely soluble in cold water, but sparingly soluble in hot
water. Plumbic butyrate is more soluble in alcohol than in
water; argentic butyrate less soluble in alcohol than in water;
baric butyrate very sparingly soluble in alcohol; potassic buty-
rate freely soluble in alcohol.
Butyrate of lead is formed slowly on adding butyric acid to
lead acetate as a heavy liquid which solidifies on standing.
Alkaline butyrates, with lead acetate in moderately concentrated
solution, give a milky precipitate, which afterward solidifies in VALERIC ACID.
a white semi-crystalline mass. A nearly saturated solution of
butyrate of lead, left over sulphuric acid, deposits fine, silky
needles which are anhydrous. Butyrate of silver is formed in
shining scales by mixing moderately dilute solutions of nitrate
of silver and alkaline butyrate. Butyrate of copper forms blue-
green monoclinic crystals sparingly soluble in water (see Valeric
acid, b). Butyrate of zinc crystallizes in shining scales. Buty-
rate of barium is formed by saturating butyric acid with
hydrate of barium, and crystallizes in the cold in long flattened
prisms containing 2 aq. Butyrate of calcium, obtained in
the same way, crystallizes in delicate needles, anhydrous.—
Butyrates of lead, barium, calcium, potassium, and some other
metals, rotate rapidly when dropped in small fragments
upon water.
d. Butyric acid distils unchanged at 157° C. Its separation
from propionic, acetic, valeric, caproic, and other acids of conti-
guous boiling points, is best accomplished by fractional saturation
and distillation. (43. Also, see Valeric acid, c.)
Quantitative.—e. Butyric acid has been determined by
saturation with (10 parts of dry) bismuth hydrate, and precipi-
tation of the butyrate of bismuth with ammonia to obtain the
oxide of bismuth, which is dried and weighed. Bi;0,, :6H
C 4H702 : : 1 ; 1.1282.
42. VALERIC ACID. HC6H902. Identified by its odor
and taste, the odor of its ethers, and the taste of its alkaline
salts (a); by its consistence, boiling point, solubilities, and the
properties of certain of its metallic salts (b).—Separated by
fractional distillation (c); by solubility of certain salts of lead,
copper, iron, barium, zinc (c?).—Determined by acidimetry (e);
approximately, by solubility in water (jf).
a. The odor of valeric acid is that characteristic of dried
valerian root and of common valerian oil, in part like that of
decayed cheese and also of butyric acid. When not diluted, it
has a sour, burning, and disagreeable taste and caustic effect. LIQUID VOLATILE ACIDS.
The alkaline valerates have a sweetish taste, with a pungent and
alkaline after-taste, and when moist exhale some odor of valeric
acid. Ethyl valerate, evolved on warming valeric acid or its
salts with alcohol and sulphuric acid, has an agreeable, fruity
odor. Amyl valerate, formed by heating valerianic acid with a
very little fusel-oil and sulphuric acid, is characterized by a
pleasant apple odor.
h. Absolute valeric acid (“ monohydrate ”) is a transparent
and mobile oily liquid, of sp. gr. of .937 at 15° C., boiling at
175° C. With water it forms a definite hydrate—HC6H902.
H2O (“ trihydrate ”)—an oily liquid of sp. gr. of .950, boiling at
165° C., but gradually dehydrated by distillation, the first dis-
tilled portion containing the hydrate mixed with water, after
which the absolute acid passes over.—Absolute valeric acid is
soluble in 30 parts of water at ordinary temperatures; the
hydrated acid in 20 parts. It is almost wholly removed from
solution by saturation with freely soluble salts, as chloride of
calcium or of sodium. It is soluble in all proportions of alcohol,
ether, chloroform, and glacial acetic acid.
The valerates of the alkali metals arc deliquescent and freely
soluble in water and in alcohol; of the alkaline earth metals,
moderately soluble in water and in aqueous alcohol. Aluminum
valerate is insoluble. Ferric valerate (basic) insoluble. Zinc
valerate is soluble in 90 parts of water, and in GO parts of
alcohol of 80 per cent. Bismuth valerate (basic) insoluble in
water ; silver valerate, slightly soluble in water; lead valerate
(normal) readily soluble in water, (basic) sparingly soluble in
water ; mercuric valerate, soluble ; mercurous, slightly soluble ;
cupric valerate, moderately soluble.
The lead valerate crystallizes in shining needles gathered in
hemispherical groups; silver valerate in white, shining plates;
copper valerate in green-blue monoclinic prisms ; mercury vale-
rate in slender white needles ; zinc valerate in snow-white plates
of pearly lustre. The sodium and potassium valerates melt at
140° C., and solidify in amorphous cakes, white when pure. VALERIO A('IJ),
Sodium valerate crystallizes, by spontaneous evaporation in
warm and dry air, in cauliflower-shaped masses.—Many of the
valerates rotate upon the surface of water when dropped in
small fragments upon it.
Silver valerate is precipitated from solutions of valerates
not too dilute in a white curd, turning black in the light.—•
Solution of acetate of copper on agitation with concentrated
valeric acid forms anhydrous valerate of copper in oily droplets,
which, after five to twenty minutes, crystallize as greenish-blue
naonoelinic prisms or octahedrons of hydrated cupric valerate,
soluble in a moderate quantity of water and in alcohol. (Dis-
tinction from Butyric acid, which forms in solution of acetate
°f copper, not very dilute, an immediate precipitate or turbidity
°f butyrate of copper, bluish-green and finely crystalline in
tnonoclinic prisms—Lorocque and Huraut.)—Valerates are de-
composed by acetic, tartaric, citric, and malic acids ; not by
butyric acid.—Valeric acid decolors potassium permanganate
solution.
c. Valeric acid is easily separated from Butyric acid by
fractional saturation and distillation of the latter, the butyrate
being wholly decomposed at the temperature of the less volatile
acid, which remains in the retort as valerate (41, d). With
Acetic acid, however, the more volatile acid is held by the base
in the retort, while valeric acid distils over. In decomposing
Valerates for distillation of the acid, sulphuric acid may be em-
ployed, avoiding a strong excess.
d. Valeric acid is separated from acids which form insoluble
lead salts by the method given under Acetic acid, g. From
acids forming soluble salts of aluminum, by the insolubility of
aluminum valerate.—lf a solution of a valerate made slightly
alkaline to test-paper is fully decomposed by solution of ferric
chloride, and after a short time filtered, the filtrate will be red if
Acetic acid is present. A solution of valeric acid in 50 parts
°f hot water, saturated with hydrated carbonate of zinc, yields a
liquid which, when filtered and evaporated to 10 parts and LIQUID VOLATILE ACIDS.
cooled, aflbrds white pearly crystals of valerate of zinc. The
mother-water, drained from these crystals, should not yield, by
further evaporation and cooling, a salt crystallizing in six-sided
tables and very soluble in water” (acetate).—Valerate of barium
is soluble in 2 parts cold water, sparingly soluble in alcohol;
Caprylate of barium in 120 parts water, nearly insoluble in
alcohol; Caprinate of barium almost insoluble in water.
Quantitative.—e. Free valeric acid, in absence of other
acids, maybe determined by normal volumetric solution of alkali.
Weighing 10.2, the number of cub. cent, of alkali solution equals
the number per cent, of HC0HaO„; weighing 12., the number of
cub. cent, equals the number per cent, of HC.H902.H20.
f. A weighed quantity of the acid (1 gram in a tared flask)
should require not less than 26 times its weight of water at 16°
to 18° C. for perfect solution (absence of alcohol, acetic acid,
valerates, etc.), and should require not more than 30 times its
weight for exact solution (absence of fatty acids, valeral, etc.)—
Duflos.
43. Formic, Acetic, Butyric, and Valeric acids may be
separated from each other by Fractional Saturation and
Distillation, as follows : (This method is generally applicable
in fractional distillation.)—To one-half of the material to be
distilled add enough potassa or soda to neutralize, and then mix
with the other half and distil—with a thermometer in the retort
or generating flask to show the boiling point—receiving the dis-
tillate all together. If the boiling point has been constant, no
farther separation can be effected by this method; if not, saturate
half the distillate, mix with the remainder, and distil as before.
Repeat the fractional saturation with alkali and distillation of
the free acid of the receiver until the distillate has a constant
boiling point. Now to the several retort residues add excess of
dilute sulphuric acid and distil each; if their distillates do not
show a constant boiling point, half saturate and distil, in each
case, as before, until the boiling points are constant. Again VOLATILE FAT ACIDS.
decompose and distil the retort residues, as before, repeating the
operations until the whole of the organic acids is obtained in
separate distillates, each showing a constant boiling point. The
'Work may be tabulated as follows;
Fractional Saturation and Distillation.
Mixture of acids, a, b, c, d,
of different boiling points.
Neutralize half the mixed acids and distil.
In Retort ; salts of c, d.
Saturate with sulphuric acid and
distil.
(Boil, point changes.)
Neutralize half and distil.
In Receiver ; a, h (boil, point
changes).
Neutralise half and distil.
In Retort : sail
of d.
In Receiver ; c.
In Retort ; salt
of b.
In Receiver : a.
Saturate with sul-
phuric acid and
distil.
(Boil.pt. const’nt.)
Saturate with sul-
phuric acid and
distil.
(Boil. pt. const.)
In Receiver : d.
In Receiver: b.
(Boil.pt. const’nt.)
(Boil. pt. const’nt.)
44. VOLATILE FAT ACIDS of the Acetic Series.
(Approaching towards these, in their properties, are the volatile
acids of the acetic series which do not have a fatty consistence,
though commonly termed “volatile fatty acids'’—viz., !■ ormic,
Acetic [Propylic], Butyric, and Valerianic acids.)
Caproic acid,HHeCe HnO„, boil, at 200° C., melt, at 9°C.
CEnanthyc acid, HC7 Hl302, “ “ 218° C., “ below 20° C.
Caprylic acid, HC8 Hl&Cb, “ “ 236° C., “ at 15° C.
Pelargonic acid, HC9 Hl702, “ “ 260° C., “ “ 10° C.
Capric acid, HC10H19O2, “ with decom., “ “ 30° C.
Characterized by their pungent and unpleasant odors (when
free), by the persistent and fragrant odors of their ethyl ethers,
by their liquid and more or less oily consistence at ordinary
temperatures and their capability of distillation, by their sparing FAT ACIDS, LIQUID AND SOLID.
solubility or insolubility in water and ready solubility in alcohol
and in ether, by their acid reaction, by forming with alkalies
salts soluble in water.
Separated from each other by Fractional Crystallization,
as barium salts, as follows: Add to the mixture (aqueous or
alcoholic) sufficient potassa to neutralize, and add chloride of
barium to decompose. Crystallize, removing the successive
crops of crystals:
FROM WATER SOLUTION.
FROM ALCOHOL SOLUTION.
Ist crop—baric caprate,
2d “ “ pelargonate,
3d “ “ caprylate,
4th “ “ cenanthate,
sth “ “ caproate.
Ist crop—baric caprylate,
2d “ “ cenanthate,
3d “ “ pelargonate,
and caprate,
4tla “ “ caproate.
The aqueous crystal-crops may be washed with hot alcohol—
the washings containing the salts, successively, in order the
reverse of their crystallization from alcohol. Thus, the third
crop of crystals from water, when washed with alcohol, lose first
caproate, then caprate and pelargonate, lastly cenanthate, with
little loss of caprylate.
Separated, also, by Fractional Saturation (43).
FAT ACIDS, LIQUID AND SOLID.
45. NON-VOLATILE FAT ACIDS. Characterized by
an oily consistence, leaving a permanent oil-spot upon paper,
and melting at different temperatures, mostly between 14° C. and
80° C.; by insolubility in water, upon which they mostly float
(in oily drops or layers, liquid if the water is hot); by free solu-
bility in alcohol, the solutions mostly having an acid reaction,
and by solubility in ether ; by the (soapy) solubility of their KOA-VOLATILE FAT ACIDS.
alkaline salts in water; by the waxy consistence of their lead
salts, which melt and do not dissolve in water and have differing
solubilities in alcohol and ether ; by forming white, milky preci-
pitates when their alkaline salts in water solution are treated
ith salts of metals not alkalies, or with acids, also when (as free
acids) their alcohol solutions are diluted with water. The avi-
dity of drying oils for oxygen is a characteristic of their acids.
(See Fixed Oils.)
The nine following are some of the more frequently occurring
non-volatile fat acids, placed in order of their fusibility :
46. Ricinoleic Acid. HC18H3303. Melts at 10° to 6° C.
(Id0 to 21° F.). Yellowish, syrupy, inodorous, of harsh and per-
sistent taste; reddens litmus, and in alcoholic solution decom-
poses carbonates with effervescence; distils an illy-smelling
liquid ; its glyceride and all its metallic salts soluble in alcohol,
ds lead salt soluble in ether. When Castor Oil (ricinolcate of
glyceryl) is heated on a sand-bath with a double volume of nitric
aeid of 25 per cent., until the nitric acid is all removed ; the resi-
due saturated with concentrated solution of sodium carbonate—
the characteristic odor of oenanthyc acid is obtained.
47. Oleic Acid. HC18H3302. Melts at 14° C. (57° F.),
soft above 4° C. (39° F.) Colorless, limpid liquid of sp. giv
0-808, odorless and tasteless, crystallizing from cold alcoholic
solution in white needles; reaction neutral, becoming acid on
exposure to the air, by which it finally turns brown and rancid.
Its lead salt (lead plaster) is insoluble in alcohol, slowly soluble
di ether (separation from palmitate, stearate, laurate, etc.) Dis-
tilled with nitric acid, all the volatile acids of the acetic series are
found in the distillate.
48. Linoleic Acid. HC10H27Oa'? Melts at about 18° C.
(64° F.) ; faint yellow, limpid liquid of sp. gr. 0,921, of taste at
first mild and afterward harsh ; faintly acid to test-paper ; oxid-
izes in the air to a thick, viscid mass, its salts, also, being changed
iu the air. Most of the linoleates are soluble in alcohol; the
iead salt is soluble iu ether. 70
FAT ACIDS, LIQUID AND SOLID,
49. Erucic Acid. C2OH42O2. Melts at 34° C. (94° F.);
crystallizes from alcohol in shining needles ; lead salt not soluble
in ether (separation from Oleic acid).
50. Lauric Acid. HCiaHS3Os. Melts at 43° C. (110° F.);
solidifies in scales and crystallizes from alcohol in white needles;
slightly acid to test-paper; lead salt sparingly soluble in alcohol,
insoluble in ether.
51. Myristic Acid. HC14H2702. Melts at 54° C. (129°
F.); crystallizes in shining laminae; exceptional in being insolu-
ble in ether; the alcoholic solution has an acid reaction; the lead
salt is soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in ether; the barium salt
nearly insoluble in alcohol.
52. Palmitic Acid. H Cl 6H3102. Melts at 62° C. (143° F.);
colorless, tasteless, odorless, showing an acid reaction; lighter
than water; crystallizes, in congealing, in shining scales, from
dilute solutions in slender needles; lead salt insoluble in alcohol
or cold ether; barium salt sparingly soluble in water or alcohol;
calcium salt insoluble in water or ether, slightly soluble in warm
alcohol.
53. Stearic Acid. HC1sH3B02. Melts at 70° C. (159° F.);
inodorous, tasteless, colorless in liquid and white in solid state;
crystallizes from alcohol in needles or nacreous scales, having the
specific gravity of water ; its solutions distinctly acid to test-
paper ; lead salt insoluble in alcohol or ether, and not wetted by
water and fusible at 125° C.; barium salt insoluble in water,
alcohol, or ether; magnesium salt insoluble in water, and slightly
soluble in cold, more soluble in hot alcohol. [For the fusing-
points and modes of solidification of mixtures of Stearic with
Lauric, Myristic, and Palmitic acids, as determined by Heintz,
sec Watts’s Dictionary, v., 414,]
54. Cerotic Acid, H.C27HB302, Melts at 79° C. (174° F.)
crystallizes in congealing in small grains, lighter than water;
when pure, is capable of distillation; soluble in hot alcohol and
in ether, not soluble in chloroform; solutions acid in reaction:
lead salt insoluble in alcohol. NON-VOLATILE FAT ACIDS.
71
55. The non-volatile Fat Acids arc separated from neutral
fats by saponification with fixed alkalies, lime, or oxide of lead,
in each case effected by hot digestion in presence of water.
Sometimes an alcoholic solution of alkaline salt is precipitated by
alcoholic acetate of lead (the lead salt being insoluble in alcohol);
i'i other cases, an alcoholic solution of lead salt is precipitated by
alcoholic acetate of barium or of magnesium (such being the
Solubilities of the respective salts). Then the purified salt is
decomposed in water with dilute acid.
As in manufacturing operations, the neutral fats may be
ffecomjmsed by superheated steam, with separation of the fat
acids together.
56. The fat acids arc in some cases separated from each
other by fractional fusion of their glycerides, with pressure.
The melting point of the glycerides (the neutral fats), is given in
The melting point of a mixture of free fatty acids is gene-
rally much below the mean melting point of its constituents, as
shown by the tables of Heintz mentioned in 54, and hence in
111 any cases no separation can be accomplished by fractional
fusion. Thus, free stearic acid can be freed from oleic but not
from lauric, myristic, or palmitic acid, by this process.
57. The use of solvents in separation—of the free acids or of
their salts—is indicated to some extent by the statements of solu-
bilities, given in this work or elsewhere, and more particularly
hy the various methods of preparation of the acids in question,
as found in Watts’ Dictionary, Miller’s Organic, Gmelin’s Hand-
hook, and in original reports.
Tree fatty acids arc separated from neutral Fed oils (not
from castor oil), for commercial determinations, by extracting
the oil with one or two volumes of 90 per cent, alcohol. The
a°hl is then determined volumetrieally with soda solution.*
Also, by alkaline carbonates, which at ordinary temperatures
Saponify with fat acids but not with fats. Prepare a solution of
* Burstvn : Zcitschr. Anal. Chan., xi., 283. 72
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
10 grams crystallized sodic carbonate, 1 gram sodic bicarbonate,
and 30 c. c. water. Agitate, in a test-tube, equal volumes of this
solution and of the oil, and set aside at ordinary temperatures.
In absence of fat acids, the two liquids separate, more or less
turbid; if fat acids arc present, an emulsion is formed (from
which a-cream rises after some time). Old fat oils usually con-
tain traces of fat-acids, scarcely indicated in this test.
58. For the quantitative determination of free fat-acid in
mixture with neutral fats, digest 10.0 grams of the oil with 2.5
grams of pulverized sodic bicarbonate and 25 drops of water, on
a water-bath, with trituration, for an hour. When cold, extract
with petroleum naphtha, stirring; evaporate the naphtha, and
weigh the neutral fat so separated. Benzole is not applicable in
this separation.
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
59. FIXED OILS. Fats or Fat-oils, Glycerides of the
non-volatile fat acids. (The following list includes those of most
frequent occurrence in commerce.)
a. Liquid at ordinary Temperatures.
aa. Drying Oils (not forming Elaidin).
Spec. grav. Congeal, pt.
Hemp-seed, . . 0.926 -25° C.t -13° F.
Greenish when fresh, afterward
brownish-yellow; unpleasant
odor and insipid taste.
Grape-seed, . . .918 -13° C., &’F.
Yellow to brownish ; nearly odor-
less, of mild taste.
Linseed, . . . .934 -27° C.,-17° F.
Gold-yellow to brownish ; strong
odor and taste.
Poppy-seed, . . .924 -18° C., 0° F.
Straw-yellow ; limpid ; feebly plea-
sant odor and taste.
Walnut, . . ■ -925 -18° C., 0° F.
Slightly greenish or yellowish;
thick ; nearly odorless, of mild
nutty taste. FIXED OILS.
73
bb. Oils drying to a slight extent and slowly forming a little
Elaidin.
Beechnut,
Spec. grav.
Congeal.pt.
. .920 •
-18° C., 0° F.
Yellowish ; nearly odorless and of
a mild taste.
Cotton-seed, .
. ,925
rc., 34° F.
Yellow or brownish-yellow to color-
less ; of mild taste.
Croton, . .
. .942
Clear, slightly yellow ; of a taste at
first mild and then burning and
persistent; causes pustules on
the skin.
Sesame, . .
Sunflower,
. .921
O’C., 32° F.
Yellow ; of mild odor and taste.
. .924 ■
-15’ a, 5° F.
Yellowish ; limpid ; nearly odor-
less and tasteless.
cc. Oils not
DRYING, BUT
NOT FORMING ELAID1N.
Cod-liver,. .
rhale,. .. ,
. .930
below 14° F.
Clear yellow to red-brown ; acid
reaction; characteristic fishy
odor and taste.
. .925
0°C., 32° F.
Brownish; of characteristic dis-
agreeable odor and taste.
Almond, .
.918
-20° €., 4° F.
Clear straw-yellow ; limpid; in-
odorous, of a bland, sweetish
taste.
Castor,....
.963
-15° C., 5° F.
Colorless or slight yellow ; syrupy ;
odorless, of mild taste with acrid
after-taste. (Sometimes classed
among the slightly drying oils.)
Colza,
.914
-6°C., 21° F.
Clear, yellowish ; limpid.
Hazel-nut, . .
.920
-19° C., -2° F.
Hard, ....
.915
10° to 0°C.
Colorless or nearly so ; slight, odor
of lard.
bustard (black),
.915
15° C., 5° F.
Yellowish ; odorless, of mild char-
acteristic taste.
Hustard (white),
.913
(not solidified).
Similar to the above.
Heatsfoot, , ,
—
(below 0° C.)
Yellowish ; inodorous, of a bland
Clive, ....
.916
5° C. to 2° C.
taste.
Greenish or yellowish ; thick flow-
ing ; of slight pleasant or no
odor and mild sweetish taste.
Sperm, , . .
.875
Limpid ; nearly odorless.
Hape-seed, . .
.914
-6° C., 21° F.
Clear, yellowish ; disagreeable odor
and taste.
dd. Non-drying Oils, forming Elaidin. 74
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
h. Solid at ordinary Temperatures.
Butter, ....
soMelting.
. 2T to 30° C.
Tallow, Mutton, . .
Melting.
46° to 50° C
Cacao butter,
. 25° to 30° C.
Spermaceti, . . . .
38° to 47° C.
Lard, ....
, 28° to 32° C.
Wax, Yellow (Bees’),
60° to 63° C
Tallow, Beef,
. . 36° to 40° C.
Wax, White, . . .
C5° to 69° C
60. Fixed or Fat Oils are characterized by their oily con-
sistence and the physical properties stated above; by their solu-
bilities [a) and cohesion-figures on water (b); by a neutral
reaction; by saponification—forming soapy-soluble compounds
with alkalies and waxy compounds with lead oxide (c); by
giving reactions for glycerin (d); by the precipitates obtained
from their soap-solutions (e) ; by either oxidizing to a viscid
mass in the air (fi), or forming claidin with nitric acid [g); by
their sensible reactions with special reagents (A).
a. Insoluble in water, upon the surface of which they float.
Mostly insoluble or slightly soluble in alcohol; but Castor oil is
soluble in all proportions of absolute alcohol, Spermaceti in 7
parts of boiling absolute alcohol, and Wax partly soluble in
alcohol. Soluble in Ether and in Benzole, less freely soluble in
petroleum naphtha and in chloroform. (Solid fats are slightly
soluble in petroleum naphtha; liquid fats moderately soluble.)
Miscible with volatile oils, not with glycerin.
By violent agitation with water, fixed oils form milky mix-
tures (emtdsions) from which the oil quickly separates in drops;
by agitation or trituration with water mucilages of gums, albu-
men, gelatin, sugar, and of salts, more perfect mixtures are
formed, from which the oil slowly separates as a cream, still
containing a little water solution and holding the oil in its charac-
teristic microscopic spheres.
b. If a drop of oil is let fall upon a still surface of perfectly
pure water, the oil spreads in a film which breaks into a figure
[cohesion figure) or succession of figures, characteristic of each
oil—fixed oils not being distinguished from volatile oils other-
wise than from each other. The formation of these figures eon- FIXED OILS.
75
stitutes a practicable means of identifying the separate oils, and
even to some extent of recognizing them when in mixture.*
c. Saponification is effected in presence of water by digesting
with excess of alkali for some time, or with oxide of lead at
100° C. for a longer time. The alkali-soaps dissolve in water,
the solution being slightly milky, and becoming more turbid on
dilution, and dissolve in alcohol, but mostly refuse to dissolve in
ether. The lead soaps of some of the fat acids are soluble in
ether; they arc fusible, waxy compounds. See Non-volatile Fat
Acids (45).
d. The glycerin formed in saponification with oxide of lead
or with lime, as above, when separated by the concentration of
the clear water solution, renders evidence of its identity, by
means of tests given under the head of glycerin (66).
e. The alkali-soap solutions give white precipitates with solu-
tions of salts of metals not alkaline, and with acids give white
Precipitates soluble in alcohol.
fi. The Drying Oils are recognized by not forming elaidin,
'when treated as stated in the next paragraph; by drying to a
resinous film when spread and exposed to the air, and by induc-
ing elevation of temperature, and in many instances ignition,
svhen diffused through a mass of wool or other porous material
and exposed to the air.
g. The Non-Drying or Elaidin-forming Oils are known by
reaction with peroxide of nitrogen. A concentrated solution of
mercuric nitrate, or nitric acid of brown-red color, may be used.
■For the reactions given in the following table, j- a little of the oil
13 taken in a test-tube, an equal volume of nitric acid of about
25 per cent, is added, the test-tube briefly shaken, a strip of
copper turnings added, and the whole set aside at ordinary warm
temperature, to be examined each quarter of an hour.
* Tomlinson, Moffat : Chem. News, 1869. Crane : Am. Jour,
Phnr., 1874, Sept.
1' Hager’s Untersuchungen, ii., 506. 76
NEUTRAL SUE STANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
Tests for Elaidin.
Oils.
Result after to 2 hours.
Result after standing 8 hours to
2 days.
Non-drying Oils.
Almond:
From sweet al-
White ; cloudy.
White or whitish mass, granu-
lar after shaking. Appears
homogeneous after 8 to 12 hrs.
monds.
From bitter al-
White or yellowish-
Yellowish ; only partly solidi-
monds.
white; more or less
tied, with a surface layer of
turbid.
semi-liquid, transparent oil.
Bone, ....
Whitish-yellow.
Nearly all solid ; a clear-yellow
oil layer, with a whitish crys-
talline finely granular preci-
Castor, ....
Whitish.
pitate.
Wnitish; solidifying after 8
hours or earlier.
Lard, ....
Whitish-yellow.
Whitish or yellow-white ; some-
what granular, with transpa-
rent spots ; rigid ; sometimes
with a half-liquid surface
Olive :
layer.
Green, • . .
VV hite cloudiness, often
White or yellow ish-brown-
modified by color of
white solid, made granular
the oil.
by shaking. The mass ap-
pears uniform after 4 to 8 hrs.
Yellow, . . ,
White or whitish cloud-
White or yellowish-white mass,
iness.
granular after shaking. Af-
ter 4 to 8 hours the surface
Rape-seed :
Crude, . . .
Yellow-brown to red-
appears nearly uniform.
Reddish-yellow ; solidifying af-
brown.
ter 16 to 24 hours and becom-
ing brownish-yellow ; some-
what granular after shaking,
the granules enclosed in an
oil layer.
Refined, . . .
Whitish-yel’w to br’wn-
Reddish-yellow ; solidifying af-
Oils drying im-
yellow.
ter 16 to 24 hours and becom-
ing yellow; made granular or
perfectly.
pasty by shaking, the gra-
nules oil-coated.
Beech-nut, . .
Yellow or reddish-yel-
Syrupy; nearly clear; after2
low.
days a just perceptible sera-
Reddish-yel’w or br’wn-
ration of elaidin.
Cotton-seed, . .
Pasty or syrupy ; frequently
ish.
showing a clear brown-yellow
oil layer of one-half to one-
third the mixture. Appear-
Sesame, . . .
Red to dark red.
ance of a precipt. after 1 day.
Blackish yellow-brown or red-
brown ; opaque ; pasty. Af-
ter 1 day a transparent oil
layer sometimes appears at
bottom or top. FIXED OILS.
77
Tests for Elaidin—Continued.
1
Oils.
|Result after to 2 hours
Result after standing 8 hours to
2 days.
Sunflower, . .
Drying Oils.
Yellowish or faintly
reddish.
i Brownish yellow. Pasty after
1 day.
, Hemp-seed, . .
Green.
Yellow ; liquid, nearly or quite
Linseed, . . .
Scarcely changed.
clear.
Reddish-brown; liquid and
P°Ppy-see;:l, . .
Scarcely changed.
transparent.
Reddish yellow-brown or red-
dish yellow; transparent.
Walnut, . . .
Scarcely changed.
liquid.
Yellow ; clear liquid.
Non-drying Oils
not forming
Elaidin.
Cod-liver, . .
Not changed.
Yellowish-red or reddish-br’n ;
Croton, . . .
Unchanged or made
liquid and transparent.
Thick liquid; clear.
L—
clearer. 1
If drying are mixed with non-drying oils, the latter are
easily detected ; the former only with greater care. The elaidin
tnass remains partly liquid, or an oily layer separates from it. To
detect an intermixture of drying oil, proceed (with a weighed
quantity) as above directed, leaving the mixture about two days,
then set it aside at 22° to 25° C. (72° to 77° F.) for 12 hours,
and return it, without agitation, to ordinary temperature. The
drying oil will now be found more or less perfectly separated
from the elaidin. (For finding the proportion of the drying oil,
bring a tared roll of blotting paper into contact with the mass,
’while the temperature is 8° to 10° C. [46° to 50° F.] The in-
crease in the weight of the paper or the loss in the weight of
the mixture approximates the Aveight of the drying oil.)
h. Sulphuric acid, Nitric acid, Phosphoric acid, caustic
Alkali, and Nitrate of Silver are the chief of the special reagents
for color-tests of fixed oils.
The test hy sulphuric acid is applied as follows: About 8
drops of the oil are placed in a watch-glass over white paper, 78
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
and then 2 drops of sulphuric acid of specific gravity of 1.820
to 1.830 (not more concentrated) arc dropped near the edge of
the glass so as to flow upon the oil. The results are tabulated
below;
Sulphuric Acid Test.
Oil.
Without Stirring.
After a little Stirring.
Almond,
Clear; yellow.
Blackish-yellow.
Castor,
A tinge of pale brown.
Faintly blackish brown.
Cod-liver, .
First violet, then red.
Brown-red, with violet rim,
finally dark brown.
Lard, .
Brownish yellow.
Brown.
Linseed,
Brown-red.
Black-brown.
Olive, .
Yellow.
Blackish-brown.
Poppy-seed,
Yellow.
Brownish olive-green.
Rape-seed: Crude
Greenish-blue.
Greenish-blue.
“ Refined
Brownish-yellow.
Whale,
Red, afterward violet.
Brown-red to dark brown.
61. Preparation and Application of Reagents for Iden-
tification of Fixed Oils, according to the following table
[Calveet] :*
(1) Soda solution. Specific gravity 1.33, 4 parts of dry
soda in 0 to 7 parts of water. One volume of this solution
agitated with 4 to 5 volumes of the oil and heated to boiling.
(The drying oils, so treated, form soft soaps; the non-drying
oils, mostly hard soaps.)
(2) Sulphuric acid of spec. grav. 1,475. Mixture of 10 parts
of the acid of spec, grav, 1.840 and 7 parts of distilled water.
One volume is mixed with 5 volumes of the oil and set aside for
ten minutes.
(3) Sulphuric acid of spec. grav. 1.530. Mixture of 10 parts
of acid of 1.840 and G parts of water. Mix 1 volume with 5
volumes of the oil and set aside for five minutes.
* Phar. Jour., xiii,, 356. FIXED OILS.
(4) Sulphuric acid of spec. grav. 1.035. Mixture of 10 parts
of acid of 1.840 and 4 parts of water. Applied like reagent (3).
(5) Nitric acid of spec. grav. 1.180. Mix 1 volume with, 5
volumes of the oil and set aside five minutes.
(6) Nitric acid of spec, grav. 1.220. Applied as directed for
reagent (5).
(7) Nitric acid of spec. grav. 1.330. Applied as directed
for (5) and results noted; then an excess of the soda solution
(1) is added and results noted again.
(9) Sulphuric acid of spec. grav. 1.840 with equal measure
of Nitric acid of spec. grav. 1.330. One volume of the mixed
acids for 5 volumes of oil.
(8) Phosphoric acid of syrupy consistence.
(10) Nitrohydrochloric acid— from 1 volume of nitric acid
of spec. grav. 1.330 and 25 volumes of hydrochloric acid. One
volume of the mixture to 5 volumes of oil, noting the result.
Then add excess of Soda solution (1), and again note the result. NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OH FUSIBLE.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
' I
(10)
Oils.
Soda.
Sulphuric Acid.
Kitrio Acid.
Kitrio Acid, then
Phos.
Acid.
Sul.&Kit.
Acids.
Aqua Eegia, then
1.330
1.475
1.530
1.635
1.180
1.220
1.SS0.
1.330.
Castor.
“White.
Dirty
white.
‘
■
“White; fi-
brous.
Brownish -
red.
.
i
Pale rose;
fibrous. :
Cocoa-nut.
Thick;
white.
Dirty
whlte.
Light
hrown.
Fibrous.
Orange-
white.
, . . White; fi-
brous.
Cod-liver.
Dark red.
Purple.
Purple.
Deep
hrown.
Red.
Fluid.
DTk red.
Dark b’wn.
Yellow.
O ran ge-
yel.; fluid.
Ilemp-se’d
Bro’n-yel.;
thick.
Bright
green.
Bright
green.
Bright
green.
Dirty gr’n.
Greenish
dirty b’wn.
Greenish
dirty b’wn.
LIg’tb’wn;
fibrous.
Green.
Green ;
then bla’k.
Green. L’htb’wn;
j fibrous. I
Lard.
Pinkish-
white.
Dirty
white.
Dirty
white.
Light
brown.
Faint yel.
Fluid.
Brown.
Pink; fluid I
Linseed.
Yellow;
fluid.
Green.
Dirty
green.
Green.
Yellow.
Yellow.
Gr’n; then
hrown.
Yellow;
fluid.
Br’wnish
yel .-gr’n.
Green;
then bla’k.
Green-ycl. Orange;
| fluid.
Neatsfoot
■
Dirty yeh-
white.
Yellow
tinge.
Br’wnish
dirty w’e
Brown.
Light yel.
Light yel.
Llg’tb'wn.
Fibrous.
Dark b’wn.
Slight yel. Bro’n-yel.;
j fibrous. |
Olive.
Slight yel.
Green
tinge.
Greenish
white.
Light
green.
Greenish.
Greenish.
Greenish.
“White ;
fluid.
Slight
green.
Orange-
yellow.
“White;1
fluid. j
Poppy-se’d
Dirty yel.-
whlte.
Dirty
white.
Ora’ge-yel.
Ked.
Light red;
fluid.
Slight yel.
Intense!
rose; fluid. I
Eape-seed.
Dirty yel.-
white.
Pink.
“White ;
fluid.
.
Dark b’wn.
Yel. white;
fibrous. |
Seal.
Dark red.
Light
red.
Ked.
Bright
hrown.
Pink.
Light red.
Ecd.
Fluid.
D’rkrcd.
Dark b’wn.
Slight yel.
Orang e-
yel.; fluid.1
Sesame.
Dirty yel.-
wnite.
Green
tinge.
Greenish
dirty w’e
Ora’gc-yel.
Ked.
Dark red.
Eed; fluid.
Gr’n; then
bright red.
Yellow.
Orange;
fluid.
Sperm.
Dark red.
Light
red.
Ecd.
Bright
hrown.
Slight yel.
Light yel.
Ecd.
Fluid.
D’rk red.
Dark b’wn.
Slight yel.
Or ange-
yel.; fluid. EXAMINATION OF BUTTER.
81
62. Tests with Nitrate of Silver. A two per cent, alcoholic
solution of nitrate of silver is prepared : 0.5 gram of crystallized
silver nitrate being dissolved in 1.0 gram water and mixed with
25 c. c. of absolute alcohol. Now place Gor7c. e. of the oil in
a test-tube about 12 millimetres (0.47 inch) thick, add 2 or 3 c. c.
°f the silver solution, shake briskly to form a milky mixture,
heat, without bringing the tube in contact with the flame, to
boiling for a quarter of a minute, and set aside for an hour or
two. A reduction of silver, with darkening of the oil layer
to brown, red-brown, or black, results from this test with
Almond oil, from bitter almonds—colored after several hours.
Bone oil—brown to black.
Cotton-seed oil—brown to black.
Lard oil.
Linseed oil—darkens, red-brown.
Bape-secd oil—brown-red.
With the following oils there is no change :
Almond oil,
from sweet almonds,
Beech-nut oil,
Castor oil,
Cod-liver oil,
Hemp-seed oil,
Olive oil,
Sesame oil.
63. Special examination of Butter.—Separation of fats
from non-fatty substances by melting (a), by benzole (fi).
Identification of hutyrin, etc., by etherization after saponifica-
tion (see Butyric acid, 41, h). Distinction from (mixtures of)
lard by treatment with sulphuric acid (c), by treatment with
ether at 18.5° C. (c?), or with petroleum naphtha at 10° to 15° C.
(e) ; from foreign color by borax solution (f).
a. About 10 grams of the butter arc melted in a large test-
tube, by insertion in water of 50° to Go° C. (122° to 140° L■)
for about an hour. The fats separate from a subsident layer of
Water, casein, salt, (foreign colors). The volume of the
latter may be approximately ascertained by linear measurement
on the tube. The fat layer from unsophisticated butter is clear, 82
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
and has a yellow color of a tint somewhat deeper than that ol
the butter; while the bottom layer is white, or at most but yel-
lowish-white, (The bottom layer may be at most; from good
table butter should not be over J.)
h. In a large and strong test-tube place 5 grams of the butter,
melt by dipping in water at Go° C. (140° i\), add fully an equal
volume of benzole, cork securely, agitate, and leave at about
40° C. (104° F.) for an hour. The sediment separates more
sharply and of thicker consistence than in a.—The sediment may
be washed with benzole on a filter, and analyzed chemically and
microscopically (see c, d, e).
For the separation by benzole, a graduated tube may be
used, as follows (Hoorn) : A glass tube is prepared, 20 centi-
metres (8 inches) long, its upper two-thirds having a diameter
of 2 centimetres (0.8 inch), its lower third narrowed and gradu-
ated to tenths c. c., and its lower end closed. In this tube 10
grams of butter are placed, melted by dipping in warm water ;
30 c. c. of benzole arc added, the contents thoroughly intermixed,
and the tube set aside. After thirty to forty minutes, the ben-
zole and fat will have separated from the water layer below—the
amount of which may be read off.
c. Take 2 c. c. of the fats separated by melting as in a, bring
the temperature to about 30° C. (86° F.), add about 3 c. c. of
concentrated sulphuric acid, and agitate gently to a complete
mixture. With butter alone, the liquid remains of a yellow be-
coming yellow-red color, clear and translucent, not darkening at
ordinary temperature, and after half an hour becoming gelatinous
and rather less translucent. If Tallow or Lard is present, the
mixture after a short time becomes darker, by aid of the heat
generated by the acid, so that after half an hour it is dark brown-
red or brown-black.
d. The butter is melted over the water-bath, and after stand-
ing the liquid fat is removed from the subsident layer. This fat
is mixed in an evaporating dish with four or five times its bulk
of hot water and left two or three hours. The solidified fat is examination of butter.
83
dried on blotting-paper, introduced into a wide-necked flask, and
covered with ether at a temperature of 18.5° C. (65.3° F.) If
the butter was pure, the fat fully dissolves to a clear, lemon-
yellow liquid. If the butter contained Lard, the fat is in some
part insoluble in ether at this temperature, and the mixture is
left milky or thick, depositing a (finely granular) sediment on
standing. Tallow of beef or mutton gives the same results, the
sediment being coarser than in the case of lard. The tempera-
ture of the ether is the important condition in this test, and it
must not be disturbed by contact with the hand. (Horsley.)*
By special apparatus, closer observations are made with this
test (Ballard) as follows: Select a test-tube 11 or 12 centi-
metres (4 or 5 inches) long and about 2,5 centimetres (nearly
1 inch) wide; and prepare a section of glass tubing of 1.3 to
1-6 centimetres (a little over inch) diameter, and 4to 5 centi-
metres (1-| to 2 inches) long, each end being slightly rimmed
outward, and the one (lower) end bound over with a bit of thin
canvas. Weigh the little tube, with the covered end, and place
m it 1.5 grams of the butter to bo tested, and in the test-tube
sc,c. of ether. Attach a thread to the small glass tube and let
it down into the ether, then close the test-tube with a cork, so as
to hold the thread, and bind the cork over with leather. Im-
merse the test-tube in water at exactly 18.o° C. (65.3° F.) and
leave it an hour at this temperature. The cap is now removed,
the small tube drawn up out of the ether by the thread (without
removing the cork), and left at same temperature to drain. The
small tube is now taken out, and while the top is closed by the
finger the liquid is absorbed as far as possible by blotting-paper,
the tube exposed to the air till free from ether odor, and weighed.
With 5 0.0. ether. With 10 c.c. ether.
From 1.5 grams pure butter, remained
insoluble, 0.18 grms. 0.14 grins.
From 1.5 grams beef tallow, . . . 0.945 “
From 1.5 grams lard, 0.9 “
* Farther, see Chem. News, Sept. 11, 1874, p. 135- 84
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID Oil FUSIBLE.
From equal parts tallow and butter, . O.G grms.
From I tallow and butter, . . . 0.3 “ 0.8 grms.
From lard and butter, .... 0.15 “ 0.8 “
From -t lard and butter, .... 0.67 “
c. The fat of butter, separated according to a, is treated with
7 parts of petroleum naphtha at a low temperature—10° to 15°
C.—when the fat of butter dissolves, and tallow, or lard if over
10 per cent., remains in sediment.
f. Boil gently, in a test-tube, 2 grams butter with 5 c.c. of
cold-saturated solution of borax, and set aside to cool and sub-
side. Butter not sophisticated leaves the borax solution nearly or
quite colorless (with white turbidity); artificially colored butter
leaves the borax solution more or less brown.
64. The Fats are determined in Milk—by separation
with ether, from the milk (a), from the residue (J); by opacity
of the milk (c); approximately and for comparison by the
volume of cream (c?).
a. To 20 c.c. of milk add an equal volume of 10 per cent,
solution of potassa (to hold the casein in solution), in a cylinder,
and repeatedly extract with ether. Dry the ether residue at
110° C. [Farther, see Phar. Jour., 1874, Sept. 5, p. 188; also
Wanklyn’s Milk Analysis, New York, 1874, p. 24.1
h. Evaporate 10 grams of milk—with 5 grams (Aesh dried)
charcoal powder or 15 grams (just ignited) ferric oxide or baric
sulphate—at 100° C,, till the weight is constant (total solids).
Extract the residue, while dry (it being very hygroscopic), with
ether, and dry the ether residue at 110° C.
c. Use of Vogel’s Lactoscopc. A test-glass made of two
semi-circular glass plates, set parallel and exactly 0.5 centimetre
apart, to hold a liquid between. In a mixing glass, to 100 c.c.
of water, add milk from a pipette, drop by drop, until the diluted
milk, when examined in the test-glass, cuts off the light of a
candle placed at 10 to 20 inches distance from the glass (the
examination being made in a dark room). Dividing 23.2 by the
number of c.c. of milk required (to obstruct the light), then MIL K.— a L YCERIN.
85
adding to the quotient 0.23, the sum is the per cent, of fats in
the milk.
d. The milk is set in a (wide) graduated cylinder until the
cream has fully separated, when its volume can he read off.
(The volume per cent, of cream in cow’s milk varies from
5 to 14.)
For Quantitative Analysis of Milk, see, farther, 167 and 168.
65. Fixed Oils are separated from Volatile Oils hy
extraction of the latter with alcohol (not applicable in case of
castor oil, which is soluble in all proportions of absolute alcohol
or in 4 or 5 parts of 90 per cent, alcohol).—They are also
removed from volatile oils by saponification with alkalies and
"water.—-They are separated from substances soluble in icater
by action of that solvent; from various solids by digestion with
ether, bisulphide of carbon, benzole or petroleum naphtha; from
emulsio)is by spontaneous separation in cream and melting of
the latter, or by ether or benzole, with addition of alkali if
necessary to prevent coagulation of the emulsifying substance.
Fixed oils arc in many cases separated from each other by
fractional fusion, according to differences of melting point as
stated in the list, this means of separation being subject to the
same limitations mentioned as pertaining to Fat Acids (56).
Drying oils are separated from non-drying by transformation of
the latter into elaidin, as already directed.
66. GLYCERIN. C 3H6(HO)3. Characterized by its phy-
sical properties (a); by the products of its decomposition when
heated (5) ; by the limits of its reducing power and its inter-
ference with precipitation of metallic bases (c).—Separated from
solids by its liquidity at low temperatures; from volatile bodies
by their distillation; from sugar, gum, or gelatin by certain
mixed solvents {a). Its proportion in mixture with water is
determined from specific gravity, by use of a table.
a. A colorless, syrupy liquid, of specific gravity 1.267 at
15° C., not congealed at 18° C. (0° F.), mostly separating as a 86
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
liquid during the freezing of its water mixtures; distilling very
slowly with steam at 100° C., slowly giving off vapor with partial
decomposition at 120° C. (248° If.), boiling with decomposition
of the most part at 290° C. (554° F.) Odorless, and of a pure,
sweet taste, and neutral reaction. Soluble in all proportions of
water and of alcohol; only very slightly soluble in ether, excess
of which separates alcohol from it; not soluble in chloroform;
soluble in a mixture of 2 volumes of absolute alcohol and 1
volume of ether (separation from Sugar, Gum, Gelatin, etc.);
soluble in a mixture of equal weights of chloroform and alcohol
(separation from Sugar, Dextrin, Gum, Extractives—the mixture
not acid) ; not soluble in benzole, bisulphide of carbon, petro-
leum naphtha, or fixed oils. It dissolves nearly all organic sub-
stances soluble in water and many of those soluble in alcohol,
most salts of alkaloids, and all deliquescent salts of metals. It
dissolves baryta, strontia, and lime, with combination, and
potassa and soda with gradual decomposition. It holds salts of
iron and copper in solution not precipitated by alkalies. It dis-
solves one-fifth per cent., each, of sulphur and phosphorus, 20 per
cent, of arsenious acid, 10 per cent, of benzoic acid, 15 per cent,
of tannic acid (as a waxy solid melting at the temperature of the
body), and dissolves and preserves hydrosulphuric acid. It
strongly absorbs water from the air. It dissolves iodine freely
without decomposition, bromine sparingly with gradual decom-
position, and is changed by chlorine and by nitric acid. It com-
bines with strong sulphuric acid, without color or effervescence,
as the instable glycerosulphuric acid.
h. At its boiling point, as above, glycerin evolves suffocating
vapors of acrolein, etc., which vapors may be condensed by ice
to a liquid, chiefly acrolein, with some acrylic acid, acetic acid?
etc. Acrolein is a very acrid body, boiling at 51° C. (124° F.),
soluble in 40 parts of water. With acid sulphate of potassium,
glycerin evolves acrolein at lower temperature. Decomposed
and vaporized in an evaporating dish over a lamp or sand-
bath, only a slight carbon residue remains, staining the dish SOAPS.
87
(distinction from mixture of Sugar, Gums, etc., which leave a
Puffy carbon residue).
c. Glycerin does not reduce hot alkaline sulphate of copper
solution (distinction from Sugars, etc.); does not reduce nitrate
°1 silver, even on addition of ammonia, if dilute and not heated
(distinction from admixtures of Formic acid and certain empy-
reumatic matters), but on boiling it does reduce ammoniacal
nitrate of silver solution. (Acrolein, Butyric acid, etc., form
'white precipitates with silver nitrate, blackening on standing or
heating.) At a boiling heat glycerin liberates iodine from
iodic acid.
cl. As concentrated by evaporation in the air from a water-
hath, glycerin retains about 5 per cent, of water. The U. S.
Pharmacopoeia requires spec. grav. 1.25; the German Pharma-
copoeia spec. grav. 1.23 to 1.25.
GLYCERIN p. c.
SP. GR.
FREEZING.
GLYCERIN P. C.
SP. GR.
FREEZING.
10
1.024
1° C.
60
1.159
1
20
1.051
2.5” C.
70
1.179
34
1.075
6° C.
80
1.130
( 35° C
40
1.105
17.5° C.
90
1.233
50
1.127
31.34° C.
94
1.341
J
67. SOAPS, Alkali salts of Fatty acids (and of Resin
acids).—Characterized by their peculiar touch and consistence,
solid or gelatinous; if solid, by melting or softening when
'vanned, and more readily if retaining more water; by dissolv-
ing in water to a slightly cloudy solution, viscid if concentrated,
and made more turbid by dilution, also dissolving in alcohol
(the solution being often turbid from fats, alkaline carbonates, or
other impurities) ; by their aqueous solutions being precipitated
hy salts of metals not alkalies, or by acetic or stronger acids.
Jn the last-named precipitation, the fatty acid will separate as a
cream, and may be examined as provided under head of lat
Acids, and the base in solution determined by inorganic analysis. NEUTRAL SUE STANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
Soap solutions are precipitated, physically, by common salt,
potassa soaps becoming soda soaps by double decomposition.
The oleate of potassa is (sparingly) soluble in ether; otherwise'
the alkaline oleates, stearates, and palmitates are slightly or not
at all soluble in ether.
Quantitative.—a. In determining the reciter of soaps by
direct evaporation, the fine shavings are exposed at first to a
temperature of 40° to 50° C., which is after some time increased
gradually, so as not to fuse, to 100° C., the latter continued until
there is no longer a loss of weight. Stearates so treated still
retain about 2 per cent, water.—A more satisfactory determina-
tion of the water is effected by dissolving 1 to 2 grams soap in
the least sufficient quantity of strong alcohol, adding a weighed
quantity of fine sand, just dried, then evaporating, with tritura-
tion, and drying at 110° C.—The water is also estimated as
remainder after finding the fat acids, bases (combined, free, and
carbonated), glycerin, resin, salts, color-substances, and foreign
matter.
b. The amount of absolute soap is determined from the fat
acids approximately (Granger) as calcium precipitate after solu-
tion in alcohol. Ten grams of the soap, in fine shavings, are
dissolved in 90 c.c. of 90 per cent, alcohol, the solution made up
by addition of alcohol to 100 c.c., left to subside, and 10 c.c. of
the clear solution are taken out, diluted with water, and precipi-
tated with calcic chloride. The precipitate is gathered in a tared
filter, washed, dried at 100° C., and weighed. 100 parts of this
precipitate indicate 101.5 parts of anhydrous soda soap.
c. The fat acids also are determined gravimetrically, by
weight as free acids, by intermixture with beeswax (Hager), as
follows: 10 grams of the soap are dissolved by warming in an
evaporating dish in about 50 c.c. water, and the solution treated
with G c.c. of hydrochloric acid of spec, grav. 1.124, or 9 c.c. of
dilute (1 to 5) sulphuric acid, or enough to cause an acid reaction.
Ten grams of pure dry beeswax are added, and melted, and the
whole set aside to cool. The solidified mass is now carefully QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOAPS.
89
removed from the solution, dried with blotting-paper, and
Weighed; the weight being diminished by 10 grams gives the
'Tbiount of fat acids [and resinj. 80 parts of fat acid indicate
about 100 parts of good dried (soda) soap (Hager) ; 11 parts
fat acid represent an average of 12 parts of solid fat.—According
Jean (C/iem. Neics, xxvi., 200) the fat acids are estimated
from, the combined alkali (*), 12.6 parts of which (soda) unite
with 100 parts anhydrous fat acids.
V ohl {Jour. Glum. Soc., 1872, 934) separates the fit acids
(and resin) by a limited quantity of petroleum naphtha. Ton
grams of soap are dissolved in warm water, then decomposed by
hydrochloric acid in a cylindrical vessel, and the solution, at
C,, extracted with about 10 grams of petroleum naphtha.
This solvent is afterward evaporated in a tared dish at 30° C.,
at 100° C,, and the residue weighed as fat acids. As to
P • • i .
■resins in this process, see (j.
d. The fat acids may be approximately determined by the
v°lume of their supernatant layer, after acidulation, in a grada-
ted cylinder (Buchner). 1 c.c. equals 0.93 gram. The weight
°f* fat acid plus Jy equals the weight of fat; and 100 parts of fat
c°i'respond to 155 parts average hard soap.
e. Pons recommends a volumetric determination of fat acid
V solution of calcium chloride \ on which is based a valuation
the soap, taking average Marseilles soap—04 per cent, fat
a(‘ids, 6 per cent, soda, and 30 per cent, water—as a standard or
llldt of value. One gram of this standard soap will precipitate
0-1074 gram calcium chloride (or 0.2532 gram barium nitrate);
°" 10. of soap, 1.074 of calcium chloride, the latter quantity
being dissolved to make 1,000 c.c. [1.074 of calcium chloride
Utay be obtained by dissolving 0.9675 of pure calcium carbonate,
the solution being obtained exactly neutral.] Ten grains ot the
s°ap (carefully averaged) are dissolved in 100 c.e. of 85 per
Cfait. alcohol—insoluble material being removed by decantation
ol> hltration, and washing—and distilled water is added to make
the liquid measure 1,000 c.c. In a stoppered flask of 60 to 80 90
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
c.c. contents, place 10 c.c. of the standard calcium solution, and
add, from a burette measuring tenths c.c., the prepared soap
solution, shaking after each addition until a foam remains on the
surface (as in the soap test of hard waters). The number c.c,
used contains as much soap as 10 c.c. of corresponding solution
of standard soap would contain. Hence divide 10 by the number
c.c. used, and the quotient expresses the value of the soap tested,
as compared with the standard.
Tor the separation of the fat acids from each other, a work
of difficulty, sec under Fat Acids (55-57).
f Uncombined fat can be extracted from soap (previously
dissolved as far as possible in water) by petroleum naphtha at
the temperature of 20° C. (Compare, under Butter, 63,
d and e.)
g. Resin can be extracted from dried and pulverized soap
by means of benzole, which dissolves only traces of the soap.—-
Or, the solution of fat acids in a little petroleum naphtha (a
quantity equal to that of the soap)—as obtained by Void’s
process, given in c—contains the resin, which is now precipitated
on diluting largely with petroleum naphtha. The precipitate
subsides.—Also, when the fat acid (and resin) arc treated with a
mixture of*water and a nearly equal volume of alcohol, the resin
is dissolved out.
h. Soap may he precipitated from cold water solution by
saturated solution of common salt (free from earthy bases), and
washed on a fdter with the same salt solution, with but little
loss, the uncombined alkali (and alkaline carbonate) and the
glycerine being contained in the fdtratc and washings. The total
of alkali in this'filtrate may now be determined by volumetric
solution of acid, showing the uncombined alkali of the soap, in-
cluding alkaline carbonate.—If the soap is dissolved in alcohol,
alkaline carbonates remain undissolved and may be determined
by adding volumetric solution of acid to the residue.—Free
alkali may be precipitated from alcoholic solution of soap by
passing through a stream of carbonic acid gas.—A qualitative QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SO Ax PS.
91
test for free alkali or alkaline carbonate is made by adding
Mercuric chloride to the soap solution; a red-brown to red-
yellow precipitate indicates free alkali—the fat acid salts forming
only white precipitates.
i. Then, for volumetric determination of the combined
cdkali of the soap, the soap precipitate is rinsed (with dilute
solution of common salt) from the filter into a beaker, and
decomposed by a five-times stronger than normal standard solu-
ti°n of (hydrochloric) acid, added to beginning of acid reaction.
After which the fat acid may be separated as a cake and weighed,
according to c—a weighed quantity of beeswax or paraffin being
addod, if necessary to secure solidification.
J- Determination of glycerin. Take 10 grams of soap,
dissolve in alcohol, add alcoholic solution of sulphuric acid until
Precipitation ceases, and filter. Add baric carbonate and filter
aSam. Evaporate until all the alcohol is expelled, and weigh
the sweet residue as glycerin (Sexier). Or, treat the filtrate
hom acid precipitation of the fat acids with basic subacetate of
Wd, filter, remove the excess of lead by hydrosulphuric acid
aild filtration, neutralize with hydrochloric acid and extract with
a fixture of alcohol 2 vols. and ether 1 vol. Evaporate this
s°lvent and weigh as glycerin (Yoiil).
A plan for determination of the constituents of soap,
Viz-: (1)J Carbonates and other salts, color substances and foreign
Matters; (2) Free Alkali; (3) Combined Alkali; (4) Fatty
acids with resin ; (5) Fatty acids without resin; (6) Glycerin;
(0 Water.*
For(l); Digest ten grams soap with alcohol (five or six
°unces) on water-bath, filter and wash with hot alcohol in a hot
funnel. Dry the residue at 100° C. and weigh.' Analyze this
r°siduo by solution with water, by alkalimetry, etc.
For (2) ; Through the filtrate of (1) pass a stream of car-
bonic acid gas; if a precipitate forms, continue until its forma-
* Benier : “A Process,” etc., Am. Jour. Phar., 1874, 353. FUSIBLE NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES.
tion ceases ; filter and wash and determine the alkali in the preci-
pitate by a volumetric solution of (oxalic) acid. (See h.)
For (3) : The filtrate from (2)—or if there was no precipitate
in (2), the filtrate from (1)—after the addition of about an ounce
of water, is evaporated on the water-bath to expel all the alcohol,
and the (combined) alkali therein determined (as Soda or Potassa)
by adding a normal solution of oxalic acid to acid reaction.
(Compare i.)
For (4) : To the mixture left in (3) add a little sulphuric
acid ; then add ten grams of previously melted beeswax, heat on
a water-bath to fuse the wax, cool, weigh the cake, and subtract
the weight of the wax. (Compare c.)
For (5) : Dissolve 40 grams of soap in water, decompose by
dilute sulphuric acid, cool at temperature below 14° C,, separate
and weigh the fatty acids; then digest them for some time Avith
a mixture of water with nearly as much alcohol, until the subsi-
dent liquid (Avhen the mixture has cooled and the fatty acids
again solidified) ceases to be milky. Weigh the fatty stratum
again; subtract the previous weight, and divide by four—for the
resin in 10 grams soap. (Compare r/.)
For (6) : Proceed according to the first method under j.
For (7); Estimate by difference ;or by evaporation of another
portion with alcohol and sand, as directed in a.
GB. RESITTS. Compounds of C, H, and O. Vitreous and
mostly brittle solids (when unmixed), softening and melting
when gently heated, but not vaporizable (distinction from cam-
phors) ; mostly heavier than water. The class includes some
substances of pungent taste, some of poisonous effect, and some
of intense color. Mostly insoluble or but slightly .soluble in
prater: mostly soluble in absolute alcohol; by far the greater
number soluble in ether and in benzole (means of separation from
gums). Many resins are soluble in aqueous alkalies, by combi-
nation as resin-soaps; and in alcoholic solution show the acid
reaction. itEsnxs.
93
The resins of commerce include, first, vegetable exudates, of
''hich the Resins proper mostly contain some extractive matters;
0 Gum-resins being mixtures with gums; the Oleo-resins, mix-
tures with volatile oils (including the source of common resin or
c°lophony) ; and the Balsams, mixtures with volatile oils and
acids formed by oxidation of volatile oils. Second, resins
Extracted from plants by alcohol, including some of both the Me-
icinal resins and the Color resins. And, third, resins obtained*
rorn liquid plant juices which are dried as a part of the manu-
a°ture; these including two bodies insoluble in alcohol, Caout-
°houc and Indigo.
69. The separation of resins from volatile oils is effected by
distillation with water; from gums, by fusion and straining
at 100° C.; and from various bodies and from each other by
JJ*ion °f the solvents applicable in the case. See Recapitulation,
• Solution with alcohol and precipitation by pouring the solu-
into water is by far the most generally applicable process ;
s°hition with aqueous alkali and precipitation by acid may some-
tinaes be employed.
70. The resinous matter of Aloes is fusible on the water-
ath; insoluble in cold water, partly soluble in boiling water,
freely soluble in alcohol, partly soluble in ether, scarcely at all
s°luble in chloroform, benzole, naphtha, bisulphide of carbon,
freely soluble in aqueous alkalies and in glycerin.—Aloes yields
Puracumaric acid, as follows : The hot ammoniacal water solution
ls precipitated with acetate of lead, the filtrate freed from lead
dilute sulphuric acid, and this second filtrate is boiled in
Presence of the (excess of) sulphuric acid—forming (from resin)
Paracumaric acid in solution. The latter colors ferric chloride
dark gold-brown.—The residue from an ammoniacal solution of
Material containing aloes, when saturated with hydrochloric acid,
fields the odor of aloes. Farther, see Aloin.
71. Amber Resin. Amber contains Succinic acid, Volatile
°ilj and resin (two resins). Amber is a hard and brittle, more
°r less transparent solid, of spec. grav. 1.065; tasteless, aro- 94
FUSIBLE SUBSTANCES.
matic when rubbed or warmed, of various colors, chiefly yellow
or orange.—Subjected to gradually increasing heat, it softens;
at 110° to 260° C., evolves a volatile oil colored blue by
hydrochloric acid ; at about 235° C., evolves succinic anhydride ;
at 287 °, it fuses; at higher temperatures, yields first a colorless
oil, then a yellowish wax.—Amber resin is insoluble in water,
alcohol (except -jL which is soft resin), ether, benzole, bisulphide
of carbon, petroleum naphtha, volatile and fixed oils, but soluble
in fixed alkalies (except a slight residue) and in concentrated
sulphuric acid (with a red color).—Fuming nitric acid changes
it to a nitrogenous resin of musk-like odor and gelatinous con-
sistence—“ artificial musk.”
72. Ammoniac Resin. Ammoniac contains 72 per cent, resin
and 22 per cent, gums, and a little volatile oil. Ammoniac is a
solid, soft when warmed, brittle when cold, of specific gravity
1.207, whitish to yellow-brown and dirty gray, of a sweetish-
bitter and acrid taste and strong peculiar odor. Ammoniac is
partly soluble in water, alcohol, ether, acetic acid, and aqueous
alkalies. Ammoniac Rosin is wholly soluble in alcohol, in fixed
and volatile oils, in sulphuric acid, acetic acid, and aqueous alka-
lies, and partly soluble in ether.
73. Assafetida Resin. Assafetida contains over 60 per
cent of resin, about 30 per cent, of gums, and about 4 per cent,
of volatile oil (whereon its odor depends). Assafetida is a solid,
soft when warm, and brittle when cold, of spec. grav. 1.327,
having an intense fetid and alliaceous odor and a bitter, acrid,
and persistent taste. Its color is variegated and altered, being
on fresh surfaces whitish to yellowish, becoming reddish to
yellow-brown on exposure.—The volatile oil is separated by dis-
tillation with water, contains sulphur, and boils at 140° C.—■
Assafetida resin is readily soluble in alcohol, not wholly insolu-
ble in water, nearly all soluble in ether, mostly soluble iu
alkalies.
74. Benzoin Resins. Benzoin or “ benzoin-gum ” consists
of about three-fourths part resins, 10 to 15 per cent, of Benzoic BESIKS.
95
aeid, with a little gum and a very little volatile oil. Benzoin is a
brittle solid, of spec. grav. above 1.062, melting and evolving
enzoic acid when heated; of variegated colors, fragrant bal-
samic odor, and little taste, with slight acrid after-taste when
chewed. Benzoin resins (three have been identified) are all
soluble in alcohol, in concentrated sulphuric acid (from which
precipitates them violet), and in strong potassa solution,
ut insoluble in water. Resin-« is insoluble in aqueous carbon-
a^e of sodium, or in ammonia, but soluble in ether. Resin-5 has
the solubilities above given for a, except that it is insoluble in
ether. Resin-c is sparingly soluble in ether and in volatile oils,
aad soluble in aqueous carbonate of sodium. The ether solution
c deposits a sediment which has been considered a fourth
resin.—Dry distillation of benzoin, after removal of benzoic
acid, gives a rose-red distillate.
75. Canauba Wax. Consists of myristic alcohol, resin, and
°ther substance. It is a solid of spec, grav, 0.999, harder than
beeswax, melting at 84° C., and of a greenish-yellow color. It
ls insoluble in water; dissolves with difficulty in alcohol, in
ether, and in bisulphide of carbon; dissolves readily in oil of
turpentine, but not at all in linseed oil, and not in aqueous alka-
nes. It is not changed by sulphuric acid, but is stained deep
yellow by nitric acid.
76. Caoutchouc. Fusible at 120° C. (248° F.); not vapor-
izable. The larger part soluble in ether, benzole, bisulphide of
carbon, petroleum naphtha, or oil of turpentine; wholly soluble
Ui chloroform, and in a mixture of 100 parts bisulphide of carbon
6or 8 parts of absolute alcohol. Sparingly soluble in hot
amylic alcohol. Not acted upon by alcohol or aqueous alkalies;
slowly decomposed by concentrated sulphuric or nitric acid.
77. Colophony. Resin of Turpentine. Common Resin or
Rosin.—A pale-yellow to brownish-yellow, translucent, brittle,
vitrcous solid, of spec. grav. of 1.07 to 1.08; softening at 70°
R- and melting at 135° C. At a higher temperature it suffers
destructive distillation, forming '“essence of rosinand then FUSIBLE S ÜBSTANCES.
“ rosin oil.”—lnsoluble in water; soluble in alcohol, ether,
chloroform, benzole, petroleum naphtha (with much difficulty),
volatile and fixed oils, methylic alcohol, aqueous alkalies (fixed
and volatile), anilin, and hot aqueous carbonate of sodium. The
three constituents—pinic, sylvic, and colopholic (or pimaric)
acids—vary in solubility in certain solvents ; cold dilute alcohol
dissolving only pinic acid.
78. Copaiba Resins. Balsam of Copaiba consists of several
resins and a volatile oil (a terpene). The most abundant of these
resins, Copaiyic acid (the proportion of which is very variable),
is a brittle solid, crystallizable in colorless rhoiribs; soluble in
strong alcohol, ether, benzole, petroleum naphtha, volatile and
fixed oils, and aqueous alkalies. Its alcohol solution reddens
litmus. Alcohol solutions of the alkaline copaivates, with alcohol
solutions of salts of non-alkaline metals, on adding water, preci-
pitate white metallic copaivates, more or less freely soluble in
alcohol. The silver precipitate is crystalline, and the lead preci-
pitate slightly so.—The other resins arc soluble in alcohol, ether,
fixed and volatile oils, and aqueous alkalies.
79. Copal. Spec. gray. 1.045 to 1.139. Brittle, softening
at 50° C., more or less translucent, colorless to yellowish-brown.
Consists of several resins. As a Avholc, it is imperfectly soluble
in alcohol; slightly and slowly soluble in ether, bisulphide of
carbon, ammonia; slowly soluble in oil of turpentine; readily
soluble in oil of cajeput, or oil of rosemary, or “ oil of caout-
chouc.” It is soluble in cold concentrated sulphuric and nitric
acids, decomposing when these solutions are heated. Not
soluble in alkalies; but combines with alkalies in boiling solu-
tion to form a soap soluble in water not containing free alkali.
80. Dammara Resin. Australian. Dammaric acid with
Dammaran—that is, an acid and a neutral resin.—Both resins
are soluble in absolute alcohol, ether, turpentine oil, benzole,
petroleum naphtha, and solutions of fixed alkalies. The acid
resin is soluble, the neutral resin insoluble in aqueous alcohol.—
jEast Indian dammara (ordinary dammara). Spec. gray. 1.04 RESINS.
97
1.09, brittle, melting when heated. Partially soluble in
absolute alcohol, about soluble in ether, fully soluble in fixed
and volatile oils, benzole, and bisulphide of carbon, and in con-
centrated sulphuric acid with a red color. It is not soluble in
arjneous alkalies.
81. Dragon’s Blood. A brittle, dark-brown, opaque, odor-
ess> and tasteless solid; soluble (with red color) in alcohol,
ether, fixed and volatile oils, and mostly soluble in alkalies.
ne alcoholic solution forms red or violet precipitates with
Metallic salts.
82. Gamboge Resin. Gamboge is over three-fourths resin ;
the rest mostly gums, with a little starch. Gamboge is a brittle,
Pulverulent solid, of spec. grav. 1.22, burning when heated ; red-
dish-yellow in mass, bright yellow in powder; nearly odorless at
ol’dinary temperatures, but giving a peculiar odor when heated ;
a sbght first-taste but a sweetish-acrid and dry after-taste when
chewed, causing a flow of yellow-colored saliva.—Gamboge is
easily emulsified with water, which dissolves gum from it, the
being slowly deposited; is readily soluble in alcohol (with
f little starchy residue), is soluble in aqueous alkalies, and yields
lts resin (only) to the solvent powers of ether, chloroform, bisul-
phide of carbon, and benzole (slowly). Boiling solution of sodic
carbonate dissolves gamboge gelatinous. Gamboge is wholly
dissolved by the successive action of ether and water (separation
from commercial impurities).— Gamboge Resin (“gambogic
acid ”—usually extracted from gamboge by ether) is soluble in
c°ld, concentrated, sulphuric acid, with a red color, and precipi-
tated unchanged by adding water to this solution (a characteris-
tic reaction). Boiled writh nitric acid of 10 to 15percent, anhy-
dride, the mixture then dissolved in alcohol and then treated with
vater, a yellow precipitate is obtained (distinction from Saffron
0r Turmeric).—The aqueous alkaline gambogates are precipitated
red by common salt, and give red precipitates with baric salts,
yellow precipitates with zincic and plumbic salts, brown precipi-
tates with cupric salts, and brownish-yellow with argentic salts 98
FUSIBLE SUBSTANCES.
—most of these precipitates being somewhat soluble in water and
in alcohol.
For the separation of gamboge resin from associated medi-
cinal resins (Hager) the material is triturated with 98 per cent,
alcohol (and pulverized heavy spar) at a gentle heat, and the
extract so obtained is dried and digested with chloroform. Aloes
resin, Convolvulin, and Colocynth resin are left behind (with
a part of Agaric) ; while the gamboge resin is dissolved, with
Jalapin, Guaiac resin, Myrrh, Tolu resin, Senna resin (and
a part of Agaric). The residue from this chloroform solution
is now digested with boiling solution of sodic carbonate; when,
of those named above as in the chloroform solution, only the
gamboge resin will dissolve (with traces of senna and agaric).
Acids separate the gamboge resin from its soda solution.
83. Guaiacum. A brittle, pulverizable solid, of spec. grav.
about 1.2, melting at a moderate heat; of a faintly fragrant odor
and persistent acrid after-taste. Its color is yellowish-green to
reddish-brown; the former color induced by exposure to the air.
Water dissolves a one-tenth of guaiac resin, strong alcohol about
nine-tenths, alcohol of 83 per cent, slowly dissolves it all. Ether
and oil of turpentine dissolve about as much as alcohol; benzoic
does not dissolve it. It nearly all dissolves in aqueous alkalies.
Sulphuric acid dissolves it with a fine red color (and formation
of glucose and guaiaretin) ; the solution is precipitated violet
with water, or violet- blue to blue-green by alcohol.—Guaiac resin
is easy to suffer oxidation, whereby bright colors are produced.
The powder and the alcoholic solution turn green by exposure to
the air, or blue by exposure to ozone. The alcohol solution is
also turned green by nitric acid, and blue by nitrous acid, chlo-
rine, ferric chloride, or by ethereal solution of binoxide of hydro-
gen in presence of blood-stains. Hyposulphite of sodium changes
the blue color to violet and then bleaches it; sulphurous acid
bleaches it slowly—or promptly if zinc has been placed in the acid.
84. Hemp Resin. Cannabin. Resin of Indian hemp.—-A
light-brown, lustrous solid or soft solid, melting at 68° C., and R ESTES.
99
of a fragrant odor and bitterish, acrid taste. Insoluble in water,
scarcely soluble in cold alcohol of 80 per cent., soluble in hot,
strong alcohol, in ether, spirit of nitrous ether, chloroform, bisul-
phide of carbon, cold volatile oils, and warm fixed oils. Insolu-
ble in aqueous alkalies; having a neutral reaction.
85. Indigo Blue. C 8HSNO. Inodorous, tasteless, and
neutral. Sublimes from the solid state, at about 288° C., with-
out decomposition if in a current of air or in vacuum, forming
Purple-red vapors in open vessels, and condensing in right
rhombic prisms.—lt is insoluble in water, cold alcohol, ether,
fixed and volatile oils when cold; hot alcohol and hot oil of tur-
pentine and hot fixed oils dissolving it very sparingly. Insoluble
111 aqueous alkalies. Soluble in creosote and in hot phenic acid ;
soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid (as sulphindigotic acid).—
Indigo blue is separated from fixed substances by sublimation
from platinum foil (good indigo having 7 to 10 per cent, of ash);
and by the use of solvents which leave it in residue. It is valued,
m numerous processes, by the quantity of chlorine or other
bleaching agent necessary to decolorize it.
86. Jalap Resins. Resin of Jalap, of the pharmacopoeias.—
A brownish, brittle, opaque, fusible mass, or yellowish-gray to
yellowish-white powder; of a repulsive odor, slight at ordinary
temperatures, but much increased on heating, and a pungent,
acrid taste.—lt is soluble in alcohol (with neutral reaction), in
a(lueous fixed alkalies and alkaline carbonates, and in acetic acid;
in volatile and fixed oils,—Resin of jalap consists of
distinct resins, Jalapin and Convolvulin; that of pharmaco-
poeia! or Tuberose jalap being about one-ninth jalapin and eight-
ninths convolvulin ; that of Fusiform jalap, mostly jalapin.
87. Jalapin (or Scammonin) is a soft amorphous solid,
brittle at 100° C., melting at 150° C., white in powder, tasteless,
modorous, and nearly neutral in reaction. It is very slightly
soluble in water; freely soluble in ether, chloroform, methylic
alcohol, benzole, petroleum naphtha, and oil of turpentine. Cold
concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves jalapin; the solution be- 100
FUSIBLE SUBSTANCES.
coming purple in five or ten minutes, then brown, and lastly
black.—It dissolves in aqueous alkalies or their carbonates, and,
on acidulating these solutions, Jalapic (Scammonic) acid is
liberated—as a body soluble in water and having a strongly acid
reaction. The salts of jalapic acid are nearly all soluble in
water, but subacetate of lead precipitates it.—On heating Jalapin
(or Jalapic acid) with dilute mineral acids, glucosic fermentation
occurs, with formation of jalapinol and glucose. Jalapinol is in-
soluble in cold, sparingly soluble in hot water, soluble in alcohol
and in ether; soluble in aqueous alkalies with combination as
jalapinolic acid. Jalapinolic acid, liberated from its alkali salts
by acidifying, is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and in
ether. Its lead and barium salts are nearly insoluble in water.—
Jalapin and jalapic acid are amorphous; jalapinol crystallizes in
white cauliflowcr-1 ike masses, melting at 62° C.; jalapinolic acid
crystallizes in tufts of needles (four-sided prisms), melting at
62° C.
88. (the larger portion of Tuberose jalap and
a very small proportion of Fusiform jalap) is a brittle, vitreous
solid, melting below 100° C. when moist, or at 150° C. when dry,
colorless and transparent in mass, or white in powder, inodorous
and tasteless, and of a slight acid reaction.—Nearly insoluble in
water; soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, and aqueous alkalies and
alkaline carbonates (as convolvulinic acid); not soluble in ether
(separation from Jalapin).—lt dissolves slowly in cold concen-
trated sulphuric acid, with a fine carmine-red color, afterward
changing to brown; this change being a glucosic fermentation,
with formation of convolvulinol and glucose. But dilute sul-
phuric acid has no effect.—Convolvulic acid is formed in acidify-
ing the alkaline solutions of convolvulin; it is a white solid,
fusing above 100° C., having a strong acid reaction, and freely
soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether. Its metallic
salts are soluble, except that formed with basic acetate of lead.
89. Lac Resin. Stick Lac consists of about two-thirds
resin, one-tenth coloring matter, with wax, gluten, etc. Seed JiESINK
101
Lac contains more resin and less coloring and nitrogenous matter.
Shell Lac is about 90 per cent, resins, 5 per cent, wax, 2.5 per
cent, gluten, and 0.5 per cent, coloring. The coloring matter of
lac is soluble in water; is bright red with acids and deep violet
with alkalies ; is precipitated by alum.
Shell Lac is insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol; mostly
soluble in methylic alcohol; wholly soluble in aqueous alkalies,
and in water solution of borax, and in hydrochloric and acetic
acids.—Lac resin is separated from most other resins, and from
111 any natural and commercial impurities, by dissolving in a solm
Lon of part borax and 20 to 30 parts water to one part of lac.
The solution may be diluted farther. (Good shell lac leaves not
over 1.5 per cent, residue; poor, as much as 8 per cent.) By 10
per cent, ammonia at 25° to 30° C. lac is not dissolved, while
Colophony dissolves and appears, after acidulation, as a precipi-
tate. Cold ether (of 0.720 spec, grav.) does not dissolve more
than 5 to 6 per cent., chloroform not over 7|- per cent, from good
tae, the dissolved part being wax with a very little resin (separa-
tion from Colophony and other resins).
90. Mastic. A translucent solid, brittle and inodorous at
ordinary temperatures, but soft and ductile when chewed and
fragrant when heated, of a faintly terebinthinate taste. Alcohol
dissolves about four-fifths, leaving Mastiein undissolved. Ether,
chloroform, and oil of turpentine dissolve it wholly. It is largely
soluble in benzole.
91. Myrrh Resin. Consists of resins, about part; gums,
about part; with a very little soluble extractive. Myrrh
forms an emulsion and partial solution with water, a nearly com-
plete solution with much aqueous potassa, and yields its resin to
alcohol, ether, and chloroform.—The Resin of Myrrh is readily
soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform; slightly soluble in hot
solution of sodic carbonate; about one-half part soluble in bisul-
phide of carbon. That part extracted with bisulphide of carbon,
when dissolved in alcohol and warmed with 25 per cent, nitric
acid, gives a violet color. FUSIBL E S ÜBSTA NCES.
92. Olibaxum Resin. Frankincense. Incense.—Olibanum
is about one-half part resin, one-third part gum, one-twelfth part
volatile oil. The gum is soluble in water; the resin is soluble
in alcohol.
93. Resin of Peru Balsam. About £ resins, -| volatile oil,
less than -Jg- cinnamic acid. The Balsam is of thick-syrupy con-
sistence; spec. grav. 1.15 (sinks in an 18 per cent, solution of
common salt). Soluble in absolute alcohol in all proportions, or
in 6 parts of 90 per cent, alcohol with slight turbidity ; perfectly
soluble in all proportions of absolute ether, chloroform, and
amylic alcohol. Bisulphide of carbon dissolves the greater
part; benzole and petroleum naphtha dissolve about one-half.
It mixes with about part of castor oil, and with part copaiba
balsam. Sulphuric acid converts the balsam into a thick red
mass. Aqueous alkalies dissolve out the resin. 10.0 of the bal-
sam requires over 0.7 grams crystallized sodic carbonate to neu-
trallize its cinnamic acid.
94. Podophillum Resin. Consists of two resins. Insoluble
in water; wholly soluble in alcohol; about f part soluble in
ether; wholly soluble in aqueous alkalies, from which solutions
acids precipitate it (distinction from resins of Jalap and Scam-
mony). Insoluble in benzole.
95. Sandarac. A brittle, yellow solid. Contains three
resins. Sandarac is insoluble in water; wholly soluble in
alcohol—f part dissolving easily in cold ordinary alcohol, a small
part requiring boiling alcohol, and a still smaller part a large
quantity of this solvent for solution. It is easily soluble in ether
and in oil of turpentine, imperfectly soluble in bisulphide of
carbon, benzole, petroleum naphtha, or linseed oil. Nitric acid
colors it clear brown.
97. Resinous part of Storax. Consists of (two) resins, and
Styracin or Cinnamate of Cinnyl (C9H9C9H702). Alcohol and
ether dissolve the whole. In cold alcohol, the styracin crystal-
lizes in tufts of prisms. Styracin is tasteless and odorless, more
96. Scammony Resin. Convolvulin. See Jalapin (87). JiESIArS.
103
feelj soluble ih Gtbei4 than m alcohol. Treated with hot nitric
achl, oi with chromic acid, or with sulphuric acid and binoxide
°f manganese, it yields benzoyl hydride (oil of bitter almonds).
98. Resins of Tolu Balsam. The Balsam consists of 80 to
0 per cent, of resin, about 12 per cent, of cinnamic acid, and
‘-ss than 1 per cent, of volatile oil. It is wholly soluble in
a eohol, chloroform, volatile oils, and aqueous alkalies ; partly
soluble in ether; insoluble in benzole, petroleum naphtha, bisul-
P{uae of carbon, and solution of carbonate of sodium. The
-o-esins of Tolu balsam are soluble in cold concentrated sulphuric
acid, without change.
99. Separation of Resins by Solvents. Recapitulation.
"Water dissolves a part of the resin of Assafetida, a part of
Gamboge, about of Guaiac resin, and slightly dissolves
Jalapin.
a- Alcohol fails to dissolve of Amber, Canailba wax,
Gioutchouc, a part of Copal, -fa of Guaiacum, Indigo blue (dis-
solving slightly with heat), and of Mastic.
l>. Aqueous Alkalies (potassa or soda) dissolve Aloes resin,
Amber, Ammoniac, Assafetida (mostly), Benzoin, Colophony,
Convolvulin (with change), Dammara (Australian), Dragon’s
Ihood (mostly), Guaiacum, Jalapin (with change), Lae resin,
Myrrh, and resins of Podophyllum and of Peru and Tolu bal-
sams.—These solvents do not dissolve Canailba wax, Caoutchouc,
Gopal, Dammara (East Indian), Hemp resin, Indigo blue,
«• Ether dissolves resin of Aloes, Ammoniac (in part),
Assafetida resin (mostly), Benzoin (in part), Canailba wax (with
difficulty), Caoutchouc (mostly), Colophony, Copal (with diffi-
Cl%), Dammara (in part), Dragon’s Blood, Gamboge, Guaiacum
(in greater part), Hemp resin (Cannabin), Jalapin, Mastic, resin
Peru balsam, -| of Podophyllum resin, Sandarac, Styracin,
and resin of Tolu balsam.—Ether does not dissolve Amber,
Indigo, and £ of Podophyllum resin.
d. Chloroform dissolves Caoutchouc, Colophony, Gamboge,
Guaiacum, Hemp resin (Cannabin), Jalapin, Mastic, Myrrh, 104
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
resin of Peru balsam, resin of Senna, resin of Tolu balsam.
—Chloroform does not dissolve Agaric (in chief part), resin of
Aloes, resin of Colocynth, Convolvulin.
e. Bisulphide of Carbon dissolves Canatiba wax, Caoutchouc,
Copal (slowly), Dammara, Gamboge, Hemp resin, of Myrrh,
resin of Peru balsam, Sandarac (in part).—It does not dissolve
Amber, Indigo blue, of Myrrh, resin of Tolu balsam.
f. Benzole dissolves Caoutchouc, Colophony, Dammara,
Gamboge, Jalapin, Mastic (mostly), of the resins of Peru
balsam, Sandarac (in part). Benzole does not dissolve Amber,
Guaiacum, resin of Podophyllum, resin of Tolu balsam.
g. Oil of Turpentine dissolves Ammoniac, Benzoin resin (in
part), Canatiba wax, Caoutchouc, Colophony, Copal (slowly),
Dammara, Dragon’s Blood, Guaiacum (mostly), Hemp resin,
Jalapin, Mastic, Sandarac, resin of Tolu balsam.—It does not
dissolve Amber, Indigo (without heating).
h. Sulphuric Acid, concentrated, cold, dissolves Amber (with
red color), Ammoniac, Benzoin resin, Convolvulin (with red
color turning brown), Copal, Dammara (with red color), Gam-
boge (with red color), Guaiacum (with red color, etc.), Indigo
blue.—lt does not dissolve Caoutchouc.
100. VOLATILE OILS. In composition, Ist, Hydrocar-
bons, or “ eleeoptenes,” mostly of the formula (C 1 a
large class;
2d, Oxidized oils (C, H,O), including (1) hydrates of hydro-
carbons, the “ stearoptenes ” or camphors, a moderate number
being found alone and a large number in mixtures with the elss-
optenes, (2) aldehydes, (3) compound ethers, generally in natural
mixture with elseoptenes, (4) of irregular composition;
3d, Sulphurized oils (C, H, O, S), a small class, products of
natural fermentation, and having odors resembling each other.
101. Mostly liquids, a few oils and stearoptene parts of oils
melting at a little above ordinary temperature; the greater
number lighter, a few heavier, than water; very slowly volatile VOLATILE OILS.
105
ordinary temperatures, mostly having boiling points above
°° _ but distilling, slowly, with steam at 100° C., and
ea\ ing a transient oil-spot on paper. They are noted for strong
and persistent odors ; colorless, or with pale colors, in a few
instances tinted blue with coerulein, transparent and possessed of
stiong refractive powers.—The volatile oils are neutral in recic-
°n> n°t generally liable to decomposition or combination
except with oxygen. By air and light many of them alter and
°im resinous bodies; the elasoptenes forming stearoptenes, and
(by oxidizing agents) aldehydes forming acids.
102. Volatile oils are very sparingly soluble in water, requir-
es intimate mixture and generally from GOO to 1,000 parts of
tvater for solution; soluble in alcohol, and in all proportions of
absolute alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzole, petroleum naphtha,
bisulphide of carbon, fixed oils and other volatile oils. Alkalies
do not affect them.—Certain oils, after distillation with water,
letain traces of water in solution. This occurs with oils of ber-
gamot, cinnamon, cloves, juniper, lavender, lemon, rosemary,
sassafras, spike, wintergreen; not with oils of amber, cedar, rue,
turpentine. The presence of water is shown by turbidity on
U'Oxture with several volumes of petroleum naphtha (Leuchs) .
Volatile oils are scarcely at all soluble in aqueous solutions of
chloride, nitrate or sulphate of sodium.
103. The volatile oils are characterized by their individual
°dors, their physical properties (as stated above and in 105 and
106), by various special reactions (the most of which are stated
IIX 107 to 114), by their refractive indices and their absorption
spectra, and by their cohesion-figures when dropped upon a still
surface of pure water.*
104. Volatile Oils are separated from substances more
0r less volatile by their distillation with steam; from many sub-
stances by their slight solubility in water (farther lessened by
* Tomlinson, Moffat : Chem. News, 1869. Crane : Am. Jour.
Phar., 1874, Sept., and Phar. Jour., 1874, p. 243, et. seq. NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
common salt) and ready solubility in alcohol, ether, etc.—From
Fixed Oils they may be separated by distillation with water;
by solution in alcohol (not from castor oil); or by alkaline
saponification of the fixed oil.
From Alcohol, they may be separated (in greater part) by
addition of water; (in part) by addition of fixed oil; (in part)
by addition of dry chloride of calcium, and (with a little loss)
by repeated distillations with water.—Also (qualitatively) by
adding to 5 or 10 drops of the oil, in a test-tube, a fragment of
dry tannic acid, agitating, and leaving several hours at ordinary
temperature. In absence of alcohol, the tannin remains solid,
porous, and floats; in presence of alcohol, it becomes pasty or
liquid, and adheres to the glass or sinks (Hager).—Farther,
volatile oils may be (quantitatively) separated from alcohol by
glycerin (Hager) : In a graduated cylinder place 10 parts of the
mixture of oil and alcohol and 10 parts of a mixture of |- gly-
cerin and l water, agitate, and set aside a few hours for separa-
tion. Read off" at about 17.5° C. (Oil of Balm is soluble in
glycerin.)—Separation of volatile oils (or of Camphor) from
alcohol may be made by water solution of nitrate or sulphate
of sodium much more nearly than by water alone, and for
approximately quantitative purposes. In a flask with a graduated
neck, or a wide cylinder having its upper third narrowed and
graduated, place about 3 vols. of a half-saturated solution of the
salt and add 1 vol. of the alcohol solution of oil or camphor,
agitate thoroughly, add enough of the salt solution to adjust the
surface to graduated portion of the measure, and set aside at
20° to 25° C. until the liquids separate clear. The c.c. of oil
multiplied by its spec. grav. equal the grams. For camphor
(and if desired for oils) the process may be completed gravi-
metrically, by adding about 3 parts of exactly weighed paraffin,
fusing (inserting a platinum hook), and weighing when cold.
Compare 67, c. VOLATILE OILS.
107
105. Colou and Specific Gravity of Volatile Oils.
Color
Spec. Grav.
Volatile Oils.
Color of the Crude Oil.
after Kectlflca-
tion.
Amber,
Yellowish or reddish-brown.
Colorless or
0.80—0.88
yellowish.
.98— .99
Anise, .
Pale yellow to yellow.
! Balm, .
Yellowish.
.85— .89
Bergamot .
Yellowish-green orbrown-yel-
Colorless or
.88— .95
low.
yellowish.
1.04—1.06
.91— .94
.89— .95
.94
.91— .94
°3 °5
Bitter Almond, .
Yellowish, growing darker.
Cajeput,
Calamus,
Green.
Pale yellow.
Colorless.
Camphor (oil of).
Yellowish to reddish-brown.
Colorless.
Caraway, .
Pale yel’w, growing brownish.
Cardamom,
Greenish-yellow.
00 9.3
Cascarilla, .
Dark yellow.
.‘91— !94
Chamomile,
Dark blue.
“ Roman, ,
Cinnamon, .
“ (Cassia), .
Light blue.
Yellow, becoming darker.
Light yellow to dark yellow.
1.03— l.CG
1.03—
1.03—
.87— .91
.87— .89
.93— .94
.90— .97
.88— .93
.88— .93
.90— .99
Cloves,
Copaiba,
Brownish-yellow.
Colorless or yellowish.
Colorless.
Coriander, .
Yellowish.
Colorless.
Cubeb,
Colorless.
Cummin,
Bill, . .
Yellowish.
Yellowish, becoming red-br’n.
Eucalyptus,
Fennel,
C-albanum, .
Colorless.
Colorless, growing yellowish.
Yellowish.
O) QO.
Galaneal, .
Yellowish.
90— .91
Geranium, .
Yellowish.
94
Hedeoma, .
Light yellow.
!00— .91
Hops, .
Pale brownish yedow.
Jasmin,
Yellowish.
Juniper wood, .
“ berries, .
Colorless or yellowish-green.
Colorless, yel’wish or greenish.
Colorless.
.84— .89
.87— .90
Lavender, .
Colorless, growing darker.
Colorless.
Colorless.
.845- .885
Lemon,
Yellowish.
.87— .95
Mace, .
Pale yellow.
.89— .93
Marjoram, .
Clear yellow.
Colorless or yellowish.
1 10—1.13
Myrrh,
90— .93
Lutmeg,
Pale yellow, darkening.
85— .90
Orange flowers, .
Orange peel.
Colorless, growing yellowish.
Yellowish.
Colorless.
.83— .85
g0_ .90
Origanum, .
Yellowish to brown-yellow.
1*03—1,04
■Parsley,
Yellowish.
'.83- .89
Pepper (black), .
Yellowish to clear-brown.
Peppermint,
Palo yellow, or greenish in-
descent.
.89— .03
Pimento (allspice)
Colorless to yellowish.
— .93
Rosemary, .
Colorless or pale yellow-green.
.83— .84
Hoses, .
Colorless, reddish, or yel wisa;
concrete below 303 C.
Rosewood, .
Pale yellow. 108
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR. FUSIBLE.
105. Color and Specific Gravity of Volatile Oils.—
Continued.
Volatile Oils.
Color of the Crude Oil.
Color
after Rectifica-
tion.
Spec. Gray.
Rue,
Yellowish.
.85— .90
Sage, ,
Green-yellow or yellowish.
.86— .93
Sassafras, .
Yellowish to red-yellow.
1.06—1.08
Savine,
Colorless or yellowish.
.89— ,93
Spearmint, .
Yellowish, becoming dark,
red-brown.
.91— .98
Tansy,
Pale yellow or green yellow.
.90— .95
Turpentine,
Colorless.
.87— .89
Thyme,
Valerian, .
Yellow-green, red-brown.
.87— .89
Yellow-brown, green-brown.
.90— .96
Wintergreen, .
Wormseed (San-
Reddish.
Colorless.
1.14—1.17
tonica),
Brownish-yellow.
.91— .96
TV ormwood,
Green.
.88— .93
Y arrow,
Ylang-Ylang, .
Dark-blue.
.87— ,93
.98
106. Solubility of Volatile Oils in Alcohol of sp. gr.
0.822 (90 per cent.)
Take, in a test-tube, from a minim measure, 5 or 10 minims
of the oil, and then as many minims of the alcohol as required,
with agitation, to dissolve. The oils which form solutions more
or loss turbid are given with figures in heavy type. It will be
borne in mind that oils arc less soluble when old than' when
fresh. Also, that mixtures of oils usually have solubilities mid-
way between those of the individual oils therein.
Alcohol required, at 17° to 30° C., for 1 vol. of oil of
Amber, . . . . 3>< vols.
Anise, .... 1 “
Balm, 3 “
Bergamot, . . . . “
Bitter Almond, . . .1 “
Cajeput, . . • .11 “
Calamus, .... 1 “
Caraway, . . • %to 1 “
Cardamom, . . M to 1 “
Chamomile, . . .8 “
Ciimamon, .... 1 vols.
“ (Cassia), . .1 “
Cloves, . . . .1 “
Copaiba, . . . .0 “
Cubeb, . . . .25 “
Cummin, . . . .1 “
Fennel, . . . Ito 2 “
Juniper berries, . .10 “
Lavender, . . . .1 “
Lemon, . . . .50 “ VOLATILE' OILS.
**aee> .... 5 voLs.
-Marjoram, . . . . 1 “
Orange flowers, . . .Ito 3 “
Orange peel, . . .5 “
Earsley, . . . . 3V “
Peppermint, . . i u
Rosemary, . . . .Ito 3 “
■R0868. . . . 50 to 70 “
Rue, 1 vols.
Sage, 1 “
Savine, , . . . 1 to 3 “
Tansy, .... 1 “
Turpentine, . . .9 “
“ rectified, . 10 to 13 “
Valerian, .... 1 “
Wormwood, . . .1 “
107. Reaction of Volatile Oils with lodine and Bro-
wne. (1) When about 0.1 gram of dry pulverized iodine is
placed at ordinary temperature in a watch-glass and 4 or 5 drops
°f the oil are dropped upon it:
(a) Giving instantaneous reaction, with much heat and
strong effervescence; Oils of
Bergamot,
Eucalyptus,
Hops,
Lavender,
Lemon,
Mace,
Orange flowers,
Orange peel,
Savine,
Turpentine,
Wormwood (old).
(b) Generating slight heat, ivith gentle effervescence:
Oils of
Anise,
Balm,
Caraway,
Chamomile,
Cubeb,
DiU,
Fennel,
Juniper,
Marjoram,
Rosemary,
Sage,
Sassafras,
Thyme.
(c) Giving no reaction, or very slight: Oils of
Amber,
Bitter Almond,
Cajeput,
Calamus,
Cascarilla,
Cinnamon (Ceylon),
Cinnamon (Cassia),
Cloves,
Mustard,
Parsley,
Peppermint,
Roses,
Rue,
Sassafras,
Thyme,
Valerian,
Wormwood (fresh).
(2) Upon 5 or 6 drops of the oil, on a watch-glass, one drop
°f bromine is let fall (Maisch).
(a) Giving detonation with Oils of
Amber,
Bergamot,
Hedeoma,
Juniper berries,
Juniper wood,
Lemon,
Turpentine. 110
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
{h) Giving a hissing sound with Oils of
Anise,
Caraway,
Sassafras,
Wormseed.
(3) To 5 or G drops of the oil, on a watch-glass, add 5 drops
of ether solution of bromine (1 vol. bromine to 5 vols. officinal
ether, added slowly, while cooling, just before use).*
(a) Vapors evolved with Oils of
Copaiba (green color ; afterward brownish-green with brown sediment).
Cubeb (violet color, deepening ; afterward dark greenish-blue, with violet-
black sediment).
Orange peel (yellow color soon appears ; afterward pale brown and
transparent).
Patchouli (deep violet color, deepening ; sediment dark brown).
Sassafras (at first cloudy ; afterward pale brownish-yellow).
Spearmint, old, yellowish-red (color changes to yellowish-brown ; sediment
lighter).
Wintergreen (formation of a resinous white substance, spreading over the
glass).
(b) Vapors not evolved with Oils of
Anise (white color ; with more bromine, yellowish-red).
Bergamot (color greenish-brown yellow, then reddish-brown yellow).
Bitter Almond (dissolves without reaction ; after evaporation of the ether,
two liquids separate—one deep, the other light red).
Cajeput (supernatant liquid scarcely colored; appearance of green
droplets).
Calamus (colors red-brown, brown-green ; finally a dark sediment).
Caraway (little reaction ; sediment yellowish-brown).
Cinnamon (color lemon-yellow, turning to amber-brown).
Cloves (color greenish ; lower stratum alters to pale grayish-black),
Hedeoma (color changed to purplish and darkened ; liquids not miscible).
Lavender (light greenish, darkening to deep sea-green).
Lemon, old (brisk reaction ; colors reddish-yellow and greenish).
Mustard (miscible, colorless ; afterward milk-white).
* Maxsch ; Proe. Am. Phar. A., 1859, 338. VOLATILE OILS.
Nutmeg (at first colorless ; the lower stratum then brownish and milky to
clear).
Peppermint (colors yellowish, then reddish, then brown—thickening).
Posemai y (colorless ; afterward lower stratum is light-brown).
Pue (at first cloudy, then pale brownish yellow).
Talerian (aii first purplish-black ; then upper stratum deep violet, lower
greenish-black, marginal blue and red spots).
(reaction is slow; heavier liquid red to brown; lighter liquid
light brown and almost clear).
Wormwood (darkens a little without movement).
108. Reaction of Volatile Oils with Sulphuric Acid
aHd Alcohol (Hager’s Method). In a test-tube of about 1.3
centim. (0.5 inch) diameter, 5 or 6 drops of the oil are agitated
)Vlth 25 to 30 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid, after which
is noted how much heat and how much turbidity, if any, have
been produced. W hen the liquid, if heated, has cooled again,
or 10 c.c. of 90 per cent, alcohol are added, with brisk shaking
"bile the test-tube is closed by the finger. Now' the production
color and of turbidity are noted. In case of turbidity, after
standing, a subsident layer usually appears, having a character-
ise color, and being soluble in cold or in hot alcohol or in
chloroform.
(a) The mixture of oil with acid and alcohol, is clear and
transparent, or hut very slightly turbid, in case of Oils ot
Anaber (with sulphuric acid, not heated, dark yellow and turbid ; after add-
ing alcohol, yellow, slightly turbid, made clear by boiling).
■Anise (with the acid, in part dark red and thick, and in part clear and lim-
pid ; with the alcohol the thick part remains dark and undissolved,
while the liquid part is clear and nearly colorless),
fitter Almond (with the acid, a brown color and much heat without turbi- )
dity ; with the alcohol, a clear and nearly colorless mixture).
Cloves (with the alcohol, the mixture is nearly or quite .clear).
Dill (with acid, generation of heat and vapors, with dark yellow-red color
and some turbidity ; with alcohol, a pale cinnamon-brown mix-
ture, nearly or quite clear—fulljr clear on boiling). 112
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
Fennel (with acid, heat and vapors, the mixture dark red and pretty clear ;
with alcohol, yellowish, clear solution).
Mustard (with acid, very little heat, yellowish tint, clear ; with alcohol,
colorless and clear).
Nitrobenzole or ‘ ‘ artificial oil of bitter almonds ” (without turbidity).
Peppermint, best (with the acid, slight heat and yellow-red color ; with the
alcohol, light red, slightly turbid xnixtxxre, made clear by boiling).
Peppermint, American /with the acid, heat and dark brown-red color ;
with the alcohol, brownish and turbid, made clear by boiling).
Roses (with acid, heat, thick vapors, and dark brown-red color ; with alco-
hol, brown, clear, and transparent).
Valerian (with the acid, heat and slight vaporization, dark red colox*, slight
turbidity ; with the alcohol, red, turbid, but rendered clear by
boiling).
(£) The mixture of oil with acid and alcohol is left more or
less turbidin case of Oils of
Balm (with acid, heat, vapors, brown-red color, and turbidity ; with alco-
hol, cinnamon-bi-own, somewhat turbid ; after boiling becomes
clear with separation of dark drops).
Bergamot (with acid, heat and vapors ; the alcohol solution pale grayish-
yellow turbid, with floccxxlent separate after shaking; after one or
two days, the residue is but slight and divisible on shaking, the
liquid being clear yellow).
Cajeput (with acid, heat and vapors, light yellow color and turbidity ; with
alcohol, pale rose-gray turbidity, made clearer by boilixxg).
Cax’away (with acid, heat and vapors, dark yellow to red-brown color, tur-
bidity ; with the alcohol, a red and turbid xnixtxxre, made nearly
clear by boiling).
Cascax-illa (with acid, heat and vapors, dark brown-red color, txxrbidity ;
with alcohol, the same ; an hour after boiling, dark brown-violet
to bluish-red).
Cinnamon (Cassia) (with acid, a strong heat and vaporization, dark black-
bx-own, vex*y thick mixture ; after the alcohol, the dark viscid
mass remains xnostly insoluble, with a milky olive-green liquid
above). VOLATILE On.ti.
113
opa.ba (with the acid, heat and vapors, the color dark yellow-red, with
turbidity ; with alcohol, red and turbid, not made clear by
boiling).
oriander (with sulphuric acid, heat and vapors, dark red color, scarcely
turbid ; with alcohol, dark brown, with green shade, and turbid),
ucalyptus (with sulphuric acid, heat and vapors, light reddish-yellow
color, with turbidity ; with alcohol, very turbid, with whitish-
peach-blow or pale rose-gray color).
Cranium (with acid, much heat and thick vapors, turbid, dark yellow-red;
with alcohol, turbid and dark brown ; after boiling, turbid and
red-brown).
Juniper berries (with acid, heat and vapors, turbid, dark-yellow-red ; after
the alcohol, very turbid, sometimes flocculent, of blackish-rose
color ; after boiling, turbid ; after a few hours, a light-colored
resinous mass separates).
Juniper wood (with acid, heat and vapors, turbid, orange-red ; with alcohol,
pale yellowish, turbid before and after boiling).
Havender (with acid, heat and vapors, turbid and brown-red ; with alcohol,
turbid, dark brown with green tint).
Hernon (like Bergamot oil: after one or two days, the slight residue forms
opaque yellow drops not divisible by shaking).
ace (with acid, heat and vapors, turbid, dark red; with alcohol, turbid
and dark reddish-brown, not made clear by boiling),
■Marjoram (with acid, heat without vapors, turbid and yellow-red ; with
alcohol, very turbid, peach-blow and almost milky ; turbid alter
boiling).
Orange flowers (with acid, heat and vapors ; after alcohol, turbid and brown,
approaching red ; after boiling, a little darker and less turbid).
Orange peel (with acid, a strong heat, turbidity and red-brown color; -with
alcohol, whitish-yellow; turbid before and after boiling).
Parsley (with acid, a moderate heat and a little vapor, very dark red ; with
alcohol, very turbid, red, with swimming flocks).
Posexnary (with acid, strong heat but no vapors, yellow-red and turbid ;
with alcohol, milky turbid ; turbid after boiling).
Hue (with acid, heat and vapors, dark red, turbid ; with alcohol, raspberry-
red, turbid ; clear after boiling).
Sage (like Oil of Rue), 114
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
Savine (with acid, strong heat without vapors, moderately tu.-bid, dark red;
with alcohol, turbid, reddish-clay-colored ; after boiling, less tur-
bid, pale red).
Tansy (with acid, heat and vapors, dark red, turbid with alcohol, yellow-
red, less turbid ; after boiling, clear).
Thyme (with acid, heat and vapors, red, turbid after alcohol; after boiling,
clear, with swimming oil-drops).
Turpentine (deviating greatly from differences of production and of age).
Wormseed (Santonica) (with acid, moderate heat and vapors, dark red, tur-
bid ; with alcohol, cinnamon-brown, turbid ; becoming clear on
boiling).
Wormwood (with acid, heat and vapors, red-brown, turbid ; with alcohol,
dark, green-violet, opaque, turbid ; becoming clear with more
alcohol).
Ylang-Ylang (with acid, heat and vapors, turbid and dark red ; with alco-
hol, pale brick-red and very turbid, less turbid after boiling).
109. Beaction of Volatile Oils on Sulphide-of-Lead-
Paper (G. Williams), Blotting-paper is wetted in a dilute
alcoholic solution of acetate of lead and dried in an atmosphere
of hydrosulphuric acid. A few drops of the oil are let fall on
a strip of this paper, which is placed in a (dry) dark place for
5 or 10 or 15 hours, when the degree of bleaching is noted.
The paper is bleached by Oils of Lavender, Peppermint,
Rosemary, Turpentine. The paper is not bleached by Oils of
Anise, Bergamot, Cajeput, Cinnamon, Juniper berries, Lemon,
Orange peel, Sage, Thyme.
110. Beaction of Volatile Oils with. Sodium (Dragen-
doref). The Hydrocarbons are not affected; the Oxidized oils
are more or less readily decomposed. Ten drops of the oil are
treated with a small piece of the metal. The result is discovered
after sor 10 minutes. (Alcohol causes a prompt reaction, with
evolution of hydrogen.) Little or no change occurs with Oils
of Amber, Bergamot, Copaiba, Lavender, Lemon, Nutmeg,
Pepper, Peppermint, Rosemary, Sage, Turpentine. Oil of Mus-
tard evolves hydrogen. VOLATILE OILS.
115
111. Identification of Hesinifled or Old Oils, or of
esais or iixed Oils in mixture with volatile oils. Evaporate
gram of the oil, on a tared watch-glass, at 70° to 90° C. (or
°Vei water-bath). Fresh and unchanged oils, free from mix-
Ule> leave only a scarcely perceptible and not weighable
■Residue.
f Ihis residue, fully freed from volatile oil, may be tested for
Castor Oil, by treatment for cenanthyc acid, as described under
Acid (46).
112. Identification of Turpentine Oil. The sparing
s°lubility of this oil izi aqueous alcohol affects its mixtures with
°ther oils, but does not enable it to be separated. The alcohol
should be 75 to 90 per cent.—Heppe’s test is with nitroferri-
cyanide of copper—pi’eparcd by precipitating solution of sulphate
°C copper with solution of nitroferricyanide of sodium, and
"ashing and drying the precipitate. In a test-tube place a bit
this reagent as large as a pea, then about 25 drops of the oil,
aild heat, so as finally to boil for a few seconds, and set aside to
subside. Tui'pentine oil (also lemon oil) does not suffer change,
°r more than slight change—while the sediment of nitroferricy-
aUide is green or blue-green. Other volatile oils are darkened
to different colors; while the sediment of copper salt is gray,
hrown, or black.
113. Identification of Valerian Oil. One drop of the oil
ls dissolved in 15 drops of bisulphide of carbon, then shaken
"bh sulphuric acid, and afterward one drop of nitric acid, of
spec. grav. 1.2, is added. A fine blue color results when even
slight portions of the oil are present (Fluckiger).
114. Identification of Oil of Peppermint. 50 to 70
drops of the oil, with 1 drop of nitric acid, of spec. grav. 1.20,
lurns faintly brownish, and after an hour or two becomes fluores-
cent—blue-violet or green-blue by transmitted and copper-color
V reflected light (Fluckiger).—Chlozail hydrate, on contact
"’ith oil of peppermint, colors it z*eddish. The tint deepens to
cherry-red, is intensified by sulphuric acid, and varied to dark NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
violet by chloroform. (No color is obtained with oils of lemon,
bergamot, juniper, rosemary, cloves, anise, or fennel.)
For qualitative separation of Benzole from volatile oils, see
119; of Nitrobenzole from Bitter Almond Oil, see 120.
115. CAMPHOR. ClOH160. Laural Camphor.—A slightly
unctuous, pellucid solid, friable with cleavage, of specific gravity
0.985 to 0.996; melting at 142° C. (288° F.), slowly vaporizable
at ordinary temperatures, condensing in hexagonal plates, boiling
at 204° C. (400° F.) It is soluble in 1,000 parts of water applied
by ordinary contact, or in 150 to 200 parts of water by tritura-
tion with an insoluble powder; freely soluble in alcohol, ether,
chloroform, benzole, petroleum naphtha, methylic alcohol, amylio
alcohol, creosote, acetic acid, mineral acids, bisulphide of carbon,
fixed and volatile oils, and forms a liquid mixture with solid
chloral hydrate.—Minute particles of camphor, dropped upon
water, rotate, with velocity in proportion to their smallness.
If an oiled pin-point is then touched to the water, the rotations
are stopped, and the camphor particles carried out by the
enlarging circular oil-film.
By prolonged boiling with concentrated nitric acid or per-
manganate of potassium, camphor is changed into Camphoric
Acid. The latter is sparingly soluble in water, from which it
crystallizes in colorless scales or needles, of sour and bitter
taste, melting at 70° C., and forming insoluble salts with lead
and many other metals.—By heating in a closed vessel with
bromine, Bromated Camphor is formed, as a crystallizable solid,
not soluble in water.
110. CREOSOTE. Chiefly Creosol, CeH10O2, and Guaiacol,
C 7H802. An oily limpid liquid, of spec. grav. 1.060 to 1.085,
colorless or yellowish (growing brownish in the light), boiling at
200° to 206° C. (392° to 403° F.), having a neutral reaction, a
strong and persistent smoky odor, and a very caustic and smoky
taste. It is soluble in 60 to 90 parts of water, in all proportions CBE OS 0 TB. ANTEBA CBNE. ALIZA BIN.
117
alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzole, petroleum naphtha, fixed
,l(-l \olatile oils, anhydrous glycerin, acetic acid, sulphuric acid
combination and brown color), and in an equal part of
Sulphide of carbon. It is soluble in aqueous alkalies—forming
salts. It dissolves (and in commerce usually contains)
.°ut per cent, of water, from which it is separated by mixture
a large quantity of benzole.
Creosote resembles Phenic Acid, in most of its physical
Properties, and in its reactions with nitric acid, ferric salts, bro-
diine, gelatin, and albumen. It is distinguished from Phenic
(icid by not crystallizing when pure; by gelatinizing collodion;
} not giving a blue color wr:th ferric salts in a slightly alcoholic
tlnd sufficiently dilute solution of ferric chloride, as specified
llnder Phenic acid, 35, c (Fluckiger’s test) ;by not forming a
clear mixture with a double volume of 18 to 20 per cent, ammo-
llla’ 0r with 5 volumes of ordinary (slightly aqueous) glycerin,
0r with a greater volume of bisulphide of carbon; and by
dtore sparing solubility in water.
117. ANTHRACENE. Cl 4H10. A colorless solid, crys-
taPizing in the monoclinic system, often in four or six-sided
*ahlets, having spec. grav. 1.147, melting at about 213° C., sub-
bing slowly from the solid, and distilling rapidly at 300° C.
llen pure, the crystals show blue or violet fluorescence. It is
tasteless and odorless, but its vapor at the distilling point is dis-
agteeable and irritating.—It is insoluble in water, sparingly
s°luble in cold, moderately soluble in hot alcohol, soluble in
ether, benzole, and oil of turpentine,—It is not affected by
ahvalies; is acted on by nitric acid, and dissolved with green
c°lor by sulphuric acid. With picric acid, in saturated alcoholic
s°lution, it forms a salt crystallizing in red needles.
118. ALIZARIN. Cl 4H804. A yellow to red-yellow solid;
hj sublimation (at 215° C.) crystallizing anhydrous in red
Prisms, and from solutions crystallizing in golden scales of the 118
NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES, LIQUID OR FUSIBLE.
hydrate.—Slightly soluble in water; soluble in alcohol and ether
(with yellow color) and in concentrated sulphuric acid (with
brown color) ; soluble in aqueous alkalies and alkaline carbonates
(with purple color); these solutions being precipitated (orange)
by acids, in good part even by carbonic acid gas. The ammo-
niacal solution, with salts of magnesium, iron, copper, and silver,
forms purple and iridescent precipitates; the potassa solution is
decolorized by lime-water, and the alcohol solution is decolorized
by alumina with formation of a red precipitate.
119. BENZOLE. CGHSH with traces of its homologues.
Coal-tar naphtha. Benzene.—A colorless limpid liquid, of about
0.85 spec, gray,, crystallizing at 0° C., melting at 5.5° C., boiling at
80° or 81° C. (176° or 178° E.), and of a characteristic pleasant
odor, reminding of x'ose and of chloroform. It burns with a bright,
smoky flame. It is not perceptibly soluble in water (to which,
however, it imparts odor), but is soluble in all proportions of
alcohol, ether, chloroform, petroleum naphtha, etc. It dissolves
sulphur, jxhosphorus, iodine, .fixed and volatile oils, camphors;
many resins (see 99, /"); many alkaloids (not cinchonia) (133).
It is distinguished from Petroleum Naphtha by its generally
greater solvent power (by dissolving hard pitch), and, more
accurately, by its formation of nitrohenzole and products of the
latter, as follows; Equal volumes of nitric acid of spec. grav.
of 1.5 or of concentrated nitric acid containing nitrous acid, and
of the liquid tested for benzole, are digested in a test-tube by
immersion in hot water. The nitrohenzole rises in droplets, and
is recognized by its odor of bitter almond oil and by its giving
anilin with reducing agents, as stated at 120.
Or, for more delicate test—as in presence of Volatile Oils :
A few drops of the liquid to be tested are mixed in a cooled
tube with four times their volume of fuming nitric acid ; the
mixture is agitated and left a quarter of an hour; then mixed
with ten times its bulk of water (which separates drops of nitro-
benzole). Agitate with ether, which takes up the nitrohenzole; PETROLEUM NAPHTHA. NITROBENZOLE.
119
decant the ether solution, filter, quickly distil the ether from the
filtrate. To the residue add 1 or 2 c.c. of acetic acid and a
Particle of iron (filings), and distil over a very small flame. As
s°on as the liquid is nearly evaporated, add 2or 3 c.c. of water
and distil again. Mix the distillates (if acid, neutralize with
lime and filter), and test with chlorinated lime for anilin
(violet color) (125, a).
119|. PETROLEUM NAPHTHA. Gasolene. “ Ben-
2ene.'’—The rectified distillate of petroleum, having a boiling
P°int of about 49° C. (120° E.)—specific gravity about 0.665,
Consists chiefly of C H H, with a little CPH,,H and other
■j %J 5 11 7 613
nomologues,—Characterized by an agreeable odor and anaesthetic
effect; by a wide range of solubilities; and by resisting the
action of alkalies and most acids, while decomposed by heating
'ydh nitric acid.—Distinguished from* Benzole by a lower
specific gravity (even when both are of the same boiling point),
an J- '
Papayerina. C2OH21N04.—Colorless, acicular crystals.—136?
138.
Paytina. ColHo,N'o0.—Coloi’lcss crystals.
21 24 2
Physostigmia. Cl 5H21N302. Amorphous, brownish-yellow;
solutions, red to blue.—l 36, 140.
Picrotoxin. CI2H 05.—Needles; stellate; lamince. Reduces
cupric hydrate.—137.
Piperin. C, ,HIOWO,.—Colorless, monoclinic prisms. Melts at
100° C.—136, 138.
Pseudomorphia. Cl 7H10K‘O4.—Fine, lustrous crystals.—l 36,
138, 141.
Quinia. C2OH24N2O2.—Hydrate, in fine needles. Solutions,
blue-fluorescent.—l 36, 140.
Quinidia. C2OHO4NoO„.—Transparent, monoclinic prisms, efflo-
rescent.—136, 140.
Rhceadia. ColH21N06.—Small, white prisms. Melts at 232° C.
—Purple-red with acids.
Sabadillia. C2OH26N2O5.—Cubic crystals (Needles'?). Reacts
with sulph. acid like Veratria (136) 135, e.
Salicin. Cl 3H1807. Tabular or scaly crystals. Melts at
120° C. A Glucoside.—l36.
Saponin. C 32.—Amorphous. Aromatic odor, sweet taste,
burning after-taste. A Glucoside.
Solania. G43HCONO10.—Silky needles ; right, four-sided prisms.
A Glucoside.—l36, 138.
Strychnia, C„„H„ N On.—Four-sided prisms, trimetric, white.
Fusible.—l 36, 137.
Thebaina. Cl 3H21N03.—Thin, square tablets of silvery lustre.
Fusible.—l 36, 138. SOLUBILITIES.
Reobromina. C 7H8N402.—Microscopic, trimetric crystals, in
club-shaped groups.—l 36, 140.
eratria. C 3208.—White or greenish-white crystallized
powder. Warmed with HCI, violet.—l 36.
133. Solubilities of the Alkaloids .—ln alcohol they are
generally freely soluble, the following being the only important
exceptions and notices to be made :
affeina—in 30 parts strong alcohol.
orphia—in 30 parts boiling or 50 parts cold absolute; in a
somewhat smaller quantity of 90 p. c. alcohol.
RReeina—easily in hot, in 950 parts cold 85 p. c. alcohol,
—in 25 parts boiling or 100 parts cold 85 p. c. alcohol,
—slightly in hot, scarcely at all in cold alcohol.
seudomorphia—nearly insoluble.
®°lania—in 150 parts hot or 500 parts cold alcohol.
S tryehnia—difficultly soluble in absolute, soluble in 115 parts
of 95 p. c., 125 parts of 90 p. c., 130 parts cold or 15
parts boiling 75 p. c., 250 parts cold or 25 parts boiling
50 p. c. alcohol.
Theobromina—in 50 parts hot or 1500 cold alcohol.
The solubilities given for ether in the table refer to ether
nearly or quite free from alcohol.
Benzole (of coal-tar), as used below, distils at 60° to 80° C.
(140° to 176° F,), leaving no residue.
Amy lie alcohol dissolves 0.1568 part of Codeina, 0.0026 part
of Morphia, 0.0032 part of Narcotina, 0.0130 part of Papaverina,
Rnd 0.0167 part of Thebaina (Kubly).
Ether dissolves from acid solutions—Colchicin, Digitalin,
Ticrotoxin—in general not the (other) alkaloids.
Petroleum JVaphtha, as used below, distils at from 40° to
C. (104° to 140° F.), leaving no residue.
Amylic Alcohol should be strictly free from ethylic alcohol.
The acid used with chloroform, benzole, etc., is sulphuric
aeid, added just to an acid reaction, and forming sulphates of the
alkaloids. 128
SOLUBILITIES OF ALKALOIDS.
Water.
! Fixed Al-
kali with
water.
Ammonia
with
water.
Ether.
Chloro-
form.
Benzole.
Petroleum
Naphtha.
Chloro-
form with
acid.
Benzole
with acid.
Petroleum
Naph.with
acid.
Amyl. Ale.
with acid.
Aconitia.
Atropia.
Berbcrina.
Sol.lSOptsJ (As water)
In60pts. {Soluble.
boil. j
Spar’g sol. Soluble.
Spar’g. sol.
Soluble.
(As water)
Sol. 2 pts.
Sol. 80 pts.
Insoluble.
Sol. 2.5 pts.
Sol. 4 pts.
Slight, sol
Soluble.
Sol. 50 pts.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Slight, sol.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Slight, sol.
Slight, sol.
Soluble.
Brucla.
In 500 pts.! (As water)
boll.
In 90 pts. Soluble.
cold. !
In 2500 pts. Insoluble,
boil. i
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Sol. 4 pts.
Sol. GO pts.
Sol. 120 pts.
Insoluble.
Slight, sol.
Caffeina.
CInchonia.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Sol.500 pis.
Sol.400 pts.
Sol. 5 pts.
Sol. 60 pts.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Near.lnsol
Soluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Clnchonldia.
Codclna.
Colchicia.
In 3000 pts.
cold.
In 75 pts.
cold.
Soluble.
(As water)
(As water)
Soluble.
Sol.150 pts.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Sol. 12 pts.
Spar’g. sol.
Slight, sol.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Conla.
Daphnin.
Delphlna.
In 100 pts*
Spar’g. sol.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Sol. G pts.
Near, insol
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Near, insol
Slight, sol.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Bigitalin.
Eraetia.
Ergotina.
Hydrastia.
Slight, sol.
Spar’g. sol.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Spar’g. sol.
Slight, sol.
Near.lns’l.
Insoluble.
Spar’g. sol.
Spar’g. sol.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Hyoscyamia.
Igasuria.
Lobellna.
Sol. hot.
Spar’g. sol.
Slight, sol.
(As water)
Spar’g. sol.
(As water)
Soluble.
Spar’g. sol.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Morphia.
Narcclna.
* Harcotlna.
In500,b’ll*
In300,b’ll*
In'IOOO.b’l.*
Soluble.
(As water)
Insoluble.
Slight, sol.
Slight, sol.
Insoluble.
Insoluble*
Insoluble.
Sol.l20pts*
Sol. 90 pts.
Spar’g. sol.
Sol. 8 pts.
Insoluble.
Slight, sol.
Sol. 25 pts.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Near, insol
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Spar’g. sol.
. ' ' ..... - .
Glucosides have the termination N.
The * refers to explanation given below for the alkaloids, alphabetically. SOLUBILITIES OF ALKALOIDS.
1
"Water.
Fixed Al-
kali with!
water.
Ammonia
with
water.
Ether.
Chloro-
form.
! 1 Chloro-
Benzole. Petroleum form with
| Naphtha, j acid.
Benzole
with acid.
Petroleum'
Naph.with: Amyl. Ale.
acid. Iwlth acid.
j Nlcotia.
| Oplana.
; Papayerina.
Paytlna.
Physostigmia
Picrotoxin.
Plperin.
Pseudomor-
phia.
Quinla.
! Qulnldia.
1 Ehoeadia.
1 Sabadlllla.
j Sallcln.
i Saponin.
1 Solanla.
1 Strychnia.
i Thehalna.
; Theohromina
1 Veratrla.
Soluble.*
Slight, sol.
hot.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
(As water)
Insoluble. {
(Afc water)
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Slight, sol.
Spar’g. sol.
Soluble.
Soluble, j
Sol. 40 pts.
Soluble.
1
Sol. warm.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Slight, sol.!
Slight.sol. (Aswater)!
Sol. 50 pts. Soluble.
hot. 1
Near.insol. (Decomp.)
Spar’g. sol.
Soluble.
Soluble. iSoluble.
Soluble. Soluble.
Sol.250pts. Soluble.
Sol. 90 pts. Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble ?
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Slight, sol.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Spar’g. sol.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
In ISOOpts.*
In 750 pts.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.*
Sol. SO pts.
Insoluble.
Sol. 50 pts.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Soluble.
insoluble*
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Spar’g. sol.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Sol.lSOOpts
insoluble.
Insoluble.
Spar’g. sol.
Spar’g. sol.
Near. Insol
Near. Insol
Soluble.
Soluble.
In 8000,boll
In 6500pts.
Soluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Spar’g. sol
Insoluble.
Sol.4000 pts
Insoluble*
Insoluble.
Sol. 7 pts.
Slight, sol.
Sol. 160 pts.
Insoluble.
Sol .350 pts.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Ins’l.(c’ld)
In 750 pts.
1 In 1000 pts
| hot.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
(As water)
Insoluble.
(Soluble.
Spar’g. sol
Soluble.
Near. Insol
Sol. 12 pts
Spar’g. sol.
Spar’g. sol.
Sol. 2 pts.
Sol. 18 pts.
Slight, sol.
Soluble.
Insoluble.
Slight, sol
Soluble.
Soluble.
Slight, sol.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Slight, sol.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
Soluble.
Spar’g. sol.
* Conia—less soluble In hot loater than cold (distinction from Nlcotia)
- SOlUW° traCeS at 20° SparIngly EOl"We ln elher' Whcn *oth and amorphous.
* Nfcotla^^hrtl?all&2nco?dS water. S°1UbleIn C°W Acetlc acl hy metatungstic acid (c) ; by potassio cadmic iodide (d);
picric acid (with distinguishing exceptions) (e); by tannic
(with exceptions and peculiarities) (f) ; by solution of
iodine with iodide (g).
a. The potassio mercuric iodide reagent is prepared by add-
lnS to solution of mercuric chloride enough potassio iodide to
dissolve the precipitate first formed. It gives precipitates in
oven dilute solutions of nearly all alkaloids except Caffeina,
Colchicin, Digitalin, Theohrom ina y the precipitates being
mostly yellowish-white. For the reactions with the Volatile
Alkaloids and Ammonia, see 131. The precipitates are insoluble
m acids (distinction from ammonia), or in dilute alkalies, but
soluble in alcohol and (in many cases) in ether—also, in many
oases, soluble in excess of the precipitant,—For the extraction of
the alkaloid from the precipitate, triturate the latter with stan-
nous chloride and enough potassa solution to give a strong alka-
•lhie reaction, then exhaust with ether or chloroform, or, if the
alkaloid is not soluble in these, add potassio carbonate instead of
potassa and extract with strong alcohol.
For the volumetric determination by potassio mercuric
mdide (Mayer), the reagent is prepared with 13.55 grams mer-
onric chloride, 5 grams potassic iodide, and water to one litre.
this standard solution, 1 c.c. precipitates, of each alkaloid, the
quantities stated below;
Aconitia, 0.0268 gram.
Atropia, 0.0145 “
Brucia, 0.0233 “
Cinchonia, 0.0102 gram.
Conia, 0.0043 “
Morphia, 0.0200 “ 140
ALKALOIDS.
Narcotina, 0.0213 gram.
Mcotia, 0.0040 “
Quinia, 0,0108 “
Quinidia, 0.0120 gram.
Strychnia, 0.0167 “
Yeratria, 0,0269 “
The volumetric determination is somewhat unsatisfactory,
by reason of the slowness with which the precipitate subsides.
The alkaloid solution is slightly acidulated with sulphuric or
hydrochloric acid ; after each addition of the reagent the mixture
is strongly shaken and left to subside ; then a drop of the clear
liquid is placed on a blue or black glass plate, and treated with
a drop of the reagent—to learn whether further addition is
necessary.
i. Phosphomolybdic acid solution*—Sonnenschein’s Re-
agent—gives amorphous and mostly yellow precipitates with the
alkaloids, as belowr. The alkaloid solution should he neutral or
slightly acid, as alkalies dissolve the precipitate in most cases.
The reaction with ammonia should be noted ten minutes after
its addition.
Aconitia.
PRECIPITATE.
Yellow.
WITH AMMONIA. ON BOILING,
Blue solution. Colorless.
Anilin.
Blue, then yellow.
U u
Atropia.
Yellow.
Blue to colorless sol. Colorless.
Berberina.
Blue solution. “
Brucia.
Orange.
Yellow-green solution. Brown.
Caffeina.
Yellow.
Colorless solution.
Cinchonia.
Whitish-yellow.
(( ii
Codeina.
Brownish-yellow.
Green solution. Orange-red.
Colchicin.
Yellow.
Bluish solution, in % hr.
Conia.
Y ellow-white.
greenish.
Bluish or greenish pre. Colorless.
* The yellow precipitate formed on mixing acid solutions of molybdate
of ammonium and phosphate of sodium—the phosphomolybdate of ammo-
nium—is well washed, suspended in water, and heated with carbonate of
sodium until completely dissolved. The solution is evaporated to dryness,
and the residue gently ignited till all ammonia is expelled (sodium being
substituted for ammonium). If blackening occurs, from reduction of
molybdenum, the residue is moistened with nitric acid and heated again.
It is then dissolved with water and nitric acid to strong acidulation ; the
solution being made ten parts to one of residue. It must be preserved from
contact with vapor of ammonia. general reagents.
141
'
*%italin.
PEECIPITATE. WITH AMMONIA. ON BOILING.
Gray-yellow.
Yellow, on warm- Blue solution. Green, then
Emetia.
®rgotlna.
Morphia.
ing dissolves gr’n. colorless.
Yellowish.
(A precipitate.)
Yellowish. Dark blue sol., in A hr.
a blue residue falls.
Brown-yellow, be-
•^arcotina.
Scotia.
coming resinous.
Brown-yellow.
Yellow. Blue solution.
In dilute sol., no
aiperin.
ff’iperidiu.
Quinia.
Quinidia.
precipitate.
Yellow. Blue precipitate.
Brown-yellow. Colorless solution.
Clear yellow. Blue solution.)
Yellow-white. Whitish precipitate.
n << u
®°Iania.
fcrychnia.
heobromina.
Yellow. Colorless solution.
Yellow-white. “ “
U
veratria.
Yellow. Colorless precipitate.
c* Metatungstic acid precipitates alkaloids from very dilute
solutions (Scheibler). The reagent may he prepared by adding
Phosphoric acid to a solution of ordinary tungstate of sodium as
°og as a precipitate is formed and redissolved. The precipitates
ar° white and flocculcnt. This test is more delicate than that
Mdh phosphomolybdic acid. Scheibler states that a distinct
turbidity is produced in a solution of one part of quinia or
shj ehnia in 200,000 of water.
d- Potassio cadmic iodide solution (prepared like potassio
Mercuric iodide*) (Marme’s test) gives gray-yellow to yellow
Precipitates with the alkaloids. The solution of alkaloid should
0 feebly acidulated with sulphuric acid. The precipitates are
easily soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether, soluble in excess of
e reagent, and decompose on long standing. Precipitates are
obtained with
. ” Dissolve 20 parts iodide of cadmium and 40 parts iodide of potassium
m *3O parts 0f water. 142
ALKALOIDS.
Aconitia,
Atropia,
Berberina,
Brucia,
Cinchonia,
Codeina,
Conia,
Curarin,
Cytisin,
Delphina,
Emetia,
Hyoscyamia,
Morphia,
Narceina,
Narcotina,
Mcotia,
Papaverina,
Physostigmia,
Piperin.
Piperidin, *
Quinia,
Quinidia,
Sanguinarin (red),
Strychnia,
Thebaina,
Yeratria.
No precipitates are obtained (in dilute solutions) from Col
chichi, Solania, Theobromiua, or from other known glucosides
and neutral substances.—The alkaloids are obtained from their
precipitates by adding an excess of carbonate of sodium, drying,
and extracting with ether, chloroform, or benzole, according to
the solubility of the alkaloids sought.
c. Picric or Trinitrophenic acid precipitates from water
solutions the larger number of the alkaloids, especially as sul-
phates. Presence of free sulphuric acid generally promotes
these precipitations and enables them to be formed in more
dilute solutions. On the contrary, they are dissolved by
hydrochloric acid.
No precipitates are formed by picric acid, in acid sulphate
solutions of Anilin, Caffeina, Morphia, Pseudomorphia, Solania
(unless by long standing), Theobromiua, and the Glucosides.—
Aconitia and Atropia are not precipitated except in concentrated
solutions.—Atropia and Morphia are, however, precipitated in
neutral solutions.—Sabadillia in 150 parts of water is not
precipitated.
Full precipitates are obtained from the strongly acid sul-
phates of Berberina, Colchicin, Delphina, Emetia, the Cinchona
alkaloids, the Opium alkaloids with the exceptions above given,
the Strychnos alkaloids, Yeratria, etc.
The following results are obtained by treating about a grain
of a water solution of (neutral) salt of the alkaloids with an
alcoholic solution of picric acid (Wormley) : general reagents.
143
Aconitia.
Precipitate.
Yellow, amorphous.
Least quantity of alkaloid
showing precipitate.
1 frrQin
Atropia.
Brucia.
Codeina.
Conia.
Morphia.
■^areeina.
2 0 0 0 0
Yellow, crystalline.
1
a
Yellow.
Yellow, amorphous.
Yellow, crystalline.
Yellow, amorphous.
a u
1
4 0 0TO
To1W
1
i tro o
_- i .
Too
t
u
u
66
66
66
u u
5 o o
TITO (TIT
1
66
Nicotia.
u a
66
Solania.
u u
TO O To
_ 1 .
66
Strychnia.
Yellow, crystalline.
To o o
TTo o¥
66
Yellow, amorphous.
To To
66
Hie alkaloids may be extracted from their picrates by addi-
(’011 °f an alkali and chloroform, benzole, or other suitable
s°lvent. (Alcohol does not dissolve potassic picrate; but it takes
UP the excess of potassa.)
f Tannic acid—in solution with 8 parts of water and 1 part
°t alcohol—gives whitish, grayish-white, or yellowish precipi-
tates with nearly all the alkaloids. In the larger number of
lnstances these precipitates are easily soluble in acids, frequently
dissolving in excess of the tannic acid; on the contrary, some of
alkaloids are precipitated by tannic acid only in strong acid
s°lutions. Ammonia dissolves the tannates of the alkaloids.
ri Aro precipitates are obtained with Piperin, Salicin, or
Saponin.
Dilute acetic acid dissolves the precipitates of tannates of
Brucia, CafFeina, Colchicin, Morphia, Physostigmia,
bJinnia (if the acid is not very dilute), Solania, Yeratria,
told dilute hydrochloric acid does not dissolve the precipi-
tates of tannates of Aconitia, Berberina, Brucia (slightly dis-
s°lves), CafFeina, Cinchonia, Colchicin (dissolves slightly), Del-
phina. Digitalin, Narcotina, Papaverina, Thebaina, Solania,
■ trvehnia (dissolves sparingly), Yeratria. 144
ALKALOIDS.
Cold dilute sulphuric acid does not dissolve the precipitates
of tannates of Aconitia, Physostigmia, Quinia, Solania, Veratria.
Precipitates are formed in neutral solutions (not very dilute),,
but not in slightly acid solutions, yet completely formed in solu-
tions strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid, by Aconitia,
Physostigmia, Solania, Yeratria.
Concerning the reactions of the Volatile Alkaloids with tannic
acid, see 131.
Alkaloids are separated from their tannates by mixing the
moist precipitate with oxide or carbonate of lead, drying the
mixture, and extracting with alcohol, ether, or chloroform.
g. Water solution of iodine in iodide of potassium precipi-
tates the alkaloids in general. The solution is made of 3 parts
of iodine, 5 of iodide, and 50 of water. (Wormley ; 1 of
iodine, 3 of iodide, and 60 of water.)—The precipitates are
yellow, orange-yellow, reddish-brown, and brown.—JVb precipi-
tates are obtained with (Ammonia), Caffeina (in neutral solution),
Digitalin (or but slight turbidness), Solania, Theobromina.—-
Yellow precipitates are given by Atropia (sparingly saturated),
Hyoscyamia, Physostigmia, and Trimethylamia (orange-yellow).
Red-hrovm precipitates are obtained with Aconitia, Codeina,
Conia, Lobclina, Morphia, Narceina, Narcotina, Nicotia, Quinia,
Strychnia, and Yeratria.
136. Concentrated sulphuric acid gives characteristic reac-
tions with some of the alkaloids; and a greater number of good
indications are given by Frcehde’s reagent, which consists of 0.01
gram molybdate of sodium dissolved in 10 c.c. of concentrated
sulphuric acid (and so prepared freshly each time it is required).
For these tests the alkaloids must be almost absolutely free
from impurities not alkaloids. One or two miligrams of the
alkaloid are dropped upon 15 drops of the acid.
Aconitia.
CONC. SULPHURIC ACID. FRCEHDE’S REAGENT.
Slight yellow to yel.-br’n. Yellow-brown ; colorless.
Amygdalin.
Light violet-red.
Atropia.
Colorless solution. Colorless. REACTIONS WITH SULPHURIC ACID.
145
CONC. SULPHURIC ACID.
fboehde’s reagent.
Berberina.
Dark olive-green.
Greenish-brown to brown.
-^rucia.
Pale rose.
Red ; yellow.
Caffeina.
Colorless.
Colorless.
Cinchonia.
Colorless.
Colorless.
Codeina.
Colorless.
Green ; blue ; yellowish.
Colchicin.
Yellow.
Yellow.
Colocynthin.
Cherry-red (slowly).
Colombia.
Orange, turning red.
Pale yellow.
Conia.
Colorless [pale reddish ?).
Cubebin.
Bright red, then crimson.
Curarin.
Lasting blue.
■Celphina.
■^igitalin.
Brownish.
Brown to red-brown.
Red-brown.
Orange ; cherry-red ; br’wn.
■Elaterin.
Red.
Yellow.
Ctnetia.
Brownish.
®rgotina.
Red-brown.
Yellow-red,
Colorless ; after heating,
purple.
Brownish.
%asuria.
Rose-color : yellowish ;
greenish.
C'iraonln.
Yellow-red.
(Opianyl).
M°rpbia.
(With heat, blue to purple).
Colorless.
Violet; green - yellow ;
violet.
■^arceina.
Brown to yellow.
Yellow-brown ; yellowish ;
colorless.
■^arcotina.
■^icotia.
Yel. ; purple after warm g.
Green ; yellow ; reddish.
Yellowish ; reddish.
Colorless.
Cnonin.
Violet; blue.
Red.
Violet; blue ; yel’w ; color-
less.
-Cbloridzin.
(Slowly) blue.
-Chysostigmia,
■Ciperin.
■Copulin.
Yellow ; olive-green.
Pale yellow ; brown.
Red.
Yellow; brown.,
Violet.
■^soudomorphia.
Quinia.
Qhinidia.
Olive-green.
Colorless.
Nearly colorless.
Bright red.
Colorless; greenish.
Colorless; greenish.
Violet; cherry-red.
Deep red, then violet, then
Senagin.
yellow.
Yellow-red. 146
ALKALOIDS.
CONC. SULPHURIC ACID.
FRCBHDE’S REAGENT.
Smilacin.
Yellow-red.
Solania.
Reddish-yellow.
Cherry-red; red-brown
yellow.
Strychnia.
Colorless.
Colorless.
Syringin.
Blood-red, then violet-red.
Tannic acid.
Purple-red.
Thebaina.
Blood-red ; yellow-brown.
Orange.
Theobromina.
Colorless.
Colorless.
Veratria.
Slowly to crimson red.
Yellow ; cherry-red.
137. Sulphuric acid and bichromate of potassium: the
solid alkaloid being dissolved in the acid and a very minute
fragment of the bichromate being brought into contact with the
liquid.
With Strychnia, a brilliant play of changing colors, blue
turning soon to violet and then red-violet, then slowly fading
—(delicate and distinctive). With Brucia, an orange or brown-
ish-orange color. With Narceina, a dirty-red mixture. With
Hydrastia, a brick-red to carmine-red color; with Picrotoxin,
red-brown. With anilin, a yellowish to greenish tint first ap-
pears, slowly passing into blue, which after half an hour or
longer becomes nearly or quite black. With Curarin, a play of
colors similar to strychnia (compare 136). With aconitia,
atropia, codeina, conia, morphia, narcotina, nicotia, solania,
veratria, and many other alkaloids,—there is only the slowly
formed greenish color of chromic oxide.
This, the strychnia test, may be made with substitution of
other oxidizing agents for the bichromate, the crystallized per-
manganate of potassium perhaps giving the best results. So>T-
KENsciiEm advocates the use of ceroso-ceric oxide.
138. Concentrated Nitric acid, of spec. grav. 1.42, gives a
red or reddish-yellow color with the greater number of the alka-
loids.
Brucia, in the solid state, is dissolved by nitric acid with
intense blood-red color—solutions of the alkaloid giving the
DO
same with less intensity or a reddish-yellow color. On warm-
ing, or standing, (he color changes to yellow : if now a drop of HE ACTIONS WITH NITRIC ACID.
147
solution of stannous chloride is added, a purple color appears.
e Purple is discharged by either nitric acid or excess of stan-
nous salt. Igasuria gives nearly the same reaction, both with
nitric acid and stannous chloride; the violet to purple color with
ihe last-named reagent being characteristic of brucia and igasuria.
Morphia in somewhat concentrated solutions is colored yel-
ovv orange-red—the color is either not changed or is altered
toward the yellow by stannous chloride (distinction from brucia).
Codeina, Narceina, and Papaverina are colored red to
orange-yellow by nitric acid; and Narcotina, Pseudomorphia,
Opnania, Thebaina, and Rhceadia, yellow. Emeiia is changed
t° a yellow, resinous mass, "with partial decomposition.
Colchicin is colored violet by nitric acid: the most concen-
trated nitric acid, containing nitrous acid, forming an intense
blue-violet color. The color changes to brown, and finally to
yellow—these tints being more distinct in proportion as the
yiolet is deeper. If the chloroform solution of colchicin is
treated with concentrated nitric acid, a violet-red color is formed
a,ld taken up by the chloroform layer.—Curarin is colored
purple by nitric acid.
Nitric acid produces no color with Atropia (brown tint, fad-
lng), Caffeina, Cinchonia, Conia (sometimes yellowish), Quinia,
Quinidia, Solania (becoming faint rose-red with bluish rim),
Theobromina.
Berberina is colored brown by nitric acid.
Daphnin is colored red.
Piperin becomes greenish-yellow, orange, then red, and
resinous.
139. Concentrated sulphuric acid followed by nitrate of
Potassium (solid), with Narcotina gives a deep blood-red color
(delicate and distinguishing). The color is discharged by much
excess of nitric acid.—ln the same test, Brucia gives an orange-
red, and Opiania a scarlet-orange color. Codeina becomes
first greenish, then reddish. Narceina turns reddish-brown.
140. Chlorine water followed by ammonia.—Quinia (or 148
ALKALOIDS.
Quinidia) treated first with fresh chlorine water and then with
ammonia, gives a green flocculent precipitate which by excess of
ammonia dissolves to an emerald-green solution (characteristic).
On neutralization with an acid, the color changes to light blue,
which becomes violet or red on supersaturation with acid, re-
turning to green with addition of excess of ammonia. Addition
of solution of red fcrricyanidc of potassium to the ammoniacal
gi'een solution produces a red color (with Quinidia a bulky
precipitate). A better result is obtained by adding the fcrricy-
anidc after the chlorine and before the ammonia. The impure
chlorine obtained by addition of hydrochloric acid to chlorate
of jiotassium serves the purpose of this test.
Colch icin, when treated with chlorine and ammonia, gives an
orange solution.—Caffeina and Theobromina, treated with
chlorine water (or nitric acid), then evaporated to dryness, on
addition of ammonia give a purple-red color. Chlorine, alone,
with Brucia and with Igasuria gives a light red color; with
Hydrastia, blue fluorescence. Physostigmia, with solution of
chlorinated lime, gives an intense red color, turning nearly
black by farther addition.
141. Solution of Ferric chloride (dilute) colors solid Mor-
phia, and Pseudomorphia blue. Also Daphnin blue in the
cold, turning yellow when warmed.
Morphia separates iodine from iodic acid.
142. Platinic chloride solution precipitates the greater
number of the alkaloids, even dilute solutions (those in 2,000 or
3,000 parts of water)—the precipitates being yellow, whitish-
yello-vV or grayish-yellow, and some of them being soluble in
cold hydrochloric acid.—Anilin, Digitalin, Physostigmia, and
Solania, arc not precipitated; and Aconitia, Atropia, Codeina,
Hyoscyamia, Narcotia, Nicotia, Sabadillia, and Veratria only
from concentrated solutions.—The alkaloids next named give
precipitates ; each precipitate, after ignition, leaving a weight
of pure platinum bearing a fixed ratio to the weight of the alka-
loid—in accordance with the formula given. DETERMIXATIOX 11Y PLATIXIC CHLORIDE.
149
P. c.
Berberina, (C20H17NO4.H Cl)2PtCl4 .
Pt in precip
18.1
Color, etc.
Yellow, needles.
Solubility in
cold HC1.
So] 11 ] » 1 &
Brucia, (C23H26N204.H Cl)2PtCl4
Caffema, (C8H 0N4O2.H Cl)2PtCl4
Cinchonia, C20H24]Sr2O(H Cl)2PtCl4 .
Ginchonidia, C20H24N2O(H CibPtCL .
Codeina, (C18E21N03.H Cl)2PtCl4
Colchicin, . . .
Conia, (C8H15N.H Cl)2PtCl4 .
Delphina, ......
Emetia, ......
1G.5
24.5
27.4
27.4
(Like Strychnia.)
Orange-yellow, granular.
Light yellow.
Pale orange.
N-7 \JX U Ml Vt
Insoluble.
Insoluble.
19.2
Yellow.
29.4
17.4
(Like Morphia.)
(Dissolves in alcohol, yellow.)
Gray yellow, flocculent.
Yellow-white.
Soluble.
Hyoscyamia, . . . .
Morphia, (C17H10NO3.HCl)2PtCl4
19.5
Brownish, flocculent.
Yellow, curdy ; after 24
Insoluble.
Narceina, (C23H29NO„.HCl)2PtCl4
14.6
hours, crystalline.
Yellow, crystallizable.
Narcotina, (C22H2,N67.HCl)2PtCl4 .
15.9
Yellow,
Nicotia, C10H14N(HCl)2PtCl4 .
34.2
Orange-yellow (see 131).
Soluble.
Papaverina, (C20H21]Sro;.H Cl)2PtCl4 .
17.8
Yellow-white.
Soluble.
Quinia, C20H N O (H Cl)2PtCl4, dried
at 100° C
Quinidia, C„0H„4N2O2(H Cl)2PtCl4
Strychnia, (C21H22N0b0.H Cl)2PtCl4 .
Thehaina, (C19H21W03.H Cl)2PtCl4.H20
26.8
26.8
Whitish.
Whitish. (Dry at 150° C.)
Yellow, crystallizable.
Light yellow.
Insoluble.
18.3
18.7
Insoluble.
1 hcobromina, (C,H8N4Oa.H Cl)„PtCl4.
25.5
Brownish, floe, to cryst. 150
ALKALOIDS.
143, Auric chloride gives precipitates in water solutions of
salts of the greater number of the alkaloids, as follows. Many
of the precipitates are soluble in alcohol. Some of them, on
standing, separate the gold. The dried and ignited precipitates
yield fixed quantities of metallic gold, according to the formulas
and percentages given:
P. C. All iu pre.
Color, etc., of the pre.
Aconitia, CS0H47NO7.H Cl.AuCQ •
22.1
Light yel., reduced
after a time.
Atropia, C17H23lSr03.H C1.AuC13 .
31.3
Light yel.
Berber!na, C;0HnNO4.H Cl.Aud, .
29.1
Dark yel., insol. in
HC1.
Brucia, ......
(Like Strychnia).
Caffeina, C „3ST O .H Cl.AuCL
' o 10 4 L i
37.0
Lem.-yel., cryst’e.
Cinchonia, .....
Yel., (like Quinia).
Cinchonidia, C20H24N2O(H C1)2AuC13
Yel., amorphous.
Codeina, no precipitate, .
(in concentrated solutions
a brown precipitate).
Colchicin,
Slowly, yel. flocks;
becom’g reduced.
Delphina, .....
.
Light yel.
Digitalin, .
Slowly, a yellow
cryst’e precip.
Emetia, .....
29.7
Light yel., amorp.
Tlyoscyamia, .....
31.2
Yel.-white.
Morphia, .....
Light yel., dark’g,
\
•insoluble in cold
H Cl.
Narceina, . . - . .
.
Yel., becom. red’d.
Papaverina, . . . _ .
.
Dark yel.
Physostigmia, ....
Red’ish-blue color,
with reduction.
Quinia, ......
Light yel., amorp. AIiSINTIUN.
151
q . P- C. Auiupre. Color, etc., of thepre.
nidia, C20H24N2O2(H C1)2(AuC13)2 39.1 (Like Quinia) dry
ilrst in vacuo,
then at 100° C.;
melts at 115° C.,
or in boil, water,
no precipitate.
trychnia, C21H22Na03.H Cl.AuCl, 29.2 Yel., amor., sol. in
cold H Cl, slight,
sol. in water, in-
sol. in ether, sol.
in alcohol, from
which it cryst.
_ orange.
hebaina, Red-brown.
heobromina, ..... Slowly, slight, nee-
die-form, cryst.
v eratria, C3„H62N208.H Cl.AuCl, . 21.0 Clear yel., amorp.
gLUCOSIDES and other NEUTRAL BODIES: SOLID.
144: ABSINTHIN. ClOH220&. A hard and obscurely
crLstalline solid of very bitter taste. Slightly soluble in water,
cry soluble in alcohol, soluble in ether, and soluble in aqueous
alkalies. It is precipitated by tannic acid, not by subacetate of
Cat'- G hen treated, dry, with concentrated sulphuric acid, and
the mixture slightly diluted with water, a blue-violet color. It
does not reduce potassio cupric sulphate, but reduces ammonio
titrate of silver to a mirror-coating.
145. AIiOIN. CnH]s07. A crystallizable, pa.e yellow aLUCOSIDES AXD OTHER X-F.UTRAL SOLIDS.
solid, of neutral reaction and a taste at first sweet and then very
hitter. It bears 100° C. without change. It is slightly soluble
in cold water or alcohol, moderately soluble in the same when
hot, and soluble (with a yellow color) in the alkalies and their
carbonates.—Chlorine gas, in a solution of aloin, forms a bright
yellow precipitate (chloraloil). Bromine also gives a yellow
precipitate.—Concentrated nitric acid transforms aloin into
ehrysammic acid.
Chrysammic acid, C 7H2(N0„)202, is a yellow or greenish-
yellow powder, of bitter taste and acid reaction, sparingly solu-
ble in water, readily soluble in alcohol and in ether. It detonates
when heated. Boiled with solution of stannous chloride it is
precipitated as a deep violet powder. Chrysammate of calcium
is a dark red insoluble powder.
146. AMYGD ALIN. C2OH!1NO11. A white, pulverulent,
and crystalline solid, neutral, without odor, and with sweet and
bitter taste. Soluble in 11 parts of water; sparingly soluble in
cold, moderately soluble in hot alcohol; insoluble in ether.—
Concentrated sulphuric acid colors it light violet-red. By boil-
ing dilute sulphuric acid, it is transformed into oil of bitter
almonds, glucose, and formic acid; by fermentation with cmul-
sin, into bitter almond oil, hydrocyanic acid, and glucose. (10
parts of anhydrous amygdalin, as dried at 110° to 120° C., or
20 to 24 of ordinary commercial amygdalin, gives 1 part hydrocy-
anic acid and 8 parts of bitter almond oil.)—Permanganate ot
potassium forms cyanic and benzoic acids.
147. Asparagus. C 4HsH-202(H20). Hard and brittle right
rhombic (trimetric) crystals; inodorous and of slight taste.
Soluble in 11 parts cold or 5 parts of boiling water (with slight
acid reaction), insoluble in absolute alcohol, insoluble in ether,
soluble in alkalies and acids. By fermentation with accompany-
ing extractive substances, or with casein, succinate of ammonium
is formed (sometimes with the intervening formation of aspartate
of ammonium). CA XTIIA lilDIX— CUDEIiIX.
153
148. CANTHARIDIH. C 5H120„. A colorless, odorless
s°lld, crystallizing in rhombic tables or in needles, not volatile
<*t 40 C., slightly volatile with water at 100° C., fusing and
subliming at about 200° C. It acts as a vesicant on the skin,
in cold or warm water, sparingly soluble in alcohol,
juoderately soluble in ether, freely soluble in chloroform and
enzole, soluble in oil of turpentine and in olive oil. Cantharidin
uis the relation of an acid of very weak power. Its potassium
compound is soluble in 25 parts cold or 12 parts boiling water,
111 3,300 parts cold or 110 parts boiling alcohol, insoluble in ether
unci chloroform. The barium cantharidate is insoluble in water
uud alcohol, as well as in ether and chloroform.—Cantharidin
separations may be effected, first, by solution in aqueous potassa;
then, after acidulating with sulphuric or phosphoric acid, by
solution in chloroform.
149. CATHARTIC ACID (of senna-leaves). Cathartic.
An amorphous brown to black solid, soluble in aqueous
ulkalies and precipitated from this solution by acids. In its
Natural condition, partly combined with calcium and magnesium,
is soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. Boiling dilute
acids, in alcoholic solution, convert it—as a glucoside—into
glucose and cathartogenic acid, a brown-yellow powder, insoluble
lu water, alcohol, and ether.
150. COLUMBIA. C.,iH„„07- Colombo bitter.—A color-
less solid, crystallizing in trimetric prisms, neutral, inodorous,
,und extremely bitter. It is sparingly soluble in cold water,
alcohol and ether; more freely in aqueous potassa, being preci-
pitated from the alkaline solution by addition of acids.—Strong
sulphuric acid dissolves it with orange color, changing to deep
10 MAh a very little Glucose, and gives reactions for these
according to their proportion. Boiling with dilute
phmie or hydrochloric acid dissolves the gum more rapidly
v ith v ater, producing a little larger proportion of glucose.
e residue not soluble in pure water contains starch, and is
°lored blue by iodine.
!V5. DEXTRIN. British Gum. CH O .—A yellow-white
to 1 1 6 10 b *
colorless amorphous solid; tasteless and odorless. It is
B°luhle in about one part of water, to a syrupy semi-liquid,
"hieh is miscible with 1J volumes of 60 per cent, alcohol or
'Ah 3 volumes of 50 per cent, alcohol. It is insoluble in 90 per
C"eiA- alcohol, sufficient of which precipitates it from solutions not
*°° dilute; and insoluble in ether, chloroform, bisulphide of
Caibon, etc.—Commercial dextrin almost always contains glu-
c°se j frequently contains “ soluble starch ” (15 per cent, of which
A JleAl not objectionable) • and is sometimes brown from pre-
s°nee of caramel.
Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves dry dextrin, without
e°lor in the cold but with blackening when warmed.—Subacetate
°r ammoniacal acetate of lead precipitates dextrin from very
dilute solutions (in cold and dilute solution, a distinction from
Glucose).—Pure dextrin (free from glucose) reduces potassio
chprie sulphate at 80° to 90° C. It docs not reduce boiling
s°lution of cupric acetate (distinction from Glucose).—Pure dex-
I pll *S not co^oreA hy iodine (distinction from Starch and “ solu-
e starch ”) ; nor precipitated by tannic acid [separation from
tarch and soluble starch, Gelatin, and Ovalbumen) ; nor by
II moral acids (separation from Albumenoids) j nor by baryta
(separation from Soluble Starch).
Dextrin is dried (over a glycerin-bath) at 110° C. Its preci-
pitate by subacetate of lead is Pb C 6H]0O6.
176. STARCH. Chiefly CsH10Oa; being an organized body, 164
CA RB 0 HYDRA TER.
of many varieties of structure, and containing cellulose in the
envelopes of the granules.—Varieties of starch are identified by
their form under the microscope (a). Starch in general is
characterized by its relations to solvents (b) ; its color with
iodine (c); its precipitates with tannic acid, subacetate of lead,
and baryta (d); and its easy transformation to “ soluble starch/
dextrin, and then glucose (e).—Starch-paste and “ soluble starch,'’
both, are distinguished and in part separated from Albumenoids
by non-precipitation with heat, or with mineral acids (e); from
Gelatin by precipitation with subacetate of lead (c?); from Gums
by precipitation with tannic acid, and from Dextrin by precipita-
tion with tannic acid or with baryta water (V?). The complete
separation of starch from Albumen, Gelatin, or Gum is effected
by first changing it to glucose (e) and then washing the latter
away (from the eoagulum) with strong alcohol.—Starch is sepa-
rated from Grains or other parts of Plants by water-washing
(/’), and determined directly or as glucose (g).
a. The starch granules are from -8- yto iririr inch in diame-
ter, flattened and ovate, with concentric rings (the borders of
overlapping layers), and mostly with a small eccentric nucleus.
They are characteristic of each variety.
h. Natural starch is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, etc.
Water at 00° to 75° C. (140° to 167° P.) bursts the granules ot
natural starch; a small part of which is apparently dissolved, the
larger part remaining suspended in minute particles forming a
gelatinous semi-solution, while a small portion, consisting of the
envelopes, readily subsides, the whole being known as Starch-
paste. Boiling water slowly changes starch-paste to “ soluble
starchand to Dextrin.—-Caustic potassa solution of 2 or 3 per
cent, causes starch to swell to starch-paste; finally forming some
“ soluble starch.”—When starch is triturated with two-thirds its
weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, in the cold, and left for
an hour, then washed on a filter with alcohol till free from acid,
it is transformed into “ Soluble Starch.”
This is a modification of starch, soluble in cold or hot water STARCH.
165
a syrupy liquid not quite so clear as dextrin; colored blue to
vi°let with iodine (distinction from Dextrin) ; precipitated by
alcohol when the latter is as much as 50 per cent, (dextrin ie-
Tfires stronger alcohol for precipitation) ; precipitated by tannic
ac‘id and by baryta water (two ways of separating from dexti in),
Precipitated by subacetate of lead (coinciding with dextrin).
Concerning solution of starch by its transformation into Dex-
b'hi and Glucose, see e.
c. Free iodine—in solution with water or alcohol 01 watei
"Ith iodide, or in vapor—colors starch blue to 'violet, for min 0
the « iodide of starch” (a product of adhesion). The coloi i
destroyed by heating (returning when cold), by washing wi >
alcohol, and by chlorine, potassa, hydrosulphuric acid, or other
agents which bring the iodine into chemical combination.
d. Tannic acid precipitates starch-paste; the precipitate
1)ehig soluble in excess of the starch, and soluble by heat—sepa-
**ting again when cold. Baryta water, and solution of subacetate
lead or ammoniacal solution of acetate of lead, piecipitatc
starch-paste (as well as soluble starch).
e. Starch is changed to Glucose (through soluble starch an
'■‘atrin) very quickly by boiling dilute mineral adds (two to
‘We per cent.); very slowly by boiling with water, and qui c
Actually by the conditions of the alcoholic and‘‘sacchanne
""'mentations. . , .
/• Cereal grains, or other parts of plants arc finely pull el-
-IZed, and then washed on a hair sieve with cold water and
"'askings allowed to subside (as in manufacture). Ihe staicl
fesidue may be washed again through a bag of fine linen. 10
residue is then washed on a filter with 45 per cent, alcohol con-
taming 0.1 per cent, potassa, then with 00 per cent, ,ic
"ith ether ; and dried, first below 60° C., lastly at 100 to
'when it may be weighed, as starch.
0- Starch may be determined as Glucose (18/, I), a _
ing with dilute sulphuric acid (e) and neutralizing. C6H„ , •
CfHIoO;> : : ISO : 102. 166
CA RB 0 HYDE A TBS.
177. BECTOUS SUBSTANCES. Vegetable products cor-
responding in properties to the gelatinoids of the animal king-
dom.
178. Pectose. Insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether. Dis-
solved as Pectin, etc., by long boiling with water, more readily
with vegetable acids. Hot dilute mineral acids dissolve pectose
as Pectin, which by longer treatment becomes Metapectin-
Alkalies, by hot aqueous digestion, form soluble salts of Meta-
pectio acid.
179. Pectin. Neutral; soluble in cold or hot water; gela-
tinized by dilute alcohol and precipitated by strong alcohol;
changed by hot mineral acids to Metapectic acid ; changed by
cold dilute alkalies into soluble salts of Pectic acid, by hot and
strong alkalies into soluble salts of Metapectic acid.
180. Pectic Acid. In its moist state, gelatinous. Neutral
in reaction. Insoluble in cold and scarcely soluble in hot
water; by boiling water slowly changed to soluble Parapectic
acid, afterward to Metapectic acid. Pectic acid jelly is hardened
and parapectio acid solution is precipitated by alcohol and by
solution of sugar. Boiling with dilute acids readily converts
pectic acid to Metapectic acid. Alkalies, on contact with pectic
acid, form pectates soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol-
The pectates of non-alkaline metals are insoluble in water. Boil-
ing with aqueous alkalies converts pectic acid into soluble salt 9
of Metapectic acid.
181. Parapectin is neutral, soluble in water, insoluble i°
alcohol, by which its aqueous solution is gelatinized. Boiling
dilute acids convert parapectin into Metapectin. Aqueous
alkalies, on contact with parapectin, form soluble salts of Pectic
acid.
182. Parapectio acid is soluble in water (with acid reaction)*
the solution changing into one of Metapectic acid. Parapectic
acid is precipitated from water solution by strong alcohol.
forms soluble salts with the alkalies; insoluble salts with the
other metallic bases. CELLULOSE.
167
183. Metapectin is soluble in water (with acid reaction),
in alcohol. Alkalies form with it the soluble salts of
hectic acid.
184. Metapectxc Acid is producible from all pectous sub-
stances, but produces none of them. It is soluble in water (with
acid reaction) ; soluble in alcohol (separation from all other pcc-
l°us substances) ; and forms soluble normal salts with all the bases
1 ie non-alkaline salts of other pectous acids being insoluble.)
Solution of subacetate of lead precipitates all the pectous
substances (including metapectic acid). Hot potassio cupric solu-
tion is reduced by all the pectous substances. They are but
slightly or not at all changed to Glucose, by boiling dilute acids.
185. CELLULOSE. (C6HIOO>. Characterized by its
Physical properties and relations to solvents (a) ; by its trans-
formation into parchment-paper {IS), and into dextrin and glucose
(c), and by its formation of gun-cotton (d). It is separated from
Starch by its solubility in ammonio cupric solution (a), and by
insolubility in hot dilute acids.
a. Pure cellulose is a white, translucent solid ; of specific
gravity about 1,5; insoluble in wvater, alcohol, ether, oils, and
other neutral solvents. It is slowly disintegrated and partly dis-
solved with decomposition by strong aqueous alkalies. Hot
dilute mineral acids scarcely affect it; moderately dilute nitric
a°id changing it to Xyloidin,—Finely divided cellulose slowly
dissolves in a solution of oxide of copper in strong ammonia;
being precipitated therefrom unchanged by hydrochloric acid.—
fibres of cellulose, superficially softened by sulphuric acid, or
potassa solution, are colored violet to blue by iodine solution,
aud are by this means rendered distinctly visible under the
Microscope. Also, by dipping in a 1 per cent, solution of potas-
Slu® iodide and drying, then immersing in strong sulphuric acid
uin] washing with water, cellulose is converted into a blue sub-
showing red and blue globules under the microscope
(Terrell). 168
CA R B OHYDRA TES.
b. Sulphuric acid of about 1.5 or 1.6 spec, grav., acting for a
very short time on cellulose (unsized paper), changes its state of
aggregation so as to form parchment-paper.
c. Concentrated sulphuric acid, in the cold, slowly dissolves
(thoroughly dry) cellulose to a colorless syrup, which closely
resembles dextrin. It is, however, colored blue, or after stand-
ing some days in the acid, violet to brown, by iodine. The name
amyloid has been applied to this substance. If it is now, after
several days’ contact of the acid, diluted with 30 or 40] parts of
water and boiled (until a portion is not precipitated by strong
alcohol), it is wholly converted into glucose.
d. Nitric acid of spec. grav. 1.5, ora mixture of nitrate of
potassa 2 parts and concentrated sulphuric acid 3 parts, at a tem-
perature below 50° C. (122° F.), converts clean, dry cotton wool
(finely divided cellulose), by 24 hours’ contact, into nitrocellulose.
This is washed first with cold water, then with hot water, lastly
with alcohol and dried at ordinary temperature.
186. Nitrocellulose, Pyroxylon, or Gun Cotton is the sub-
stitution of (N02)7_9 for H9_7 in ClBH30O15—, the lower substi-
tutions being most soluble in ether, the higher substitutions being
most explosive. It is more readily soluble in alcoholic than in
pure ether—formation of Collodion. It is not attacked by dilute
acids or alkalies ; strong sulphuric acid dissolves it slowly, strong
alkalies dissolve it with decomposition.—The residue from collo-
dion is unchanged pyroxylon, in a firm and elastic mass, capable
of being moulded at about 140° C.
187. GLUCOSE. CGH120c.H„O. Grape sugar. Starch
sugar. Dextrose.—Characterized by its physical properties and
solubilities (a) ; its rotation of polarized light (h) ; its reactions
with potassa (c) and, as a reducing agent, with potassio cupric
solutions (d), cupric acetate (e), fcrricyanidc of potassium (f),
ammonio silver nitrate (g), bismuthic subnitrate (A), and molyb-
date of ammonium (i). It precipitates ammoniacal acetate of
lead (J). and reacts with stannic chloride and cobaltous hydrate GL UCOSE.
(&). From Sucrose, it is distinguished by a stronger reducing
,VV er e’ f ,9’ i)i hy not blackening with concentrated sul-
U*lc acfo (189, c), but turning brown with potassa solution (c).
/oni Lactose, it is distinguished by stronger reducing power
yl i), less soluble precipitate with ammoniacal acetate of lead
U)? and by not blackening with concentrated sulphuric acid.—
7 oni Fructose, it is separated by crystallization, and distin-
guished by contrary rotation (b).—It is separated from Dextrin,
oruble Starch, Gums, the Pectous substances save metapectic
a°id, Gelatin, and Albumcnoids, by solution in 90 per cent,
alcohol (a]) ; from Fats, etc,, by insolubility in ether.—It is
determined by the volumetric solution of potassio cupric salt
(Oj or by the polariscope (b), or by fermentation (m).
a. Glucose crystallizes, with some difficulty, in warty or
cauliflower-like masses, hydrated; but from strong alcohol, in
anhydrous needles. At 60° C., the hydrate becomes an anhy-
di'ous, white powder; at 100° C., the hydrate melts to a trans-
parent mass ; but the anhydrous glucose melts at 130° C. For
Weighing, it should be well dried at 60° C., then at 110° C.
(without melting).—Glucose is soluble in a little more than one
Part of cold water; a saturated solution having a spec. grav.
1-200 and containing 45 per cent, of anhydrous glucose. Dilute
alcohol dissolves it freely; 100 parts of 90 per cent, alcohol dis-
solve 2 parts in the cold, 20 parts with boiling; in cold, absolute
alcohol it is scarcely at all soluble. Insoluble in ether, chloro-
form, oils; soluble in 60 parts hot amylic alcohol; soluble in
fiiethylic alcohol.
b. Anhydrous glucose has a specific rotatory power of 55°
(Pasteur) to the right.
c. Potassa, or milk of Mine, when warmed in solution of
glucose, causes a reddish-yellow to brown color with deposition
°l’ a humus-like substance (distinction from Sucrose).
d. The test for reduction of cupric hydrate to cuprous
hydrate in presence of alkali may be made by adding a drop or
two of cupric sulphate solution and then an excess of potassa, or 170
C A RBOIIYDRA TES.
by use of enough of the standard solution specified in h to tinge
the test-liquid bluish. At a gentle heat (short of boiling) glu-
cose throws down the brownish-yellow precipitate of cuprous
hydrate, changed by boiling to a brownish-red precipitate of
cuprous oxide. Without heat, the reduction occurs after standing
some time, (Compare Sucrose, h.)
e. Solution of cupric acetate is reduced by glucose on boil-
ing (distinction from Sucrose and from Lactose—the latter effect-
ing a slight reduction after long boiling).
f Ferricyanide of potassium (1 part) in solution with
potassa (|- part), at 80° to 100° C., is reduced by glucose to ferro-
cyanide. The reduction is shown by loss of color, and by a
blue precipitate with ferric salt. (Distinction from Sucrose and
from Dextrin.)
g. Boiling solution of glucose separates silver (black) from
nitrate of silver; more readily blackens the recent oxide of
silver, and gives a dirty gray precipitate in solution of ammonio
nitrate of silver (the latter a means of distinction from Sucrose).
h. Basic bismuthic nitrate, with carbonate of sodium, is
reduced by boiling solution of glucose, with precipitation of bis-
muthous oxide as a dark gray sediment.
i. Solution of molybdate of ammonium, at boiling heat, is
reduced by glucose, with formation of the blue molybdic molyb-
date (distinction from Sucrose, Lactose, and Dextrin).
j. Ammoniacal acetate of lead solution is precipitated by
addition of concentrated solutions of glucose, the precipitate dis-
solving in excess of glucose solution, but appearing again on
boiling in solutions not too dilute and remaining when cold.
~ O
Jc. Stannic chloride blackens when warmed with glucose.—
Nitrate of cobalt in concentrated solution of glucose is not
colored by addition of solid potassa and boiling (with pure
Sucrose a violet-blue precipitate is obtained).
Quantitative.—I. Glucose is determined in its reduction of
copper by use of a standard solution made as follows : 34.64
grams pure crystallized cupric sulphate dissolved in 200 c.c. GLUCOSE : LACTOSE.
171
"atei, with 150 grams neutral potassic tartrate in about GOO c.c.
a 10 per cent, solution of soda (sp. gr. 1.14), the mixture
c dated to 1 litre. 1 c.c. is reduced by 0.005 gram of (anhy-
Clous) glucose, or by 0.0007 gram of lactose.* The solution
ttiust not suffer change by boiling. The addition of about 100
C‘e* pure glycerin (in the litre) prevents decomposition.
ihe solution of sugar is diluted to such a number of times its
°"11 volume that it shall not be far from 1 per cent, glucose. Then,
c.c. of the blue solution are taken in an evaporating-dish, 40
0r o0 c.c. of water added, and, while boiling, the graded sugar
" 7 O' o o
solution is added, until no blue color remains (after the precipi-
ce has subsided or been filtered out). The quantity of sugar
solution used contains 0.05 grams glucose, or 0.067 grams
Setose.
ni. Pure sugar may be determined by fermentation, in a
ill’s Presenilis’ carbonic acid apparatus, as follows : In the first
Hash, of about 60 c.c. capacity, place 53.3 grams of the solution
to be determined, and which is made of 5 to 10 per cent, strength
°1 sugar. Add 0.3 gram tartaric acid and a small pinch of good
Pressed yeast, close the first flask (so that gas must pass through
sulphuric acid in the second flask), and weigh the apparatus. Set
aside at 30° to 35° C. (86° to 95° P.) for three days; and weigh
again. The weight of carbonic anhydride lost, multiplied with
2-0454, gives the amount of anhydrous glucose, or of crystallized
lactose, and," if multiplied by 1.9433, the quantity of sucrose.
Ibe results are not close,
188. LACTOSE. C 6HIO06 (crystallized). Milk Sugar.—
Characterized by its physical properties (a); its reactions as a
agent (h), and with acids and alkalies (c); with am-
raoniacal acetate of lead and with lime (d); and by its fermenta-
* That is, 180 parts of glucose (Cs HuOs), or 24Q parts of lactose oof
Cc HisOs), suffice to consume 40 parts of oxygen (2%0), reducing 1247 parts
(5 Cu 80, [Eh O]) of copper salt. And 180 :1347 :: 5 : 34.64. 172
CA Itß 0 HYDRA Th'S.
tions.—It is distinguished from Glucose by a somewhat weaker
reducing power (b), a more sparing solubility in cold water or
dilute alcohol {a), and by blackening with sulphuric acid (c) ;
from Sucrose by greater reducing power (J) and insolubility in
strong alcohol. It is determined volumetrically by the potassio-
cupric solution (see Glucose, I).
a. Lactose crystallizes in hemihedral trimetric crystals, hard
and colorless, becoming anhydrous (C10H„2On) at 150° C., and
turning brown without melting at 160° C.—lt is soluble in 0
parts of water at ordinary temperature or 2-t- parts hot water, the
cold saturated solution having a maximum spec. gray. 1.060, and
is insoluble in cold absolute alcohol and in ether.
b. The potassio cupric solution is reduced by lactose very
nearly as readily as by Glucose (187, d and I) (distinction from
Sucrose) ; one-third greater quantity being required, however, to
produce the same effect.—Solution of cupric acetate is only
reduced very slightly and slowly by boiling with lactose (dis-
tinction from Glucose).—-Molybdate of ammonium solution is
scarcely changed in a perceptible degree by boiling with lactose
(distinction from Glucose).—Ammoniacal nitrate of silver solu-
tion is reduced by boiling with lactose (distinction from Sucrose).
c. Concentrated sulphuric acid blackens lactose, rapidly
when warmed (distinction from Glucose).—Potassa slowly turns
lactose solution brown after heating to boiling point (distinction
from Glucose).
d. Ammoniacal acetate of lead solution gives but a slight
precipitate, soluble in water and not reprecipitatcd on boiling.
With milk of lime, not in excess, lactose forms a compound
soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol.
189. SUCROSE. CI2H„2On. Cano Sugar. Saccharose,—
Characterized by its physical properties («.); its reactions as a
reducing agent (b) ; its reactions with alkalies and acids (c), and
with ammoniacal acetate of lead (d). From Glucose it is dis-
tinguished as a less powerful reducing agent (b), by blackening
with sulphuric acid or turning brown with potassa solution (e), SUCROSE.
173
and by its reaction with cobalt (e). It is distinguished from
-Lactose by weaker reducing power (p). It is approximately
separated from Lactose by solution in cold water, and fully
separated from Dextrin, Gums, Gelatin, and Albumenoids by
solution in 90 per cent, alcohol. It is separated from Pats,
Lesins, etc., by not dissolving in (nearly absolute) ether. It is
determined by volumetric solution of potassio copper salt, after
being changed to glucose (c, and 187, I), by the specific gravity
of its pure Avatcr solutions, by its specific rotatory power as
measured in the polariscope, and by fermentation as directed for
Glucose, 187, m.
a. Sucrose crystallizes readily in monoclinic (rhomboidal)
prisms, generally with hemihedral faces, and anhydrous. At
160° C. (320° P.) it melts to a clear liquid which solidifies to
“barley sugar at about 210° C. (410° P.) Caramel and other
products are formed.—Sucrose is soluble in about J part of
; scarcely soluble in cold absolute alcohol, insoluble in
Gher, chloroform, benzole, etc.—Sucrose has a specific rotatory
power of 73.8° to the right.
b. Potassio cupric solution is at first not at all reduced by
sucrose on warming, or even on digestion over the water-bath,
but after boiling 5 or 10 minutes, a slight precipitate of cuprous
hydrate appears, (distinction from Glucose, Lactose, and Dextrin).
" Solution of acetate of copper is not reduced by long boiling
(distinction from Glucose).—-Ferricyanide of potassium is not
reduced to ferrocyanide by hot solution of sucrose (distinction
from Glucose).—Stannic chloride is reduced on warming, and
chromate with excess of potassa on boiling, with suei’ose, (reac-
fjons coinciding with those of Glucose and Lactose).—Ammonia-
c‘al nitrate of silver solution is not reduced, though turned yel-
lowish, on warming with sucrose (a distinction from Glucose).
Lecent oxide of silver with excess of potassa is blackened on
boiling with sucrose.—Molybdate of ammonium (neutral solution)
ls unchanged by sucrose (distinction from Glucose).
c. Sucrose is not readily colored by warming with solution 174
CARD 0 HYDRA TES.
of potassa (distinction from Glucose). Lime forms a soluble
compound with sucrose.—Concentrated sulphuric acid blackens
sucrose on warming, with separation of carbon and evolution of
sulphurous and formic acids (distinction from Glucose).—Dilute
minreal acids (3 to 3 per cent.), boiled 10 to 15 minutes with
sucrose, transform it into glucose. The same- change is very
slowly effected by long boiling in water, and with moderate
rapidity by boiling with dilute vegetable acids. Also by the
conditions of alcoholic fermentation.
d. Ammoniacal solution of acetate of lead gives a white pre-
cipitate (Pb.C.A.O. x), scarcely soluble in cold but readily
soluble in hot water.
e. The blue to violet and rose-red precipitate made by add-
ing potassa to nitrate of cobalt solution and boiling is scarcely
altered by presence of sucrose, or held a little more in the
violet. (In presence of Glucose, the mixture after boiling is
colorless or brownish, but not violet or blue.)
CARAMEL. A mixture of three compounds :
Caramelane—brittle at ordinary temperatures, soft at 100° C.,
odorless and bitter; deliquescent and very soluble in
water, sparingly soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether.
Caramelene—brittle, freely soluble in water, not deliquescent,
sparingly soluble in alcohol, insoluble in ether.
Caramelin—black, shining, and infusible; having three modifi-
cations with different and varying solubilities.
Caramel is precipitated by subaeetate of lead solution ; and
reduces potassio cupric solution. As generally prepared, cara-
mel has a characteristic, “ burned-sugar ” odor.
190. MANNITE. C 0H14O0. Crystallizes readily from solu-
tion in thin, four-sided prisms ; melts at 160° C., and at 200° C.
(393° F.) distils with little decomposition. It dissolves in 0 or
8 parts of water of ordinary temperature, in 80 parts of 60 per
cent, alcohol or 1400 parts of absolute alcohol or smaller quanti-
ties of boiling alcohol, but is insoluble in ether.—lt is not black- ALCOHOLS.
175
°nc concentrated sulphuric acid, or turned brown by boiling
" ith potassa, and it does not reduce the potassio cupric sulphate
80 u^on- It is not subject to the alcoholic fermentation.
ALCOHOLS AND THEIR PRODUCTS.
191. METHYLIC ALCOHOL. CH40. Recognized by
lts sensible and physical properties («) ; its reaction with potassa
'U)d, as a commercial article, with sulphuric acid (h) ;by solution
°f recent mercuric oxide (c); by its reducing power (d), and its
formation of formic acid (e). It is separated by fractional dis-
tillation ( /’). It is approximately determined as methyl oxalate
(g) or as formic acid (e, and Formic acid j or Ac).
a. Pure methylic alcohol is a colorless liquid, of spec. grav.
0-800, boiling at 66° C. (151° F.), and of characteristic taste and
odor. The commercial article is seldom free from empyreuma.
It is miscible in all proportions of water, alcohol, and ether, and
dissolves resins and nearly all substances soluble in ethylic
alcohol.
b. The addition of potassa, with boiling by the heat of the
Water-bath, causes a brown color in a short time (Ethylic alcohol
only after a long time).—Ordinary methylic alcohol gives a red
to red-brown color with concentrated sulphuric acid.
c. Add (to the distillate f) 2or 3 drops of very dilute solu-
tion of mercuric chloride, then solution of potassa in excess,
agitate and warm. If methylic alcohol is present, the mercuric
oxide will be dissolved.
d. Methylic alcohol readily decolorizes permanganate of
potassium solution; but does not reduce silver nitrate, or potas-
sio cupric solution.
e. Oxidation to formic acid is effected by distillation ol 2 176
ALCOHOLS•
c.c. of the liquid examined, in a retort of 60 c.c. capacity, with
2 grams of powdered bichromate, 15 c.c. of water, and 25 drops
of sulphuric acid—digesting fifteen minutes and then distilling
15 c.c.
f. In the distillation of methylic alcohol, add a little animal
charcoal and a little solution of sodic carbonate, and receive the
distillate at 66° to 76° C. (151° to 169° F.)
Quantitative.—g. Place in a retort 55 grams crystallized
oxalic acid and the mixture of 35 grams of concentrated sul-
phuric acid and 25 grams of distillate f, digest for ten hours, and
distil from an oil bath at 160° to 180° C,, as long as anything
passes over. The-distillate consists of oxalic ethers; methyl
oxalate being freely soluble in water, while ethyl oxalate is
nearly insoluble. The distillate is iiow washed with 25 times
its volume of water; the clear solution decanted, digested, in a
close bottle, with excess of potassa, the mixture acidulated with
acetic acid and precipitated with calcium chloride (adding potassic
acetate). Gather the oxalate of calcium, wash, dry, and ignite
to carbonate (adding ammonium carbonate and igniting slightly
again, if necessary). CaC03 ; 2CH40 :: 1 : 0.64.
192. ETHYLIC ALCOHOL. C 2H60. Characterized by
its physical and sensible properties (a); by the extent of its
reducing power (h); by its formation of iodoform (c); of various
compound ethers {d), and of acetic acid (e).—Separated by
fractional distillation, solubility in water, and insolubility in
fixed oils. Separated from methylic alcohol as an oxalic ether
(191, g), from amylic alcohol by solution in water or by frac-
tional distillation.—Determined by the specific gravity or by the
boiling point of its mixtures with water.
a. A transparent, limpid liquid, of spec. grav. 0.794, freezing
at -95° C. and boiling at 78° C. (173° F.), of an agreeable and
pungent odor and a sharp and burning taste. It is miscible with
water, ether, chloroform, benzole, petroleum naphtha, volatile
oils and castor oil, and dissolves resins and camphors. ETHYLIC ALCOHOL.
h. Alcohol—as a hot liquid or as vapor—slowly reduces
chromic acid, or a mixture of potassic bichromate and sulphuric
acid the alcohol being first oxidized to acetic acid. (This is in
common with aldehyde, acetic acid, formic acid, and many
volatile organic bodies.) Permanganate of potassium is but
slowly reduced by ethylic alcohol—so that the red tinge of a
slight addition of a Tg-IFF solution is scarcely at all affected for
several minutes. (Methylie alcohol, Formic acid,
and many other volatile organic bodies, more readily reduce the
permanganate.)
c. The production of iodoform from alcohol is a result (in
part) of the reducing power of the latter upon alkaline iodate:
6KHO-j- 61=51Q -f- Kl« *>
145, 147, 148, 151. .
Solids, Preliminary Examination
Solid Volatile Acids, 43
Non-volatile Acids, 14.
Soluble Starch, 164.
Smilacin, 146.
Spermaceti, 74
Spearmint Oil, 108,A10.
Spirit of Nitrous Ether, 180.
loids, 130.
Stearic Acid, la, < <’■
Quassin, 155,156.
Quercitannic Acid, 37, 38.
Quinia, 126, 139, 135 to 108, 140 «>
143, 144, 145, 148, 149, 150.
Quinic Acid, 13, 36.
Quinidia, 136, 129, 135, 136, 138, 140,
141, 143,’ 145,149,151.
Quinone, Formation 0f,,37.
Quinotannic Acid, 13, 28, «>.>.
Quinovic Acid, 13, 38.
Quinovin—see Quinovic Acid.
Racemic Acid, 13, 18.
Rape-seed Oil, 73, 76, 78, 80, 81.
Resinified Oils, 105, 115.
Resins, 13, 02.
Determined in Soaps, 99.
Roeadia, 136, 139, 138.
Rhubarb, Chrysophanic Acid from,
41.
Ricinoleic Acid, 13, 09.
Rodgers and Girdwood’s Metnod,
130, 133.
Rosanilin, 131. _ . .
Rosemary Oil, 107, 109, 111, Ho, H4
Rose Oil, 107, 109, 111, 113, 114.
Rosewood Oil, 107. 192
IXDEX.
Stearoptenes, 104.
Storax Resin, 102.
Strychnia, 126, 127, 129, 135, 137, 138,
140 to 144, 146, 151.
Test, 146, 149.
Styracin, 102, 103.
Succinic Acid, 45.
Sugars, 13, 168.
Sulphuric Acid, as Reagent, 144,
155, 156.
See, also, under Glucosides.
Sunflower Oil, 73, 77.
Sweet Spirits of Nitre—see Spirits
Nitrous Ether.
Sylvie Acid, in Colophony, 96.
Syringin, 136, 146.
Tallow, 74.
in Butter, 82, 83.
Tannic Acid, 13, 18, 146.
distinguished from Gallic, 31.
as Reagent, 139, 143.
Tannic Acids, 26.
Tanoxylic Acid, 27.
Tansy Oil, 108, 109, 114.
Taraxacin, 156.
Tartaric Acid, 13, 14.
Tea, Black, Separation of Boheic
Acid from, 36.
Thehaina, 126, 127, 129, 135 to 138,
142, 143, 146, 149, 151.
Theobromina, 127, 129, 136 to 139,
141, 142, 146, 148, 149, 151.
Thyme Oil, 108, 109, 114.
Tolu Balsam, 103.
Toluidin, 120, 131.
Tolu Resin, Separation from Gam-
boge, 98.
Tragacanth, 162.
Trimethylamia, 123, 124.
Trinitrophenic Acid see Nitro-
phenic.
Trommer’s Sugar Test, 169.
Uslar and Erdmann’s Method, 130,
133.
Valerianic Acid—see Valeric.
Valerian Oil, 108, 109, 111, 112, 115.
Valeric Acid, 13, 60, 63.
Vanillin, 156.
Veratria, 127, 139, 135 to 139, 140 to
144, 146, 148, 151.
Veratric Acid, 13, 47.
Vogel’s Lactoscope, 84.
Volatile Bases, 120,
Fat Acids, 67.
Wall Lichen—see Parmelia p.
Walnut Oil, 73, 77.
Wax, Bees’, 74.
Whale On, 73, 78.
Wintergreen Oil, 108, 110.
Wormseed Oil, 108 to 111, 114.
Wormwood Oil, 108, 109, 111, 114.
Xilidin, 130.
Yarrow Oil, 108.
Ylang Ylang (Oil), 108, 114. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS
PUBLISHED BY
D. YanNostrand,
23 Murray Street & 27 Warren Street,
NEW YORK.
Weisbach’s Mechanics.
New and Revised Edition.
A MANUAL OF THE MECHANICS OF ENGINEERING,
and of the Construction of Machines. By Julius Weisbach, Pit.
I). Translated from the fourth augmented and improved Ger-
man edition, by Ecklet B. Coxe, A.M., Mining Engineer. Yol.
I.—Theoretical Mechanics. 1,100 pages, and 902 wood-cut
illustrations.
Bvo. Cloth. $lO.OO.
Abstract of Contents.—Introduction to the Calculus—The General
' Bnciples of Mechanics—Phoronomics, or the Purely Mathematical Theory
Motion—Mechanics, or the General Physical Theory of Motion— Statics of
Bodies—The Application of Statics to Elasticity and Strength—Dynam.
ics of Rigid Bodies—Statics of Fluids—Dynamics of Pluids—The Theory
M Oscillation, etc.
“ The present edition is an enth’ely new work, greatly extended and very
1,1 u°h improved. It forms a text-book which must find its way into the hands,
not only of every student, but of every engineer who desires to refresh his mem-
CU or acquire clear ideas on doubtful points.’’—Manufacturer and Builder.
IVe hope the day is not far distant when a thorough course of study and
. Ucation as such shall be demanded of the practising engineer, and with this
we are glad to welcome this translation to our tongue and shores of on©
the most able of the educators of Europe.”—The Technologist. 2
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Francis5 Lowell Hydraulics.
Third Edition.
4to. Cloth. $15.00.
LOWELL HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS being a Selec-
tion from Experiments on Hydraulic Motors, on the Plow of
Water over Weirs, and in Open Canals of Uniform Rectangular
Section, made at Lowell, Mass. By J. B. Francis, Civil Engineer.
Third edition, revised and enlarged, including many New Ex-
periments on Gauging Water in Open Canals, and on the Flow
through Submerged Orifices and Diverging Tubes. With 23
copperplates, beautifully engraved, and about 100 new pages of
text.
The work is divided into parts. Part 1., on hydraulic motors, includes
ninety-two experiments on an improved Eoumeyron Turbine Water-Wheel,
of about two hundred horse-power, with rules and tables for the construction
of similar motors; thirteen experiments on a model of a centre-vent water-
wheel of the most simple design, and thirty-nine experiments on a centre-vent
water-wheel of about two hundred and thirty horse-power.
Part 11. includes seventy-four experiments made for the purpose of deter-
mining the form of the formula for computing the flow of water over weirs;
nine experiments on the effect of back-water on the flow over weirs; eighty-
eight experiments made for the purpose of determining the formula for com-
puting the flow over weirs of regular or standard forms, with several tables
of comparisons of the new formula with the results obtained by former experi-
menters ; five experiments on the flow over a dam in which the crest was of the
same form as that built by the Essex Company across the Merrimack River at
Lawrence, Massachusetts; twenty-one experiments on the effect of observing
the depths of water on a weir at different distances from the weir; an exten-
sive series of experiments made for the purpose of determining rules for
gauging streams of water in open canals, with tables for facilitating the same;
and one hundred and one experiments on the discharge of water through sub-
merged orifices and diverging tubes, the whole being fully illustrated by
twenty-three double plates engraved on copper.
In 1855 the proprietors of the Locks and Canals on Merrimack River con-
sented to the publication of the first edition of this work, which contained a
selection of the most important hydraulic experiments made at Lowell up to
that time. In this edition the principal hydraulic experiments made there,
subsequent to 1855, have been added, including the important series above
mentioned, for determining rules for the gauging the flow of water in open
canals, and the interesting series on the flow through a submerged Venturi’s
tube, in which a larger flow was obtained than any we find recorded. U. VAW JVOSTRAND.
3
Francis on Cast-Iron Pillars.
ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST-lEON PILLAES, with Tables
for the use of Engineers, Architects, and Builders. By James B.
Fluids, Civil Engineer.
Bvo. Cloth. $2.00.
Merrill’s Iron Truss Bridges.
Second Edition.
4to. Cloth. $5.00.
lEOH TRUSS BEIDGES FOB EAILEOAHS. The Method of
Calculating Strains in Trusses, with a careful comparison of the
most prominent Trusses, in reference to economy in combination,
etc., etc. By Brevet Colonel William E. Merrill, U.S.A.,
Major Corps of Engineers. Nine lithographed plates of illustra-
tions.
“ The work before us is an attempt to give a basis for sound reform in this
feature of railroad engineering, by throwing ‘ additional light upon tho
method of calculating the maxima strains that can come upon any part of a
bridge truss, and upon the manner of proportioning each part, so that it shall
he as strong relatively to its own strains as any other part, and so that tho
entire bridge may be strong enough to sustain several times as great strains
as the greatest that can come upon it in actual use.’ ”—Scientific American.
“ The author has presented his views in a clear and intelligent manner, and
the ingenuity displayed in coloring the figures so as to present certain facts
to the eye forms no inappreciable part of the merits of tho work. The reduc-
tion of the ‘ formulae for obtaining the strength, volume, and weight of a cast-
iron pillar under a strain of compression,’ will be very acceptable to those who
have occasion hereafter to make investigations involving these conditions. As
a whole, the work has been well done.”—Railroad Gazette, Chicago.
Humber’s Strains in Girders.
18mo. Cloth. $2.50.
A- HANDY BOOK FOE THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS
IN GIEDEES and Similar Structures, aud their Strength, con-
sisting of Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous
details for practical application. By William Humber, Fully
illustrated. 4
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS JPUBBISHED BY
Shreve on Bridges and Roofs.
Bvo, 87 wood-cut illustrations. Cloth.. $ 5.00.
A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OE BRIDGES AND
ROOFS—comprising tho determination of Algebraic formulas
for Strains in Horizontal, Inclined or Rafter, Triangular, Bow-
string, Lenticular and other Trusses, from fixed and moving
loads, with practical applications and examples, for the use of
Students and Engineers. By Samuel H. Suseve, A.M., Civil
“ On the whole, Mr. Shreve has produced a book which is the simplest,
clearest, and at the same time, the most systematic and with the best math-
ematical reasoning of any work upon the same subject in the language.”—•
Railroad Gazette.
Engineer.
“ From the unusually clear language in which Mr. Shreve has given every
statement, the student will have but himself to blame if he does not become
thorough master of the subject.”—London Mining Journal.
“ Mr. Shreve has produced a work that must always take high rank as a
text-book, * * * and no Bridge Engineer should be without it, as a
valuable work of reference, and one that will frequently assist him out of
difficulties.”—Franklin Institute Journal.
Tlie Kansas City Bridge,
4 to. Cloth. $6.03
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE REGIMEN OF THE MIS-
SOURI RIVER, and a description of the Methods used for
Founding in that River. By 0. Chaxute, Chief Engineer, and
Geouge Momsox, Assistant Engineer. Illustrated with five
lithographic views and twelve plates of plans.
Illustrations.
Views.—View of the Kansas City
Bridge, August 2, 1869. Lowering
Caisson No. 1 into position. Caisson
for Pier No. 4 brought into position.
View of Foundation Works, Pier No.
4. PiGr No. 1.
tion Works, Pier No. 3. IV. Founda-
tion Works, Pier No. 4. Y. Founda-
tion Works, Pier No. 4. YI. Caisson
No. s—Sheet Piling at Pier No. 6—-
Details of Dredges—Pile Shoe—Beton
Box. YII. Masonry—Draw Protec-
tion—False Works between Piers 3
and 4. YIII. Floating Derricks.
IX. General Elevation-—176 feet span.
X. 348 feet span. XT. Plans of Draw.
XII. Strain Diagrams.
Plates.—l. Map showing location
of Bridge. 11. Water Record—Cross
Section of River—Profile of Crossing
—Pontoon Protection. 111. Water
Dcadenor—Caisson No. 2—Founda I). VAJST JSFOB TJRAJVD.
5
Clarke's Quincy Bridge.
4to. Cloth. $7.50.
DESCRIPTION OF THE IRON RAILWAY Bridge across the
Mississippi River at Quincy, Illinois. By Thomas Ccutis Claekk,
Chief Engineer. Illustrated with twenty-one lithographed
plans.
Illustrations.
PLATES.—General Plan of Missis-
sippi River at Quincy, showing loca-
tion of Bridge. lla. General Sections
of Mississippi River at Quincy, show-
ing location of Bridge. lIA General
Sections of Mississippi River at Quin-
cy, showing location of Bridge. 111.
General Sections of Mississippi River
at Quincy, showing location of Bridge.
IV. Plans of Masonry. V. Diagram
of Spans, showing the Dimensions,
Arrangement of Panels, etc. VI. Two
hundred and fifty feet span, and de-
tails. VII. Three hundred and sixty
feet Pivot Draw. VIII. Details of
three hundred and sixty feet Draw.
IX. Ice- Breakers, Foundations of Piers
and Abutments, Water Table, and
Curve of Deflections. X. Founda-
tions of Pier 2, in Process of Con-
struction. XL Foundations of Pier
3, and its Protection. XII. Founda-
tions of Pier 3, in Process of Construc-
tion, and Steam Dredge. XIII. Foun-
dations of Piers 5 to 18, in Process
of Construction. XIV. False Works,
showing Process of Handling and Set-
ting Stone. XV. False Works for
Raising’ Iron Work of Superstructure,
XVI. Steam Drodg’e used in Founda-
tions 9 to 18. XVII. Single Bucket
Dredge used in Foundations of Bay
Piers. XVIII. Saws used for Cut-
ting Piles tinder water. XIX. Sand
Pump and Concrete Box. XX Ma-
sonry Travelling Crane.
Whipple on Bridge Building.
Bvo, Illustrated. Cloth. $4.00.
AN ELEMENTARY AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON
BRIDGE BUILDING. An enlarged and improved edition of
the Author’s original work. By S. Whipple, C. E., Inventor of
the Whipple Bridges, &c. Second Edition.
The design has been to develop from Fundamental Principles a system easy
°f comprehension, and such as to enable the attentive reader and student to
judge understanding!v for himself, as to the relative merits of different plans
and combinations, and to adopt for use such as may be most suitable for the
cases he may have to deal with.
It is hoped the work may prove an appropriate Text-Book upon the subject
treated of, for the Engineering Student, and a useful manual for the Practio-
*ug Engineer and Bridge Builder. 6
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Stoney on Strains.
New and llevised Edition, with numerous illustrations.
Royal Bvo, 664 pp. Cloth. $13.50.
THE THEORY OF STRAINS IN GIRDERS and Similar Struc-
tures, with Observations on the Application of Theory to Practice,
and Tables of Strength and other Properties of Materials. By
Bikdok B. Stoney, B. A.
Roebling’s Bridges.
Imperial folio. Cloth. $35.00.
DONG AND SHORT SPAN RAILWAY BRIDGES. By John
A. Roebling, 0. E. Illustrated with large copperplate engrav-
ings of plans and views.
List of Plates
1. Parabolic Truss Railway Bridge. 3, 3, 4, 5, 6. Details of Parabolic
Truss, with centre span 500 feet in the clear. 7. Plan and Yiew of a Bridge
over the Mississippi River, at St. Louis, for railway and common travel. 8, 9,
10, 11, 13. Details and Yiew of St. Louis Bridge. 13. Railroad Bridge over
the Ohio.
Diedriclis5 Theory of Strains.
Bvo. Cloth. $5.00.
A Compendium for the Calculation and Construction of Bridges,
Roofs, and Cranes, with the Application of Trigonometrical
Notes. Containing the most comprehensive information in re-
gard to the Resulting Strains for a permanent Load, as also for
a combined (Permanent and Rolling) Load. In two sections
adapted to the requirements of the present time. By John Died-
eichs. Illustrated by numerous plates and diagrams.
“ The want of a compact, universal and popular treatise on the Construc-
tion of Roofs and Bridges—especially one treating of the influence of a varia-
ble load—and the unsatisfactory essays of different authors on the subject.
induced me to prepare this work.” D. VAN 'NOSTRAKJJ.
7
Whilden’s Strength of Materials.
ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS used in Engineering
Construction. By J. K. Wxiilden.
12rao. Cloth. $2.00.
Oampin on Iron Roofs.
Bvo. Cloili. $2.00.
ON THE CONSTRUCTION OP IRON ROOFS. A Theoretical
and Practical Treatise. By Francis Oampin. With wood-cuts
and. plates of Roofs lately executed.
“ The mathematical formulas are of an elementary kind, and the process
admits of an easy extension so as to embrace the prominent varieties of iron
truss bridges. The treatise, though of a practical scientific character, may ho
easily mastered by any one familiar with elementary mechanics and plane
trigonometry.”
Holley’s Railway Practice.
I toI. folio. Cloth. $13.00.
AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN RAILWAY PRACTICE, in
the Economical Generation of Steam, including the materials
and construction of Coal-burning Boilers, Combustion, the Varia-
ble Blast, Vaporization, Circulation, Super-heating, Supplying
and Heating Feed-water, &c., and the adaptation of Wood and
Coke-burning Engines to Coal-burning ; and in Permanent Way,
including Road-bed, Sleepers, Rails, Joint Fastenings, Street
Railways, &c., &c. By Alexander L. Holley, B. P. With 77
lithographed plates.
“ This is an elaborate treatise by one of our ablest civil engineers, on the con-
struction and use of locomotives, with a few chapters on the building of Rail-
roads. * * * Ail these subjects are treated by the author, who is i
first-class railroad engineer, in both an intelligent and intelligible manner. Tho
facts and ideas are well arranged, and presented in a clear and simple style,
accompanied by beautiful engravings, and we presume the work will be regard'
°d as indispensable by all who are interested in a knowledge of the construc-
tion of railroads and rolling stock, or the working of locomotives. Scientific
American. 8
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS BUBLISIIED BY
Henricfs Skeleton Structures.
Bvo. Cloth. $1.50.
SKELETON STL'ITCTURES, especially in their Application to
the building of Steel and Iron Bridges. By Ola us Henhici.
With folding plates and diagrams.
By presenting these general examinations on Skeleton Structures, with
particular application for Suspended Bridges, to Engineers, I venture to ex-
press the hope that they will receive these with some confi-
dence, even although an opportunity is wanting to compare them with practi-
cal results. 0. H.
Useful Information for Hallway Men.
Pocket form. Morocco, gilt, $3.00.
Compiled by W. G. Hamilton, Engineer. Fifth edition, revised
and enlarged. 570 pages.
“ It embodies many valuable formuho and recipes useful for railway men,
and, indeed, for almost every class of persons in the world. The ‘ informa-
tion ’ comprises some valuable formulse and rules for the construction of
boilers and engines, masonry, properties of steel and iron, and the strength
of materials generally.”—Railroad Gazette, Chicago.
Brooklyn Water Works.
1 vol. folio. Cloth. $25.00.
A DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF
THE WORKS, and also Reports on the Brooklyn, Hartford,
Belleville, and Cambridge Pumping Engines. Prepared and
printed by order of the Board of Water Commissioners. With
59 illustrations.
CONTENTS.—Supply Ponds—The Conduit—Ridgewood Engine House and
Pump Well—Ridgewood Engines—Eorce Mains—Ridgewood Reservoir—
Pipe Distribution—Mount Prospect Reservoir—Mount Prospect Engine
House and Engine—Drainage Grounds—Sewerage Works—Appendix, 1). VAJSr JVO&TJ2AJVD.
9
Kirkwood on Filtration.
4to. Cloth. $15.00.
EEPOET ON THE FILTRATION OF EIYEE WATERS for
the Supply of Cities, as practised in Europe, made to the Board
of Water Commissioners of the City of St. Louis. By James P.
Kirkwood. Illustrated by 30 double-plate engravings.
Contents.—Report on Filtration—London Works, General Chelsea
Water Works and Filters—Lambeth Water Works and Filters—Southwark
and Yauxhall Water Works and Filters—Grand Junction Water Works and
Filters—West Middlesex Water Works and Filters—Mew River Water
Works and Filters—East London WaterWorks and Filters—Leicester Water
Works and Filters—York WaterWorks and Filters—Liverpool Water JYorks
and Filters—Edinburgh Water Works and Filters—Dublin Water Works
and Filters—Perth Water Works and Filtering Gallery—Berlin Water
Works and Filters—Hamburg Water Works and Reservoirs—Altona Water
Viorks and Filters—Tours Water Works and Filtering Canal—Angers Water
Works and Filtering Galleries—Mantes Water Works and Filters—Lyons
Water Works and Filtering Galleries—Toulouse Water Works and Filtering
Galleries—Marseilles Water Works and Filters—Genoa Water Works and
Filtering Galleries—Leghorn Water Works and Cisterns—Wakefield Water
Works and Filters—Appendix.
Tanner on. Roll-Turning.
1 vol. Bvo. and 1 vol. plates. $lO.OO.
A TREATISE ON EOLL-TUENING FOE THE MANUFACb
THEE OF lEOH. By Peter Tenner. Translated and adapted.
By John B. Peaese, of the Pennsylvania Steel Works. With
numerous wood-cuts, Bvo., together with a folio atlas of 10 litho-
graphed plates of Eolls, Measurements,. &c.
“ We commend this book as a clear, elaborate, and practical treatise upon
the department of iron manufacturing operations to which it is devoted.
The writer states in his preface, that for twenty-five years he has felt the
necessity of such a work, and has evidently brought to its preparation the
fruits of experience, a painstaking regard for accuracy of statement, and a
desire to furnish information in a style readily understood. The book should
be iu the hands of every one interested, either in the general practice of
mechanical engineering, or the special branch of manufacturing operations to
which the work relates.’—American Artisan. 10
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Glynn on the Power of Water.
A TEEATISE ON THE POWEE OF WATEE, as applied to
drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines and other
Hydrostatic Engines. By Joseph Glxetx, F.E. S. Third edition,
revised and enlarged, with numerous illustrations.
12mo. Cloth. $l.OO.
Hewson on Embankments.
Bvo. Cloth. $2.00.
PEINCIPLES AND PEACTICE OF EMBANKING- LANDS
from Eiver Floods, as applied to the Levees of the Mississippi.
By William Hewsox, Civil Engineer.
“ This is a valuable treatise on the principles and practice of embanking-
lands from river floods, as applied to the Levees of the Mississippi, by a highly
intelligent and experienced engineer. The author says it is a first attempt
to reduce to order and to rule the design, execution, and measurement of the
Levees of the Mississippi. It is a most useful and needed contribution to
scientific literature.—Philadelphia Evening Journal.
Griiner on. Steel.
Bvo. Cloth. $3.50.
THE MANUFACTUEE OF STEEL. By M. L. Geitker, trans-
lated from the French. By Lenox Smith, A. M., E. M., with an
appendix on the Bessemer Process in the United States, by the
translator. Illustrated by lithographed drawings and wood-cuts.
“ The purpose of the work is to present a careful, elaborate, and at the
same time practical examination into the physical properties of steel, as well
as a description of the new processes and mechanical appliances for its manufac-
ture. The information which it contains, gathered from many trustworthy
sources, will be found of much value to the American steel manufacturer,
who may thus acquaint himself with the results of careful and elaborate ex-
periments in other countries, and better prepare himself for successful com-
petition in this important industry with foreign makers. The fact that this
volume is from the pen of one of the ablest metallurgists of the present day,
cannot fail, we think, to secure for it a favorable consideration.—lron Age, 2k VA Jsr xostha xd.
11
Banerman on Iron.
TREATISE ON THE METALLURGY OE IRON. Contain-
ing outlines of tlie History of Iron Manufacture, methods of
Assay, and analysis of Iron Ores, processes of manufacture of
Iron and Steel, etc., etc. By 11. Baweeman. First American
edition. Revised and enlarged, with an appendix on the Martin
Process for making Steel, from the report of Abram S. Hewitt.
Illustrated with numerous wood engravings.
12mo. Cloth. $2.00.
“ This is an important addition to the stock of technical works published in
this country. It embodies the latest facts, discoveries, and processes con-
nected with the manufacture of iron and steel, and should bo in the hands of
every person interested in the subject, as well as in all technical and scientific
libraries.”—Scientific American.
Link and Valve Motions, by W. S.
AncMncloss.
APPLICATION OE THE SLIDE YALYE and Link Motion to
Stationary, Portable, Locomotive and Marine Engines, with new
and simple methods for proportioning the parts. By William
S. Auchlncloss, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. Designed as
a hand-book for Mechanical Engineers, Master Mechanics,
Draughtsmen and Students of Steam Engineering. All dimen-
sions of the valve are found with the greatest ease by means of
a Printed Scale, and proportions of the link determined without
the assistance of a model. Illustrated by 37 wood-cuts and 21
lithographic plates, together with a copperplate engraving of the
Travel Scale.
Bvo. Cloth. $3.00.
All the matters we have mentioned are treated with a clearness and absence
of unnecessary verbiage which renders the work a peculiarly valuable one.
The Travel Scale only requires to be known to be appreciated. Mr. A. writes
so ably on his subject, we wish he had written more. London Erv
dineering.
We have never opened a work relating to steam which seemed to us better
calculated to give an intelligent mind a clear understanding of the depart'
ment it discusses.—Scientific American. 12
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Slide Yalve by Eccentrics, by Prof,
0, ¥. MacOord.
4to. Illustrated. Cloth, $‘4.00.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE SLIDE YALYE BY
ECCENTRICS, examining by methods, the action of the Eccen-
tric upon the Slide Yalve, and explaining the practical proces-
ses of laying out the movements, adapting the valve for its
various duties in the steam-engine. For the use of Engineers,
Draughtsmen, Machinists, and Students of valve motions in
general. By C. TV. Mac Coed, A. M., Professor of Mechanical
Drawing, Stevens’ Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N- J.
Stillman’s Steam-Engine Indicator.
12mo. Cloth. $l.OO.
THE STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR, and the Improved Mano-
meter Steam and Yacuum Gauges ; their utility and application
By Paul Stillman. New edition.
Bacon’s Steam-Engine Indicator.
12mo. Cloth. $l.OO. Mor. $1.50.
A TREATISE ON THE RICHARDS STEAM-ENGINE IN-
DICATOR, with directions for its use. By Chaeles T. Poetee.
Revised, with notes and large additions as developed by Amer-
ican Practice, with an Appendix containing useful formulae and
rules for Engineers. By F. W. Bacon, M. E., Member of the
American Society of Civil Engineers. Illustrated. Second Edition
In this work, Mr. Porter’s book has been taken as the basis, but Mr. Bacon
has adapted it to American Practice, and has conferred a great boon on
American Engineers.—Artisan.
Bartol on Marine Boilers.
Bvo. Cloth. $1.50.
TREATISE ON THE MARINE BOILERS OF THE UNITED
STATES. By H. B. Baetol. Illustrated. I). VAN NOSTRAND.
13
Gillmore’s Limes and Cements.
Fourth Edition. Revised and Enlargd.
Bvo. Cloth. $4.00.
PEACTICAL TEEATISE ON LIMES, PIYDEAULIO CE-
MENTS, AND MOETAES. Papers on Practical Engineering,
XL S. Engineer Department, No. 9, containing Eeports of
numerous experiments conducted in New York City, during the
years 1858 to 1861, inclusive. By Q. A. Gillmoee, Brig-General
U. S. Yolunteers, and Major U. S. Corps of Engineers. With,
numerous illustrations.
“ This work contains a record of certain experiments and researches made
under the authority of the Engineer Bureau of the War Department from
1858 to 1861, upon the various hydraulic cements of the United States, and
the materials for their manufacture. The experiments were carefully made,
and are well reported and compiled. ’—Journal Franklin Institute.
Gfillmore’s Coignet Beton.
Bvo. Cloth. $2.50.
COIGNET BET ON AND OTHEE AETIEICIAL STONE. By
Q. A. Gieueoee. 9 Plates, Views, etc.
This work describes with considerable minuteness of detail the several kinds
of artificial stone in most general use in Europe and now beginning to be
introduced in the United States, discusses their properties, relative merits,
and cost, and describes the materials of which they are composed
The subject is one of special and growing interest, and we commend the work,
embodying as it does the matured opinions of an experienced engineer and
expert.
WilliamsoiTs Practical Tables.
PEACTICAL TABLES IN METEOEOLOGY AND HYPSO-
METEY, iu connection with the use of the Barometer. By Col.
E. S. Williamsom, U. S. A.
4to. Flexible Cloth. $2.50. 14
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Williamson on the Barometer.
ON THE USE OF THE BAROMETER ON SURVEYS AND
RECONNAISSANCES. Part I. Meteorology in its Connec-
tion with. Hypsometry. Part 11. Barometric Hypsometry. By
R. S. Williamson, Bvt. Lient.-Col. U. S. A., Major Corps of
Engineers. With. Illustrative Tables and Engravings. Paper
No. 15, Professional Papers, Corps of Engineers.
4 to. Cloth. $15.00.
“ San Francisco, Cal., Feb. 37, 18G7.
“ Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army :
“ General,—I have the honor to submit to yon, in the following pages, the
results of my investigations in meteorology and hypsometry, made with tho
view of ascertaining how far the barometer can be used as a reliable instru-
ment for determining altitudes on extended lines of survey and reconnais-
sances. These investigations have occupied the leisure permitted me from my
professional duties during the last ten years, and I hope the results will bo
deemed of sufficient value to have a place assigned them among the printed
professional papers of the United States Corps of Engineers.
“ Very respectfully, your obedient servant,
“ R S. 'WILLIAMSON,
“ Bvt. Lt.-Col. U. S. A., Major Corps of U. S. Engineers.”
Yon Cotta’s Ore Deposits.
Bvo. Cloth. $4.00.
TREATISE ON ORE DEPOSITS. By Bernhard Yon Cotta,
Professor of Geology in the Royal School of Mines, Preidberg,
Saxony. Translated from tho second German edition, by
Frederick Prime, Jr., Mining Engineer, and revised by tho
author, with numerous illustrations.
“Prof. Yon Cotta of the Freiberg School of Mines, is the author of the
best modern treatise on ore deposits, and we are heartily glad that this ad-
mirable work has been translated and published in this country. The trans-
lator, Mr. Frederick Prime, Jr., a graduate of Freiberg, has had in his work
the great advantage of a revision by the author himself, who declares in a
prefatory note that this may bo considered as a new edition (the third) of his
own book.
“ It is a timely and welcome contribution to the literature of mining in
this country, and we are grateful to the translator for his enterprise and good
judgment in undertaking its preparation; while we recognize with equal cor-
diality the liberality of tho author in granting both permission and assist-
ance.”—Extract from Review in Engineering and Mining Journal. ]>. vajst JsrosTHAJVJj.
15
Plattner’s Blow-Pipe Analysis.
Second edition. Revised. Bvo. Cloth. $7.50.
PLATTNER’S MANUAL OF QUALITATIVE AND QUAN-
TITATIVE ANALYSIS WITH THE BLOW-PIPE. Prom
the last German edition Revised and enlarged. By Prof. Tit.
Lighter, of the Eojal Saxon Mining Academy. Translated by
Prof. H. B. Cornwall, Assistant in the Columbia School of
Mines, New York; assisted by John IT. Caswell. Illustrated
with eighty-seven wood-cuts and one Lithographic Plate. 560
pages.
“ Plattner’s celebrated work has long been recognized as the only complete
book on Blow-Pipe Analysis. The fourth German edition, edited by Prof.
Richter, fully sustains the reputation which the earlier editions acquired dur-
ing the lifetime of the author, and it is a source of great satisfaction to us to
know that Prof. Richter has co-operated with the translator in issuing tho
American edition of the work, which is in fact a fifth edition of the original
work, being far more complete than the last German edition."—SUlimaris
Journal.
There is nothing* so complete to be found in tho English language. Platt-
ner’s book is not a mere pocket edition ; it is intended as a comprehensive guide
to all that is at present known on the blow-pipe, and as such is really indis-
pensable to teachers and advanced pupils.
“ Mr. Cornwall’s edition is something more than a translation, as it contains
many corrections, emendations and additions not to bo found in the original.
It is a decided improvement on the work in its German dress.”—Journal of
Applied Chemistry.
Egleston’s Mineralogy,
Bvo. Illustrated with 84 Lithographic Plates. Cloth. $4.50.
LECTURES ON DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY, Delivered
at the School of Mines, Columbia College. Br Professor T.
Egleston.
These lectures are what their title indicates, the lectures on Mineralogy
delivered at the School of Mines of Columbia College. They have been
Printed for the students, in order that more time might be given to the vari-
°Ua methods of examining and determining- minerals. The second part has
only been printed. The first part, comprising crystallography and physical
Mineralogy, will be printed at some future time. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Pynchon’s Chemical Physics,
New Edition. Revised and Enlarged.
INTEODUCTION TO CHEMICAL PHYSICS, Designed for the
Crown Bvo. Cloth.. $3.00.
Use of Academies, Colleges, and High. Schools. Illustrated with
numerous engravings, and containing copious experiments with
directions for preparing them. By Thomas Haggles Pyxciiox,
M.A., Professor of Chemistry and the Natural Sciences, Trinity
College, Hartford.
Hitherto, no work suitable for general use, treating of all these subjects
within the limits of a single volume, could be found; consequently the atten-
tion they have received has not been at all proportionate to their importance.
It is believed that a book containing so much valuable information within so
small a compass, cannot fail to meet with a ready sale among all intelligent
persons, while Professional men, Physicians, Medical Students, Photograph-
ers, Telegraphers, Engineers, and Artisans generally, will find it specially
valuable, if not nearly indispensable, as a book of reference.
“ We strongly recommend this able treatise to our readers as the first
work ever published on the subject free from perplexing- technicalities. In
style it is pure, in description graphic, and its typographical appearance is
artistic. It is altogether a most excellent work.”—Eclectic Medical Journal.
“It treats fully of Photography, Telegraphy, Steam Engines, and the
various applications of Electricity. In short, it is a carefully prepared
volume, abreast with the latest scientific discoveries and inventions.”—Hart-
ford Courant.
Plympton’s Blow-Pipe Analysis.
12mo. Cloth. |l5O.
THE BLOW-PIPE : A Guide to Its Use in the Determination
of Salts and Minerals. Compiled from various sources, by
George W. Plymptoh, C.E., A.M., Professor of Physical
Science in the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.
“ This manual probably has no superior in the English language as a text-
book for beginners, or as a guide to the student working without a teacher.
To the latter many illustrations of the utensils and apparatus required in
using the blow-pipe, as well as the fully illustrated description of the blow-
pipe flame, will bo especially serviceable.”—New TorJc Teacher. V. VAN NOSTRAND.
17
Ure’s Dictionary,
Sixth Edition.
London, 1873.
S vols. Byo. Cloth, $35.00. Half Russia, $33.50.
DICTIONARY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND MINES.
By Andrew Uee, M.D. Sixth edition. Edited by Robert Huxt
E.R.S., greatly enlarged and rewritten.
Braude and Cox's Dictionary,
London, 1872.
3 vols. Bvo. Cloth, $20.00. Half Morocco, $27.50.
New Edition.
A Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art. Edited by W. T.
Beaxde and Rey. Geo. W. Cox. New and enlarged edition.
Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry.
Supplementary Volume.
This volume brings the Record of Chemical Discovery down to the end of
the year 1860, including also several additions to, and corrections of, former
results which have appeared in 1870 and 1871.
Bvo. Cloth. $9.00.
Complete Sets of the Work, Hew and Revised edition, including above
supplement. G vols. Bvo. Cloth. $63.00.
Rammelsberg’s Chemical Analysis.
Bvo. Cloth. $3.25.
GUIDE TO A COURSE OE QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS, ESPECIALLY OP MINERALS AND FUR-
NACE PRODUCTS. Illustrated by Examples. By C. F.
Rajimelsberg. Translated by J. Towles,, M.D.
This work has been translated, and is now published expressly for those
students in chemistry whoso time and other studies in colleges do not permit
them to enter upon the more elaborate and expensive treatises of Fresenius
aud others. It is the condensed labor of a master in chemistry and of a prac-
tical analyst. 18
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Eliot and Storer’s Qualitative
Chemical Analysis.
New Edition, Hevised.
12mo. Illustrated. Cloth.. $1.50.
A COMPENDIOUS MANUAL OF QUALITATIVE CHEMI-
CAL ANALYSIS. By Charles W. Eliot and Frank H. Sxorer.
Devised -with the Cooperation of the Authors, by William Dip-
lev Nichols, Professor of Chemistry in the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology.
“ This Manual has great merits as a practical introduction to the science
and the art of which it treats. It contains enough of the theory and practice
of qualitative analysis, “ in the wet way,’’ to bring out all the reasoning in-
volved in the science, and to present clearly to the student the most approved
methods of the art. It is specially adapted for exercises and experiments in
the laboratory; and yet its classifications and manner of treatment are so
systematic and logical throughout, as to adapt it in a high degree to that
higher class of students generally who desire an accurate knowledge of the
practical methods of arriving at scientific facts.”—Lutheran Observer.
“ We wish every academical class in the land could have the benefit of the
fifty exercises of two hours each necessary to master this book. Chemistry
would cease to be a mere matter of memory, and become a pleasant experi-
mental and intellectual recreation. We heartily commend this little volume
to the notice of those teachers who believe in using the sciences as means of
mental discipline.”—College Courunt.
Craig's Decimal System.
Square 33m0. Limp. 50c.
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Au Account of tlie Decimal
System, with Tables of Conversion for Commercial and Scientific
Uses. By B. E. Craig, M. D.
“ The most lucid, accurate, and useful of all the hand-books on this subject
that we have yet seen. It gives forty-seven tables of comparison between tho
English and French denominations of length, area, capacity, weight, and the
Centigrade and Fahrenheit thermometers, with clear instructions how to use
them; and to this practical portion, which helps to make the transition as
easy as possible, is prefixed a scientific explanation of the errors in tho metric
system, and how they may be corrected in the laboratory.”—Nation. 1). VAN AY) STRAND.
19
Nugent on Optics.
12mo. Cloth. $2.00
TREATISE ON OPTICS; or, Light and Sight, theoretically and
practically treated ; ’with the application to Fine Art and Indus-
trial Pursuits. By E. Hugest. With one hundred and throe
illustrations.
“ This book is of a practical rather than a theoretical kind, and is de-
signed to afford accurate and complete information to all interested in appli-
cations of the science.”—Hound Table.
Barnard’s Metric System.
Bvo. Brown cloth. $3.00.
the metric system of weights and measures.
An Address delivered Before the Convocation of the University of
the State of Hew York, at Albany, August, 1871. By Feedehick:
A. P. Baesaed, President of Columbia College, Hew York City.
Second edition from the Revised edition printed for the Trustees
of Columbia College. Tinted paper.
“It ig the best summary of the arguments in favor of the metric weights
and measures with which we are acquainted, not only because it contains in
small space the leading facts of the case, but because it puts the advocacy of
that system on the only tenable grounds, namely, the great convenience of a
decimal notation of weight and measure as well as money, the value of inter-
national uniformity in the matter, and the fact that this metric system is
adopted and in general use by the majority of civilized nations.”—The Ration.
Tlie Young Mechanic.
Illustrated. 12mo. Cloth. $1.75.
THE YOUNG MECHAHIC. Containing directions for the use
of all kinds of tools, and for the construction of steam engines
and mechanical models, including the Art of Turning in Wood
and Metal. By the author of ‘‘The Bathe and its Uses,” etc.
Brom the English edition, with corrections. 20
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Harrison’s Mechanic’s Tool-Book.
MECHANIC’S TOOL BOOK, with, practical rules and suggestions,
for the use of Machinists, Iron Workers, and others. By W. B.
Hareisox, Associate Editor of the “American Artisan.” Illustra-
ted with 44 engravings.
13mo. Cloth. $1.50.
“ This work is specially adapted to meet the -wants of Machinists and work-
ers in iron generally. It is made up of the work-day experience of an intelli-
gent and ingenious mechanic, who had the faculty of adapting tools to various
purposes. The practicability of his plans and suggestions are made apparent
even to the unpractised eye by a series of well-executed wood engravings.”—
Philadelphia Inquirer.
Pope’s Modem Practice of the Elec-
tric Telegraph.
Eighth Edition. Bvo. Cloth $3.00.
A Hand-book for Electricians and Operators. By Eirvnk L. Pope.
Seventh edition. Peviscd and enlarged, and fully illustrated.
Extract from Letter of Prof. Morse.
“ I have had time only cursorily to examine its contents, but this examina-
tion has resulted in great gratification, especially at the fairness and unpre-
judiced tone of your whole work.
“ I think all your instructions in the use of the telegraph apparatus judi-
cious and correct, and I most cordially wish you success.”
“ Your illustrated diagrams are admirable and beautifully executed.
Extract from Letter of Prof. G. W. Hough, of the Dudley Observatory.
“ There is no other work of this kind in the English language that con-
tains in so small a compass so much practical information in the application
of galvanic electricity to telegraphy. It should be in the hands of every one
interested in telegraphy, or the use of Batteries for other purposes.”
Morse’s Telegraphic Apparatus.
Illustrated. Bvo. Cloth. $3.00.
EXAMINATION OE THE TELEGRAPHIC APPARATUS
AND THE PROCESSES IN TELEGAPHY. By Samuel E.
B. Mouse, LL.D., United States Commissioner Paris Universal
Exposition, 1867. D. VAN NO STRAND.
21
Sabine’s History of the Telegraph.
ISmo. Cloth. $1.25.
HISTOEY AND PEOGEESS OE THE ELECTEIC TELE-
GEAPH, with Descriptions of some of the Apparatus. By
Eobekt Sabine, G. E. Second edition, with additions.
Contents.—l. Early Observations of Electrical Phenomena. 11. Tele-
graphs by Frictional Electricity. 111. Telegraphs by Voltaic Electricity.
IV. Telegraphs by Electro-Magnetism and Magneto-Electricity. V. Tele-
graphs now in use. VI. Overhead Lines. VII. Submarine Telegraph Lines.
VIII. Underground Telegraphs. IX. Atmospheric Electricity.
Haskins’ Galvanometer,
Pocket form. Illustrated. Morocco tucks, f 2.00.
THE GALVANOMETER AYD ITS lISES; a Manual for
Electricians and Students. By C. 11. Haskins.
“We hope this excellent little work will meet with the sale its merits
entitle it to. To every telegrapher who owns, or uses a Galvanometer, or
ever expects to, it will be quite indispensable.”—The Telegrapher.
Gulley’s Hand-Book of Telegraphy.
8 vo. Cloth. $5.00.
A HAND-BOOK OE PRACTICAL TELEGRAPHY. By
E. S. Culley, Engineer to the Electric and International
Telegraph Company. Fifth edition, revised and enlarged.
Foster’s Submarine Blasting.
4to. Cloth. $3.50.
SUBMAEINE BLASTING in Boston Harbor, Massachusetts—
Eemoval of Tower and Corwin Eoeks. By John G. Eosteb,
Lieutenant-Colonel of Engineers, and Brevet Major-General, U.
S. Army. Illustrated with seven plates.
List op Plates.—1. Sketch of the Narrows, Boston Harbor. 2.
Townsend’s Submarine Drilling Machine, and Working Vessel attending,
d Submarine Drilling Machine employed. 4. Details of Drilling Machine
employed. 5. Cartridges and Tamping used, C. Puses and Insulated Wires
Used. 7. Portable Friction Battery used. 22
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Barnes’ Submarine Warfare.
Bvo. Cloth. $5.00.
SUBMARINE WARFARE, DEFENSIVE AND OFFENSIVE.
Comprising a full and complete History of the Invention of the
Torpedo, its employment in War and results of its use. De-
scriptions of the various forms of Torpedoes, Submarine Batteries
and Torpedo Boats actually used in War. Methods of Ignition
by Machinery, Contact Fuzes, and Electricity, and a full account
of experiments made to determine the Explosive Forco of Gun-
powder under Water. Also a discussion of the Offensive Torpedo
system, its effect upon Iron-Clad Ship systems, and influence upon
Future Naval Wars. By Lieut.-Commander John S. Barnes,
U. S. N. With twenty lithographic plates and many wood-cuts.
“ A book important to military men, and especially so to engineers and ar-
tillerists. It consists of an examination of the various offensive and defensive
engines that have been contrived for submarine hostilities, including a discus-
sion of the torpedo system, its effects upon iron-clad ship-systems, and its
probable influence upon future naval wars. Plates of a valuable character
accompany the treatise, which affords a useful history of the momentous sub-
ject it discusses. A great deal of useful information is collected in its pages,
especially concerning the inventions of Scholl and Yerdu, and of Jones’
and Hunt’s batteries, as well as of other similar machines, and the use in
submarine operations of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine.”—N. T, Times.
Randall’s Quartz Operator’s Hand-
Book.
12mo. Cloth. $2.00.
QUARTZ OPERATOR’S HAND-BOOK. By P, M. Randall.
New edition, revised and enlarged. Fully illustrated.
The object of this work has been to present a clear and comprehensive ex-
position of mineral veins, and the means and modes chiefly employed for the
mining and working of their ores—more especially those containing gold and
silver. IX VAX XOSTIIAXJJ.
Mitchell’s Manual of Assaying.
Bvo. Cloth. $lO.OO.
A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL ASSAYIN G. By John Mitchell.
Third edition. Edited by William Chookes, p.E.S.
♦
In this edition are incorporated all the late important discoveries in Assay-
ing- made in this country and abroad, and special care is devoted to the very
important Volumetric and Colorimetric Assays, as well as to the Blow-Pipe
Assays.
Beliefs Chronoscope.
Second Edition.
Illustrated. 4to. Cloth. $3.00.
ELECTEO-BALLISTIC MACHINES, and the Schultz Chrono-
scope. By Lieutenant-Colonel S. Y. Benet, Captain of Ordnance,
U. S. Army.
Contents.—l. Ballistic Pendulum. 2. Gun Pendulum. 3. Use of Elec-
tricity. 4. Navez’ Machine. 5. Yignotti’s Machine, with Plates. 6. Benton s
Electro-Ballistic Pendulum, with Plates. 7. Lour’s Tro-Pendulum Machine
8. Schultz’s Chronoscope, with two Plates.
Michaelis’ Chronograph
4to. Illustrated. Cloth.' $3.00.
THE LE BOULENGE CHEONOGEAPH. With three litho-
. graphed folding plates of illustrations. By Brevet Captain OE.
Michaelis, First Lieutenant Ordnance Corps, U. S. Army.
“ The excellent monograph of Captain Michaelis enters minutely into the
details of construction and management, and gives tables of the times of flight
calculated upon a given fall of the chronometer for ail distances. Captain
Michaelis has done good service in presenting this work to his brother officers,
describing, as it does, an instrument which bids fair to be in constant use in
°ur future ballistic experiments.’—Army and Navy JourncH SCIENTIFIC TO OKS PUBLISHED BY
Silversmiths Hand-Book,
Fourth Edition.
Illustrated. 12mo. Clotli. $3.00,
A PRACTICAL HAND-BOOK FOR MINERS, Metallurgists,
and Assayers, comprising the most recent improvements in the
disintegration, amalgamation, smelting, and parting of tlio
Precious Ores, with a Comprehensive Digest of the Mining
Laws. Greatly augmented, revised, and corrected. By Julius
Silversmith. Fourth edition. Profusely illustrated. 1 vol.
P2mo. Cloth. $3. 00.
One of the most important features of this work is that in which tho
metallurgy of the precious metals is treated of. In it the author has endeav-
ored to embody all tho processes for the reduction and manipulation of the
precious ores heretofore successfully employed in Germany, England, Mexico,
and the United States, together with such as have been more recently invented,
and not yet fully tested—all of which are profusely illustrated and easy of
comprehension.
Simms5 Levelling.
A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF
LEVELLING, showing its application to purposes of Railway
Engineering and tho Construction of Roads, &c. By Frederick;
TV. Simms, C. E. From the fifth London edition, revised and
corrected, with tho addition of Mr. Law’s Practical Examples for
Setting Out Railway Curves. Illustrated with three lithographic
plates and numerous wood-cuts.
Bvo. Cloth. $2.50.
“ One of the most important text-books for tho general surveyor, and there
is scarcely a question connected with levelling for which, a solution would be
sought, but that would be satisfactorily answered by consulting this volume.”
—Mining Journal.
“ The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and col-
leges.”—Engineers.
“The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession,
especially to the younger members, by bringing out the present edition of
Mr. Simms' useful work.”—Engineering. D. VAN NO STRAND.
25
Stuart’s Successful Engineer.
ISmo. Boards. 50 cents.
HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL ENGINEER: Being
Hints to Youths intending to adopt the Profession. Bv
Bernard Stuart, Engineer. Sixth Edition.
“A valuable little book of sound, sensible advice to youno- Inen w]io
wish to rise in the most important of the professions.”—Scientific American.
Stuart’s Naval Dry Docks.
Twenty-four engravings on steel.
Fourth Edition.
4to. Cloth. $O.OO.
THE NAVAL DRY DOCKS OF THE UNITED STATES.
By Charles JB. Stuart. Engineer in Chief of the United States
Navy.
List of Illustrations,
Pumping Engine and Pumps—Plan of Pry Dock and Pump-Well—Sec-
tions of Pry Pock—Engine House-Iron Floating Gate—Petails of Floating
Gate—lron Turning Gate—Plan of Turning Gate—Culvert Gate—Filling
Culvert Gates—Engine Bed—Plato, Pumps, and Culvert—Engine House
Roof—Floating Sectional Pock—Petails of Section, and Plan of Turn-Tables
—Plan of Basin and Marine Railways—Plan of Sliding Frame, and Elevation
of Pumps—Hydraulic Cylinder—Plan of Gearing for Pumps and End Floats
-—Perspective View of Pock, Basin, and Railway—Plan of Basin of Ports-
mouth Pry Pock—Floating Balance Pock—Elevation of Trusses and the Ma-
chinery—Perspective View of Balance Pry Pock
Free Hand Drawing.
Profusely Illustrated. ISmo. Boards. 50 cents.
■A- GUIDE TO ORNAMENTAL, Figure, and Landscape Draw-
ing. By an Art Student.
Contents.—Materials employed in Prawing, and how to use them—On
Bines and how to Praw them—On Shading—Concerning lines and shading,
'Vlth applications of them to simple elementary subjects—Sketches from Na-
ture. 26
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Minifies Mechanical Drawing.
Royal Bvo. Cloth. $4.00.
Eighth Edition.
A TEXT-BOOK OE GEOMETRICAL DRAWING for the use
of Mechanics and Schools, in which the Definitions and Rules of
Geometry are familiarly explained ; the Practical Problems are
arranged, from the most simple to the more complex, and in their
description technicalities are avoided as much as possible. With
illustrations for Drawing Plans, Sections, and Elevations of
Buildings and Machinery; an Introduction to Isometrical Draw-
ing, and an Essay on Linear Perspective and Shadows. Illus-
trated with over 200 diagrams engraved on steel. By Wji.
Minipie, Architect. Eighth Edition. With an Appendix on the
Theory and Application of Colors.
“ It is the best work on Drawing that we have ever seen, and is especially a
text-book of Geometrical Drawing for the use of Mechanics and Schools. Ho
young Mechanic, such as a Machinist, Engineer, Cabinet-Maker, Millwright,
or Carpenter, should be without it.”—Scientific American.
“ One of the most comprehensive works of the kind ever published, and can-
not but possess great value to builders. The style is at once elegant and sub-
stantial. ”■—Pennsylvania Inquirer.
“ Whatever is said is rendered perfectly intelligible by remarkably well-
executed diagrams on steel, leaving nothing for mere vague supposition; and
the addition of an introduction to isometrical drawing, linear perspective, and
the projection of shadows, winding up with a useful index to technical terms.”
—Glasgoio Mechanics' Journal.
The British Government has authorized the use of this book in their
schools of art at Somerset House, London, and throughout the kingdom.
Minifie’s Geometrical Drawing.
New Edition. Enlarged.
GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. Abridged from the octavo edition,
for the use of Schools. Illustrated with 48 steel plates. New
edition, enlarged.
12mo. Cloth. $2.00.
*• It is well adapted as a text-book of drawing to be used in our High Schools
and Academies where this useful branch of the line arts has been hitherto too
much neglected.”—Boston Journal. D. VAxY JYOSTRAJYD.
27
Bell on Iron Smelting.
CHEMICAL PHENOMENA OP IKON SMELTING. An ex-
perimental and practical examination of the circumstances which
determine the capacity of the Blast Furnace, the Temperature
of the Air, and the Proper Condition of the Materials to bo
operated upon. By I. Lowtiiiax Bell.
Svo. Cloth. $6.00.
“ The reactions which take place in every foot of the blast-furnace have
been investigated, and the nature of every step in the process, from the intro-
duction of the raw material into the furnace to the production of the pig iron,
has been carefully ascertained, and recorded so fully that any one in the trade
can readily avail themselves of the knowledge acquired; and we have no hes-
itation in saying that the judicious application of such knowledge will do
much to facilitate the introduction of arrangements which will still further
economize fuel, and at the same time permit of the quality of the resulting
metal being maintained, if not improved. The volume is one which no prac-
tical pig iron manufacturer can afford to be without if he be desirous of en-
tering upon that competition which nowadays is essential to progress, and
in issuing such a work Mr. Bell has entitled himself to the best thanks of
every member of the trade.”—London Mining Journal.
King’s Notes on Steam.
Thirteenth Edition.
Bvo. Cloth. $2.00.
LESSONS AND PRACTICAL NOTES ON STEAM, the Steam-
Engine, Propellers, &c., &c., for Young Engineers, Students, and
others. By the late W. E. King, U. S. N. Devised by Chief-
Engineer I. W. King, IT. S. Navy.
“ This is one of the best, because eminently plain and practical treatises on
the Steam Engine ever published. ’—Philadelphia, Press.
This is the thirteenth edition of a valuable work of the late W. H. King,
P- S. N. It contains lessons and practical notes on Steam and the Steam En-
gine, Propellers, etc. It is calculated to be of great use to young marine en-
gineers, students, and others. The text is illustrated and explained by nu-
merous diagrams and representations of machinery.—Poston Daily A.dverm
User.
I ext-book at the TJ. S. Naval Academy, Annapolis- SCIENTIFIC TOOK! PUBLISHED BY
Burgh’s Modem Marine Engineering.
One thick 4to vol. Cloth. $35.00. Half morocco. $30.00.
MODERN MARINE ENGINEERING-, applied to Paddle and
Screw Propulsion. Consisting of 36 Colored Plates, 259 Practical
Wood-cut Illustrations, and 403 pages of Descriptive Matter, tlio
whole being an exposition of tlio present practice of tire follow-
ing firms : Messrs. J. Penn & Sons; Messrs. Maudslay, Sons &
Pield; Messrs. James Watt & Co.; Messrs. J. & G. Rennie ;
Messrs. R. Napier & Sons ; Messrs. J. & W. Dudgeon; Messrs.
Ravenhill & Hodgson; Messrs. Humphreys & Tenant; Mr.
J. T. Spencer, and Messrs. Porrester & Co, By N. P. Bthigh,
Engineer.
Principal Contents.—General Arrangements of Engines, 11 examples
—General Arrangement of Boilers, 14 examples—General Arrangement of
Superheaters, 11 examples—Details of Oscillating Paddle Engines, 34 ex-
amples—Condensers for Screw Engines, both Injection and Surface, 20 ex-
amples—Details of Screw Engines, 30 examples—Cylinders and Details of
Screw Engines, 31 examples—Slide Yalves and Details, 7 examples—Slide
Valve, Link Motion, 7 examples—Expansion Valves and Gear, 10 exam-
ples—Details in General, 30 examples—-Screw Propeller and Eittings, 13 ex-
amples - Engine and Boiler .Fittings, 28 examples - lu relation to the Princi-
ples of the Marine Engine and Boiler, 33 examples.
Hotices of ike Press.
“Every conceivable detail of the Marine Engine, under all its various
forms, is profusely, and we must add, admirably illustrated by a multitude
of engravings, selected from the best and most modern practice of tho first
Marine Engineers of the day. The chapter on Condensers is peculiarly valu-
able. In one word, there is no other work in existence which will bear a
moment’s comparison with it as an exponent of the skill, talent and practical
experience to which is due the splendid reputation enjoyed by many British
Marine Engineers.”—Engineer.
“ This very comprehensive work, which was issued in Monthly parts, has
just been completed. It contains large and full drawings and copious de-
scriptions of most of the best examples of Modern Marine Engines, and it is
a complete theoretical and practical treatise on the subject of Marine Engi-
neering.”—American Artisan.
This is the only edition of tho above work with the beautifully colored
plates, and it is out of print in England. i). VaX xosteaxd.
29
Bourne’s Treatise on the Steam En
gine.
Ninth Edition
Illustrated. 4 to. Cloth. 015.00.
TREATISE ON THE STEAM ENGINE in its various applica.
tions to Mines, Mills, Steam Navigation, Railways, and AgricuL
lure, -with, the tlieoretical investigations respecting the Motive
Power of Heat and tire proper Proportions of Steam Engines.
Elaborate Tables of tire right dimensions of every part, and
Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of
every species of Engine in actual use. By Johx Bouene, being-
tiro ninth edition of “A Treatise on tiro Steam Engine,” by
the “ Artisan Club.” Illustrated by thirty-eight plates and five
As Mr. Bourne’s work has the great merit of avoiding unsound and imma-
ture views, it may safely be consulted by all who are really desirous of ac-
quiring trustworthy information on the subject of which it treats. During
the twenty-two years which have elapsed from the issue of the first edition,
the improvements introduced in the construction of the steam engine have
been both numerous and important, and of these Mr. Bourne has taken care
to point out the more prominent, and to furnish the reader with such infor-
mation as shall enable him readily to judge of their relative value. This edi-
tion has been thoroughly modernized, and made to accord with the opinions
and practice of the more successful engineers of the present day. All that
the book professes to give is given with ability and evident care. The scien-
tific principles which are permanent are admirably explained, and reference
is made to many of the more valuable of the recently introduced engines. To
express an opinion of the value and utility of such a work as The Artisan
Club's Treatise on the Steam Engine, which has passed through eight editions
already, would be superfluous; but it may bo safely stated that the work is
Worthy the attentive study of all either engaged in the manufacture of steam
engines or interested in economizing the use of steam.—Jlining Journal.
hundred and forty-six wood-cuts.
Isherwood’s Engineering Precedents.
Two Vols. in One. Bvo. Cloth. §3.50.
Engineering precedents for steam machinery.
Arranged in the most practical and useful manner for Engineers.
By B. F. Isheswood, Civil Engineer, U. S. Navy. With illus-
trations. SCIENTIFIC TO OKS PUBLISHED BY
Ward’s Steam for the Million.
New and lievised Edition,
Bvo. Cloth. $l.OO.
STEAM POP THE MILLION. A Popular Treatise on Steam
and its Application to the Useful Arts, especially to Naviga-
tion. By J. 11. Waed, Commander U. S. Navy. New and re-
vised edition.
A most excellent work for the young engineer and general reader. Main-
facts relating to the management of the boiler and engine are set forth with a.
simplicity of language and perfection of detail that bring the subject homo
to the reader.—American Engineer.
Walker’s Screw Propulsion.
Bvo. Cloth. 73 cents.
NOTES ON SCEEW PROPULSION, its Pise and History. By
Capt. W. 11. Walker, U. S. Navy.
Commander Walker’s book contains an immense amount of concise practi-
cal data, and every item of information recorded fully proves that the various
points bearing upon it have been well considered previously to expressing an
opinion.—London Mining Journal.
Page’s Earth’s Orast.
18mo. Cloth. 75 cents.
THE EARTH’S CRUST; a Handy Outline of Geology. By
David Page.
“ Such a work as this was much wanted—a work giving in clear and intel-
ligible outline the leading* facts of the science, without amplification or irk-
some details. It is admirable in arrangement, and clear and easy, and, at tho
same time, forcible in style. It will lead, we hope, to the introduction of
Geology into many schools that have neither time nor room for the study of
large treatises.”—The Museum. I). VAN NO A TRANJJ.
Rogers’ Geology of Pennsylvania.
THE GEOLOGY OF PENNSYLVANIA. A Government Sur-
vey. With a general view of the Geology of the United States,
Essays on the Coal Formation and its Fossils, and a description
of the Coal Fields of North America and Great Britain. By
Henry Darwin Rogers, Late State Geologist of Pennsylvania.
Splendidly illustrated with Plates and Engravings in the Text.
3 Yols. 4 to, ■with. Portfolio of Maps. Cloth. $30.00.
It certainly should be in every public library throughout the country, and
likewise in the possession of all students of Geology. After the final sale of
these copies, the work will, of course, become more valuable.
The work for the last five years has been entirely out of the market, but a
few copies that remained in the hands of Prof. Rogers, in Scotland, at the
time of his death, are now offered to the public, at a price which is even
below what it was originally sold for when first published.
Morflt on Pure Fertilizers.
With 28 Illustrative Plates. Bvo. Cloth. $20.00.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON PURE FERTILIZERS, and
the Chemical Conversion of Rock Guanos, Maulstones, Ooprolites,
and the Crude Phosphates of Lime and Alumina Generally, into
various Valuable Products. By Campbell Morph, M.D., F.C.S.
Sweet’s Report on Goal.
8 vo. Cloth. $3.00.
SPECIAL REPORT ON COAL ; showing its Distribution, Classi-
fication, and Cost delivered over different routes to various points
in -the State of New York, and the principal cities on the Atlantic
Coast. By S. H. Sweet. With maps.
Colbnrn’s Gas Works of London.
Gas WORKS OF LONDON. By Zbrah Colburn.
12mo. Boards. 60 cents. 32
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Tlie Useful Metals and their Alloys;
Scoffren, Trnran, and others.
Fifth Edition.
Bvo. Half calf. $3.75.
THE USEFUL METALS AND THEIR ALLOYS, including
MINING- VENTILATION, MINING JURISPRUDENCE
AND METALLURGY CHEMISTRY employed in the conver-
sion of IRON, COPPER, TIN, ZINC, ANTIMONY, AND
LEAD ORES, with their applications to THE INDUSTRIAL
ARTS. By John Scoeeren, William Tehran, William Clay,
Robert Oxland, William Fairbairn, W. C. Aitkin, and Wil-
liam Yose Pickett.
Collins’ Useful Alloys.
THE PRIVATE BOOK OF USEFUL ALLOYS and Memo-
randa for Goldsmiths, Jewellers, etc. By James E. Collins
18mo. Flexible. 75 cents.
This little book is compiled from notes made by the Author from the
papers of one of the largest and most eminent Manufacturing Goldsmiths and
Jewellers in this country, and as the firm is now no longer in existence, and the
Author is at present engaged in some other undertaking, he now offers to the
public the benefit of his experience, and in so doing he begs to state that all
the alloys, etc., given in these pages may be confidently relied on as being
thoroughly practicable.
The Memoranda and Receipts throughout this book are also compiled
from practice, and Avill no doubt be found useful to the practical jeweller.
—Shirley, July, 1871.
Joynsons Metals Used in Construction.
12mo. Cloth. 75 cents.
THE METALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION: Iron, Steel,
Bessemer Metal, etc., etc. By Francis Herbert Joynson. Il-
lustrated.
“In the interests of practical science, we are bound to notice this work ;
and to those who wish further information, we should say, buy it; and the
outlay, wo honestly believe, will bo considered well spent.”—Scientific
Review. IK VAN NOS Til A ND.
Holley’s Ordnance and Armor.
493 Engravings. Half Roan, $10.00. Half Russia, $12.00.
A TREATISE ON ORDNANCE AND ARMOR—Embracing
Descriptions, Discussions, and Professional Opinions concerning
the Material, Fabrication, Requirements, Capabilities, and En-
durance of European and American Guns, for Naval, Sea Coast,
and Iron-clad Warfare, and their Rifling, Projectiles, and
Breech-Loading; also, Results of Experiments against Armor,
from Official Records, with an Appendix referring to Gun-Cotton,
Hooped Guns, etc., etc. By Alexander L. Holley, B. P. 948
pages, 493 Engravings, and 147 Tables of Results, etc.
Chapter I.—Standard Guns and their Fabrication Described: Section 1.
Hooped Guns; Section 2. Solid Wrought Iron Guns; Section 8. Solid Steel
Guns; Section 4. Cast-Iron Guns. Chapter ll.—The Requirements of Guns,
Armor: Section 1. The Work to he done; Section 2. Heavy Shot at Low Ve-
locities; SectionS. Small Shot at High Velocities; Section 4. The two Sys-
tems Combined; Section 5. Breaching Masonry. CHAPTER lll.—The Strains
and Structure of Guns; Section 1. Resistance to Elastic Pressure; Section 2.
The Effects of Vibration; SectionS. The Effects of Heat. Chapter IV.—
Cannon Metals and Processes of Fabrication: Section 1. Elasticity and Ductil-
ity; Section 2. Cast-Iron; Section 3. Wrought Iron; Section 4. Steel; Sec-
tion 5. Bronze; Section 0. Other Alloys. Chapter V.—Rifling and Projec-
tiles; Standard Forms and Practice Described; Early Experiments; The
Centring System; The Compressing System; The Expansion System; Armor
Punching Projectiles; Shells for Molten Metal; Competitive Trial of Rifled
Guns, 18G2; Duty of Rifled Guns; General Uses, Accuracy, Range, Velocity,
Strain, Liability of Projectile to Injury; Firing Spherical Shot from Rifled
Guns; Material for Armor-Punching Projectiles; Shape of Armor-Punching
Projectiles; Capacity and. Destructiveness of Shells; Elongated Shot from
Smooth Bores; Conclusions; Velocity of Projectiles (Table). Chapter Vl.
Breech-Loading Advantages and Defects of the System; Rapid Firing and
Cooling Guns by Machinery; Standard Breech-Loaders Described. Part Sec-
ond : Experiments against Armor; Account of Experiments from Official
Records in Chronological Order. Appendix.—Report on the Application of
Gun-Cotton to Warlike Purposes—British Associatiou, 1863; Manufacture and
Experiments in England ; Guns Hooped with Initial Tension—History; How
Guns Burst, by Wiard, Lyman’s Accelerating Gun; Endurance of Parrott
and Whitworth Guns at Charleston ; Hooping old United States Cast-Iron
Guns; Endurance and Accuracy of the Armstrong 000-pounder; Competitive
Trials with 7-inch Guns.
Contents. 34
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Peirce’s Analytic Mechanics.
4to. Cloth. $lO.OO.
SYSTEM OP ANALYTIC MECHANICS. Physical and Celestial
Mechanics. By Benjamin Peiiice, Perkins Professor of Astronomy
and Mathematics in Harvard University, and Consulting As-
tronomer of tho American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.
Developed in four systems of Analytic Mechanics, Celestial
Mechanics, Potential Physics, and Analytic Morphology.
“ I have re-examined the memoirs of the great geometers, and have striven
to consolidate their latest researches and their most exalted forms of thought
into a consistent and uniform treatise. If I have hereby succeeded in open-
ing to the students of my country a readier access to these choice jewels of
intellect; if their brilliancy is not impaired in this attempt to reset them; if,
in their own constellation, they illustrate each other, and concentrate
a stronger light upon the names of their discoverers , and, still more, if any
gem which I may have presumed to add is not wholly lustreless in the collec-
tion, I shall feel that my work has not been in vain.”—Extract from the Pre-
face.
Burt’s Key to Solar Compass.
Second Edition.
Pocket Book Porm. Tuck. $3.50.
KEY TO THE SOLAR COMPASS, and Surveyor’s Companion;
comprising all the Pules necessary for use in the field; also,
Description of the Linear Surveys and Public Land System of
the United States, Notes on the Barometer, Suggestions for an
outfit for a Survey of four months, etc., etc., etc. By W. A.
Bum, U. S. Deputy Surveyor. Second edition.
Oliauvenet’s Lunar Distances.
NEW METHOD OF CORRECTING LUNAR DISTANCES,
and Improved Method of Finding the Error and Rate of a Chro-
nometer, by equal altitudes. By Wm. Chauvenet, LL.D., Chan-
cellor of Washington University of St. Louis.
Bvo. Cloth. $2.00. J). YAN NOSTIIAXI).
35
Jeffers’ Nautical Surveying.
Illustrated •with. 9 Copperplates and 31. Wood-cut Illustrations. Byo.
Cloth. $5.00.
NAUTICAL SURVEYING. By William N. Jeffers, Captain
U. S. Navy.
Many books havo been written on each of the subjects treated of in the
sixteen chapters of this work; and, to obtain a complete knowledge of
geodetic surveying requires a profound study of the whole range of mathe-
matical and physical sciences; but a year of preparation should render any
intelligent officer competent to conduct a nautical survey.
Contexts.—Chapter I. Formula? and Constants Useful in Surveying
11. Distinctive Character of Surveys. 111. Hydrographic Surveying under
Sail; or, Eunning Survey. IV. Hydrographic Surveying of Boats; or, Har-
bor Survey. V. Tides—Definition of Tidal Phenomena—Tidal Observations.
VI. Measurement of Bases—Appropriate and Direct. VII. Measurement of
the Angles of Triangles—Azimuths—Astronomical Bearings. VIII. Correc-
tions to be Applied to the Observed Angles. IX. Levelling—Difference of
Level. X. Computation of the Sides of the Triangulation—The Three-point
Problem. XI. Determination of the Geodetic Latitudes, Longitudes, and
Azimuths, of Points of a Triangulation. XII. Summary of Subjects treated
of in preceding Chapters—Examples of Computation by various Formula?.
XIII. Projection of Charts and Plans. XIV. Astronomical Determination of
Latitude and Longitude. XV. Magnetic Observations. XVI. Deep Sea
Soundings. XVII. Tables for Ascertaining Distances at Sea, and a full
Index.
List of Plates.
Plate I. Diagram Illustrative of the Triangnlation. 11. Specimen Page
of Field Book. HI. Punning Survey of a Coast. IV. Example of a Running
Survey from Belcher. V. Flying Survey of an Island. VI. Survey of a
Shoal. VII. Boat Survey of a River. VIII. Three-Point Problem. IX.
Triangulation.
Coffin’s Navigation.
Fifth Edition.
12mo. Cloth. $0.50.
NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. Prepared
for the use of the U. S. Naval Academy. By J. H. C. Coffin,
Prof, of Astronomy, Navigation and Surveying, with 52 wood-
cut illustrations. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
Clark’s Theoretical Navigation.
Bvo. Cloth. $3.00.
THEORETICAL NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRON-
OMY. By Lewis Clark, Lieut.-Comman.der, U. S. Navy. Il-
lustrated with 41 Wood-cuts, including the Vernier.
Prepared for Use at the TJ. S. Naval Academy.
The Plane Table.
Illustrated. Bvo. Cloth. $3.00.
ITS USES IN TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYING. Prom the
Papers of the U. S. Coast Survey.
This work gives a description of the Plane Table employed at the U, S.
Coast Survey Office, and the manner of using it.
Pook on Shipbuilding.
Bvo. Cloth. $5.00.
METHOD OF COMPARING THE LINES AND DRAUGHT-
ING VESSELS PROPELLED BY SAIL OR STEAM, in-
cluding a Chapter on Laying off on the Mould-Loft Floor. By
Samuel M. Pook, Naval Constructor. 1 vol., Bvo. With illus-
trations. Cloth. $5.00.
Brunnow’s Spherical Astronomyo
8 vo. Cloth. $6.50.
SPHERICAL ASTRONOMY. By P. Brunnow, Ph. Dr. Trans-
lated by the Author from the Second German, edition. I). VAAr NOSTUAm).
Van Bnren’s Formulas.
INVESTIGATIONS OF FOEMULAS, for the Strength of the
Bvo. Cloth. $2.00.
Iron Parts of Steam Machinery. By J. D. Yak Buren, Jr., 0. E.
Illustrated.
This is an analytical discussion of the formulae employed hy mechanical
engineers in determining the rupturing or crippling pressure in the different
parts of a machine. The formula; are founded upon the principle, that tho
different parts of a machine should be equally strong, and are developed in
reference to the ultimate strength of the material in order to leave the choice
of a factor of safety to the judgment of the designer.—Silliman's Journal.
Joynson on Machine Gearing,
THE MECHANIC’S AND STUDENT’S GUIDE in tho Design-
ing and Construction of General Machine Gearing, as Eccentrics,
Screws, Toothed Wheels, e'tc., and the Drawing of Eectilineal
and Curved Surfaces ; with Practical Eules and Details. Edited
by Francis Herbert Joynson. Illustrated with 18 folded
plates.
“ The aim of this work is to be a guide to mechanics in the designing and
&vo. Cloth. $2.00.
construction of general machine-gearing. This design it well fulfils, being
plainly and sensibly written, and profusely illustrated.”—Sunday Times.
Barnard’s Report, Paris Exposition,
1867.
Illustrated. Bvo. Cloth. $5.00.
EEPOET ON MACHINEEY AND PEOCESSES ON THE
INDUSTEIAL AETS AND APPAEATUS OF THE EXACT
SCIENCES. By F. A. P. Barnard, LL.D.—Paris Universal
Exposition, 1867.
“We have in this volume the results of Dr. Barnard’s study of the Paris
'Exposition of 1867, in the form of an official Deport of the Government. It
is the most exhaustive treatise upon modern inventions that has appeared
since the Universal Exhibition of 1851, and we doubt if anything equal to it
has appeared this century.”—Journal Applied Chemistry. 38
SCJEXTIFIV HOOKS PUBLISHED B Y
Engineering Facts and Figures.
18mo. Cloth, $3.50 per Volume.
AN ANNUAL REGISTER OF PROGRESS IN MECHANI-
CAL ENGINEERING AND CONSTRUCTION, for the Years
1863-04-65—66-67—68. Fully illustrated. 6 volumes.
Each, volume sold separately.
Beckwith’s Pottery.
Bvo. Paper. 60 cents.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATERIALS and Manufacture of
Terra-Cotta, Stone-Ware, Fire-Brick, Porcelain and Encaustic
Tiles, with Remarks on the Products exhibited at the London
International Exhibition, 1871. By Arthur Beckwith, Civil
Engineer.
“ Everything is noticed in this book -which comes under the head of Pot-
tery, from fine porcelain to ordinary brick, and aside from the interest which
all take in such manufactures, the work will be of considerable value to
followers of the ceramic art.”—Evening Mail.
Dodd’s Dictionary of Manufactures, etc.
Ifcmo. Oiotll. s^.oo.
DICTIONARY OF MANUFACTURES, MINING, MACHIN-
ERY, AND THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS. By George Dodd.
This work, a small book on a great subject, treats, in alphabetical ar-
rangement, of those numerous matters which come generally within the range
of manufactures and the productive arts. The raw materials—animal, vege-
table, and mineral—whence the manufactured products are derived, are suc-
cinctly noticed in connection with the processes which they undergo, but not
as subjects of natural history. The operations of the Mine and the Mill, the
Foundry and the Forge, the Factory and the "Workshop, are passed under re-
view. The principal machines and engines, tools and apparatus, concerned in
manufacturing processes, are briefly described. The scale on which our chief
branches of national industry are conducted, in regard to values and quantities
is indicated in various ways. I). VAN JSfOSTRAND.
Stuart’s Oivil and Military Engineer-
ing of America.
THE CIVIL AND MILITARY ENGINEERS OF AMERICA.
Bvo. Illustrated. Clotli. $5.00.
By General Charles B. Stuart, Author of “ Naval Dry Docks
of the United States,” etc., etc. Embellished with nine finely
executed portraits on steel of eminent engineers, and illustrated
by engravings of some of the most important and original works
Containing sketches of the Life and Works of Major Andrew Ellicott,
James Geddes (with Portrait'l, Benjamin Wright (with Portrait), Canvass
White (with Portrait), David Stanhope Bates, Nathan S. Roberts, Gridley
Bryant (with Portrait), General Joseph G. Swift, Jesse L. Williams (with
Portrait), Colonel William Mcßee, Samuel H. Kneass, Captain John Childe
with Portrait)1, Frederick Harbach, Major David Bates Douglas (with Por-
trait), Jonathan Knight, Benjamin H. Latrobe (with Portrait), Colonel Char-
les Ellet, Jr. (with Portrait), Samuel Forrer, William Stuart Watson, John
A. Roebling.
constructed in America.
Alexander’s Dictionary of Weights
and Measures.
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY OF WEIGHTS AND MEAS-
URES, Ancient and Modern, reduced to the standards of the
United States of America. By J. H. Alexander. New edition.
1 vol.
“As a standard work of reference, this hook should he in every library ; i 6
Bvo. Cloth. $3.50.
is one which we have long wanted, and it will save much trouble and re-
search.”—Scientific American.
Gouge on Ventilation.
Third Edition Enlarged.
Bvo. Cloth. $3.00.
NEW SYSTEM OF VENTILATION, which has been thoroughly
tested under the patronage of many distinguished persons. By
Henry A. Gouge, with many illustrations. 40
SCIENTIFIC EC)OIIS PUBLISHED BY
Baeltzer’s Acoustics.
12mo. Cloth. $3.00.
TREATISE ON ACOUSTICS in Connection with Ventilation.
With a new theory based on an important discovery, of facilitat-
ing clear and intelligible sound in any building. By Alexander
Saeltzer.
“ A practical and very sound treatise on a subject of great importance to
architects, and one to which there has hitherto been entirly too little attention
paid. The author’s theory is, that, by bestowing proper care upon the point
of Acoustics, the requisite ventilation will be obtained, and vice versa.—
Brooklyn Union.
Myer’s Manual of Signals.
New Edition. Enlarged.
12mo. 48 Plates full Roan. $5.00.
MANUAL OF SIGNALS, for the Use of Signal Officers in the
Field, and for Military and Naval Students, Military Schools,
etc. A new edition, enlarged and illustrated. By Brig.-Gen.
Albert J. Myer, Chief Signal Officer of the Army, Colonel of
the Signal Corps during the War of the Rebellion.
Larrabee’s Secret Letter and
Telegraph Code.
18mo. Cloth. $l.OO.
CIPHER AND SECRET LETTER AND TELEGRAPHIC
CODE, with Hogg’s Improvements. The most perfect secret
Code ever invented or discovered. Impossible to read without
the Key. Invaluable for Secret, Military, Naval, and Diplo-
matic Service, as well as for Brokers, Bankers, and Merchants.
By C. S. Laeeabee, the original inventor of the scheme. 1). TAN NO STRAND.
41
Hunt's Designs for Central Park
Gateways.
DESIGNS FOR THE GATEWAYS OF THE SOUTHERN
ENTRANCES TO THE CENTRAL PARK. By Richard M.
Hunt. With a description of the designs.
4to. Cloth. $5.00.
Pickert and Metcalf’s Art of Graining.
1 vol. 4to. Cloth. 810.00.
THE ART OF GRAINING. How Acquired and How Produced,
with description of colors and their application. By Charles
Pickert and Abraham Metcalf. Beautifully illustrated with 42
tinted plates of the various woods used in interior finishing.
Tinted paper.
Tho authors present here the result of long1 experience in the practice of
this decorative art, and feel confident that they hereby offer to their brother
artisans a reliable guide to improvement in the practice of graining.
Portrait Gallery of the War.
60 fine Portraits on Steel. Royal Bvo. Cloth. $6.00,
PORTRAIT GALLERY OE THE WAR, CIVIL, MILITARY
AND NAYAL. A Biographical Record. Edited by Frank
Moore.
One Law in Nature,
l2mo. Cloth. $1.50.
ONE LAYvr IN NATURE. By Capt. H. M. Lazelle, U. S. A.
A New Corpuscular Theory, comprehending Unity of Force,
Identity of Matter, and its Multiple Atom Constitution, applied
to the Physical Affections or Modes of Energy. 42
SCIENTIFIC BOONS PUBLISHED BY
Ernst’s Manual of Military En-
gineering.
193 Wood Cuts and 3 Lithographed Plates. 12mo. Cloth, $5.00.
A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL MILITARY ENGINEER-
ING. Prepared for the use of the Cadets of the U. S. Military
Academy, and for Engineer Troops. By Capt. 0. H. Ernst,
Corps of Engineers, Instructor in Practical Military Engi-
neering, U. S. Military Academy.
Churcli’s Metallurgical Journey.
NOTES OP A METALLURGICAL JOURNEY IN
EUROPE. By John A. Church, Engineer of Mines.
24 Illustrations. Bvo. Cloth. $2.00.
Blake’s Precious Metals.
Bvo. Cloth. $2.00.
REPORT UPON THE PRECIOUS METALS': Being Statisti-
cal Notices of the principal Gold and Silver producing regions
of the World. Represented at the Paris Universal Exposi-
tion. By William P. Blake, Commissioner from the State
of California.
Clevenger’s Surveying.
Illustrated Pocket Form. Morocco Gilt. $2.50.
A TREATISE ON THE METHOD OF GOVERNMENT
SURVEYING, as prescribed by the United States Congress,
and Commissioner of the General Land Office. With com-
plete Mathematical, Astronomical and Practical Instructions,
for the use of the United States Surveyors in the Field, and
Students who contemplate engaging in the business of Public
Land Surveying. By S. R. Clevenger, U. S, Deputy Sur-
veyor.
“ The reputation of the author as a surveyor guarantees an exhaustive
treatise on this subject.”—Dakota Register.
“ Surveyors have long needed a text-book of this description.—Tho Press. IX I A N NOS Til ANJJ.
Bow on Bracing.
15G Illustrations on Stone. Bvo. Cloth. $1.50.
A TREATISE OX BRACING, with its application to Bridges
and other Structures of Wood or Iron. By Robert Henry
Bow, C. E.
Howard's Earthwork Mensuration.
Bvo. Illustrated. Clotli. §1.50.
EARTHWORK MENSURATION ON THE BASIS OF
THE PRISMOIDAL FORMULAS. Containing simple and
labor-saving method of obtaining Prismoidal Contents direct-
ly from End Areas. Illustrated by Examples, and accom-
panied by Plain Rules for practical uses. By Conway R.
Ho’ward, Civil Engineer, Richmond, Va.
McAlpine’s Modern Engineering.
Second Edition. Bvo. Cloth. $1.50.
MODERN ENGINEERING. A Lecture delivered at the Amer-
ican Institute in New York. By William J. Me Alpine.
Mowbray’s Tri-Mtro-G-lycerine.
Bvo. Cloth. Illustrated. $O.OO.
TRI-NITROGLYCERINE, „as applied in the Iloosac Tunnel,
and to Submarine Blasting, Torpedoes, Quarrying, etc. Being
the result of six years’ observation and practice during the
manufacture of live hundred thousand pounds of this explo-
sive, Mica Blasting Powder, Dynamites; with an account of 44
SCIENTIFIC BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
the various Systems of Blasting by Electricity, Priming Com-
pounds, Explosives, etc., etc. By George M. Mowbray,
Operative Chemist, with thirteen illustrations, tables, and
appendix. Third Edition. Re-written.
Wanklyn’s Milk Analysis,
12mo. Cloth. $l.OO.
MILK ANALYSIS. A Practical Treatise on the Examination
of Milk, and its Derivatives, Cream, Butter and Cheese. By
J. Alfred Wanklyn, M. 11. C. S.
Toner’s Dictionary of Elevations,
Bvo. Paper, $3.00. Cloth, $3.70.
DIOTTONAEY OF ELEVATIONS AND CLIMATIC REG-
ISTER OF THE UNITED STATES. Containing, in addi-
tion to Elevations, the Latitude, Mean Annual Temperature,
and the total Annual Rain Fall of many localities; with a
brief Introduction on the Orographic and Physical Peculiari-
ties of North America. By J. M. Toner, M. D.
Adams. Sewers and Drains.
{ln Press.)
SEWERS AND DRAINS FOR POPULOUS DISTRICTS,
Embracing Rules and Formulas for the dimensions of Sani-
tary Engineers. By Jclius W. Adams, Chief Engineer of the
Board of City Works, Brooklyn. T). VAN NO STRAND.
45
Prescott’s Proximate Organic
Analysis.
12mo. Cloth. $1.75.
OUTLINES OF PROXIMATE ORGANIC ANALYSIS
for the Identification, Separation, and Quantitative Deter-
mination of the more commonly occurring Organic Com-
pounds. By Albert B. Prescott, Professor of Organic
and Applied Chemistry in the University of Michigan.
Prescott’s Alcoholic Liquors.
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF ALCOHOLIC LI-
QUORS. A Manual of the Constituents of the Distilled
Spirits and Fermented Liquors of Commerce, and their
Qualitative and Quantitative Determinations. By Albert
13. Prescott, Professor of Organic and Applied Chemistry
in the University of Michigan.
13mo. Cloth. $1.50.
Greene’s Bridge Trusses.
Bvo. Illustrated. Cloth. $2.00.
GRAPHICAL METHOD FOR THE ANALYSIS OF
BRIDGE TRUSSES, extended to Continuous Girders
and Draw Spans. By Charles E. Greene, A.M., Pro-
fessor of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan. Illus-
trated by three folding plates.
Butler’s Projectiles and Rilled
Cannon.
4to. 83 Plates. Cloth. In press.
PROJECTILES AND RIFLED CANNON. A Critical
Discussion of the Principal Systems of Rifling and Projec-
tiles, with Practical Suggestions for their Improvement, as
embraced in a Report to the Chief of Ordnance, U. S.A. By
Capt. John S. Butler, Ordnance Corps, U.S.A. SCIENCE SERIES PUBLISHED BY
Van No-strand’s Science Series.
It is the intention of the Publisher of this Series to issue them at inter-
vals of about a month. They will be put up in a uniform, neat and attrac-
tive form, 18mo, fancy boards. The subjects will be of an eminently
scientific character, and embrace as wide a range of topics as possible, all
of the highest character.
i.
CHIMNEYS FOR FURNACES, FIRE-PLACES, AND
STEAM BOILERS. By R. Armstrong, C. E.
Price, 50 Cents Eacli.
2.
STEAM BOILER EXPLOSIONS. By Zerah Colburn.
3.
PRACTICAL DESIGNING OF RETAINING WALLS
By Arthur Jacob, A. B. With Illustrations.
PROPORTIONS OF PINS USED IN BRIDGES. By
Charles E. Bender, C. E. With Illustrations.
5_
VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. By W. F. Butler. With
Illustrations.
6.
ON THE DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTION OF STOR-
AGE RESERVOIRS. By Arthur Jacob. With Illustra-
tions.
•7-
SURCHARGED AND DIFFERENT FORMS OF RETAIN-
ING WALLS. By James S. Tate, C. E.
s.
A TREATISE OX THE COMPOUND ENGINE. By John
Turnbull. With Illustrations.
©,
FUEL. By C. W. Siemens to which is appended the Yalue of
Artificial Fuels as compared with Coal. By J. Wormald, C. E.
Other works in preparation. I). VAIV -NOSTRAND.
47
10.
COMPOUND ENGINES. Translated from the French of
A. Mallet. Illustrated.
11.
THEORY OF ARCHES. By Prof. W. Allan, of the
Washington and Lee College. Illustrated.
12.
A PRACTICAL THEORY OF YOUSSOIR ARCHES. By
William Cain, C.E. Illustrated.
13.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE GASES MET
WITH IN COAL-MINES. By the late J, J. Atkinson,
Government Inspector of Mines for the County of Durham,
England.
14.
FRICTION OF AIR IN MINES. By J, J. Atkin sox,
Author of “ A Practical Treatise on the Gases met with in
Coal-Mines.”
IS.
SKEW ARCHES. By Prof. E. W. Hyde, O.E. Illustrated
with numerous engravings and three folded plates. 48
I). VAsr NO STRAND.
SILVER MINING REGIONS OF COLORADO, with some
account of the different Processes now being introduced for
working the Gold Ores of that Territory. By J. P. Whitney.
12mo. Paper. 25 cents.
COLORADO: SCHEDULE OF ORES contributed by sundry
persons to the Paris Universal Exposition of 1807, with some
information about the Region and its Resources. By J. P.
Whitney, Commissioner from the Territory. Bvo. Paper, with
Maps. 25 cents. '
THE SILVER DISTRICTS OF NEVADA. With Map. Bvo.
Paper. 35 cents.
ARIZONA: ITS -RESOURCES AND PROSPECTS. By Hon.
R. C. McCormick, Secretary of the Territory. With Map. Bvo.
Paper. 25 cents.
MONTANA AS IT IS. Being’ a general description of its Re-
sources, both Mineral and Agricultural; including a complete
description of the face of the country, its climate, etc. Illustrated
with a Map of the Territory, showing the different Roads and
the location of the different Mining Districts. To which is
appended a complete Dictionary of The Snake Language, and
also of the famous Chinnook Jargon, with numerous critical and
explanatory Notes. By Granville Stuart. Bvo. Paper. $2.00.
RAILWAY GAUGES. A Review of the Theory of Narrow
Gauges as applied to Main Trunk Lines of Railway. By Silas
Seymour, Genl. Consulting Engineer. Bvo. Paper. 50 cents.
REPORT made to the President and Executive Board of the
Texas Pacific Railroad. By Gen. G. P. Buell, Chief Engineer.
Bvo. Paper. 75 cents.