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'. ,v.«i • '.viV5'::.*;-ll,«-J.V1-.fs'' XL''-*#' '.irV''''''.-' '....'"■•►', '; ."* '':• ^i'ft: I LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF Ml fa W—'-—Hsff- x—^~Z BRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF Ml » JO AIVIII1 1VNOI1VN 3NI3I03W JO A IIV * « I 1 1VNOI1VN 3NI3I03W iO A1 V IIS I 1 1VNOUVN 3NI3IQ3W JO AIYItll 1VNOI1VN 3NI3I03W JO H»llll It L LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF M i ^ avaan ivnoiivn jndioiw jo Aavaan ivnoiivn jnoiqim jo Aavaan ivnoiivn jnoiqjw jo Aavaan ivnoiivn \ fiK/ i ARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEOICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICIN ARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEOICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICIN I V avian ivnoiivn inoioiw jo Aavaan ivnoiivn inoiqiw jo Aavaan ivnoiivn snidiqsw jo Aavaan ivnoiivn jnisioiw jo Aavaan ivnouvi BR* X ■ WW* > •• ' •^ \i - V V*K o r_ J / • X. ARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICIN avaan ivnoiivn inijioin jo Aavaan ivnoiivn inijioiw jo Aavaan ivnoiivn jnisiqjw jo Aavaan ivnoiivn jnidiojw jo Aavaan ivnoiiv 1 \y\=a\/ * ARY OF MEOICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE ICTIOKAiRTT ^ And the Present State of ever) branch of Human Knowledge, .\ V X / v. % DICTIONARY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. EVA EVA ETHULIA, a genus of the class and order synge- nesia polygamia eequalis. The receptacle is na- ked; down none. There are six species, chiefly annuals of the East Indies. ETHUSA, fool's parsley. See jEtuusa. ETNA. See Volcano. ETYMOLOGY, that part of grammar which consi- ders and explains the origin and derivation of words, in order to arrive at their first and primary signification, whence Quintilian calls it originatio. The best treatise on the etymology of English words, and for the ascertaining of their force and usage, is un- questionably the Epea Pterocnta of Mr. Home Tooke, already quoted in this work. EVACUANTS. See Materia Medica. EVANTES, in antiquity, the priestesses of Bacchus, thus called, because in celebrating the orgia, they ran about as if distracted, crying, evan, evan, ohe' evan. EVAPORATION, in chemistry, the setting a liquor in a gentle heat or in the air, to discharge its superfluous humidity, reduce it to a proper consistence, or obtain its dry remainder. Evaporation, though generally considered as the effect of the heat and motion of the air, may be produced by a different cause. Fluids lose more by evaporation in the severest frost than when the air is moderately warm. Thus, in the great frost of 1708, i^iyas found that the greater the cold the more considerable the evaporation. Ice itself loses much by evaporation. Evaporation, in natural philosophy, is the conver- sion of water into vapour, which in consequence of be- coming lighter than the atmosphere, is raised conside- rably above the surface of the earth, and afterwards by a partial condensation forms clouds. It differs from ex- halation, which is properly a dispersion of dry particles from a body. We are indebted to the experiments of Saussure and Deluc for much of our knowledge of the qualities of va- pour. It is an elastic invisible fluid like common air, but VOL. XI. 1 lighter; being to common air of the same elasticity, ac cording to Saussure, as 10 to 14, or, according to Kir wan, as 10 to 12. When water is heated to jjttp°> it boils, and is rapidly converted into steam; and the same change takes place in much lower temperatures; but in that case the evapo- ration is lower, and the elasticity of the steam is smaller. Asa very considerable proportion of the earth's surface is covered with water, and as this water is constantly evaporating and mixing with the atmosphere in the state of vapour, a precise determination of the rate of evapo- ration must be of very great importance 141 meteorology. Accordingly, many experiments have been made to de- termine the point by different philosophers. No person has succeeded so completely as Mr. Dalton; but many curious particulars had been previously ascertained by the labours of Richman, Lambert, Wallerius, Leiden- frost, Watson, Saussure, Deluc, Kirwan, and others. 1. The evaporation is confined entirely to the surface of the water: hence it is in all cases proportional to the surface of the wTater exposed to the atmosphere. Much more vapour of course rises in maritime countries, or those interspersed with lakes, than in inland coun- tries. 2. Much more vapour rises during hot weather than during cold: hence the quantity evaporated depends in some measure upon temperature. The precise law has been happily discovered by Mr. Dalton. This philoso- pher took a cylindrical vessel of tin, whose diameter waa L± inches, and its depth 2* inches, filled it with water, and kept it just boiling for some time. The loss of weight in the minute was 30 grains, when the experiment wa* made in a close room without any draught of air; 35 grains when the vessel was placed over fire in the usu- al fire-place, there being a moderate draught of air, and the room close; 40 with a brisker fire and a stronger draught; and when the draught was very strong, he sup- poses the evaporation mig.t amount to 60 grains in the minute. At the temperature of 180°, the quantity evapo- rated was one half of what was lost at 212°. EVAPORATION. At 164° it was \ of that at 212°, 152 £ 144 .i 138 » 6 And in general the quantity evaporated from a given surface of waier per minute at any temperature is to the quantity evaporated from the same surface at 212°, as the force of vapour at the first temperature is to the force of vapour at 212°. Hence, in order to discover the quantity which will be lost by evaporation from water of a given temperature, we have only to ascertain the force of vapour at that temperature. Hence we see that the presence of atmospheric air obstructs the evaporation of water; but this evaporation is overcome in proportion to the force of the vapour. Mr. Dalton ascribes this ob- struction to the vis inertiac of air. 3. The quantity of vapour which rises from water, even when the temperature is the same, varies ac- cording to circumstances. It is least of all in calm weather, greater when a breeze blows, and greatest of all with a strong wind. The following table, drawn up by Mr. Dalton, shows the quantity of vapour raised from a circular surface of six inches in diameter in at- mospheric temperatures. The first column expresses the temperature; the second the corresponding force of va- pour; the other three columns give the number of grains of water that would be evaporated from a surface of six inches in diameter in the r^wective temperatures, on the supposition of there being pwviously no aqueous vapour in the atmosphere. These columns present the extremes and the mean of evaporation likely to be noticed, or nearly such; for the first is calculated upon the supposi tion of 35 grains loss per minute from the vessel of inches in diameter; the second 45, and the third 55 grains per minute. Evaporating force in grains ^1 Z Tempe-rature. * Force of vapour in inches. Evapor 219° 30 120 20 .129 .52 21 ,134 .54 22 .139 .56 23 .144 .58 24 .150 .60 25 .156 .62 26 .162 .65 27 .168 .67 28 .174 .70 29 .180 .72 30 .186 .74 31 .193 .77 32 .200 .80 33 .207 .83 34 .214 .86 35 .221 .89 36 .229 .92 37 .237 .95 38 .245 .98 39 .254 1.02 40 .263 1.05 41 .273 1.09 42 .283 1.13 43 .294 1 1.18 1 54 1"9 • 1.99 46 .3 27 i.31 1.68 2.06 47 .339 1.36 1.75 2.13 48 .351 1.40 i.80 2.20 49 .363 1.45 1.86 2.28 50 .375 1.50 1.92 2.36 51 .388 1.55 1.99 2.44 52 .401 1.60 2.06 2.51 53 .415 1.66 2.13 2.61 54 .429 1.71 >i.2() 2.69 55 .443 1.77 2.28 2.78 56 .458 1.83 1.35 2.88 57 .474 1.90 2.43 2.98 58 .490 1.96 2.52 3.08 59 .507 2,03 2.61 3.19 60 .524 2.10 2.70 3.30 61 .542 2.17 2.79 3.41 62 .560 2.24 2.88 3.52 63 .578 2.31 2.97 3.63 64 .597 2.39 3.07 3.76 65 .616 2.46 3.16 3.87 66 .635 2.54 3.27 3.99 67 .655 2.62 3.37 4.12 68 .676 2.70 3.47 4.24 69 .698 2.79 3.59 4.38 70 .721 2.88 3.70 4.53 71 .745 2.98 3.83 4.68 72 .770 3.08 3.96 4.84 73 .796 3.18 4.09 5.00 74 .823 3.29 4.23 5.17 75 .851 3.40 4.37 5.34 76 .880 3.52 4.52 5.53 77 .910 3.65 4.68 5.72 78 .940 3.76 4.83 5.91 79 .971 3.88 4.99 6.10 80 1.00 4.00 5.14 6.29 81 1.04 4.16 5.35 6.54 82 1.07 4.28 5.50 6.73 83 1.10 4.40 5.66 6.91 84 1.14 4.56 5.86 7.ir 85 1.17 4.68 6.07 7.46 4. Such is the quantity of vapour which would rise in different circumstances, on the supposition that no va- pour existed in the atmosphere. But this is a supposi- tion which can never be admitted, as the atmosphere is in no case totally free from vapour. Now when we wish to ascertain the rate at which evaporation is going on, we have only to find the force of the vapour already in the atmosphere, and subtract it from the force of vapour .at the given temperature: the remainder gives us the ac- tual force of eraporfgfton; from which, by the table, we readily find the raw of evaporation. Thus, suppose we wish to know the i atfe of evaporation at the temperature 59°. From the table we see that the force of vapour at 59° is 0.5, or ^ its force at 212°. Suppose we find by trials that the force of the vapour already existing in the atmosphere is 0.25, or the half of ^. To ascertain the rate of evaporation, we must subtract the 0.25 from 0.5; the remainder 0.25 gives us the force of evapora- tion required; which is precisely one half of what it would be if no vapour had previously existed in the at- mosphere. EVAPORATION. By the tabic we see that on that supposition a surface of six inches diameter would lose one grain by evapora- tion per minute, instead of two grains, which would have been converted into vapour if no vapour had pre- viously existed in the atmosphere. If the force of the vapour in the atmosphere had amounted to 0.5, which is equal to the force of vapour at the temperature of 59°, in that case no vapour whatever would rise i'rom the water; and if the force of the vapour already in the atmosphere exceeded 0.5, instead of evaporation, mois- ture would be deposited on the surface of the water. These general observations, for all of which we are indebted to Mr. Dalton, account in a satisfactory man- ner for all the anomalies which had puzzled preceding philosophers; and include under them all the less gene- ral laws which they had discovered. We must consider the discoveries of Mr. Dalton as the most important ad- ditions made to the science of meteorology for these many years. 5. As the force of the vapour actually in the atmos- phere is seldom equal to the force of vapour of the tem- perature of the atmosphere, evaporation, with a few exceptions, may be considered as constantly going on. Various attempts have been made to ascertain the quantity evaporated in the course of a year; but the dif- ficulty of the problem is so great, that we can expect only an approximation towards a solution. From the experiments of Dr. Dobson of Liverpool in the years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775, it appears that the mean annual evaporation from the surface of water amounted to 36.78 inches. The proportion for every month was the following: Inches. Inches. January 1.50 July 5.11 February 1.77 August - 5.01 March 2.64 September 3.18 April 3.30 October 2.51 May 4.34 November 1.51 June 4.41 December 1.49 Mr. Dalton found the evaporation from the surface of water in one of the driest and hotest days of summer rather more than 0.2 of an inch. If we believe Mr. Williams, the evaporation from the surface of land covered with trees and other vegetables is one-third greater than from the surface of water; but this has not been confirmed by other philosophers. From his experiments it appears, that in Bradford in New England the evaporation, during 1772, amounted to 42.65 inches. But from the way that his experiments were conducted, the amount was probably too great. From an experiment of Dr. Watson, made on the 2d of June 1779, after a month's drought, it appears, that the evaporation from a square inch of a grass plot amounted to 12 grains in an hour, oi £8.8 grains in 24 hours, which is 0.061 of an inch. In another experiment, after there had been no rain for a week, the heat of the earth being 110°, the evaporation was fonnd almost twice as great, or =0.108 of an inch in the day. The mean of these two experiments is 0.084 inches, amounting for the whole of June to 2.62 inches. If we suppose tiiisto bear the sane proportion to th.' whole year that the evapora- tion in Dr. Dobson's experiments for June do to the annual evaporation, we shall obtain an annual evaporation, amounting to about 22 inci:..^. This is much smaller than that obtained by Mr. Williams. But Dr. Watson's me- thod was not susceptible of precision. He collected the vapour raised on the inside of a drinking-gla»s; but it was impossible that the glass could condense much more than one half of what did rise, or would have been raised in other circumstances. But then the experiments were made in the hottest part of the day, when much more vapour is raised than during any other part of it. The most exact set of experiments on the evaporation from the earth was made by Mr. Dalton and Mr. Hoyle, during 1796, and the two succeeding years. The method which they adopted was this: Having got a cylindrical vessel of tinned iron, ten inches in diameter, and three feet deep, there were inserted into it two pipes turned downwards for the water to run off into bottles: the one pipe was near the bottom of the vessel, the other was an inch from the top. The vessel was filled up for a few inches with gravel and sand, and all the rest with good fresh soil. It was then put into a hole in the ground, and the space around filled up with earth, except on one side, for the convenience of putting bottles to the two pipes; then some water was poured on to sadden the earth, and as much of it as would was suffered to run through with- out notice, by which the earth might be considered as saturated with water. For some weeks the soil was kept above the level of the upper pipe, but laterly it was con- stantly a little below it, which precluded any water run- ning off through it. For the first year the soil at top was bare; but for the two last years it was covered with grass the same as^any green field. Things being thus circum- stanced, a regular register was kept of the quantity of rain Mater that ran off from the surface of the earth through the upper pipe (whilst that took place), and al- so of the quantity of that which sunk down through the three feet of earth, and ran out through the lower pipe. A rain-guage of the same diameter was k%pt close by to find the quantity of rain for any corresponding time. The weight of the water which ran through the pipes being subtracted from the water in the rain-guage, the remainder was considered as the weight of the water evaporated from the earth in the vessel. The following table exhihits the mean annual result of these experi- ments. Water through uhe two pij January February March April May June July August September October November December 1796 Inch. 1.897— 1.778— .431 — .220— 2.027— .171 — .153— .200 1797- Inch. .680— .918— .070— .295— 2.443 + .726 .025 .976 .680 1.044 3.077 1798. li.ch. 1.774-f 1.122 .335 .180 .010 .504 1.594 1.878 + Rain Evap. 6.877— 10.934— 7.379 30.629— 38 791— 31.259 23.725— 27.857— 23.862 Mean. Mean Rain. Inch. Such. 1.450+ 2.458 1.273 1.801 .279 .902 .232 1.717 1.493+ 4.177 .299 2.483 059 4.15. 168 3 5.S4 325 3.279 227 2.8^9 .879 2.y34 1718+ 3.202 8.402 33.560 i Mean Kvap. Inch. i 008 .528 .623 1.485 2 684 2.184 4.095 3 386 2.954 2.672 2.055 .484 -5 158 E U D E U D From these experiments it appears that the quantity of vapour raised annually at Manchester is about 25 in- ches. 11 to this we add five inches for the dew with Mr. Dalton, it will make the annual evaporation 30 inches. Now, if we consider the situation of England, and the greater quantity of vapour raised from water, it will not surely be considered as too great an allowance if we es- timate the mean annual evaporation over the whole sur- face of the globe at 35 inches. Now, 35 inches from every square inch on the superficies of the globe make 94,450 cubic miles, equal to the water annually evapo- rated over the whole globe. Was this prodigious mass of water all to subsist in the atmosphere at once, it would increase its mass by about a twelfth, and raise the barometer nearly three inches. But this never happens; no day passes without rain in some part of the earth, so that part of the evapo- rated water is constantly precipitated again. Indeed it would be impossible for the whole of the evaporated wa- ter to subsist in the atmosphere at once, at least in the state of vapour. EUCALYPTUS, a genus of the hexandria monogy- nia class and order. The calyx is superior, permanent, truncate before flowering, covered with an hemispherical deciduous lid. Corolla, none; capsule four-celled, open- ing at top, inclosing many seeds. There are two species, lofty trees of New Holland; called also the red-gum tree, from a gummy matter, in which one of them, the resini- ■fera, abounds. A single tree will, on being tapped, af- ford more than 60 gallons of juice, which when dried he- comes a powerfully astringent gum resin, resembling that known in the shops by the name of kino, and found eminently efficacious in dysenteries, &c. Water dis- solves of it only one-sixth part, but it dissolves abun- dantly in spirit of wine, to which it gives a blood-red eolour. t» EUCLEA, a genus of the dioecia dodecandria class and order. In both male and female the calyx is four or five-toothed; the corolla four or five-parted; the male stamina 12 to 15. In the female, the germ is superior; the styles two; berry two-celled. There is one species, a branching tree of the Cape. EUCOMIS, a genus of the class and order hexandria monogynia. The calyx is inferior, six-parted, perma- nent, spreading; filaments united at the base into a nec- tary growing to the corolla. There are four species, plants of the Cape. EUDIOMETER, an instrument for ascertaining the purity of the atmospherical air, or the quantity of oxy- genous gas contained in it, chiefly by means of its dimi- nution on a mixture with nitrous acid, or some similar substance. After the composition of the atmosphere was known to philosophers, it was taken for granted that the proportion of its oxygen varied in different times and in different places; and that upon this variation the purity or noxious qualities of air depended. Hence it became an object of the greatest importance to be in possession of a method of determining readily the quantity of oxygen in a given portion of air. Accordingly, various methods were pro- posed, all of them depending upon the property which bodies possess of absorbing the oxygen of the air without acting upon its azote. These bodies were mixed with a certain known quantity of atmospheric air, in graduated glass vessels inverted over water, and the proportion of oxygen was determined by the diminution of bulk. These instruments received the'namc of eudiometers, because they were considered as measures of the purity of air. The eudiometers proposed by different chemists may be reduced to five. I. The first eudiometer was made in consequence of Dr. Priestley's discovery, that when nitrous gas is mix- ed with air over water, the bulk of the mixture diminishes rapidly, in consequence of the combination of the gas with the oxygen of the air, and the absorption of the nitric acid thus formed by the water. When nitrous gas is mixed with azotic gas, no diminution at all takes place. When it is mixed with oxygen gas in proper proportions, the absorption is complete. Heme it is evident, that in all cases of a mixture of these two gases, the diminution will be proportional to the quantity of the oxygen. Of course it will indie ate the proportion of oxygen in air; and by mixing it with different portions of air, it will indicate the different quantities of oxygen which they contain, provided the component parts of air are suscep- tible of variation. Dr. Priestley's method was, to mix together equal bulks of air and nitrous gas in a low jar, and then to transfer the mixture into a narrow graduated glass tube about three feet long, in order to measure the diminution of bulk. He expressed this diminution by the number of hundredth parts remaining. Thus, suppose he had mixed together equal parts of nitrous gas and air, the sum total of this mixture was 200 (or 2.00): suppose the residuum when measured in the graduated tube to amount to 104 (or 1.04), and of course that 96 parts of the whole had disappeared, he denoted the purity of the air thus tried by 104. A more convenient instrument was invented by Dr. Falconer of Bath; and Fontana greatly improved this method of measuring the purity of air. A description of his eudiometer was published by Ingenhouz, in the first volume of his Experiments: it was still farther improved by Mr. Cavendish in 1783; and Humboldt has lately made a very laborious set of experi- ments in order to bring it to a state of complete accuracy. But after all the exertions of these philosophers, the me- thod of analysing air by means of nitrous gas is liable to so many anomalies, that it cannot be depended on. Priestley and Fontana have proved, that the way of mixing the two airs occasions a great difference in the result: the figure of the vessels is equally important, and so is the water over which the mixture is made. And even when all these things are the same, the impurity of the nitrous gas may occasion the most enormous differences m the results. Humboldt has shown that the nitrous gas ought to he doyed, the great pro- . . . - . — --» pointed out the solution of sulphat of iron as proper to ascertain the puritv of thl nitrous gas employed, by absorbing the nitrous £as and leaving the azotic gas or other foreign gases. He has shown that when nitrous gas of the same degree ofnuri JS is made to mix very slowly with air, th? vessel h£3L carefully agitated during the mixture, the results n vided the experiment is performed with address, corre?" EUDIOMETER. pond with each other. And he has made it probable, that when equal quantities of air and nitrous gas, so pure as to contain only about 0.1 of azotic gas mixed with it, are agitated together slowly over water, the diminution divided by 3.55, gives the quantity of oxygen contained in the air examined. But notwithstanding the ingenuity of his experiments, the anomalies attending this method are still so great as not to render it susceptible of accu- racy. For that reason it is unnecessary to give a parti- cular description of the different eudiometers invented to ascertain the purity of air by means of nitrous gas. The result of the numerous experiments which have been made with nitrous gas is, that the proportion of oxygen in atmospheric air varies in different places and at diffe- rent times. The minimum is about 0.22, the maximum about 0.30; consequently if this method of analysing air is to be depended on, we must consider that fluid not as a permanent chemical compound, but as a body subjected to all the variations to which accidental mixtures are liable. * 2. The second kind of eudiometer was proposed by Volta. The substance employed by that philosopher to separate the oxygen from the air was hydrogen gas. His method was, to mix given proportions of the air to be examined and hydrogen gas in a graduated glass tube; to fire the mixture by an electric spark; and to judge of the purity of the air by the bulk of the residuum. But this method is not susceptible of even so great a degree of accuracy as the preceding, when the object is to as- certain the precise quantity of oxygen gas in a given bulk of air. For if too little hydrogen gas is mixed with the air, not only the whole of the oxygen will not be ab- stracted, but a portion of the azote will disappear in con- sequence of the formation of nitric acid. On the other hand, if too much hydrogen is added, part of it will re- main after the firing of the mixture, and increase the bulk of the residuum. Volta's eudiometer, then, though it may have its uses, is scarcely susceptible of giving us the analysis of air. 3. For the third kind of eudiometer, we are indebted to Scheele. It is merely a graduated glass vessel, con- taining a given quantity of air exposed to newly prepared liquid alkaline or earthy sulphurets, or to a mixture of iron filings and sulphur, formed into a paste with water. These sulistances absorb the whole of the oxygen of the air, which converts a portion of the sulphur into an acid. The oxygen contained in the air thus examined, is judg- ed of by the diminution of bulk which the air has under- gone. This method is not only exceedingly simple, but it requires very little address, and yet is susceptible of as great accuracy as any other whatever. The only ob- jection to which it is liable is its slowness; for when the quantity of air operated on is considerable, several days elapse before the diminution has reached its maximum. But this objection has been completely obviated by M. De Marti, who has brought Scheele's eudiometer to a state of perfection. He found that a mixture of iron-fil- ings and sulphur does,, not answer well, because it emils a small quantity of hydrogen gas, evolved by the action of the sulphuric acid formed by the absorption of the ox- ygen of the air upon the iron; but the hydrogureted sul- phurets, formed by boiling together sulphur and liquid potass or lime-water, answered the purpose perfectly. These substances, indeed, when newly prepared, have the property of absorbing a small portion of azotic gas; but they lose this property when saturated with that gas, which is easily effected by agitating them for a few minutes with a small portion of atmospheric air. His ap- paratus is merely a glass tube, ten inches long, and ra- ther less than half an inch in diameter, open at one end, and hermetically sealed at the other. The close end is divided into 100 equal parts, having an interval of one line between each division. The use of this tube is to measure the portion of air to be employed in the experi- ment. The tube is filled with water; and by allowing the water to run out gradually while the tube is inverted, and the open end kept shut with the finger, the graduat- ed part is exactly filled with air. These hundredth parts of air are introduced into a glass bottle filled with liquid sulphuret of lime previously saturated with azotic gas, and capable of holding from two to four times the bulk of the air introduced. The bottle is then to be corked with a ground glass stopper, and agitated for five minutes. After this the cork is to be withdrawn while the mouth of the phial is under water; and for the greater security, it may be corked and agitated again. After this, the air is to be again transferred to the graduated glass tube, in order to ascertain the diminution of its bulk. Air, examined by this process, suffers precisely the same diminution in whatever circumstances the expe- riments are made: no variation is observed whether the wind is high or low, or from what quarter soever it blows; whether the air tried is moist or dry, hot or cold; whether the barometer is high or low. Neither the sea- son of the year, nor the situation of the place, its vicinity to the sea, to marshes, or to mountains, makes any dif- ference. M. De Marti found the diminution always be- tween 0.21 and 0.23. Hence we may conclude that air is composed of 0.78 azotic gas. ^ 0.22 oxygen gas. 1.00 Scheele indeed found, that the absorption amounted to 0.27; but that was because he neglected to saturate his sulphuret with azotic gas; for when the portion of azotic gas which must have been absorbed, and which has been indicated by De Marti, is subtracted, the portion of oxygen in air, as indicated by his experiments, is reduc- ed very nearly to 0.22. The trifling variations percep- tible in his experiments were no doubt owing to the quan- tities ef the mixture of sulphur and iron, by which he abstracted the oxygen, not being exactly the same at different times; the consequence of which would be, an unequal absorption of azotic gas. 4. In the fourth kind of eudiometer, the abstraction of the oxygen of air is accomplished by means of phospho- rus. This eudiometer was first proposed by Achard. It was considerably improved by Reboul, and bv Segain and Lavoisier; but Berthollet has lately brought i< to a state of perfection, as it is equally simple with the eudio- meter of De Marti, and scarcely inferior to it in preci- sion. Instead of the rapid combustion of phosphorus, this last philosopher has substituted its spontaneous com- bustion, which absorbs the oxygen of air completely; and E V E E V I v.hen the quantity of air op; rated on is small, the process is over in a short time. The whole apparatus consists in a narrow graduated tube of glass containing the air to be examined, into which is introduced a cylinder of phosphorus fixed upon a glass rod, while the tube stands inverted over \\;i1; r. The phosphorus should be so long as to traverse nearly the whole of the air. Immediately white vapours rise from the phosphorus and fill the tube. These continue till the whole of the oxygen combines with phosphorus. They consist of phosphorus acid, which falls by its weight to the bottom of the vessel, and is absorbed by the water. The residuum is merely the azotic gas of the air, holding a portion of phosphorous in solution. Berthollet has ascertained, that by this foreign body its bulk is increased one-fortieth part. Conse- quently, the bulk of the residuum, diminished by T*T, gives us the bulk of the azotic gas of the air examined; which bulk, subtracted from the original mass of air, gives us the proportion of oxygen gas contained in it. All the different experiments which have been made by means of this eudiometer, agree precisely in their result, and indicate that the proportions of the ingredi- ents of air are always the same, namely, about 0.22 parts of oxygen gas, and 0.78 of azotic gas. Berthollet found these proportions in Egypt and in France, and Dr. Thompson found them constantly in Edinburgh in all the different seasons of the year. Thus we see that the analysis of air by means of phosphorus, agrees precisely with its analysis by means of hydrogureted sulphurets. 5. The fifth eudiometer has been lately proposed by Mr. Davy. In it the substance used to absorb the oxy- gen from air is a solution of sulphat or muriat of iron in water, and impregnated with nitrous gas. A small graduated glass tube, filled with the air to be examined, is plunged into the nitrous solution, and moved a little backwards and forwards. The whole of the oxygen is absorbed in a few minutes. The state of greatest ab- sorption ought to be marked, as the mixture afterwards emits a little gas which would alter the result. By means of this and the two preceding eudiometers, Mr. Davy examined the air at Bristol, and found it always to contain about 0.21 of oxygen. Air sent to Dr. Bed- does from the coast of Guinea gave exactly the same result. This eudiometer, then, corresponds exactly with the two last. In all these different methods of analysing air, it is necessary to operate on air of a determinate density, and to take care that the residuum is neither more con» densed nor dilated than the air was when first operated on. If these things are not attended to, no dependance whatever can be placed upon the result of the experiments, how carefully soever they may have been performed. Now there are three things which alter the volume of air and other elastic fluids: 1. A change in the height of the barometer. 2. An increase or diminution of their quanti- ty; the vessel in which they are contained remaining the same, and standing in the same quantity of water or mercury. 3. A" change in the temperature of the air. EVERGREEN, in gardening, a species of perennials which continue their verdure, leaves, &c. all the year: such are hollies, phillyrias, laurustinuses, bays, pines, firs, and cedars of Lebanon. See Gardening. EVES-DROPPERS, are such as stand under walls or windows, by night or dav, to hear news, and to carry them to others, to cause strife and contention among neighbours. These are evil members in the common- wealth, and therefore by stat. Westminster 1. c. 33, arc to be punished; and this misdeameanor is presentable and punishable in the court lcet. EUGENIA, the yamboo, a genus of the inonogynia order, in the icosandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 19th order, hesperidese. The calyx is quadripartite, superior; the petals four; the fruit a monospermous quadrangular plum. There arc H species, natives of the hot parts of Asia and America. They rise from 20 to 30 feet high; and bear plum-shaped fruit, inclosing one nut. They are too tender to live in this country, unless they are constantly kept in a stove. EVICTION, in law, signifies a recovery of lands or tenements by law. When lands, &c. are evicted before rent reserved upon a lease becomes due, the lessee is not liable to pay any rent. Likewise, if on an exchange of lands, either of the parties is evicted of the land given in exchange, the party evicted may in that case re-enter his own lands. And a widow being evicted of her thirds, shall be endow- ed in the other lands of the heir. EVIDENCE, is the testimony adduced before a court or magistrate of competent jurisdistion, by which such court or magistrate are enabled to ascertain any fact which may be litigated between the parties. This may be of two kinds, viz. written or verbal: the former by deeds, bonds, or other written documents; the latter by witnesses examined viva voce. Evidence may be further divided into absolute and presumptive; the former is direct, in positive or obsolute affirmance or denial of any particular fact; the latter collateral, and from the conduct of the parties, affords an inference that such a particular fact did or did not occur. The party making an affirmative allegation which is denied by his adversary, is in general required to prove it: unless indeed a man is charged with not doing an act, which by law he is required to do; for here a different rule must necessarily prevail. And the rule is, that the evidence must be applied to the particular fact in dispute; and therefore no evidence not relating to the issue, or in some manner connected with it, can be received; nor can the character of either party, unless put in issue by the very proceeding itself, be called in question; for the cause is to be decided on its own circumstances, and not to be prejudiced by any matter foreign to it. It is an established principle, that the best evidence the nature of the case will admit shall be produced; for if it appears, that better evidence might have been brought forward, the very circumstance of its being withheld, furnishes a suspicion that it would have prejudiced the party in whose power it is, had he produced it. Thus if a written contract is in the custody of the party, no ver- bal testimony can be received of ire contents. " The law never gives credit to the baTe assertion of any one, however high his rank or pure his morals; but re- quires (except in particular cases with respect to Quak- ers) the sanction of an oath, and the personal attendance of the party in court that he may be examined ami cross EVIDENCE. examined by the different parties; and therefore in cases depending on parole or verbal evidence, the testimony of persons who are themselves conversant with the facts they relate, must be produced; the law paying no regard, except under special circumstances, to any hearsay evi- dence. Thus in some cases, the memorandum in writ- ing made at the time, by a person since deceased, in the ordinary way of his business, and which is corroborated by other circumstances, will be admitted as evidence of the fact. What a party himself has been heard to say, docs not fall within the objection. As to hearsay evidence, any thing therefore, which the party admits, or which ano- ther asserts iu his presence and he does not contradict, is received as evidence against him; but what is said by his wife, or any other member of his family, in his ab- sence, will be rejected. But a distinction must be made between admission, and an offer of compromise, after a dispute has arisen. An offer to pay a sum of money in order to get rid of an action, is not received in evidence of a debt, because such offers are made to stop litigation, without regard to the question whether any thing or what is due. Admissions of particular articles before arbitration are also good evidence, for they are not made with a view to rompromise, but the parties are contesting their rights as much as they could do on a trial. In cases where positive and direct evidence is not to be looked for, the proof of circumstance and fact consist- ent with the claim of one party, and inconsistent with that of the other, is deemed sufficient to enable the jury, under the direction of the court of justice, to presume the particular fact, which is the subject of controversy; for the mind comparing the circumstances of the par- ticular case, judges therefrom as to the probability of the story, and for want of better evidence, draws a conclu- sion from that before it. Written evidence has been divided into two classes: the one that which is public, the other private; and this first has been subdivided into matters of record, and others of an inferior nature. The memorials of the legislature, such as acts of par- liament, and other proceedings of the two houses, where acting in a legislative character, and judgment of the king's superior courts of justice, are denominated re- cords; and are so respected by the law, that no ev idence whatever can be received in contradiction of them; but these are not permitted to be removed from place to place, to serve a private purpose; and are therefore prov- ed by copies of them, which in the absence of the origi- nal, are the next best evidence. Of persons incompetent to give evidence.-—All persons who are examined as witnesses, must be fully possessed of their understanding; that is, such an understanding as enables them to retain in memory the events of which they have been witnesses, and give them a knowledge of right and wrong. A conviction of treason or felony, and every species thereof, such as perjury, constirac>, barratry, K.C. pre- vents a man when convicted of them, from being exa- mined in a court of justice. When a man is convicted of any of the offences before-mentioned, and yu gment is entered up, he is for ever after incompetent to give evi- VOL. n. 2 dence, unless the stigma is removed, which in case of a conviction of perjury, on the stat. of 5 Eli/, c. 9. can never be by any means short of a reversal of the judg- ment; for the statute has in this case, made his incompe- tency part of his punishment: but if a man is convioled of perjury, or any other offence, at the common law, and the king pardons him in particular, or grants a general pardon t all such convicts, this restores him to his cre- dit, and the judgment no longer forms an objection to his testimony; but an actual pardon must be shown un- der the.grcat seal, the warrant for it under the king's sign manual not being sufficient. To found this objec- tion to the testimony of a witness, the party who intends to make it, should be prepared with a copy of the judg- ment regularly entered upon the verdict of conviction; for until such judgment is entered, the witness is not de- prived of his legal privileges. Persons may also be incompetent witnesses, by reason of their interest in the cause. The rule which has the most extensive operation in the exclusion of witnesses, and which has been found most difficult in i's applica- tion, is that which prevents persons interested in the event of a suit, unless in a few excepted cases of evident necessity, from being witnesses in it. Of late years the courts have endeavoured, as far as possible consistent with authorities, to let the objection go to the credit rather than the competency of a witness; and the gene- ral rule now established is, that no objection can be made to a witness on this ground, unless he is distinctly in- terested, that is, unless he may be immediately benefit- ed or injured by the event of the suit, or unless the ver- dict to be obtained by his evidence, or given against it, will be evidence for or against him in another action, in which he may afterwards be a party; any smaller de- gree of interest, as the possibility that he may be liable to an action in a certain event, or that, standing in a similar situation with the party by whofi he is called, the decision in that cause, may by possibility influence the minds of a jury in his own, or the like; though it fur- nishes a strong argument against his credibility, does not destroy his competency. On the question, how far persons who have been de- frauded of securities, or injured by a perjury or other crime, can be witnesses in prosecuting for those offen- ces, the event of which might possibly exonerate them from an obligation they are charged to have entered in- to, or restore to them money which they have been oblig- ed to pay; the general principle now established is this: the question in a criminal prosecution or personal act, be- ing the same with that in a civil cause in which the wit- nesses are interested, goes generally to the credit, unless the judgment in the prosecution where they are wit- nesses, can be given in evidence in this cause, wherein they are interested. But though this is the general rule, an exception to it seems to be established in the case of forgery; for many cases have been decided, that a per- son whose hand-writing has been forged to an instrument, whereby if good he would be charged with a sum of mo- ney, or one who has paid money iu consequence of such forgery, cannot be a witness on the indictment. In casos, where the party injured cannot by possibility derive any ben.fit from th. verdict in the prosecution, as in indict- ments for assault, and the like personal injury, his coin- E V I E U N petence has never been doubted. It is a general rule that a party cannot be examined as a witness, for he is in the highest degree interested in the event of it; but where a man is not in point of fact interested, but only a nominal party, as where members of a charitable in- stitution arc defendants in their corporate character, there is no objection to an individual member being ex- amined as a witness for the corporation; for in this case he is giving evidence for the public body only, and not for himself as an individual. Peake's N. P. Cas. 153. Bui. N. P. 293. But instances sometimes occur, in which persons sub- stantially interested, and even parties in a cause, are per- mitted to be examined from the necessity of the case, and absolute impossibility of procuring other evidence. In an action on the statute of Winton, the party rob- bed is a witness: and on the same principle of necessity it has been holden, that persons who become interested in the common course of business, and who alone can have knowledge of the fact, may be called as witnesses to prove it: as in the case of a servant who has been paid money, or a porter who in the way of his business delivers out or receives parcels, though the evidence whereby he charges another with the money or goods, exonerates himself from his liability to account to his master for them; for if this interest was to conclude tes- timony, there never would be evidence of any such facts. Bui. N. P. 289. As no one can be witness for himself, it follows of course husband and wife, whose interest the law has united, are incompetent to give evidence on behalf of each other, or of any person whose interest is the same; and the law, considering the policy of marriage, also prevents them giving evidence against each other: for it would be hard that a wife, who could not be a witness for her husband, should be a witness against him; such a rule would occasion implacable divisions and quarrels between them. In like manner, as the law respects the private peace of men, it considers the confidential com- munications made for the purpose of defence in a court of justice. By permitting a party to intrust his cause in the hands of a third person, it establishes a confi- dence and trust between the client and person so em- ployed. Barristers and attorneys, to whom facts are related professionally during a cause, or in contemplation of it, are neither obliged nor permitted to disclose the facts so divulged during the pendency of that cause, nor at any future time; and if a foreigner, in communication with his attorney, has recourse to an interpreter, he is equal- ly bound to secrecy. Where a man has, by putting his name to an instru- ment, given a sanction to it, he has been held by some judges to be precluded or stopped from giving any evi- dence in a court of justice which may invalidate it; as in the case of a party to a bill of exchange or promis- sory note, who has been said not to be an admissible witness to destroy it, on the grounds that it would ena- ble two persons to combine together, and by holding out a false credit to the world, deceive and impose on man- kind. On this principle it was held that an indorser could not be a witness to prove notes usurious, in an ac- tion or a bond founded on such notes, though the notes 2 themselves had been delivered up, on the execution of the bond. At one time this seems to have been under- stood as a general p.-incipleapplicable to all instruments; but in a case where an underwriter of a policy of in- surance, was called to prove the instrument void as against another underwriter, and objected to on this ground, the court declared, that it extended only to ne- gotiable instruments, and he was admitted to give evi- dence destructive of the policy. When a witness is not liable to any legal objection, he is first examined by the counsel for the party on whose behalf he comes to give evidence, as to his knowledge of the fact he is to prove. This examination, in cases of any intricacy, is a duty of no small importance in the counsel; for as on the one hand, the law will not al- low him to put what are called leading questions, viz. to form them in such a way as would instruct the wit- ness in the answers he is to give; so on the other, he should be careful that he makes himself sufficiently un- derstood by the witness, who may otherwise omit some material circumstance of the case. The party examined must depose those facts only of which he has an immediate knowledge and recollection; he may refresh his memory with a copy taken by himself from a day-book; and if he can then speak positively as to his recollection, it is sufficient; but if he has no recollection further than finding the entry in his book, the book itself must be produced. Where the defendant had signed acknowledgments of having received mo- ney, in a day-book of the plaintiff, and the plaintiff's clerk afterwards read over the items to him, and ho acknowledged them all right, it was held, that the wit- ness might refresh his memory by referring to the books, although there was no stop to the items on which the recept was written, for this was only proving a verbal acknowledgment, and not a written receipt. Lord Ellenborough, upon the authority of lord chief justice Tully, has recently laid down a very important doctrine, viz. that no witness shall be bound to answer any question which tends to degrade himself, or to show him to be infamous. EULOGY, in church history, a name by which the Greeks call the panis benedictus, or bread over which a blessing is pronounced, and which is distributed to those who are unqualified to communicate. The name eulo- gise was anciently given to the consecrated pieces of bread, which the bishops and priests sent to each other, for the keeping up a friendly correspondence: those presents likewise which were made out of respect or obligation, were called eulogise. St. Paulinos, bishop of Nola, about the end of the sixth century, having sent five eulogia, at one time, to Romanian, says, «I send you five pieces of bread, the ammunition of the warfare of Jesus Christ, under whose standard we fight." Eulogy means likewise an encomium on any person, on account of some virtue or good quality. See El- OGY. EUMENIDES, Furies, in antiquity. ELNOMIANS, in church history, christians in the fourth century. They were a branch of Arians, and took their name from Eunomius, bishop of Cyzicus, who was instructed by ^Etius in the points which were then con- troverted in the church, after having at first followed E U N EDf the profession of arms. Eunomiua so well answered the designs of his master, and declaimed so vehemently against the divinity of the Word, that the people had re- course to the authority of the prince, and had him ban- ished; but the Arians obtained his recal, and elected him bishop of Cyzicus. The manners and doctrines of the Eunomians were the same with those of the Arians. EVOCATION, in Roman antiquity, a solemn invi- tation preferred by way of prayer, to the gods and god- desses of a besieged town, to forsake it and come over to the Romans, who always took it for granted that their prayers were heard, provided they could make themselves masters of the place. EVOLUTE, in the higher geometry, a curve which, by being gradually opened, describes another curve. Such is the curve B* C F (plate LIV. Miscel. fig. 85); for if a thread F CM be wrapped about, or applied to, the said curve, and then unwound again, the point M thereof will describe another curve A M M, called by Mr. Huy- gens, a curve described from evolution. The part of the thread, M C, is called the radius of the evolute, or of the osculatory circle described on the centre C writh the radius M C. Hence, l. when the point B falls in A, the radius of the evolute M C is equal to the arch B C, but if not, to AB and the arch B C. 2. The radius of the evolute C M is perpendicular to the curve A M. 3. Because the radius M C of the evolute continually touches it, it is evident from its generation, that it may be described through innumerable points, if the tangents in the parts of the evolute are produced until they become equal to their corresponding arches. 4. The evolute of the com- mon parabola is a parabola of the second kind, whose parameter is |£ of the common one. 5. The evolute of a cycloid is another cycloid equal and similar to it. 6. AH the arches of evolute curves are rectifiable, if the radii of the evolute can be expressed geometrical- ly. Those who desire a more particular account of these curves, may refer to sir Isaac Newton's and Mac- Laurin's Fluxions, also Rowe's, Simpson's, and Vinee's Fluxions. EVOLUTION. See Algebra. Evolution, in the art of war, the motion made by a body of troops, when they are obliged to change their form and disposition, in order to preseve a post, or oc- cupy another, to attack an enemy with more advantage, or to be in a condition of defending themselves the bet- ter. See Tactics. EVOLVULUS, a genus of the tetragynia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 29th order, campanacese. The calyx is pentaphyllous; the corrolla quinquefid and verticilla- ted; the capsule trilorular; the seeds solitary. There are seven species, herbaceous plants, chiefly annuals of the East and West Indies. EUNONYMUS, the spindle-tree; a genus ofthemon- ogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 43d order, du- mosje. The corolla is pentapetalous; the capsule pen- tagonal, quinqueloeular, quiuquevalved, and coloured; the seeds hooded. There are eight species. Of these the most remarkable are; 1. the Europasus, has an up- right woody stem ten or fifteen feet high, with oblong Vol. ii. opposite leaves: from the sides of the branches proceed small bunches of greenish quadrifid flowers, succeeded by pentagonous capsules, disclosing their red seeds* in a beautiful manner in autumn. 2. The Americanus, or evergreen spindle tree, has a shrubby stem, dividing into many opposite branches, rising six or eight fce! high, with spear-shaped ever-green leaves growing op- posite, and from the sides and ends of the branches. The flowers are quinquefid and whitish, and come out in small bunches, succeeded by roundish, rough, and pro- tuberant capsules, which rarely perfect their seeds in this country. Both these species are hardy, and will succeed in any soil or situation. The berries of the first sort vomit and purge very violently, and are fatal to sheep. If powdered and sprinkled in the hair, they de- stroy lice. If the wood is cut when the plant is in blos- som, it is tough and not easily broken; and in that state it is used by watchmakers for cleaning watches, and for making skewers and tooth-pickers. Cows, goats, and sheep, eat this plant; horses refuse it. EUPAREA, a genus of the class and order pentan- dria monogynia. The calyx is five-leaved: corolla, five or twelve petalled: berry superior, one-celled: seeds many. There is one species, an herbaceous plant of New Holland. EUPATORIUM, hemp-agrimony; a genus of the polygamia aequalis order, in the syngenesia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, composite. The receptacle is naked; the pappus feathery; the calyx imbricated and oblong; the style semibifid and long. There are 49 species, many of them herbaceous flowery perennials, producing an- nual stalks from two to three or five feet high, termi- nated by clusters of compound flowers of a red, purple, or white colour. They are easily propagnted by seeds, or parting the roots in autumn or spring. One species, viz. the cannabinum, or water hemp-agrimony, is a na- tive of Britain. It is found wild by the sides of rivers and ditches, and has pale red blossoms. It has an acrid smell, and a very bitter taste, with a considerable share of pungency. The leaves are much recommended for strengthening the tone of the viscera, and as an aperi- ent; and said to have excellent effects in the dropsy, jaundice, and scorbutic disorders. Boerhaave informs us, that this is the common medicine of the turf-diggers in Holland, against scurvies, foul ulcers, and swellings in the feet, to which they are subject. The root of this plant is said to operate as a strong cathartic: but it is hardly used in Britain, and has no place in our phar- macopoeias. EUPHEMISM, in rhetoric, a figure which expresses things in themselves disagreeable and shocking, in terms implying the contrary quality: thus, the Pontus, or Black Sea, having the epithet «|c,.c, i. e. inhospitable, given it, from the savage cruelty of those who inhabited the neighbouring countries, this name, by euphemism, was changed into that of Euxinus. Thus Ovid, Trist. lib. iii.el. 13. Dum me terrarum pars pene novissima Ponh, Euxinus falso nomine dictus, habet. And again, in Trist. lib. v. el. 10. Quern tenet Euxini meadax cognoraine litus. EUf E U T In which significations, nobody w ill deny its being a species of irony: but every euphemism is not irony, for we sometimes use improper and soft terms in the same seiiM- with the proper and harsh. EUPHONY, in grammar, an easiness, smoothness, and elegance in pronunciation. It is properly a figure, whereby %ve suppress a letter that is too harsh, and con- vert it into a smoother, contrary to the ordinary rules; ef this there are abundance of examples in all languages. EUPHORBIA, spurge, a genus of the trigyniaorder, in the dodecandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 38th order, tricocc». The co- rolla is tctrapctalous or pentapetalous, placed on the ca- lyx: the calyx is monophyllous and ventricose; the cap- sule tricoccous. There are 98 species, six of which are natives of Great Britain. They are mostly shrubby and herbaceous succulents, frequently armed with thorns, having stalks from ten or twelve inches to as many feet in height, with quadripetalous flowers of a whitish or yellow colour. They are easily propagated by cuttings; but the foreign kinds must be always kept in pots in a stove. If kept dry, they may be preserved for several months out of the ground, and then planted, when they will as readily take root as though they had been fresh. The juice of all the species is so acrid, that it corrodes and ulcerates the body wherever it is applied; so that physicians have seldom ventured to prescribe it inter- nally. Warts, or corns, anointed with the juice, pre- sently disappear. A drop of it put into the hollow of an aching tooth, gives relief, like other corrosives, by destroying the nerve. Some people rub it behind the ears, that it may blister. One of the foreign species, named esula, is such a violent corrosive, that if applied to any part of the body, it produces a violent inflamma- tion, which is soon succeeded by a swelling that degene- rates into a gangrene, and proves mortal. There is a species at the Cape, wliich supplies the Hottentots with an ingredient for poisoning their arrows. Their method of making this pernicious mixture, is by first taking the juice extracted from the euphorbia, and a kind of cater- pillar peculiar to another plant which has much the ap- pearance of a species of rhus. They mix the animal and vegetable matter; and after drying it, they point their arrows with this composition, which is supposed to be the most effectual poison of the whole country. The euphorbia itself is also used for this purpose, by throw- ing the branches into fountains of water frequented by wild beasts, which after drinking the water thus poison- ed, seldom get one thousand yards from the brink of the fountain before they fall down and expire, This plant grows from about fifteen to twenty feet in height, send- ing out many branches full of strong spines. The na- tives cut off as many of the branches as they think ne- cessary for the destruction of the animals they intend to poison. They generally conduct the water a few yards from the spring into a pit made for the purpose; after which they put in the euphorbia, and cover the spring, so that the creatures have no choice. No ani- mal escapes which drinks of such water, though the flesh is not injured by the poison. The euphorbias may be easily distinguished from the cactuses and other plants, which they resemble, by pricking them with a pin, when a milky juice will always exude from the puncture. See Plate LV. N;.t. Hist. fig. 189. sin brought EUPHORB1UM, in pharmacy, a gum rcsii. us always in loose, smooth, and glossy gold-coloureu drops of granules. Sec Pharmacy. EUPHRASIA, eyebright (from a vulgar notion tim* it was good in disorders of the eyes); a genus ol the an- giospermia order, in the didjnamia class of plants; aim in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, personat*. The calyx is quadrifid and cylindrical; tne capsule bilocular, ovato-oblong; the shorter two anthersc, with the base of the one lobe, terminated by a small spine. There are nine species; two of which annuals, viz. the officinalis and odontites, are natives of Britain. The first of these, which has blue flowers, is a weak astringent, and was formerly much celebrated in disor- ders of the eyes; but the present practice has not only disregarded its internal, but also its external, use. This plant will not grow but when surrounded by others taller than itself. Cows, horses, goats, and sheep, eat it; swine refuse it. EURYA, a genus of the class and order dodecandria monogynia. The calyx is five-1 aved, caly( led; corolla, five-petalled; stamina, three; capsule, five-celled. There is one species, a shrubby plant of Japan. EURYANDRA, a genus of the poly and ria trigynia class and order. The calyx is five-leaved: corolla, three- petalled; filaments much dilated at top, with two dis- jointed antherse; follicles, three. There is one species, a climbing plant of New Caledonia. EURYTHMY, in architecture, painting, and sculp- ture, is a certain majesty, elegance, and easiness, appear- ing in the composition of divers members, or parts of a body, painting, or sculpture, and resulting from the fine proportion of it. Vitruvius ranks the eurythmia among the essential parts of architecture; he describes it as consisting in the beauty of the construction, or assem- blages of the several parts of the work, which renders its aspect, or its whole appearance, grateful; e. g. when the height corresponds to the breadth, and the breadth to the length. EUSEBIANS, a name given to a sect of Arians, on account of the favour and countenance w hich Eusebius* bishop of Csesarea, showed and procured for them at their first rise. EUSTATHIANS, the same with the catholics of An- tioch, in the fourth century; so called from their refusing to acknowledge any other bishop beside St Eustathius, who was deposed by the Arians. EUSTYLE, in architecture, a sort of building in which the pillars are placed at the most convenient dis- tance from one another, the intercolumniations being just two diameters and a quarter of the column, except those in the middle of the face, before, and behind, which are three diameters distant. EUTYCHIANS, in church history, christians in the fifth century, who embraced the errors of the monk Eu- tyches, maintaining that there was only one nature in Jesus Christ. The divine nature, according to them had so entirely swallowed up the human, that the latter could not be distinguished; insomuch, that Jesus Christ was merely God, and had nothing of humanity but the appearance. £ X A E WRY, in the British customs, an officer in the king's household, who has the care of the table-linen, of lay- ing the cloth, and serving up water, in silver ewers, after dinner. EXACTION, in law, a wrong done by an officer, or a person in pretended authority, in taking a reward or fee that is not allowed by law. A person guilty of ex- action may be fined and imprisoned. It is often con- founded with extortion. EXACUM, a genus of the monogynia order, in the tetrandria class of plants, and in the u.tural method rank- ing under the 20th order, rotacese. The calyx is tetra- phyllous; the corolla quadrifid, with the tube globular; the capsule two-furrowed, bilocular, polyspermous, and opening at the top. There are 10 species, allied to the gentians, chiefly annuals, of the East Indies and Cape. EX^ERESIS, in surgery, the operation of extracting or taking away something that is hurtful to the human body. EXAGGERATION, in rhetoric, a kind of hyper- bole, wherein things are augmented or amplified, by say- ing more than the truth, either as to good or bad. There are two kinds of exaggeration; the one of things, the other of words. The first is produced, 1. By a multi- tude of definitions. 2. By a multitude of adjuncts. 3. By a detail of causes and effects. 4. By an enumeration of consequences. 5. By comparisons. And 6. By the con- trast of epithets and rational inference. Exaggeration by words is effected, I. By using me- taphors. 2. By hyperboles. 3. By synonymous terms. 4. By a collection of splendid and magnificent expres- sions. 5. By pariphrasis. 6. By repetition. And, lastly, by confirmation with an oath: as for example, " Parietes, medius fidius, gratias tibi agerc gestiunt." Exaggeration, in painting, a method by which the artist, in representing things, charges them too much, or makes them too strong, either in respect of the design or the colouring. It differs from caricaturing, as the latter perverts or gives a turn to the features of the face, &c. which they had not; whereas exaggeration only heightens or improves what they had. EXAMINATION. Justices before whom any person shall be brought for manslaughter or for felony, or for suspicion thereof, before they commit such prisoner, shall take his examination, and information of those who bring him, of the fact and circumstances; and as much thereof as shall be material to prove the felony, shall be put in writing within two days after the examination; and the same shall certify in such manner as they should do if such prisoner had been bailed, upon such pain as in the act 1 and 2 P. and M. c. 13. is limited. E X AMINERS, in chancery, two officers of that court, who examine, upon oath, witnesses produced in causes depending their, by either the complainant or defendant, where the witnesses live in London or near it. Some- times parties themselves, by particular order, are exa- mined. In the country, above twenty miles from Lon- don, on the parties joining in commission, witnesses are examined by commissioners, being usually counsellors or attorneys not concerned in the cause. EXANTHEMA, among physicians, denotes any kind of efflorescence or erui fion, as the measles, purple spots in the plague or malignant fevers, &c. E X C EXARCH, in antiquity, an officer sent by the empe- rors of the East into Italy, in quality of vicar, or rather praefect, to defend that part of Italy which was under their obedience, and particularly the city of Ravenna, against the Lombards. The exarch resided at Ravenna, which place, with Rome, was all that was left to the em- perors of their Italian dominions. The first exarch was under Justin the Younger, in the year 567, after Belisa- rius and Narses had driven the barbarians out of Italy. The last was Eutychius, defeated by Adolphus, king of the Lombards, in 752. But Pepin, king of France, de- prived him of the exarchate, and made a gift of it to the pope, ordering his chaplain to lay the keys of all the towns on the altar of St. Peter and Paul at Rome. Exarch also denotes an officer still subsisting in the Greek church, being a kind of visitor, or one deputed by the patriarch into provinces, to see whether the bi- shops do their duty, and whether the rest of the clergy observe the canons of the church. There is another officer also of this name under the patriarchs of the Greek church, who has the care and inspection of the patriarchal monasteries, or such as de- pend immediately on the patriarch. EXAUCTORATION, exauctoratiotinRoman antiqui ty, corresponded, in some measure, to our keeping sol- diers or sailors in half-pay; but differed in this, that the exauctorati milites were deprived of their pay and arms, without being absolutely discharged. Sometimes it sig- nifies a full but ignominious discharge. EXCALCEATION, among the Hebrews, was a par- ticular law, whereby a widow, whom her husband's bro- ther refused to marry, had a right to summon him to a court of justice, and, upon his refusal, might excalceate him, that is, pull off one of his shoes, and spit in his face; both of them actions of great ignominy. EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings and emperors, but now to ambassadors and other per- sons, who are not qualified for that of » highness," and yet are to be elevated above the other inferior dignities. In England and France the title is now peculiar to ambassadors, but very common in Germany ami Italy. Those it was first appropriated to were the princes of the blood of the several royal houses; but they quitted it for that of highness, upon several great lords assum- ing excellency. The ambassadors have only borne it since the year 1593, when the pope complimented the duke de Nevers, ambassador from Henry IV. of France, with the title of excellency; and though it was on ac- count of his birth, and not of his character, yet the am- bassadors of all nations have ever since claimed the same appellation. The ambassadors of Venice have only had the title of excellency since the year 1636. when the emperor and king of Spain consented to allow it to them. The court of Rome never allows that title to any ambassador who is a churchman, as judging it a serular titlv. The ambassadors of France at Rome anciently gave the title of excellency to all the relations of the pope then reigning, and to several other noblemen; but now they are more reserved in that respect, though they still treat all the Roman princes with excellency: on the other hand, the court of R.unc bestowed the same title on the chancellor, ministers, and secretaries of state, E X C E X C and presidents of the sovereign couria of France, the pi-rsidents of the councils in Spain, and the chancellor of Poland, if they were not ecclesiastics. EX CENTRIC', in geometry, a term applied to cir- cles and spheres which have not the same centre, and consequently are not parallel; in opposition to concen- tric, where they are parallel, having one common cen- tre. Excentric, or excentric circle, in astronomy, is the circle described from the centre of the orbit of a planet, with half the greatest axis as a radius; or it is the cir- cle that circumscribes the elliptic orbit of the planet, as the circle AQB. See Plate LI V. Miscel. fig. 86. Excentric anomaly, or anomaly of the centre t is an arc AQ of the excentric circle, intercepted between the aphelion A, and the right line QH, drawn through the centre P of the planet perpendicular to the line of the apses AB. Excentric place of a planet, is the point of the or- bit where the circle of inclination coming from the place of a planet in its orbit, falls thereon with right angles. EXCENTUICITY, in astronomy, is the distance CS between the sun S and the centre C of a planet's orbit; or the distance of the centre from the focus of the ellip- tic orbit, called also the simple or single excentricity. Fig. 86. When the greatest equation of the centre is given, the exceniricity of the earth's orbit may be found by the following proportion, viz. As the diameter of a circle in degrees, Is to the diameter in equal parts; So the greatest equat. of the centre in degrees, To the excentricity in equal parts. Thus, Greatest equat. of the cent. 1° 55' 33'' = 1°.9258333 &c. The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference is 3.1415926. > Then 3.1415926 : 1 :: 360° : 114°.5915609 diameter in degrees. And 114.5915609:1::1.9258333:0.016806, the excen- tricity. Hence, adding this to 1, and subtracting it from 1, Give 1*016806 = AS the aphelion distance, And 0*983194 — BS the perihelion distance. See Robertson's Elements of Navigation, book 5, pa. 286. Otherwise, thus: Since it is found that the sun's great- est apparent semidiameter, is to his least, as 32' 43" to 31' 38'', or as 1963" to 1898"; the sun's greatest dis- tance from the earth will be to his least, or AS to SB, 1963 to 1898; of which, The half-dif. is 32| = CS, And half-sum 1930| = CB; wherefore, as 1930§ : 32± :: 1 : .016835" = CS the excentricity, to the mean distance or semi-axis 1; which is nearly the same as before. The excentricities of the orbits of the several planets, in parts of their own mean distances 1000, and also in English miles, are as below, viz. the excentricity of the orbit of Parts, Miles. Mercury 7,730,000 Venus - 7 482,000 Earth i: 1,618,000 Mars 93 13,486,000 Jupiter 48 23,760,000 Saturn 55 49,940,000 Herschel 47| 86,000,000 Piazzi 0,0 364 Double Excentricity, is the distance between the two foci of the elliptic orbit, and is equal to double the single excentricity above given. To Jind the excentricity of the earth's orbit, and the place of the apsides.—lake an observation of Mars when he is in opposition with the Sun, and then if Mars be in M. (Plate L1V. Aiisccl. fig. 87.) the Sun in S, and the Eartn in 1, they will be all in the same right line M T S. When Mars, afier 687 days, returns again to the same point M, and the Earth, not reaching the same till alter 730£ days, in which time she completes two revo- lutions in her orbit, is found iu the point A, observe the place of tiie Sun seen from the Earth by the right line A S, and the place of Mars seen by the right line A M. Yve have, therefore, by means of the Sun's place in E, at the time of the second observation, and his place in F, at the time of the first observation, the angle E S F given, to which the angle M S A is equal. And by know- ing the place of the Sun and Mars in the 2d observation, we have me distance of Mars from the Sun, or the an- gle Ai A S. In the same manner may be found the angle M S B, and B S, the distance of the Earth from the Sun in decimal parts of M S, when Mars returns a second time to M, and likewise the angle M S C, and the riglit line S C, when Mars returns a third time to M. Where- fore since tiie focus of the earth's orbit is in S, and A, B, and C are points in that orbit, the line of the apsides will be determined, the orbit will be described, and con- sequently the excentricity will be known. The excen- truity of all the primary planets, and the position of the line of apsides, may be found in the same manner, if three heliocentric places of the planet, together with its true distance from the Sun, are known. But it must be observed, that we suppose that the planet, in the same point of its orbit, has the same distance from the Sun, which we may easily suppose on account of the slowness of the motion of the apheiia. The excentricity of the moon's orbit is about 3, 3 of the semi-diameter of the Earth, and now and then it grows greater and now and then it diminishes. It is greatest when the line of the apsides is coincident with the syzygia, or is m the line which joins the centres of the Sun and Earth. And the excentricity is least when tie hue of the apsides cuts the other at right angles. The difference between the greatest and least excentricity is so considerable, that it exceeds the half of the least ex- centricity. EXCEPTION in law, is a stop or stay to any action. In law proceedings, it is a denial of a matter alleged in bar to an action; and in chancery, it is what is alleged against the sufhciency of an answer. Exception to evidence. At common law, a writ ot error lay for an error in law, apparent on the record, or for an error in fact, where either party died before judgment; yet it lay not for an error in law not appear- ing on the record. 2 Inst. 426. E X C By the stat. of Westminster 2, when one impleaded before any of the justices, alleges an exception, praying they will allow it; and if they will not, if he that alleges the exception writes the same, and requires the justices will put thereto their seals; the justices shall so do: and if upon complaint made of the justices, the king causes the record to come before him, and the exception is not found in the roll, and the plaintiff shows the written ex- ception, with the seal of the justices thereto put, the jus- tice shall be commanded to appear at a certain day, either to confess or deny his seal, and if he cannot deny his seal, they shall proceed to judgment according to the ex- ception, as it ought to be allowed or disallowed. The statute extends to the plaintiff as well as the de- fendant, also to him who conies in loco tenements, as one that prays to be received, or the vouchee; and in all ac- tions, whether real, personal, or mixt. 2 Inst. 427. Exception in deeds and writings, the exception in a clause whereby tiie donor, feoffer, grantor, or other per- son contracting, excepts or takes a particular thing out of a general thing granted or conveyed. The thing ex- cepted is exempted, and docs not pass by the grant, neither is it parcel of the thing granted; as if a manor be grant- ed, excepting one acre, hereby in judgment of law, that acre is severed from the manor, l Wood's Convey. 241. Exception must be of such a thing as he who makes it may have, and does belong to him. It must not be the whole thing granted, but part thereof onfv. The thing excepted, must be part of the thing granted before, and not of some other thing. The thing excepted, must be such a thing as may be severed from the thing granted, and not inseparable incidents. It must be of a particu- lar tiling out of a general, or of an entire thing, and not of a particular out of a particular, or the v\ hole thing itself granted. An exception must be conformable to the grant, and not repugnant thereto; and the thing except- ed must be certainly described and s t down. EXCESS, in arithmetic and geometry, is the differ- ence between any two unequal numbers or quantities, or that which is left after the lesser is taken from or .out of the greater. EXCHANGE, in law, is a mutual grant of equal in- terests, the one in consideration of the other. 2 Black. 323. An exchange may be made of things that lie either in grant or in livery. But no livery of seisin, even in ex- changes of freehold, is necessary to peri'ect the convey- ance: for each party stands in the place of the other, and occupies his right, and each of them has already had cor- poral possession of his own land. But entry must be made on both sides; for if either party die before the entry, exchange is void, for want of sufficient notoriety. Id. In exchange, the estates of both parties should be equal; that is, if the one has a fee simple in the one land, the other should have like estate in the other land: and if the one has fee-tail in the one land, the other ougut to have the like estate in the other land: and so of other es- tates. But it is not material in the exchange, that the lands be of equal value, but only that they be equal in kind and manner of the estate given and taken. 1 Inst. 51. Exchanges, arc carried on by merchants and bank- E X G ers all over Europe, and are transacted on the Royal Exchange of London, the Royal Exchange of Dublin, the Exchange of Amsterdam, and those of the principal cities of the continent. The mode of exchanging be- tween one kingdom or nation and another, is, the one gives the certain price, and the other the uncertain price of exchange to each other: i. e. England gives the certain price, viz. one pound sterling, to France, for an uncertain number of livres to be paid or received there, and gives the same to Hamburgh, Holland, and the Netherlands, for an uncertain number of schillings and pence Flemish, or of guilders and stivers; and she gives the uncertain price, viz. an uncertain num- ber of pence and parts of pence, to other nations: as for example, she gives from 60d. to 70rf. (more or less) to Lisdon or Oporto for one of their milreis (or 1000 res); from 30(/. to 40fl(9(Om « -t? 2 M e}«\ho formerly had eonvcyed out of the county the cattle of another: so that the bailiff, having authority from the sheriff to replevy the cattle so conveyed away, could not execute his charge. Executione judicii, a writ which lies where judg- ment is given in any court of record, and the sheriff or bailiff neglecting to do execution of the judgment, the party shall then have this writ directed to the said she- riff or bailiff; and if they shall not do execution, he shall have an alias, and pluries. And if upon this writ execu- tion is not done, or some reasonable cause returned why it is delayed, the judges of the court may amerce them. EXECUTOR, is a person appointed by the testator, to carry into execution his will and testament after his decease. The regular mode of appointing an executor, is by naming him expressly in the will; but any words indicating an intention of the testator to appoint an exe- cutor will be deemed a sufficient appointment. Any person capable of making a will, is also capable of being an executor: but in some cases, persons who are incapable of making a will, may nevertheless act as executors, as infants, or married women; to obviate, however, inconveniences which have occurred respect- ing the former, it is enacted by stat. 38 Geo. III. c. 89, that where an infant is sole executor, administration, with the will annexed, shall be granted to the guardian of such infant, or such other person as the spiritual court shall think fit, until such infant shall have attained the age of twenty-one; when, and not before, probate of the will shall be granted him. An executor derives his authority from the will and not from the probate, and is therefore authorized to do many acts in execution of the will, even before it is prov- ed, such as releasing, paying, or receiving of debts, as- senting to licences, &c. but he cannot proceed until he has obtained probate. If an executor dies before probate, administration must be taken out with the will annexed; but if an exe- cutor dies, his executor will be executor to the first tes- tator, and no fresh probate will be needed. It will be suf- ficient if one only of the executors prove the will; but if all refuse to prove, they cannot afterwards administer, or in any respect act as executors. If an executor becomes a bankrupt, the court of chan- cery will appoint a receiver of the testator's effects, as it will also upon the application of a creditor, if he appears to be wasting the assets. If an executor once administers, he cannot afterwards renounce; and the ordinary may in such case issue pro- cess to compel him to prove the will, l Mod. 213. If an executor refuses to take upon him the execution of the will, he shall lose the legacy therein contained. If a creditor constitutes his debtor his executor this' is at law a discharge of the debt, whether the executor acts or not, provided however there be assets sufficient to discharge the debts of the testator. The first duty of an executor or administrator is to bu ry the deceased in a suitable manner; and if the execo EXE E X b iov exceeds what is necessary in this respect, it will be a waste of the substance of the testator. The next thing to be done by the executor is to prove the will, which may be done either in the common form, by taking the oath to make due distribution, &c. or in a more solemn mode, by witnesses to its execution. By stat. 37 Geo. III. c. 9. s. 10, every person who shall administer the personal estate of any person dy- ing without proving the will of the deceased, or taking out letters of administration within six calendar months after such person's decease, shall forfeit 50/. Upon proving the will, the original is to be deposited in the registry of the ordinary, by whom a copy is made upon parchment under his seal, and delivered to the exe- cutor or administrator, together with a certificate of its having been proved before him, and this is termed the probate. If all the goods of the deceased lie within the same ju- risdiction, the probate is to be made before the ordinary or bishop of the diocese, where the deceased resided; but if he had goods and chattels to the value of 51. in twe distinct dioceses or jurisdictions, the will may be proved before the metropolitan or archbishop of the province in which the deceased died. An executor, by virtue of the will of the testator, has an interest in all the goods and chattels, whether real or personal, in possession or in action of the deceased; and all goods and effects coining to his hands will be the as- sets to make him chargeable to creditors and legatees. An executor or administrator stands personally res- ponsible for the due discharge of his duty; if, therefore, the property of the deceased is lost, or through his wilful negligence becomes otherwise irrecoverable, he will be liable to make it good; and also where he retains mo- ney in his hands longer than is necessary, he will be chargeable not only with interest but costs, if any have been incurred. But one executor shall not be answerable for money received, or detriment occasioned by the other, unless it has been by some act done between them jointly. An executor or administrator has the same remedy for recovering debts and duties, as the deceased would have had if living. Neither an executor nor administrator can maintain any action, for a personal injury done to the deceased, when such injury is of such a nature for which damages may be received; in actions however, which have their origin in breach of promise, although the suit may abate by the death of the party, yet it may be revived either by his executors or administrators, who may also sue for rent in arrear, and due to the deceased in his life time. By the custom of merchants, an executor or adminis- trator may indorse over a bill of exchange or promissory note. An executor or administrator may also, on the death of alessee for years, assign over the lease, and shall not be answerable for rent after such assignment; nor shall he be liable for rent due after the lessee's death, from pre- mises which in his life-time he had assigned to another. An executor or administrator is bouud only by such covenants in a lease as are said to run with the laud. The executor or admiuistrator,|previous to the distri- bution of the property of the deceased, must take an in ventory of all his goods and chattels, which must, if re- quired, be delivered to the ordinary upon oath. He must then collect, with all possible convenience, all the goods and effects contained in such an inventory; and whatever isjso recovered that is of a saleable nature, and can be converted into money, is termed assets, and makes him responsible to such amount to the creditors, lega tees, and kindred of the deceased. The executor or administrator having collected in the property, is to proceed t< discharge the debts of the de- ceased, which he must do according to the following priorites, otherwise he will be personally responsible. 1. Funeral expenses, charges of proving the will, and other expenditures incurred by the execution of his trust. 2. Debts due to the king on record, or by speciality. 3. Debts by particular statutes, as by 30 C. 11. c. 23. Forfeitures for not burying in woollen, money due for poor-rates, and money due to the post-office. 4. Debts of record, as judgments, statutes, recogniz- ances, and those recognized by a decree of a court of equity;and debts due on mortgage. 3 Pecre Wins. 401. 5. Debts on special contracts, as bonds or other instru- ments under seal, and also rent in arrear. 6. Debts on simple contract, viz. such as debts aris- ing by mere verbal promise, or by writing, not under seal, as notes of hand, servants' wages, &c. The executor is bound at his peril to take notice of debts on record, but not of other special contracts, un- less he receives notice. If no suit is actually commenced against an executor or administrator, he may pay one creditor in equal de- gree the whole debt, though there should be insufficient remaining to pay the rest; and even after the commence- ment of a suit, he may by confessing judgment to other creditors of the same degree, give them a preference. Executors and administrators are also allowed, amongst debts of equal degree, to pay themselves first: but they are not allowed to retain their own debt, to the prejudice of others in a higher degree; neither shall they be permitted to retain their own debts, in prefcrance to that of their co-executor or co-administrator of equal degree, but both shall be charged in equal proportion. A mortgage made by the testator must be discharged by the representative out of the personal estate, if there is sufficient to pay the rest of the creditors and legatees. Where such mortgage, however, was not incurred by the deceased, it is not payable out of the personal estate See Legacies, and Assets. Executor de son tort, or an executor of his owfti wrong, a person that takes upon him the office of an executor by intrusion, without being so constituted by the testator, or appointed by the ordinary to administer. Such a person is chargeable to the rightful executor, as also to all the testator's creditors and legatees, solar as the goods amount to which he wrongfully possessed. EXECUTORY estate. Estates executory, are when they pass presently to the person to whom conveyed, without any after-act, 2 Inst. 513; and leases for years, rents, annuities, conditions, &c. are called inheritances executory. Id. 293. Executory devise, is defined a future interest, which EXE EXE cannot vest at the death of a testator, but depends upon some contingency which must happen before it can vest. Abr. Eq. 186. An executory devise differs from a remainder, in three very material points: 1. That it needs not any par- ticular estate to support it. 2. That by it a fee-simple, or other less estate, may be limited after a fee-simple. 3. That hereby a remainder may be limited of a chattel in- terest, after a particular estate for life created in the same. 2 Black. 172. Executory devises of terms for years.—If a farmer de- vises his term to A for life, the remainder to another, though A have the whole estate (for that is in him du- ring his life) and so no remainder can be limited over, at common law, yet it is good by way of executory devise. 1 Rol. Abr. 610. EXEDRSE, in antiquity, a general name for such buildings as were distinct from the main body of the churches, and yet within the limits of the church taken in its largest sense. Among the exedrse the chief was the baptistery. Exedrse. were also halls of little academies with several seats, upon which philosophers, rhetoricians, &c. sat when they met for conversation or disputation. Yitruvius speaks of thein as places very open and expo- sed to the sun. EXEGESIS, a discourse by way of explanation or comment upon any subject. In the Scotch universities there is an exercise among the students in divinity called an exegesis, in which a question is stated by the respon- dent, who is then opposed by two or three other students in their turns; during which time the professor mode- rates, and solves the difficulties which the respondent cannot overcome. EXEMPLIFICATION of letters patent, a transcript or duplicate of them, made from the enrolment thereof, and sealed with the great seal. These exemplifications are by statute equally effectual, and may be pleaded as well as the originals. One may exemplify a patent under the great seal in chancery; also any record or judgment in any of the courts at Westminster, under the seal of each court; which exemplifications may be given in evidence to a jury. It is held, that nothing hut matter of record ought to be exemplified. EXEMPTION, in law, a privilege to be free from some service or appearance: thus; barons and peers of the realm are, on account of their dignity, exempted from being sworn upon inquests; and knights, clergymen, and others, from appearing at the sheriff's to urn. Per- sons of seventy years of age, apothecaries, &c. are also by law exempted from serving on juries; and justices of jthe peace, attorneys, &c. from parish-offices. Exemption, in the church of Rome, a privilege granted by the pope to the clergy, and sometimes to the laity, to exempt or free them from the jurisdiction of their respective ordinaries. Thus monasteries, and even pri- vate priests, for a small charge formerly procured ex- emptions from the jurisdiction of their bishops. In this, however, the council of Trent made a small reformation, by abolishing the exemption of particular priests, and monks not living in cloisters, and that of chapters in cri- minal matters. EXERCISE, among physicians, such an agitation of the body as produces salutary effects in the animal neco- nomy. See Medicine. .. Exercise, in military affairs, is the practice ot all those motions and actions, together with the whole man- agement of arms, which a soldier is to be perfect in, to render him fit for service, and make him understand how to attack and defend. Exercise is the first part of the military art; and the more it is considered, the more es- sential it will appear. It disengages the human frame from the stiff rusticity of simple nature, and forms men and horses to all the evolutions of war. The honour, merit, appearance, strength, and success of a corps, de- pend wholly upon the attention which has been paid to the drill and exercise of it, according to prescribed rules and regulations; while on the other hand we see the great- est armies, for want of being exercised, instantly disor- dered, and that disorder increasing in spite of command; the confusion oversets the art of skilful masters, and the valour of the men only serves to precipitate the defeat; for which reason it is the duty of every officer to take care that the recruits be drilled as soon as they join the corps. The greatest advantage derived from exercise, is the expertness with which men become capable of loading and firing, and their learning an attention to act in con- formity with those around them. It has always been la- mented, that men have been brought on service, without being informed of the uses of the different manoeuvres they have been practising; and that having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of the parade, they instant- ly fall into disorder and confusion when they lose the step, or see a deviation from the straight lines they have been accustomed to at exercise. It is a pity to see so much attention confined to show, and so little given to instruct the troops in what may be of use to them on ser- vice. Though the parade is the place to form the cha- racters of soldiers, and to teach them uniformity, yet when confined to that alone, it is too limited and mecha- nical for a true military genius. The great loss which the B ritish troops sustained in Ger- many, America, and the West Indies, during aformerwar, from sickness, and not from the enemy, was chiefly ow- ing to a neglect of exercise. An army whose numbers vanish after the first four months of a campaign, may be very ready to give battle in their existing period; but the fact is, that although fighting is one part of a soldier's business, yet bearing fatigue, and being in health, is ano- ther, and at least as essential as the first. A campaign may pass without a battle, but no part of a campaign can he gone through without fatigue, without marches, without an exposure to bad weather; all of which have exercise for their foundation; and if soldiers are not train- ed and mured to these casualties, but sink under than, they become inadequate to bodily fatigue, and eventually turn out a burthen to their country. It is not from numbers, or from inconsiderate valour, that we are to expect victory; in battle it commonly fol- lows capacity, and a knowledge of arms. We do not see that the Romaus made use of any other means to con- quer the world, than a continual practice of military ex- ercises, an exact discipline in their camps, and a constant attention to cultivate the art of war. Hence, both ancients and moderns agree, that Uiere is no other way to form EXE E X H good soldiers but by exercise and discipline; and it is by a continual practice and attention to this, that the Prus- sians arrived at that point of perfection which has been so much admired in their evolutions, and manual exer- cise. Formerly in the British service every commander in chief, or officer commanding a corps, adopted or invented such manoeuvres as he judged proper, excepting in the instance of a few regulations for review; neither the ma- nual exercise, nor quick and slow inarching, were pre- cisely defined by authority. In consequence, when regiments from different parts of the kingdom were bri- gaded, they were unable to act in line till the general officer commanding had established some temporary sys- tem to be observed by all under his command. These inconveniences were at length obviated by the rules and regulations compiled by general Dundas on the system of the Prussian discipline, as established by Frederic the Great. By his majesty's orders issued in 1792, this system is directed to be ^strictly followed and adhered to, without any deviation whatsoever. And such orders before given, as are found to interfere with, or counteract their effect and operation, are to be considered as cancelled and an- nulled." Exercise of the infantry, includes the use of the fire- lock and practice of the manoeuvres for regiments of foot, according to the regulations issued by authority. When a regiment of foot is drawn up, or paraded for exercise, the men are placed two, and sometimes three deep, which latter is the natural formation of a battalion. The grenadiers are on the right, and the light infantry on the left. In order to have the manual exercise well performed, it is in a particular manner requisite, that the ranks and file* be even, w ell dressed, and th'* file-leaders well covered; this must be very strictly attended to both by the major and his adjutant; all officers also, on service in general, where men are drawn up under arms, or without, must be careful that the ranks and files are ex- actly even, and the soldiers must learn to dress themsvlvcs at oiice, without the. necessity of being directed to do it. The beauty of all exercise and marching consists in see- ing a soldier carry his arms well, keep his firelock steady and even in the hollow of his shoulder, the right hand hanging down, and the whole body without constraint. The musqucts when shouldered, should be exactly dressed in rank and file; the nfcn must keep their bodies upright, and in full front, not having one shoulder too forward, or the other too backward. The distances between the. files must be equal, and not greater than from arm to arm, which gives the requisite room for the motions. The ranks are to be two paces distant from each other. Every motion must be done with life, and all facings, wheelings, and marchings, performed with the greatest exactness. Hence a regiment should never be under arms longer than two hours. Exercise of the cavalry, is of two sorts, on horseback and^ on foot. The squadrons for exercise are sometimes drawn up three deep, though frequently two deep; the tal- lest men and horses in the front, and so on. When a re- giment is formed in squadrons, the distance of 24 feet, as a common interval, is always to be left between the ranks, and the files must keep boot-top to boot-top. The ofli- voi. II. 5 cers commanding squadrons must, above all things, be careful to form with great celerity, and during the whole time of exercise to preserve their several distances. In all wheelings, the flank which wheels must c ;ne about in full gallop. The men must keep a steady seat upon their horses, and have their stirrups at a frt length. Exercise of the artillery, is the method of teaching the regiments of artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war, viz. Exercise of the light field-pieces teaches the men to load, rain, and sponge the guns well; toelcvaie them ac- cording to the distance, by quadrant; and screw; to judge of distances and elevations without the quadrant; how to use the portfire, match, and tubes for quick firing,* how to fix the drag-ropes, and use them in advancing, re- treating, and wheeling with the field-pieces; how to fix and unfix the trail of the carriage on the limbers, and how to fix and unfix the boxes for grape-shot on the carriages of each peicc. Exercise of the garrison and battering arliU.ry, is to teach the men how to load, rani, and sponge; how to han- dle the handspikes in elevating and depressing the me- tal to given distances, and for ricochet; how to adjust the coins, and work the gun to its proper*place; and how to point and fire with exactness, *r> CO — O l>- CN o o CO © 00 00 CT> — IO O c o ■O — <£> CN OO >r> — 1 o — — ^ «o ■* ■<* CN m i^. 1 1 o •<* o> •»* C> •* C7i "* Ol Ul 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 O O 1 O O O —< — CN CN eo co ** 1 1 1 1 1 I o o © o o o o © o O CJ — b. 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H H H 7k 7% 80 5 H 6 H 5 H Iloty Cross. 34 46 38§ oal ~u2 20* 14-3 10 Ages at which 1000 Inhabitants die, in several principal Towns and Districts. Vaud in Sweden. , Switzer-land. t^ CO «tf -r co IO b. CO CN CO K h 1 W i1 rl i—l f-C 00 GO oc ~r 80 1- c CO CO f « 00 ffl 'O l» 0 « h in r* 1—( '1% kc si X t" PL ffl CO c cn »n •<* ^r 10 OOOIO (St UTJ Cji — CN Tf 0 s- CO K — rp m co co t. C OlCO 0 CO t- CO CO Tf 0 0 0 co CO rr 10 CO CN K If) f 01 H iflCO UCO CO London 1771 to 1780. CO co CO CO 10 co C? - H 00 K I. CO IO CO 1-1 1 London Berlin, j 1728 to ! 1737. 0 0 m c> CN O K CO - CO b~ in rT CO CN cn co O CO 00 00 CO C CO C CO i, 00 co in cn c c eo C CO O 00 CN 07 CO CN >f> in un tj< co h Stock-holm. in CO CO CO rf m to -- O i— Ci N. CO m rr CN c 0 ~ CN — z O O CO Tf c 0 0 0 CN CO 40 to 50 50 to 60 60 to 70 70 to 80 80 and up Proportion of Inhabitants dying annually. In London Edinburgh Dublin * Stockholm Vienna Rome Amsterdam Norwich in 204 in 20| in 22 in 19 in 19A 1 in 2U 1 in 24^ 1 in 24.1 EXP EXP Northampton - - - 1 in 26| Liverpool - - - - 1 in 27 Manchester - - - 1 in 28 Savannah iu Georgia - - 1 in 31777 Wirtemburgh - - 1 in 32 Sweden - - - - 1 in 35 Kingdom of Naples - - 1 in 37i Parish in Brandenbcrg - 1 in 45 Pays de Vaud - - - 1 in 45 Philadelphia - - - 1 in 45 Ackworth in Yorkshire - 1 in 47 Salem in Massachusetts - 1 in 47 Island of Madeira - - 1 in 50 Corfe-rastle, Dorset - - 1 in 56| These comparisons strongly show the baleful influence of great cities, in shortening human life. Tiie irregular modes of life, the luxuries, debaucheries, and pernicious customs, which prevail much more in towns than iu the country; and the foulness of the air, which is rendered in a great degree unfit for respiration; are undoubtedly the causes which produce this fatal effort. EXPECTORANTS. See Pharmacy. EXPECTORATION, the act of evacuating or bring- ing up phlegm, or other matters, out of the trachea and lungs, by coughing, &c. EXPENDITORS, the persons who disburse or ex- pend the money collected by the tax for repairs of sewers, after the same is paid into their bunds by the collectors, as ordered by the commissioners, and for which they are to render accounts when required. EXPENSIS militum levandis, a writ anciently directed to the sheriff for levying the allowance for kniglits of the shire; and expensis militum non levandis, was a writ to hinder the sheriff from levying such allow- ance upon lands that held in ancient deinense. EXPERIMENTAL philosophy, that philosophy which proceeds on experiments; which deduces the laws of nature, and the properties and powers of bodies, and their actions upon each other, from sensible experiments and observations. Tbe business of experimental philo- sophy is to inquire into and to investigate the reasons and causes of the various appearances or phenomena of nature; and to make the truth or probability of them ob- vious and evident to the senses, by plain, undeniable, and adequate experiments, representing tiie several parts of the grand machinery and agency of nature. In our inquiries into nature, we are to be conducted by those rules and maxims which are found to be genu- ine, and consonant to a just method of physical reasoning; and these rules of philosophizing are by the great.-st master in science, sir Isaac Newton, reckoned four, which ure as follows: 1. .More causes of natural things are not to be admit- ted, than are both true, and sufficient to explain the phe- nomena: for nature does nothing in vain, but is simple, and delights not in superfluous causes of things. 2. And, therefore, of natural effects of the same kind, the same causes are to be assigned, as far as it can be done; as of respiration in man and beasts, oi the descent of stones in Europe and America, of light in a culinary fire and in the sun, and of the rellecti »n of light in the earth and in the planets. 3. The qualities of natural bodies which cannot be in- VOL. II. 6 creased or diminished, and agree to all bodies on which experiments can be made, are to be reckoned as the qualities of all bodies whatever; thus, because exic?n.-ion, divisibility, hardness, impenetrability, mobility, the vis inertia?, and gravity, are found in all bodies which fall under our cognizance or inspection, we may justly con- clude they belong to all bodies whatever, and are there- fore to be esteemed the original and universal properties of all natural bodies. 4. In experimental philosophy, propositions collected from the phenomena by induction, are to be deemed (notwithstanding contrary hypotheses) either exactly or very nearly true, till other phenomena occur, by which they may be rendered either more accurate, or liable to exception. _Tliis ought to be done, lest arguments of induction should be destroyed by hypotheses. These four rules of philosophizing are premised by sir Isaac Newton to his third book of the Principia; and more particularly explained by him in his Optics, where he exhibits the method of proceeding in philosophy, the first part of which is as follows: As in mathematics, so in natural history, the investiga- tion of difficult things, by way of analysis, ought always to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists in making experiments and observations, and in drawing general conclusions from them by induction (i. e. reasoning from the analogy of things by natural conse- quence); and admitting no objections against the conclu- sions, but what are taken from experiments or ceriain truths. And although the reasoning from experiments and observati ms, by induction, is no demonstration of general conclusions, yet it is the best mule of reasoning which the nature of tilings admits of, and may be looked on as so much the stronger, by how much the induction is more general; and if no exception occurs from pheno- mena, the conclusion may be pronounced generally; but if at any time afterwards, any exception shall occur from experiments, it may then be pronounced with s i'h excep- tions; by this way of analysis we may proceed from com- pounds to ingredients, and from in >tions to the causes producing them; and in general from effects to their cau- ses, and from particular causes to more general ones, till the argument ends in the most general; this is the method of analysis. And that of synthesis, or composition, con- sists in assuming causes, discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena pro- ceeding from them, and proving the explanations. Though the whole history of nature is open to the re- searches of experimental philosophy, yet its principal branches may be accounted, attraction, gravitation, the laws of matter and motion, magnetism, optics, electrici- ty, pneumatics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, and mechoeti s. EXPEIUMENTLM ckucis, a leading, or decisive experiment; thus termed, either on account of its being like a cross, or direction post, placed in the meeting of several roads, guiding men to the true knowledge of the nature of that thing they are inquiring after: or, on ac- count of its being a kind of torture, whereby the nature of the thing is in a manner ext uted by force. EXPIATION, great day of, an annual s demnity if the Jews, upon the tenth day of the month Tisri, whieh answers to our September. On this occasion the high priest laid aside his breatplate and embroidered ephod, EXP EXP above 82.5°, or cooled below 12.50. This rule will give the reader a more precise idea of the rate at which wa- ter expands, when heated or cooled, than a bare inspec- tion of the table could do. A considerable number of liquids has been tried to ascertain whether any of them, like water, have a tem- perature in which their density is a maximum, and which expand when cooled below that temperature. Sulphuric acid has no such point, neither have the oily bodies; but some solutions of salt in water begin to ex- pand before they become solid. These solutions, howe- ver, when cooled down sufficiently, crystallize with such rapidity, that it is extremely difficult to be certain of the fact, that they really do begin to expand before they crystallize. That class of bodies which undergo an expansion when they change from a liquid to a solid body by the dimin- ution of temperature, is very numerous. Not only wa- ter when converted into ice undergoes such an expansion, but all bodies which by cooling assume the form of crys- tals. The prodigious force with which water expands in the act of freezing has been long known to philosophers. Glass bottles filled with water are commonly broken in pieces when the water freezes. The Florentine acade- micians burst a brass globe whose cavity was an inch in diameter, by filling it with water and freezing it. The force necessary for this effect was calculated by Mu- schenbroeek at 27720 lbs. But the most complete set of experiments on the expansive force of freezing water are those made by major Williams at Quebec, and published in the second volume of the Edinburgh Transactions. This expansion has been explained, by supposing it the consequence of a tendency which water, in consolidating, is observed to have to arrange its particles in one deter- minate manner, so as to form prismatic crystals, crossing each other at angles of 60° and 120°. The force with which they arrange themselves in this manner must be enormous, since it enables small quantities of water to overcome s^great mechanical pressures. Various me- thods have been tried to ascertain the specific gravity of ice at 32°; that which succeeded best was to dilute spir- its of wine with water till a mass of solid ice put into it remained in any part of the liquid without either sinking or rising. The specific gravity of such a liquid is 0.92, which of course is the specific gravity of ice, supposing the specific gravity of water at 60° to be 1. This is an expansion much greater than water experiences even when heated to 212°. We see from this, that water, when converted into ice, no longer observes that equable expansion measured by Mr. Dalton, but undergoes a very rapid and considerable augmentation of bulk. Tbe very same expansion is observed during the crys- tallization of most of the salts; all of them at least which shoot into prismatic forms. Hence the reason that the glass vessels in which such liquids are left, usually break to pieces when the crystals are formed. This expansion of these bodies cannot be considered as an exception to the general fact, that bodies increase in bulk when heat is added to them, for the expansion is the consequence, not of the diminution of heat, but of the change In their state from liquids to solids, » of new arrangment of their particles which accompa" constitutes that change. It must be observed, however, that all hoi}1*? .^era- expand when they become solid. There arefcowia hie number which diminish in bulk; and in t^;1^,1^ of diminution in most cases is rather increaseu j fixation. When liquid bodies are converted into soUds, they either form prismatic crystals, or they [^m a mass in which no regularity of arrangement can bcpeiceijed. In the first case, expansion accompanies solidincation, in the second place, contraction accompanies it. W atcr and all the salts furnish instances of the first, and tal ow and oils are examples of the second. In these last bodies the solidification does not take place instantaneously, as in water and salts, but slowly and gradually; they first become viscid, and at last quite solid. Most of the oils, when they solidify, form very regular spheres. The same thing happens to honey, and to some metals. It has been thought that all combustible liquids contract, when they become solid, while incombustible liquids ex- expand; but there are exceptions to this rule. Sulphuric acid does not by congelation alter its appearance; but cast iron, and perhaps sulphur also, expand in the act of congealing. EX PARTE, a term used in the court of chancery, when a commission is taken out and executed by one side or party only, upon the other parties neglecting or refusing tojoin therein. When both the parties proceed together, it is called a joint commission. Ex parte talis, a writ that lies for a bailiff or receiv- er, that having auditors assigned to pass his accounts, cannot procure from them reasonable allowance, but is cast into prison; in which case the practice is to sue this writ out of the chancery, directed to the sheriff to take the four mainpernors to bring his body before the ba- rons of the. exchequer, at a certain day, and to warn the lord to appear at the same time. EXPECTANT, in law, signifies having relation to, or depending on; thus, where land is given to a man and his wife, and to their heirs, they have a fee simple es- tate; but if it be given to them and the heirs of their bodies begotten, they have an estate tail, and a fee ex- pectant, which is opposed to fee simple. EXPECTATION, in the doctrine of chances, is ap- plied to any contingent event, upon the happening of which some benefit, &c. is expected. This is capable of being reduced to the rules of computation; for a sum of money in expectation when a particular event happens, has a determinative value before that event happens. Thus, if a person is to receive any sum as lOi. when an event takes place which has an equal chance or proba- bility of happening and failing, the value of the expecta- tion is half that sum, or 51.; but if there are three chan- ces for failing, and only one for its happening or one chance only in its favour out of all the four chances, then the probability of its happening is only one ol,t of four, or I, and the value of the expectation is but 1 of 10/. which is only 21. ios. or half the former sum ^And in all cases, the value of the expectation 0f an'v sum jg found by multiplying that sum by the fraction expressiltf EXPECTATION OF LIFE. the probability of obtaining it. So the value of the expec- tation on 100/. when there are three chances out of five for obtaining it, or when the probability of obtaining it is 3-fifths, is 3-fii'ths of 100/.. which is 60/. And if * be any sum expected on the happening of an event, h the chan- ces for that event happening, and /the chances for its failing: then, there being h chances out of/ -f- h for its h happening, the probability will be r , ,,, and the val- ue of the expectation is ■ . ; x J t "> TABLE I. Showing the Probabilities of the Duration of Human Life, deduced from the Register of Mortality at *Yor!';< ampton. 7+A' s. See Chances. Expectation' of Life, the share of life due to a per- son of a given age, according to a table of mortality. The most obvious sense of the term, is certainly, «■ the parti- cular number of years which a life of a given age has an equal chance of enjoying:" this is the time that a person may reasonably expect to live; for the chances against his living longer are greater than those for it; and there- fore, he cannot entertain an expectation of living longer, consistently with probability; but this period does not coincide with what the writers on Life Annuities call the Expectation of Life, except on the supposition of an uniform decrease in the probabilities of life, as Mr. Simpson has observed in his Select Exercises; and Dr. Price adds, that even on this supposition, it does not co- incide with what is called the expectation of life, in any case of joint lives; he therefore defines it more accurate- ly to be, " The mean continuance of any given single, joint, or surviving lives, according to any given table of observations:" that is, the number of years which, taking them one with another, they actually enjoy, and may be considered as sure of enjoying; those who live or survive beyond that period, enjoying as much more time in proportion to their number, as those who fall short of it enjoy less. The particular proportion that becomes extinct every year, out of the whole number constantly existing togeth- er of single or joint lives, must, whenever this number undergoes no variation, be the same with the expectation of those lives, at the time when their existence com- menced. Thus, was it found in any town or district, where the number of births and burials are equal, that a 20th or a 30th part of the inhabitants die annually, it would appear, that 20 or 30 was the expectation of a child just born in that town or district; and if a 13th part of all the inhabitants of the age of 60 years and upwards die annually, the expectation of a person of 60 years of age is 13 years. These expectations, therefore, for all single lives, are easily found by a Table of'Mor- tality, showing the number that die annually at allages, out of a given number alive at those ages; and the gene- ral rule for this purpose is. «• to divide the sum of all the living in the table, at the age whoso expectation is re- quired, and at all greater ages, by the sum of all that die annually at that age, and above it; or, which is the same, by the number in the table of the living at that age: and half unity subtracted from the quotient will be the required expectation. Thus the sum of all the living at the age of 60 and upwards, in Table I, is 27965, which divided by 2038, the number living at that age, and the quotient less half unity, gives 13.21, the expectation of 50, as in table II. Persons Decrem. Persons •Decrem. Age. living. of Lite. Age. 49 living. of Life. O 11650 3000 2936 79 1 8650 3367 50 2857 81 2 7283 502 51 2776 82 3 6781 335 52 2694 82 4 644S 197 53 2612 82 5 6249 184 54 2530 82 6 6065 140 55 2448 82 7 5925 110 56 2366 82 8 5815 80 57 SJ284 82 9 5735 60 58 2202 82 10 5675 52 59 2121 82 U 5623 50 60 2038 82 12 5573 50 61 ' 1956 82 13 5523 50 62 1874 81 14 5473 50 63 1793 81 15 5423 50 64 1712 80 16 5373 53 65 1632 80 17 5320 58 66 1552 80 18 5262 63 67 1472 80 19 5199 67 68 1392 80 20 5132 72 69 1312 80 21 5060 . 75 70 1232 80 22 4985 75 71 1152 80 23 4910 75 72 1072 80 24 4835 75 73 992 80 25 4760 75 74 912 80 26 4685 75 75 832 80 27 1610 75 76 752 77 28 4535 75 77 675 73 29 4460 75 78 602 68 30 4385 75 79 534 / 65 31 4310 75 80 469 63 32 4235 75 81 406 60 33 4160 75 82 346 57 34 4085 75 83 289 55 35 4010 75 84 234 48 36 3955 75 ■85 186 41 37 3860 75 86 145 34 38 3785 75 87 111 28 39 3710 75 88 83 21 40 3635 76 89 62 16 41 3559 77 90 46 12 42 3482 78 91 34 10 43 3404 78 92 24 8 44 3326 78 93 16 7 45 3248 78 94 9 5 46 3170 78 95 4 3 47 3092 78 96 1 1 48 3014 78 The probability that a given life shall continue any number of years, or reach a given age, is the fraction, whose numerator is the number of living in the table opposite to the given age; and denominator, the number opposite to the present age of the given life. Thus, the probability that a life of 30 shall attain to 40, or live io . 3635 years, is £7^. The difference between this fraction and unity gives the probability that the event will not EXPECTATION OF LIFE. Rappen; the probability that a life of SO will not live 10 750 years, is therefore tttz, consequently the odds of living to dying in this period, are nearly 5 to 1. The probabili- ty that a person of 21 shall attain to 51, appears by the 2530 table to be -7^-, or an even chance. TABLE II. Showing the Expectation of Human Life at every Age, ac- cording to the Probabilities in the preceding Table. Expecta- Expecta- Expecta- Age- tion. Age. tion. Age. ! tion. 0 25,18 33 26,72 66 10,42 1 32 74 34 26,20 67 9,96 2 37,79 35 25,68 68 9.50 3 39.55 36 25,16 69 9,05 4 40,58 37 24,64 70 8,60 5 40,84 38 21,12 71 8,17 6 41,07 39 23,60 72 7,74 7 41,03 40 23,08 73 7 n n 8 40,79 41 22,56 74 6,92 9 40,36 42 22,04 75 6,54 10 39,78 43 21,54 76 6.18 11 39,14 44 21,03 77 5,83 12 38,49 45 20,52 78 5,48 13 37,83 46 20,02 79 5,11 14 37,17 47 19,51 80 4,75 15 36,51 48 19,00 81 4,41 16 35,85 49 18,49 82 4,09 17 35,20 50 17,99 83 3,80 18 34,58 51 17,50 84 3,58 19 33.99 52 17,02 85 3,37 20 33,43 53 16,54 86 3,19 21 32,90 54 16,06 87 3,01 22 32,39 55 15,58 88 2,86 23 31,88 56 15,10 89 2,66 24 31,36 57 14,63 90 2,41 So 30,85 58 14,15 91 2,09 36 30,33 59 13,68 92 1,75 27 29.82 60 . 12,21 93 1,37 28 29,30 61 12,75 94 1,05 29 28,79 62 12,28 95 0,75 30 28,27 63 11,81 96 0,50 31 27,76 64 11,35 32 27,24 65 10,88 These tables are, for general use, the best that have been formed; hut it is well known, that the duration of human life is much influenced by different situations; that it is greater in mountainous countries than in mar- shy districts; and that the country in general is much more favourable to the continuance of life than large towns. In proof of the latter assertion Dr. Price has ob- served, that in London the greater part of the natives die under three years of age, while in the country the great- er part live to marry. The observations of Mr. Muret on the state of population in the Pays de Vaud, a district of the province of Bern in Switzerland, also confirm this remark, by showing that the greater part of the inhabi- tants of that province live many years beyounjl maturi- ty. A comparison of the expectations of life will exhibit this difference in a striking point of view I/>n- Vienna. Berl'n Nor- Mraiul- Sweden tlon. wich. enberg. 16* 18 30| At Birth 18 23$ Age 10 20 3 5 29 3H 30$ 40$ 34* 42$ 341 45 38 30 23 i 25* 251 29 28| 31 4 40 m 20 i 21 231 225 24 i 50 16 16 16* ir* 104 18| 60 lol U* 12§ 12* Hi 12| 70 8- 8* »l H T I ' 2 ~* 80 5 5| 6 n 5 44 Holy Cross. 34 46 38| 32| 26^- 20 i 10 5^ Ages at which 1000 Inhabitants die, in several principal Towns and Districts. 1 C .' uli tze nd. K CO b- K m h. co o^ co ■*cf T ^ m s. h -r m -j< «>.2 I co T-H 1—* T-H "- en | • c 1> 00 ©i ^ c Tf ©J 00 CD '-O -a OC rf CO CO l^ O « " ^ ao i-^ 1—1 v> | .= e « x «-3 2^ ' CO c i-i -tf 00 ©3 CO C5 Tf d? m tt in m o —■ o$ ^ ■^ —1 rH PU 23 i. c 73 ° W K ■* -* t- c o> co o — rr co co CO b- CO CO rf in -C o £ o CO CO ©5 k m Tf w h co rr >n m m co u cc n o IO ^ r- ~ T3 r-t 30 eo co CO CO ty) — -^ 00 ^ £ «*- ^- Ci ^ >o cc K co m eo — ,Sfc- in c o -«^ o c O CI O h- CO — CO £ CN ik o m m t- b, in rr CO Ol J r-4 in c *«3 Oi to O co CO O CO c co *- ©) 00 00 U CO CO ifi w CO m rt e CO c O 00 ti w oo « >n CO ii O C: CO Tj< -O-ffiK r 2 © OJ-C in "-0 >n co CO ifit ® CO Cu r C O o o O O O O 5 -3 i- CM co rr fiCO t. CO-; - Cw -£3 c c hS ^2 ^S ,£, ct iS • e ° o o c o o o o lt>~ CN CO tt m o t- oo Proportion of Inhabitants dying annually In London Edinburgh Dublin * Stockholm Vienna Rome Amsterdam Norwich 1 in 20| 1 in 20| 1 in 22 1 in 19 1 in 191 1 in 2l| 1 in 24^ 1 in 24.1. EXP EXP Northampton .Liverpool -Manchester 1 in 26f - 1 in 27 1 in 28 Sa\ annah in Georgia -Wirteinburgh Sweden - - 1 in 31-& 1 in 32 1 in 35 Kingdom of Naples - 1 in 37.1 Parisb in Brandenberg 1 in 45 Pays de Vaud 1 in 45 Philadelphia 1 in 45 Ackworth in Yorkshire 1 in 47 Salem in Massachusetts 1 in 47 Island of Madeira 1 in 50 Corfe-castle, Dorset 1 in 56| Tbese comparisons strongly show the baleful influence of great cities, in shortening human life. Tiie irregular modes of life, the luxuries, debaucheries, and pernicious customs, which prevail much more in towns than in the country; and the foulness of the air, which is rendered in a great degree unfit for respiration; are undoubtedly the causes which produce this fatal effect. EXPECTORANTS. See Pharmacy. EXPECTORATION, the act of evacuating or bring- ing up phlegm, or other matters, out of the trachea and lungs, by coughing, &c. EYPENDITORS, the persons who disburse or ex- pend the money collected by the tax for repairs of sewers, after the same is paid tut o their hands by the collectors, as ordered by the commissioners, and for which they are to render accounts when required. EXPENSIS militum levandis, a writ anciently directed to the sheriff for levying the allowance for kniglits of the sliire; and expen.sis iiiilitiiin non levandis, was a writ to hinder the sheriff from levying such allow- ance upon lands that held in ancient demense. EXPERIMENTAL philosophy, that philosophy which proceeds on experiments; which deduces the laws of nature, and llie properties and powers of bodies, and their actions upon eacli other, from sensible experiments and observations. The business of experimental philo- sophy is to inquire into and to investigate the reasons and causes of the various appearances or phenomena of nature; and to make the truth or probability of them ob- vious and evident to the senses, by plain, undeniable, and adequate experiments, representing the several parts of the grand machinery and agency of nature. In our inquiries into nature, we are to be conducted by those rules and maxims which are found to be genu- ine, and consonant to a just method of physical reasoning; and these rules of philosophizing are by the greatest master in science, sir Isaac Newton, reckoned four, which are as follows: 1. More causes of natural things are not to be admit- ted, than are bothtru", and sufficient to explain the phe- nomena; for nature docs nothing in \ain, but is simple, and delights not in superfluous causes of things. 2. And, therefore, of natural effects of the same kind, the same causes are to be assigned, as far as it can be done; as of respiration in man aid beasts, of the descent of sfou"s in Europe and America, of light in a culinary fire and in the sun, and of the reliecti >n of light in the earth and in the planets. 3. The qualities of natural bodies which cannot be in- VOL. II. 6 creased or diminished, and agree to all bodies on which experiments can be made, are to be reckoned a - the qualities of all bodies whatever; thus, because extension, divi-ibility, hardness, impenetrability, mobility, the vis inertie, and gravity, are found in all bodies which fall under our cognizance or inspection, we may justly con- clude they belong to all bodies whatever, and are there- fore to be esteemed the original and universal properties of all natural bodies. 4. In experimental philosophy, propositions collected from the phenomena by induction, are to be deemed (notwithstanding contrary hypotheses) either exactly or very nearly true, till other phenomena occur, by which they may be rendered either more accurate, or liable to exception. _Tliis ought to be done, lest arguments of induction should be destroyed by hypotheses. These four rules of philosophizing are premised by sir Isaac Newton to his third book of tbe Principia; and more particularly explained by him in his Optics, where he exhibits the method of proceeding in philosophy, the first part of which is as follows: As in mathematics, so in natural history, the investiga- tion of difficult things, by way of analysis, ought always to precede the method of composition. This analysis consists in making experiments and observations, and in drawing general conclusions from them by induction (/'. e. reasoning from the analogy of things by natural conse- quence); and admitting no objections against the conclu- sions, but what are taken from experiments or certain truths. And although the reasoning from experiments and observati ms, by induction, is no demonstration of general concl ni mis, yet it is the best m »de of reasoning which the nature of things admits of, and may be looked on as so much the stronger, by bow much the induction is more general; and if no exception occurs 'r on pheno- mena, the. conclusion may be pronounced generally; but if at any time afterwards, any exception shall occur from experiments, it may then be pronounced with such excep- tions; by this way of analysis we may proceed from com- pounds to ingredients, and from in itions to the causes producing them; and in general from effects to their cau- ses, and from particular causes to more general ones, till the argument ends in the in >st general; this is the method of analysis. And that of synthesis, or composition, con- sists in assuming causes, discovered and established as principles, and by them explaining the phenomena pro- ceeding from them, and proving the explanations. Though the whole history of nature is open to the re- searches of experimental philosophy, yet its principal branches may be accounted, attraction, "gravitation, the laws of matter and motion, magnetism, optics, electrici- ty, pneum ttics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, and mechanics. EXPERIMENTUM cnucis, a leading, or decisive experiment; thus termed, either on account of its being like a cross, or direction post, placed in the meeting of several roads, guiding men to the true knowledge of the nature of that thing they are inquiring after; or, on ac- count of its being a kind of torture, whereby the nature of the thing is in a manner extorted by force.* EXPIATION, great day of, an annual s demnity >f the Jews, upon tbe tenth day of the month Tisri, which answers to our September. On this occasion the high priest laid aside his breatplate and embroidered ephod, EXP EXP as Icing a day of humiliation. He first offered a bullock and a ram for his own sins, and those of the priests; then he received from the heads of the people two goats for a sin-offering, and a rani for a burnt-offering, to be offered in the name of the whole multitude. It was determined by lot which of the goats should be sacrificed, and which set at liberty. After this he perfumed the sanctuary with incense, and sprinkled it with blood: then, coining out, he sacrificed the goat upon which the lot had fallen. This done, the goat which was to be set at liberty, being brought to him, he laid his hands upon its head, confessed his sins and the sins of the people, and then sent him away into some desert place: it was called azazel, or the scape goat. EXP1LATION, among civilians, tbe carrying off or sequestering something belonging to an inheritance, be- fore the heir had intermeddled with it. Expilation also denoted a robbery committed by night, and was so called from the robbers stripping peo- ple of their clothes. EXPLOSION, in natural philosophy, a sudden and violent expansion of an aerial or other clastic fluid, by which it instantly throws off any obstacle that happens to be in the way, sometimes with incredible force, and in such a manner as to produce the most astonishing effects upon the neighbouring objects. Explosion differs from expansion, in this: that the latter is a gradual and conti- nued power, acting uniformly for some time; whereas the former is always sudden, and only of a momentary du- ration. The expansions of solid substances do not ter- minate in violent explosions, on account of their slowness, and tbe small space through which the metal, or other expanding substance, moves, though their strength may be equally great with that of the most active aerial flu- ids. Thus we find, that though wedges of wood, when wetted, will elf ave solid blocks of stone, they never throw them to any distance, as is the case with gunpowder. On the other hand, it is seldom that the expansion of any elastic fluid bursts a solid substance, without throwing the fragments of it to a considerable distance, the effects of which are often very terrible. The reasons of this may be comprised in the two following particulars. 1. The immense velocity with which the aerial fluids expand, when affected by a considerable degree of heat. 2. Their celerity in acquiring heat, and being affected by it. which is much superior to that of solid substances. Thus air, heated as much as iron when brought to a white heat, is expanded to four times its bulk; but the metal itself will not be expanded the 500th part of that space. In the case of gunpowder, which is a violent and well- known explosive substance, the velocity with which the flame moves is calculated by Mr. Robins, in his treatise upon Gunnery, to be no less than 7000 feet in a second, or little less than 79 miles per minute. Hence the im- pulse of the fluid is inconceivably great, and the obsta- cles on which it strikes are hurried off with vast velocity, though much less than that just mentioned; for a can- non-ball, with the greatest charge of powder that can be conveniently given, does not move at a greater rate than 2400 feet per second, or little more than 27 miles per minute. The velocity of the ball again is promoted by the sudden propagation of the heat through the whole body of the air, as soon as it is extricated from the ma- 2 terials of which the gunpowder is made, so that it is ena- bled to strike all at once, and thus greatly to augment tbe momentum of the ball. It is evident that this con- tributes very much to the force of the explosion, by what happens when powder is wetted or mixed with any sub- stance, which prevents it from taking fire all at once. In this case the force of the explosion, even w lien the same quantity of powder is made use of, is not to be compared with that of dry powder. >Vc may conclude, upon these principles, thatthe torce of an explosion depends, 1. on the quantity of elastic fluid to be expanded; 2. on the velocity it acquires by a certain degree of heat; and 3. on the celerity with which the degree of heat affects the whole of the expansile fluid. These three take place in the greatest perfection where the electric fluid is concerned, as in cases of lightning, earthquakes, and volcanoes. This fluid pervades the whole system of nature; its expansion is nothing else than its "motion from a centre towards a circumference, for it docs not seem capable of any proper expansion by a separation of its parts like any other fluid. Hence, when it begins to expand in this manner, the motion is propagated through it, with a velocity far exceeding that of any other fluid whatever. Thus, even when the quan- tity is excessively small, as when an electric spark is sent through a glass full of water or of oil, the expan- sion is so violent as to dissipate the glass into innumerable fragments, with great danger to the by-standers. In vio- lent lightning, when the electric fluid is much concen- trated, the strength of the explosion is proportionable to the quantity. Every one has heard of the prodigious ef- fects of lightning when it happens to strike buildings, trees, or even the most solid rocks; and in some cases, where the quantity of electricity is still greater than in any flash of lightning, we hear of still more tremendous consequences ensuing. Dr. Priestley gives an instance of a large fire-ball rolling on the surface of the sea, which, after rising up to the top-mast of a ship of war, hurst with such violence, that the explosion resembled the discharge of hundreds of cannons fired at once. Great damage was dime by it; but there is not the least doubt that most of its force was spent on the air, or car- ried down to the sea by the mast and iron-work of the ship. Indeed, considering that in all cases a great part of the force of electric explosions is dissipated in this manner, it may justly be doubted whether they can be measured by any method applicable to the mensuration of other forces. Even in artificial electricity the force is prodigiously great, insomuch that Dr. Van Marum cal- culated that of the great battery belonging to the ma- chine in Teyler's museum to be upwards of 900 pounds. Whenever the electrical fluid acts like common fire, the force of the explosions, though exceedingly great, is capable of mensuration, by comparing the distances to which the bodies are thrown with their weight. This is most evident in volcanoes, where the projections of the burning rocks and lava manifest the greatness of the power, at the same time that they afford a method of measuring it. By means of the fire which kindles the volcanoes, the aerial fluids are suddenly restored to their elastic state; and not only so, but their natural elastici ty is greatly augmented, so that eoof of this, alleges that copper imbibes a greater quantity of heat during fusion than any other metal. Aqueous steam, however, seems to be too slow for producing such sudden and violent effects. Explosions, it is true, will be occa- sioned by it, but then it must be confined for a vvvy con- siderable time, whereas the effects of water thrown upon melted copper are instantaneous. It must be observed, that in all cases, where a very hot body is thrown upon a small quantity of water in sub- stance, an explosion will follow; but here the water is confined, and suddenly rarefied into steam, which can- not get away without throwing off the body which con- fines it. Examples of this kind frequently occur where masons, or other mechanics, are employed in fastening cramps of iron into stones; where, if there happens to be a little water in the hole into which the lead is pour- ed, the latter will fly out in such a manner as sometimes to burn them severely. Terrible accidents of this kind have sometimes happened in foundries, when large quan- tities of melted metal have been poured into wet moulds. In these cases, the sudden expansion of tbe aqueous steam has thrown out the metal with violence; and if any decomposition has taken place at the same time, so as to convert the aqueous into an aerial vapour, the ex- plosion must be still greater. To this last kind of explosion we must refer that which takes place on pouring cold water into boiling or burning oil or tallow. Here the case is much the same whether we pour the oil on the water, or the water on the oil. In the former case, the water which lies at the bottom is rarefied into steam, and explodes; in the latter, it sinks down thcough the oil by its superior specific gra- vity, and explodes as it passes along. In either case, how- ever, the quantity of aqueous fluid must be but small in proportion to that of the oil; a very great quantity would put out the flame, or destroy the heat, in whatever way we applied it. Another kind of explosion is that which takes place in solid substances, where we can scarcely suppose either aqueous or aerial vapours to be concerned. The most remarkable of these are the volcanic bombs mentioned by sir W illiam Hamilton in the great eruption of \ esu- vius in 1779. They were large pieces of lava, which hurst in pieces like bombs as they fell to the ground; but he does not inform us whether their bursting was at- tended with any great violence or not. Indeed, amidst such scenes of horror, and the continual tremendous ex- plosions of the volcano, smaller phenomena of this kind would probably he overlooked. The.only other kind of explosion we have to tnJ.e no- tice of, is that produced by hydrogen and oxvt-en gas -, EXP EXP The countries to which the above goods were exported were as follows: Livres. To Spain 62,441,400 Batavian republic 37,751,600 Ligucian republic 23,010,700 Helvetian republic 38,809,100 Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, and the Hans towns 32,969,700 The United States of America 557,700 The Levant, Sardinia, Italy, Portugal, Germany, and other states then at war with France 76,035,400 Total 271,575,600 The commerce of the United States of America has already advanced to an extent which rivals that of some of the principal states of Europe, and, in all probability, will materially affect many of the long-established chan- nels of trade. The destination of the exports of the United States is principally to the West Indians, Great Britain, France, Holland, and Spain; but some smaller branches of their commerce begin to appear in all the trading parts of the world. The following statement shows the proportions of the exports of 1804 to the do- minions of each power: Dollars. To Great Britain and Ireland 12,206,501 the British colonies 9,623,301 Holland and the Dutch colonies 16,447,417 France and colonies l a,776,111 Spain and colonies 6,728,125 Hamburgh, Bremen, &c. 4,475,007 Denmark and colonies 3,346,623 Sweden * 691,975 Prussia 1,186,116 Portugal and colonies 2,496,858 Italy 1,671,149 Trieste, and other Austrian ports 333,798 Europe generally 620,891 Turkey, the Levant, and Egypt 44,646 Morocco and the Barbary states 9,333 Cape of Good Hope 167,917 Africa generally 349,036 China ' 198,601 East Indies generally 796,316 South Seas 10,000 North-west coast of America 196,059 West Indies generally 3,324,294 Total 77,699,074 This total is more than double the amount of the ex- ports of America ten years prior to the above period; and the whole increase of the trade of the States since they ceased to be British colonies, has been such as never before took place in any country. The proportion of the exports, consisting of produce or manufactures of the United States, and of foreign merchandize, was as fol- lows: Dollars. Domestic produce 41,467,477 Foreign 36,231,597 Total 77,699,674 On converting the totals of the accounts of the exports of France and America into British money, their respec- tive amounts will stand thus: L. Exports of Great Britain in 1800 43,152,019 Exports of France in 1800 11,315,650 Exports of the American States in 1804 17,482,291 Had the comparison been made with the real value of the exports of Great Britain instead of the custom-house value, the superior extent of our foreign trade would have appeared still more striking. EXPOSITION, in general, denotes the setting a thing open to public view: thus it is the Romanists say, the host is exposed, when shown to the people. EX POST FACTO, in law, something done after another: thus an estate granted may be good by matter ex post facto, that was not so at first, as in case of elec- tion. A law is said to be ex post facto when it is enacted to punish an offence committed before the passing of the law. Such a proceeding is held to be against the con- stitution of England. EXPRESSED OILS, in chemistry, such oils as are obtained from bodies only by pressing. See Oil. EXPRESSION, in chemistry, or pharmacy, denotes the act of pressing out the juices or oils of vegetables, which is one of the three ways of obtaining them; the other two being by infusion and decoction. See Phar- macy. Expression, in painting, is the distinct exhibition of character in the general object of the work, or of sen- timent in the characters or persons represented. In the latter case it consists either in representing the body in general and all its parts severally, in actions most peculiarly suitable to the design of the picture, and marking thereby the emotions of the soul in the various figures, or in pourtraying in the face the appearances of the passions. In this sense the term expression has been frequently confounded with passion; but the former implies a representation of its object agreeably to its nature and character, and to the office it holds on the picture; while the latter denotes merely a particular turn or motion of the body, or of the muscles and fea- tures of the face, which marks any violent agitation of the soul: so that every passion is an expression, but not every expression a passion. Expression, says Le Brun, is a lively and natural re- semblance of the objects which we are to represent. It is a necessary ingredient i„ every part of painting, and detrit!, rt° P/CtUre,Can bc P<«*«£ *» it is that which describes the true characters of things, it is bv ex- SieT SS !!ie fffCrent natureS of Mi™ *** an- guished, that the figures seem to have motion, and that every thing counterfeited appears to be real. Expression subsists as well in the colouring as in the design; it is to be observed in the representation of jamls^pes, as well as in the general comp^t™ °0f EXPRESSION. All substances, whether animate or inanimate, arc ca- pable of expression. The skill of the painter exhibits the hardness of one substance and the softness of ano- ther, its smoothness or roughness, its dryness or moi.st- ncss, clearness or opaqueness, 6cc. in characters which cannot be mistaken. Expression being therefore a representation of things according to their character, may be considered cither with respect to the subject iu general, or to the passions peculiarly relative to it. 1st. W ill* regard to the subject; it is first requisite ill at all and every part of the composition should be so adapted to the general character of the subjects that they should con.spiie to impress at the same moment one distinct sentiment or idea. Thus, for example, iu a picture designed to give the representation of a joyful or peaceful event, every object that is introduced should be of a pleasing or tranquil kind. If the subject be taken from history, its particular nature and character must be diffused through every part of the work; but wherever any circumstance occurs, which counteracts or diminishes the general sentiment raised by the event represented, tbe insertion of such circumstance will, propori ionably to its magnitude, destroy the general ex- pression of the picture. Extraneous incidents are frequently introduced for the purpose of diversifying and giving variety to the expression; but they must be such as are neither con- trary to the truth of the history, nor to the principal design of the subject. Expression, in a picture, will then be perfect when every part of the picture is not only fit and appropriate to the subject, but when no one part of it could without evident impropriety be transferred to any other subject. The agreement of the whole ought to be particularly regarded, not only in the actions of the figures, but in the back-ground, light and shade, and colouring. What- ever is the general character of the subject, whether se- rene, joyous, melancholy, grave, solemn, or terrible, the picture should discover that character to the first glance of the spectator. The nativity of a Saviour, his resur- rection or ascension, must be distinguished from his cru- cifixion or his interment, as much by the general hue of the picture, the accessory ornaments, back-ground, Roman army was preserved by the pravers of the Theban le- gion. Raffaelle, in this manner, has personified the nv cr J ordan in his design of the children of Israel pass- EXPRESSION. ing across the river of that name: and has represented him as pushing back and restraining the course of the waters with his arm. 2dly. With regard to the passions and affections pe- culiar to the subject, the general rules consist in the proper division and distinction of them, as shown in brute or rational animals, in young or old, in male or female, in cultivated or savage. The passions of brutes are few and simple; those of the rational animal many and various. The powers of expression in the one are more confined than in the other. A man can move his eyebrows more readily than the brutes, and can give greater variety to the direction of the eyes, &c. Children and savages, less accustomed to the use of reason, express their passions more directly than culti- vated men; the first necessarily, without habitual modes of disclosure or disguise. Respecting the difference of age and sex, the expres- sions of vigorous manhood wear a freer, bolder, and more resolute appearance; those of women, and age, are more tender, reserved and feeble. Condition or rank of life also demands a difference of expression. "The demeanour of a magistrate, or other person invested with public honours, is more grave and reserved than that of the populace, whose external motions are, for the most part, rude and disorderly. The several expressions of action, in running, strik- ing, pointing, asking, forbidding, affirming, idling, avoid- ing, pursuing, starting, and many other modes, are obvi- ously various, and require a fitness of attitude, and a proper delineation of the corresponding and assisting parts of the body, and other accessories. For the painter of animals nothing is more necessary than the study of the characteristic expressions of the brute creation, which are severally as various as their species; not only on account of the singular diversity of qualities and instincts with which they are endowed, but of the different modes in which they exhibit passions of a similar nature. Expression in brute animals is, ge- nerally speaking, more displayed by attitude than by the features of the face, although, in part, this probably arises from our imperfect acquaintance with them. As it is therefore in the human figure, and still more particularly in the human count nance, that expression is most effectually and exquisitely displayed, it is to man that our observations must be principally directed in this part of the subject, for the study of which there is no perfect school but that of nature. If the rules of expression generally given are found to agree with the experience of a careful observer of nature, they are good and useful; if not, they are to be followed with caution, or rejected wholly, as occasion shall dictate. The affections of the soul may be expressed by atti- tude, ami by countenance. There are few strong emo- tions of our minds which may not, in a great measure, be shown by the former. Fear, surprise, horror, admi- ration, humility, pride, and many other affections, are visible in the air and turn of the body; but as this mode of expression admits of a very extensive range, it is next to impossible to define the precise rules by which jt is to be governed. Next to the general action of the body, and turn or air of the head, the hands claim a principal share in the expression of our sentiments. It is by them we ap- prove, refuse, entreat, admonish. Tbe hands raised together towards heaven express devotion; folded they denote idleness, and sometimes despair; wringing the hands denotes grief; waving one hand from us, prohibi- tion; extending it towards any one, acceptance and be- nevolent intentions; laying the fore-finger on the mouth enjoins silence; the same finger extended while the others are closed in the hand, shows and points to a particular object. That by the countenance the particular and imme- diate disposition of our minds is indicated, is indisputa- ble; and not this only, but our general qualities and capacities are to be found by the same index. Let two men, a wise man and a fool, be placed together, dressed and disguised as you please, one will never be mistaken for the other; nay, the distinction between them will be discernible at the first glance of the eye: and as these characters are most strongly stamped upon the face so as to be read by every spectator, when they are in the utmost extremes, they are proportionally impressed as they exist in a greater or less degree, and arc legible accordingly, in proportion to the skill and sagacity of the reader. In the same manner our good or ill-nature, our gen- tleness, ferocity, humility, pride, are discoverable in the countenance in all their various degrees. The lines and forms by which these general tendencies, or settled ha- bits of our minds, are expressed, are, of all others, the most difficult to be defined. The reader will find many curious hints and essays concerning them in the works of Lavater. With regard to the temporary affections of the mind, the following rules of expression are ordinarily givt-n: Although the passions of the soul may be expressed by the actions of the body, it is in the face that they are principally shown, and particularly in the turn of the eye, and motion of the eyebrows. There are two ways of elevating the eyebrows; the one at the middle, which likewise draws up the corners of the mouth, and argues pleasurable emotions; the other at the point next the nose, which likewise draws up the middle of the mouth, and is the mark of grief and pain- ful sensations. The passions are all reducible to joy and sadness, either mixed or simple. Joy causes a dilatation of all the parts of the face; the eyebrows rise in the middle, the eyes are half-open and smiling, the pupils sparkling and moist, the nostrils a little open, the cheeks full, the corners of the mouth drawn upwards, the lips red, the complexion lively, the forehead serene. Passionate joy, proceeding from love, is shown by the forehead smooth and even, the eyebrows a little elevated on the side to which the pupil is turned, the eves spark- ling and open, the head inclined towards the object, the air of the face smiling, and the complexion ruddy. Joy proceeding from desire, is expressed by the air and action of the body, the arms extending towards the object in uncertain and unquiet motions. Sadness is expressed by the body being bent down- wards, the head neglectfully reclined, the forehead E XT EXT wrinkled, the eyebrows raised to the middle of the fore- head, the eyes half-shut, the mouth a little open, the cor- ners tending downwards, the under lip pointing and drawn back, the nostrils swelled and drawn downwards. Sadness, mixed with fear, causes the parts to contract and palpitate, the members to tremble and fold up, the visage to be pale and livid, the point of the nostrils ele- vated, the pupil in the middle of the eye, the mouth opened at the sides, and the under-lip drawn back. In sadness, mixed with anger, the motions are more violent, the parts all agitated, the muscles swelled, the pupil wild and sparkling, the point of the eyebrows fixed toward the nose, the nostrils open, the lips swelled and pressed down, the corners of the mouth a little open and foaming, the veins swelled and full, and the hair erect. Sadness, mixed with despair, has a similar appear- ance to the last mentioned, only more excessive and dis- ordered. But, added to these general observations, every pas- sion has its distinct form of expression, for which see the article Passions. It is remarkable that Leonardo da Vinci in his Trea- tise on Painting, has observed, that between the expres- sion of laughing, and that of weeping, there is no dif- ference in the motion of the features, either in the eyes, mouth, or checks, but in the brows only; those who weep, raising the brows and bringing them close toge- ther above the nose, and forming many wrinkles on the forehead, while those who laugh have them elevated and extended. Of expression in sculpture, sir Joshua Reynolds has given it as his opinion that it is necessarily of a much more confined kind than in painting; an assertion which cannot be disputed, inasmuch as the materials of sculp- ture are more limited. He instances the celebrated group of Laocoon and his sons, in which he says the whole ex- pression consits in the representation of bodily pain in general, and asserts that sculpture is incapable of ad- mitting the mixed delineation of pain and parental af- fection. This doctrine, if not highly questionable, certainly de- mands a greater degree of elucidation. EXTASY, in medicine, a species of catalepsy, when a person perfectly remembers, after the paroxysm is over, the ideas he conceived during the time it lasted. EXTEND, in law, signifies to value the lands or tenements of a person bound by a statute, &c. who has forfeited the same at such an indifferent rate, that by the yearly rent the creditor in time may be paid his debt. See Extent. EXTENSION, in philosophy, one of the common and essential properties of a body, or that by which it posses- ses or takes up some part of universal space, which is cal- led the place of that body. EXTENSOR, an appellation given to several mus- cles, from their extending or stretching the parts to which they belong. EXTENT, in law, is used in a double sense: some- times it signifies a writ or command to the sheriff for the valuing of lands or tenements; and sometimes the act of the sheriff, or other commissioner, upon this writ; but most commonly it denotes an estimate or valuation of lands, and hence come our extended or rack rents. VOL. II. 7 Every extent ought to be made on inquisition and ver- dict, without which the sheriff cannot legally execute the writ. The cognisee, or party to whom the lands are deliv- ered, has no absolute property in them, but is accounta- ble to the cognisor according to the extended value only, not the real value. No seisin can be on an extent, nor may lands or goods be sold thereon. EXTERMINATION, in general, the extirpating or destroying something. In algebra, surds, fractions, and unknown quantities, are exterminated by the rules for reducing equations. See Algebra. EXTINGUISHMENT, in law: wherever a right, title, or interest is destroyed, or taken away by the act of God. operation of law, or act of this party, this is call- ed an extinguishment. Of the extinguishment of rents.—If a lessor purchases the tenancy from his lessee, he cannot have both the rent and the land; nor can the tenant be under any obliga- tion to pay the rent when the land, which was the con- sideration thereof, is returned by the lessor into his own hands; and this resumption or purchase of the tcnantcy makes what is properly called an extinguishment of the rent. As to the extinguishment of copyholds, it is laid down as a general rule, that any act of the copyholder, which denotes his intention to hold no longer of his lord, amounting to a determination of his will, is an extin- guishment of his copyhold. Hutt. 81. Of the extinguishment of common.—If a commoner release his common in one acre, it is an extinguishment of the whole common. Show. 350. Of the extinguishment of debts.—A creditor's ac- cepting a higher security than he had before is an extin- guishment of the first debt; as if a creditor by simple con- tract accepts an obligation, this extinguishes the simple- contract debt. 1 Rol. Abr. 470 and 471. . Extinguishment of services. The lord purchases or accepts parcel of the tenantcy, out of which an entire service is To be paid or done; by this the whole service will be extinct: but if the service is pro bono publico, then no part of it shall be extinguished; and homage and fealty are not subject to extinguishment by the lord's purchasing part of the land. 6 Rep. 105. Extinguishment of ways. If a man has a highway as appendant, and after purchases the land wherein this way is, the way is extinct: though a way of necessity, to market, or to church, or to arable land, &c. is not ex- tinguished by purchase of grounds, or unity of posses- sion. 1 Inst. 155. EXTORTION, signifies any oppression by colour or pretence of right; and in this respect it is said to be more heinous than robbery itself, as also that it is usually at- tended with the aggravating sin of perjury. Co. Lit. 368. At common law extortion is severely punishable at the king's suit by fine and imprisonment, and by a re- moval from the office in the execution whereof it was committed. 31 Eliz. c. 5. And this statute adds a great- er penalty than the common law gave; for hereby the plaintiff shall recover his double damages. 2 Inst. .10. See Colour of Office. EXTRACT, in pharmacy, is a solution of the purer EXT EYE parts of a mixed body inspissated, by distillation or eva- poration, nearly to the consistence oE honey. See Phar- macy. EXTRACTION, in surgery, is the drawing any for- eign matter out of the body by the hand, or by the help of instruments. See Surgery. Extraction of roots, in algebra and arithmetic, the method of finding the root of any power or number. See Algebra, and Arithmetic. EXTRACTOR, in midwifery, an instrument, or for- ceps, for extracting children by the head. See Midwi- fery. EXTRA-JUDICIAL, is when judgment is given in a cause or case not depending in that court where such judgment is given, or wherein the judge has no jurisdic- tion. EXTRA-PAROCHIAL, out of any parish; privileg- ed or exempted from the duties of a parish. If a place is extra-parochial, and has not the face of a parish, the justices have no authority to send any poor person thith- er: possibly a place extra-parochial may be taxed in aid of a parish, but a parish shall not in aid of that. 2 Salk. 486. EXTRAVAGANTES, those decretal epistles which were published after the Clementines. They were so called because, at first, they were not digested or ranged with the other papal constitutions, but seemed to be detached from the canon law. They continued to be called by the same name when they were afterwards inserted in the body of the canon law. The first cxtravagantes arc those of John XXII. successor of Clement V.: the last collection was brought down to the year 1433, and was called the common cxtravagantes, notwithstanding that thev were likewise incorporated with the rest of the canon law. EXTRAVASATION, in contusions, fissures, depres- sions, fractures, and other accidents of the cranium, is wdien one or more of the blood-vessels that are distribut- ed on the dura mater, are broken or divided, whereby there is such a discharge of blood as greatly oppresses the brain, and disturbs its offices; frequently bringing on violent pains and other mischiefs, and at length death itself, unless the patient is timely relieved. See Surgery. EXTREMES, in logic, the terms expressing the two ideas whose relation we inquire after in a syllogism. Extreme and mean proportion, in geometry, is when a line AB (Plate LiV. Miscel. fig. 88) is so divided in F, that the rectangle under the whole line AB, and the lesser segment FB, is equal to the square of the greater segment AF. Let a square be formed upon the line AB, and one of its sides AC be equally divided in the point 1); draw DB, and take the line DGequal to the line Bl); then the square AGHF will be equal to the rectangle FE. For since the line AC is equally divided in the point D, and is lengthened by the line AG, the rectangle CII, together with the square of the line A1), will (by 6. 2. El.) be equal to the square of the line DG or DB. But the square AE, with the square of the line AD, is also equal (47. I.) to the square of the line DB. Therefore the square AE is equal to the rectangle CH. Taking then away from both the rectangle CF,the rectangle FE will be equal to the square FG. But no number can be so divided into two parts, as is 2 demonstrated by Clavius, in his commentaries upon lib* 9. of Euclid; which is evident enough thus: Let a be the number, and a? the greater part; then the lesser part will be a — x, and so aa — ax = xx, and thence x = ------—--; and since the square root of 5 cannot be had in numbers exactly, it is plain that the value of x partly consisting of the square root, multiplied by a, cannot be had exactly in numbers neither. Extremes conjunct and disjunct. See Trigonome- try, spherical. EXUVIJE, among naturalists, denote the cast-off parts or coverings of animals, as the skins of serpents, caterpillars, and other insects. See Eruca. EYE, in anatomy, the organ of sight, or that part of the body whereby visible objects are represented to the mind. See Anatomy, Optics, and Physiology. Motions of the eye are either external or internal. The external motion is that performed by its four straight and two oblique muscles, whereby the whole globe of the eye changes its situation or direction. The spherical figure of our eyes, and their loose connection to the edge of the orbit by the tunica conjunctiva, which is soft, flexible, and yielding, does excellently dispose them to be moved this or the other way, according to the situation of the object wre could view. By the membranes the eye is connected to the edge of the orbit, which be- ing soft and flexible, they do in such a manner as not in the least to impede its necessary motions; and that great quantity of fat placed all round the globe, betwixtitand the orbit, lubricates and softens the eye, and renders its motions more easy: hence arise the three following re- markable observations: 1. When nature has denied the head any motion, it is observable that she has, with great care and industry, provided for this defect. To this purpose belongs the sur- prising beautiful and curious mechanism observable in the immoveable eves of flies, wasps, &c. They nearly resemble two protuberant hemispheres, each consisting of a prodigious number of other little segments of a sphere, all which segments are perforated by a hole, which may be called their pupil, in which this is remark- able; that every foramen, or pupil, is of a lenticular na- ture, so that we see objects through them topsy-turvv, as through so many convex glasses: they even become a small telescope, when there is a due focal distance be- tween them, and the lens of the microscope by which they are viewed. Leuwenhoek's observations make it probable that every lens of the cornea supplies the place of the crystalline humour, which seems to be wanting in those creatures; and that each has a distinct branch of tiie optic nerve answering to it, upon which the images are pointed: so that as most animals are binocular, and spiders tor the most part octonocular, so flics, 6cc. are multocular, having in effect as many eyes as there are perforations in the cornea, by which means (as other creatures with but two eyes are obliged, by the contrac- tion^! tbe muscles above-enumerated, to turn their eyes to objects) these have some or other of their pupils al- ways ready placed towards objects nearly all around them, whence they are so far from being denied any benefit of this noble and most necessary sense of sight EYE E Y R that they have probably more of it than other creatures, answering to their necessities and ways of living. II. As in man and most other creatures, the eyes arc situated in the head, because among other reasons, it is the most convenient place for their defence and security, being composed of hard bones, wherein are formed two large strong sinuses, or sockets, commonly called orbits, for the convenient lodgings of these tender organs, and securing them against external injuries: so in those creatures whose head, like their eyes and the rest of their body, is soft and without boms, nature has pro- vided for this necessary and tender organ a wonderful kind of guard, by enduing the creature with a faculty of withdrawing his eyes into his head, and lodging them in the same safety within his body. We have a very beau- tiful example of this in snails, whose eyes are lodged in four horns, like stramentous spots, one tit the end of each horn, which they can retract at pleasure, when in any danger. Hence it may be also observed, that the cor- nea in all animals that want eyelids, as fishes, exactly resembles in hardness the horn ofalanthorn; and there- fore is not hurt by such particles as their eyes are com- monly exposed to. And in the mole, because this animal lives under ground, it was nccessarv its eves should be well guarded and defended against the many dangers and conveniences to which its manner of living exposes it: this is the reason why its eyes are so small, and that they are situated so far in the head, and covered so strongly with hair; and besides they can protrude and retract them at pleasure. See Comparative Ana- tomy. III. The third and last reflection we shall make upon the external motion of our eyes, is what regards a pro- blem which has very much perplexed both physicians and philosophers, viz. What is the cause of the uniform motion of both eyes? In some creatures, such as fishes, birds, and among quadrupeds, the hat;-, cameleon, kc. the eyes are moved differently: the one towards one object, and the other towards another. But iu man, sheep, oxen, and dogs, the m itions are so uniform that they never fail to turn both towards the same place: hence iu operations upon the eye that require it to be kept immoveable, sometimes it is necessary to tie up the sound eye with a compress, by which means the other is easier kept fixed and im- moveable. The final cause of this uniform motion is, l. That the sight may be thence rendered more strong and per- ,fe< t: for since each eye apart impresses the mind with an idea of the same object, the impression must be more strong and lively when both eyes concur; and that both may concur, it is necessary that they move uniformly; for though the retina, or immediate organ of vision is expanded upon the whole bottom of the eye, as far as the ligamentum ciliarc, yet nothing is clearly and distinctly seen but what the eye is directed to. 2. A second advant- age we reap from the uniform motion of the eyes, which is more considerable than the former, consists in our be- ing thereby enabled to judge with more certainty of the distance of objects. See Optics. There is yet another advantage, full as considerable as any of the former, thatis thought to arise from the uni- form motion of our eyes, and that is, the single appear- ance of objects seen with both our eves; which, though at first view it does not appear probable, is true: for if in looking at an object you turn one of your eyes aside with your finger, and alter its direction, every thing will be seen double. By the internal motions of the eye we understand those motions which only happen to some of its internal parts, such as the crystalline and iris; or to the whole eye when it changes its spherical figure, and becomes oblong or flat. The internal motions of our eyes are either such as respect the change of conformation that is necessary for seeing distinctly at different distances, or such as only respect the dilatation and contraction of the pupil. That our eyes change their conformation, and ac- commodate themselves to the various distances of ob- jects, will be evident to any person, who but reflects on the manner and most obvious phenomena of vision. Authors arc very much divided in their opinions with regard to the mechanism by which this change is intro- duced, as well as what parts it consists in: for some are of opinion that the whole globe changes its form, by be- ing lengthened into an oblong figure when objects are near, and by becoming flat when they arc removed to a greater distance; and others are of a quite contrary opin- ion. With regard to the change of the crystalline, and the mechanism by which it is produced, some maintain, that according as objects arc at different distances this hu- mour becomes more or less convex, which does indeed very well account for distinct vision at different distan- ces; since objects whose rays are admitted through a lens placed in the hole of a window-shutter, in a dark room, have their images always distinct, at whatever distance they may be from the window, provided the lens is of a convexity answerable to that distance. Eye, in architecture, is used to signify any round window, made in a pediment, an attic, the reins of a vault. &c. Eve of a dome, an aperture at the top of a dome, as that of the Pantheon at Rome, or of St. Paul's at London: it is usually covered with a lanthorn. Eye of the volute, in architecture, is the centre of the volute, or that point in which the helix, or spiral of which it is formed, commences: or it is the little circle in the middle of the volute, in which are found the thirteen centres for describing the circumvolutions of it. Eye, in agriculture and gardening, signifies a little bud or shoot inserted into a tree by way of graft. Eyebrigut. See Euphrasia. Eye of the anchor, on board a ship, the hole in which the ring of the anchor is put into the shank. Eye of the strap, on board a ship, the ring or round which is left to the strap to which any blockis seized. Eye, in printing, is sometimes used for tbe thickness of the types; or, more properly, it signifies the graving in relievo on the top of the letter, otherwise called its face: the eye of the c is the small opening at the head of that letter, which distinguishes it from the c. Eye-glass, in the microscope. See Microscope. EYRE, oveire, in law, the court of itinerant justices. See Justices. F A ( F A C EZAX, in "the Mahometan theology, a hymn contain- EZEKIEL'S reed, or rod, a measure of length ing the profession of their faith, which is repeated five mentioned by that prophet, and computed to be nearly times a day, to call the people to prayers. equal to two English feet. F. X^ the sixth letter of the alphabet. As a numeral it ■*- } denotes 40, and with a dash over it thus F, denotes 40,000: in music it stands for the bass-clef; and frequent- ly for forte, as^' does for forte forte. F, in medicine, stands for fiat, let it be done: thus F. S. A. stands for fiat secundum artem, let it be done ac- cording to art. As an observation, F stands for filius, fellow, &c: thus F. R. S. signifies Fellow of the Royal Society. FA, in music, one of the syllables invented by Guido Aretine, to mark the fourth note of the modern scale, which rises thus, ut, re, mi, fa. Musicians distinguish two fa's, viz. the flat, marked with a b, or b» and the sharp or natural, marked thus *, and called biquadro. Fa finto, a feigned F, or a feint upon that note: this is the case of every note that has the mark b before it; but more especially mi and si, or our E and B, and is what we commonly call the flat of any note. FAB A, the bean. See Vicia. FABLE, fabula, a tale or feigned narration, designed either to instruct or amuse, disguised under the allegory of an action, &c. Fables were the first pieces of wit that made their appearance in the world, and have been still highly valued, not only in times of the greatest simplicity, but among the most polite ages of the world. Jotham's fable of the trees is tbe oldest that is extant, and as beautiful as any that has been made since. Nathan's fable of the poor man is next in antiquity, and had so good an effect as to convey instruction to the ear of a king. We find JSsop in the most distant ages of Greece; and in the early days of the Roman commonwealth, we read of a mutiny appeased by the fable of the belly and the members. There is scarcely a book in the whole com- pass of profane literature which contains a greater store of moral wisdom, frequently seasoned with no small share of wit, than .Esop's fables. It is injudiciously put into the hands of children who cannot understand it: its object is to instruct men. Fable is also used for the plot of an epic or dramatic poem; and is, according to Aristotle, the principal part, and the soul of a poem. See Poetry. FABRIC-LANDS, those formerly given towards re- building or repairing of cathedrals and other churches; for anciently almost every body gave more or less, by his will, to the fabric of the parish-church where lie dwelt. FACE, or facade, in architecture, the front of a build- ing, or the side which contains the chief entrance. Some- times, however, it is used for whatever side presents to the street, garden, court, &c. or is opposite to the eye. Face of a stone, in masonry, that superficies of it which lies in the front of the work. Th- w rkm »• gene- rally choose to make one of those sides th face, h b. when in the quarry, lay perpendicularly to the lioiizon, and consequently the breaking, not the cleaving way of the stone. Face, in fortification, an appellation given to several parts of a fortress, as the face of a bastion, &c. Sec For- tification. Face, in the military art, a word of command, inti- mating to turn about: thus, " Face to the right," is to turn upon the left heel a quarter-round to the right; and " Face to the left," is to turn upon the right heel a quar- ter-round to the left. FACET, or facette, among jewellers, the name of the little faces or planes to be found in brilliant and rose diamonds. FACTION, in antiquity, a name given to the differ- ent companies of combatants or racers in the circus. They were four, viz. the white, the red, the green, and the blue; to which Domitian added another of purple co- lour. They were so denominated from the colour of the liveries they wore, and were dedicated to the four sea- sons of the year, the green being consecrated to spring, the blue to winter, the red to summer, and the white to autumn. It appears from ancient inscriptions that each faction had its procurators and physician; and from his- tory, that party rage ran so high among them, that in a dissension between two factions, in the time of Justinian, almost forty thousand men lost their lives in the quar- rel. See Gibbon's Decline and Fall, &c. FACTITIOUS, any thing made by art, in opposition to what is the produce of nature. Thus, factitious cin- nabar is opposed to native cinnabar. FACTOR, iu commerce, is an agent or correspondent residing beyond the seas, or in some remote part, com- missioned by merchants to buy or sell goods oh their account, or assist them in carrying on their trade. A factor receives from the merchants, his constituents, in lieu of wages, a commission or factorage, accordiug to the usage of the place where he resides, or the busi- ness he transacts, this being various in different coun- tries, and on the purchases and sales of different com- modities. He ought to keep strictly to the tenor of his orders; as a deviation from them, even in the most mi- nute particular, exposes him to make ample satisfaction for any loss that may accrue from his nonobservance of them; and it is very reasonable it should be so, as the distance of his situation renders him unable to judge of his principal's views and intention. When unlimited or- ders are given to factors, and they are left to sell or buy on the best conditions th-y can, whatever detriment oc- curs to their constituents, they are excused, as it is to be preswined they acted for the best, and were governed by the dictates of prudence. But a bare commission to sell is not sufficient authority for the factor to trust any person, wherefore he ought to receive the money on the delivery of the goods; and, by the general power, he may not trust beyond one, two, or three months, &c. the F A C F A C usual time allowed hi sales, otherwise he shall be answer- able out of his own estate. If a factor sells on the usual trust to a person of good credit, who afterwards becomes insolvent, he is discharged; but not if the man's credit was bad at the time of sale. If a factor gives a man time for payment of money contracted on sale of his princi- pal's goods, and, after that time is elapsed, sells him goods of his own for ready money, and the man becomes insolvent, the factor in equity ought to indemnify his principal, but he is not compellable by the common law. A factor should always be punctual in the advices of his transactions, in sales, purchases, freights, and more es- pecially in draughts by exchange: he should never de- viate from the orders be receives in tbe execution of a commission for purchasing goods, either in price, quali- ty, or kind; and if. after goods are bought, he sends them to a different place from what he was directed to, they must remain for his own account, except the mer- chant, on advice of his proceedings, admits them accord- ing to his first intention. A factor that sells a commodity under the price he is ordered, shall be obliged to make good the difference: and if he purchases goods for an- other at a price limited, and afterwards they rise, and he fraudulently takes them for his own account, and sends them to another part, in order to secure an advantage that seemingly offers, he will, on proof, be obliged, by the custom of merchants, to satisfy his principal for da- mages. If a factor, in conformity with a merchant's or- ders, buys with his money, or on his credit, a commodity he shall be directed to purchase; and, without giving ad- vice of the transaction, sells it again to profit, and ap- propriates to himself the advantage; the merchant shall recover it from him, and besides have him amerced for his fraud. When factors have obtained a profit for their principal, they must be cautious how they dispose of it; for if they act without commission they are responsible: and if a merchant remits goods to his factor, and about a month after draws a bill on him, the factor, having ef- fects in his hands, accepts the bill, then the principal breaks, and the goods are seized in the factor's hands for the behalf of the creditors, it has been conceived the factor must answer the bill notwithstanding, and come in as a creditor for so much as he was obliged, by rea- son of his acceptance, to pay. A factor who enters into a charterparty with a master for freight, is obliged by the contract; but if he loads aboard generally, the prin- cipal and the lading arc liable for the freight, and not the factor. If a factor, having money in his hands be- longing to his principal, neglects to insure a ship and goods, according to order, if the ship miscarry, the fac- tor, by the custom of men bants, shall make good the damage; and if he makes any composition with the in- surers after insurance without orders so to do, he is an- swerable for the whole insurance. As fidelity and diligence are expected from the factor, so the law requires the like from the principal; if, there- fore, a merchant remits counterfeit jewels to his factor, who sells them as if true; if he receives loss or prejudice by imprisonment or other punishment, the principal shall not only make full satisfaction to the factor, but to the partv who bought the jewels. What is lere said of factors, is meant of such as reside abroad to act for merchants; and may be applied to su- percargoes, who go a voyage to dispose of a cargo, and afterwards return with another to their principals; but it is also the custom of the merchants of the highest cre- dit throughout the world to act mutually in the capacity of factors for each other. The business so executed is called commission-business, and is generally desirable by all merchants, provided they have always effects in their hands, as a security for all the affairs which they transact for the account of others. And this class of trad- ers of established reputation, have current as well as com- mission accounts, constantly between them; and draw on, remit to, and send commissions to each other only by the intercourse of letters, which, among men of honour, are as obligatory and authoritative as all the bonds and ties of law. Factor, in multiplication, a name given to the mul- tiplier and multiplicand, because they constitute the pro- duct. FACTORAGE, called also commission, is the allow- ance given to factors by the merchant who employs theim A factor's commission in Britain, on most kinds of goods, is two and a half per cent.: on lead, and some other ar- ticles, two per cent.; in Italy, two and a half per cent.; in France, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Hamburgh, and Dantzic, two per cent.; in Turkey three per cent.; irt North America five per cent, on sales, and five percent. in returns; in the West Indies eight per cent, for com- mission and storage. In some places it is customary for the factors to insure the debts for an additional allow- ance, generally one and a half per cent. In that case they are accountable for the debt when the usual term of credit is expired. Factorage on goods is sometimes charged at a certain rate per cask, or other package, measure or weight, especially when the factor is only employed to receive or deliver them. FACTORY is a place where a considerable number of factors reside, to negotiate for their masters or em- ployers. The most considerable factories belonging to the British are those established in the East Indies, Por- tugal, Turkey, &c. FACUL-E. in astronomy, certain bright and shining parts, which the modern astronomers have, by means of telescopes, observed upon or about the surface of the sun: they are but very seldom seen. Hevelius assures us that, on July 20, 1634, he observ- ed a facula, whose breadth was equal to a third part of the sun's diameter. lie says too that the maculae often change into faculse, but these seldom or never into ma- culae. And some authors even contend that all the ma- cula degenerate into facula: before they quite disappear. Many authors, after Kircher and Scheiner, have repre- sented the sun's body full of bright, fiery spots, which they conceive to be a sort of volcanoes in the bodv of the sun; but Huygens, and others of the latest and best observers, finding that the best telescopes discover no- thing of the matter, agree entirely to explode the pheno- mena of facuh-e. All the foundation he could see for the notion of faculae, he says, was. that in the darkish clouds which frequently surrounded the maculae, there arc some- times seen little points or sparks brighter than the rest. FACULTY, in law, a privilege granted to a person, by favour and indulgence, of doing what, by law, he ought not to do. For granting these privileges there is FAG FAG a court under the archbishop of Canterbury, called the court of the faculties, the chief officer of which is styled master of the faculties, who has a power of granting dispensations in divers cases: as to marry without the bans being first published; to ordain a deacon under age; for a son to succeed his father in his benefice; a clerk to hold two or more livings, &.c. Faculty, in the schools, a term applied to the differ- ent members of an university, divided according to the arts and sciences taught there: thus in most universities there are four faculties, viz. 1. Of arts, which include humanity and philosophy. 2. Of theology. 3. Of physic. And, 4. Of civil law. The degrees in the several facul- ties in our universities are those of bachelor, master, and doctor. Faculty of advocates, a term applied to the col- lege or society of advocates in Scotland, who plead in all actions before tbe court of sessions. They meet in the beginning of every year, and choose the annual officers of the society, viz. dean, treasurer, clerks, private and public examinators, and a curator of their library. The manner of admission into the faculty of associates is by a trial in the civil law. and Scotch law: the person de. siring to be admitted having, upon petition, obtained a recommendation to the dean of the faculty, he gives a remit to the private examinators, who are nine in num- ber, and who, after their election, having divided the body of the civil law into nine parts, each taking one, appoint a diet for examination: in this diet there must be at least seven present, each of whom examines the can- didate; and the question being afterwards put, Qualified, yea or no? they give their opinion by balloting, upon which the candidate is either admitted by signing his pe- tition, or remitted to his studies. After the private trial the dean of the faculty assigns the candidate a title of the civil law, for the subject of a thesis; which being distributed among the advocates, the faculty meet on a day appointed, when three at least of fifteen public ex- aminators dispute against the thesis; and afterwards the faculty give their opinions by balloting, as in the pri- vate trial. If the candidate is found qualified, the dean assigns him a law for an harangue before the lords; which harangue being made, he is admitted a member of the faculty, upon paying the fees,taking the oaths to the government, and an oath to be faithful in his office. Faculty is also used to denote the powers of the hu- man mind, viz. understanding, will, memory, and ima- gination. F.ZECES, in chemistry, the gross matter, or sedi- ment, that settles at the Bottom after distillation, fer- mentation, &c. F^ECULA. See Gluten. FAGARA, iron wood, a genus of the monogynia or- der, in the tetrandria (lass of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 43d order, dumosa;. The ca- lyx is quadrifid, the corolla tetrapetalous, and the cap- sule hi valved and monospermous. There arc 10 species, all natives of the warm parts of America, rising with woody stems more than 20 feet high. They are propa- gated by seeds; but in England they must be kept con- tinually in a stove. FAGG, in the sea language, a term given to the end of those strands which do not go through the tops, when a cable or rope is closed. FAGONIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 14th order, gruinales. The calyx is pentaphyllous; tbe petals arc five, and heart-shaped; the capsule is quinquelocular, ten-valved, with the cells mo- nospermous. There are three species, herbaceous plants of Spain, Crete, and Arabia. FAGRiEA, a genus of the class and order pentandria monogynia. The calyx is bell-shaped; corolla funnel- shaped; berry two-celled, fleshy, seeds globular; stigma peltate. There is one species, a shrub of Ceylon. FAGUS, the beech-tree, a genus of the polyandria or- der, in the monmcia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 50th order, amentaceae. The male calyx is quinquefid, and camjanulated: there is no corolla; the stamina are 12: the female calyx is quinque- dentated; there is no corolla; there are three styles; the capsule (formerly the calyx) is muricated and quadri- valved; the seeds two in number. There are five spe- cies. The most remarkable are, 1, The sylvatica, or beech-tree, rises 60 or 70 feet high, and has a proportionable thickness, branching up- ward into a fine regular head, with ova] serrated leaves, with flowers in globular catkins, succeeded by angular fruit called mast. 2. The castanea, or chesnut-trec, has a large upright trunk growing 40 or 50 feet high, branching regularly round into a fine spreading head, with large spear- shaped acutely serrated leaves, naked on the underside, haying flowers in long amentums, succeeded by round prickly fruit, containing two or more nuts. 3. The pumila, dwarf chesnut-tree, or chinkapin, rises eight or ten feet high, with a branching shrubby stem, and oval spear-shaped and acutely serrated leaves, hoary on the under side. The first species is very easily raised from the mast or seed. " For woods (says Evelyn) the beech must be go- verned as the oak; in nurseries as the ash: sowing the masts in autumn, or later, even after January, or rather nearer the spring, to preserve them from vermin, which are very great devourers of them. But they are likewise to be planted of young seedlings, to be drawn out of the places where the fruitful trees abound. Millar savs, the season for sowing the masts « is any time from October to February, only observing to secure the seeds from vermin when early sowed: which, if careful!v done, the sooner they are sown the better after they arc fullv ripe." Hambury orders a sufficient quantity of masts to' be ga- thered about the middle of September, when they begin to fall: these are to be "spread upon a mat in an airy place six days to dry; and after that you may either proceed to sow them immediately, or you may put them up m bags in order to sow them nearer the spring: as they will keep very well, and there will be less dancer of having them destroyed by mice or other vermin, by which kinds of animals they arc grcatlv relished " Thev must be sown in beds properly prepared, about an inch deep, in the first spring many of the young plants will appear, whilst others will not come up till the spring lollowiog. Having stood two years in the seminary, FAGUS- they should be removed to the nursery, where they may remain till wanted. The propagation of the second species is also chiefly from seeds. Evelyn says, "Let the nuts be first spread to sweat, then cover them in sand; a month being past, plunge them in water, and reject the swimmers; being dried for SO days more, sand them again, and expose them to the water-ordeal as before. Being thus treated until the be- ginning of spring or in November, set them as yon would beans; and, as some practise it, drenched for a night or more in new milk; but with half this preparation they need only to be put into the holes with the point up- wards, as you plant tulips. If you design to set them in winter or autumn, I counsel you to inter them in their husks, which being every way armed, are a good pro- tection against the mouse, and a providential integu- ment."—« Being come up, they thrive best unremoved, making a great stand for at least two years upon every transplanting; yet if you must alter their station, let it be done about November." Millar cautions us against purchasing foreign nuts that have been kiln-dried, which (he says) is generally done to prevent their sprouting in their passage; therefore he adds, « If they cannot be procured fresh from the tree, it will be much better to use those of the growth of England, which are full as good to sow for timber or beauty as any of the foreign nuts, though their fruit is much smaller." He also re- commends preserving them in sand, and proving them in water. In setting these seeds or nuts, he says, •'< The best way is to make a drill with a hoe (as is commonly practised for kidney-beans), about four inches deep, in which you should place the nuts, at about four inches distance, with their eye uppermost; then draw the earth over them with a rake, and make a second drill at about a foot distance from the former, proceeding as before, allowing three or four rows in each bed. In April (he does not mention the time of sowing) these nuts will ap- pear above ground; you must therefore observe to keep them clear from weeds, especially while young: in these beds they may remain for two years, when you should remove them into a nursery at a wider distance. The best time for transplanting these trees is either in Octo- ber, or the em\ of February, but October is tbe best sea- son: the distance these should have in the nursery is three feet row from row, and one foot in the rows. If these trees have a downright tap-root, it should be cut off, especially if they are intended to be removed again: this will occasion their putting out lateral shoots, and render them less subject to miscarry when they are re- moved for good. The time generally allowed them in the nursery is three or four years, according to their growth; but the younger they are transplanted the bet- ter they will succeed. Young trees of this sort are apt to have crooked stems; hut when they are transplanted out, and have room to grow, as they increase in bulk they will grow more upright, and their stems will be- come straight, as I have frequently observed where there have been great plantations." Hanbury follows Millar almost literally, except that he mentions Febru- ary as the time of sowing; and recommends that the young plants, a year after they have been planted in the nursery, be cut down to within an inch of the ground; which (he says) <•' will cause them to shoot vigorously with one strong and straight stem." There 1^ one ma- terial objection against sowing chesnuts iu drills, which are well known to serve as guides or conductors to the field-mouse, who will run from one end to the other of a drill without letting a single nut escape her: we ra- ther recommend setting them with a dibble, either pro- miscuously or quincunx, at about six inches distance. Evelyn says, that coppices of chesnuts may be thick- ened by lowering the tender young shoots; but adds, that " such as spring from the nuts and matrons are best of all." There is a striped-leaved variegation which is continued by budding; and the French are said to graft chesnuts for their fruit; but Millar says, such grafted trees are unfit for timber. Tbe chesnut will thrive upon almost any soil which lies out of the water's way; but dislikes wet moory laud. The method of propagating the dwarf-chesnut is from seeds. These should be planted in drills, in a moist bed of rich garden-mould. If the seeds are good they will come up pretty soon in the spring. After they ap- pear they will require no trouble except keeping them clean from weeds, and watering them in dry weather. They may stand in the seed-bed two years, and be after- wards planted in tbe nursery ground, at a foot asunder, and two feet distance in tbe rows; and here when they are got strong plants they will be fit for any purpose. In stateliness and grandeur of outline the beech excels the oak. Its foliage is peculiarly soft and pleasing to the eye; its branches are numerous and spreading; aud its stem grows to a great size. The bark of the beech is remarkably smooth, and of a silvery cast: this, added to the splendour and smoothness of its foliage, gives a striking neatness and delicacy to its general appearance. The beech therefore, standing singly, and suffered to form its own natural head, is highly ornamental: and its leaves varying their hue as the autumn approaches, renders it in this point of view still more desirable. In respect of actual use the beech follows next to the oak and the ash: it is almost as necessary to the cabinet- maker and turner as the oak is to the shipbuilder, or the ash to the plough and cart-wright. Evelyn never- theless condemns it in pointed and general terms; he- cause " where it lies dry, or wet and dry, it is exceed- ingly obnoxious to the worm." He adds, however, '-but being put ten days in water it will exceedingly resist the worm." J'he natural soil and situation of the beech are upon dry, chalky, or limestone heights: it grows to a great size, upon the hills of Surry and Kent; as also upon the declivities of the Cotswold and Stroud water hills of Gloucestershire, and flourishes exceedingly upon the bleak banks of the Wye, in Hereford and Monmouth shires; where it is much used in making charcoal. In situations like those, and where it is not already prevalent, the beech, whether as a timber-tree or as an underwood, is an object worthy the planter's attention. The mast, or seeds, yield a good oil for lamps; and arc a very agreeable food to spuirrels, mice, and swine. The fat of swine fed with them, however, is soft, and boils away, unless hardened by some other food. The leaves gathered in autumn, before they are much injured by the frosts, make much better mattrasses than su-aw or chaff, and last foe seven or eight years. The nuts when eaten by the huiuau species, occasion giddiness TAX F A L and headache; but when well dried and powdered they make wholesome bread. They are sometimes roasted, and substituted for coffee. The poor people in Silesia use the expressed oil instead of butter. The chesnut-tree sometimes grows to an immense size. The largest in the known world are those which grow upon mount ./Etna in Sicily. At Tortworth in Gloucestershire is a chesnut-tree 52 feet round. It is proved to have stood there ever since the year 1150, and was then so remarkable that it was called the great ches- nut of Tortworth. It fixes the boundary of the manor, and is probably near 1000 years old. As an ornamental, the chesnut, though unequal to the oak and beech, has a degree of grandeur belonging to it which recommends it strongly to the planter's attention. Its uses have been highly extolled, and it may deserve a considerable share of the praise which has been given it. As a substitute for the oak it is preferable to the elm for door-jambs, window-frames, and some other purposes of the house- carpenter: it is nearly equal to oak itself; but it is very apt to be shaky, and there is a deceitful brittleness in it which renders it unsafe to be used as beams, or in any other situation where an uncertain load is required to be borne. It is universally allowed to be exccllant for liquor- casks; as not being liable to shrink, nor to change the colour of the liquor it contains: it is also strongly recom- mended as an underwood for hop-poles, stakes, &c. Its fruit too is valuable, not only for swine and deer, but as human food: bread is said to have been made of it. Upon the whole, the chesnut, whether in the light of ornament or use, is undoubtedly an object of the planter's notice. FAILLIS, in heraldry, a French term denoting some failure or fraction in an ordinary, as if it wras broken, or a splinter taken from it. FAIR, a greater kind of market, granted to a town, by privilege, for the more speedy and commodious provi- ding of such things as the place stands in need of. It is incident to a fair, that persons shall be free from being arrested in it for any other debt or contract than what was contracted in the same, or at least promised to be paid there. Also proclamation is to be made, how long they are to continue; and no person shall sell any goods after the time of the fair is ended, on forfeiture of double tire value, one fourth to the prosecutor, and the rest to the king. There is atoll usually paid in fairs, on the sale of things, and for stallage, picage, &c. Fairs abroad are either free, or charged with toll and imposition. The privileges of free fairs consist chiefly, first, in that all traders, &c. whether natives or foreigners, are allowed to enter the kingdom, and are under the royal protection, exempt from duties, impositions, tolls, &c. Secondly, that merchants, in going or returning, cannot be molested or arrested, or their goods stopped. They are established by letters-patent from the prince. Fairs, particularly free fairs, make a very considerable article in the commerce of Europe, especially that of the Medi- teranean, and inland parts of Germany, &c. The principal British fairs are, 1. Sturbridge-fair, near Cambridge, by far the greatest in Britain, and perhaps in the world. 2. Brist-d has two fairs, very near as great as that of Sturbridge. 3. Exeter. 4. West Chester. 5. Edinburgh. 6. Wlieyhill; and, 7. Bur- ford-fair, both for sheep. 8. Pancras-fair, in Stafford- shire, for saddle-horses. 2. Bartholomew fair, at |fon" don, for lean and Welsh black cattle. 10. St. Faith s, in Norfolk, for Scotch runts. 11. Yarmouth fishing- fair for herrings, the only fishing-fair in Great Britain. 12. Ipswich butter-fair. 13. Woodborough-hiH> in Dor- setshire, for west-country manufactures, as kerseys, druggets, &c. 14. Two cheese-fairs at Chipping Nor- ton: with innumerable other fairs, besides weekly markets, for all sorts of goods, as well our own as of foreign growth. Among the principal free fairs in France were those of St. Germains, Lyons, Rheims, Cbartres, Rouen, Bour- deaux, Troyes, Bayonne, Dieppe, &c. The most noted fairs in Germany are those of Franc- fort, Leipsic, and Nurenburg; not only on account of the great trade, but the vast concourse of princes of the em- pire, nobility, and people, who come to them from all parts of Germany to partake of the diversions. FAIRY-circle, or ring, a phenomenon frequent in the fields, &c supposed by the vulgar to be traced by the fairies in their dances: there are two kinds of it; one of about seven yards in diameter, containing a round bare path, a foot broad, with green grass in the middle of it. The other is of different bigness, encompassed with a circumference of grass greener and fresher than that in the middle. Mess. Jessop and Walker, in the Philoso- phical Transact, ascribed them to lightning: we have however examined them ourselves, and are convinced they are produced by a kind of fungus which breaks and pulverizes the soil; why this vegetable should put forth its offsets in this kind of circular direction we cannot rightly account. The circles however are seldom com- plete, and often very irregular. FAKE, among sailors, signifies one round or circle of a cable or hawser, coiled up out of the way. FALCATED, something in the form of a sickle: thus the moon is said to be falcated when she appears horned. FALCO, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the or- der of accipitres, the characters of which are these: the beak is crooked, and furnished with wax at the base; the head is thick-set with feathers, and the tongue is cloven. The eagle, kite, and hawk, form this genus. There are 32 species, of which the following are the most remarka- ble. 1. The leucocephalus, bald, or white-headed eagle of Catesby, is ash-coloured, with head and tail white; the iris of the eye is white over which is a prominence covered with a yellow skin; the bill and the cere or wax are yellow, as are likewise the legs and feet; and talons are black. Though it is an eagle of small size, it weighs nine pounds, is strong and full of spirit, preying on lambs, pigs, and fawns. They always make their nests near the sea or great rivers, and usually upon old dead pine or cypress trees, continuing to build annually on the same tree till it talis. Though he is so formidable to all birds, yet he suffers them to build near his royal nest without molesta- tion; particularly the fishing-hawk, herons, &c. which all build on high trees, and in some places are so near one another that they appear like a rookery. The nests are very large and very fetid, owing to the relics of their prey. Lawson says they breed very often, laying again under their callow young, whose warmth hatches the eggs. In Bering's isle they make their nests on the FALCO. cliffs near six feet wide and one thick; and lay two eggs in the beginning of July. This species inhabits both Europe and America; but is more common in the latter. Besides flesh, it feeds also on fish. This, however, it does not procure for itself; but sitting in a convenient spot, watches thediv ing of the fishing-hawk into the water after a fish; which the moment it has seized, the bald eagle follows close after, when the hawk is glad to escape by dropping the fish from his bill; .and such is the dexterity of the former, that it often seizes the prey before it can fall to the ground. Catcsby says the male and female arc much alike. 2. The ossifragus, sea-eagle, or osprey with yellow wax, and half-feathered legs: it is about the size of a pea- cock; the feathers are white at the base, iron-coloured in the middle, and black at the points; and the legs are yellow. It is found in several parts of Great Britain and Ireland. Mr. Willughby tells us, that there was an eyrie of them in Whiuficld-park, Westmoreland; and the bird soaring in the air with a cat in its talons (which Barlow drew from the very fact which he saw in Scotland) is of this kind. The cat's resistance brought both ani- mals to the ground, when Barlow took them up; and af- terwards caused the fact to be engraved in the 36th plate of his collection of prints. Turner says, that in his days this bird was too well known in England; for it made horrible destruction among the fish. All authors indeed agree, that it feeds principally on fish, which it takes as they are swimming near the surface, by darting down upon them; not by diving or swimming, as some authors have pretended, who furnish it for that purpose with one webbed foot to swim with, and another divided foot to take its prey. Martin, speaking of what he calls the great eagles of the Western isles, says, that they fasten their talons iu the back of the fish, commonly of salmon, which are often above the water, or very near the surface. Those of Greenland will even take a young seal out of the water. 3. The chrysaetos, or golden eagle (See PI. LV. Nat. Hist. fig. 191) weighs about twelve pounds, and is in length about three feet, the wings when extended measuring about seven feet four inches. The sight and sense of smelling arc very acute: the head and neck are clothed with narrow sharp-pointed feathers, of a deep brown co- lour bordered with tawny; the hind part of the head in particular is of a bright rust-colour. These birds arc very destructive to fawns, lambs, kids, and all kinds of game; particularly in the breeding season, when they bring a vast quantity of prey to their young. Smith, in his History of Kerry, relates that a poor man in that country got a comfortable subsistence for his family, during a summer of famine, out of an eagle's nest, by robbing the eagles of the food which the old one brought; whose attendance he protracted beyond the natural time, by clipping the wings and retarding the flight of the former. It is very unsafe to leave infants in places where eagles frequent, there being instances in Scotland of two being carried off by them; but, fortunately, the theft was discovered in time, and the children were restored unhurt out of the eagle's nests. In order to extirpate these pernicious birds, there is a law in the Orkney isles, which intitles every person that kills an eagle to a hen out of every bouse in the parish where it was killed. Eagles VOL. If. 8 s**cni to give the preference to ihc carcases of dogs and cats. People who make it their business to kill those birds, lay one or other of these carcases by way of bait; and then conceal themselves within gunshot. They fire the instant the eagle alights; for she. that moment, looks about before she begins to prey. Yet, quick as her sight may be, her sense of hearing seems still more exquisite. If hooded crows or ravens happen to be nearer the carrion, and resort to it first, and give a single crock, the eagle is certain instantly to repair to the spot. Eagles are remarkable for their longevity, and for their power of sustaining a long abstinence from food. Mr. Kcysler relates, that an eagle died at Vienna after a confinement of 104 years. This pre-eminent length of days probably gave occasion to the saying of the Psal- mist. " Thy youth is renewed like the eagle's." One of this species, which was nine years in the possession of Owen Holland, esq. of Conway, lived 32 years with the gentleman who made him a present of it; but what its age was when the latter received it from Ireland is unknown. The same bird also furnishes us with a proof of the truth of the other remark; having once, through the neglect of servants, endured hunger for 21 days without any sus- tenance whatever, 4. The fulvus, or white-tailed eagle of Edwards, has the whole plumage of a dusky-brown: the breast marked with triangular spots of white, but which arc wanting in the British kind: the tail is white, tipt with black; but in young birds dusky, blotched with white: the legs are covered to the toes with soft rust-coloured feathers. These birds inhabit Hudson's-bay and northern Europe as far as Dronthcim. They are found on the highest rocks of the Uralian chain, where it is not covered with wood; but are most frequent on the Siberian, where they make their nests on the loftiest rocks. They arc rather inferior in size to the sea-eagle; but are generous, spiri- ted, and docile. The Independant Tartars train them for the chase of hares, foxes, antelopes, and even wolves. This practice is of considerable antiquity; for Marco Polo, the great traveller of 1269, observed and admired the diversion of the great chain of Tartary, who had several eagles which were applied to the purposes we have here described. The Tartars also esteem the fea- thers of the tail as the best they have for pluming their arrows. This species is frequent in Scotland; where it is called the black eagle, from the dark colour of its plu-s mage. It is very destructive to deer, whicli. it will seine between the horns; and by incessantly beating it about the eyes with its wings, soon makes a prey of the haras- sed animal. The eagles in the isle of Rum have nearly extirpated the stogs that used to abound there. They generally build in cliffs or rocks near the deer-forests; and make great hovock not oidy among them, but also among the white bares and ptarmigans. Mr. Willughby gives the following curious account of the nest of this species. " In the year of our Lord 1668, in the wood- lands near the river Darwent, in the peak of Derbyshire, was found an eagle's nest made of great sticks, resting one end on the edge of a rock, the other on two birch- trees; upon which was a layer of rushes, and over them a layer of heath, and upon the heath rushes again; upon which lay one young one and an addled egg; and by them ft lamb, a hare* and three heathpoulta. The nest FALCO, belly are of a deeper colour than the rest of the plu- mage, streaked downwards with dull yellow; the tail is dark brown, tipt with dirty white; the legs are feathered was about two yards square, and had no hollow in it. The young eagle was as black as a hobby, of tbe shape of a goshawk, almost of the weight of a'goosc, rough-footed, „„.«------, ^.............j.......,-----0- or feathered down to the foot: having a white ring about to the feet, which are yellow. The length ot tue miti the tail. is two feet. This species is found in many parts ot ilu- 5. the cyancus, or hen-harrier, with white wax, yellow legs, a whitish-blue body, and a white ring round the eyes and throat. It is the blue hawk of Edwards, and is a native of .Cu rope and Africa. These birds arc extreme- ly destructive to young poultry and to the feathered game: they Hy near the ground, skimming the surface in search of prey. They breed on the ground, and are never observed to settle on trees. 6. The albicilla, or cinereous eagle, is inferior in size to the golden eagle; the head and neck are of a pale ash- colour; the body and wings cinereous, clouded with brown; the quill feathers very dark; the tail white; the legs feathered but little below the knees, and of a very bright yellow. The male is of a darker colour than the female. The bill of this species is rather straighter than is usual in the eagle, which seems to have induced Lin- naeus to place it among the vultures. But Mr. Pennant observes, that it can have no title to be ranked with that genus, the characteristical mark of which is, that the head and neck are either quite bare, or only covered with down; whereas this bird is wholly feathered. This species is in size equal to the black eagle, and inhabits Europe as high as Iceland and Lapmark. It is common in Crreen- land, but does not extend to America; or, according to Mr. Pennant, if it does, it varies into the white-headed eagle, to which it has great affinity particularly on its feeding much on fish: the Danes therefore call it fiske- orn. It is common in the south of Russia, and about the Volga, as far as trees will grow; but it is very scarce in Siberia. It inhabits Greenland the whole year, sitting on the rocks with flagging wing, and flies slowly. It makes its nest on the lofty cliffs, with twigs, lining the middle with mosses and feathers; lays two eggs; and sits in the latter part of May or beginning of June. These birds prey on young seals, which they seize as they are floating on the water; but frequently, by fixing their ta- lons in an old one, they are overmatched, and drawn down to the bottom, screaming horribly. They feed also on fish, especially the lumpfish, and a sort of trout; on ptarmigans, auks, and eider ducks. They sit on the top of rocks, attentive to the motion of the diving birds, and with quick eyes observe their course by the bubbles which rise to the surface of the water, and catch the fowls as they rise for breath. The Greenlanders use their skins for clothing next to their bodies; eat the flesh; and keep the bill and feet for amulets. They kill them with the bow; or take them in nets placed in the snow properly baited; or tempt them by the fat of seals, which the ea- gles eat to an excess which occasions such a torpidity as to make them an easy prey. They are common in Scotland and the Orkneys, where they feed on fish, as well as on land-animals. 7. The maculatus, or the crying eagle, with a dusky bill and yellow cere; the colour of the plumage is a fer- ruginous brown; the coverts of the wings and scapulars fire elegantly varied w ith oval white spots; the primaries dusky, the ends cf the greater? white; the breast and . spec _ rope, but not in Scandinavia: is frequent in Russia and Siberia; and extends even to Kamschatka. It is less generous and spirited than other eagles, and is perpetu- ally making a plaintive noise; from which it was styled by the ancients planga et clanga; and anataria, from its preying on ducks, which Pliny describes with great ele- gance. The Arabs used to train it for the chase: but its quarry was cranes and other birds, the more gene- rous eagle being flown at antelopes and other quadru- peds. This species was itself an object of diversion, and made the game of even so small a bird as the spar- rowhawk; which would pursue it with great eagerness, soar above, and then fall on it, and fastening with its ta- lons, keep beating it about the head with its wings, till they both fell together to the ground. This sir John Chardin has seen practised aboutTauris. 8. The milvus, or kite, is a native of Europe, Asia, and Africa. This species generally breeds in large fo- rests or woody mountainous countries. Its nest is com- posed of sticks, lined with several odd materials, such as rags, bits of flannel, rope, and paper. It lays two, or at most three, eggs; which, like other birds of prey, are much rounded and blunt at the smaller end. They are white spotted with dirty yellow. Its motion in the air distinguishes it from all other birds, being so smooth and even that it is scarcely perceptible. Sometimes it will remain quite motionless for a considerable space; at others glide through the sky without the least appa- rent action of its wings; thence deriving the old name of glead, or glede, from the Saxon glida. They inhabit the north of Europe, as high as Jalsberg, in the very south of Norway; but do not extend farther. They quit Sweden in flocks at the approach of winter, and return in spring. Some of them winter about Astrakan, in lat. 46, 30: but the far greater part are supposed to re- tire into Egypt, being seen in September passing by Con- stantinople in their way from the north; and again in April returning to Europe, to shun the great heats of the East. They are observed in vast numbers about Cairo, where they are extremely tame, and feed even on dates, probably for want of other food. They also breed there; so that, contrary to the nature of other rapacious birds, they increase and multiply twice in the vear; onceintha mild winters of Egypt, and a second time in the suiiir mers of the north. It makes its appearance in Greece in the spring; and in the early ages, says Aristophanes, «it governed that country; and men fell on their knees when they were first blessed with the sight of it, because it announced the flight of winter, and told them to begin to shear their vernal fleeces." In Britain they are found the whole year. Lord Bacon observes, that when kites % £\ !xT?ortends fair and dry weather. See Plate LV. Nat. Hist. fig. 197. 9. The gentilis, or gentil falcon, inhabits the north ot Scotland, and was in high esteem as a bold and spi- rited bird in the days of falconry. It makes its nest in rocks: it is larger than the gos-hawk; the head of a light rust-colour, with oblong black spots; the whole FALLO. onder side from chin to tail white, tinged with yellow; the back of a brown colour; the tail barred with four or five bars of black, and as many of ash-colour; the very tips of aU the tail feathers white. 10. The subbuteo, or hobby, was used like the kes- trel in the humbler kind of falconry; particularly in what was called daring of larks: the hawk was cast off; the larks, aware of their most inveterate enemy, were fixed to the ground for fear; by which means they be- came a ready prey to the fowler, who drew a net over them. The back of the bird is brown: the nape of the neck white: and the belly pule, with oblong brown spots. It is a bird of passage; but breeds in Britain, and mi- grates in October. 11. The buteo, or buzzard, is the most common of the hawk kind in England. It breeds in large woods; and usually builds on an old crow's nest, which it enlarges, and lines with wool and other soft materials. It lays tv-o or three eggs, which arc sometimes perfectly white, sometimes spotted with yellow. The cock-buzzard will hatch and bring up the young if the hen is killed. The young keep company with the old ones for some little time after they quit the nest; which is not usual with other birds of prey, who always drive away their brood as soon as they can fly. The buzzard is very sluggish and inactive, and is much less in motion than any other hawks; remaining perched on the same bough for the greatest part of the day, and dwelling at most times near the same [dace. It feeds on birds, rabbits, moles, and mice; it will also eat frogs, earthworms, and insects. This bird is subject to some variety in its colour. Some have the breast and belly of a brown colour, and are only marked across the craw with a large white cres- cent; but usually the breast is of a yellowish white, spotted with oblong rust-coloured spots, pointing down- wards, the back of the, head, neck, and coverts of the wings, are of a deep brown, edged with a pale rust-co- lour: the middle of the back covered only with thick while down. The tail is barred with black and ash- colour, and sometimes ferruginous. 1 •.]. The tinnunculus, or kestrel, breeds in the hollows of trees, in the holes of high rocks, towers, and ruined buildings. It feeds on field-mice, small birds, and in- sects; which it will discover at a great distance. This is the hawk that we so frequently see in the air as fixed in one place; and, as it were, fanning with its wings; at which time it is watching for its prey. When falconry was in use in Great Britain, this bird was trained for catching of small birds and young partridges. It is easily distinguished from all other hawks by its colours. The crown of the head and the greater part of the tail are of a light grey; the back and coverts of the wing of a brick-red, elegantly spotted with black; the whole un- der side of the bird of a pale rust-colour spotted with black. 13. The sufflator, with yellowish wax and legs; the body is of a brownish-white colour; and the covers of the eyes arc bony. He has a fleshy lobe between the nostrils; which, when angry or terrified, he inflates till his head becomes as big as his whole body. He is a na- tive of Surinam. 1-1. The cachinnans, or laughing hawk, has yellowish legs and wax, and white eyebrows; the body is vari- egated v\ith brown and white: and has a black ring round the top of the head. It makes a laughing kind of noise when it observes any person, and is a native of America. 15. The Columbarius, or pigeon-hawk of Catcshy, weighs about six ounces. The bill is black at the point, and whitish at the base: the iris of the eye is yellow; the base of the upper mandible is covered with a yellow cere of wax: all the upper part of the body, wings, and tail, are brown. The anterior vanes of the quill-feathers have large red spots. The tail is marked with large regular transverse white lines; the throat, breast, and belly, are white, mixed with brown; the small feathers that cover the thighs reach within half an inch of the feet, and are white, with a tincture of red, beset with long spots of brown; the legs and feet are yellow. It inhabits America, from Hudson's-bay as low as South Carolina. In the last it attains to a larger size. In Hudson's-bay it appears in May on the banks of the river Severn, breeds, and retires south iu autumn. It feeds on small birds; and, on the approach of any per- son, flies in circles, and makes a great shrieking. It forms its nest in a rock, or some hollow tree, with sticks and grass; and lines it with feathers; and lays from two to four eggs, white spotted with red. In Ca- rolina it preys on pigeons, and the young of the wild turkeys. 16. The furcatus, or swallow-tailed hawk, has a black bill, less hooked than usual with rapacious birds: the eyes are large and black, and with a red iris: the head, neck, breast, and belly, are white; the upper part of the back and wings a dark purple; but more dusky towards the lower parts, with a tincture of green. The wings are long in proportion to the body, and when extended, measure four feet. The tail is dark purple mixed with green, and remarkably forked. This most elegant spe- cies inhabits the southern parts of North America only during summer. Like swallows, they feed chiefly fly- ing; for they are much on wing, and prey on various sorts of insects. They also feed on lizards and serpents; and will kill the largest of the regions it frequents with the utmost ease. They quit North America before win- ter, and arc supposed to retreat to Peru. 17. Halipetus, the fishing-hawk of Catesby, sometimes called the osprey, weighs 3 pounds and a quarter; it measures, from one end of the wing to the other, five feet and, a half. The bill is black, with a blue cere or wax; the iris of the eye is yellow, and the crown of the head brown, with a mixture of white feathers; from each eye, backwards, runs a brown stripe: the back, wings, and tail, are of a dark brown; the throat, neci-:, and belly, white; the legs and feet are rough and scaly, and of a pale blue colour; the talons arc black, and nearly of an equal size: the feathers of the thigh are short, and adhere close to them, contrary to others of the hawk kind, which nature seems to have designed for the more easily penetrating the water. Notwithstanding this bird is so persecuted by the bald eagle, yet it always keeps near its haunts. It is a species of vast quickness of sight; and will see a fish near the surface from a great distance, descend with prodigious rapidity, and carry the prey with an exulting scream high into the air. The eagle hears the note; and instantly attacks the fishing- FALCO. bawk: who drops the fish, which the former catches be- fore it can reach the ground or water. The lower parts of the rivers and creeks near the sea, in America, abound with these eagles and hawks, where such diverting con- tests are often seen. It sometimes happens that this bird perishes in taking its prey, for if it chances to fix its talons in an overgrown fish it is drawn under water be- fore it can disengage itself, and is drowned. Sec Plate LV.Nat. Hist, fig.'194. 18. The gy rfalco, or Iceland falcon, has a strong bill, much hooked, the upper mandible sharply angulated on the lower edges, with a blueish wax: the head is of a very pale rust-colour, streaked downwards with dusky lines: the neck, breast, and belly, arc white, marked with cordated spots; the thighs white, crossed with short bars of deep brown: the back and coverts of the wings are dusky, spotted, and edged with white; the exte- rior webs of the primaries dusky mottled with reddish- white, the inner barred with white; the feathers of the tail are crossed with 14 or more narrow bars of dusky and white, the dusky bars regularly opposing those, of white: the wings, when closed, reach almost to the end of the train: the legs are strong and yellow. The length of the wing, from the pinion to the tip, is sixteen inches. This species is an inhabitant of Iceland, and is the most esteemed of any for the sport of falconry. 19. Thefuscus, or Greenland eagle, has dusky irides; lead-coloured wax and feet; brown crown, marked with irregular oblong white spots; whitish forehead; blackish cheeks; the hind part of the head and throat white; breast and belly of a yellowish white, striped down- wards with dusky streaks; the back dusky, tinged with blue, the ends of the feathers lightest, and sprinkled over with a few white spots, especially towards the rump; the wings of the same colours, variegated beneath with white and black; the upper part of the tail dusky, cross- ed very faintly with paler bars, the under side whitish. It inhabits all parts of Greenland, from the remotest hills to those which impend over the sea. They are even seen on the islands of ice remote from the shore. They re- tire in the breeding-season to the farthest part of the country, and return in autumn with their young. They breed in the same manner as the cinereous eagle, but in more distant places; and lay from three to five eggs. The tail of the young is black, with great brown spots on the exterior webs. They prey on ptarmigans, auks, and all the small birds of the country. They have fre- quent disputes with the raven, but seldom come "off vic- tors; for the raven will, on being attacked, fling itself on its back; and either by defending itself w ith its claws, or by calling, with its croaking, numbers of others to its help, oblige the falcon to retire. The Greenlanders use the skin, among others, for their inner garments; the wings for brushes; the feet for amulets; but seldom eat the flesh, unless compelled by hunger. 20. The candicans, or white gyrfalcon of Pennant, has the wax and bill blueish, the latter greatly hooked; the eye dark-blue; the throat of a pure white; the whole body, wings, and tail, of the same colour, most elegant- ly marked with dusky bars, lines, or spots, leaving the white the far prevailing colour. There are instances, but rare, of its being found entirely white. In some, the whole tail is crossed by remote bars of black or brown; in others, they appear only very faintly on middle feathers: the feathers of the thighs arc vc>-.v long and unspotted: the legs strong, and of a light blue. Its weight is 45 ounces trov: length near two feet, extent four feet two. This species has the same manners and haunts with the former. It is very frequent in Iceland; is found in Lapmark and Norway, and rarely in the Ork- neys and North Britain. In Asia, it dwells in the high- est points of the Uralian and other Siberian mountains, and dares the coldest climates throughout the year. It is kept in the latitude of Petersburgb, uninjured in the open air during the severest winters. This species is pre-eminent in courage as well as beauty, and is the ter- ror of the other hawks. It was flown at all kinds of fowl, how great soever they were: but its chief game used to be herons and cranes. The last three species are in high esteem for sport. They are reserved for the kings of Denmark; who send their falconer with two attendants annually into Iceland to purchase them. They were caught by the natives, a certain number of whom in every district arc licensed for that purpose. The Iceland falcons will last ten or twelve years; whereas those of Norway, and other coun- tries, seldom are fit for sport after two or three years/ Yet the Norwegian hawks were in old times in great re- pute in this kingdom, and even thought bribes worth) of a king. 21. The aviporus, with black wax, yellow legs half- naked, the head of an ash-colour, and having an asli- coloured stripe on the tail, which is white at the end, It is the honey-buzzard of Ray, and had that name from the combs of bees or wasps being found in its nest. It is a native of Europe, and feeds on mice, lizards,frogs, bees, etc. It runs very swiftly, like a hen. 22. The aeruginosas, or moor-buzzard, with greenish wax, a greyish body, the top of the head, nape of the neck, and legs, yellowish; it is a native of Europe, and frequents moors, marshy places, and heaths: it never soars like other hawks; but commonly sits on the ground, or on small bushes. It makes its nest in the midst of a tuft of grass, or rushes. It is a very fierce and voracious bird; and is a great destroyer of rabbits, young wild ducks, and other water-fowl. It also prevs, like the fishing-hawk, on fish. 23. The paluinbarius, with black wax edged with yel- low, yellow legs, a brown body, the prime feathers of the tail marked with pale streaks, and the eyebrows white It is the gos-hawk of Ray; and was former- ly in high esteem among falconers, being flown at cranes, geese, pheasants, and partridges.' It breeds in Scotland, and builds its nest in trees. It is destructive to game, and dashes through the woods after its quarry with vast impetuosity; but if it cannot catch the object of its pursuit almost immediately, desists, and perches on a bough till some new game presents itself. This species is common in Muscovy and Siberia. Thev ex- tend to the river Amur; and are used bv the emperor of China in bis sporting progresses, attended by his grand falconer, and 1000 of the subordinate. Every bird has a silver plate fastened to its foot, with the name of the fah coner who has the charge of it; that, in case it should be lost, it might be brought to the proper person- but if he could not be found, the bird is delivered to another officer, F A L F A L called the guardian of lost birds; who keeps it till it is demanded by the falconer to whom it belonged. That this great officer may the more readily be found among the army hunters who attend the emperor, he erects a standard in the most conspicuous place. 24. The nisus, or sparrowhawk, with green wax, yel- low legs, a white belly undulated with grey, and the tail marked with blackish belts. This is the most pernicious hawk we have, and makes great havock among pigeons as well as partridges. It builds in hollow trees, in old nests of crows, large ruins, and high rocks: it lays four white eggs, encirclcdnearthe blunter end with red specks. 25. The minutus, with white wax, yellow legs, and the body white underneath. It is the least hawk of Brisson, being about the size of a thrush: and is found on the island of Melita. Besides these we may mention the litho-falco, or stone falcon, which inhabits many parts of Europe, and is about a foot long; the bill blueish-asb; irids yellow; two mid- dle tail-feathers uniform, the rest barred with brown: the gallicus or French eagle, so called from its being found chiefly in France, about two feet long, feeds on rats, mice, and frogs; it builds its nest mostly on the ground; the irids yellow; tail-feathers white with brown trans- verse stripes, brown at the tips and edges; claws grey: the lacer inhabits Europe, Tartary in Asia, aud many parts of North America; it is two feet long, patient of cold; used in hunting the white heron: the head pale brown; wing-coverts and primary quill feathers with transverse white lines; tail brown, with oval transverse red spots on tbe sides; legs feathered to the toes: and the magnirostris, or great billed falcon, found in Cayenne a little larger than the sparrowhawk; legs shorter; bill longer, thicker, black; irids orange; feathers above and on the breast brown edged with rusty: claws black. See Plate LV. Nat. Hist. figs. 192, 193, "l9S, and 196. There are some other species distinguished by orni- thologists. Among these are two described by Mr. Bruce; of which one deserves particular notice, as be- ing not only the largest of the eagle kind, but supposed to be the largest bird that flies. He calls it the golden eagle; by the natives it is vulgarly called abon duchn, or father long beard. FALCONRY, the exercise of taking wild-fowl by means of hawks. There are only two countries in the world where we have any evidence that the exercise of hawking was very anciently in vogue. These are Thrace and Britain. In the former it was pursued merely as the diversion of a particular district, if we may believe Pliny (b. x. 8.), whose account is rendered obscure by the darkness of his own ideas of the matter. The primaeval Britons, with a fondness for the exercise of hunting, had also a taste for that of hawking; and every chief among them maintained a con- siderable number of birds for that sport. To the Ro- mans this diversion was scarcely known in tbe days of Vespasian; yet it was introduced immediately after- wards. Most probably they adopted it'from the Britons; but we certainly know that they greatly improved it by the introduction of spaniels into the island. In this state it appears among the Roman Britons in the sixth cen- tury. Gildas, in a remarkable passage in his first epis- tle, speaks of Maglocunus, on his relinquishing the sphere of ambition, and taking refuge in a monastery; and pro- verbially compares him to a dove, that hastens away at the noisv approach of the dogs, and with various turns, and windings takes her flight from the talons of the hawk In after-times, hawking was the principal amusement of the English: a person of rank scarcely stirred out without his hawk on his hand; which, in old paintings, is almost the criterion of nobility. Harold, afterwards king of England, when he went on a most important embassy into Normandy, is painted embarking with a bird on"bis finger, and a dog under his arm: and in an ancient picture of the nuptials of Henry VI. a nobleman is represented in much the same manner; for in those days, " it was thought sufficient for noblemen to winde their horn, and to carry their hawk fair, and leave study and learning to the children of mean people." The expense was great that sometimes attended this sport.. In the reign of .fames I. sir Thomas Monson is said to have given 1000/. for a cast of hawks; we are not then to wonder at the rigour of the laws that tended to preserve a pleasure which was carried to such an ex- travagant pitch. In the 34th of Edward III. it was made felony to steal a hawk; to take its eggs, even in a per- son'sown ground, was punishable with imprisonment for a year and a day, besides a fine at the king's pleasure: in queen Elizabeth's reign, the imprisonment was re- duced to three months; but the offender was to find secu- rity for his good behaviour for seven years, or lie in pri- son till he did. The falcons or hawks that were in use in these king- doms are now found to breed in Males, aud in North Britain and its isles. The peregrine-falcon inhabits the rocks of Caernarvonshire. The same species, with the gyr-falcon, the gentil, and the gos-hawk, are found in Scotland, and the latter in Ireland. We may here take notice, that the Norwegian breed was, in old times, in high fcsteem in England: they were thought bribes worthy of a king. Jeoffrey Fiizpierre gave two good Norway hawks to king John, to obtain for his friend the liberty of exporting 100 cwt. of cheese; and Nicholas the Dane was to give the king a hawk every time he came into England, that he might have free liberty to traffic throughout the king's dominions. They were also made the tenures that some of the no- bility held their estates by, from the crown. Thus sir John Stanley had a grant of the isle of Man from Hen- ry IV. to be held of the king, his heirs, and successors, by homage and the service of two falcons, payable on the day of his or their coronation. And Philip de Hastang held his manor of Combertoun, in Cambridgeshire, by the service of keeping the king's falcons. Falconry, though an exercise now much disused in comparison with what it anciently was, does yet fur- nish a great variety of significant terms, which still obtain in our language. Thus, the parts of a hawk have their proper names. The legs from the thigh to the foot, are called arms; the toes the petty singles; the claws the pounces. The wings are called the sails; the long fea- thers the beams; the two longest, the principal feathers; those next, the flags. The tail is called the train; the breast-feathers the mails; those behind the thigh the pen- dant feathers. When the feathers are not yet full-grown she is said to be unsummed; when they are complete, she FALCONRY. is summed: the craw, or crop, is called the gorge; the pipe next the fundament, where the foeces are drawn down, is called the panurl: the slimy substance lying in the pannel is c.lied the glut: the upper and crooked part of the bill is called the beat:; the nether part, the clap; the yellow part between the beak and the e}es, the sear or *crc; the two small holes therein, the narcs. As to her furniture: the, leathers with bells buttoned on her legs, are called beicils. The leathern thong, whereby the faiconer holds the hawk, is called the lease or lash; the little straps, by which the lease is fastened to the legs, jesses; and a line or packthread fastened to the lease, in disciplining her, a creance. A cover for her head, to keep her in the dark, is called a hood; a large wide hood, open behind, to be worn at fust, is called a rufler-hood: to draw the strings, that the hood may be in readiness to be pulled off, is called unbtriking the hood. The blinding a hawk just taken, by running a thread through her eye- lids, ami thus drawing them over the eyes, to prepare her for being hooded, is called seeling. A figure or re- .emblance of a fowl, made of leather and feathers, is called a lure. Her resting-place, when off the falconer's hand, is called the perch. The place where her meat is laid, is called the hack; and that w herein she is set w bile her feathers fall and come again, the mew. Something given a hawk to cleanse and purge her goi'ge, is called casting. Small feathers given her to make her cast, are called plumage. Gravel given her to help to bring down her stomach is called rangle. Her throwing up filth from the gorge after casting is called gleaming. The purging of her grease, &e. enseaming. Her being tuffed is called gurgiting. The inserting a feather in her wing in lieu of a broken one is called im- ping. The giving her a leg, wing, or pinion of a fowl to pull at is called tiring. The neck of a bird the hawk ■preys on is called the inke. What the hawk leaves of tier prey is called the pill or pelf. There are also proper terms used for several actions. When she flutters with her wings, as if striving to get away, cither from the perch or fist, she is said to bate. When, standing too near, they fight with each other, it is called crabbing. When the young ones quiver, and shake their wings in obedience to the elder, it is called cowring. When she wipes her beak after feeding, she is said to eak. W hen she sleeps, she is said tojouk. From the time of exchanging her coat till she turn white again, is called her intermewing. Treading is called caw king. When she stretches one of her wings after her legs, and then the other, it is called mantling. Her dung is called muting; when she mutes a good way from her, she is said to slice; when she does it directly down, instead of yerk- ing backwards, she is said to slime; and when if it be in drops, it is called dropping. When she sneezes it is cal- led suiting. When she raises and shakes herself she is said to rouze. When, after mantling, she crosses her wings together over her back, she is said to warble. When a hawk seizes she is said to bind. When, af- ter seizing, she pulls off the feathers she is said to plume. When she raises a fowl aloft, and at length descends with it to the ground, it is called trussing. When, being aloft, she descends to strike her prey, it is called stooping. When she flies out too far from game she is said to rake. When, forsaking her proper game, she flies at pyes. crows. &c. that chance to cross her. it iscalhd the check. When, missing the fowl, she betakes herself I) the next check, she is said to JJy on head. The fowl or game she flies at is called the quarry. The dead body of a fowl killed by the hawk is called a pelt. When she Hies away with the quarry she is said to carry. When in stooping she turns two or three times on the wing, to recover her- self ere she seizes, it is called canccliering. When she hits the prey, >et does not truss it, it is called rujf. The making a hawk tame and gentle is ' ;>ilcd reclaiming. The bringing her to endure company, manning her. An old staunch hawk, used to fly and setexample to a young one, is called a make-hawk. The reclaiming, manning, and bringing up a hawk to the sport, is not easy to be brought to any precise set of rules. It consists in a number of little practices and ob- servances, calculated to familiarize the falconer to his bird, to procure the love of it, &e. When your hawk comes readily to the lure, a large pair of luring bells ace to be put upon her; and the more giddy-headed and apt to rake out your hawk is, the larger must the bells be. Having done this, and she being sharpset, ride out in a fair morning, into some large field unencumbered with trees or wood, with your hawk on your hand; then having loosened her hood, whistle softly to provoke her to fly; unhood her, and let her fly with her head into the wind; for by that means she will be the better able to get upon the wing, and will natu- rally climb upwards, flying a circle. After she has flown three or four turns, then lure her with your voice, cast- ing the lure about your head, having first tied a pullet to it; and if your falcon come in and approach near you, cast out the lure into the wind, and if she stoop to it re- ward her. You will often find, that when she flies from the first, she will take stand on the ground: this is a fault which is very common with soar-falcons. To remedy this, fright her up with your wand; and when you have forced her to take a turn or two, take her down to the lure and feed her. But if this does not do, then you must have in readiness a duck sealed, so that she may see no way but backwards, and that will make her mount the higher. Hold this duck in your hand, by one of the wings near the body, then lure with the voice, to make the falcon turn her head; and when she is at a reasonable pitch, cast your duck up just under her; when, if she strikes, stoops, or trusses the duck, permit her to kill it, and re- ward her by giving her a reasonable gorge. After you have practised this two or three times, your hawk will eave the stand, and, delighted to he on the wing, will be very obedient. ° It is not covenient, for.the first or second time, to show your hawk a large fowl; for it frequently happens, ,t the,? eS,apC ?"0I\the hawk' and «W "ot recover, g them rakes after them: this gives the falconer trou- Zl™ equ5ut,y OC(asions the loss of the hawk. But if coverT~- VTUe a fow1' and beinS ""able to re- cover it, gives it over, and comes in arain directlv. £" "crott? SCaled dUCk: •?? if/he St^« and S scs it across the wings, permit her to take her pleasure, rewarding her also with the heart, brains, tongue and liver. But if you have not a quick duck, take Ye r down with a dry lure, and let her plume a pullet and feed up F A L F A R on it. By this means a hawk will learn to give over a fowl that rakes out, and, on hearing the falconer's lure, will make back again, and know the better how to hold in the head. Some hawks have a disdainful coyness, proceeding from their being high-fed; such a hawk must not be re- warded though she should kill: but you may give her leave to plume a little; and then taking a sheep's heart cold, or the leg of a pullet, when the hawk is busy pluming, let either of them be conveyed into the body of the fowl, that it may savour of it; and when the hawk lias eaten the heart, brains, and tongue of the fowl, take out what is inclosed, call her to your fist, and feed her with it; afterwards give her some of the feathers of the fowl's neck, to scour her, and make her est. If your hawk is a stately high-flying one, she ought not to take more than one flight in a morning; and if she is made for the river let her not fly more than twice: when she is at the highest, take her down with \ourlure; and when she has plumed and broken the fowl a little, feed her, by which means you will keep her a high-flier, and fend of the lure. FALDFEY, or faldfee, a rent or fee paid by some customary tenants, for liberty to fold their sheep on their own lands. FALL, is the name of a measure of length used in Scotland, and containing six ells of that country. Fall, in the sea language, that part of the rope of a tackle, which is hauled upon. Also when a ship is under sail, and keeps, not so near the wind as she should do, they say she fails off; or when a ship is not flush, but has risings of some parts of her decks more than others, it is called falls. FALLOPIAN TUBES. See Anatomy. FALLO WIN G of land. See Husk andry. FALSE, in music, an epithet applied to theorists to certain chords, called false, because they do not contain all the intervals appertaining to those chords in their perfect state: as a fifth, consisting of only six semitonic degrees, is denominated a false fifth. Those intonations of the voice which do not truly express the intended in- terval are also called false, as well as all ill-adjusted combinations; and those strings, pipes, and other sono- rous bodies, which, from the ill-disposition of their parts, cannot be accurately tuned. Certain closes are likewise termed false, in contradistinction to the full or final close. See Close. FALSETTO, (Ital.) that species of voice in a man, the compass of which lies above his natural voice, and is produced by artificial constraint. FALSIFYING, in law, the proving a thing to be false. The falsifying a record, is where a person purchases land of another, who is afterwards outlawed for felony; in this case, he may falsify the record as to the time when the felony is supposed to have been committed, and also as to the point of the offence. But in the case where a person is found guilty by verdict, such purcha- ser shall only falsify the time. To falsify a recovery may be done by the issue in tail, where it is suffered by a tenant for life. FALSO rkturno brevium, a writ that lies against a sheriff for false returning of writs he had got to execute. FALSO borboxe, m music, a term applied in the early days of descant to such counterpoint as had cither a drone bass, or some part constantly moving in the same interval with it. FALX, in anatomy, a process of the dura mater pla- ced between the two hemispheres of the brain, and re- sembling a reaper's sickle. FAMILIARS of the inquisition, are people that assist in the apprehending of such persons as are accused, and carrying them to prison; upon which occasion, the un- happy person is surrounded by such a number of these officious gentlemen, that there is no possibility of esca- ping out of their hands. As a reward of this base em- ploy, the familiars arc allowed to commit the most atrocious actions, to debauch, assassinate, and kill, with impunity. FAN, an instrument used in husbandry. See Hus- bandry. FANDANGO, a dance much practised in Spain, and of which the natives of that country are particularly fond. Its air is lively, and much resembles the English hornpipe. FANTASIA, (Ital.) the name generally given to a species or composition, supposed to be struck off in the beat of imagination, and in which the composer is allowed to give free range to his ideas, and to disregard those restrictions by which other productions are confined. Some writers limit the application of this term to certain extemporaneous flights of fancy; and say, that the mo- ment they are written, or repeated, they cease to be fantasias. This, they add, forms the only distinction between the fantasia and the capricio. The capricio, though wild, is the result of premeditation, committed to paper, and becomes permanent: but the fantasia is an impromptu, transitive, and evanescent; exists but while it is executing, and when finished is no more. Fantasias being, however, daily written and published, it is evi- dent in which of the above senses the word is now to be understood. FARINA FfficuNDAxs, among botanists, the impreg- nating meal or dust on the apices or antherse of flowers; which being received into the pistil, or seed-vessel of plants, fecundates the rudiments of the seeds in the ovary, which otherwise would decay and come to nothing. The manner of gathering the farina of plants lor mi- croscopical observation is this: Gather the flowers in the midst of a dry sun-shiny day when the dew is perfectly off; then gently shake off the farina, or lightly brush it off with a soft hair-pencil, upon a piece of white paper; then take a single talc of isinglass between the nippers, and, breathing on it, apply it instantly to the farina, and the moisture of the breath will make that light pow- der stick to it. If too great a quantity is foundadhering to the talc, blow a little of it off; and if there is too little, breathe upon it again, and take up more. When this is done, put the talc into the hide of a slider; and applying it to the microscope, see whether the little grains are laid as you desire, and if they are, cover them up with another talc, and fix the ring, but care must be taken thatthe talcs do not press upon the farinse in such a manner as to alter the form. FARLEY, or Farlieu, money paid by tenants in the west of England, in lieu of a heriot. See Hebiqt. FAR 1 A R FARM, fir Fbkm, signifies thr < hi^f messuage in a village, or any large messuage on which lend belongs, meadow, pasture, wood, common, &c. and which has been used to let for term of life or years, under a cer- tain yearly rent payable by the tenant for the same. See Hlshandry, FARMER, among miners signifies the lord of the field, or the person who farms the lot and cope of the king. FARRIERY, the art and profession of the farrier, which have comprehended, from the earliest even to the present period, the medical and surgical care of the horse, as well as that of manufacturing and fitting him with shoes. These men, as labourers of iron, were origi- nally termed fcrrers, or terriers, from the Latin word fcrrum, iron, and their craft ferriery; which word has since, either by a very usual corruption or improvement of language, been changed to fanlery. This term re- mains yet in general use to its fullest extent, and not inaptly; since notwithstanding the laudible attempts of many enlightened men at various periods, our blacksmiths form a very large majority of horse surgeons and physi- cians. Nor is such defect peculiar to this country, but prevails in an equal degree throughout Europe; even in Italy and France, countries which preceded us many centuries in veterinary science, and from which indeed we have derived its elements. On the establishment of a college, in England, in 1790, for the instruction of pupils in animal medicine and surgery, under a French professor, (Saintbel) was im- ported also from France the term veterinary, and the veterinary art has been since substituted for farriery by practitioners of liberal education. The supposed deriva- tion of the term veterinary is from the participle rectum, of the Latin verb veho, to carry; quasi vecterinary, thence applied to the care of animals which carry, or beasts of burden. The change to veterinary was easy and in course; and if, according to the opinions of some, we ought to revert to the radical orthography, and write ferriery instead of farriery, a parity of reasoning, and desire of close adherence to the root, would induce us to retain the e, and pronounce the word vecterinary. It is easy to conceive what revolutions in language such at- tempts would occasion if generally put in practice; but by no means easy to discover the utility of a capricious and partial adoption of such changes in particular words. The term veterinary was originally used by the La- tins, (Vegetius) and has a more extensive import than our farriery, which relates to the horse solely; whereas the former comprehends the care, both in health and in a state of disease, of all those animals domesticated for the laborious service or food of man. In a history of the general science those branches may, however, be proper- ly considered together. From the manifest great consequence of the services of the domestic animals to man, in a state of civilization, they have, from a very remote period of antiquity, been the objects of his study and attention, both as to their ordinary management, and that which was requisite for them in a state of disease: for the latter a peculiar sys- tem was formed, including a meteria medica and gene- ral mode of treatment considerably distinct from those in use with human patients. Of the authors of this system, whether Greek or Roman, nothing worth notice lias been handed down beyond an occasional citation of names, to be found in Columella the Roman writer, who lived in the reign of Tiberius, and treated at large on the general management of cattle; and in Vegetius Re- natus, who lived two centuries afterwards, and wrote more professedly on animal diseases. Both these authors have treated their subject in elegant and classical Latin; and the latter most particularly has urged, in very elo- quent and forcible language, the necessity of a liberal cultivation of the veterinary art, as well on the score of profit as of humanity. It ought to be remembered, how- ever, that neither of these authors had the benefit of any professional acquaintance with medicine or surgery, ob- scure and imperfect as were those sciences in their days; and that no ancient treatise on the diseases of animals, written by a professional man, has descended to posteri- ty. Nor is this in the smallest degree to be regretted, since we not only find in the authors abovementioned a sufficient field for the satisfaction of our curiosity, but also the most ample proofs of the irrationality of ancient principles and practice, and their total inapplicability to modern occasions. (Lawrence's General Treatise on Cattle.) On veterinary anatomy and physiology no at- tempts at discovery or improvement are to be traced in those writers, a singular defect considering the progress which had been made in Egypt and Greece, in both the human and comparative anatomy. Celsus is the only physician of eminence among the ancients who is re- ported to have written on veterinary medicine, a part of his works which has not survived; nor is probably the loss we have thereby suffered very considerable. Xeno- phon is the oldest veterinary writer on record; but his treatise is confined to the training and the management of the horse for war and the chace. With respect to the fragments of ancient Greek and Latin veterinary writ- ers, collected and published by Ruellius, chief marshal, or farrier to Francis I. king of France, they appear to have been generally the works of military men, or other lovers of the horse; perhaps none of them were of medi- cal education. We learn from tbe works of one of them, (Theomnestus) which is confirmed also by others, that the ancients had a knowledge of the disease called the glanders in horses and other cattle, which was denomi- nated in those days the moist malady. The chief merit of the ancient veterinary writers consists in their diete- tic rules and domestic management; they were in the ha- bit of purging their animals, but in other respects their medical prescriptions appear to us an inconsistent and often discordant jumble of numerous articles, devoid either of rational aim, or probable efficacy. In the ope- rations of surgery, particularly in phlebotomy, and in- deed in the various methods of manual treatment and controul of their animals, the ancients were far mora skilful; and what they have left on the symptoms of dis- eases, if of no consequence in the present advanced state ot science, still serves to demonstrate that they had not been inattentive observers of animal diseases, h .wever interior they might be in their methods of cure The* ancient writers are yet to be esteemed superior/not on- iy in learning and eloquence, but in professional ,,t;iifv to the majority „f theiT-.pupils rf the h£SS^S^Si and seventeenth centuries. ' s,xreenm FARRIERY. On the revival of learning in Europe, at the above pe- riods, the works of the ancient veterinary writers were eagerly sought and translated in Italy and France. At the same dawn of opening light and enthusiasm for the resuscitation and enlargement of the bounds of useful science, the anatomy and physiology of the human body became the grand objects of pursuit in the Italian schools. Veterinary anatomy followed in course; and the descrip- tive labours of Ruini and others on the body of the horse, have not only served for a groundwork and model to all the schools of Europe since; but succeeding discoveries and improvements, notwithstanding the vast advantage of a general diffusion of light, have not been hitherto sufficiently considerable to detract in any eminent degree from the well-earned fame of those early and original anatomists. Veterinary medicine was now generally cultivated, and in some instances, under regular medi- cal professors. We find the following names in a list of those who had written on the res vetcrinaria in Italy during that period:—Laurentius Russius, Camerarius, Apollonius, Horatio, Albeterio, Grilli, Csesar Fiaschi, Evangelista; and afterwards in Germany and France, Gresson, Libal, Wickerus, La Brove, Vinet. Every branch of the equine economy, whether relative to har- ness and trappings, equitation and military menage, or riding the great horse, the methodical treatment of the hoof, with the invention of various forms of iron shoes, and their scientific adaptation, were pursued with gene- ral assiduity and success. In this latter department Csesar Fiaschi distinguished himself; and either invent- ed or recommended the welted shoe, proposing a sub- stitute for calkcns and frost-nails, which it appears were then in use, as well as the lunette, or short half-moon shoe. Those horse-nails of peculiar form, of late years recommended as a new and useful invention, under the name of concave nails, were well known in those times of which we now speak. In fact, considerable progress was made towards a perfect system of horse-shoeing, which however dec lined and retrograded during a long interval, until its revival in France and England within the last fifty vears. Evangelista, of Milan, distinguish- ed himself in the breaking or education of the horse, and to him is attributed the invention of the martingale. The new veterinary science having diffused itself over a great part of the continent of Europe, could scarcely fail of occasional communication with England, where the care of diseased animals had been committed immemorially to leeches and farriers, persons generally belonging to the most illiterate class of society. It is probable that such communications became frequent during the reign of the first Tudors; for we learn from Blundeville, who wrote in the time of Elizabeth, that French and Ger- man farriers and riding-masters were not only employed by the queen, but in general by the nobility and gentry of the country. Yet the improvements in consequence of foreign aid, with regard to the medical and surgical branches at least, were by no means great, extending our view from the period of which we now speak, to the early part of the eighteenth century. No medi- cal name appears during that long interval upon our ve- terinary list, nor any one of the smallest scientific pre- tension, we mean as far as respects the medical, ana- tomical, or surgical branches, that of Snape excepted, vox. 11. 9 who was farrier to Charles II. and whose family, it ap- pears by his book, had serve^ the crown in that capa- city upwards of two hundred years. Snape's anatoniv of the horse proves him to have been a well-informed farrier. His anatomical system, arrangements, aud no- menclature, were in course drawn from the Italian school; but he dissected, and his descriptions were confirmed by his own observation. His numerous plates are bold, accurate, and handsomely executed. Whether or not he published the book of cures which he promised, we are uninformed, but he was doubtless far better qualified for that task than those of his profession upon whom that branch of the veterinary art unfortunately devolv- ed. Stevens, Martin, Clifford, Morgan, were wry early writers among the leeches and farriers. The book of Mascal, farrier to James I. is most laughably illiterate, and we cannot help wondering with a late author how such a book could possibly pass through numerous edi- tions in a learned age, and which even possessed learned and rational books on the same subject. The above list may be concluded with De Grey and the celebrated Ger- vase Markham, a contemporary of Blundeville, who continued to publish perhaps until after the Restoration, and whose works were stuffed with every absurd, bar- barous, and abominable juggling trick, as well as with every useful invention which had issued from the brains of either ancients or moderns. As a specimen of the medical part of the horse leech-craft of Markham, he prescribes human ordure in certain cases for the horse, both externally and internally. Yet this man's works had a most rapid and universal sale, and continued in repute until the days of Gibson, and even long after- wardslkmong the country leeches and farriers. It must be allowed that Markham's book contained the fullest detail of the practice of the farrier, with a delineation of his instruments, not materially different from those in present use. Blundeville wrote sensibly and respectably on the general subject of the horse, according to the continen- tal, the then fashionable practice. Baret in the succeed- ing reign, that of James I. wrote a learned treatise, en- titled an Hipponomie, or the Vineyard of Horseman- ship, in which he ably, and from obvious great experi- ence, discusses all the relative branches, including the print iples and practice of the race-course, and of that system of equitation peculiar to, and so generally preva- lent in, England. The huge folio of the duke of New- castle gives us the regular manege of the horse from the continental schools, with an account of the different races of the animal,-in which his grace was a connois- seur ot high celebrity. Throughout the same interval veterinary science in France seems to have remained almost exclusively in the hands of the marshals or far- riers, amongst whom Solleysel was the most celebrated writer of the seventeenth century; his works were af- terwards abridged and translated into English by sir William Hope. Until the reign of George I. the medical care of horses and other domestic animals was confided entirely to the classes of farriers, leeches, and cow-doctors. Consi- dering the superior value of animals in this country, the former neglect of them would appear astonishing, did it not subsist at this moment in so considerable a degree; FARRIERY. and that from causes easily ascertainable, but with dif- ficulty to be surmounted The medical system of the farriers, as delivered in their books, formed a strange medh v of ancient metaphysical notions, blended with deductions from the vague and uncertain experience of illiterate men. Much of it seemed the result of mere ignorance and caprice; no little, of pure distraction. For example, in a case of farcy, De Grey orders the medicine to be administered to the ears of the horse, and stitched up therein. In case of lameness a turf was to be cut and secreted; and in proportion as the turf de- cayed and wasted, so would tbe lameness! Various of their operations, in which no shadow of reason or pos- sible utility seems discernible, were pursued with mea- sures of horrible barbarity; fer example, in Markham, tbe cure by the fire or knife for the falling of the crest! These men seem to have exhausted their wits in the dis- covery of ingenious and knowing feats of cruelty; and it is a phrase with Markham, * other torments there are.' The art of shoeing the horse had retrograded from the original practice of tbe Italian farriers, which, however imperfect, yet formed a sufficient outline for a rational system. It had become the universal practice to pare away the frog and soles of the horse's foot; and by way of making amends for such loss of substance, to substi- tute a shoe of massive iron, so long as to project beyond the heels. It must however be acknowledged, that a far more rational practice obtained amongst those who had the superintendance of that peculiar species of horses appropriated to the business of the-turf, not only with respect to the shoeing, but every other branch of manage- ment; and as the foreign and racing species has been the grand source of improvement for the saddle and coach breeds; so the jockey system of equitation and general treatment of the horse, allowing its progres- sively amending defects, has ever possessed a character- istic and acknowledged superiority. Such was the state of farriery and veterinary prac- tice in the early part of the eighteenth century, when the former, or horse medicine and surgery, attracted the attention of Wm. Gibson, who had acted in queen Anne's wars as an army-surgeon, and appears by his writings to have been a man of much practical knowledge and sound judgment. He was the first regular professional man who attempted to improve veterinary science, which he effected in a plain and popular way, grounded on the analogy between the human and brute physiology, in course between human and animal medicine. The ap- pearance of Gibson's book on farriery forms an era in veterinary annals; and his system in fundamentals has ever been, and is at this moment, the basis of our superior veterinary practice. He lived to publish anew edition of his chief work, about the middle of the eigh- teenth century. Dr. Bracken, a physician of Lancaster, a vulgar, desultory, captious, and petulant writer, yet a profound and enlightened reasoner, and of great ability in his profession, in a few years followed the laudable example of Gibson, and turned his attention to veteri- nary medicine. He was an exquisite practical judge of the animal on which he treated; and his work on farri- ery is a standard with respect to the jockey or peculiar English system, a branch which had been left untouched by Gibson. Bartlet, a surgeon in Bow-street, Covent- 2 garden, was a most respectable, intelligent, and useful compiler from Gibson and Bracken, whose labours ne circumscribed and improved. He also first introduced the new, but hypothetical and impracticable, system of short shoeing, which had then lately been promulgated in France by the sieur La Fosse, a farrier of consider- able science, and a great practical veterinary anatomist. Bartlet candidly gave the rules of La Fosse for shoeing horses, withoutpretending to any great practical know- ledge of the subject; and these rules, speculative as they were, had yet the beneficial effect of operating a consi- derable improvement on English practice. Fortunately the affair was soon after taken in hand by William Os- mer, a surgeon and a sportsman, who had great practi- cal knowledge of the horse, and particularly of the race-horse, that species which, whilst it improves every other, requires the greatest attention, and in an especial manner with regard to shoeing and the treatment of the feet. Osmer commenced veterinary surgeon, and pub- lished an excellent and practical, although whimsically written hook on horse-shoeing, in which he reduced the speculative rules of La Fosse to the standard of his own and of English experience. His book has not probably been hitherto excelled in point of utility; and being writ- ten in a plain and popular way, is adapted to the capa- cities of shoeing-smiths. The earl of Pembroke also wrote a short and excellent treatise on the same subject, prac- tical horse-shoeing and case of the feet, and on the edu- cation of the military horse. Berenger, about the same time, published a respectable work on the grand manege. Mr. Clarke, the king's farrier for Scotland, has publish- ed two valuable treatises on shoeing, and on prevention of the diseases of horses. To revert to the commencement of the Gibsonian era. It is to be lamented that the success with which Gibson's and Bracken's improved farriery was attended did not stimulate the attempts of some regular medical men to undertake the improvement of veterinary practice in favour of our other domestic animals, and to deliver them and their proprietors from barbarous and illiterate leech-craft. Doubtless a want of encouragement must be looked upon as one of the chief causes of this defect. A book indeed appeared about the middle of the eigh- teenth century, under the name of Topham, treating of the diseases of horned cattle, but it proved to be a mere compilation, in which however were collected some use- ful hints with respect to management. As Gibson's Far- riery had given rise to a great number of compilations, so Topham's book served the same purpose to the cow- doctors, many of whom copied Topham word for word, and boldly published these excerpts as the result of their own long experience and practice. Such has proved to be almost invariably the deceptive practice of this de- scription of writers; whence the great number of simi- lar publications, and the constant well-founded com- plaints against them. Mr. Lawrence, in his late General Treatise on Cattle, has taken the pains to ascertain va- rious facts of this kind, and has given the outline of a rational system of veterinary practice, calculated for cattle and sheep, recommending the pursuit to medical men, and the liberal encouragement of such to the pro- prietors of cattle, and particularly to the agricultural societies. FARRIERY. The eighteenth century was abundantly fruitful in veterinary pursuits and publications. France took the lead; but a zeal for the improvement of this branch of science also pervaded Germany and the northern states, and colleges were established in various countries, wherein the science has been since regularly cultivated. Baron Haller collated the various continental writers on black cattle and sheep; another catalogue of them may also be found in the Giournal di Literati of Italy. Since these collections, the number of veterinary writers has been immense on the continent, not improbably for a rea- son already assigned. Few or none of them have been translated into our language, excepting detached parts of the works of the eminent French writers, La Fosse and Bourgelat. Our late professor Saintbel was a disciple of these celebrated veterinarians, and drew his geometrical proportions «>f the race-horse Eclipse from the tables of the latter. The truth and correctness of these geometrical principles have been since contro- verted by Mr. Wilkinson. Indeed, several speculative positions laid down in these tables do not accord with English practical experience; nor is the continental ve- terinary system, it is said, altogether calculated for the practice of this country, one great proof of which pre- sents itself in the failure of the celebrated method of shoeing by La Fosse. The French have improved the anatomical and surgical branches of the veterinary art, rather#than the medical; the English have made the greatest improvements in the latter: it is not improbably a parallel case with respect to human medicine. Since the establishment of a veterinary college at St. Pancras, near London, in 1792, a great number of vete- rinary surgeons, receiving their diploma from thence, have been dispersed in the army and throughout the country, to a great national advantage, in the surgical and medical treatment of horses. A number of farriers also annually take the advantage of improving them- selves at this seminary; but it is to be lamented thatthe light of veterinary science has hitherto shincd but dimly and imperfectly on the other domestic animals. A great number of veterinary publications have issued from the jircss within this last period; and the two professors Saintbel and Coleman, with Messrs. White, Boardman, Blanc, and many others, have laudably and usefully distinguished themselves in this way. Mr. Blane ap- pears to have taken great pains in a new branch of ve- terinary science, as it relates to that useful domestic the dog. He has also published the anatomy of the horse. But the anatomical drawings and engravings of the bones, muscles, and many of the blood-vessels of the horse, of the justly celebrated horse-painter Stubbs, are held superior to any thing we possess of this kind. The objects of farriery we have shown, are the anato- my, physiology, pathology, medical and surgical care, ami shoeing, of the horse. Dr. Crookc, quoted by Snape, affirms, that the motions of the heart, the arteries, the midriff, the brain, and guts, are the same in beasts as in men. Mr. Bracey Clarke observes, that "to describe each part of the horse individually and separately, would be often only repeating the more elaborate descriptions of the human anatomy, more frequently than those but little conversant with this subject would suspect. Many of the viscera, and even the myology of the trunk and ex- tremities, often correspond jn their principal circum- stances." Snape further says, that " in some regards anatomy is more necessary to farriers than to physi- cians, in order to find out disorders; for besides the pulse and the urine, and the pathognomonic signs of each distemper, the physicians are assisted in tiieir enquiries, moreover, not to say chiefly, by the complaints and relations of the patients themselves; whereas a far- rier, having to do with a dumb creature, must be very curious in his knowledge of the parts, with their offices, and of the sympathy or consent that one part hath with another; or else, seeing all his information must be of his own hammering out, he is like to make but a short discovery of the distemper." Add to the above observa- tions, the analogy which modern experience has found to subsist between human and animal medicine, so far as our domesticated animals are concerned; and it will ap- pear to whom veterinary science must necessarily be con- fined; and that an illiterate and ignorant class, whose laborious occupation must for ever preclude study and reflection, are totally incapable of the practice of medi- cine, whether human or animal. Thus the countenance and encouragement of so gross a deviation from recti- tude and common sense must be constantly attended with loss and disappointment to the proprietors, and cruelty to their animals, exclusive of the moral breach of hold- ing out to a numerous set of men the arts of imposition and legerdemain as a livelihood. The branches of the veterinary art, justly appropriate to the farrier and the cow-leech, are shoeing the horse and the labouring-ox, administering drenches, obstetric practice, bleeding, firing, and common surgical operations, under the guid- ance of a scientific veterinarian. Even shoeing, which seems most to appertain to the province of the common operator, has never been, in a single instance, improved by that class, but invariably by men of science: on the contrary, every improvement has met the strenuous op- position of the common farrier, until he has been gra- dually drawn into it, and almost imperceptibly to him- self. Nor is the province we have assigned to these peo-, pie, by any means, narrow or confined, but most ample, and affording a fair scope for both industry and good natural talents. Yet far be it from our intention to ex- clude them from the benefits either of attending the ve- terinary college or of consulting useful and practical books, which, in fact, are the true and only means to accomplish them in the fair and proper objects of their profession. We neither counsel nor desire any thing farther, than that such men, who may be much more suitably and advantageously employed, be as little as possible permitted to dabble in medicine. It has of late been averred, in a sense far too general, that analogies fail, as well in anatomy as in the effects of medicine, between the human and those animals of which we treat. It is true the latter are quadrupeds, and their structures is of greater magnitude, and neces<- sarily varies from ours; their integuments are thicker, and their general substance more solid. It requires, therefore, and the proportion has been long ascertained with sufficient accuracy, the application of a more pow- erful stimulus, in all given cases; in many, peculiar modes of administration. Certain common articles of the materia medica, namely, rhubarb, jalap, and the pur- FARRIERY. ging salts, it has been said of late, have no perceptible effects on the body of the horse, an assertion which ought to be received with a degree of caution. It is true, jalap and rhubarb, which were formerly, and particu- larly by Gibson, recommended as ingredients in purga- tive formulae, will scarcely have any purgative effect if used by themselves; tbe latter, however, at least is cer- tainly capable of answering many beneficial intentions in veterinary medicine; but its high price is doubtless a strong objection. Purging salts, it is acknowledged, will not often excite liquid dejections in horses, although they will in cows; but in the former, judiciously admin- istered, they evacuate great loads of softened excrement, have excellent cooling and diuretic properties, and are well calculated for horses much confined in hot stables, and for those of delicate constitutions. All, or the far greater part, of the most powerful and efficacious me- dicines, both of the tonic and debilitating class, have a signal and analogical effect on tbe constitution of the horse. Nor is tbe common opinion, that the horse, liv- ing upon plain and simple food, has very little or no oc- casion for medicines, deserving of the smallest atten- tion, any otherwise than as applied to the horse ranging at large in a state of nature. Labouring in the service of man, and confined to the dense and foul air of the stables, often in a constant state of luxurious repletion, exposed also to perpetual alternations of heat and cold, his body becomes subject to a variety of diseases, some of them of a most malignant type; and with respect to accidents he must, from the nature of his sevc-e services, be necessarily subject to a greater variety than any other animal. The above common-place opinion has ever been brought particularly to bear against the practice of purging horses, by which nevertheless they receive the most obvious and important benefits, and of which they seldom fail to have occasional need, whilst kept at hard meat in the stable. In fact, considering the obstruction and heat to which they are liable from the vast volume of their intestines, and the dryness and solidity of the food with which they are fed, it should seem probable that no animals stand more in need of artificial evacu- ants. The very circumstance of the length of their intes- tines has indeed been adduced as a proof of the impro- priety and even danger of administering to them purga- tive medicines; and various instances of fatal effects therefrom have been proved. Sotteysel, the French wri- ter, argued in this way; and advised the substitution of perspirants and diuretics; and notwithstanding the emi- nent success which every one accustomed to the superior management of horses, has experienced from purging them, the above superficial and groundless notion is oc- casionally revived even at present. The grand object is the removal of visceral infraction and obstruction, the common parent of almost every morbid evil in tbe horse; and this can at no rate be effected by diuretics, although they gave a partial, but illusory, and thence dangerous relief. Nor are alteratives, in a general view, so advantage- ous as mild and well apportioned purges, which seem, in a particular maimer, adapted and friendly to the con- stitution of the horse, filling him with renovated spirit and vigour, and increasing his appetite and strength. Purging the horse is perhaps to be considered as an English practice, alteratives and diuretics being '" m°]^ general use on tbe continent: and with respect danger of purging, the experience of a century has i ed that to consist merely in the abuse and the use oi uau drugs. Purging composes a material branch ot the cele- brated jockey or Newmarket system, which, with its imitations, have produced a perfection of habit and con- dition in the horse, universally admired by foreigners, and peculiar to that country. There is yet another opi- nion occasionally delivered, which we trust may not be unsuccessfully controverted: we advert to tbe pretended infant and imperfect state of veterinary science. The science of farriery has long been in a respectable and even mature state in Great Britain, however generally deficient the practice; and we surely have at this time an undoubted right to expect a general and practical improvement. Horses are particularly subject to catarrhal fever, pneumonia, influenzal and epidemic colds, rheumatism, asthmatic complaints, affections of the liver, colic, and blindness. They also share in common with human na- ture the maladies of apoplexy, spasm and convulsions, affections of the kidneys and urinary bladder, diabetes, dropsy, fever, and cutaneous affections. The peculiar diseases of the horse are glanders, farcy, grease, strangles, poll evil or abscess, and they are par- ticularly liable to injury and lameness in the lower ex- tremities. I With respect to their diseases, the glanders, it is well known, has ever been the veterinary opprobrium, nor have we yet, after an infinity of attempts at various pe- riods, advanced one step towards a probability of cure, speaking of the chronic species; nor is such an attain- ment perhaps an object of much consequence or interest from the length of time the cure must necessarily re- quire, and the little subsequent use to be expected from the patient. Tbe acute or incipient glanders will gene- rally submit to proper remedies and care. The disease is atmospheric and catarrhal, and occasionally, but per- haps not so frequently as in common supposed, caught by contagion of other horses. Oxen and sheep are af- fected by the glanders; the latter particularly, on being early shorn in cold springs, under the influence of east- erly winds. Broken wind in the horse, as its designa- tion would seem to intimate, is irreparable; and there is a relative circumstance for which perhaps it is not easy to account, namely, that if a horse of this description bo turned to grass for any length of time, on taking him back to the stable Ins malady shall be considerably increased, although, perhaps, if continued constantly abroad, he might remain as at first, or experience some amend- ine.it. In general, the diseases of horses, supposing skill in the prac iturner, and an acquaintance with our best written authorities, may be treated very successfully, and upon a very near level in that respect with the hu- ■4 «Pi«inm « "m I' OI H CI,IU,,XU LHSC ot that kind s seldom possible to obtain a cure; and although the ly remedy to be depended on is a long run atlr^s yet, as has already been observed of broken win I « horse m a confirmed case of injured tendons, frequently FARRIERY. returns worse from grass than he was whilst in the sta- ble. (Lawrence on Horses.) These injuries are com- monly seated about the well-known back sinew of the leg, and among that multitude of tendons (in Snap's language) that descend into the coffin-joint. It has been said that our knowledge in that most important branch, tendinous lameness, has been on the decline since our late unreserved adoption of the principles of the French veterinary school, and accession to the hypothesis of the inelasticity and immobility of tendons, on which it is as- serted, that there can exist no such malady as a strained tendon, producing morbid laxity subsequent to inflamma- tion. The new opinion seems to confine the disease to in- flammation simply, and the cure to the dispersion of the inflammatory symptoms. Now constant experience has proved, that those merely attendant symptoms may be soon ridded, and yet the strain or lameness continue. (See Bracken on the nature of strain.) This is a most material point of the veterinary art, and involves the great and necessary qualification of detecting the seats of lameness in horses. English horses in general are extremely subject to tendinous lamenesses, both from their natures, as being so much mixed with the delicate racing breed, and from their being forced to more spee- dy and severe exertions than the horses of any other country. Hence it is said that the best continental vete- rinarians, as defective in practical experience, arc im- perfectly skilled in the lamenesses in question, and their proper treatment; and that in order to attain considera- ble knowledge in this branch, and to be able to ascertain the seats of lameness, it is absolutely necessary for the veterinarian to experiment and practise with the living as well as the dead subject, and to advance far beyond the limits of the riding-school and parade. On this dis- puted subject, on the turf, on the theory and practice of humanity to animals, and on the purchase, qualifica- tions, and performances of horses, Mr. Lawrence's Phi- losophical and Practical Treatise may be consulted with much advantage. The grease.—This discharge seems peculiar to the horse, as in the disorder properly so called, and in mol- ten-grcasc or the body-founder. The grease in the legs is an extravasation, or bursting from the vessels, and af- terwards through the skin, of serum, or simple humour, either from defect of exercise, or any cause of obstructed circulation in those depending parts. Round, fleshy-leg- ged horses, like those, for example, of the old Suffolk cart breed, are constitutionally liable to grease; on the contrary, the flat, sinewy-legged, and in general as horses approach the thorough-bred or racing-kind, they are the least liable to this defect. Want of good groom- ing, however, the legs remaining in their dirt in the stall, or the horse not lying down, will grease any species of horses. This malady never affects the horse at grass, which points out the readiest cure; and with respect to such as are constitutionally liable, the only way to pre- serve them sound is to keep them abroad. A slight case in the stable gives way to thorough cleansing and ablu- tion with soap and water, the discharge being after- wards dried up with astringent poultices, lotions, or pow- ders. Purges or alterants may be exhibited according to the nature of the case. A confirmed and inveterate case is extremely difficult of cure, requiring powerful escaro-' tic applications. Oslets, splents, spavins, ringbone, curb, thoroughpin, &c. are bony excrescences differently posited, originat- ing in an extravasation by pressure of weight or over- exertion, of the mucilage or oil of the joints, which gra- dually condenses and becomes ossified. Splents and oslets upon the shan!;, not affecting the joint, may not occasion lameness, and even admit of dispersion and cure by friction, blistering, and repellents, if taken ear- ly, and before their substance is become too solid. The ringbone is an ossification or bony swelling, surround- ing, as its name expresses, like a ring, the coronet or summit of the hoof; it proceeds from the contiguous small pastern bones. Being suffered to come to maturity, ifc is incurable by any possible remedy which can leave the horse sound. The spavin is also a preternatural bone, situated on the inside beneath the hock, and extending in its course to the joint. It is generally a hopeless case. Removing the part with a chisel was formerly attempt- ed; hut blistering and caustics are the more usual modes of attempt at cure. A very powerful caustic method, re- commended by Osmer, was within these few years tried upon a celebrated trotter, but it killed the horse in three days. Perhaps Gibson's cure of a confirmed spavin is the most successful one on record. See his Farri'vy. The thoroughpin is posited withoutside, and between the bones of the hock. An incipient case may admit a remedy; and we lately witnessed a perfect cure of this malady in about three months by a perpetual blister. The curb is found on the back part of the hock. The bog-spavin withinside, in the cavity of the hock, is a tumour frequently of considerable, bulk, of the nature of the windgall. It produces lameness; and that part of the horse, although generally forgotten, should be ex- amined in purchase. Windgalls are well-known distinct tumours on tin pastern-joints, filled with extravasated fluid, which ei- ther forms capsules or bags for itself, or such bags are an enlargement of the natural bursae mucosa-, or mucous capsules, which are found wherever tenuwns pass over each other, or over any solid part, and serve the purpose of lubricating with their mucus those tendons. Horses are in general subject to this infirmity in proportion to the racing blood they have; and we have seen common bred hacks, in which no labour would produce a wind- gall. Work will generally bring them more or less; but bandage and astringent lotions, with runs abroad, and the loose stable, are the only preventives. The general palliative remedies are as above, and blistering. When they feel tense and elastic, they may not be an imme- diate occasion of lameness; but if flabby aud inelastic, and of considerable bulk, the tendons arc debilitated, and there can be little expectation of soundness. Brack- en made a successful experiment of opening, and dis- charged the fluid of the bog-spavin; and after him, Law- rence that of the windgall. See their accounts. Corns are bruises or compressions of the h..rney sole near the quarters; if dry, to be pared out with the knife, and treated with spirituous and healing applicati ins. ap- plying the bat-shoe, if it is necessary to work the hocse. The sand-crack is a cleft iu the external part of the FARRIERY J hoof either vertical or with the grain, occasioned by too great dryness in course, and to be prevented by the op- posite. Rest the horse, bind the hoof, pare and dress the part. Gibson, in some cases, used the cautery moderate- ly heated. The quittor, in French jaxnrt. is a hard round lump or excrescence on the coronet, between hair and hoof, on the one or the other, but usually on the inside quarter of the foot; confirmed, it is a very bad case, generally in- ducing in the cure the ill consequence of a false quarter or seam adown the foot, from loss of substance; subse- quently to which tbe horse is seldom, perhaps never, rightly sound. The founder of the foot is probably rheu- matic, or at least often originates in a similar cause. Mallcndcrs are chinks or clefts behind the knees of the fore-legs; sallenders are the same defect in the hinder legs. They discharge matter, which must be treated with thorough ablution, repellents, and mercurial wash- es or unguents, internal alteratives or purges being also administered. Wash thoroughly with a linen rag and soap-suds warm the wound of the broken knee, in order to discharge the gravel or dirt which may have intru- ded. Bathe with brandy, or bind upon the part tow dipped in tincture of myrrh and brandy. In case of swell- ing, it may be useful to poultice, and afterwards bathe with brandy and vinegar warm. Sheet-lead bandaged on the part may make the hair grow smooth. Lameness in the shoulder is comparatively a very rare occurrence, notwithstanding which grooms and farriers in general, from a deceptiovisus, and not being skilled in a manual detection of affections of the parts, generally im- agine every lameness to exist in the shoulder. In an ob- vious and real lameness of the shoulder, during the ten- sion and inflammation, rowelling is necessary, with spi- rituous and astringent fomentations; but that which is of far the greatest consequence, sufficient time to repose at grass. Strains in the loins and couplings.—A strengthening charge and embrocation may have some good effect; but remaining at rest abroad, for a considerable length of time, is the only cure when the case is curable. Lameness of the hip or whirlbone, and of the stifle-bone, similar to the small cramp-bone in a leg of mutton.—In the former case the symptoms are, swinging of the limb, or its being longer than naturally: in trotting the horse droops backward upon the heel. Time and rest, with ap- plications as above, cure a recent case of this kind; but from neglect it becomes incurable. The whirl-bone or hip, is sometimes depressed or beat down with violence, and so remains, the horse yet continuing useful. A mare in this state, thence called slip, even-raced. On lameness of the stifle, Snape says, " It is worth the dissector's taking notice of these three last muscles, how they are joined all in one, just at their crossing the stifle, where they make one broad and very strong tendon, which spreads over and involves the patella, or little bone of the stifle, and ties it so fast in its place, upon the joint- ing of the thigh-bone with the tibia, that it is very seldom displaced, or indeed never. For although by distensions or strains we often have this part affected, yet never did I see an absolute dislocation in it. The patella indeed may be, and often is, wrenched either to one side or the ether, as the accident may happen." Cure consists in rest, and the usual treatment of strains: the tumour will sometimes, but rarely, suppurate, which is a present remedy. Teeth and age of the horse.—The horse has forty teeth: twenty-four double teeth or grinders, four tushes or single teeth, and twelve front teeth or gatherers. Mares in general have no tushes. The black marks or cavie- tics, which denote the age, are to be found in the cor- ner front teeth, adjoining the tushes. Horned cattle have similar marks in the teeth. At four years and a half old, the mark-teeth are just visible above the gum. and the cavity is very conspicuous. At five, the horse sheds his remaining colt's teeth, and his tushes appear. At six, his tushes are up, and appear white, small, and sharp; near which is observable a small circle of young, grow- ing, flesh: the horse's mouth is then complete, and the cor- ner teeth filled up. At seven years old, the two middle teeth fill up. At eight, the black marks vanish, and the horse's mouth is said to be full, and himself aged. The French farriers aver that the marks remain in the teeth of the upper jaw until the horse is twelve years of age; but we believe this to be fortuitous. The lampas, from the Latin lampascus, is an inflamma- tion and tumour of the first bar of the young horse's mouth, adjoining the upper fore teeth, which prevent his chewing. If scalded mashes, warm gruel, Glauber's salts in the water, and bleeding, do not remove the inconve- nience in a week, lightly cauterize the tumid parts, without penetrating deep enough to scale off the thin bone beneath the upper bars. Wash with salt and water first, afterwards heal with a mixture of honey and bran- dy or port wine. La Fosse and others have denied the existence of this slight malady; but we have witnessed it repeatedly. We have also seen the haw in the eye. and the probability of its obstructing the sight, with its suc- cessful excision, a very small part of the substance be- ing extirpated; the proper rule, should excision ever be recurred to, in truth a matter of doubt, as a painful ope- ration. The haw is a preternatural enlargement and sponginess of the caruncle, a fleshy substance in the in- ner corner of the eye, causing the ligament which runs along the verge of the membrane to compress the eye- ball like a hoop. Shoeing.—The veterinarian who is ambitious of be- ing thoroughly grounded in this important branch of his art, should study attentively the principles and rules of \ La Fosse, Bourgelat, and Osmer, comparing them with j what has been since written by Mr. Clarke, and the f professors Saintbel^and Coleman. One or two of the an- cients have mentioned the iron shoe, hut it did not pro- bably come into general use in Europe until the fifteenth century. It has been often hinted that horses might be accustomed to labour without shoes, and that exposure to the hard ground would render their soles obdurate, a t consequence which is also pretended to result from their standing upon a hard, unlittered pavement, with abun- ; dance of similar and futile sophistry. The distressing iii accidents which have happened from the loss of a shoe,' fa in consequence of which, from a few hours speedv travel fc by night, the hoof has been worn away to the very bones of cit the foot, are a full and lamentable answer to such follies. Ik Indeed, in hot and dry countries, where the hoof is na- «i, FARRIERY. turally hard, and the exertions of the horse very limited, compared with those he undergoes in this country, he is perhaps generally ridden without shoes. In the Welsh mountains this is also occasionally practised: but upon our roads, particularly in wet weather and in winter, the walls, sole, and frog, would be rubbed away and totally destroyed, granting the practice was used w ith a young and perfect foot, which never knew the protection of a shoe; nor have we any horses but would flinch under such an exposure of their feet. A young and perfect foot has a firm and level bearing upon the circular crust or wall, and the frog, which however is an elastic substance, and the fulcrum or ra- ther cushion of the main tendon. The frog is yet not a solid and steady support, but springs or contracts on touching the ground. In some very concave feet, of bred cattle particularly, the frog is not of sufficient bulk to reach the ground; and in thousands of horses shod by common farriers, the case is similar, from the part be- ing reduced by constant wear and paring, and by the improper height of the shoe-heels: yet the frog does its office, although surely not in so perfect a way. In gene- ral, the foot should be suffered to retain its natural form and substance on applying the shoe, the toe only being shortened, the walls or crust pared even, the sole, bars or binders, and frog, being left intire, bating a little trimming away of loose and decaying substance: instead of which, the common farriers pare the sole without mercy, almost extirpate the frog to make it appear neat, and cut away at every shoeing half the substance of the bars in order to open the heels, the direct way to Bhut them up, or narrow them; since one great use of the frog and bars is that of an interposing substance to keep the heels open and spreading. It must then be acknow- ledged, that some naturally tough, thick, and quick- growing soles may require paring, or they otherwise are inconvenient, and produce uneasy sensations in the horse; but this is perhaps never the case with respect to the frog, which, coming in contact with the ground, would always be thereby sufficiently reduced. As there are too many hoofs with thin and weak walls or crusts, in which it is difficult for the smith to find nail-hold, and from which by consequence scarcely an atom can be spared to the paring-knife, so there are others of the concave and deep kinds, in which the surrounding edges or crusts are so high and tough, that it is absolute- ly necessary and salutary to the foot to soften it by par- ing them down occasionally, bringing the pittance of a frog nearer to the ground, disposing it to enlarge and thereby expand the narrow and wiry heels. A shoe should be so formed, that the horse may stand steady and firm upon his natural level, namely to bear equally upon the toe and the surrounding wall or crust; ;he frog, if in its perfect and natural state, touching the ground. The shoe-heels may be reduced in substance, in irder to enable the frog, defective in size, to touch the ground, provided a too great tenderness and sensibility *n the frog, a very common case even in a colt, do not orbid it. In that circumstance, attended by a soreness or ','efectiu the quarters also, the shoe-heels must be of suffi- cient thickness to do the office of the frog, and preserve iie just level of the foot; for with reduced quarters and ' lioc-htels, and no frog to support the tendon, the latter must suffer great distension even from the mere natural weight of the horse; and in this way, from a forced at- tempt at improvement of the frog, by certain speculators, great numbersjof horses were instantly lamed. Our com- mon farriers, however, have usually run into the oppo- site defect, and by extremely thick shoe-heels, and even the addition of chalkings to the fore-shoes, have thrown the weight of the horse chiefly upon his toes. They are doubtless much improved in their practice in most parts of England, but in some, the old dangerous and destruc- tive form of shoe is still retained; long, broad, and con- vex iii tbe external surface, and concave next the foot. Such is precisely the common shoe of the draught-horse even in the metropolis, where one would suppose com- mon sense, in the course of more than fifty years, must have had time to operate. Yet we lately witnessed the heart-rending exertions of four noble animals to draw up Holborn-hill a most ponderous load, the stones pre- senting a surface of glass, to the slippery con vex, or ra- ther globular surfaces of the horse-shoes. It is impossible but these willing animals must have ineffectually wasted more than half their powers, that is to say, the strength of the four was reduced to less than that of two, by the senseless form of their shoes; and we represented to the driver, the strong probability that a quarter of an hour of such excessive exertion, might injure the horses in a greater degree, than six months of fair and regular although hard labour. Shoes should be made of the best iron well hammer-hardened, but not too much softened by the fire. Of such stuff, the shoe should be as light as the horse could bear; but it must be remembered, there must be a sufficient substance of iron in proportion to the weight of the horse, or in travelling, he will suffer from jarring or concussion of the bones of the foot. Narrow- ness of the web of the shoe is indubitably an advantage, but some feet require and must have more cover. The length of the shoe in general, should approach, never ex- ceed, the extremity of the heel, and should decrease in width at the heel, excepting a need to defend weak quarters. The surface of the shoe presented to the earth should ever and without exception be flat, and even when practicable, hammered somewhat concave or hol- low, which gives a firmer tread on slippery surfaces. This is a very old idea, and although professor Saintbel did not succeed in reducing it to practice with thin shoes, it can meet with no obstruction in the heavy shoes of cart- horses, w liich are however always made far heavier than necessary, from being forged of inferior materials, a con- sideration for the opulent proprietors of draught-horses. The shoe must rest entirely on the wall or crust, never on the sole, on which the pressure would occasion lame- ness. To this end, that part of the shoe applied to the crust must be flat, consisting of a rim or margin accord- ing in breadth, with the crust, and of equal thickness around the outside of the rim, in the middle of which ex» actly the nail-holes are to be made; from this margin in- ternally, towards the sole, the shoe must be formed gradually thinner, that it may not press upon the sole. Osmer farther directed, aud it has becu invariably follow- ed by the best practitioners, that the shoe should he made to stand somewhat wider at the extremity of each heel, than the foot itself; otherwise, as the foot grows in length, the heel of the shoe in a short time, gets within FAR FAS BB. The blade-bone or scapula. C. The humerus, or shoulder-bone. DD. The bones of the leg, or fore-arm, consisting in each of the radius and ulna. EE. The joints of the knees, with the small ranges of hones. FF. The posterior parts of the knee-joints. GG. The shank-bones, consisting in each of the cannon bone, and the two metacarpal, or splent-bones. IIII. The great pastern 'bones, with the two sesamoid hones of each fetlock. II. The lesser pastern bones. KK. The bones of the feet, consisting in each of the coffin and navicular bones, with the lateral cartilages. LL. The bones of the pelvis, called ossa innominata. MM. The thigh-bones. NN. The bones of the hind-legs, consisting in each of the tibia and the fibula. 00. The points of tbe hocks. PP. The small bones of the hocks. QQ. The bones of the instep; consisting in each of the cannon bone and twro metatarsal bones. RR. The great pastern and sesamoid bones of the hind- legs. SS. The little pastern hones of the hind-legs. TT. The coffin and navicular bones of each hind-foot, with the lateral cartilages. V. The sternum, or breast-bone. X. The point of the sternum. YY. The ribs. Z. The cartilaginous ends of the ribs on the breast and abdomen. I. II. HI. IV. V. VI. VII. The seven vertebra; of the neck. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10, 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. The eighteen vertebrae of the thorax and back. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The six vertebras of the loins. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The five spines of the os sacrum. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. The eighteen joints of coxendix and tail. Figure 2.—Representing the intestines of a horse as they appear in their natural situation when the abdo- men is laid open. AAAAAA. The colon, with its various circumvolutions and w hidings, together with its numerous folds, and under which lie the small intestines. B. Tbe ccecum, or blind gut. C. The rectum. Figure 3.—Shows the horny sole a raised from the fleshy sole ccc; round which is the enchannellcd flesh y, placed in the fulcus of the inner surface of the hoof, the horny part of which is soft and white. Figure 4.—Represents the under part of the fleshy sole c, raised from the foot-bone, or coffin-bone, ddd; g the covering or sheath of the tendo Achillis; z the cartilage; y the edge of the fleshy sole confined in the furrow of the channelled horny substance. Figures 5 and 6.—Give the bottom or base of the foot; aaa the horny sole; b the frog; z the hoof towards its lower edge, called the crust or wall of the foot. Figures 7 and 8.—Modern shoes. FARTHING of gold, a coin used in ancient times, containing in value the fourth part of a noble, or 20d. 2 silver. It is mentioned in the stat. 9 Hen. > . cap. .. where it is enacted, that there shall be good and jusi weight of the noble, half-noble, and farthing of gold- Farthing of land, seems to differ from Farding- deal; for in a survey-book of the manor oi\S est-Hapton, in Devonshire, there is an entry thus: A. B. holds six farthings of land at 126*. per aim. So that the farthing of land must have been a considerable quantity, tar more than a rood. , FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes bound up together with rods or staves, and carried before the Roman ma- gistrates as a badge of their authority and office. The use of the fasces was introduced by the elder Tarquin, as a mark of sovereign authority: in aftcrtimes they were borne before the consuls, but by turns only, each his day. They had twelve of them carried by so many lictors. After the consuls, the praetors assumed them, and Censorinus observes they had only two, though Plutarch and Polybius give them six. In the government of the decemviri, it was the practice at first for only two of them to have the fasces. Afterwards each of them had twelve, in the same manner as the kings. FASCETS, in the art of making glass, are the irons thrust into the mouths of bottles, in order to convey them into the annealing tower. FASCIAE, in astronomy, certain parts on Jupiter's body resembling belts or swaths. They are more lucid than the rest of that planet, and are terminated by pa- rallel lines, sometimes broader, and sometimes narrower. Mr. Huygens observed a facia in Mars much broader than those in Jupiter, and possessing the middle part of his disk, but very obscure. FASCINES, in fortification, faggots of small wrood of about a foot diameter, and six feet long, bound in the middle, aud at both ends. See Fortification. FASCIOLA, in zoology, the fluke or gouro worm: a genus of insects of the order of vermes intestina; of which the characters are these: The body is flatfish, and has a vent-bole at the extremity and on the belly. There are several species, l. The bepatica, or liver-fluke, grows to two-thirds of an inch in length, though it is more usually met with not half that size; and its'breadth is nearly equal to two-thirds of its length. It is flatfish, but somewhat rounded on the back, and has about eight deep longitudinal furrows in two series; its skin is soft and whitish, with a tinge of brown. The hinder part is rounded, the fore part is furnished with a large mouth. It bears some resemblance to the seed of the common gourd, whence it has acquired the name of the gourd worm. It is found in fresh waters, in ditches, at the roots of stones, sometimes in the intestines, and often in the substance of the other viscera in quadrupeds. It often infests the liver of sheep, and on that account is called hepatica. Bags with salt in them should be placed in the told, that sheep might lick them, which is a good remedy. 2. ] he intestinalis, or intestinal fluke, is of a long slender form, if extended; when contracted, of a suboval form; inhabits the intestines of fresh-water fish, especially the bream. 3. The baibata, is white with transverse papilla; in the mouth. It is of an oblone shape, and about the size of a cucumber-seed. FASHION-PIECES, in the sea language, are two FAT FAT compassing pieces of timber, into each side of which i« fixed the transom. FASTERMANS. among our Saxon ancestors, were pledges or bondsmen, who were answerable for each other's good behaviour. FASTI, in Roman antiquity, tbe calendar wherein were expressed the several days of the year, with their feasts, games, and other ceremonies. There were two sorts of fasti, the greater and less; the former being dis- tinguished by the appellation of fasti magistrales, and the later by that of fasti calendares. The greater fasti con- tained the feasts, with every thing relating to religion and the magistrates. The lesser were again distinguished into the city and country fasti, each adapted to the peo- ple for whom they were designed. In all these fasti, the court-days, or those whereon causes might be heard and determined, were marked with the letter F; these days were called fasti, from fari, to speak or pronounce; aud the other days, not marked writh this letter, were called nefasti. Fasti consul vres, was also a tablet, or chronicle, wherein the several years were denoted by the respective consuls, with the principal events that happened during their counsulship. And hence, the term fasti is still ap- plied to the archives and public registers of a nation. FAT, in anatomy, an oleaginous or buty-raceous mat- ter, secreted from the blood, and filling up the cavity of the adipose cells. Fat, in chemistry. See Oil. Fat, in the sea-language, signifies the same with broad. Thus a ship is said to have a fat quarter, if the trussing in or tuck of her quarter is deep. Fat, perhaps properly vat (vas or vessel), denotes likewise an uncertain measure of capacity. Thus a fat of isinglass contains from 3£ hundred weight to four hundred weight; a fat of unbound books, half a man ml, or four bales; of wire, from 20 to 25 hundred weight; and of yarn, from 220 to 221 bundles. FATA Morgana, a xery remarkable aerial pheno- menon, which is sometimes observed from the harbour of Messina and adjacent places, at a certain height in the atmosphere. The name, which signifies the Fairy Mor- gana, is derived from an opinion of the superstitious Si- cilians, thatthe whole spectacle is produced by fairies, or such-like visionary invisible beings. The populace are delighted whenever it appears; and run about the streets shouting for joy, calling every body out to partake of the glorious sight. This singular meteor has been described by various authors; but the first who mentioned it with any degree of precision was father Angelucci, whose account is thus quoted by Mr. Swinburne in his Tour through Sicily: •On the 15th of August, 1643, as I stood at my window, I was surprised with a most wonderful delectable vision. The sea that w ashes the Sicilian shore swelled up, and became, for ten miles in length, like a chain of dark mountains; while the waters near our Calabrian coast grew quite smooth, and in an instant appeared as one clear polished mirror, reclining against the ridge. On this glass wasdepht %d, in chiaro-scuro, a string of se- veral thousand of pila-^u rs. all equal in altitude, distance, and degree of light and shade. In a moment they lost hall their height, and bent int.i arcades, like li<»:nan aqueducts. A long cornice was next formed on the top, and above it rose castles innumerable, all perfectly alike. These soon split into towers, which were shortly after lost iu colonnades, then windows, and at last ended in pines, cypresses, and other trees, even and similar. This is the Fata Morgana, which for twenty-six years I had thought a mere fable." To produce this pleasing deception, many circum- stances must concur, which are not known to exist in any other situation. The spectator must stand with his back to the east, in some elevated plare behind the city, that he may command a view of the whole bay; beyond which the mountains of Messina rise like a wall, and darken the back-ground on the picture. The winds must be hushed, the surface quite smooth, the tide at its height, and the waters pressed up by currents to a great elevation in the middle of the channel. All these events coinciding, as soon as the sun surmounts the eastern hills behind Reggio, and rises high enough to form an angle of 45 degrees on the water before the city, every object existing or moving at Reggio will be repeated a thousandfold upon this marine looking-glass; which, by its tremulous motion, is in a manner cut into facets. Each image will pass rapidly off in succession as the day advances, and the stream carries down the wave on which it appeared. Thus the parts of this moving pic- ture will vanish in the twinkling of an eye. Sometimes the air is at that moment so impregnated with vapours, and undisturbed by winds, as to reflect objects in a kind of aerial screen, rising about 30 feet above the level of the sea. In cloudy heavy weather they are drawn on the surface of the water, bordered with fine prismatical colours. To the above account we shall add the following, by another observer: "In fine summer days, when the weather is calm, there rises above the great current a vapour, which acquires a certain density, so as to form in the atmosphere horizontal prisms, whose sides are disposed in such a manner, that when they come to their proper degree of perfection, they reflect and represent successively, for some time, (like a moveable mirror) the objects on the coast or in the adjacent country. They exhibit by turns the city and suburbs of Messina, trees, animals, men, and mountains. They are certainly beau- tiful aerial moving pictures. There are sometimes two or three prisms, equally perfect; and they continue in this state eight or ten minutes. After this some shining inequalities are observed upon the surface of the prism, which render confused to the eye the objects which had been before so accurately delineated, ami the picture van- ishes. The vapour forms other combinations, and is dispersed in air. Different accounts have been given of this singular appearance; which for my part I attribute to a bitumen that issues from certain rocks at the bottom of the sea, and which is often seen to cover a part of its surface in the canal of Messina. The subtile parts M this bitumen being attenuated, combined, and exhaled with the aqueous globules that are raised by the air, and formed into bodies of vapour, give to this condensed vapour more consistent e; and contribute, by their smooth and polished particles, to the formation of a hi,id of aerial crystals, which receives the light, r llecis it to the eye, and transmit to it uli the luminous puiuu which. F E A F E C cdfour the objects exhibited in this phenomenon, and render them visible." FATHER, in church history, is applied to ancient authors who have preserved in their writings the tra- ditions of the church. Thus St. Cbrysostom, St. Basil, &cc. arc called Greek fathers, and St. Augustine and St. Ambrose Latin fathers. No author who wrote later than the twelfth century is dignified with the title of Father. Father and son. In law the father shall not have ac- tion for taking any of his children, except his heir; and that is, because the marriage of his heir belongs to the father, but not of any other of his sons or daughters. And the father has no property or interest in the other children, which the law accounts may be taken from him. Cro. Eliz. 770. The father is obliged by the common law to provide for his children. Lord Raym. 41. Justices cannot order a maintenance for a child to be paid by the father, without adjudging that the child is poor, or likely to become chargeable. Id. 669. FATHOM, a long measure containing six feet, chiefly used at sea for measuring the length of cables and cor- dage. FAVORITO, in music, as choro favorito, a chorus in which are employed the best voices and instruments, to sing the recitatives, play the ritornellas, &c; this is otherwise called the little chorus, or choro recitante. B'AUSSE-BRAYE, in fortification, a small rampart without the true one, about three or four fathom wide, and bordered with a parapet and banquet. See Forti- fication. FEAL-DIKES, a cheap sort of fence common in Scotland, built with feal or sod dug up by the spade from the surface of grass-ground, consisting of the upper mould rendered tough and coherent by the matted roots of the grass thickly interwoven with it. If only a very thin bit of the upper surface is pared off with a paring- spade, tbe pieces are called divots. These being of a firmer consistence, are more durable when built into dikes than feal, but much more expensive also. FEALTY, in law,van oath taken on the admittance of any tenant, to be true to the lord of whom he holds his land; by this oath the tenant holds in the freest manner, on account, that all who have fee, hold per fidem et fidu- jciam, that is, by fealty at the least This fealty, at the first creation of it, bound the tenant to fidelity, the breach of which was the loss of his fee. It has been di- vided into general and special; general, that which is to be performed by every subject to his prince; and special, required only of such as, in respect of their fee, are tied by oath to their lords. To all manner of tenures, except tenantcy at will and frank-almoign, fealty is incident, though it chiefly belongs to copyhold estates, held in fee and for life. The form of this oath by stat. 17 Ed. II. is to run as follows. " 1, A. B. will be to you my lord D, true and faithful, and bear to you faith for the lands and tenements which I hold of you, and I will truly do and perform the customs and services that I ought to do to you. So help me God." FEAST, or Festival, in a religious sense, is a day of feasting and thanksgiving. ^The four quarterly feasts, or stated times whereon i-cnt on leases is usually reserved to be paid, are Lady*' day, or the annunciation of the blessed virgin Mary, or 25th of March; the nativity of St. John the Baptist, held on the 24th of June, the feast of St. Michael the archan- gel, on the 29th of September; and Christmas, or rather St. Thomas the apostle, on the 21st of December. FEATHER, in physiology, a general name for the covering of birdst it being common to all the animals of this class to have their whole body, or at least the great- est part of it, covered with feathers or plumage. There are two sorts of feathers found on birds, viz, the strong and hard kind, called quills, found on tho wings and tail; and the other plumage, or soft feathers, serving for the defence and ornament of the whole body. All birds, so far as yet known, moult the feathers of their whole body yearly. Feathers make a considerable article of commerce, particularly those of the ostrich, heron, swan, peacock, goose, &c. for plumes, ornaments of the head, filling of beds, writing-pens, &c. Geese are plucked in some parts of Great Britain five times in the year; and in cold seasons many of them die by this bar- barous custom. Those feathers that are brought from Somersetshire are esteemed the best, and those from Ireland the worst. Eider down is imported from Denmark; the ducks that supply it being inhabitants of Hudson's-bay, Green- land, Iceland, and Norway. All the islands west of Scot- land breed numbers of these birds, which turn out a profitable branch of trade to the poor inhabitants. Hud- son's-bay also furnishes very fine feathers, supposed to be of the goose kind. The down of the swan is brought from Dantzic. The same place also sends us great quan- tities of the feathers of the cock and hen. The London poulterers sell a great quantity of the feathers of those birds, and of ducks and turkeys; those of ducks, being a weaker feather, ar inferior to those of the goose; and turkey's feathers are the worst of any. The best method of curing feathers is to lay them in a room, exposed to the air and sun; and when dried, to put them in bags, and beat them well with poles to get off the dirt Feathers, when chemically analysed, seem to possess very nearly the same properties with hair. According to Mr. Hatchett, the quill is composed chiefly of coagu- lated albumen, without any traces of gelatine. See Hair. Feather-mill, in the salt-works, the partition in the middle of the furnace, which it divides into two cham- bers. See the article Salt-Making. Feather-edged, among carpenters, an appellation given to planks or boards which have one side thicker than the other. i-w^H'if8, °,V ^CIALES» a college of priests in- stituted at Rome by Numa, consisting of twenty persons,* selected out oi the best families. Their business was to be arbi rators of all matters relating to war and peace, and to be the guardians of the public faith. It is probable that they were ranked among the officers of religion, to procure them the more deference and authorityf and to render their persons more sacred among the ueonle If the commonwealth had received any injury from a for eign state, they immediately despatched these officer tn demand satisfaction, who, if they could not nrorurp it were o attest the Gods against the people and country FEE F E L and Io denounce war: otherwise they confirmed the alli- ance, or contracted a new one, which they ratified by •acrificing a hog. FECLLA. See Gluten. FEE, in law. All lands in England (the crown- land being in the king's own hands, in right of his crown, excepted) is in the nature of feudum or fee; for though many have land by descent from their ances- tors, and others have clearly purchased land vyith their money, yet is the land of such a nature, that it cannot come to any, cither by descent or purchase, but with the burthen that w as laid upon him who had no*el fee, or first of all received it as a benefit from his lord to him, and to all such to whom it might descend, or any way be conveyed from him; so that in truth, no man has directum dominium, the very property or demesne, in any land, but only the prince in right of his crown. Cam. Brit. 93. See Fbodal System. Fee Simple, is an estate of inheritance whereby a person is seised of lands, tenements, or hereditaments, to hold to him and his heirs for ever, generally, absolute- ly, and entirely; without mentioning what heirs, but re- ferring that to his own pleasure, or the disposition of the law. It is the most perfect tenure of any, when un- incumbered; but although the greatest interest which by our law a subject can possess, yet it may be forfeited for treason or felony. To constitute an estate in fee, or of inheritance, the word heir is necessary in the grant or donation. Co. Lit. 1. Plowd. 498. 2 Black. 48. Fee qualified, is such a freehold estate, as has a qualification subjoined to it, and which therefore must determine whenever the qualification is at an end. Co. Lit. 27. Fee conditional. This estate was, at the common law, a fee restrained to some particular heirs, exclusive of others; as to the heirs of a man's body, or to the heirs male of bis body: in which cases it was field, that as soon as the grantee had issue born, the estate was thereby converted into fee simple, at least so far as to enable him to sell it, to forfeit it by treason, or to charge it with in- cumbrances. But the statute de donis having enacted, that such estates so given, to a man and the heirs of his body, should at all events go to the issue, if there were any, or if none, should revert to the donor; this was by the judges denominated an estate in tail. Plowd. 251. See Estate. Fee also signifies^ a certain allowance to physicians, barristers, attorneys, and other officers, as a reward for their ffains and labour. If a person refuse to pay an offi- cer his due fees, the court will grant an attachment against him, to be committed till the fees are paid; and in attorney may bring an action on the case for his fees, igainst the client that retained him in his cause. Fee also denotes a settled perquisite of public officers, payable by those who employ them. The fees due to the officers of the custom-house, are expressly mentioned in a schedule, or table, which is hung up in public view in the said office, and in all other places where the said fees ire to be paid or received. And if any officer shall offend, ly acting contrary to the regulations therein contained) ic shall forfeit his office and place, and be for ever after ncapablc of any office in the custom-house, the otl-m pubKc officers have likewise their settled fees, for the several branches of business transacted in them. Fee Farm, is when the lord, upon the creation of the tenantcy, reserves to himself and hisheirs, either the rent for which it w as before let to farm, or at least a fourth part of that farm rent. Fee Farm rent, so called, because a farm rent is re- served upon a grant in fee. FEELERS, in natural history, a name used by some for the horns of insects. See Entomology. FEELING, one of the five external senses, by which we obtain the ideas of solid, hard, soft, rough, hot, cold, wet, dry, and^other tangible qualities. This sense is the coarsest; but at the same time the surest of all others; it is besides the most universal. We see and hear with small portions of our body, but we feel with all. Nature has bestowed that general sensation wherever there are nerves, and they are every where, where there is life. Was it otherwise, the parts divested of it might be destroyed without our knowledge. It seems on this account nature has provided, that this sensation should not require a particular organization. The struc- ture of the nervous papillae is not absolutely necessary to it. The lips of a fresh wound, the periosteum, and the tendons, when uncovered, are extremely sensible with- out them. These nervous extremities serve only to the perfection of feeling, and to diversify sensation. Feeling is the basis of all other sensations. The object of feeling is every body that has consistency or solidity enough to move the surface of our skin. It was necessary to perfect feeling, that the nerves should form small eminences, because they are more easily moved by the impression of bodies, than an uniform surface. It is by means of this structure, that we are enabled to distin- guish not only the size and figure of bodies, their hard- ness and softness, but also there heat and cold. Feeling is so useful a sensation, that to the blind it supplies the office of eyes, and in some sense indemnifies them for their loss. See Physiology. FEIGNED ISSUE, is that whereby an action is feigned to be brought by consent of the parties, to deter- mine some disputed right, without the formality of plead- ing; and thereby to save much time and expense in the decision of a cause. 3 Black. 452. FELAPTON, in logic, one of the six moods of the third figure of syllogisms, wherein the first proposition is an universal negative, the second an universal affir- mative, and the third a particular negative. FELIS, cat, in zoology, a genus of the mammalia class, belonging to the order of ferae. The generic character is: front-teeth six, the intermediate ones equal; grinders three on each side; tongue aculeated backwards; claws retractile. 1. Felis leo, lion. The lion is principally an inhabi- tant of Africa, but is also found, though far less plenti- fully, in the hotter regions of Asia. It is, however, in the interior of Africa that he exerts his greatest ravages, and reigns superior among the weaker quadrupeds^ A, lion of the largest size has been found to measure about eight feet from the nose to the tail, and the tail itself about four feet; the general colour is a pale tawny, still paler or more inclining to white beneath; the head is FELIS. very large, the ears rounded, the face covered with short or close hair, the upper part of the head, the neck, and shoulders, coated with long shaggy hair, forming a pen- dent mane; on the body the hair is short and smooth; the tail is terminated hy a tuft of blackish hair. The lion- ess, which is smaller than the lion, is destitute of the mane, is of a whiter cast beneath. The lion, like the ti- ger, frequently conceals himself in order to spring on his prey, bounding to the distance of a great many feet, and seizing it with his claws. His strength is prodigious: it has even been affirmed, that a single stroke of his paw is sufficient to break the back of a horse; and that he car- ries off w ith ease a middle-sized ok or buffalo. He does not often prey in open sunshine, but commences his de- predations at the close of day. The roaring of the lion, when in quest of prey, resembles the sound of distant thunder; and, being re-echoed by the rocks and moun- tains, appals the whole race of animals, and puts them to sudden flight; but he frequently varies his voice into a hideous scream or yell: he is supposed to be destitute of a fine scent, and to hunt by the eye alone, The lion is commonly said to devour as much as will serve him lor two or three days, and when satiated with food, to remain in a state of retirement in his den, which he seldom leaves, except for the purpose of prowling about for his prey. His teeth are so strong, that he breaks the bones with perfect ease, and often swallows them together with the flesh; his tongue, as in other animals of this genus, is furnished with reversed prickles; but they are so large and strong in the lion, as to be capable of lacerating the skin. The lioness is said to bring forth in the spring, in the most sequestered places, and to produce but one brood in the year. The young are four or five in number, which the parent nurses with great assiduity, and attends in their first excursions for prey. When brought into Europe, lions have been known to breed even in a state of confinement; instances of which are recorded by some of the older naturalists. In the Tower of London also, examples of a similar nature have occurred. The young animals are scarcely so large as small pug dogs, and are said to continue at the teat about the space of a year, and lo be five years in coming to maturity. If we may judge from some specimens of young lions in the Leverian Mu- seum, which are said to have been whelped in the Tower, their size seems scarcely to exceed that of a half-grown kitten. Indeed, some, of the ancient writers have affirm- ed, that the yom.' Lons are hardly larger than weasels. The count de^ifi';;n, reasoning from the size and con- stitution of the lion, and the time required for his arriv- ing at full growth, concludes that he *» ought to live about seven times three or four years, or nearly to the age of twenty-five." He adds, that those which have been kept at Paris have lived sixteen or seventeen years. If, how- ever, we might depend on the commonly received accounts of those which have been kept in the Tower of London, we might mention the lion known by the name of Pom- Bev which is said to have lived no less than 70 years in his 'state of captivity; and another in the same receptacle, which is reported to have lived 63 years. It must be acknowledged, however, that, from the general constitu- tion of the lion, one would not suppose him to be a very long-lived animal. Lions have sometimes constituted a part of th esta- blished pomp of royalty in the eastern ^'W'n 71?"!? narch of Persia, as we are informed by Mr. Bill, in Ins Travels, had, on days of audience, two large lions chain- ed on each side the passages of the hall of state, being led thither, by proper officers, in chains of gold. The Romans, struck with the magnificent appearance of these animals, imported them in vast numbers from Africa, for their public spectacles. Quintus Scjevola, according to Pliny, was the first in Rome who exhibited a combat of lions; but Sylla the dictator, during his prae- torship, exhibited a hundred lions; and after him Pompey the Great exhibited no less than 600 in the grand circus, viz. 315 males, and the rest females; and Caesar the dic- tator 400. Pliny also tells us, that the first person in Rome who caused them to be yoked so as to draw a carriage, was Mark Antony, who appeared in the streets in Rome in a chariot drawn by lions, accompanied by his mistress Cytheris, an actress from the theatre; a sight says Pliny, that surpassed in enormity even all the cala- mities of the times! In modern times, the lion is said to be often hunted with dogs by the colonists about the Cape of Good Hope, and it is added that twelve or fifteen dogs are sufficient for the purpose. The lion, after being roused, runs for same time, then stops and shakes his mane, as if in defi- ance of the dogs, who, rushing all at once upon him, soon destroy him; two or three of the pack, however, generally falling victims to the first strokes of his paws. See Plate LVI1. Nat. Hist. fig. 200 & 201. 2. Felis tigris, tiger, is a native of the warmer parts of Asia, and is principally found in India and the Indian islands. The species extends, however, as far as China and Chinese Tartary, the lake Ural, and the Altaic moun- tains. Its colour is a dee}) tawny, or orange-yellow, the face, throat, and under side of the belly, being nearly white; the whole is traversed by numerous long black stripes, forming a bold and striking contrast with the ground-colour. About the face and breast the stripes are proportionally smaller than on other parts; the tail is annulatcd with black, and is shorter than the body. There seems to be some variation in the proportion and number of the stripes in different individuals; and the ground-colour is more or less bright, according to vari- ous circumstances of age and health in the respective animals. Linnseus calls the tiger " pidcherrimus quail- rupedum." We must not judge of the elegance of this animal's robe from the specimens which are sometimes si'en in museums, or even from such living ones as by long confinement, and an alteration of climate, Vc. From this term our word fair seems to be derived. FV.R1A, in the Romish breviary, is applied to the several days of the week: thus Monday is the fcria se- cuuda, Tuesday the fcria tertia, though these days are not working days, but holidays. Tiie occasion of this was, that the first Christians u. ed to keep the Easter- week holy, calling Sunday the prima fcria, &c. whence the term feiiavvas given to the days of every week. But besides these, they have extraordinary feriae, viz. the last three days of passion-week, the two days follow- ing Easter-day, and the second feriae of rogation. FERMENTATION. During the spontaneous de- composition which vegetable substance undergo, it is ob- vious that the simple substances of which they are com- posed must unite together in a different manner from that in which they were formerly united, and form a new set of compounds which did not formerly exist. The speci- fic gravity of these new compounds is almost always less than that of the old body. Some of them usually fly off in the state of gas or vapour. Hence the odour that vege- table bodies emit during the whole time that they are running through the series of their charges. When the odour is very offensive or noxious, the .spontaneous de- composition is called putrefaction; but when the odour is not offensive, or when any of the new compounds formed is applied to useful purposes, the spontaneous decomposition is called fermentation. The term is sup- posed by some to have originated from the intestine mo- tion which is always perceptible while vegetable sub- stances are fermenting; while by other* it is derived from the heat which in these cases is always generated. It is now xevy often applied to all the spontaneous chan- ges which vegetable bodies undergo, without regard to the products. By fermentation, then, are now meant all the spontaneous changes which take place in vegetable substances after they arc separated from the living plant. See Chemistry. Fermentation never takes place unless vegetable sub- stances contain a certain portion of water, and unless they are exposed to a temperature at least above the freezing-point. When dry or freezing, many of them continue long without alteration. Hence we have an ob- vious method of preventing fermentation. Sugar, gum, sarcocol, starch, indigo, wax, resins, camphor, caoutchouc, sandararha, gum-resins, wood, and sober, though mixed with water, and placed in the most favourable temperature, show scarcely any ten- dency to change their nature. Oils absorb oxygen from the atmosphere, but too slowly to produce any intestine motion. Tan, some of the acids, and extract, are gradu- lv changes into a kind of cheese. ' But it is when several of the vegetable principles are mixed together that the fermentation is most perceptible, and the change most remarkable. Thus when gluten is added to a solution of sugar in water, the liquid soon runs into vinegar, or in certain cases to alcohol and vinegar. When gluten is mixed with starch and water, alcohol and vinegar usually make their appearance; but the greatest part of the starch remains unaltered. It has been observed that certain substances are particularly efficacious in exciting fermentation in others. These sub- stances have received the name of ferments. But the phenomena of fermentation do not appear in their greatest perfection in our artificial mixtures of ve- getable principles. Those complicated parts of plants in which various principles are already mixed by nature, especially the liquid parts, exhibit the finest specimens of it; such as the sap of trees, the juices oi fruits, the de- coctions of leaves, seeds, &c. It is from such natural mix- tures that we obtain all the products of fermentation which mankind have applied to useful purposes; such as indigo, beer, bread, vinegar, wine, &c. We shall first treat of the fermentation which takes place during the making of bread; secondly, of the fermentation which produces intoxicating liquors; and thirdly, of the fer- mentation which produces vinegar. These arc usually called the panary, vinous, and acetous fermentations. Fermentation,panary. Simple as-themanufactured bread may appear to us who have always been accustomed to consider it as a common process, its discovery was probably the work of ages, and the result of the united efforts of men whose sagacity, had they lived in a more fortunate period of society, would have rendered them the rivals of Aristotle or of Newton. The method of making bread similar to ours was known in the East at a very early period; but neither the precise time of the discovery, nor the name of the person who published it to the world, has been preserved. M c are certain that the Jews were acquainted with it in the time of Moses, for in Exodus (ch. xii. 15.) we find a prohibition to use leavened bread during the celebration of the passover. It does not appear, liowever, to have been known to Abraham; for we hear, in history, of cakes frequently, but nothing of leaven. Egypt, both from the nature of the soil and the early period at which it was civilized, bids fairest for the discovery of mak- ing bread. It can scarcely be doubted that the Jews learned the art from the Egyptians. The Greeks assure us, that they we. e taught the art of making bread by the god Fan. We learn from Homer that it was known dur- ing the lrojan war. The Romans were ignorant of the method of making bread till the year 580 after the build- ing of Rome, or 200 years before the commencement of P;:|stian *.ra- Since that period the art has never wfv totin°Wn J* the south of Eul'°Pe: bllt i* made its way to the north very slowly; and even at nresent in many northern countries, fermented bread is but very seldom used. uul A ' The only substance well adapted for making loaf- FERMENTATION. bread, is wlicaten flour, which is composed of three in- gredients: namely, gluten, starch, and sweet mucous matter, 'which possesses nearly the properties of sugar, and which is probably a mixture of sugar and muci- lage. It is to the gluten that wheat-flour owes its su- periority to every other as the basis of bread. In- deed there are only two other substances at present known of which loaf-broad can be made: these are rye and potatoes. The rye loaf is by no means so well rais- ed as the wheat loaf; and potatoes will not make bread at all without particular management. Potatoes, previ- ously boiled and reduced to a very fine tough paste by a rolling-pin, must be mixed with an equal weight of po- tatoe-starch. This mixture, baked in the usual way, makes a very white, well-raised pleasant bread. We are indebted for the process to Mr. Farmenticr. Barley- meal perhaps might be substituted for starch. The baking of bread consists in mixing wheat-flour with water, and forming it into a paste. The average proportion of these is, two parts of water to three of flour. B.it this proportion varies considerably, accord- ing to the age and quality of the flour. In g n ral, the older and the better the flour is, the greater is the quan- tity of water required. If the paste, after being thus formed, is allowed to remain for some time, its ingredi- ents gradually act upon each other, and the paste ac- quires new properties. It gets a disagreeable sour ta.-.t-, and a quantity of gas (probably carbonic acid gas) is evolved. In short, the paste ferments. These changes do not take place without water: that liq lid, therefore, is a necessary agent. The gluten is altered, and probably acts on the starch; for if we examine the paste after it has undergone fermentation, the gluten is no longer to be found. If paste, after standing for a sufficient time to ferment, is baked in the usual way, it forms a loaf full of eyes like our bread, but of a taste so sour and unplea- sant, that it cannot be eaten. If a small quantity of this old paste, or leaven as it is called, is mixed with new- made paste, the whole begins to ferment in a short time; a quantity of gas is evolved; but the glutinous part of the flour lenders the paste so tough, that the gas cannot escape; it therefore causes the paste to swell in every di- rection: and if it is now baked into loaves, the immense number of air-bubbles imprisoned in everyr part renders the bread quite full of eyes, and very light. If the pre- cise quantity of leaven necessary to produce the fermen- tation, and no more, has been used, the bread is sufficient- ly light, and has no unpleasant taste; but if too much leaven is employed, the bread has necessarily a bad taste; if too little, the fermentation does not come on, and the bread is too compact aud heavy. To make good bread with leaven, therefore, is difficult. The ancient Gauls had another method of fermenting bread. They formed their paste in the usual way; and, instead of leaven, mixed with it a little of the barm or yeast which collects on the surface of fermenting beer. This mixture produced as complete and as speedy a fermentation as leaven; and it had the great advantage of not being apt to spoil the taste'of tiie bread, vbout the end of the 17th century, the bakers in Paris began to introduce this practice into their proeess'-s. The practice was discovered, and exclaimed against; the faculty >;f me- dicine, iu 1688, declared it prejudicial to health; aud it was not till after a long time that the bakers mk ceeded in convincing the public that bread baked with barm is superiorto bread baked with leaven. In this country the bread has for these many years been fermented with barm. With respect to the nature of the barm which produces these effects, Mr. Henry ©f Manchester has proved, by a number of very interesting experiments, that carbonic acid is capable of being employed in many cases with success as a substitute for barm. Rut the analysis of Mr. Westrum has demonstrated, that the barm which collects on the surface of beer is of a much more compli- cated nature. That celebrated chemist obtained from 15060 parts of good barm the following substances: 15 carbonic, acid 10 acetic acid 45 malic acid 240 alcohol 120 extractive 24o mucilage 315 sugar 480 gluten. 13595 water 150b0. Besides 69 parts of lime, 13 potass, some saclactic acid, and traces of phosphoric acid and silica. But all these ingredients are not essential to barm. Westrum ascertained that the extractive, mucilage, su- gar, and malic acid, arc incable of producing fermenta- ti in; that barm, deprived of its gluten by filtration, loses the property of exciting fermentation in beer; that the gluten of wheat is capable alone of exciting a fermenta- tion: and that gluten, mixed with a vegetable acid, an- swers all the purposes of a ferment. Hence it follows, that these bodies alone are essential to barm. But lea- ven is precisely such a compound. After the bread has fermented, and is properly raised, it is put into the oven, which is previously heated, and al- lowed to remain till it is baked. The mean heat of an oven, as ascertained by Mr. 'Fillet, is 448. The bakers do not use a thermometer; but they judge that the oven has arrived at the proper beat when Hour thrown on the floor of it becomes black very soon without taking fire. We see, from Tillet's experiment, that this happens at448°. When the bread is taken out of the oven, it is found to be lighter than when put in, as might naturally have been expected, from the evaporation of moisture'which must have taken place at that temperature. Mr. Tiller, and the other commissioners who were appointed to ex- amine this subject, in consequence of a petition from the bakers of Paris, found that a loaf, which weighed, be- fore it was put into the oven, 4.6-25 lbs., after being ta- ken out baked, weighed, at an average, only .1.813 lbs. or 0.812 lb. less than the paste. 'Consequently, too parts paste lose, at an average. 17.34 parts, or" some- what more than one-fifth, by baking. They found, however, that this loss of weight was by no means uniform, even with respect to those loaves which were in the oven at the same time, of the same form, and in the same place, and which were put in and taken out at the same instant. The greatest difference, inthese cir- cumstances, amounted to .0889. or 7.5 parts in the hundred, which is about one thirteenth of the whole. FERMENTATION. This difference is very considerable: and it is not easy to say to what it is owing. It is evident, that if the paste has not all the same degree of moisture, and if the barm is not accurately mixed through the whole, if the fermentation of the whole is not precisely the same, that these differences must take place. Now it is needless to observe how difficult it is to perforin all this completely. The French commissioners found, as might indeed have ween expected, that, other things being equal, the loss of weight sustained is proportional to the extent of surface of the loaf, aud to the length of time that it remains in the oven; that is, the smaller the extent of the external surface, or, which is the same thing, the nearer the loaf approaches to a globular figure, the smaller is the loss of weight which it sustains; and the longer it continues in the oven, the greater is the loss of weight which it sustains. Thus a loaf which weighed exactly 4 lbs. when newly taken out of the oven, being replaced as soon as weighed, lost, in ten minutes, .125lb. of its weight; and in ten minutes more it again lost .0625 lb. Loaves arc heaviest when just taken out of the oven; they gradually lose part of their weight, at least if not kept in a damp place, or wrapped round with a wet cloth. Thus Mr. Tillet found that a loaf of 4 lbs. after beurg kept for a week, wanted .3125, or nearly one-thir- teenth, of its original weight. When bread is newly taken out of the oven, it has a peculiar and rather pleasant smell, which it loses by keeping, unless its moisture is preserved by wrapping it round with a moist cloth, as it does also the peculiar taste by which new bread is distinguished. This shows us that the bread undergoes chemical changes; but what these changes are, or what the peculiar substance is to which the odour of bread is owing, is not known. Bread differs very completely from the flour of which it is made, for none of the ingredients of the flour can now be discovered in it. The only chemist who has at- tempted an analysis of bread, is Mr. Geoffroy. He found that 100 parts of bread contained the following ingre- dients: 24.735 water 32.030 gelatinous matter, extracted by boiling water 39.843 residuum insoluble in water ^ ■■' ■ 96.608 S.392 loss 100. Fermentation, vinous. Under this name are com- prehended every species of fermentation which terminates in the formation of an intoxicating liquid. Now these liquids, though numerous, may all be comprehended un- der two heads; those obtained from the juices of plants, and those obtained from the decoctions of seeds. These two heads may be distinguished by the names of the most remarkable products belonging to each, viz. wine and beer. Let us take a view of each of these. 1. Wine.—There is a considerable number of ripe fruits from which a sweet liquor may be expressed, having at the same time a certain degree of acidity. Of such fruits we have the apple, the cherry, the gooseberry, the currant, &c. but by far the most val- uable of these fruits is the grape, which grows luxuri- antly in the southern parts of Europe. From £ rapt! fully ripe may be expressed a liquid of a sweet taste, to which the name of must has been given. This liquid is Composed almost entirely of Wxe ingredients, viz. water, susar, jelly, gluten, and a mixed acid, partly saturated with potass. The quantity of sugar which grapes fully ripe contain is very considerable; it may be obtained m crystals, by evaporating must to the consistence of syrup, separating the tartar which precipitates during the eva- poration and then setting the must aside tor some months. The crystals of sugar are gradually formed. From a French pint of must, the marquis de Bullion ex- tractcd half an ounce (French) of sugar, and Tlff ounce of tartar. According to Proust, the Muscadine grapo contains ubout 30 per cent, of a peculiar species of sugar. When must is put into the temperature of about 70<>, the different ingredients begin to act upon each other, and what is called vinous fermentation commences. The phe. nomena of this fermentation are, an intestine motion in the liquid, it becomes thick and muddy, its temperature increases, and carbonic acid gas is evolved. In a few days the fermentation ceases, the thick part subsides to the bottom or rises to the surface, the liquid becomes clear, it has lost its saccharine taste and assumed a new one, its specific gravity is diminished; and, in short, it has become the liquid well known under the name of wine. These changes are produced altogether by the mutual action of the substances contained in must; for they take place equally, and wine is formed equally well, in close vessels as in the open air. If the must is evaporated to the consistency of a thick syrup, • r to a rob, as the elder chemists termed it, the fermentation will not commmence, though the proper temperature, and every thing else necessary to produce fermentation, should bo present. But if this syrup ia again diluted with water, and placed in favourable cir- cumstances, it will ferment. The presence of water there- fore is absolutely necessary for the existence of vinous fermentation* But, on the other hand, if the must is too much diluted with water, it either refuses to ferment al- together, or its fermentation is very languid. If the juice of those fruits which contain but little su- gar, as currants, is put into a favourable situation, fer- mentation indeed takes place, but so slowdy, thatthe pro- duct is not wine but vinegar; but if a sufficient quantity of sugar is added to these very juices, wine is readily produced, No substance whatever can be made to under- go vinous fermentation, and to produce wine, unless sugar is present. Sugar therefore is absolutely neccessary for the existence of vinous fermentation; and we are certain that it is decomposed during the process, for no sugar can be obtained from properly fermented wine. It has been sufficiently demonstrated by the experiments of Macqucr, and the observations of Chaptal, that the strength of the wine is always proportional to the quan- tity of sugar contained in the must. From the experi- ments of Bullion we learn, that when must contains lit- tle sugar, the fermentation is rapid, but the product yields little alcohol. When the proportion of sugar is great, the fermentation is slow, but the product yields much alcohol. All those juices of fruits which undergo the vinous fcr- FERMENTATION. Bienlation, eitlier with or without the addition of sugar, contain an acid. The apple, for instance, contains malic acid; the lemon, citric acid; the grape, tartaric and ma- lic acids. The marquis de Bullion has ascertained that must will not ferment if all the tartar which it contains is separated from it, but it ferments perfectly well on restoring that salt. The same chemist ascertained, that the strength of wine is considerably increased by adding tartar and sugar to the must. We may conclude from these facts, that the presence of a vegetable acid is ne- cessary for the commencement of the vinous fermentation. It deserves attention that Bullion obtained more tartar from verjuice than from wine; and he observed that the more the proportion of sugar in grapes increased, the more that of tartar diminished. All the juices of fruits which undergo the vinous fer- mentation contain an extractive matter, composed of what Deycux has called the sweet principle. This sub- stance has not been examined with much precision; but it seems to consist of mucilage, gluten, and extract. Now the presence of this substance is also necessary for the commencement of fermentation. For sugar, though dilut- ed with water, and mixed with a vegetable acid, refuses to ferment, unless some mucilaginous matter is added. Bullion found that sugar, tartar, and water, did not fer- ment; but on adding vine-leaves the fermentation became rapid. And Bergman found that sugar dissolved in four times its weight of water, and mixed with yeast, under- goes the vinous fermentation; and the experiment has been often repeated since. In both these cases the fer- ment appears to be gluten. Thus we see, that for the production of wine, a cer- tain temperature, a certain portion of water, sugar, a vegetable acid, and gluten, are necessary. M. Lavoisier found that sugar would not ferment unless dissolved in at least four times its weight of water. This seems to in- dicate that the particles of sugar must be removed to a certain distance from each other before the other ingre- dients can decompose them. When all these substances exist in must in proper proportions, the fermentation commences very speedily, provided the liquid is placed in a proper temperature; and its rapidity (other things remaining the same) is always proportioned to the quantity of liquid exposed at once to fermentation. The heat evolved is always proportioned to the rapidity of the process, and indeed may be looked upon as tbe great cause of that rapidity. According to Chaptal, the temperature during ferment- ation is never lower than 60°, and sometimes it is as high as 95. During the fermentation, the quantity of sugar is constantly diminishing; and when the process is com- pleted, the whole of the sugar is decomposed. The li- quid has become more fluid, specifically lighter, and has acquired a vinous taste, owing to tbe formation of al- cohol. Whether the other substances which constitute a part of the must have undergone any change, or whe- ther they have merely contributed to the decomposition of the sugar, is not precisely known. The experiments of Lavoisier, to whom we are indebted for the first pre- cise explanation of fermentation, render the second sup- position most probable. From these experiments it fol- lows that the sugar is divided into two portions; one portion separates in the form of carbonic acid, and the other, containing a great excess of hydrogen, remains under the form of alcohol. This alcohol is combined with the colouring matter, and with the acids of the wine, so intimately, that it can only be separated by distilla- tion. The carbonic acid carries along with it a certain portion of alcohol, as was pointed out some time ago by Chaptal. The extractive matter separates, either pre- cipitating to the bottom or swimming on the surface. It seems more than probable, from the experiments of Bullion and Chaptal, that the tartaric acid is partly de- composed during the fermentation, and that a portion of malic acid is formed. The process, therefore, is more complicated than was suspected by Lavoisier. It is obviously analogous to combustion, as is evident from the evolution of caloric and the formation of carbonic acid, which is a product of combustion. Proust has as- certained, that during the fermentation not only carbo- nic acid, but azotic gas also, is disengaged. This is a demonstration, that all the constituents of must are con- cerned; for sugar does not contain that principle. After the fermentation has ceased, the liquor is put into casks, where tbe remainder of the sugar is decom- posed by a slow fermentation; after which the wine, de- canted off from the extractive matter, is put up in bot- tles. The properties of wine differ very much from each other, according to the nature of the grapes from which the must was extracted, and according to the manner in which the process was conducted. These differences arc too well known to require a particular description. But all wines contain less or more of the following ingre- dients, not to mention water, which constitutes a very great proportion of every wine. 1. An acid.—All wines give a red colour to paper stained with turnsole, and of coui-se contain an acid. Chaptal has ascertained that the acid found in greatest abundance in wine is the malic, but he found traces also of citric acid, and it is probable that wine is never en- tirely destitute of tartar. All wines which have the property of frothing when poured into a glass, contain also carbonic acid, to which they owe their briskness. This is the case with champaign. These wines are usu- ally weak; their fermentation proceeds slowly, and they are put up in elose vessels before it is over. Hence they retain the last portions of carbonic acid that have been evolved. 2. Alcohol.—AH wine contains less or more of this principle, to which it is indebted for its strength; but in what particular state of combination it exists in wine, cannot be easily ascertained. It is undoubtedly inti- mately combined with the other component parts of wine; as Fabroni has shown that it cannot be separated by saturating the wine with dry carbonat of potass, though a very small portion of alcohol, added on pur- pose to wine, may be easily separated by means of that salt. But as alcohol separates along with the carbonic acid dunngthe fermentation, wc can scarcely doubt that it has been formed. When wine is distilled, the alcohol readily separates. The distillation is usually continued as long as the liquid which comes over is inflammable. The quantity obtained varies according to the wine, from a fourth part to a fourteenth p«rt of the wiuc dis. FERMENTATION. tilled. The spirit thus obtained is well known under the name of brandy. Bullion has observed, that when wine is distilled new. it yields more alcohol than if it is allowed to get old. What remains after this distillation is distinguished in France by the name of vinasse. It consists of tartar, kc. and when evaporated to dryness, and subjected to combustion, yields potass. 3. Extractive matter.—This matter exists in all wines; but its proportion diminishes according to the age of the wine, as it gradually precipitates to the bottom. 4. Every wine is distinguished by a peculiar: flavour and odour, which probably depend upon the presence of a volatile oil, so small in quantity that it cannot be se- parated. 5. The colouring matter of wine is originally con- tained in the husk of the grape, and is not dissolved till the alcohol is developed. This matter is analogous to the other colouring matters of plants; a set of bodies possessed of remarkable properties, but too little exa- mined hitherto to be capable of a clear explanation. This colouring matter precipitates when the wine is ex- posed to the heat of the sun. It sometimes also preci- pitates in old wine, and it may be easily separated by pouring lime-water into wine. If wine be exposed to the heat of the sun during the summer, the colouring matter is detached in a pellicle, which falls to the bottom: when the vessel is opened, the discolouring is more speedy, and it is effected in two or three days during the summer. The wine thus de- prived of its colour is not perceptibly weakened. The following table, containing the different sub- stances which Neumann extracted from various wines, is worth preserving. Spanish 1 2 0 2 4 0 9 4 0 1 Vino Tinto 3 0 0 6 4 0 I 6 ( .> Tokav 2 2 0 4 3 0 5 0 ( j Tyrol red") 1 4 0 1 2 0 0 4 ( 2 wine J Red wine 1 6 0 0 4 40 0 2 P 2 White 2 0 0 0 7 0|0 3 0|2 0 6 0 0 6 0 0 3 0 8 6 0 9 3 20 i 0 0 Thick, A quart of rilg-lily rectified oily, unctu-ous, re- Gummy and tar tarotis Water. spine sinous matter. matter. ../.. u. £»■■ oz. d. gr. uz. dr.gr lb. oz. dr. gr. Aland 1 6 0 3 2 0 1 5 0 1 5 3 0 Alicant 3 6 0 6 0 20 0 1 40 2 2 6 0 Burgundy 2 2 ( 0 4 0 0 1 40 2 9 0 20 Carcassone ■2 6 f 0 4 10 0 1 20 2 8 4 30 Champagne •2 5 2C 0 6 40 0 1 0 2 8 3 0 French 3 0 ( ) 6 40 0 1 0 2 8 0 20 Frontignac 3 0 ( 3 4 0 0 5 20 2 4 6 30 Vin grave 2 0 (, ) 6 0 0 2 02 9 0 o Hermitage 2 7 (; 1 2 0 0 1 40 2 / 5 20 Madeira 2 3 0 3 2 0 2 0 0 2 4 3 0 Malmsey 1 0 (. 4 3 0 2 3 0 2 1 2 0 Vino de ~j mo ntc t 2 6 ( ■J 3 0 0 2 40 2 8 0 20 Pule iano J M selle I 2 (. 1 4 20 0 1 30 2 9 0 10 Muscadine 3 0 0 2 4 0 10 0 2 5 4 0 Neu fch ate I 3 2 c 4 0 0 1 7 0j2 2 7 0 Palm sec 2 3 0 2 4 0 4 4 02 2 5 0 Pontae 2 0 (' 0 5 20 0 2 0(2 9 0 40 OldRhenish •2 0 0 1 0 (; 0 2 20|2 8 5 40 Rhenish 2 2 0 0 3 2(- 1 1 34,2 9 1 6 Salamanca 3 0 0 3 4 0 > 0 02 3 4 0 Sherry 3 0 c 5 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 6 0 To this head belong not only common wine, but all the intoxicating liquors made from vegetable juices; as cyder from apples, perry from pears, currant wine, kc. likewise the liquor made from the juice of the sugar- cane, the sugar-maple, &c. II. Beer.—The method of making beer, though un- doubtedly not so obvious as that of making wine, was, notwithstanding, known in the most remote ages. What- ever grain is employed, the process is nearly the same. The barley is steeped in water for about 60 hours, in order to saturate it with the liquid. (See Malting.) It ought then to be removed as speedily as possible, otherwise the water dissolves and carries off the most valuable part of the grain. The barley is then to be laid in a heap for 24 hours; heat is evolved, oxygen gas absorbed, carbonic acid gas emitted, and germination commences with the shooting forth of the radicle. It is then spread upon a cool floor, dried slowly, and is af- terwards known by the name of malt. Malt, previously ground to a coarse powder, is to be infused in a sufficient quantity of pure water, of the tem- perature of 160° for an hour. The infusion is then to be drawn off, and more water may be added, at a higher temperature, till all the soluble part of the malt is ex- tracted. This infusion is known by the name of wort. It has a sweet taste, and contains a quantity of saccha- rine, and doubtless also of gelatinous matter. See Brew- ing. The wort is immediately conveyed to a boiler, where it is boiled with hops, or some other equivalent bitter. It is then put into large fermenting vats. When wort is placed in the temperature of about 60°, fermentation gradually takes place in it, and the very same phenomena appear which distinguish the produc- tion of wine. The fermentation of wort then, is no- thing but a particular case of the vinous fermentation. But wort does not ferment so well, nor so soon, nor does it produce nearly so great a quantity of good fer- mented liquor, as when yeast is added to it. The' rea- son of which is, probably, that the fermentation does not commence till an acid is generated iu the wort, and before that happens part of the saccharine contents are decomposed; whereas the yeast adds an acid, or at least something equivalent to it, at once. AVort ferments in (lose vessels, as Mr. Collier ascer- tained by experiment, equally well as in the open air. The decomposition, therefore, is produced entirely by the substances contained in the wort, without the addi- tion of any thing from the air. The quantitv of beer produced in close vessels is much greater than when the process takes place in the open air. The reason of which is, that in the open air the beer gradually evaporate .luring the fermentation. Thus M. Collier found that 11 quarts, 3± oz. fermented in open vessels, lost in 1- days 40 oz. whereas an equal weight, fermented in close \ F E R FEB vessels, lost only 8 oz. in the same time. Yet the qua- lity of the beer was the same in each; for equal quanti- ties of both, when distilled, yielded precisely the same portion of alcohol. During tie fermentation a quantity of carbonic acid gas is consiantly disengaged, not in a state of purity, but containing, combined with it, a portion of the wort; and if this gas is made to pass through water, it will de- pose wort, which may be fermented in the usual man- ner. When beer is distilled, alcohol is obtained, and the residuum is an acid liquor, the nature of which is still unknown. The theory of beer is so obviously the same with that of wine, thai it requires no additional expla- nation. Fermentation, acetous. If wine or beer is kept in a temperature between 70° and 90°, it gradually becomes thick, its temperature augments, filaments are seen moving through it in every direction, and a kind of hissing noise may be distinguished. These intestine motions gradually disappear, the filaments attach them- selves to the sides and bottom of the vessel, and the li- quor becomes transparent. But it has now lost its former properties, and is converted into acetous acid. This intestine decomposition has been long distinguish- ed by the name of acetous fermentation, because its pro- duct is acetic acid. That this fermentation may take place, certain conditions must be attended to. The most important of these will appear from the following ob- servations: 1. Neil her purr alcohol, nor alcohol diluted with wa- ter, is susceptible of this change. The weaker the wine or the beer ou which the experiment is made, the more readily it is converted into vinegar; the stronger they ate, they resist the change with the greatest obstinacy. But it results from the experiments of Beccher, that strong wines, when they are made to undergo the ace- tous fermentation, yield a much belter and stronger vin- egar than weak wines. Hence it follows that alcohol, though of itself it refuses to undergo the change, yet when other bodies are present which readily ferment, it is decomposed during the process, and contributes to the formation of the acetic acid. 2. Wine, entirely deprived of extractive matter either by spontaneous deposition or by clarification, does not undergo the acetous fermentation, unless some mucila- ginous matter is mixed with it. Chaptal exposed old wine destitute of this matter, in open bottles, to the great- est sumiuer-heat of Montpelier for 40 days, and yet it did not become sour; but upon adding some vine-leaves to the same wine, it became acid in a few days. 3. Wine never becomes sour, provided it is complete- ly deprived of all access to atmospheric air. The reason is, that during the acetous fermentation, oxygen is ab- sorbed from the atmosphere in abundance; and unless .that absorption can take place, no vinegar is ever form- ' ed. Hence the reason that wine or beer is more apt to become sour after the cork has been drawn, and still more apt when part has been poured out of the bottle. 4. A pretty high temperature is necessary for the ''commencement of the acetous fermentation. Wine or "beer (unless very weak) scarcely becomes sour under 1,1 the temperature of 65° or 70°. The fermentation is Jit very apt to commence when the temperature suddenly ri- ses. Hence wine and beer are more apt to become sour at certain seasons of the year than at others. 5. When the acetous fermentation is completed, the whole of the malic acid originally contained in the wine has disappeared as well as the alcohol. M e must con- clude, therefore, that they have both been converted into acetic acid. Part of the extractive matter has also un- dergone the same change, and seems indeed to have been tbe substance that first began the absorption of oxvgen. Tart of it is deposited in the state of flakes; part remains in solution, and disposes the vinegar to de- composition. Vinegar also contains a little tartar, and probably also citric acid. Malic acid is also found in new vinegar; a proof that this part of the wine is the last to undergo the acetous fermentation. 6. Acetic acid is formed in many other cases of the decomposition of vegetables besides the acetous ferinen- tatior. These have been pointed out with much ingenu' ity by Vanquelin and Fourcroy. They may be reduced under three heads: 1st. When sugar, gum, tartar, wood, kc. are distilled in a retort, or even burnt in the open fire? acetic acid separates in combination with an empy- reumatic oil which distinguishes its odour. Hence it was mistaken for other acids, and distinguished by the names of pyromucous, pyrolignous, pyrotartarous acids, till its real nature was ascertained by these distinguish- ed chemists. 2dly. When concentrated sulphuric acid is poured upon the same vegetable bodies, they are de- composed in a very different manner, being converted into water, charcoal, and acetic acid. Sdly. Acetic acid is evolved in considerable quantity during the spontane- ous decomposition of urine, and some other animal sub- stances. Thus it appears, that the component parts of this important acid are extremely apt to combine toge- ther in those proportions which constitute it. Fermentation, putrid, as it has been termed by the old chemists, is that process which converts vegetable and animal matters into soil. It is, however, not fer- mentation, but a different process, wanting ulmost all the characteristics of fermentation, and therefore will be treated separately under the article Putrefaction. FERN. See Felix. FERRARIA, a genus of the triandria order, in the gynandria class of plants, and iu the natural method ranking under the sixth order, ensata?. The spathse are unillorous; the petals six in number, and wavingly curl- ed; the stigmata cucullated or cowled; the capsule is tri- locular, inferior. There are two species, natives of the Cape of Good Hope and Mexico. There is a great sin- gularity in the root of one of these species, that it vege- tates only every other year, and sometimes every third year; in the intermediate time it remains inactive, though very sound and good. FERRET, in zoology. See Mustela. FERRUGINOUS, any thing partaking of iron, or that contains particles of that metal. It is particularly applied to certain mineral springs, whose waters are impregnated with the particles of iron generally termed chalybeats. Sec Mineral Waters. FERRY, is a liberty by prescription, or the king's grant, to have a boat for passage upon a river, for car- F I B F I B riage of horses and men, for reasonable toll. Savfl, 11 &. 14. The owner of a ferry cannot suppress that ferry, and put up a bridge in its place, without a licence. Show. 243. 257. FERRUM. Sec Iro*, Chemistry, &c. FERULA, fennel giant, a genus of the digynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 45th order, umbellate. The fruit is oval, compressed plane, with three stria on each side. There are nine species, all of them herbaceous perennials, rising from three to ten or twelve feet high* with yellow flowers. They are propagated by seeds, which should be sown in autumn, and when planted out, ought to be four or five feet distant from each other, or from any other plants; for no other will thrive under their shad e. The drug assafoetida is obtaineddrom a species of ferula, though not peculiarly; being also pro- duced by some other plants. See Plate LX. Nat. Hist. fig. 206. Ferula, in the ancient Eastern church, signified a place separated from the church, wherein the audientes were kept, as not being allowed to enter the church; whence the name of the place, the persons therein being under penance or discipline. This word was sometimes used to denote the prelate's crozier or staff. FESSE, in heraldry, one of the nine honourable or- dinaries, consisting of a line drawn directly across the shield, from side to side, and containing the third part of it, between the honour-point and the nombril. FESTI dies, in Roman antiquity, certain days in the year devoted to the honour of the gods. Noma, when he distributed the year into twelve months, divided the same into the dies festi, dies profesti, and dies intercisi. The festi were again divided into days of sacrifices, banquets, games, and ferise. The profesti were those days allowed to men for the administration of their affairs, whether of a public or private nature; these were divided into fasti, comitates, comperendini, stati, and preeliares. The intercisi were days common both to gods and men, some parts of which were allotted to the service of the one, and some to that of the other. FESTINO, in logic, the third mood of the second figure of syllogism, the first proposition whereof is an universal negative, the second a particular affirmative, and the third a particular negative^ as in the following example: Fes No bad man can be happy: ti Some rich men are bad men: no Ergo, some rich men are not happy. FEUD-BOTE, a recompence for being concerned in a feud or quarrel. FEVER, febris, in medicine, a disease, or rather class of diseases, whose characteristic is a preternatural heat felt through the whole body, or at least the principal parts of it. See Medicine. FIBRARIJE, a class of fossils. See Asbestos. FIBRE, in anatomy, a perfect simple body, or at least as simple as any thing in the human structure, being fine and slender like a thread, and serving to form other parts. Hence some fibres are hard, as the bony ones; and others soft, as those destined for the formation of all the trther parts. FIBRINA, is that substance which constitutes the fi- brous part of the muscles of animals. If a quantity of blood, newly drawn from an animal, be allowed to remain at rest for some time, a thick red clot gradually forms in it, and subsides. Separate this clot from the rest of the blood, put it into a linen cloth, and wash it repeatedly in water till it ceases to give out any colour or taste to the liquid; the substance v hich remains after this process is denominated fibrina. Ii has been long known to phy- sicians under the name of the fibrous part of the blood, but has not till lately been accurately described. It may be procured also from the muscles of animals. Mr. Hatchett, to whom we are indebted for a very in- teresting set of experiments on this substance, cut a quan- tity of lean beef into small pieces, and macerated it in water for 15 days, changing the water every day, and subjecting the beef to pressure at the same time, in order to squeeze out the water. As the weather was cold, it gave no signs of putrefaction during this process. The shreds of muscle, which amounted to about three pounds, were now boiled for five hours every day for three weeks in six quarts of fresh water, which was regularly chang- ed every day. The fibrous part was now pressed, and dried by the heat of a water-bath. After this treatment it might be considered as fibrina nearly as pure as it can be obtained. Fibrina is of a white colour, has no taste nor smell; and is not soluble in water nor in alcohol. When newly extracted from blood, it is soft and elastic, and resembles very much the gluten of vegetables. Its colour deepens very much in drying. That which is extracted from muscle by boiling and maceration has a certain degree of transparency, and is not ductile but brittle. Its colour does not deepen nearly so much as the fibrina from blood. It undergoes no change, though kept exposed to the action of air; neither does it alter speedily, though kept covered with water. Mr. Hatchett kept a quantity of the fibrina w hich he had prepared from beef moistened with water during the whole month of April; it acquired a musty but not a putrid smell, neither were the libres reduced to a pulpy mass. Even when kept two months under water, it neither became putrid, nor w as converted into the fatty matter obtained by macerating recent muscle. I When fibrina is exposed to heat, it contracts very I suddenly, and moves like a bit of horn, exhaling at the I same time the smell of burning feathers. In a stronger I heat it melts. When exposed to destructive distillation I it yields water, carbonat of ammonia, a thick heavy fetid I oil, traces of acetic acid, carbonic acid, and carbureted hydrogen gas. The charcoal, as Mr. Hatchett ascer- tained, is more copious than that left by gelatine or al- bumen. It is very difficult to incinerate, owing to the presence of phosphat of soda and some phosphat of lime, which form a glassy coat on the surface. A considerable proportion of carbonat of lime also remains after the in- cineration of the charcoal. Acids dissolve fibrina with considerable facility. Sul- phuric acid gives it a deep-brown colour, charcoal * precipitated, and acetic acid formed. Muriatic acid dis- solves it, and forms with it a green-coloured jelly. 1'b* acetic, citric, oxalic, and tartaric acids, also dissolte H ]iy the assistance of heatj and the solutions, when conceft FIB F I C trated, assume the appearance of jelly. Alkalies precipi- tate the fibrina from acids in flakes, soluble in hot water, and resembling gelatine in its properties. Diluted nitric acids occasious the separation of a con- siderable portion of azotic gas, as was first observed by Berthollet. Mr. Hatchett steeped a quantity of fibrina in nitric acid, diluted with thrice its weight of water, for 15 days. The acid acquired a yellow tinge, and pos- sessed all the properties of the nitric solution of albumen. The fibrina thus treated dissolved in boiling water, and when concentrated by evaporation, became a gelatinous mass, soluble in hot water, and precipitated by tan and nitromuriat of tin, and therefore possessing the proper- tics of gelatine. Ammonia dissolves the greater part of the fibrina after it has been altered by nitric acid. The solution is of a deep orange-colour, similar to the solu- tion of albumen treated in the same way. Boiling nitric acid dissolves fibrina, exept some fatty matter which swims on the surface. The solution resembles that of albumen, except that ammonia throws down a white pre- cipitate, consisting chiefly of oxalat of lime. During the solution, prussic acid comes over, and carbonic acid gas mixed with nitrous gas; a considerable portion of oxalic acid is formed, besides the fatty matter which swims. It is probable that this last substance d -es not differ much from the substance formed by causing nitric acid to act upon the mus'les of animals, which the French chemists have distinguished by the name of adipocire. The alkalies, while diluted, have but little effect upon fibrina; but when concentrated potass or soda is boiled upon it, a complete solution is obtained of a deep-brown colour, possessing the properties of soap. During the so- lution, ammonia is disengaged. When the solution is saturated with muriatic acid, a precipitate is obtained similar to that from animal soap, except that it sooner becomes hard and soapy when exposed to the air. The earths, as far as is known, have little or no ac- tion on fibrina. Neither has the action of the metallic oxides and salts been examined. Fibrina is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and oils. The effect of other reagents on it has not been examined. From the properties above detailed, fibrina appears to be composed of the same constituents as albumen and gelatine; but it probably contains more carbon and azote, and possibly less oxygen. The close resemblance which it bears to albumen is wry obvious from the experiments of Mr. Hatchett just detailed. Nitric acid converts both into gelatine, and alkalies convert both into a species of oil. Now as all tbe soft parts of animals consist of com- binations of these three genera, it follows, as Mr. Hat- chett has observed, that all the soft parts of animals may be either converted into gelatine or animal soap, both substances of the highest importance. Fibrina exists only in the blood and the muscles cf animals; but it is a genus which includes as many species as there are varieties in the muscles of animals, and the great variety of these substances is well known. The muscles offish, of fowl, and of quadrupeds, bear scarce- ly any resemblance to each other. A substance exactly resembling the fibrina, as it ex- ists in the blood, has been detected bv Vauquelin in the juice of the papaw-trcej the same juice which contained vol. ii. 13 albumen in such plenty. Fibrina then must be ranked among vegetable substances. When the juice of the papaw is treated with water, the greatest part dissolves; but there remains a substance insoluble, which has a greasy appearance. It softens in the air, and becomes viscid, brown, and semi-transparent. When thrown on burning coals it melted, let drops of grease exude, emitted the noise of meat roasting, and produced a smoke which had the odour of fat volatilized. It left behind it no residue. This substance was the fi- brina. The resemblance between the juice of the papaw and animal matter is so close, that we should almost be tempted to suspect some imposition, was not the evidence that it is really the juice of a tree quite unexceptionable. The properties of fibrina are the following: 1. It is tasteless, fibrous, elastic, and resembles gluten. 2. It is insoluble in water and in alcohol. 3. It is not dissolved by alkalies. 4. But acids dissolve it without difficulty. 5. With nitric acid it gives out much azotic gas. 6. When distilled it yields much carbonat of ammonia and oil. 7. It soon putrifies when kept moist, becomes green, but does not acquire any resemblance to cheese. See Gluten. FlfJROLETE, a mineral, first observed by Bournon, in the matrix of the imperfect corundum. Colour white or dirty grey; specific gravity 3 214; texture fibrous; cross fracture compact; internal lustre glossy; infusible by the blowpipe. Usually in shapeless fragments. It is composed of 58.25 alumina 38.00 silica 3.75 a trace of iron, and loss. 100.00 FIBULA, in anatomy, the outer and smaller bone of the leg. FICTION of i.uv, is allowed of in several cases; but it must be framed according to the rules of law; and there ought to be equity and possibility in every le^al fiction. & Fictions were invented to avoid inconvenience; and it is a maxim invariably observed, that no fiction shall ex- tend to work an injury, its proper operation being to prevent a mischief, or remedy an inconvenience, "that might result from the general rule of law. 3 Black. All fictions of law are to certain respects and pur- poses, and extend only to certain persons; as the law supposes the voucliee to be tenant of the land, vv here in re. ventate he is not; but this is as to the demandant him- self, and to enable h„n to do things as to the demandant, and which the demandant may do to him; and therefore a fine levied by vouchee to the demandant, or fine or release from the defendant to the vouchee, is good; but fine levied by the vouchee, to a stranger, or lease made to hiin by a stranger, is void. 3 Rep. 29. See Fine, and Recovery. ' u FIL US, a genus of the tricecia order, in the polvea- mia class oi nlants, and iu the natural method ranking FICU3. umler the ."nd order, scabrielre. The receptacle is com- mon, turbinated, carnous, and conni vent; inclosing the tbrets either in the same or in a distinct one. The male calyx is tripartite; no cor dla; three stamina: the female Calyx is quinquepartite; no corolla; one pistil; and one seed. There are 56 species, of which the following are the most remarkable. 1. Ficus indica, or banian-tree, is a native of several parts of the ,'v.tst Indies. It has a woody stem, branch- ing to a great height and vast extent, with heart-shaped entire leaves ending in acuf«. points. This tree is beau- tifully described by Milton in 1'aradise Lost, book ix. 1. 1 too. Indeed the banian-tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the most beautiful of nature's productions in that genial cli- mate, where she sports with so mur h profusion and va- riety. Some of these trees are of amazing size and great extent, as they are continually increasing, and, contrary to most other things in animal and vegetable life, seem to be exempted from decay. Every bran: h from the main body throws out its own roots; at first, in small tender fibres, several yards from the ground: these continually grow thicker until they reach the surface; and there striking in, they increase to large trunks, and become parent trees, shooting out new branches from the top: these in time suspend their roots, which, swelling into trunks, produce other branches; thus continuing in a state of progression as long as the earth, the first pa- rent of them all, contributes her sustenance. The Hin- doos are peculiarly fond of the banian-tree; they look up- on it as an emblem of the Deity, from its long duration, its out-stretching arms, and overshadowing beneficence; they almost pay it divine honours, and " Fmd a fane in everj' sacred grove " Near these trees the. most esteemed pagodas are ge- nerally erected; under their shade the Brahmins spend their lives in religious solitude; and the natives of all casts and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool re- cesses, beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbra- geous canopy, impervious to the hottest beams of a tro- pical sun. A remarkable large tree of this kind grows on an island in the river Nerbedda, ten miles from the city of Baroche, in the province of Guzcrat, a flourishing settlement lately in the possession of the East India company, but ceded by the government of Bengal, at the treaty of peace con- cluded with the Mahrattas in 1783, to Mahdajee Scin- dia, a Mabratta chief. It is distinguished by the name of Cubbecr Burr, which was given it in honour of a fa- mous saint. It was once much larger than at present; but high floods have carried aw ay the banks of the island where it grows, and with them such parts of the tree as had thus far extended their roots; yet what remains is about 2000 feet in circumference, measured round the principal stems; the overhanging branches, not yet struck down, cover a larger space. The chief trunks of this singletree (which in size greatly exceed our English elms and oaks) amount to 350; the smaller stems, form- ing into stronger supporters, are more than 3000; and every one of these is casting out new branches, and hang- ing roots, in time to form trunks, and become the parents of 4 future progeny, Cubbeer Burr is famed throughout Hindustan for its great extent and surpassing beauty: the Indian armies generally encamp areund it, and at stated season.s, Solemn jatarras, or Hindoo fesiivals, ar« held there, to which thousands of votaries repair from various parts of the Mogul empire. It is said that rO0Q persons find ample room to repose under its shade. The English gentlemen, on their hunting and shooting parties, used to form extensive encampments, and spend weeks together under this delightful pavilion: which is gener- ally filled with green wood-pigeons, doves, peacocks, and a variety of feathered songsters; crowded with fa. milies of monkeys performing their antic tricks, and shaded by bats of a large size, many of them measuring upwards of six feet from the extremity of one wing to the other. This tree not only affords shelter, but sustenance, to all its inhabitants, being covered amidst its bright foliage with small figs of a rich scarlet, on which they all regale with as much delight as the lords of creation on their more various and costly fare. 2. The sycamorus, or sycamore of scripture. Ac- cording to Mr. Hasselquist, this is a huge tre«*, the stem being often 50 feet round. The fruit is pierced in a re- markable manner by an insect. There is an opening made in the calyx near the time the fruit ripens, which is occasioned in two different ways: 1. When the squa- mse, which cover the calyx, wither and are bent back, which, however, is more common to the carica than the sycamore. 2. A little below the scales, on the side of the flower-cup, there appears a spot before the fruit is ripe; the fruit in this place is affected with a gangrene which extends on every side, and frequently occupies a finger's breadth. It withers; the place affected becomes biack; the fleshy substance in the middle of the calyx, for the breadth of a quill, is corroded; and the male blossoms, which are nearest to the bare side, appear naked, open- ing a way for the insect, which makes several furrows in the inside of the fruit, but never touches the stigmata, though it frequently cats the germen. The wounded op gangrenous part is at first covered or shut up by the blossoms; but the hole is by degrees opened and enlarged of various sizes in the different fruits; the margin and sides being always gangrenous, black, hard, and turned inwardly. The same gangrenous appearance is also found near the squamse, after the insect has made a hole in that place. The tree is very common in the plains and fields of Lower Egypt. It buds in the end of March, and the fruit ripens in the beginning of June. It is wounded or cut by the inhabitants at the time it buds; for without this precaution they say it would not bear fruit. 3. The carica, or common fig, with an upright stem branching 15 or 20 feet high, with large pal mated or band-shaped leaves. Of this there are a number of va- rieties; as the common fig, a large, oblong, dark purplish- blue fruit, which ripens in August either on standards fruit. *.smit- ipening • fig; a middle- sized, shortish, flat-crowned, blackish fruit, havinc a bright pulp, ripening in the middle of August The green Ischia fig; a large, oblong, globular-headed, greenisfc fruit, slightly stained by the pulp to a reddish-brown co- F I C FIE lour, ripens in the end of August. The brown Ischia fig; a small, pyramidal, brownish-yellow fruit, having a purplish very rich pulp, ripening in August and Septem- ber. The Malta fig; a small flat-topped brown fruit, ripening in the middle of August or beginning of Septem- ber. The round brown Naples fig; a globular, middle- sized, light-brown fruit, and brownish pulp, ripe by the end of August. The long brown Naples fig; a long dark- brown fruit, having a reddish pulp, ripe in September. The great blue fig; a large blue fruit, having a fine red pulp. The black Genoa fig; a large, pear-shaped, black- eoloured fruit, with a bright red pulp, ripe in August. Culture.—The last species is that most frequently cul- tivated in this country, and the only one which does not require to be kept in a stove. It may be propagated either by suckers arising from the roots, by layers, or by euttings. The suckers are to be taken off as low down as possible; trim off any ragged part at bottom, leaving the tops entire, especially if for standards, and plant them in nursery lines at two or three feet distance from each other, or they may at once be planted where they are to remain, observing, that if they are designed for walls or espaliers, they may be headed to six or eight inches in March, the more effectually to force out lateral shoots near the bottom; but if intended for standards, they must not be topped, but trained with a stem, not less than 15 or 18 inches for dwarf-standards, a yard for half-standards, and four, five, or six feet for full standards. They must tlvn be s.iffered to branch out to form a head; observing that whether against walls, espaliers, or standards, the branches or shoots must ne- ver be shortened, unless to procure a necessary .supply of wood: for the fruit is always produced on the upper parts of the young shoots; and if these are cut off, no fruit can be expected. The best season for propagating these trees by layers is in autumn; but it may be also done any time from October to March or April. Choose the young pliable low r shoots from the fruitful branches; lay them in the usual way, covering the body of the layers three or four inches deep in th • ground, keeping the top entire, and as upright as possible, and they will be rooted and fit to separate from the parent in autumn; when they may be planted either iu the nursery, or where they are to remain, managing them as above directed. Tiie time for propagating by cuttings is either in autumn at the fall of the leaf, or any time in March. Choose well-ripened shoots of the preceding summer, short, and of robust growth, from about 12 to 15 inches long, hav- ing an inch or two of the two-years wood at their base, the tops left entire, and plant them six or eight inches deep, in a bed or border of good earth, in rows two feet asunder; and when planted iu autumn, it will be eligible to protect their tops in time of hard frost, the first win- ter, with any kind of long loose litter. That part of the history of the fig-tree, which for many ages was so enigmatical, namely, the caprifica- tion, as it is ca!ied, is particularly worthy of attention, not only as a singular phenomenon in itself, but as it has furnished one of the most convincing proofs of the reality of tbe sexes in plants, in brief it is this: the flowers of the tig-tree are situated within a pulpy re- ceptacle, which we call the fig or fruit; of these recep- tacles, in the wild fig-tree, some have male flowers only, and others have male and female, both distinct, though placed in the same receptacle. In the cultivated fig, these are found to contain only female flowers, which are fecundated by means of a kind of gnat bred in the fruit of tbe wild fig-trees, which pierces that of the cul- tivated, in order to deposit its eggs within; at the same time diffusing within the receptacle the farina of the male flowers. Without this operation tbe fruit may ripen, but no effective seeds are produced. Hence the garden fig can only be propagated by layers and cut- tings in those countries where the wild fig is not^known. The process of thus ripening the fruit, in the Oriental countries, is not left to nature, but is niauaged with great art, and different degrees of dexterity, so as to re- ward the skilful husbandman with a much larger in- crease of fruit than would otherwise be produced. A tree of the same size which in Provence, where caprifi- cation is not practised, may produce about 25 pounds of fruit, will by that art, in the Grecian islands, bring ten times that quantity. Figs are a considerable article in the materia medica, chiefly employed in emollient cataplasms and pectoral de- coctions. Tbe best are those which come from Turkey. Many are also brought from the south of France, where they prepare them in the following manner. The fruit is first dipped in scalding-hot ley made of the ashes of the fig-tret*, and then dried in tbe sun. Hence these figs stick to the hands, and scour them like lixivial salts; and for the same reason they purge gently, without grip- ing. They are moderately nutrimental, grateful to the stomach, and easier to digest than any other of the sweet fruits. They have been said to produce lice when eaten as a common food; but this seems to be entirely without foundation. The reason of this supposition seems to be, that in the countries where they grow naturally, they make the principal food of the poor people, who are generally troubled with these vermin. The wood of the scycamore is not subject to rot, and has therefore been used for making coffins in which embalmed bodies were put. Mr. II isselquist affirms, that he saw in Egypt coffins made of this kind of wood, which had been pre- served sound for 2000 years. F1DD, in the sea language, an iron or wooden pin, to splice and fasten ropes together. It is made taper- wise, and sharp at one end. The pin in the heel of the top-mast, which bears upon the chesse-trees, is likewise called a fidd. FIELD, in heraldry, is the whole surface of the shield, or the continent, so called because it contains those achievements anciently acquired on the field of battle. It is the ground on which the colours, bearings, metal, furs, charges, &c. are represented. Among the modem heralds, field is less frequently used in blazon- ing than shield or escutcheon. Fielo-book, in surveying, that in which the angles, stations, distances, &c. are set down. See Survey ino. Field-c 'locks, in war, are small flags of about a foot and a half square, which are carried along with the quarter-masters general, for marking out the ground for the squadrons and battalions. FlKLU-FAKE. See TURDUS. Fieed-pieci.s, sni .11 cannons, from three to twelve pounders, carried along with an army in the field. F I G F I G Field-staff, a weapon carried by the gunners, about the length of a halbert, with a spear at the eud, having on each side cars screwed on, like the cock of a match- lock, where the gunners screw in lighted matches, when they are upon command; and then the field-staffs are said to be armed. Field-yvoKKs, in fortification, are those thrown up by an army in besieging a fortress, or by the besieged to defend the place. Such are the fortifications of camps, highways, &c. FIERI FACIAS, a writ judicial, that lies at all times within the year and day for him who has recovered in an action of debt or damages, to the sheriff, to com- mand him to levy the debt or damages of his goods against whom the recovery was bad. Upon a fieri facias, the sheriff cannot deliver the defendant's goods to the plaintiff in satisfaction of his debt; nor ought he to deliver them to the defendant against whom execu- tion is; but the goods are to be sold, and in strictness, the money is to be brought into court. Cro. Eliz. 504. If the defendant dies after the execution awarded, and before it is served, yet it may be served upon his goods in the hands of his executor or administrator; for if the execution is awarded, the goods are bound, and the sheriff need not take notice of his death. 1 Mod. 188. And upon a fieri facias, the sheriff may take any thing but wearing clothes. Cumb. 356. FIFE, or Fiffario, a shrill yvind-instrument of the martial kind, consisting of a short narrow tube, with holes disposed along the side, for the regulation of its tones. It is not blown at the end, but at the side, like a German flute. FIFTEENTH, an ancient tribute or tax laid upon cities, boroughs, &c. throughout all England, and so termed because it amounted to a fifteenth part of what each city or town had been valued at; or it was a fif- teenth of every man's personal estate according to a reasonable valuation. In Doomsday-book, there are certain rates mentioned for levying this tribute yearly. The present property-tax seems a revival of the ancient system. Fifteenth, iu music, the appellation given to a cer- tain stop in the organ. See Stop. Fifteenth, an interval consisting of two octaves. FIFTH, in music, a distance comprising four diatonic intervals, i. e. three tones and a half. The fifth is the second of the consonances in the order of their genera- tion. Fifth, sharp. The sharp fifth is an interval consist- ing of eight semitones. FIG. See Ficus. FIGUBATE numbers, such as do or may represent some geometrical figure, in relation to which they are always considered; as triangular, pentagonal, pyramidal, &c. numbers. Figurate numbers are distinguished into orders, ac- cording to their place in the scale of their generation, being all produced one from another, viz. by adding con- tinually the terms of anyr one, the successive sums are the terms of the next order, beginning from the first or- der, which is that of equal units l, l, l, l, &r.; then tbe 2d order consists of the successive sums of those of the first order, forming the arithmetical prgressi' n 1, 2, 3, 4, &c; those of the 3d order the successive sums of those of the 2d, and arc 1 5, Ace; those of the Order. Name. 1. Equals, 2. Arithmeticals, 3. Triangulars, 4. Pyramidals, 5. 2d Pyramidals, 6. 3d Pyramidals, I, 1, 1, 1, &c. r> 3, 4, 5, kc. 3, 6, 10, 15, kc. 4, 10, 20, 35, &c 5, 15, 35, ro, &c. 6, 21, 56, 1-26, Vhen the middle term is the subject of the major proposition, and the predicate of the minor, we have what is called the first figure. 2. When the middle term is the predicate of both tiie premises, the syllogism is said to be in the second figure. 3. If the middle term is the subject of the two premises, the syl- logism is in the third figure; and lastly, by making it the predicate of the major, and subject of the minor, we ob- tain syllogisms in the fourth figure. Each of these fi- gures has a determinate number of moods, including all the possible ways in which propositions differing in quan- tity or quality can he combined, according to any dispo- sition of the middle term, in order to arrive at a just con- clusion. Figure, in painting and designing, denotes the lines and colours which form the representation of any animal F I L F I L bat more particularly of a human personage. Thus a painting it s;.id to be. full of figures when there are abun- dance of represent.;!; >ns of men: and a landscape is said to be without figures when there is nothing but trees, plants, mountains, k* . See Painting. Figure, in rhetoric, is a manner of speaking different from the ordinary and plain mode, and more emphatical, expressing a passion, or containing a beauty. See Rhe- toric. Figured, in music, a term applied to that descendant, which, instead of moving note by note with the bass, consists of a free and florid melody. A bass, accompanied with numerical characters, denoting the harmony formed bv the upper or superior parts of the composition, and directing the chords te be played by the organ, harpsi- chord, or piano-forte, is called a figured bass. FIGLUES: figures arc not allowed to express num- bers in indictments, but numbers must be expressed in words. Cro. Car. 109. Roman figures are good in pleading, but otherwise of English figures. 2 Lev. 102. FILACER, Filizer, or Filaur, an officer of the court of common-pleas, so called because he files those writs whereon he makes out process. There are fourteen of them in their several divisions and counties, and they make out all writs and process upon original writs, is- suing out of chancery, as well in real, as in personal and mixed actions; and in actions merely personal, where the defendants are returned summoned, they make out pones and attachments, which being returned and executed, if the defendant appears not, they make forth a distringas, and so ad infinitum, or until he does appear; if he is re- turned nihil, then process of capias infinite, kc. They enter all appearances and special bails, upon any process made bv them. They make the first scire facias upon special bail, writs of habeas corpus, distringas, nuper vicccomitein vel ballivum, and duces tecum, and all su- persedeas upon special bail or otherwise; writs of habeas rorpos cum causa, upon the sheriff's return, that the de- fendant is retained with other actions; writs of adjourn- ment of a term, in case of pestilence, war, or public dis- turbance. FILAGO, a genus of the polygamia necessaria order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 49th order, composite. The re- ceptacle is naked; there is no pappus; the calyx is imbri- cated; the female florets placed among the scales of the calyx. There are seven species, commonly known by the name of cudweed, natives of most parts of Europe, her- baceous, most of them annual. FILAMENT. See Botany. FILAMENTS, vegetable, form a substance of great use in the arts and manufactures; furnishing thread, cloth, cordage, kc. For these purposes the filamentous parts of the cannabis andlinum, or hemp and flax, are employed among us. But different vegetables have been employed in different countries for the same uses. Pu- trefaction destroys the pulpy or fleshy matter, and leaves the tough filaments entire; by curiously macerating the leaf of a plant in water, we obtain the fine flexible fibres which constituted the basis of the ribs and minute veins, and which now form a skeleton of the leaf. The sieurde Flacourt, in his History of Madagascar, relates, that different kinds of cloth are prepared in that island from the filaments of the bark of certain trees boiled in strong ley; that some of these cloths are very fine, and approach to the softness of silk, but in durability come short of cotton; that others are coarser and stronger, and last thrice as long as cotton; and that of these the sails and cordage of his vessel were made. The same author informs us, that the stalks of nettles are used for the like purposes in France. And sir Hans Sloane relates, in one of his letters to Mr. Ray, that he has been informed by several, that muslin and calico, and most of the Indian linens, are occasionally made from nettles. In some of the Swedish provinces, a strong kind of cloth is said to be prepared from Imp-stalks; and iu the Transactions of the Swedish academy for the year 1750, there is an account of an experiment made in conse- quence of that report. Of the stalks, gathered in au- tumn, about as many were taken, as equalled in bulk a quantity of flax that would have produced a pound af- ter preparation. The stalks were put into water, and kept covered with it during the winter. In March they were taken out, dried in a stove, and dressed as flax. The prepared filaments weighed nearly a pound, and proved fine, soft, and white: they were spun and woven into six ells of fine strong cloth. The author, Mr. Shis- ler, observes, that hop-stalks take much longer time to rot than flax; and that if not fully rotted, the woody part will not separate, and the cloth will neither prove white nor fine. Hemp, flax, and all other vegetable filaments, and thread or cloth prepared from them, differ remarkably from wool, hair, silk, and other animal productions, not only in the principles into which they are resoluble by fire, but likewise in some of their more interesting pro- perties, particularly in their disposition to imbibe co- louring matters; many liquors, which give a beautiful and durable dye to those of the animal, giving no stain at all to those of the vegetable kingdom. Fishing-nets are usually boiled with oak-bark, or other such astringents, which render them more lasting. Those made of flax receive from this decoction a brown- ish colour, which, by the repeated alternations of water and air, is in a little time discharged, whilst the fine glossy brown communicated by the same means to silken nets, permanently resists both the air and water, and Lasts as long as the animal filaments themselves. In like manner the stam of ink, or the black dye from so- lutions of iron, mixed with vegetable astringents, proves durable in silk and woollen; but from linen tbe astrin- gent matter is extracted by washing, and only the yellow iron-mould remains. Many other instances of this kind are known too well to the callico-printer, whose grand desideratum is to find means of making the fibres of cotton receive the same colours that wool does. See Callico-Printixg. FILAR1A, a genus of insects of the order intestitia; body round, filiform, equal, and quite smooth; mouth di- lated, with a roundish concave lip. There are several species, some infesting tiie nia.nmalia, otln r infesting birds, others infesting insects in their perfect state, and some infesting the larvse of insects. The medinensis is the most remarkable species; it inhabits the Indies, and F I L F I L is frequent in the morning dew, whence it enters the naked feet of the slaves, and creates the most trouble- some itehings, accompanied with inflammation and fe- ver. It must be cautiously drawn out by means of a piece of silk tied round its head, for if the animal should break, the remaining part grows with redoubled vigour, and is often fatal. It is frequently 12 feet long, and not larger than a horsehair. FILBERT, or Filberd. See Corylus. FILE, among niechanics, a tool used in metal, &c. in order to smooth, polish, or cut. This instrument is of iron, or forged steel, cut in lit- tle furrows, with chisels, and a mallet, in a certain di- rection, and of a certain depth, according to the grain or touch required. After cutting the file, it must be tempered with a comjiosition of chimney-soot, xery hard and dry, diluted, and wrought up with urine, vinegar, and salt; the whole being reduced to the consistence of mustard. Tempering the files consists in rubbing them over with this composition, and covering them in loam; after which they are put into a charcoal fire, and taken out by the time they have acquired a cherry-colour, which is known by a small rod of the same steel put in along with them. Being taken out of the fire, they are thrown into cold spring-water, and when cold, they are cleaned with charcoal and a rag, and being clean and dry, are kept from rust by laying them up in wheat bran. Iron files require more heating than steel ones. Files are of different forms, sizes, cuts, and degrees of fineness, according to the different uses and occasions for which they are made. Those in common use are the square, flat, triangular, half-round, round, thin file, &c. each of which may be of different sizes, as well as different cuts. The rough or coarse-toothed files are to take off the unevenness of the work which the hammer made in the forging; and the fine-toothed files are to take out of the work the deep cuts or file strokes of the rough files; the files succeed one another in this order, first the rubber, then the bastard-toothed file, next the fine- toothed file, and lastly the smooth file. Thus the files of different cuts succeed one another, till the work is as smooth as it can be filed; after which it may be made still smoother, by emery, tripoli, kc. In using all sorts of files, the rule is to lean heavy on the file in thrusting it forward, because the teeth of the files are made to cut forward; but in drawing the file back again for a second stroke, it is to be lightly lifted just above the work, as it does not cut in coming back. There are several machines invented for cutting files, by which a blind man can cut a file with more exactness than can be done in the usual method with the keenest sight. These machines may be worked by water as readily as by hand, and are adapted to cut coarse or fine, large or small, files, or any number at a time. Mr. Nicholson, a few years since, obtained a patent for machinery for the manufacture of files; which consists, 1. Of a carriage in which the file is fixed and moved along, for the pur- pose of receiving the successive strokes of a cutter or chisel. 2. The anvil by which the file is supported be- neath the part which receives the stroke. 3. The regu- lating gear by which the distance between stroke and stroke is determined and governed; and 4. The apparatus for giving the stroke or cut. The four several parts aforesaid are supported by a frame of solid workman- ship, either of wood or metal, or both, according to the nature of the work to be performed. The action of this machinery is thus described: l. The file, being prepared as usual for cutting, must be fixed in the clip of the carriage, and the sliding block brought up and fixed, to steady the other extremity. 2, The nut of the screw being then opened, the carriage is slided to its place, so that the chisel may be situated over that part of,the file which is to receive the first stroke. 3. The nut is then closed, and the small roller of the pressing lever is made to bear upon the face of the file. 4. The first mover being then put into action, raises and lets fall the apparatus for giving the stroke by which the file receives a cut. 5. Immediately afterwards, or during the same action, as the case may be, the regulating gear moves the carriage, and consequently the file, through a certain space. 6. This cut is then again given, and in this manner the file becomes cut throughout. The file is then taken out and cut on the other side; the bur is taken off, or not, as the artist judges fit, and the cross strokes are given over the surface as before. This machinery, by means of certain slight alterations, is adapted to the manufacture of all descriptions of files whether floats, rasps, or those of any figure and denomination. File, in the art of war, a row of soldiers -standing one behind another, which is the depth of the battalion, or squadron. The files of a battalion of foot are generally three deep, as arc sometimes those of a squadron of horse. The files must be straight, and parallel one to another. File, in law, is a record of the court; and the filing of a process of court, makes a record of it. Lill. 212. FILIX, an order of the cryptogainia class of plants, comprehending the fern, horse-tail, adder's-tongue, mai- den-hair, spleen-wort, polypody, kc. FILUM, in music (Lat.), the name formerly given to the line drawn from the head of* a note upwards, or downwards, and which is now called the tail. FILLET, in heraldry, a kind of bordure, containing only a third or fourth part of the breadth of the common bordure. It is supposed to be withdrawn inwards, and is of a different colour from the field. It runs quite round, near the edge, as a lace over a cloak. It is also used lor an ordinary drawn like a bar, from the sinister point of the chief, across the shield, in manner of a scarf; though it sometimes is also seen in the situation of a bend, fesse, cross, kc. FILTER, or Filtre, in chemistry, a strainer com- monly made of bibulous or filtring paper, in the form of a funnel, through which any fluid is passed, in order to separate the gross particles from it, and render it limpid. FILTERING paper, is paper without size. To use it as such, the paper is shaped into the form of a cone, and placed in a funnel, in order to support it: otherwise it would break. *'"'.Tf JIKO st°nes, basons, &c. are either natural or artificial for the purpose of purifying water. Natural hitivs are found in rocks, mountains, beds of sand, gra- vel, &c Artificial filtering-basons consist of equal parts oi pipe-clay, and coarse sand. They should he three- quarters of an inch thick. F I N FIN FILTRATION, is a finer species of sifting. It is sifting through the pores of paper, or flannel, or fine linen, or sand, or pounded glass, or porous stones, and th«- like; but it is used only for separating fluids from solids or particles, that may happen to be suspended in them, and not chemically combined with the fluids. Thus salt water cannot be deprived of its salt by filtration, but muddy water may be cleansed by it. No solid, even in the form of powder, will pass through filtering substan- ces. If water or any other fluid containing sand, insects, kc. is placed in a bag or hollow vessel, made of any of those substances, the sand, kc. will remain upon the filtre, and the liquor will pass clear through it, and may be received in a vessel placed under it. Mr. Peacock obtained, about twelve years since, a patent for a new species of filtration, by means of gravel of different sizes suitable to the several strata. The va- rious sizes of the particles of gravel, as placed in layers, should be nearly in the quadruple ratio of their surfaces; that is, upon the first layer, a second is to be placed, the diameter of whose particles are not to be less than one- half of the first, and so on in this proportion. This ar- rangement of filtring particles will gradually fine the water by the grosser particles being quite intercepted in their partly ascending with the water. An advantage in these filtres is, that they may be readily cleansed by drawing out the body of the fluid, by which it will des- cend in the filtre, and carry with it all the foul and extra- neous substances. FIMBKIJE, denotes appendages disposed by way of fringe round the border of any thing. FIX, in natural history, a well-known part of fishes, consisting of a membrane supported by rays, or little bony or cartilaginous ossicles. The number, situation, and figure of fins, arc different in different fishes. As to number, they are. found from one to ten, or more; with respect to situation, they stand either on the back only, the belly only, or on both; and as to figure, they arc either of a triangular, roundish, or oblong square form. Add to this, that in some they are very small; whereas, in others, they almost equal the whole body iu length. FINAL, in music, an old appellation given to the last sound of a verse in a chant; which, if complete, is on the key note; if incomplete, on some other note of the key. FINAL Letters, among Hebrew grammarians, five letters so called, because they have a different figure at the end of words from what they have in any other situation. FINALE (Ital.) a word signifying the last composi- tion performed in any act of an opera, or part of a con- cert. FINANCE, the ceconomy of the public revenue and expenditure or nations. In former times, when the whole revenue drawn from the people by a few moderate and long-established taxes, was considered as the personal property of the sovereign, the purposes to which it was applied depended entirely on his discretion or that of his minister, as few princes were inclined in time of peace to reserve any part of their income as a provision for the additional expenses of war; the extraordinary charges incurred in time* of hostility were defrayed by extraor- dinary contributions from the people, which ceased with the occasion of them. Few sovereigns possessed sufficient credit either with their own subjects or foreigners to contract debts, so that at the conclusion of a war there was no occasion for a greater exp nditure than before its commencement, and the revenue drawn from the people reverted to its former state. It is the system of defraying extraordinary expenses by borrowing the money, for which an annual interest must be paid; and of suffering the debts thus incurred to accumulate, by which the sum to be annually paid is continually increas- ing, and the expenses of every war are rendered far greater than those which preceded it; that has swelled the revenue and expenditure of most of the nations of Europe to an enormous magnitude, and caused their systems of finance to become complicated and oppressive. In Great Britain, where the system of running in debt, or, as it is commonly termed, the funding system, has been carried to a greater height than in any other coun- try, its natural attendants, enormous taxation and ex- penditure, have made equal progress; and it is proba- bly owing chiefly to the publicity which is given to all matters of finance, so that every person with little trou- ble may know how all the money raised for the public service is expended, that the people have been induced to submit to taxes which both from their nature and amount would have appeared incredible to their fore- fathers. The English system of finance rests on the produce of the various taxes which have been imposed at differ- ent periods, the aggregate amount of which, after de- ducting the expenses of collection, together with a few small articles wdiich cannot properly be called taxes, forms the whole of the public income. This income is an- nually appropriated to the several branches of the na- tional expenditure, and when in consequence of any ex- traordinary expenses it. is known that the income of the current year will be insufficient to meet all the demands upon it, it is usual to borrow the sum necessary to make up the deficiency, either from individuals or public bo- dies, and to allow a fixed rate of interest on the money thus obtained, till the principal shall be repaid, or till the period originally agreed upon shall have expired. See Revenue, Loans, and National Ueht. The chancellor of the exchequer is, in Great Britain, the officer to whom the arrangement of the financial concerns of the country is chiefly intrusted. He causes accounts to be annually laid before parliament of the produce of the taxes, with estimates of the several bran- ches of public expenditure for the ensuing year; and rf the amount of the estimated expenditure exceeds the pro- bable produce of the revenue, he adjusts the extent and conditions of the loan with such persons as arc willin0* to advance the same, and proposes to parliament the new taxes which become necessary for paying the inter- est on the money thus borrowed. On the foundation of the accounts and estimates submitted to parliament, par- ticular sums are voted for the several branches of the ex- penditure; and when the ways and means of raising 'ho whole sum wanted have been determined, an act is pars- ed appropriating the specific sums to the various ;iri- cles forming the supplies which have been granted. In order to provide against any unforeseen expenses, it is FINANCE. usual to grant also a certain sum appropriated to any cy is made good as an article among the next year s sup. particular purpose, to be applied to any branch of the plies. . expenditure in which there may be occasion for it; this All the financial accounts of Great Britain are made is called a vote of credit, and has increased in amount up annually, and do not vary materially except in the with the progress of the supplies; in the American war amount of the several articles. A general view ot the it was 1,000,000*. per annum, of late it has generally ordinary revenues and extraordinary resources consti- been 2,500,000*. Soon after the commencement of each tuting the public income lor the year ending tiie 5tli Ja. session, an account is laid before the house of commons, nuary, 1805, and of the different branches ot the public showing how the moneys given for the service of the pre- expenditure for the same period, will furnish a distinct ceding year have been disposed of, and what part thereof and comprehensive view of the subject, lor the detail of remains unpaid. If the ways and means have fallen short which see Customs, Excise, Stamp-duties, Land- of the sum they were expected to produce, the deficien- tax, kc. PUBLIC INCOME. ordinary revenues. Customs............J. 9,060,297 8 2§ Excise (including Malt, &c. annual).......20,990,469 13 1 Stamps^ - - - - -.......3,564,894 10 6| Land and Assessed Taxes --------- 6,042,485 3 3§ Post Office............1,107,358 9 1| Shilling in the Pound on Pensions and Salaries..... 52,997 19 7\ Sixpence in the Pound on ditto - «...... 61,278 6 4 Hackney Coaches.......... 26,656 11 3| Hawkers and Pedlars.......... 7,014 37 Small branches of the Hereditary Revenue, viz. Alienation Fines, Post Fines, Seizures, Compositions, Proffers, and Crown Lands ... 131,980 12 7 extraordinary resources. Property Tax...........3,484,351 10 5 Arrears of Income Duty......... 81,048 6 9$ Lottery, Net Profit.......... 413,64 5 7 2 Voluntary Contributions --------- 590 17 9 Arrears of Taxes, collected under the Aid and Contribution Act - - 1,890 13 2| Moneys paid on account of the Interest of Loans raised for the service of Ireland 1,275,178 17 1 On account of the Commissioners for issuing Exchequer Bills for the Island of Grenada, &c........... 201,000 0 0 Interest on Stock, transferred by Instalments, for the Redemption of Land Tax 4,500 0 0 Fees of regulated Exchequer Offices ------- 36,664 7 0 Imprest Monry repaid by sundry Public Accountants - - - - 21,031 5 2| Other Moneys paid to the Public ------- 13,230 0 2 Total, independent of Loans - - - - t - 46,578,564 2 4| Loans, in part of 14,500,000^......13,209,351 13 9 Total PUBLIC EXPENDITURE. I. Interest on the permanent Funded Debt - - 18,925,797 Charges of Management - 267,786 Sums applicable to the reduction of the Debt 6,851,201 Interest on Exchequer Bills...... The Civil List......... Other charges on the Consolidated Fund, viz. Allowances to the Royal Family, Pensions, &c. Salaries and Allowances - Courts of Justice - The Mint....... Bounties ------- The Civil Government of Scotland - - - Other payments in anticipation of the Exchequer Receipt, viz, Bounties for Fisheries, Manufactures, Corn, &c. 336,524 Pensions on the Hereditary Revenue - - 27,700 Militia and Deserters' Warrants, kc. - 286,668 Purchase of Legal Quays - 76,689 I. 59,787,915 16 if s. 6 19 11 3|1 I. s. d. 26,044,785 16 11 624,859 928,000 18 0 10 0 284,866 23,441 57,319 20,727 23,456 13 19 2 2 13 0 0 10 12 11 0 6 6 409,811 10 9 79,705 4 1| 727,582 3 11 F I N FIN The Navy...... Victualling Department - Sick and Wounded ditto Transport ditto The Ordnance - The Army. Regulars, Fenciblcs, Militia, &c. Barracks - - Staff Officers, and Officers of Garrisons Half-Pay...... Widows* Pensions - Chelsea Hospital - - - - Exchequer Fees - Pay of Public Offices - - - - Extraordinary Services - Remittances to Ireland, viz. Out of Loan, 1804 - Out of Lotteries, 1804 Miscellaneous Services, At Home...... Abroad...... Deduct Loan for Ireland 7,345,821 4 4 I o r 3,279,501 8 277,000 0 11,759,351 5 857,028 12 4 J - 3,550,141 1 9,500,000 0 0 " 1,786,048 0 0 289,027 0 0 228,000 0 0 22,500 0 o ► 15,744,694 15 207,963 0 0 80,353 0 0 70,000 0 0 3,560,803 15 3 J 1 11 65,484,298 5 2| 3,733,291 13 4" Total L. 61,751,006 11 10| FINDING: any person finding any thing, has a spe- cial property therein, but he is answerable to the per- son in whom is the general property, but has a right against every person but the loser. The finder is not answerable for a mere nonfeasance or neglect: yet if he makes gain of, or abuses, or spoils the things he finds, he shall be answerable. If bank-bills, tickets, kc. stolen or lost, arc paid to or delivered to another, without con- sideration, an action lies against any one in whose hands they arc found; and the law seems to be the same, though a consideration was given, if the party had previous no- tice of their being lost or stolen. Str. 505. But the property of goods found or stolen, may be changed by sale for a valuable consideration, and with- out notice, in a market overt; and the party purchasing them obtains a title to them, against the original owner* FINES, a mode of transferring property. By the ancient common law, a charter of feoffment was the on- ly written instrument by which lands were conveyed; but the inconvenience sometimes arising from the loss of the charter, or the difficulty of proving it from a lapse of years, induced men to look out for some more secure and lasting assurance. For this purpose fines were adopted, that is, a fictitious process; a suit is instituted concerning the lands intended to be conveyed; and after the writ is issued and the parties appear in court, the suit is compounded with the consent of the judges, where- by the lands in question arc acknowledged to be the right of one of the con ending parties. This agreement is inrolled among the records of the court, and being substituted in the place of the sentence which would have been given had the action continued, is of equal force with the judgment of a court, puts an end not on- ly to that suit but to all others rcspeeting the same mat- ter; a writ is then issued to the sheriff of the county in which the. lands lie, in the same form as if judgment had VOL. II. 14 been obtained, commanding him to deliver possession to the person who thus acquires the land, which renders the ceremony of livery of seisin unnecessary. We are indebted to the civilians for the first idea of this method of conveyance, by whom it was called transactio, and was in- troduced by the French into their law. A fine consists of five parts: 1st. The original writ; 2nd. The liccnciacon- cordandi; 3rd. The concord; 4. The note; 5. The foot. A fine can be levied on any writ which in any sort con- cerns lands, but the writ chiefly in use, is the writ of covenant. When the sheriff of the county where the lands lie is a party to the fine, the writ must be directed to the coroner; the licentiaconcordandi is the permission from the court to accommodate the suit. The concord comes in lieu of the sentence which would have been given had the action continued. The note is only the abstract of the writ of covenant, and the concord, nam- ing the parties, the lands, and the agreement; and the foot chirograph or indenture includes the whole matter. Sir Edward Coke says, a fine is said to be levied when the writ of covenant is returned, and the concord duly entered. Fines are divided into executed and executory; and subdivided into, 1st. Fines sur cognizance de droit comme ceo; 2. sur cognizance de droit tantu;n; 3. sur con- cessit; and 4. sur done grant et render. A fine sur cog- nizance de droit comme ceo, kc. is the best and surest kind of fine, for thereby the deforciant in order to keep his covenant with the plantiff, of conveying to him the lands in question, and at the same time to avoid the for- mality of an actual feoffment and livcrv, acknowledges in court a former feoffment to have been made by him to the plaintiff, so that this assirance is rather a coi»fc-su>»i of a f-.rmer conveyance, than.a omeyan:.' now < rigi- nally made. A fine sur cognizance de droit tantu.n.' is merely the acknowledgment of the right without the circumstance of a prcccdiug gift from tiie cognizor, and FINES. Ss commonly used to pass a reversionary interest which is in the cognizor. A fine sur concessit, is where the cognizor, though he acknowledges no precedent right, yet grants to the cognizee an estate, de novo usually for life or years by way of supposed composition; and this may be done reserving a rent or the like, for it operates as a new grant. A fine sur done grant et render, is a double fine, comprehending the fine sur cognizance de droit comme ceo, and the fine sur concessit, and may be used to create particular limitations of estate; whereas the first conveys nothing but an absolute estate, and is the most used on that account: this is called a fine exe- cuted, and the others are but executory. Fines were formerly levied in all the courts; but by Magna Charta they were usually thenceforth levied in the common pleas, and before two justices of that court; and the lord chief justice of the common pleas may alone take the acknowledgment of a fine out of court: but if he is a party to the writ, he cannot quia judex in propria causa. This rule extends to all our judges and commis- sioners. They are also taken by commissioners in the country, empowered by dedimus potestatem, who may be punished for abuses, and the fine taken before them set aside: and it may be levied of any things whereof a precipe quod reddat or precipe quod faciat lies, or a pre- cipe quod permittat or precipe quod teneat may be brought. The force and effect of a fine depend principally on the common law, and the two statutes 4 Hen. VII. c. 24, and 32 Henry VIII. c. 36. The ancient common law7 as set forth in 18 Edward I. says, "the fine is so high a bar, and of so great force, and of a nature so powerful in itself, that it precludes not only those who are par- ties and privies to the fine, and their heirs, but all other persons in the world who are of full age, out of prison, of sound memory, and within the seas, the day of the fine levied, unless they put in their claim within a year and a day." But by a statute made in the reign of Ed- ward I. persons were allowed to claim and falsify a fine at any indefinite time; but this giving rise to much con- tention and insecurity, a statute 6 Henry VII. wisely steered between the rigour of the common law and the latitude allowed by the former act, and limited the right of claim to five years, except femme-coverts, infants, prisoners, persons beyond the seas, or lunatics, who have five years after the death of their husbands, their attaining full age, recovering their liberty, or being re- stored to their right mind. The persons bound by a fine, are parties, privies, and strangers: the parties are the cognizors and cognizees, and all persons who may law- fully grant by deed may levy a fine, and this is almost the only act that a fern me covert is allowed to do (when she is privately examined as to her voluntary consent), and is therefore the most usual and safe method where- by she can join in the sale, settlement, or incumbrance of any-estate. Privies to a fine are such as are anywise related to the parties who levy the fine, and claim under them by any right of blood or other right of representa- tion. Strangers to a tine are all other persons in the world except only parties and privies, who arc also bound by a fine unless they prefer their claims within the space of five years. Persons who have not a present but future interest only have also five years allowed them to claim in from the time that right accrues; thus 2 this conveyance not only binds the parties themselves and their heirs, but also all mankind whether concern- ed or no, if they fail to put in their claims within the time allowed by law. Fines for offences. Originallv all punishments were corporal; but after the use of money, when the profits of the courts arose from the money paid out of the civil causes, and the fines and confiscations in criminal ones, the commutation of punishments was allowed of; and the corporal punishment which was only in terrorem, chang. ed into the pecuniary, whereby they found their own advantage. This begat the distinction between the greater and the less offences; for in the crimina majora there was at least a fine to the king, which was levied by a capiatur; but upon the less offences there was only ail amercement, which was affeered, and for which a distringas, or action of debt only lay. 2 Bac. Abr. 502. By the Bill of Rights I W. st. 2. c. 2. excessive fines ought not to be imposed* and all grants and promises of fines and forfeitures of particular persons, before con- viction, are declared to be illegal and void. 4 Black* 379. All courts of record may fine and imprison an offend- er, if the nature of the offence is such as deserves such punishment. 8 Co. 39. But no court, unless of record, can fine or imprison. 11 Co. 43. And all courts of law that have power given them to fine and imprison, are thereby made courts of record. 1 Salk. 200. The sheriff in his torn, may impose a fine on all such as are guilty of any contempt in the face of the court; and may also impose what reasonable fine he shall think fitting, upon a suitor refusing to be sworn, or upon a bailiff refusing to make a panel, kc. or upon a tithing. man neglecting to make his presentment, or upon one of the jury refusing to present the articles wherewith they are charged, or upon a person duly chosen consta- ble refusing to be sworn. 2 Inst. 142. Also the steward of a court-leet may by recognizance bind any person to the peace who shall make an affray in his presence, sitting the court; or may commit him to ward, eitlier for want of sureties, or by way of pu- nishment, without demanding any sureties of him; in which case he may afterwards impose a fine according to his discretion. F. N. B. 82. Also the sheriff in his torn, and the steward of a court- leet, have a discretionary power either to award a fine or amercement for contempt of the court, for a suitor's refusing to be sworn, kc; and the steward of a court- leet may either amerce or fine an offender, upon an in- dictment for an offence not capital, within his jurisdic- tion, without any farther proceeding or trial, especially if the crime was any way enormous, as an affray accom- panied with wounding. Kitchin, 43, 51. Some courts cannot fine or imprison, but amerce, as the county, hundred courts, kc. 11 Co. 43. But some courts can neither fine, imprison, nor amerce; as ecclesiastical courts held before the ordinarv, arch- deacon, &c. or their commissaries, and such who pro- ceed according to the canon or civil law. 11 Co. 44. A fine may be mitigated the same term it was set, be- ing under the power of the court during that time but not afterwards. L. Raym. 376. And fines assessed in court by judgment upon an information, cannot be after- FIR wards mitigated. Cro. Oar. 251. If a fine certain is imposed by statute on any conviction, the court cannot mitigate it; but if the party come in before conviction, and submit to the court, they may assess a less fine; for lie is not convicted, and perhaps never might. The court of exchequer may mitigate a fine certain, because it is a court of equitv, and they have a privy seal for it. 3 Salk. 33. FINERS of gold and silver, are those who separate these metals from coarser ores. FINERY, in the iron-works, one of the forges at which the iron is hammered and fashioned into what they call a bloom, or square bar. FINGER, in music, a word metaphorically applied to ability in execution in general, but especially on key- ed instruments; as when we say, such a master posses- ses an expressive or an elegant finger; that lady dis- plays a rapid or a delicate finger. Finger-boaro, that thin, black covering of wood laid over the neck of a violin, violoncello, kc. and on which, in performance, the strings are pressed by the fingers of the left hand, while the right manages the bow. FiyoBRivc;, disposing of the fingers in a convenient, natural, and apt manner in the performance on any in- strument, but more especially the organ and piano-forte. Good fingering is one of the first things to which a ju- dicious master attends. It is, indeed, to this that the pupil must look as the means for acquiring a faciie and I; graceful execution, and the power of giving passages i with articulation, accent, and expression. Easy pas- | sages may be rendered difficult, and difficult ones im- p practicable, by bad fingering; and though there are ma- ny arrangements of notes which admit of various finger- ing, still, even in these, there is always one best way of disposing of the hand, either with regard to the notes themselves, or those which precede or follow them. But L, there are an infinite number of possible dispositions of notes, which can only be fingered in one particular way; and every attempt at any other, is but endangering the v establishment of some awkwardness, which the practi- tioner will have to unlearn before he can hope to attain & the true fingering. Hence it is obvious, that no quali- fication requisite to good performance is of more im- !! portaiue to the learner than that of just fingering; and "' that whatever talents and assiduity may be able to I" achieve independent of instruction, in this great par- '" ticular the directions of a skilful master are indispen- '*' sable. f FINTO, in music (Ital.), a feint, a term applied to tf' the preparation for a cadence which is not executed; 'I* when the performer having done every thing that is re- quisite to a full dose, instead of falling on the final, pas- $ ses to some other note, or introduces a pause. FIR-trek. See Aries. r* FIRE. See C vloric. rv Fire, wild, a kind of artificial or factitious fire, which ft burns even under water. It is composed of sulphur, (>f STrTE? n ^ lnu° the different rooms of the house in which the flames began to appear. Used in this way, !t ir^n Pn/.l°n nHyi l>ossfsscd ^ merit ascribed to it, it evidently would have been of g*eat use in extifa- FIRE. guishing fires on shipboard; and would probably have been considered as a no less necessary part of a ship's lading than her stores or ammunition. Fire in chimneys, method of extinguishing. It is well known, that the inner parts of chimneys easily take fire; the soot that kindles therein emits a greater flame, ac- cording as the tunnel is more elevated, because the cur- rent of air feeds the fire. If this current could there- fore be suppressed, the fire would soon be extinguished. In order to this, some discharge a pistol into the chim- ney, which produces no effect. Water thrown into the chimney at top is equally useless, because if comes down through the middle of the tunnel, and not along the sides. It would be more advisable to stop, with a wet blanket, the upper orifice of the tunnel; but the surest and readiest method is, to apply the blanket either to the throat of the chimney, or over the whole front of the fire-place. If there happens to be a chimney-board or a register, nothing can be so effectual as to apply them immediately; and having by that means stoppd the draught of air from below, the burning soot will be put out as readily and as completely as a candle is put out by an extinguisher, which acts exactly upon the same principle. Fire, securing buildings against. Dr. Hales proposes to check the progress of fires by covering the floors of the adjoining rooms with earth. The proposal is found- ed on an experiment which he made with a fir-board half an inch thick, part of which he covered with an inch depth of damp garden-mold, and then lighted a fire on the surface of the mold; though the fire was kept up by blowing, it was two hours before the board was burnt through, and the earth prevented it from flaming. The thicker the earth is laid on the floors, the better: however, Dr. Hales apprehends that the depth of an inch will generally be sufficient: and he recommends to lay a deeper covering on the stairs, because the fire commonly ascends by them with the greatest velocity. Mr. David Hartley made several trials in the years 1775 and 1776, in order to evince the efficacy of a me- thod which he had invented for restraining the spread of fire in buildings. For this purpose, thin iron plates were well nailed to the tops of the joists, &c. the edges of the sides and ends being lapped over, folded together, and hammered close. Partitions, stairs, and floors, may be defended in the same manner; and plates appli- ed to one side have been found sufficient. The plates are so thin as not to prevent the floor from being nailed on the joists, in the same manner as if this preventive was not used; they are kept from rust by being painted or varnished with oil and turpentine. The expense of this addition, when extending through a whole building, is reck ned at about five per cent. Mr. Hartley had a patent for this invention, and parliament voted a gum of money towards defraying the expense of his nu- merous experiments. The same preservative may also be applied to ships, furniture, *cc. Mr. Hartley's pa- tent has long since expired. Earl Stanhope has als<. discovered and published a vcrv simple and effectual method of securing every kind of buiiding against fire. This method he.has divided into three parts, viz. under-flooring, extra-lathing, and inter-securing. The method of under-flooring is either single or double. In single under-flooring, a common strong lath of oak or fir, about one fourth of an inch thick, should be nailed against each side of every joi^t, and of every main timber, supporting the floor which is to be secured. Other similar laths are then to be nailed along the whole length of the joists, with their ends butting against each other. The top of each of these laths or fillets ought to be at l| inch below tjie top of the joists or timbers against which they are nailed; and they will thus form a sort of small ledge on each side of all the joists. These fillets are to be well bedded in a rough plaister hereafter mentioned, when they are nailed on, so that there may be no interval between them and the joists; and the same plaister ought to be spread with a trowel upon the tops of all the fillets, and along the sides of that part of the joists which is between the top of the fillets and the upper edge of the joists. In order to fill up the intervals between the joists that support the floor, short pieces of common laths, whose length is equal to the width of these intervals, should be laid in the contrary direction to the joists, and close together in a row, so as to touch one another; their ends must rest upon the fillets, and they ought to be well bedded in the rough plaister, but are not to be fastened with nails. They must then be covered with one thick coat of the rough plaister, which is to be spread over them to the level of the tops of the joists; and in a day or two this plaister should be trowelled over close to the sides of the joists, without covering the tops of the joists with it. In the method of double-flooring, the fillets and short pieces of laths are applied in the manner already de- scribed; but the coat of rough plaister ought to belittle more than half as thick as that in the former method. Whilst this rough plaister is laid on, some more of the short pieces of laths above-mentioned must be laid in the intervals between the joists upon the first coat, and be dipped deep in it. They should be laid as close as possible to each other, and in the same direction with the first layer of short laths. Over this second layer of short laths there must be spread another coat of rough plaister, which should be trowelled level with the tops\>f the joists without rising above them. The rough plais- ter may be made of coarse lime and hair; or, instead of hair, hay chopped to about three inches in length may be substituted with advantage. One measure of com- mon rough sand, two measures of slaked 1 ime, and three measures of chopped hay, will form in general a very good proportion, when sufficiently beaten up together in the manner of common mortar. The hay should bo put in after the two other ingredients are well beaten up together with water. This plaister should be made stiff; and when the flooring boards are required to be laid down very soon, a fourth or fifth part of quicklime in powder, formed by dropping a small quantity of wa- ter on the limestone a little while before it is used, and well mixed with this rough plaister, will cause it to dry very fast. If any cracks appear in the rough plaister- work near the joists when it is thoroughly dry, they ought to be closed by washing them over with a brush wet with mortar-wash; this wash may be prepared by putting two measures of quicklime and one of common hue. sand in a pail, and stirring the mixture with water till the water becomes of the consistence of a thick jelly. Before the flooring-boards are laid, a small quantity of very dry common sand should be strewed over the plaistcr-work, and struck smooth with a hollow rule, moved in the direction of the joists, so that it may lie rounding between each pair of joists. Theplaister-work and sand should be perfectly dry before the boards are laid, for fear of the dry rot. The method of under- flooring may be successfully applied to a wooden stair- case; but no sand is to be laid upon the rough plaister- work. The method of extra-lathing may be applied to ceiling joists, to sloping roofs, and to wooden partitions. The third method, which is that of inter-securing, is very similar to that of under-flooring; but no sand is afterwards to be laid upon it. Inter-securing is applica- ble to the same parts of a building as the method of ex- tra-lathing, but it is seldom necessary. Tbe author of this invention made several experi- ments, in order to demonstrate the efficacy of these me- thods. In most houses it is only necessary to secure the floors; and the extra expense of under-flooring, includ- ing all materials, is only about nine pence per square yard, and with the use of quicklime a little more. The extra expense of extra-lathing is no more than six pence per square yard for the timber side-walls and partitions; but for the ceiling about nine pence per square yard. But in most houses no extra-lathing is necessary. Fire-flies, a species of flies in Guiana, of which there are two species. The largest is more than an inch in length, having a very large head connected with the body by a joint of a particular structure, with which sometimes it makes a loud knock, particularly when laid on its hack. The fly has two feelers or horns, two wings, and six legs. Under its belly is a circular patch, which, in the dark, shines like a candle; and on each side of the head near the eyes is a prominent, globular, luminous body, in size about one-third larger than a mustard-seed. Each of these bodies is like a living star, emitting a bright, and not small, light; since two or three of these animals, put into a glass vessel, afford a light sufficient to read without difficulty, if placed close to the book. When the fly is dead, these bodies will r-till afford considerable light, though it is less vivid than before; and if bruised, and rubbed over the hands or face, they become luminous in the dark, like a board smeared over with English phosphorus. They are of a reddish-brown or chesnut colour; and live in rotten trees in the day, but are always abroad in the night. The other kind is not more than half as large as the former: their light proceeds from under their wings, and is seen only when they are elevated, like sparks of fire appear- ing or disappearing at every second. Of these the air is full in the night, though they are never seen in the day. They are common not only in the southern, but in the northern parts of America during summer. Fire-ball, in the art of war, a composition of meal- powder, sulphur, saltpetre, pitch, kc. about the bigness of a hand-grenade, coated over with flax, and primed with a slow composition of a fuse. This is to be thrown into the enemy's works in the night time, to discover where they are: or to fire houses, galleries, or blinds of tbe besiegers; hut they are then armed with spikes or hooks of iron, that they may not roll off, but stick or hang where they are designed to have effect. Fire-bote, is fuel or firing for necessary use, allow- ed to tenants, out of the lands granted to them. Fire-irons. These are too well known to need de- scription: they are, however, mentioned, to notice a pa- tent taken out by Mr. Benthain, for the improvement of them, by making all the parts that admit of it tubular instead of solid. FiRE-roTS, in the military art, small earthen pots, into which is put a charged grenade, and over that pow- der enough till the grenade is covered; then the pot ia covered with a piece of parchment, and two pieces of match across lighted: this pot being thrown by a handle of match, where it is designed, it breaks and fires the powder, and burns all that is near it, and likewise fires the powder in the grenade, which ought to have no fuse, that its operations may be the quicker. FIRES and Firecocks. By 14 G. III. c. 78, church- wardens in London, and within the bills of mortality, are to fix firecocks, kc. at proper distances in streets and keep a large engine and hand-engine for extinguish- ing fire, under the penalty often pounds. And to pre- vent fires, workmen in the city of London, kc. must erect party-walls between buildings, or brick or stone of a certain thickness, &c. under penalties therein men- tioned. On the breaking out of any fire, all the constables and beadles shall repair to the place with their staves, and be assisting in putting it out, and causing people to work. No action lies against a person in whose house or chamber a fire accidentally begins. FiRE-smrs, in the navy, are vessels charged with combustible materials or artificial fireworks; which having the wind of an enemy's ship, grapple her, and set her on fire. Anderson, in his History of Commerce, vol. 1, p. 432, ascribes the invention to the English, in this instance, viz. some vessels being filled with combustible matter, and sent among the Spanish ships composing the Invin- cible Armada, in 1588; and hence arose, it is said, the terrible invention of fire-ships. But Livy informs us, that the Rbodians had invented a. .iind of fire-ships, which were used in junction with the Roman fleet in their engagement with the Syrians,in the year 190 before Christ: cauldrons of combustible ami burning materials were hung out at their prows, so that none of the enemy's ships durst approach them; for hese fell on the enemies' galleys, struck their beaks into them, and at the same time set them on fire. Firelocks, so called from their producing fire of themselves, by the action of the flint and steel; the arms carried by a foot-soldier. They were former!v three feet eight inches in the barrel, and weighed fourteen pounds; Kh! l^S* of the barrel is from throe feet ftini^P he8It0,t,»« ^t six inches, and the weight of of wE*? * V^1™ Pounds. The7 ^rry a leaden bullet LS re2,'ltsdiameter is -550 of »" *«*• and that of the barrel l-50th part of the shot. Firelocks MiveSS vmideu!f f? 16u90'.whe* matchlocks were certain a fiSTdi! ^Ut V,he,n,mVent.ed' we cannot as- certain. A firelock is called, by writers of about the middle of the last century, asnaphaan, which being • F1R1KG. Low-Dutch word, seems to indicate its being a Dutch invention. Fire works. In England it is not lawful for any person to make or cause to be made, or sell or expose to sale, any squibs, rockets, serpents, or other fireworks; or any cases, moulds, or other implements for making the same; or to permit the same to be cast or fired from his house or other place thereto belonging, into any public street or road; or to throw or fire, or be aiding in throwing and firing the same, in any public street, liouse, shop, river, or highway; and every such offence shall be adjudged a common nuisance. 9 and 10 W. c. 7. FIRING in line, in the military art. According to regulations, the following principal heads constitute firing in line. The object of fire against cavalry is to keep them at a distance, and to deter them from the attack; as their move- ments are rapid, a reserve is always kept up. But when the fire commences against infantry, it cannot be too hea- vy, or too quick while it lasts; an 1 should be continued till the enemy is beaten or repulsed. This may not im- properly be called offensive fire. Defensive fire belongs principally to infantry, when posted on heights, which are to be defended by musquetry. As soldiers generally present too high, and as fire is of the greatest consequence to troops that arc on the de- fensive, the habitual mode of firing should therefore be rather at a low level than a high one. On these occasions the men are generally drawn up three deep; in which case the front rank kneeling, being the most efficacious as being the most raising, should not be dispensed with when it can be safely and usefully cm- ployed. Firing by half-battalions, the line advancing. The left wings halt, and the right ones continue to march 15 paces, at which instant the word march being given to the left wings, the right at the same time are ordered to halt, fire, and load, during which the left march on and pass them till the right wings, being loaded and shoul- dered, receive the word march, on which the left ones halt, fire, kc. and thus they alternately proceed. Firing by Iialf-battaliovs, t/ie line retiring. The right wings are ordered to halt, front, and when the left wings have gained fifteen paces, and have received the word halt, front, the right wings are instantly ordered to fire, load, face about, and march fifteen paces beyond the left ones, where they receive the word halt, front, on which the left wings fire, &c. and thus alternately proceed. It is observed in the official rules and regulations, that in addition to the battalion directions, there must be a regulating battalion named, by the half-battalions of which each line will move, halt, and fire: the commander of each line will he with such half-battalion, and in giv- ing his several commands must have an attention to the general readiness of the line, especially after loading, that the whole arc prepared to step off together at the word march. Tbe firing of the advanced wing succeeds the march, or the halt, front, of the retired wing instant- ly; and each half-battalion fires independant and quick, so that no unnecessary pauses being made I: »twixt the firing words, the fire of the lincshould be that of a volley as much as possible; and the whole being thereby loaded to- gether, will be ready for the next command of movement. In these firings ot the line advancing or retiring, the two first ranks will fire standing, and the rear rank support their arms. In this manner also may the alternate battalions of a line advance or retire, and when the whole are to form, and that the last line moves up to the first, every previous help of advanced persons will be given to ensure its correctness. Fire in line advancing, is when the infantry marches in line to attack the enemy, and in advancing makes use of its fire. On these occasions it is better to fire the two first ranks only standing, reserving the third, than to make the front rank kneel and to fire the whole; but when it is necessary to fire at a considerable distance, or on a retiring enemy, volleys may he given by the three ranks, the front one kneeling. Firing by platoons, is practised when a line is posted, or arrives at a fixed situation. In this position, battal- ions fire independantly of one another, and the fire ge- nerally commences from the centre of each. The first fire of each battalion must be regular, and at established pauses and intervals; after which each platoon may con- tinue to fire as soon as it is loaded, independant, and as quick as possible. Firing by files, is generally used behind a parapet, hedge, or abbatis. In this situation the two first ranks only can fire, and that must be by the two men of the same file always firing together, with coolness and de- liberation. When, however, the parapet hedge, or ab- batis, is but a little raised, platoon firing may be resort- ed to. Olique Firing by battalions, or otherwise, according to the ground, is extremely advantageous when it is found expedient to give an oblique direction to part of a line, or when it is discovered that their fire can in this man- ner be thrown against the opening of a defile, Jhe flanks of a column, or against cavalry or infantry that direct their attack on some particular battalion or portion of the line. Oblique-firing, is either to the right and left, or from the right and left to the centre, depending entirely on the situation of the object to be fired against. The Prussians have a particular contrivance for this purpose: if they are to level to the right, the rear ranks of every platoon are to make two quick but small paces to the left, and the body of each soldier to turn l-8th of a circle; and are to take the same distance to the right, if they are to level to the left. When a line halts at its points of firing, no time is to he lost in scrupulous dressing, and the firing is instantly to commence. But when a line halts, and is not to fire, the usual dressings must be attended to; and everv thing will depend upon the coolness and attention of the officers and non-commissioned officers. It should be observed with respect to firings in general, that after the march in front, and halt of the battalion, company or platoon firing ought invariably to begin from the centre, and not from the flank. In other cases, and in successive formations, it may begin from whatever division first arrives, and halts on its own ground. Square-YiRWG, is that method of firing Where either a regiment or any body of men are drawn up in a square, each front of which is generally divided into four divi- F I K F I S sioirs or firings, and the flanks of the square, as being the weakest part, are sometimes covered by four platoons of grenadiers who flank the angles. The first fire is from the right division of each face, the second fire from the left divison of each face, and so on; the grenadiers making th - last fire. Strcet-YimsG, is the method of firing adopted to de- fend or scour a street, lane, or narrow pass of any kind; in the execution of which the platoon must be formed ac- cording to the width of the place, leaving sufficient room on the flanks for the platoons which have fired, succes- sively to file round to therear of the others. Strect-ViRiXQ advancing. When the column has ar- rived at the spot where the firing is to commence, the commanding officer from the rear gives the word halt; and the officer commanding the platoon, orders it to make ready, p'sent, fire;, recover arms, out-wards face (by half- platoons), quick march. At the instant the men in the first platoon recover their arms after firing, the second platoon makes ready, and waits in that position till the front is cleared by the first platoon having filed round the flanks towards the rear, when the second advances, with recovered arms, until it receives the word halt, p'sent, fire. As soon as tbe platoon which has fired, has got down the flanks, it must form in front of the colours, and prime and load. Street Firing retiring, is conducted on the same prin- ciples, except that the platoons fire without advancing, on the front being cleared by the former platoon filing round the flank. Another method of street-firing, advancing, generally esteemed more eligible, is, after firing, to wheel out by subdivisions (the pivots having taken a side step to right and left outwards), prime and load, and as soon as the last platoon has passed, file inwards and form. FIRKIN, an English measure of capacity, for things liquid, being the fourth part of the barrel: it contains 8 gallons of ale, soap, or herrings; and 9 gallons of beer. FIRLOT, a dry measure used in Scotland. The oat- firlot contains 21 \ pints of that country; the wheat-firlot contains about 1211 cubic inches; and the barley-firlot 31 standard pints. Hence it appears that the Scotch wheat-firlot exceeds the English bushel by S3 cubic inches. FIRST, a word applied to the upper part in a duet, trio, quartet, &c. either vocal or instrumental; also to the upper part of each kind in overtures, symphonies, con- certos, aud other full pieces. Such parts are called first, because they generally express the air; and from their superior acutcness possess a pre-eminence in the com- bined effect. In the score the first part always occupies the stave immediately above that in which the second is written; the second, the stave immediately over that which con- tains the third, and so on. FIRST-FRUITS and tenths. First fruits are the profits of every spiritual living, for one year, and tenths are the tenth part of the yearly value of such living, gi- ven anciently to the pope through all Christendom; but by stat. 26* H. VIII. c. 3, translated to the king, iu England, for the ordering whereof there was a court erected, 39. II. VIII. c. 45, but again dissolved anno pri- mo Mariae, sess. 2. c. 10. And since that time, though these profits are reduced again to the crown, by the stat. 1 Eliz. c. -t. yet was the court never restored, but all matters therein wont to be handled, were transferred to the. exchequer. By stat. 26 II. VIII. the lord chancellor, bishops, &c. are empowered to examine into the value of every ecclo- siastical benefice and preferment in their several dioceses; and every clergyman entered on his living before the first- fruits are paid or compounded for, is to forfeit double value. But stat. 1 Eliz. c. 4, ordains, that if an incum- bent on a benefice does not live half a year, or is ousted before the year expires, his executors aue to pay only a fourth part of the first-fruits; and if he lives the year and then dies, or is ousted in six months after, but half the first-fruits shall be paid; if a year and a half, three quar- ters of them; and if two years, then the whole; not other- wise. The archbishops and bishops, have four years al- lowed for the payment, and shall pay one quarter every year, if they live so long upon the bishopric: other digni- tarics in the church, pay theirs in the same manner, as rectors and vicars. By 27 H. VIII. c. 8, no tenths are to be paid for the first year, as then the first fruits are due; and by several statutes of Anne, if a benefice is under fifty pounds per annum, clear yearly value, it shall be discharged of the payment of first-fruits and tenths. The queen also restored to the church, what at first had been thus indirectly taken from it, by remitting the tenths and first-fruits entirely, but by applying these superflui- ties of the larger benefices, to make up the deficiencies of the smaller; for this purpose she granted a charter, whereby all the revenue of the first-fruits and tenths is vested in trustees for ever, to form a perpetual fund for the augmentation of poor livings under 501. a year. This is usually called queen Anne's bounty, which has been still further regulated by subsequent statutes: though it is to be lamented that the number of such poor livings is so great, that this bounty, extensive as it is, will he slow, and almost imperceptible in its operation; the num- ber of livings under 50/. certified by the bishops, at the commencement of the undertaking/ being 5597", there- venues of w hich, on a general average, ilid not exceed 23/. per annum. Black. 285, 286. FISC, in the civil law, the trensurv of a prince. If differs from the serarium, which was the treasury of the public or people: thus, when the nionev arising from the sale of condemned persons' goods was appropriated for the use of the public, their goods were said publican; hut when it was destined for the support of the prince, they were called confiscari. FISCAL, in the civil law, something relating to the pecuniary interest of the prince or people. The officers appointed for the management of the fisc, were called procurators fisci, and advocati fisci; and among the cases enumerated i„ (he constitutions of the empire, where it was their business to plead, one is against those who have been condemned to pay a fine to the fisc on afr;;',,Itr°?t,lfl1' litigiousncss, or frivolous appeals. !• 1SH, m natural history, constitutes a class of animals which have no feet, but always fins; add to this, thai their body is either altogether naked, or only covered FISH. with scales; and that they are aquatic animals, which live mostly, if not always, in water. They form the 4th class of animals in the Linnsean system, and are divided into six orders, viz. the apodes, thejugulares, the thoraii i, *h abdominales, the brand - iostegous, and rhrondroptervgious. See Natural His- tory, Pisces, kc. The aiu.oi.ds included in this class are always inhabitants of the wat is; are swift in their motions, and voracious in their app 'tites. They breathe by means of gills, which are gen rally united by a bony arch, swim by means of radiate fins, and are mostly co- vered with cartilaginous scales. Besides the parts which they have in common with other animals, they are fur- nished with a nictitant membrane, and most of them with an air-bladder, by the contraction and dilatation of which, they can raise or sink themselves at pleasure. They are destitute of eyelids, external ears, neck, arms and legs. Their food is mucus, insects, dead bodies, lesser sea-fish, and sea-plants. The generic character is taken from the shape of the body, covering, structure, figure, and parts of the head; but principally from the branchiostcgous membrane. The specific character is taken from the cirri, jaws, fins, spines, lateral lines, digitated appendages, tail and co- lour. The age of fishes is known by numbering the con- centric circles in a transverse section of the hi kbone, or the concentric circles on the scales. The characters of the six orders are, (1.) apodal, without ventral fins: (t.) jugular, ventral fins before the pectoral: (3.) thora- cic, ventral fins under the perioral: (4.) abdominal, ven- tral fins behind the pectoral: (5.) branchiostcgous, gills destitute of bony rays: (6.) chondropterygious, gills car- tilaginous. These two latter orders Linnaeus refers to the class amphibia nantes; so that in fact he admits of only 4 orders: under these he enumerates 189 genera, and about 400 species. Fish. Any person may erect a fish-pond without li- cence; because it is a matter of profit, and for the increase of victuals. 2 Inst. 199. Concerning the right and property offish, it has been held, that where the lord of the manor has the soil on both sides of the river, it is good evidence that he has the right of fishing; but where the river ebbs and flows, and is an arm of the se t, there it is common to all, and he who claims a privilege to himself must prove it. In the Severn, the soil belongs to the owners of the land, on each side; and the soil of the river Thames is in the king, kc. but the fishing is common to all. I Mod. 105. Any person who shall unlaw fully break, cut, or destroy, any head or dam of a fish-pond, or wrongfully fish there- in, with intent to take or kill fish, shall on conviction at the suit of the king, or of the party, at the assizes or ses- sions, be imprisoned three months, and pay treble damages, and after the expiration of the three months, shall find sureties for his good behaviour for seven years, or remain in prison till he does. 5 Eliz. c, 21. If any person shall enter into any park or paddock, fenced in and enclosed, or into any garden, orchard, or yard, adjoining or belonging to any dwelling house, in or through which park or p-iddock, garden, ore hard, or yard, any stream of water shall run, >r wherein shall be any river, stream, pond, pool, moai. -;te\v. or oth"r water, and by any means or device whatsoever, shall steal, take, vol. u. 15 kill, or destroy, any fish bred or kept in it, without the consent of tbe owner, or shall be aiding therein, or shall receive or buy any such fish, knowing them to be so sto- len or taken as aforesaid, and shall be convicted thereof at the assizes, within six calendar months after the of- fence shall be committed, he shall be transported for sti- ve n years. And any offender, surrendering himself to a justice, or being apprehended or in custody for such of- fence, or on any other account, who shall make confession thereof, and a true discovery on oath of his accomplice or accomplices, so that such accomplice may be apprehended, and shall on trial give evidence, so as to convict such accomplices, shall be discharged of the offence, so by him confessed. And if any person shall take, kill, or destroy, or at- tempt to take, kill, or destroy, any fish in any river, or stream, pond, pool, or other water, (not in any park or paddock, or in any garden, orchard, or yard, adjoining or belonging to any dwelling-house, but in any other in- closed ground, being private property) he shall, on con- viction before onejustice, on the oath of one witness, for- feit 5/. to the owner of the fishery of such river, pond, or other water; and such justice, on complaint upon oath, may issu hi-, warrant to bring the person complained of before him; and if he shall be convicted before such jus- tice, or any other of the county or plac , he shall imme- diately pay the said penalty of 51. to such justice, for the use of tiie person, as the same is appointed to be paid unto; and iu default thereof, shall be committed by such justice to the house of correction, for any time not ex- ceeding six months, unless the forfeiture shall be sooner paid: or such own'T of the fishery may, within six calen- dar months alter the offence, bring an action for the pe- nalty in any of the courts of record at Westminster. 5 G. III. c. 14. Fish, in a ship, a plank or piece of timber, fastened to a ship** mast or yard to strengthen it, which is done by nailing it on with iron spikes, and woulding or winding ropes hard about them. Fish, royal, these are whale and sturgeon, which the king is entitled to, when either are thrown on sliore, or eaugot near the coasts. Plowd. 315. Fishes, in heraldry, are the emblems of silence and watchfulness, and are borne either upright, embowed, extended, endorsed respecting each oth r, surmounting one another, fretted, ecc. In blazoning fishes, those borne feeding, slu.uld be termed devouring; all fishes borne upright and having fins, should be blazoned hau- riant; and those borne transverse the escuicheon, must be teroied naiant. Fish-ponds, those made for the breeding or feeding of fish. Fish-ponds are no small improvement of watery and lo,gy lands, many of whici are fit for no other use. Irimak ing of a ponw, is head should he at the lowest part of the ground, thatthe trench of the flood-gate or sluice, havi," a good fall, may not be too long in emptying: The h. st way of making the head secure, is to driv« in two or th«->e rows of stakes above six feet long, at about four feet dis- tance, from each other, the wh h length of the pond-head, of which the fiist row should be rammed at least about four feet deep. If the bottom is false, the foundation may be laid with quicklime, which slacking, will make it as FISH. Irard as a stone. Some lay a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out of the pond, among the piles and stakes; und when these arc well covered, drive in others, as they see occasion, ramming in the earth as before, till the pond-head is of the height designed. The dam should be made sloping on each side, leaving a waste to carry off the over-abundance of water in times of floods or rains; and as to the depth of the pond, the dc< pest part need not exceed six feet, rising gradually in shoj Is towards the sides, for the fish to sun themselves, and lay their spawn. Gravelly and sandy bottoms, es- pecially the latter, arc best for breeding; and a fat soil, with a white fat water, as the washings of hills, commons, streets, sinks, kc. is best for fattening all sorts of fish. For storing a pond, carp is to be preferred for its quick growth, and great increase, as breeding five or six times a year; but tench for its goodness. The quantity of fish to be supplied obviously depends upon the quantity of water, which should be divided, where it conveniently can, into five ponds. Number 5 is intended for breeding, and should be dou- ble or treble the size of any of the other ponds. Or if this be inconvenient, there may be two for this purpose. This pond may likewise be the most distant from the house. If the breeding pond should fail to answer this purpose, it w ill at least serve as a conservatory for fish of small size, to be obtained elsewhere: and indeed, fresh stores in any case will be found desirable. The contents of this pond in carp and tench, or the greatest part, should he taken out annually in September or October, counted in braces, and such as are from five to seven inches long thrown into the pond called No. 4. The contents of No. 4, when grown one year from the length of five or seven inches, must be put into No. :3. The contents of No. 3, having grown one year from No. 4, must be removed into No. 2. And in like manner, the contents of No. 2, after one year, must be removed into No. 1, which is to contain only such fish as are fit for the table. It is obvious that this pond, for safety and convenience, should be the nearest to the house. As No. 5 is to be the largest water, so No. l is to be the least; the rest of sizes between the two. The shape of No. 1 should be oblong, for the conve- nience of the net, and the less disturbance of the fi.-di in taking out what are wanted from time to time. A book should be kept of the number and size of each kind in every pond. Carp are fit for the table from three to seven pounds each. Tench from one pound and a half to three pounds each. Perch from three quarters of a pound to one or two pounds, kc. It is supposed that none of the ponds have a strong current of very cold, acrid, innutritions water. One acre of water upon a loam, clay, or marl, or any of these with a mixture of gravel, has been st t'd to be capable of supporting 2000 pounds woight of fish: the number of the fish making that weight being immaterial. Carp and tenth breed most freely in ponds, or pits newly made. Tench likewise in almost any ponds, where cattle are admitted. It is evident that perch and pike should not be admit- ted in any degree iu Xo. 5; but in all the other numbers, besides their own value, they are of important service, £ provided that they are strictly confined to a size greatly subordinate to that of the carp, or tench. For they de- stroy not only the accidental spawn of fish which breed, but also several animals, whose food is the same with that of carp and tench, as frogs, newts, kc. Pike above the weight of one or two pounds must not be admitted even amongst carp of the largest size and weight. With regard to the absolute weight of fish, which any particular pond will support, this can only be determin- ed by observation and experience; as it depends on the different degrees of nutrition in different waters. It is said, that carp and tench in waters which feed well, will before they are aged, double their weight in one year. The third part of an acre in No. 1 would probably bo sufficient for the demand of any family. For, upon th« calculation above given, it would support near 700 pounds of fish, which might be divided thus. 50 brace of carp of three pounds each and upwards. 50 brace of tench, of two pounds each and upwards. 50 brace of perch, of one pound each and upwards. That is, three brace of fish, weighing at least twelve pounds, for the use of every week. Allowing one acre for No. 5, one-third of an acre for No. 1, and one acre and two-thirds for the intervening numbers, the whole water would be three acres. Upon this calculation the stock of No. 1 at Bd. per pound, would be worth 23/. 6s. 8d. per annum, and the expense annually of changing the fish from No. 5 to 4, &c. will not exceed 1/. 6s. 8d. So that the value of each acre would be at lowest 71. 6s. Sd. annually. No. l being supposed to be near the house, and at no great distance from the garden, if the fish should not thrive sufficiently, which will be seen by the dispropor- tioned size of the head, and the whiteness or paleness of the scales, they may easily be supplied with more food by loose peas from the garden, the sweeping of the gra- nary, worms saved by the gardener in digging,1 and the offal of the poultry killed for the kitchen; or by letting down the water about two feet, in the spring or summer, where there is a sufficient supply, and sowing the sides with oats, barley, rye, or wheat, very lightly raked in, and then stopping the sluice again. In ponds already stocked, but not accurately regulated, it would be advisable to begin with that which has the most pike, otherwise with No. 4, or what is intended for No. 4, aud throw all the fish under five inches length into No. 5, and the larger, according to their sizes, into the other numbers: and so on with No. 3, 2, 1. Store-fish procured elsewhere, if taken in summer, should be moved in the night in clean straw, wetted oc- casionally after they are packed: ex ept perch and pike, which (an only be carried in clean pond or river water. In moving fish from one pond to another, they should be hist put into tubs of water already prepared for them, and afterwards carried in buckets without water. In taking pike or perch, great care must be observed to avoid raising mud in the water. In breeding-ponds, all water-fowls, as geese, ducks, et<. should be discouraged; and herons carefully destroy- ed. If any white fish, as roach, dace, &c. should be tound, they are to be taken out; and if there is a snare piece of water for large pike they should be put into it as food for the pike. F I S F I S Eels may beput with advantage into any except the breeding-ponds, in lieu of perch. The most easy way of taking them is by trimmers laid over night, baited with small fish, not with worms; otherwise they may catch the carp; or a small thief-net may be baited with white fish. Common sewers and drains from the laundry are prejudicial to fish: so are the leaves falling from trees in great quantities. The use of grains should likewise be avoided in large quantities, as having little nutriment whilst they are thus washed with water. It seems better for the use of the table, as well as more humane, to kill 'fish designed for food by an incision with a sharp-pointed penknife, or punctures made with a pin longitudinally into the brain, about half an inch or an inch, according to the size of the fish, above the eyes. As this produces an instantaneous effect, it would proba- bly save the crujbl operation of (limping or flaying fish while alive, as-'in the case of pike and eels. Ii is obvious, that this method of regulating fish will apply with its full effect in larger spaces of water: it will likewise apply in a considerable degree to smaller pieces, even where the change is but from a pond for the use of cattle to a single canal in a garden. In situations near the great inland manufactures, and near the turnpike roads leading from an easy distant*' to the metropolis, water may be made by this kind of man- agement, with little trouble or expense, to produce a large annual rent. FISHERMEN. There shall be a master, wardens, and assistants of the fishmongers' company in London chosen yearly, at the next court of the lord mayor and aldermen after the 10th of June, who are constituted a court of assistants; and they shall meet once a month at their common hall to regulate abuses in fishery, register the names of fishermen, and mark their boats, kc. FISHERY, a place where great numbers of fish are caught. The principal fisheries for salmon, herring, mackrel, pilchards, kc. are along the coasts of England, Scotland, and Ireland; for cod, on the banks of Newfoundland; for whales, about Greenland; and for pearls, in the East and West Indies. Fishery,/rec, in law, or an exclusive right of fishing in a public, river, is a royal franchise; and is considered as such in all countries where the feodal polity has pre- vailed: though the making such grants, and by that nu-aus appropriating, what it seems unnatural to restrain, the use of running water, was prohibited for the future by Magna Charta; and the rivers that were fenced in king John's time were directed to be laid open, as well as the forests, to be disforested. This opening was ex- tended by the second and third charters of Henry III. to those also that were fenced under Richard I.; so that a franchise of free fishery ought now to be as old at least as the reign of Henry 11. This differs, as judge Blackstone observes, from a several of piscary, because he that has a several fishery must also be the owner of the soil, which in a free fishery is not requisite. It differs also from a common fishery, in that the free fishery is an exclusive right; the common is not so; and there- fore, in a free fishery, a man has a property in the fish before they are caught; in a common piscary, not till afterwards. Some indeed have considered a free fishery not as a royal franchise, but merely as a private grant of a liberty to fish in the several fishery of the grantor. But the considering such right as originally a flower of the prerogative, till restrained by Magne Charta, and derived by royal grant (previous to the reign of Richard I.) to such as now claim it by prescrip- tion, may remove some difficulties in respect to this matter with which our law-books are embarrassed. Fishery, denotes also the commerce of fish, more particularly the catching thein for 'sale. Were we to enter into a very minute consideration of the fisheries established in England, this article would swell be- yond its proper bounds; since fisheries, however, if successful, are not only objects of great commercial importance, but also contribute materially to naval strength, by becoming permanent nurseries for seamen. we shall take notice of some of the most considerable of the British fisheries, and the institutions set on foot for their support. The situation of the British coasts is the most advan- tageous in the would for catching fish: the Scottish isl- ands, particularly those to the north and west, lie most commodious for carrying on the fishing trade to perfec- tion. Of these advantages the Scots seem indeed to have been abundantly sensible; for their traffic iu herrings is even noticed in history so early as the ninth century. The frequent laws which were enacted in the reigns of James HI. IV. and V. discover a steady determined zeal for the benefit of the country, and the full restora- tion of these fisheries, which the Dutch had found means to engross. The Scottish fisheries were, however, more particu- larly indebted to the zealous encouragement of James V. and VI.; the former having planned, and the latter carried into execution, various projects for their exten- sion. The well-meant efforts of James VI. were im- peded, and at last wholly suspended, by the disputes which prevailed in the kingdom at that period concern- ing the succession. Nevertheless the plan was resumed by Charles I. who »• ordained an association of the three kingdoms, for a general fishing within tlu seas and coasts of his majesty's said kingdom; and for the government of the said association, ordained, that there should be a standing committee chosen and nominated by his ma- jesty and his successor from time to time," kc. Seve- ral persons of distinction embarked in the design, which the king honoured with his patronage, and encouraged by his bounty. He also ordered Lent to be more strictly observed; prohibited the importation of fish ta'r^-ii icy foreigners; and agreed to purchase from the company his naval stores, and the fish for his fleets. Thus the scheme for establishing a fishery in the Hebrides began to assume a favourable aspect; but all the hopes of the adventurers were frustrated by the breaking out of the ci- vil wars, and the very tragical '!>sth of their hi •tirf'ii; t^r. In 1661, Charles II., the duke of York, lord Claren- don, and other persons of rank and fortune, resumed the business of the fisheries with greater vigour than any of their predecessors. For this purpose.' the most salu- tary laws were enacted by the parliaments of England and Scotland; in virtue of which, all materials used in, or depending upon, the fisheries, were exempted from FISHERY. all duties, excises, or imposts whatever. In England, the company were authorised to set up a lottery,'and to have a voluntary collection in all parish churches. Houses of entertainment, as taverns, inns, ale-houses, were to take one or more barrels of herrings, at the stated price of 30s. per barrel: also 2s. 6d. per barrel Dutch was to be paid to the company on all imported fish taken by foreigners. Some families were also invited, or per- mitted, to settle at Stornaway: the herrings cured by the royal English company gave general satisfaction, and, as mentioned above, brought a high price for those days. Every circumstance attending this new esta- blishment seemed the result of a judicious plan and thorough knowledge of the business, when the necessi- ties of the king obliged him to withdraw his subscrip- tion or bounty; which gave such umbrage to the parties concerned, that they soon after dissolved. In 1677, a new royal company was established in England, at the head of which were the duke of York, the earl of Derby, &c. Besides all the privileges which former companies had enjoyed, the king granted this new company a perpetuity, with power to purchase lands; and also 20/. to be paid them annually, out of the customs of the port of London, for every dogger or buss they should build and send out for seven years to come. A stock of 10,980/. was immediately advanced, and after- wards 1600/. more. This small capital was soon ex- hausted in purchasing and fitting out busses, with other incidental expenses. The company made, however, a successful beginning; and one of their busses or doggers actually took and brought home 32,000 cod fish; other vessels had also a favourable fishery. Such flattering beginnings might have excited fresh subscriptions, when an unforeseen event ruined the whole beyond the possi- bility of recovery. Most of the busses had been built in Holland, and manned with Dutchmen; on which pre- tence the French, who were then at war with Holland, seized six out of seven vessels, with their cargoes and fishing-tackle: and the company being now in debt, sold in 1680 the remaining stores, kc. A number of gentle- men and merchants raised anew subscription of 60,000/. under the privileges and immunities of the former char- ter. This attempt also came to nothing, owing to the death of the king, and the troubles of the subsequent reign. Soon after the Revolution the business was again re- sumed upon a more extensive scale; the proposed capital being 300,000/. of which 100,000/. was to have been rais- ed by the surviving patentees or their successors, and 200.0CO/. by new subscribers. Copies of the letters pa- tent, the constitution of the company, and ts rms of sub- script n, were lodged at sundry places in London and Westminster for the perusal of tiie public, while the sub- scription was filling. It is probable that king William's partiality to the Dutch fisheries, the succeeding war, or both of these circumstances, frustrated this new at- tempt; of which we have no further account in the an- nals of that reign or since. The Scottish parliament had also, during the last three reigns, passed various acts for erecting compani-s and promoting the fisheries; but the intestine commo- tions of that country, and the great exertions which were made for the Darien establishment, enfeebled all other attempts, whether collectively or by individuals, within that kingdom. In 1749, bis late majesty, having, at the opening of the parliament, warmly recommended the improvement of the fisheries, the house of commons appointed acorn- mittee to inquire into the state of the herring and white fisheries, and to consider of the most probable means of extending the same. All ranks of men were elevated with an idea of the boundless riches that would flow into the kingdom from this source. A subscription of 500,000/. was immediately filled in the city, by a body of men who were incorporated for 21 years by the name of The Society of the Free British Fishery. Every en- couragement was held out by government, both to the society and to individuals, who might embark in this national business. A bounty of 36s. per ton was to be paid annually out of the customs, for 14 years, to the owners of all decked vessels or busses, from 20 to 80 tons burden, which should be built after the com- mencement of the act, for the use of, and fitted out and employed in, the said fisheries, whether by the society or any other persons. At the same time numerous pam- phlets and newspaper-essays came forth; all pretending to elucidate the subject, and to convince the public with what facility the herring-fisheries might be transferred from Dutch to British hands. This proved, however, a more arduous task than had been foreseen by superfi- cial speculators. The Dutch were frugal in their ex- penditures and living; perfect masters of the arts of fish- ing and curing, which they had carried to the greatest height and perfection. They were in full possession of the European markets; and their fish, whether deserv- ing or otherwise, had the reputation of superior quali- ties to all others taken in our seas. With such advan tages, the Dutch not only maintained their ground against this formidable company, but had also the plea- sure of seeing the capital gradually sinking, without having procured an adequate return to the ad venturers; notwithstanding various aids and efforts of government from time to time in their favour, particularly in 1757, when an advance of 20s. per ton was added to the bounty. In 1786 the. public attention was again called to the state of the British fisheries, by the suggestions of Mr. Dempster in the house of commons, and by different publications that appeared upon the subject; in conse- quence of which, the minister suffered a committee to be named, to inquire into this great source of national wealth. To that committee it appeared, that the best way of improving the fisheries was, to encourage the inhabitants living nearosi to the seat of them to become fishers. And it being found thatthe north-western coast id the kingdom, though abounding with fish and fine harbours, was utterly destitute of towns, an act was passed t.„. incorporating certain persons therein named, by the style of ..The British society for extending of the tislie.iis, and improving the sea-coasts of this king- dom; and to enable them to subscribe a joint stock, and therewith to purchase lands, and build thereon free tow s. vil ages, and fishing-stations in the Highlands, and islands in that p:.rt of Great Britain called Scot- I»nd, and f ,r other purposes. The isle of Mull I ™4 Broom, the Isles of Sky and of Canay, have already FISHERY, been marked as proper situations for some of these towns. The progress of such an undertaking from its nature must be slow, but still slower when carried on with a li- mited capital arising from the subscriptions of a few public-spirited individuals. But it is not to be doubted that it will ultimately tend to the increase of the fishe- ries, and to the improvement of the Highland part of the kingdom. Its tendency is also to lessen the emigra- tion of a brave and industrious race of inhabitants, many of whom have already removed with theirj fami- lies to America. Anchovy Fishery. The anchovy is caught in the months of May, June, and July, on the coasts of Catalonia, Provence, &c. at which season it constantly repairs up the straits of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean. Col- lins says they are also found in plenty on the western coasts of England and Wales. The fishing for them is chiefly in the night-time; when a light being put on the stern of their little fishing-vessels, the anchovies flock round, and are caught in the nets. But then it is asserted to have been found by experience, that anchovies taken thus by fire, arc neither so good, so firm, nor so proper for keeping, as those which are taken without fire. When the fishery is over, they cut off the heads, take out their gall and guts, and then lay them in barrels, and salt them. The common way of eating anchovies is with oil, vinegar, &c. in order to which they are first boned, and the tails, fins, &c. slipped off. Being put on the fire, they dissolve almost in any liquor. Or they are made into sauce by mincing them with pepper, &c. Some also pickel anchovies in small delft or earthen pots, made on purpose, of two or three pounds weight, more or less, which they cover with plaister to keep thein the better. Anchovies should be chosen small, fresh pick- led, white on the outside and red within. If genuine, they have round backs: for those which are flat or large are often nothing but sardines. Besides these qualities, the pickel, on opening the pots or barrels, should be of a good taste, and not have lost its flavour. Cod-Fishery. There are two kinds of codfish; the one green or white cod; the other dried or cured cod; though it is all the same fish differently prepared; the former being sometimes salted and barrelled, then taken out for use; and the latter having laid for a competent time in salt, and then dried in the sun or smoke. The chief fisheries for green cod are in the bay of Canada, on the great bank of Newfoundland, and on the isle of St. Peter, and the isle of Sable; to which places vessels resort from many parts both of Europe and l ***- ri< a. They are from 100 to 150 tons burthen, and will catch between 30.000 and 40,000 cod each. The most es- sential part of the fishery is. to have a master who knows how to cut up the cod. one who is skilled to take off the head properly, and above all a good Salter, on which the preserving of them, and consequently the success of the voyage, depend. The best season is fr tin the beginning of February to the en 1 of April; the fish, whi h in the winter retire to the deept st water, coining then on the banks, and fattening extremely. What are caught from March to June keep well; bu< those t ken in July, Au- gust, and September, when it is warm on the banks, are apt to spoil soon. Each fisher takes but one at a time, yet the most expert will take from 350 to 400 in a day; but that is the most, the weight of the fish and the great coldness on the bank fatiguing very much. As soon as the cod are caught, the heads are taken off; they are opened, gutted, and salted; and the Salter stows them in the bottom of the hold, head to tail, in beds a fathom or two square; putting layers of salt and fish alternately; but never mixing fish caught on different days. When they have lain thus three or four days to drain off the water, they are placed in another part of the ship, and salted again; where they remain till the vessel is loaded. Sometimes they are cut in thick pieces, and put in bar- rels for the greater convenience of carriage. The principal fishery for dry cod is, from Cape Rose to the Bay des Exports, along the coast of Placentia, in which compass there are several commodious ports for the fish to be dried in. These, though of the same kind with the fresh cod, are much smaller, and therefore fit- ter to keep, as the salt penetrates more easily into them. The fishery of both is much alike; only this latter is most expensive, as it takes up more time, and employs more hands, and yet scarcely half so much salt is spent in this as in the other. The bait is herring, of which great quantities are taken on the coast of Placentia. When several vessels meet and intend to fish in the same port, he whose shallop first touched ground, becomes entitled to the quality and privileges of admiral: he has the choice of his station, and the refusal of all the wood on the coast at his arrival. As fast as the masters arrive, they unrig all their vessels, leaving nothing but the shrouds to sustain the masts; and in the mean time the mates provide a tent on shore covered with branches of trees, with sails over them, with a scaffold of great trunks of pines, 12, 15, 16, and often 20 feet high, com- monly from 40 to 60 feet long, and about one-third as much in breadth. While the scaffold is preparing, the crew are fishing; and as fast as they catch, they bring their fish ashore, and open and salt them upon moveable benches; but the main salting is performed on the scaf- fold. When the fish have taken salt, they wash and hang them to drain on rails; when drained, they are laid on a sort of stages, w Inch arc small pieces of wood laid across, and covered with branches of trees, having the leaves stripped off for the passage of the air. On these stages they are disposed, a fish thick, head against tail, with the back uppermost, and are turned carefully every 24 hours. When they begin to dry, they are laid in heaps 10 or 12 thick, in order to retain their warmth; and every day the heroc a..,..pnlargcd, till they become double their fi>st "_..iiy; then two heaps are joined together, which they turn every day as before; lastly, they are salted again, beginning with those first salted; and being lai I in huge piles, they remain in that situation till they are carried on board the ships, where they are laid on the brandies of trees disposed for that purpose, upon the ballast, and round the ship, with mats to prevent their contracting any moisture. The cod supplies four kinds of commodities, viz. the sounds, the tongues, the roes, and the oil, wl.Hi is x- tractedfrom its liver. The first arc sal'cd at the fislu rv, together with the fish, and pit in barrels of from 6oo o 700 pounds. The tongue are cured in like manner, and brought in barrels of from 400 to 500 pounds. The roe* FISHERY. are also salted in barrels, and serve to cast into the sea to draw fishes together, and particularly pilchards. The oil comes in barrels of from 400 to 520 pounds and is used in dressing leather. In Scotland,they catch a small kind of cod on the coasts of Buchan, and all along the Murray Frith on both sides; as also in the Frith of Forth, Clyde, &c. which is much esteemed. They salt and dry them in the sun upon rocks, and sometimes in the chimney. Herring-Fishery. The great stations for the fishery are off the Shetland and Western isles, and off the coast of Norfolk, in which the Dutch also share. See the arti- cle CiiUPEA. There are two seasons for herring-fishing: the first from June to the end of August; and the second in autumn, when the fogs become very favourable for this kind of fishing. The Dutch begin their herring-fish- ing on the 24th of June, and employ a vast number of vessels called busses, between 54 and 60 tons burden each, and carrying three or four small guns. They ne- ver stir out of port without a convoy, unless there are enough together to make about 18 or 20 cannon among them, in which case they are allowed to go in company. Before they go out, they make a verbal agreement, which has the same force as if it was in writing. The regulations of the admiralty of Holland have been partly followed by the French and other nations, and partly im- proved and augmented with new ones; as, that mo fisher shall cast his net within 100 fathoms of another boat: that while the nets are cast, a light shall be kept on the hind part of the vessel: that when a boat is by any acci- dent obliged to leave off fishing, the light shall be cast into the sea: that when the greater part of a fleet leaves off fishing, and casts anchor, the rest shall do the same, &c. In the late king's reign, very vigorous efforts were made, and bounties allowed, for the encouragement of the British herring-fisheries: the first was, of 30s. per ton to every buss of 70 tons and upwards. This bounty was afterwards raised to 50s. per ton, to be paid to such adventurers as were entitled to it by claiming it at the place of rendezvous. The busses are from 20 to 90 tons burden, but the best size is 80. A vessel of 80 tons ought to take ten lasts, or 120 barrels of herrings, to clear ex- penses, the price off he fish to be admitted to be a guinea a barrel. A ship of this size out to have 18 men, and three boats; one cf 20 tons should have six men, and every five tons above require an additional hand. To every ton are 250 yards of net; so a vessel of 80 tons carries 20,000 square yards; each net is 12 yards long, and 10 deep; and every boat takes out from 20 to 30 nets, and puts them together, so as to form a long train; they are sunk at each eud of the train by a stone, which weighs it down to the full extent: the top is supported by buoys made of sheep-skin, with a hollow stick at the mouth, fastened tight; through this the skin is blown up, and then stopped with a peg, to prevent the escape of the air. Sometimes these buoys are placed at the top of the nets; at other times the nets are suffered to sink deeper, by lengthening the cords fastened to them, every cord being for that purpose 10 or 12 fathoms long. But the best fisheries are generally in more shallow water. Of the Scots fishery in the Western Isles, the following account is given by Mr. Pennant: "The fishing is always performed in the night, unless by accident. The busses remain at anchor, and send out their boats a little before sunset; which continue out, in winter and summer, till daylight; often taking up and emptying their nets, which they do 10 or 12 times in a night, in case of good success. During winter it isja most dangerous and fatiguing era- ploy, by reason of the greatness and frequency of the gales in these seas, and in such gales are the most successful captures; but by the providence of Heaven, the fishers'are seldom lost, and what is wonderful, few are visited with ill- ness. They go out well prepared, with a warm great coat, boots, and skin aprons, and a good provision of beef and spirits. The same good fortune attends the busses, which in the tempestuous season, and in the darkest nights, are continually shifting in these narrow seas from harbour to harbour. Sometimes 80 barrels of herrings are taken in a night by the boats of a single vessel. It once happened, in Loch-Slappan in Skie, that a buss of 80 tons might have taken 200 barrels in one night, with 10,000 square yards of net; but the master wras abliged to desist, for want of a sufficient number of hands to preserve the capture. The herrings are preserved by salting after the entrails are taken out. The last is an operation performed by the coun- try people, who get three-halfpence per barrel for their trouble, and sometimes even in the w inter, can gain fifteen- pence a day. This employs both women and children; but the salting is only entrusted to the crew of the busses. The fish arc laid on their backs in the barrels, and layers of salt between them. The entrails are not lost, for they are boiled into an oil; 8000 fish will yield ten gallons, valued at one shilling the gallon. A vessel of 80 tons take out 244 barrels of salt; a drawback is allowed for each barrel used by the foreign or Irish exportation of the fish; but there is a duty per barrel for the home-consumption, and the same for those sent to Ireland. The barrels are made of oak staves, chiefly from Virginia; the hoops from several parts of England, and are either of oak, birch, hazel, or willow; the last from Holland, liable to a duty. The barrels cost about 3s. each; they hold from 500 to 800 fish, according to the size of the fish; and are made to contain 32 gallons. The bar- rels are inspected by proper officers: a cooper examines if they are statutable and good; if faulty he destroys them, and obliges the maker to stand to the loss." Herrings are cured either white, (i. e. pickled) or red. Of the first, those done by the Dutch are the most es- teemed, being distinguished into four sorts, according to their sizes; and the best are those that are fat, fleshy, firm,and white, salted the same day they are taken with good salt and well barrelled. The British-cured her- rings are little inferior if not equal to the Dutch; for, in spite of all their endeavours to conceal the secret, their method of curing, lasting, or casking the herrings, has been discovered, and is as follows. After they have hauled in their nets, which they drag in the stern of their vessels backwards and forwards'in traversing the coast, they throw them upon the ship's deck, which is cleared of every thing for that purpose: the crew is sepa- rated into divisions, and each division has a peculiar task; one part opens and guts the herrings, leaving the melts and roes; another cures and salts them, by lining or rubbing their inside with salt; the next packs them, and between each row and division they sprinkle hand- FISHERY. fuls of salt; lastly, the cooper puts the finishing hand to all, by heading the casks very tight and stowing them in the hold. Red-herrings must lie 24 hours in the brine, inasmuch as they are to take all their salt there; and when they are taken out, they are spitted, that is, strung by the head on little wooden spits, and then hung in a chimney made for that purpose. After which, a fire of brush wood, which yields much smoke but no flame, being made under them, they remain there till sufficient- ly smoked and dried, and are afterwards barrelled up for keeping. Lobslei'-Fishery. Lobsters are taken along the Bri- tish channel, and on the coast of Norway, whence they arc brought to London for sale; and also in the frith of Edinburgh, and on the coast of Northumberland. See the article Cancer. By 10 and 11 W. III. c. 24. no lobster is to be taken under eight inches in length, from the peak of the nose to the end of the middle fin of the tail; and by 9 (». II. cap. 33. no lobsters are to be taken on the coast of Scotland from the first of June to the first of September. Mackrel-Fishery. The mackrel is a summer fish of passage, found in large shoals, in different parts of the ocean, not far north; but especially on the French and English coasts. The fishing is usually in the months of April, May, and June, and even July, according to the place. See Scomber. They enter the English Channel in April, and proceed up to the straits of Dover as the summer advances; so that by June they are on the coasts of Cornwall, Sussex, Normandy, Picardy, kc. where the fish is most considerable. They are an excellent food fresh; and not to be despised when well prepared, pick- led, and put up in barrels; a method of preserving them chiefly used in Cornwall. The fish is taken in two ways; cither with a line or nets: the latter is the more conside- rable, and is usually performed in the night-time. The rules observed in .the fishing for mackrel are much the same as those already mentioned in the fishery of her- rings. There are two ways of pickling them: the first is, by opening and gutting them, and filling the belly with salt, crammed in as hard as possible with a stick; which done they range them in strata or rows, at the bottom of the vessel, strewing salt between the layers. In the second way, they put them immediately into tubs full of brine, made of fresh water and salt, and leave them to steep, till they have imbibed sail enough to make them keep; after which they arc taken out, and barn lied up, taking care to press them close down. Mackrel are not cured or exported as merchandize, except a few by the Yarmouth and Leostoff merchants, but are generally consumed at home; especially in the city of London, and the sea-ports between the Thames and Yarmouth east, and the Land's-end of Cornwall west. Oyster-Fishery. This fishery is principally carried on at Colchester in Essex; Fe\ersham and Milton in Kent; I he Isle of Wight; the Swales of the Medway; and Ten- by on the coast of Wales. From Fe\ ersham, and the ad- jacent parts, the Dutch have sometimes loaded a hun- dred large hoys with oysters in a year. They are also taken in large quantities near Portsmouth, and in all the creeks and rivers between Southampton and Chichester: many of which aro carried about by sea to London and to Colchester, to be fed in the pits about Wavenhoe and other places. See Ostrea. Pilchard-Fishery. The chief pilchard-fisheries are along the coasts of Dalmatia, on the coast of Brctagne, and along the coast of Cornwall and Devonshire. That of Dalmatia is very plentiful: that on the coasts of Bre- tagne employs annually about SO0 ships. Of the pilchard- fishery on the coast of Cornwall, the following account is given by Dr. Borlase: " It employs a great number of men on the sea, training them to naval affairs; em- ploys men, women, and children at land, in salting, pres- sing, washing, and cleaning; in making boats, nets, ropes, casks, and all the trades depending on their con- struction and sale. The poor are fed with the offals of the captures, the land with the refuse of the fish and salt; the merchant finds the gains of commission and honest commerce, the fisherman the gains of the fish. Ships arc often freighted hither with salt, and into foreign coun- tries with fish, carrying off at the same time part of our tin. Of the usual produce of the great number of hogs- heads exported each year for ten years from 1747 to 1756 inclusive, from the four ports of Fowey, Falmouth, Pen- zance, and St. Ives, it appears that Fowey has exported yearly 1732 hogsheads; Falmouth 14,631 hogsheads and two-thirds; Penzance and Mount's-bay 12,149 hogs- heads and one-third; St. Ives 1282 hogsheads; in all amounting to 29,795 hogsheads. Every hogshead for ten years last past, together with the bounty allowed for each hogshead exported, and the oil made out of each hogshead, has amounted one year with another at an average, to the price of 1/. 13s. 3d.: so that the cash paid for pilchards exported has, at a medium, annually amounted to the sum of 49,532/. 10s." The numbers that are taken at one shooting out of the nets are amazingly great. Mr. Pennant says, that Dr. Borlase assured hiin, that on the 5th of October 1767, there were at one time inclosed in St. Ives's bay 7000 hogsheads, each hogshead containing 35,000 fish, in all 245 millions. The pilchards naturally follow the light, which con- tributes much to the facility of the fishery: the season is from June to September. On the coasts of France they make use of the roes of the cod-fish as a bait; which, thrown into the sea, makes them rise from the bottom, and run into the nets. On the English coasts there arc persons posted ashore, who, spying by the colour of the water where the shoals are, make signs to the boats to go among them to cast their nets. When taken, they are brought on shore to a warehouse, where they are laid up in broad piles, supported with backs and sides; and as they are piled, they salt them with bay-salt; in which lying to soak for 30 or 40 days, they run out much blood, with dirty pickel and bittern: then they wash them clean in sea-water; and when dry, barrel and press them hard down to squeeze out the oil, which issues out at a hole in the bottom of the cask. Salmon-Fishery. The chief salmon-fisheries in Eu- rope are in England, Scotland, and Ireland, in the ri\ers and sea-coasts adjoining to the river-montlH. The most distinguished for salmon in Scotland are, the river Tweed, the Clyde, the Tay, the Dec, the Don, the Spey, the Ness, the Bewly, kc. in most of which it is very common, about the height of summer, especially if the weather happens to be very hot, to catch four or five FISHERY, .sjcore of salmon at a draught. The chief rivers in Eng- land for salmon are, the Tyne, the Trent, tbe Severn, and the Thames. The fishing is performed with nets, and sometimes with a kind of locks or weirs made on purpose, which in certain places have iron or wooden grates so disposed, in an angle, that being impelled by any force in a contrary direction to the course of the river, they may give way and open a little at the point of contact, and immediately shut again, closing the angle. The salmon, therefore, coining up into the rivers, are ad- mitted into these grates, which open, and suffer them to pass through, but shut again and prevent their return. The -salmon is also caught with a spear, which they dart into him when they see him swimming near the surface of the water. It is customary likewise to catch them with a candle and lanthorn, or wisp of straw set on fire; for the fish naturally following the light, are struck with the spear, or taken in a net spread for that purpose, and lifted with a sudden jerk from the bottom. "The capture of salmon in the Tweed, about the month of July, (says Mr. Pennant) is prodigious. In a good fishery, often a boat-load, and sometimes near two, are taken in a tide: some few years ago there were above 700 fish taken at one haul, but from 50 to 100 is very frequent. The coopers in Berwick then begin to salt the salmon thoroughly in pipes and other large ves- sels, and afterwards barrel them to send abroad, having then far more than the London markets can take off their hands. " Most of the salmon taken before April, or to the setting in of the warm weather, is sent fresh to London in baskets; unless now and then the vessel is disappoin- ted by contrary winds of sailing immediately; in which case the fish is brought ashore again to the coopers' offices, and boiled, pickled, and kitted, and sent to the London markets by the same ship, and fresh salmon put in the baskets in lieu of the stale ones. At the beginning of the season, when a ship is on the point of sailing, a fresh clean salmon will sell from a shilling to eighteen pence a pound; and most of the time that this part of the trade is carried on, the prices are from five to nine shillings per stone; the value rising and falling according to the plenty of fish, or the prospect of a fair or foul wind. Some fish are sent in this manner to London the latter end of September, when the weather grows cool; but then the fish arc full of large roes, grow very thin-bel- lied, and are not esteemed so palatable. " The season for fishing in the Tweed begins Novem- ber 30th, but the fishermen work very little till after Christmas: it ends on Michaelmas-day; yet the corpo- ration of Berwick (who are conservators of the river) indulge the fishermen with a fortnight past that time, on account of the change of the style. "There are on the river 41 considerable fisheries, extending upwards, about 14 miles from the mouth (the others above being of no great value), which are rented for near 5400/. per annum: the expense attending the servants' wages, nets, boats, &c. amounts to 5000/, more; which together makes up the sum 10,400/. Now, in consequence, the produce must defray all, and no less than 20 times that sum of fish will effect it; so that 2( s,000 salmon must be caught there, one year with another. « Scotland possesses great numbers of fine fisheries on both sides of that kingdom. The Scotch in early times had most severe lavs against the killing of this fish: for the third offence was made capital, by a law of James IV. Before that, the offender had power to redeem his life. They were thought iu the time of Henry VI. a present worthy of a crowned bead; fop in that reign the queen of Scotland sent to the duchess of Clarence 10 casks of salted salmon, which Henry directed to pass duty-free. The salmon are cured in the same manner as at Berwick, and a great quantity is sent to London in the spring; but after that time, the adventurers begin to barrel and export them to foreign countries; but we believe that commerce is far less lucrative than it was in former times, partly owing to the great increase of the Newfoundland fishery, and partly to the general relaxa- tion of the discipline of abstinence in the Romish church. " Ireland (particularly the north) abounds with this fish; the most considerable fishery is at Cranna, on the river Ban, about a mile and a half from Coleraine. Whoa I made the tour of that hospitable kingdom in 1754, it was rented by a neighbouring gentleman for 620/. a year; who assured me, that the tenant, his predecessor, gave 1600/. per annum, and was a much greater gainer by the bargain, for the reasons before-mentioned, and on account of the number of poachers who destroy the fish in the fence-months. " The mouth of this river faces the north; and is finely situated to receive the fish that roam along the coast in search of an inlet into some fresh w ater, as they do all along that end of the kingdom which opposes itself to the northern ocean. We have seen near Ballieastle, nets placed in the sea at the foot of the promontories that jut into it, which the salmon strike into as they are wander- ing close to shore; and numbers are taken by that me- thod. "In the Ban they fish with nets 18 score yards long, and are continually drawing night and day the whole season, which we think lasts about four months, two sets of 16 men each alternately relieving one another. The best drawing is when the tide is coming in; we were told, that in a single draught there were once 840 fish taken. " A few miles higher up the river is a weir, where a considerable number of fish that escape the nets are taken. We were lately informed, that in the year 1760, about 320 tons were taken in the Cranna fishery." With regard to the manner of curing salmon when the fish are taken, they are opened along the back, the guts and gills, and the greatest part of the bones removed, so as to make the inside as smooth as possible. They then salt the fish in large tubs for the purpose, where they lie a considerable time soaking in brine; and about October, they pack them close up in barrels, and send them to London or up the Mediterranean. Thev have also in Scotland a great deal of salmon salted *in the common way, which after soaking in brine a competent time is well pressed, and then dried in smoke: this is called kip- per, and is chiefly made for home consumption; and if properly cured and prepared, is reckoned very delicious. Sturgeon-Fishery. See Accipenser. The greatest sturgeon-fishery is in the mouth of the Volga, on the Caspian sea; where the Muscovites employ a great num- FISHERY. ber of hands, and catch them in a kind of inclosure formed by huge stakes representing the letter Z repeated several times. These fisheries are open on the side next the sea, and close on the other, by which means the fish ascending in its season up the river, is embarrassed in these narrow angular retreats, and is easily killed with a harping-iron. Sturgeons, when fresh, eat deliciously; and in order to make them keep, they are salted or pic- kled in large pieces, and put in kegs of from 30 to 50 pounds. But the great object of this fishery is the roe, of which the Muscovites are extremely fond, and of which is made the cavear, or kavia, so much esteemed by the Italians. See Cavear. Tunny-Fishery. The tunny (a species of Scomber, which see) was a fish well known to the ancients, and made a great article of commerce: and there are still very considerable tunny-fisheries on the coasts of Sicily, as well as several other parts of the Mediterranean. The nets aro spread over a large space of sea by means of cables fastened to anchors, and are divided into several compartments. The entrance is always directed, accord- ing to the season, towards that part of the sea from which the fish are known to come. A man placed upon the summit of a rock high above the water, gives the signal of the fish being arrived; for he can discern from that elevation what passes under the waters infinitely better than any person nearer the surface. As soon as notice is given thatthe shoal offish has penetrated as far as the inner compartment, or the chamber of death, the passage is drawn close, aud the slaughter begins. The undertakers of these fisheries pay an acknowledgment to the king, or the lord upon whose land they fix the main stay or foot of the tonnara; they make the best bargain they can; and till success has crowned their endeavours, obtain this leave for a small consideration; but the rent is afterwards raised in proportion to their capture. The tunny enters the Mediterranean about the vernal equinox, travelling in a triangular phalanx, so as to cut the waters with its point, and to present an extensive base for the tides and currents to act against and impel for- wards. These fish repair to the warm seas of Greece to .spawn, steering their course thither along the European shores, but as they return, approach the African coast; the young fry is placed in the van of the squadron as they travel. They come back from the east in May, and abound on the coast of Sicily and Calabria about, tiiat tioie. In autumn they steer northward, and frequent the neighbourhood of Amain* and Naples; but during the whole season stragglers are occasionally caught. When taken in May, the usual time of their appearance in the Calabrian bays, they arc full of spawn, and their flesh is then esteemed unwholesome, apt to occasion head achs and flatulency; the milts and roes are particularly s > at that season. To prevent these bad effects, the natives fry them in oil, and afterwards salt them. The quantity of this fish consumed annually in the two Sicilies almost exceeds the bounds of calculation. From th.? beginning of May to the end of October it is eaten fresh, and all the rest of the year it is in ire salted. The most delicate partis the muzzle. The belly salted was called tarantal- lum, and accounted a great delicacy by the Romans: its present mine is s-ucra. The rest of the boJy is cut into slit es, and put into tr.hz. vox. 11. 16 Turbot-Fislicry. Turbots grow to a large size, viz. from 23 to 30 pounds. They are taken chiefly off the north coast of England, and others off the Dutch coast. The large turbot (as well as several other kinds of flat fish) are taken by the hook and line, for they lie in deep water; the method of taking them in weirs or staked nets being very precarious. When the fishermen go out to sea, each person is provided with three lines, which are coiled on a flat oblong piece of wicker-work; the hooks being baited, and placed regularly in the centre of the coil. Each line is furnished with 14 score of hooks, at the distance of six feet two inches from each other. The hooks are fastened to the lines upon sneads of twisted horsehair 27 inches in length. When fishing, there are always three men in each coble, and consequently nine of these lines are fastened together, and used as one line, extending in length near three miles, and furnished with 2550 hooks. An anchor and a buoy are fixed at the first end of the line, and one more of each at the end of each man's lines; in all four anchors, which are commonly perforated stones, and four buoys made of leather or cork. The line is always laid across the current. The tides of flood and ebb continue an equal time upon the coast, and, when undisturbed by winds, run each way about six hours; they are so rapid that the fishermen can only shoot aud haul their lines at the turn of the tide, and there- fore the lines always remain upon the ground about six hours; during which the myxinc glutinosa of Linneeus will frequently penetrate the fish that are on the hooks, and entirely devour them, leaving only the skin and bones. The same rapidity of tides prevents their using hand- lines; and therefore two of the people commonly wrap themselves in the sail, and sleep, while the other keeps a strict look-out, for fear of being run down by ships, and to observe the weather. For storms often rise so sud- denly, that it is with extreme difficulty they can some- times escape to the shore, leaving their lines behind. Besides the coble, the fishermen have also a five-men boat, which is forty feet long and 15 broad, and 25 tons burden; it is so called, though navigated by six men and a boy, because one of the men is commonly hired to cook, kc. and does not share in the profits with* the other five. This boat is decked at each end, but open in the middle, and has two large lug-sails. All the able fishermen go in these boats to the herring-fishery at Yarmouth in the end of September, and return about the m dole of Novem- ber. The boats are then laid up till the beginning of Lent, at which time they go off in them to the edge of the Dog- ger, and other places, to fish for turbot, coil, ling, skates, kc. They always take two cobles on board; and when they come upon their ground, anchor the boat, throw out the cobles, and fish in the same manner as those do who go from the shore in a coble; with this difference only, that here each man is provided with double the quantity of lines, and instead of waiting the return of the tide in the coble, they return to their boat and bait their other lines; thus bawling one s m the evening take a natural or artifi- cial Ay. H the day is warm and clear, there is no fly so good for h,m as the small fly at the top of the water, which he will take at any time of the dav, especially in the evening. But if the day is cold aiid'cloudy, gentles and caddis are the best; about two feet under water. But the best method is with a drabble, thus: tie 8 or 10 small hooks across a line, two inches above one another; the biggest hook the lowermost, (whereby you may some- FISHING. times take a bettcrj fish) and bait them with gentles, flies, or some small red worms, by which means you may take half a dozen or more at a time; but when you have them they are not worth the catching, except as a bait for pike, trout, &c. 3. For the bream observe the following directions, which will also apply to carp, tench, or perch fishing. Procure about a quart of large red worms: put them into fresh moss well washed and dried every three or four days, feeding them with fat mould and chopped fen- nel, and they will be thoroughly scoured in about three weeks. Let your lines be silk, and silkworm-gut at bottom; let the floats be either swan quills or goose-quills. Let your plumb be a piece of lead in the shape of a spear, with a small ring at the point of it; fasten the lead to the line, and the line-hook to the lead; about ten or twelve inches space between lead and book will be enough; and take care the lead be heavy enough to sink the float. Having baited your hook well with a strong worm, the worm will draw the book up and down in the bottom, which will provoke the bream to bite the more eagerly. It will be best to fit up three or four rods and lines in this manner, and set them as will be directed, and this will afford you much the better sport. Find the exact depth of the water if possible, that your float may swim on its surface directly over the lead; then provide the following ground-bait. Take about a peck of sweet gross-ground-malt, and having boiled it a very little, strain it hard through a bag, and carry it to the water-side, where you have sounded; and into the place where you suppose the fish resort, there throw in the malt by handfuls squeezed hard together, or rather mixed with a little clay, that the stream may not sepa- parate it before it comes to the bottom; and be sure to throw it in at least a yard above the place where you in- tend the hook shall lie, otherwise the stream will carry it down too far. Do this about nine o'clock at night, keeping some of the malt in the bag, and go to the place about three the next morning, but approach very warily, lest you should be seen by any of the fish; for it is said that they have their sentinels watching on the top of the water, while the rest are feeding below. Having baited your hook so that the worm may crawl to and fro, the better to allure the fish to bite, cast it in at the place where you find the fish to stay most, which is generally in the broadest and deepest part of the liver, so that it may rest about the middle of your ground-bait. Cast in your second line so that it may rest a yard above that, and a third about a yard below it. Let your rods lie on the bank with some stones to keep them down at the great ends; and then withdraw yourself, yet not so far but that you can have your eye upon all the floats: and when you see one bitten and carried away, do not be too hasty to run in, but give time to the fish to tire himself, and then touch him gently. When you perceive the float sink, creep to the water-side, and give it as much line as you can. If it is a bream or carp, he will run to the other side. Strike him gently, and hold your rod at a bend a little while, but do not pull, for then you will spoil all; but you must tire them before they can be landed, for they are very shy. If there are any carp in the river, it is an even chance that you take one or more of them; but if there are any pike or perch, they will b© sure to visit the ground-bait, though they will not touch it, being drawn together by the great resort of the small fish, and until you remove them, it is in vain to think of taking the bream or carp. In this case, bait one of your hooks with a small bleak, roach, or gudgeon, about two feet deep from your float, with a little red worm at the point of your hook, and if a pike is there he will be sure to snap at it. This sport is good till nine o'clock in the morning, and in a gloomy day till night; but do not fre- quent the place too much, lest the fish grow shy. 4. The carp. A person who angles for carp, must arm himself with abundance of patience, because of their ex- traordinary subtilty and shyness: they always choose to lie in the deepest places either of ponds or rivers, where there is but a small running stream. Further, observe, that they will seldom bite in cold weather; and you cannot be too early or too late at the sport in hot weather; y et if he bites you need not fear his hold, for he is one of those leather-mouthed fish that have their teeth in the throat. Neither must you forget, in angling for him, to have a strong rod and line; and since he is so very wary, it will be proper to entice him, by baiting the ground with a coarse paste. He seldom refuses the red worm in March, the caddis in June, or the grasshopper in July, August, and Septem- ber. This fish, however, does not only delight in worms* but also in sweet paste, of which there is great variety; the best is made of honey and sugar mixed up with flour, some veal minced fine, and a little cotton, or white wool to make it adhere to the hook. Some of it ought to be thrown into the water a few hours before you begin to angle; neither will small pellets thrown into the water two or three days before be worse for this purpose, espe- cially if chickens' guts, garbage, or blood mixed with bran and cow-dung, are also thrown in. If you fish with gentles, anoint them with honey. Honey and crumbs of wheat-bread, mixed together, make also a very good paste; or pellets of wheat-bread alone will answer very well. In taking a carp either in a pond or river, if the an- gler intends to add profit to his pleasure, he must take a peck of ale-grains, and a good quantity of any blood to mix with the grains; baiting the ground with it where he intends to angle. This food will wonderfully attract the scale-fish, as carp, tench, roach, dace, and bream. Let him angle in a morning, plumbing his ground, and angling for carp with a strong line: the bait must be either paste or a knotted red worm; and by this means he will have sport enough. 5. The pike is caught either by a live bait, which is cruel, or by a trowl, which is a dead or artificial fish, frog, or mouse, fastened to a double hook with some lead to sink it, and gently played by the hand of the angler so as to imitate life. There are two ways of trowiing, at snap or at gorge; at snap, the anglerstrikes the mo- ment the fish springs at the bait; at gorge he suffers him to carry it to his hole, giving it out line as may be re- quired, and swallow it, and strikes him in about ten mi- nutes. 6. Salmon and trout fishing are nearly alike. The trout is caught with a worm, a miunow, or a fly; but th« FISHING. only elegant sport of this kind is that with the artificial fly, which will be afterwards described. 7. The gudgeon is a small fish, of very delicious taste. It spawns three or four times in the summer season, and feeds in streams, slighting all kinds of flies, but is easily taken with a small red w»rm, fishing near the ground; and being a leather-mouthed fish, will not easily get off the hook when struck. The gudgeon may be either fish- ed with a float, the hook being on the ground, or by hand, with a running line on the ground without cork or float. He will bite well at wasps, gentles, and cad- worms; and a person may fish with two or three hooks at the same time. Before you angle for gudgeons, stir up the sand or gravel with a long pole, which will make them gather to the place, and bite the faster. 8. The tench is a fine fresh-water fish, having very small scales, but large smooth fins, with a red circle about the eyes, and a little barb hanging at each corner of the mouth. It takes more delight among weeds in Description of proper baits for the several sorts offish referred to in the foregoing table.—Flies. 1. Stone-fly, found under holiow stones at the side of rivers, is of a brown colour, with yellow streaks on the back and bel- ly, has large wings, and is in season from April to July. 2. Green drake, found among stones by river-sides, has a yellow body ribbed with green, is long and slender, with wings like a butterfly, his tail turns on his back, and from May to midsummer is very useful. 3. Oak- fly found in the body of an old oak, or ash, with its head downwards, is of a brown colour, and excellent ponds than in clear rivers, and loves to feed m foul wa- ter. His slime is said to have a healing quality for wounded fish, upon which he is called the fishes' phy- sician. When carp, pike, &c. aro hurt, it is said they find relief by rubbing themselves against the tench. The season for catching this fish is June, July, and Au- gust, very early and late, or even all night, in the still part of the rivers. The bait is a large red worm, at which he bites eagerly, especially if dipped in tar. He delights in all sorts of paste made of strong-scented oils, or tar, or a paste of brown-bread and honey; nor does he refuse the cad worm, lobworm, flagworm, green gentles, cod bait, or soft boiled bread-grain. 9. Smelts are caught at high-tide during the summer and autumn months, with a book and line, about Lime- house and Poplar. They fish with about ten hooks on the same line, at different depths, each baited with a small piece of smelt, and sometimes two or three are caught at once. from May to September. 4. Palmer-fly or worm, ra- ther a hairy caterpillar, found on leaves of plants, and when it comes to a fly is excellent for trout. 5. Ant- fly, found in ant-hills from June to September. 6. The May-fly is to be found playing by the river-side, espe- cially against rain. See Ephemera. 7. The black-fly is to be found upon every hawthorn after the buds are fallen off. Almost the only sport in fishing that may be called so, is fly-fishing. The fly is either natural or artificial. 1. Natural flies are innumerable. The most usual An Epitome of the whole Art of Fishing, wherein are shown at one view, the Harbours, Seasons, and Depths, for catching all sorts of Fish usually angled for; also the various Baits for each, so digested as to contain the Essence of all the Trmtiws ^ver written on the subject, exempt from the superfluities, which tend more to vcvplex ihanin-trwt. Names. Bream Barbel Bleak Carp Chub or ") Chevin y Dace Gudgeon Pike Perch < Pope Itoach Salmon Smelts Trout Tench Umber or> Grayling 3 Where found. rough str. river or mid. pond gravel-banks in currents unde bridges sandy bottom, deep rivers, ships' sterns still deep mud bottom, pond or river ditto sandy bottom, deep rivers, ships' sterns gravel shoals near clay-banks river in stream "^ gravel > or weedy pond deepest part j bottom deep holes in rivers sandy bottom, deep rivers, ships' sterns deep rivers ships3 sterns and docks purling stream, and eddies ot stony-bottom river mud-bottom, river or pond clay-bottom, swift stream Season. April to Mich April to Aug May to Oct. May to Aug May to Dec. May to Oct May to Oct. all the year May to Aug. Aug to Miiy. May to Oct. May to Oct. Mar. to Sept. Apr. to Oct. Mur. to Midi all the year all the year me to angle. sun-rise to 9 3 to sun-set very early or late all day sun-rise to 9 J to sun-set ditto all day ditto ditto S.-rise to 10 2 to sun-set mid-day all day ditto 8 to 9, 3 to 6 all day ditto sun-rise to 9 3 to sun-set all day 5 Depth from ground. touch ground ditto 6 inches from bottom 3 inches from bottom hot weather, mid-water ditto 6 to 12 inches from bottom near, or on ground mid-water ditto 6 inches from bottom ditto 6 to 12 inches mid-way to the bottom mid-way to the bottom variable cold weather, 6 inches to 9 hot weath. top to mid-wat. cold wea. 3 inch, from bot- hot weather, mid-water cold weather, 6 to 9 inch hot weath. top to mid-wat Proper Baits. Flies. No. 1 2 1 to 5 ditto wh. stro. and snap 5 12 4 5 all large all small 1 to 5 I I to 5 Pastes No. 1 3 Woims. No. 1 tor 2 2 6 7 2 2 3 8 1 3 4 1234 7 2 1245 3 4 1 to 5 8c fc ditto line float hook fixt 2 8 on shore 1 3578 all ditto 3 4 1567 12 5 1 2 5 to 8 1 3 4 134to7 ---- all Pish and Insects. No. 8 7 '8 1234 567 1 6 bits of smelts 1 8 1 8 PIS F I .S for this purpose are mentioned in the above lines. There are two ways to fish with natural flies; either on the sur- face of the water, or a little underneath it. In angling for chevin, roach, or dace, move not your natural fly swiftly, when you see the fish make at it; but rather let it glide freely towards him with the stream: but if it be in a still or slow water, draw the fly slowly sideways by him, which will make him eagerly pursue it. 2. The artificial fly is best used when the waters are so troubled by the winds, that the natural fly cannot be seen nor rest upon them. *Of artificial flies there are reckoned no less than 12 sorts, of which the following are the principal. 1. For March, the dun-fly, made of dun-wool, and the feathers of the partridge's wing, or the body made of black wool, and the feathers of a black drake. 2. For April, the stone-fly, the body made of black wool, with a little yellow under the wings and tail. 3. For the beginning of May, the ruddy fly, made of red wool, and bound about with black silk, with the feathers of a black capon hanging dangling on his sides next his tail. 4. For June, the greenish fly, the body made of black wool, with a yellow list on either side, the wings taken off the wings of the buzzard, bound with black broken hemp. 5. The moorish fly, the body made of duskish wool, and the wings made of the black- ish mail of a drake. 6. The tawny fly, good till the middle of June, the body made of tawny wool, the wings made contrary one against the other, of the whitish mail of a white drake. 7. For July, the wasp-fly, the body made of black wool, cast about with yellow silk, and the wings of drakes' feathers. 8. The steel-fly, good in the middle of July, the body made with greenish wool, cast about with the feathers of a peacock's tail, and the wings made of those of the buzzard. 9. For August, the drake-fly, the body made with black wool cast about with black silk, his wings of the mail of a i.l.u k drake with a black head. The May-fly is also ex- cellently imitated by the tackle-makers. The best rules for artificial fly-fishing are; I. To fish in a river somewhat disturbed with rain: or in a cloudy day, when the waters are moved by a gentle breeze; the south wind is best; and if the wind blows high, yet not so but that you may conveniently guard your tackle, the fish will rise in plain deeps: but if the wind is small, the best angling is in swift streams. 2. Keep as far from the water-side as may be; fish down the stream with the sun at your back, and do not disturb the water with your line. 3. Ever angle in clear rivers with a small fly and slender wings; but in muddy places use a larger. 4. When after rain the water becomes brown- ish, use an orange fly; in a clear day, a light-coloured fly; a Hark fly for dark waters, kc. 5. Let the line be at least twice as long as the rod, unless the river is en- cumbered with trees. 6. For every sort of fly, have several of the same, differing in colour, to suit with the different complexions of several waters and weathers. 7. Have a nimble eye and active hand, to strike present- ly with the rising of the fish, or else he will be apt to throw out the hook. 8. Let the fly fall first into the water, and not the line, which will scare the fish. 9. In slow waters, or still places, cast the fly across the river, and let it sink a little in the water, and draw it gently back with the current. Salmon-flies should he made with their witogs standing one behind theoihcr, whether two or four. This fish delights in the gaudiest colour* that can be; chiefly in the wings, which must be long. as well as the tail. The best wing is the hackle of the golden pheasant. Pastes.—I. Take the blood of a sheep, and mix it with honey and flour to a proper consistence. 2. Take old cheese grated, a little butter sufficient to work it, and colour it with saffron; in winter use rusty bacon instead of butter. 3. Crumbs of bread chewed or worked with honey or sugar, moistened with gum-water. 4. Bread chewed, and worked in the hand till it becomes stiff, which with a little cotton wool to make it stick on the hook is the best of all. Worms.—1. The earth-bob, found in sandy ground after ploughing; it is white, with a red head, and bigger than a gentle; another is found in heathy ground with a blue head. Keep them in an earthen vessel well covered, and a sufficient quantity of the mould they harbour in. They are excellent from April to November. 2. Gentles, to be had from putrid flesh; let them lie in wheat-bran a few days before used. 3. Flag-worms, found in the roots of flags: they are of a pale yellow colour, are lon- ger and thinner than a gentle, and must be scoured like them. 4. Cow-dung, bog, or clap-bait, found under cow-dung from May to Michaelmas; it is like a gentle, but larger. Keep it in its native earth like the earth- bob. 5. Cadis-worm, or cod-bait, found under loose stones in shallow rivers: they arc always covered with a case of sticks or small gravel, and when drawn out of their case are yellow, bigger than a gentle, with a black or blue head, and arc in season from April to July. Keep them in flannel bags. 6. Lob-wv>rm, found in gardens: it is very large, and has a red head, a streak down the back, and a flat broad tail, 7. Marsh worms, found in marshy ground; keep them in moss ten days before you use them: their colour is a blueish red; are a good bait from March to Michaelmas. 8. Brandling or red-worms, found in rotten dunghills and tanners' bark; they are red or rather striped worms, very good for all small fish, have sometimes a yellow tail, or a smaller sort are called tag-tails or gilt-tails, they have not the annular stripe of the brandling. Fish and Insects.—1. Minnow. 2. Gudgeon. 3. Roach. 4. Dace. 5. Smelt. 6. Yellow frog. 7. Snail slit. 8. Grasshopper. Floats, are little appendages to the line, used for fish- ing at bottom, and serving to keep the hook and bait suspended at the proper depth, to discover when the fish have hold of them, &c. Of these there are many kinds: some made of quills, which are the best for slow waters; but for strong streams sound cork, without haws or holes, bored through with a hot iron, into which is put a quill of a fit proportion, is preferable; the cork should be sha- ped to a pyramidal form, and made smooth. The fishing-hook, in general, ought to be long in the shank, somewhat thick in the riirumi'cren'-c, the point even and straight; the bend should be in the shank. For setting the hook on, use strong but small silk, laving the hair on the inside of the hook; for if it is on the "outside, the silk will fret and cut it asunder. FISSURE of the bones, in surgery, is when thev are divided cither transvei-sely or longitudinally, not'quite F I S FLA through, but cracked after the manner of glass, by any external force. See Surgery. FISTULA, in the ancient music, an instrument of the wind-kind, resembling our flute, or flageolet. See Flute. Fistula, in surgery, a deep, narrow, and callous ulcer, generally arising from abscesses. See Surgery. FISTULARIA, pipe-fish, a genus of the order abdo- minales. The generic character is, snout cylindric; mouth terminal; body lengthened; gill-membraue seven- Tray ed. 1. Fistularia tabacaria, or slender fistularia. This highly singular fish seems to have been first described by Marcgrave in his Natural History qf Brasil, under the name of petimbuaba. He informs us that it grows to the length of three or four feet, and is of a shape resembling that of an eel. with the mouth toothless and pointed, and theupperlip longer than the lower; the head about nine inches long, from the eyes to the tip of the mouth; the eyes are large and ovate, with a bright-blue pupil and sil- very iris, marked on the fore and hind part by a red spot; the skin smooth, like that of an eel, and of a liver-colour marked both above and on each side by a row of blue spots, with greenish ones intermixed. The appearance of the tail is highly singular, being pretty deeply forked, as in the generality of fishes, while from the middle of the furcature springs a very long and thickish bristle or process, of a substance resembling that of a whalebone, and gradually tapering to a fine point. A variety has been observed by Dr. Bloch, in which this part was double, and the snout serrated on each side. This variety, or perhaps sexual difference, appears from the observa- tions of Commerson, detailed by Cepede, to be of a brown colour above, and silvery beneath, but without the Mue spots so remarkable on the smooth-snouted kind. The count de Cepede informs us that the spine of this fish is of a very peculiar structure; the first vertebra being of immoderate length, the three next much shorter, and the rest gradually decreasing as they approach the tail: he adds that there are no visible ribs. This species is said to live chiefly on the smaller fishes, sea-insects, and worms, which the structure of its snout enables it readily to obtain by introducing that part into the cavities of the rocks, under stones, &c. where those animals are usually found. 2* Fistularia Chinensis, or Chinese fistularia. Length from three feet to four feet; general shape like that of an eel, but the body thicker in proportion than in the pre- ceding species: head lengthened into a strong cartilagin- ous, or rather bony and laterally compressed tubular snout, much broader than in the former species: mouth small; eyes rather large; scales of moderate size, strong, and much resembling in their structure those of the gene- ra perca and chaetodon; from the middle of the back to the dorsal fin run several strong, short, and rather dis- tant spines: doi'sal and anal fin of similar shape, and placed opposite each other, pretty near the tail, which is s/hort, rounded, and marked by a pair of black stripes; pectoral fins rounded: ventral small, and placed conside- rably beyond the middle of the body: general colour pale reddish-brown, with several deep or blackish spots on various parts of the body, and three or four pale or whit- ish, longitudinal stripes on each side, from the gills to the (ail: fins pale yellow. Native of the Indian seas, prey- ing on worms, sea-insects, kc. Though observed only in the tropical seas, yet its fossil impressions have been found under the volcanic strata of mount Bolca in the neighbourhood of Verona. 3. Fistularia paradoxa, paradoxical fistularia. A small species, described by Seba, and more accurately by Dr. Pallas. Length from two to four inches: body an- gular, and beset at the interstices of the lines with small spines: head small: eyes large, and situated at the base of the snout, which much resembles that of a syngnathus, and is long, slightly descending, straight, horny, com- pressed, sharp above, and biearinated beneath: it is arm- ed on each side, near the base, by a small conic spine. It is a native of the Indian seas. FIT, in medicine, denotes much the same with parox- ysm. See Paroxysm. Fits of easy reflection and transmission. Sec Optics, FITCHEE', in heraldry, a term applied to a ro.-s, when the lower end of it is sharpened into a point. FIXED booies are those which bear a considerable degree of heat without evaporating, or losing any of their weight. See Chemistry. Fixed air. See Air, Carbonic acid gas, and Chemistry. Fixed stars. See Astronomy. FLACOURTIA, a genus of the class and order dioc- cia polyandria. The male calyx is five-parted; corolla none; stamina very numerous. Female calyx many- leaved; corolla none; germen superior. Styles 5 to 9. Berry many-celled. There is one species, a small tree of Madagascar, bearing an eatable fruit in some degree resembling a plumb. FLAG, a general name for colours, standards, an- cients, banners, ensigns, &c. which are frequently con- founded with each other. The fashion of pointed, or triangular flags, as now used, came from the Mahometan Arabs, or Saracens, upon their seizing of Spain, before which time all the en- signs of war were stretched, or extended on cross pieces of wood, like the banners of a church. The pirates of Algiers, and throughout the coasts of Barbary, bear an hexagonal flag. Flag, is more particularly used at sea, for the colours, ancients, standards, &c. borne on the top of the masts of vessels, to notify the person who commands the ship, of what nation it is, and whether it is equipped for war or traue. The admiral in chief carries his flag on the maintop; and the vice-admiral on the fore-top; and the rear-admi- ral on the mizen top. When a council of war is to be held at sea, if it is on board the admiral, they hang a flag in the main shrouds; it in the vice-admiral, in the fore shrouds; and if in the rear-admiral, in the mizen shrouds. Beside the national flag, merchant-ships frequently bear lesser flags on the mizen mast, with the arms of the city where the master ordinarily resides: and on the fore- mast, with the arms of the place where the person who freights them lives. To lower, or strike the Flag, is to pull it down upon the cap, or to take it in, out of respect, or submission, due trom all ships or fleets inferior, to those any way justly FLA FLA their superiors. To lower or strike the flag in an en- gagement is a s'gn of yielding. The way of leading aship in triumph is to tie the flags to the shrouds or the gallery, in the hind part of the ship, and let them hang down towards the water, and to tow the vessels by the stern. To heave out the Flag, is to put out, or put abroad, the flag. To hang out the white Flag, is to ask quarter; or it shows when a vessel is arrived on a coast, that it has no hostile intention, but comes to trade, or the like. The red flag is a sign of defiance and battle. Flag-officers, those who command the several squa- drons of a fleet, such as tbe admirals, vice-admirals, and rear-admirals. The flag-officers in British pay are the admiral, vice- adiniral, and\rear-admiral, of the white, red, and blue. See the article Admiral. Flag-ship, a ship commanded by a general or flag- officer, who has a right to carry a flag, in contradistinc- tion to the secondary vessels under its command. Flag-staves, are staves set on the heads of the top- gallant-masts, serving to let fly, or unfurl, the flag. Flags, in falconry, are the feathers in a hawk's wing, near the principal ones. Flag is used for sedge, a kind of rush; and for the up- per part of turf, pared off to burn. Flag-flower, in botany, a plant called by botanists iris. See Iris. Cohi-Flag. See Gladiolus. FLAG KLL ANTES, whippers, in church history, certain enthusiasts in the 13th century, who maintained, that there could be no remission of sins without flagella- tion, or whipping. Accordingly, they walked in proces- sion, preceded by priests carry ing the cross, and publicly lashed themselves, till the blood dropped from their naked backs. FLAGELLARIA, a genus of the hexandria monogy- nia class and order of plants: flower petals none; the pe- rianthium is divided into six segments, and the fruit is a roundish berry, containing a single seed. There are two species, shrubs of the East Indies. FLAGEOLET, orflajeolet, a little flute, used chiefly by shepherds, and country people. It is made of box, or any other hard wood, and sometimes of ivory; and has six holes besides that at the bottom, the mouth piece, and that behind the neck. FLAIL, a:i instrument for threshing corn. See IIcs- BANDKY. A flail consists of the follow ng parts: 1. The hand- staff, or piece held in the thresher's hand. 2. The swiple, or that part which strikes out the corn. 3. The caplins, or strong double leathers, made fast to the tops of the hand-staff and swiple. 4. The middle-hand, being the leather-thong, or fish-skin, that ties the caplins together. FLAIR, in the sea-language. When a ship is housed in near the water, so that the work above hangs over too much, it is said to flair over. This makes the ship more roomy al »l't, for the men to use their arms. FLAMK, in physiology: when oxygen gas is decom- posed si »\ly, the heat is imperceptible, because the ca- loric is dissipated as soon as generated. When the de- compostion goes on faster, the bodies concerned become sensibly warm. A quicker decomposition of the gas heats the bodies so as to render them red hot, which state is called ignition: and when the process is attend- ed with the production of certain fluids, as hydrogen, &c. and the decomposition of oxygen air affords a suffi- cient developcment of caloric, then the fluids themselves are ignited, and decomposed, which constitutes flame, and is thence termed inflammation. When a candle is first lighted, which must be done by the application of actual flame, a degree of heat is given to the wick suffi- cient to destroy the affinity of its constituent parts: some of the tallow is instantly melted, volatilized, and decomposed, its hydrogen takes fire, and the candle melts. As this is destroyed by combustion another por- tion melts, rises and supplies its place, and undergoes a like decomposition. In this way combustion is main- tained in a candle. The most brilliant flame is exhibited in oxygen gas, and in this flames of different colours may be produced: thus a mixture of nitrate of strontia and charcoal powder, previously ignited, burns with a rose-coloured flame: one part of boracic acid, and three of charcoal mixed, will burn green: one part of nitrate of barytesand four of charcoal powder burn with a yel- low flame: equal parts of nitrate of lime and charcoal powder burn orange-red. FLAMINGO, in ornithology. See Pho5nicopterus. FLANEL, or flannel, a kind of slight, loose, wool- len stuff, composed of a woof and warp, and woven on a loom with two treadles, after the manner of bays. Dr. Black assigns as a reason why flannel and other sub- stances of the kind keep our bodies warm, that they compose a rare and spongy mass, the fibres of which touch each other so slightly, that the heat moves slowly through the interstices, which being filled only with air» and that in a stagnant state, gives little assistance in con- ducting the heat. Count Rumford. however, has in- quired farther into the matter, and finds that there is a relation betwixt the power which the substances usually worn as clothing have of absorbing moisture, and that of keeping our bodies warm. Having provided a quan- tity of each of those substances mentioned below, he ex- posed them, spread out upon China plates, for the space of 24 hours to the warm and dry air of a room, which had been heated by a German stove for several months, and during the last six hours had raised the thermome- ter to 85°of Fahrenheit: after which he weighed equal quantities of the different substances with a very accu- rate balance. They were then spread out upon a Chi- na plate, and removed into a very large uninhabited room upon the second floor, where they were exposed 48 hours upon a table placed in the middle of the room, the air of which was at 45° of Fahrenheit. At the end of this space they were weighed, and then removed into a damp cellar, and placed on a fable in the middle o«' the vault, where the air was at the temperature of 45°, and which by the hygrometer seemed to be fully saturated with moisture. Iu this situation they were suffered to remain three days and three nights; the vault being all the time hung round with wet linen cloths, to render the air as completely damp as possible. At the end of three days they were weighed, and the weights at the diflerent times were found as in the following table. F L E F L E Weight after being dried in the hot room. Weight after com- ing out of the cold room. 1084 1072 1065 1067 1057 1054 1046 1044 1043 1000 Weight after re- maining 72 hours in the vault. 1163 1125 1115 1112 1107 1103 1102 1082 1089 1000 Sheep's wool Beaver's fur The fur of a Russian hare Eider down {Raw single thread J Ravellings of white • 1000 taffety f parts {Fine lint Ravellings of fine linen Cotton wool Ravellings of silver lace On these experiments our author observes, that though linen, from the apparent case with which it receives dampness from the atmosphere, seems to have a hiuch greater attraction for water than any other; yet it would appear, from what is related above, that those bodies which receive wrater in its inelastic form with the great- est ease, or are most easily wet, are not those which in all cases attract the moisture of the atmosphere with the greatest avidity. « Perhaps (says he), the apparent dampness of linen to the touch arises more from the ease with which that substance parts with the water it contains, than from the quantity of water it actually holds: in the same manner as a body appears hot to the touch, in consequence of its parting freely with its heat; while another body, which is really at the same tempe- rature, but which withholds its heat with greater obsti- nacy, affects the sense of feeling much less violently." FLANKS of an army, are the troops encamped on the right and left, as the flanks of a battalion are the files on the right and left. Flanks of a bastion, in fortification, that part which joins the face to the curtin. See Fortification. FLANKED, in heraldry, is used by the French to express parti per saltier. Coats, however, makes it to be the same with flanch. FLAT, in the sea-language. To flat in the fore-sail, to hale it in by the sheet, as near the ship's side as pos- sible; which is done when a ship will not fall off from the wind. Flat, in music, a character which being placed be- fore a note signifies that the note is to be sung or play- ed half atone lower than its natural pitch. Flat double, or double flat, a character compounded of two flats, and signifying that the note before which it is placed is to be sung or played two semitones lower than its natural pitch. FLATULENCY. See Medicine FLAX. Sec Lixvm. FLEA. See Pulex. FLEAM, in surgery and farriery, an instrument for letting a horse or other animal blood. See Farriery, FLEECE, the covering of wool, shorn off the bodies of sheep. See Wool. Fleece, order of the golden, an order of knighthood instituted by Philip II. duke of Burgundy. These knights at first were twenty-four, besides the duke himself, who reserved the nomination of six more: but Charles V. in creased them to fifty. He gave the guardianship of this order to his son Phillip king of Spain, since which the Spanish monarchs are chiefs of the order. The knights had three different mantles ordained them at the grand solemnity, the collar, and fleece. FLEECY-HOSIERY, a very useful kind of manu- facture, in which fine, fleeces of wool are Interwoven into a cotton piece of the common stocking texture. The follow- ing is the specification of the patent granted to Mr. Holland, of Broad-street, Bloomsbury, in the county of Middlesex, for a method of making stockings, socks, waistcoats, and other clothing, for persons afflicted with complaints requiring warmth, and for common use in cold climates, and for making false or downy calves in stockings. "Having in the common stocking-frame, twisted silk, cotton yarn, flaxen or hempen thread, worsted or wool- len yarn, or any such-like twisted or spun materials, begin the work in the common manner of manufactur- ing hosiery, and having worked one or more course or courses in the common way, begin to add a coating, thus: draw the frame over the arch, and then hang wool or jersey, raw or unspun, upon the beards of the nee- dles, and slide the same off their beards upon their stems, till it comes exactly under the nibs of the sinkers; then sink the jacks and sinkers, and bring forward the frame, till the wool or jersey is drawn under the beards of the needles, and having done this, draw the frame over the arch, and place a thread of spun materials upon the needles (under the nibs of the sinkers), and proceed in finishing the course in the usual way of manufacturing hosiery with spun materials. Any thing manufactured in this way has, on the one side, the appearance of com- mon hosiery, and on the other side the appearance of raw wool. The raw or unspun materials may be work- ed in with every course, or with every second, third, or other course or courses, in quantity proportioned to the warmth and thickness required. The above-mentioned raw or unspun materials may be fixed also thus: having drawn the frame over the arch, hang them upon the beards of the needles, slide them off the beards upon their stems, and without sinking the jacks and sinkers, draw the frame off the arch, and bring the raw or un- spun materials forward under the beards of the needles; then draw the same over the arch, and proceed in finish- ing the course, as before directed. The said raw or unspun materials may be fixed likewise thus: hangthem upon the beards of the needles, without having the frame over the arch, and slide them off their beards upon their stems; then bring forward the frame till the raw or un- spun materials are dra n under the beards of the nee- dles, and, having done this, draw the frame over the arch, and proceed in finishing ihc course as before di- rected. Hosiery may be coated by any of these methods, not only with wool or jersey, but also with silk, cotton, flax, hemp, hair, or other things of the like nature, raff or unspun, but the method first described fixes them most firmly. The common stock ing-frame is mentioned above, but any other frame, upon a similar principle may answer the purpose. The method of making * false or downy calves in stockings, is by working raw or unspun wool, or jersey, or any other raw or ii'iisp* materials-, into the calves of stockings, jn the differed re* F L E F L E methods before described, and to any required form or thickness." The latter use to which this invention is applied, we may be allowed to say, is somewhat ludi- crous. FLEET, commonly implies a company of ships of war, belonging to any prince or state; but sometimes it denotes any number of trading-ships, employed in a particular branch of commerce. In sailing, a fleet of men of war is usually divided into three squadrons; the admiral's, the vice-admiral's, and the rear-admiral's squadron, all which, being dis- tinguished by their flags and pendants, arc to put them- selves, and as near as may be, to keep themselves in their customary places, viz. the admiral, with his squa- dron, to sail in the van, that so he may lead the way to all the rest in the day-time, by the sight of his flag on the maintopmast-head; and in the night-time by his lights or lanterns. The vice-admiral and his squadron are to sail in the centre, or middle of the fleet. The rear- admiral, and the ships of his squadron, to bring up the rear. But sometimes other divisions are made; and those composed of the lighter ships and best sailers, are placed as wings to the van, centre, and rear. Merchant-fleets generally take their denomination from the place they are bound to, as the Turkey fleet, East India fleet, &c. These, in time of peace, go in fleets for their mutual aid and assistance: in time of war, besides this security, they likewise procure con- voys of men of war, either to escort them to the places whither they are bound, or only a part of the way, to a certain place or latitude, beyond which they are judged out of danger of privateers, &c. Fleet, a prison in London, to which persons arc com- mitted for contempt of the king and his laws, particu- larly of his courts of justice: or for debt, where any person will not, or is unable to pay his creditors. There are large rules, and a warden belonging to the fleet pri- son, which had its name from the float or fleet of the river or ditch on the side whereof it stands. FLESH, in anatomy, a fibrous part of an animal body, soft and bloody, being that of which most of the other parts are composed, and by which they are con- neeted together: or, more properly, it is that part of the body where the blood-vessels arc so small, as only to retain blood enough to preserve their colour red. By chemical analysis it is found that muscular flesh is composed of a great number of fibres or threads, commonly of a reddish or whitish colour; but its ap- pearance is too well known to require any description. Hitherto it has not been subjected to a perfectly accu- rate chemical analysis. Mr. Thouveiiel, indeed, has published a very valuable dissertation on the subject; and it is to him that we are indebted for almost all the facts known concerning the composition of muscle. Some additions have also been made by M. Fourcroy. And Mr. Hatchett has not neglected this part of the subject in his interesting dissertation on animal sub- stances. It is scarcely possible to separate the muscle from all the other substam es with which it is mixed. A quantity of fat often adheres to it closely; blood pervades the whole of it: and every fibre is enveloped in a particu- lar thin membranous matter, which the anatomists dis- vol. n. If tinguish by the name of cellular substance. The ana- lysis of the muscle, then, cannot be supposed to exhibit an accurate view of the composition of pure muscular fibre, but only of muscular fibre not perfectly separated from other substances. When a muscle is cut in small pieces, and well wash- ed with water, the blood and other liquids contained iu it are separated, and part of the muscular substance is also dissolved. The muscle, by this process, is convert- ed into a white fibrous substance, still retaining the form of the original body. The water assumes the colour which results from mixing water with some blood. When heated it coagulates; brown flakes swim on the surface, consisting of albumen combined with the colouring mat- ter of the blood; some fibrina likewise precipitates. If the evaporation is continued, more albumen precipitates, and at last the whole assumes the form of a jelly. When evaporated to dryness, and treated with alcohol, the ge- latine thus formed, together with a little phosphat of soda and of ammonia, remain undissolved; but the al- cohol dissolves a peculiar extractive matter, first ob- served by Thouvenel. This matter may be obtained hy evaporating the alcohol to dryness. It has a reddish- brown colour, a strong acrid taste, and an aromatic odour. It is soluble both in water and alcohol; and when its watery solution is very much concentrated, it assumes an acid and bitter taste. It swells upon hot coals, and melts, emitting an acid and penetrating smell. It attracts moisture from the air, and forms a saline ef- florescence. In a hot atmosphere it becomes sour and putrefies. When distilled it yields an acid partly com- bined with ammonia. If the muscle, after being thus treated with cold wa- ter, is boiled for a sufficient time in water, an additional portion of the same substances is separated from it. Some albumen collects on the surface in the form of scum, accompanied with melted fat. The water, when sufficiently concentrated by evaporation, assumes the form of a jelly. When evaporated to dryness, and treated with alcohol, the gelatine and phosphoric salts remain, while the extractive matter of Thouvenel is dissolved, and may be obtained by evaporating to dryness. It is by this process that it is procured in a sufficient quan- tity for examination, cold water abstracting only a very small portion from the muscle. The muscle, thus treated with water, is left in the state of grey fibres, insoluble in water, and becoming brittle when dry. This substance possesses all the pro- perties of fibrina. From these facts, ascertained by Thouvenel and Four- croy, it appears that the muscles are composed chiefly of fibrina, to which they owe their fibrous structure and their form (see Fibrina); and that they contain also 2. Albumen S. Gelatine 4. Extractive 5. Phosphat of soda 6. Phosphat of ammonia 7. Phosphat of lime and carbonat of ditto. For the discovery of the last ingredients we are in- debted to Mr. Hatchett, who found that 500 parts of beef-muscle left, after combustion, a residuum of 25.G parts, consisting chiefly of these salts. When muscles F L I FLO are long boiled in water, Mr. Hatchett found that the greater part of the phosphat of lime, as well as of the alkaline phosphats, was dissolved; for the muscle, after this treatment, when dissolved in nitric acid, yielded scarcely any phosphat of lime; whereas if it was dis- s-lived directly in nitric acid, a precipitate of phosphat of lime was thrown down by ammonia. Hence it would ap;.ear, either that the phosphat of lime is united to ge- l-tine, or that it is rendered soluble by means of it. The carbonat of lime still remains after the action of water, and is converted into oxalat when the muscle is treated with nitric acid. The muscles of different animals differ exceedingly from each other in their appearance and properties, at least as articles of food; but we know little of their che- mical differences. The observations of Thouvenel alone were directed to that object, and they are imperfect. The flesh of the ox contains, according to him, the great- est quantity of insoluble matter, and leaves the greatest residuum when dried: the flesh of the calf is more aque- ous and mucous: the land and water turtle yields more matter to water than the muscle of the ox; but Thouve- nel ascribes the difference to foreign bodies, as ligaments, &c. mixed with the muscle of the turtle: snails yield to water a quantity of matter intermediate between that given by beef and veal: with them the muscles of frogs, cray fish, and vipers, agree nearly in this respect; but the muscles of fresh-water fish, notwithstanding their softness, yield a considerably smaller proportion. When meat is boiled, it is obvious that the gelatine, the extractive, and a portion of the salts, will be sepa- rated, while the coagulated albumen and fibrina will re- main in a solid state. Hence the flavour and the nou- rishing nature of soups is derived from the extractive and gelatine. When meat is roasted, on the other hand, all these substances continue in it, and the taste and odour of the extractive are greatly heightened by the action of the fire. Hence the superior flavour of roasted meat. FLEVILLEA, a genus of the hexandria order, in the dioecia class of plants. The male calyx and corolla are quinquefid; the stamina five; the nectarium five con- verging filaments. The female calyx is quinquefid; there are three styli; the fruit a hard trilocular barky apple. FLEXIBLE, in physics, a term applied to bodies capable of being bent or diverted from their natural figure or direction. FLEXION, in anatomy, is applied to the motion by which the arm or any other member of the body is bent. It is also applied to the muscles, nerves, kc. Flexion, orflexure of curves. Seethe article Flex- ure. JXEXOR. See Anatomy. FLEXURE or curves, in the higher geometry, is used to signify that a curve is both concave and con- \ex, with respect to a given right line. FLIGHT, is evading the course of justice by a man's voluntarily withdrawing himself. On an accusation of treason or felony, or even of petty-larceny, if the jury find that the party fled for the same, he shall forfeit his goods and chattels, although he be acquitted of the of- fence; for the very flight itself is an offence, carrying with it a strong presumption of guilt, and Ls at least an 2 endeavour to elude and stifle tbe course of justice pre- scribed by the law. But now the jury very seldom find the flight; such forfeiture being looked upon, since the vast increase of personal property, as too large a pe- nalty for an offence, to whi« h a man is prompted by the natural love of liberty. 4 Black. 387. FLINT. See Silica. Flint, a stone very useful in modern war, is found in pieces of different sizes, and usually of a figure more or less globular, commonly among chalk, and often ar- ranged in some kind of order. Its texture is compact. Its fracture smooth, conchoi- dal. The stones are always covered by a white crust. Specific gravity from 2.58 to 2.63. Colour varies from honey-yellow to brownish-black. Very brittle, and splits into splinters in every direction. Two pieces of flint rubbed smartly together phosphoresce, and emit a pecu- liar odour. When heated it decrepitates, and becomes white and opaque. When exposed long to the air it of- ten becomes covered with a white crust. A specimen of flint analysed by Klaproth contained, 98.00 silica, .50 lime, .25 alumina, 0.25 oxide of iron, 1.00 water. 100.00 Vauquelin obtained from another, 97 silica, 1 alumina and iron, 98 Another specimen analysed by Dolomieu was com- posed of, 97 silica, 1 alumina, and oxide of iron 2 water. 100. The whole crust with which flint is enveloped con- sists of the same ingredients, and a little carbonat of lime. Water is essential to flint; for when it is sepa- rated by heat the stone loses its properties. The manufacture of gun-flints is chiefly confined to England, and two or three departments of France. The operation is exceedingly simple, and a good workman will make 1000 flints a day. The whole"art consists in striking the stone repeatedly with a kind of mallet, and bringing off at each stroke a splinter, sharp at one end, and thicker at the other. The splinters are afterwards shaped at pleasure, by laying the line at which it is wished they should break, upon a sharp instrument, and then giving it small blows with a mallet. FLOAT of a fishing-line, the cork or quill that floats or swims above the water. Float also signifies a certain quantity of timber bound together by rafters and athwart, and put into a river to be conveyed down the stream; and even sometimes to carry burdens down the river with the stream. FLOAT-BOARns, those boards fixed to water-wheels of undershot mills, serving to receive the impulse of the FLO FLO stream, whereby the wheel is carried round. See Mill- work. FLOOD, among seamen, is when the tide begins to come up, or the water begins to rise: then they call it young flood; after which it is quarter-flood, half-flood, and high-flood. Flooo-mark, the mark which the sea makes on the shore, at flowing-water, and the highest tide: it is also called high-water mark. FLOORING, among miners, a term used to express a peculiarity in the load of a mine. The load or quan- tity of ore is frequently intercepted in its course, by the crossing of a vein of earth or stone, or some differ- ent metallic substance; in which case the load is moved to one side, and this transient part of the land is called a Hooking. FLORIN, is sometimes used for a coin, and some- times for a money of account. Florin, as a coin, is of different values, according to the different metals and different countries where it is struck. The gold florins arc most of them of a very coarse alloy, some of them not exceeding thirteen or fourteen carats, and none of them seventeen and a half. As to silver florins, those of Holland are worth about 1.5. 8d.: those of Genoa were worth 8|rf. sterling. See Coin. FLORINIANS, floriniania, in church history, a sect of heretics of the second century, so denominated from their leader Florinus, who made God the author of evil. They are a species of the gnostics, but deny the judgment and resurrection, and hold that our Saviour was not born of a virgin. They were also called Bor- borites. FLORIST, florista, according to Linnaeus, is an au- thor or botanist who writes a treatise called Flora, com- prehending only the plants and trees to be found growing naturally in any place. However, in the more common acceptation of the word, florist signifies a person well skilled in flowers, their kinds and cultivation. FLOS, in chemistry, the most subtile part of bodies, separated from the more gross parts by sublimation, in a dry form. See Cucmistry. FLOTSAM, Jestam, and Lagan. Flotsam is when a ship is sunk or cast away, and the goods float on the sea; jestam is when a ship is in danger of being sunk, and to lighten the ship the goods are cast into the sea, and the ship notwithstanding perishes; and lagan is when the goods so cast into the sea are so heavy that they sink to the bottom, and therefore the mariners fasten to them a buoy or cork, or such other thing that will not sink, to enable them to find them again. 5 Rep. 106. b. The king shall have flotsam, jestam, and lagan, when the ship is lost, and the owners of the goods are not known, but not otherwise. F. N. B. 122. Where the proprietors of the goods may be known, they have a year and a day to claim flotsam. FLOUR, the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground and sifted. Floik-mills are put in motion by the application of various forces: sometimes the first mover is wind, at others water, at others the force of steam, at others the muscular energy of animals. The mechanism of the grinding part of most of these is nearly the same, and pretty well understood: we shall here give an account of tbe construction of the several figures in the plate. Fig. l. (Plate LVIII. Flour-mills) represents a common pair of flour-stones; A, is a trundle fixed to a spindle B, so as to turn with it; the lower end of/this spindle turns in a brass socket fixed in the beam, CD, called the bridge-tree; and the upper end of this spindle turns in a wooden bush, fixed into the middle of the nether mill- stone, which lies on the floor, EF. The top part otthe spindle, above the bush, is square, and goes into a strong iron cross, abed, fig. 2, called the crow: the four ends of this crowr are let into the under-surface of the running- millstone, shown upside downwards in fig. 2, so that when the spindle is turned by the trundle A, the stone will turn with it. The end, c, of the bridge tree, fig. 1, is jointed into the post, G: the other goes through a long mortice in the post, H, and has an iron rod, I, fix- ed to it; on the top of this are a screw and hand-nut, K, by turning of which the twro mill-stones can be brought nearer together, and vice versa, so as to grind finer or coarser. The two stones are enclosed in an octagonal box, LM, which is about two inches more across than the diameter of the running-stone. Upon the top of this box is a frame to support the hopper, N, to which is hung the shoe or spout, 0, by a strap fastened to the back of it; to the other end of the shoe a line, e, is fas- tened, the drawing of which regulates the aperture be- tween the shoe and the hopper, and the quantity of corn that comes from the hopper: this is otherw ise done by a small shuttle, f in the front of the hopper: to the end of the shoe, O, a small line, g, is fastened, the other end of which is tied to a wooden spring, h. The top of the spindle, B, has a smjall square hole in it, into which is put the feeder, P; this feeder, as the spindle turns round, pushes the shoe from it, and it is brought back by the spring, h, three times in each revolution of the stone and spindle, and so causes the corn constantly to run down from the hopper, through the upper millstone, and by the motion thereof it gets between the stones, and is ground. The great velocity of the upper or running stone creates a centrifugal force in the corn, and throws it farther from the centre, till it is thrown quite out at the circumference of the stone in the form of flour, and passes through a spout, Q, to a meal-chest below. The grinding surface of both stones, in order to bruise and cut the corn, are hollowed into straight grove?, as shown in fig. 2. Fig. 3, is a wire bolting machine; A is the rigor and band by which it is turned, from a drum in some part of the mill; on its spindle rows of brushes are fixed, as shown in fig. 4. These brushes turn round within a cy- lindrical frame, CD, fig. ;3; withinside of this frame'is nailed wire-cloth, which is very fine at the end D, and gets coarser as it goes towards C; this frame is fixed from turning round, by its ends going into the framing of the box in which the w hole is contained, and is farther steadied by four chains, FEE. fastened to the top of the box: at one end of the box is a square hole for the feed- ing trough, G, to pass through: this trough is loosely connected to the trough H. (which, brin-s the flonr from the floor above) by leather nailed round their ends: the trough G is supported on the end of a crooked piece of wood, a, moving round a piu as a centre, at d; w„cn ihc FLU no brushes are turned round with a great velocity, the stubs, e, in the end of the spindle, shown in fig. 4, move the trough, G, to one side, and its line,/, the spring, c, im- mediately pulls it back again. This shakes the flour down through it into the cylinder, CD, and the brushes rubbing it round against the wire, that sort which is fine enough passes through into the hopper, K: the rest pas- ses on in the cylinder, and goes through into the hoppers, L and M, according to the different degrees of fineness, till at last the bran falls out at a hole in the end, into the hopper, N: these hoppers have troughs, connecting with their bottoms, going through the floor, and the mouths of the flour-sacks are hooked to them in the room below, to receive the different sorts of flour and the bran. Fig. 5 is the common bolting-cloth; A, is the riger turned by a strap; on its axis, within the box, is a reel, fig. 6, over which is put a bag, open at the ends, called the bolting-cloth, CD, in fig. 5, and tied to the reel by its ends; it is woven very fine at the end, D, and gradual- ly gets coarser towards the end, C; the feeding-troughs, G and H, are the same as already described in fig. 4; by the side of the reel are three wooden bars, ab, and another behind, fixed in the box by their ends. When the reel is turned with a great velocity, the four arms, cdef, fig. 6, shake the trough, G, and cause the flour to run regularly down into the bolting-cloth, and the centrifu- gal force causes the cloth to swing against the three sticks, ab, beats the fine flour through the cloth into the hopper, K, and the other sorts into the hoppers LMN; the bran falls out at the end of the cloth into the hopper, O, and goes through the end of the box and the floor, in a wooden trough, to the end of which a sack is hooked to receive it in the floor beneath. There are troughs from the bottom of the hopper, KLMN, to convey the Hour to the sacks, as described in fig. 4. We shall hereafter, under the article Mills, give a more detailed account of the theory of mills, and of the means by which they may be worked with the greatest advantage, and with the least expense of power. FLOWER, flos, among botanists and gardeners, the most beautiful part of trees and plants, containing the organs or parts of fructification. See Botany. FLOWERS, preserving of. The method of preserving flowers in their natural beauty through the whole year has been much sought after by many people. Some have attempted it by gathering them when dry, and not too much opened, and bury ing them in dry sand; but this, though it preserves their figure well, takes off from the liveliness of their colour. Muntingius prefers the follow- ing inethod to all others. Gather roses, or other flow- ers, when they are not yet thoroughly open, in the mid- dle of a dry day: put them into a good earthen vessel glaz- ed within; fill the vessel up to the top with them; and when full, sprinkle them over with some good French wine, with a little salt in it; then set them by in a cellar, tying down the mouth of the pot. After this they may be taken out at pleasure; and on setting them in the sun, or within reach of the fire, they will open as if growing naturally; and not oniy the colour, but the odour also, will be pre- served. The flowers of plants are by much the most difficult parts to preserve in any tolerable degree of perfection; of wbich we have instances in all the collections of dried plants, or horti sicci. In these the leaves, stalks, roots, and seeds of the plants, appear very well preserved; the strong texture of these parts making them always retain their natural form, and tbe colours in many species na- turally remaining. But where these fade, the plant is little the worse for use as to knowing the species. But it is very much otherwise in regard to the petals: these are naturally by much the most beautiful parts of the plant to which they belong; but they are so much injur- ed in the common way of drying, that they not only lose, but change their colours one into another, by which means they give occasion to many errors; and they usu- ally also wither up, so as to lose their very form and natural shape. The primrose and cowslip kinds are ve- ry eminent instances of the change of colours in the flow- ers of dried specimens: for those of this class of plants easily dry in their natural shape; but they loose their yellow, and, instead of it, acquire a fine green colour, much superior to that of the leaves in their most perfect state. The flowers of all the violet kind lose their beau- tiful blue, and become of a dead-white: so that in dried specimens there is no difference between the blue-flow- ered violet and the white-flowered kinds. Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world a method of drying plants, by which this defect is pro- posed to be in a great measure remedied, and all flowei-s preserved in their natural shape, and many in their na- tural colours. For this purpose, two plates of iron are to be prepared of the size of a large half-sheet of paper, or larger for particular occasions: these plates must be made so thick as not to be apt to bend; and there must be a hole made near every corner for the receiving a screw to fasten them close together. When these plates are prepared, lay in readiness several sheets of paper, and then gather the plants with their flowers when they are quite perfect. Let this be always done in the middle of a dry day; and then lay the plant and its flower on one of the sheets of paper doubled in half, spreading out all the leaves and petals as nicely as possible. If the stalk is thick, it must be pared or cut in half, so that it may lie flat; and if it is woody, it may be peeled, and only the bark left. When the plant is thus expanded, lay round about it some loose leaves and petals of the flower, which may serve to complete any part that is deficient. When all is thus prepared, lay several sheets of paper over the plant, and as many under it; then put the whole between the iron plates, laying the papers smoothly on one, and laying the other evenly over them: screw them close, and put them into an oven after the bread is drawn, and let them lie there two hours. After that, make a mixture of equal parts of aquafortis and common bran- dy; shake these well together, and when the flowers are taken out of the pressure of the plates, rub them lightly over with a camel's-hair pencil dipped in this liquor; then lay them upon fresh brown paper, and covering them with some other sheets, press them between this and other papers with a handkerchief till the wet of these liquors is dried wholly away. When the plant is thus far prepared, take the bulk of a nutmeg of gum- dragon; put this into a pint of fair water cold, and let it stand 24 hours; it will in this time be wholly dissolved: then dip a fine hair-pencil in this liquor, and with it daub over the back sides of the leaves, and lay them FLU FLU carefully down on a half-sheet of white paper fairly ex- panded, and press them down with some more papers over these. When the gum-water is fixed, let the pres- sure and papers be removed, and the whole work is fin- ished. The leaves retain their verdure in this case, and the flowers usually keep their natural colours. Some care, however, must be taken that the heat of the oven be not too great. When the flowers are thick and bulky, some art may be used to pare off their backs, and dispose the petals in a due order; and after this, if any of them are wanting, their places may be supplied with some of the supernumerary ones dried on purpose; and if any of them are only faded, it will be prudent to take them away, and lay down others in their stead: the leaves may be also disposed and mended in tbe same manner. Another method of preserving both flowers and fruit sound through the whole year is also given by the same author. Take saltpetre, one pound; annenian bole, twTo pounds; clean common sand, three pounds. Mix all well together; then gather fruit of any kind that is not fully ripe, with the stalk to each; put these, one by one, into a wide-mouthed glass, laying them in good order. Tie over the top with an oil-cloth, and carry them into a dry cellar, and set the whole upon a bed of prepared matter of four inches thick in a box. Fill up the re- mainder of the box with the same preparation; and let it be four inches thick all over the top of the glass, and all round its sides. Flowers are to be preserved in the same sort of glasses, and in the same manner; and they may be taken up after a whole year as plump and fair as when they were buried. Flower de lis, or Flower de luce, in heraldry, a bearing representing the lily, called the queen of flowers, and the true hieroglyphic of royal majesty; but of late it is become more common, being borne in some coats one, in others three, in others five, and in somesemee, <>r spread all over the escutcheon in great numbers. The arms of France are, three flower-de-lis, or, in a field azure. It is observed by antiquarians, that flower de Louis is the proper name, having been borne by St. Louis on his shield, and that it is not a lily but an iris. FLOWN sheets, in the sea language: a ship is said to sail with flown sheets when her sails are not haled home, or close to the blocks. The sheets are flown; that is, they are let loose, or run as far as they will. FLUATS, in chemistry, salts first discovered by Scheele; they are distinguished by the following pro- perties: (1) When sulphuric acid is poured upon them, they emit acrid vapours of fluoric acid, which corrode glass. (2) When heated, several of them phosphoresce. (3) They are not decomposed by heat, nor altered by combustibles. (4) They combine with silica by means of heat. Most of them are sparingly soluble in water. Fluat of lime—flour spar. This mineral is found abun- dantly in different countries, particularly in Derbyshire. It is both amorphous and crystallized. The primitive form of its crystals is the regular octa- hedron; that of its integrant molecules the regular te- trahedron. The varieties of its crystals hitherto observ- ed amount to 9. These are the primitive octahedron; the cube; the rhoniboidal dodecahedron: the cubo-octa- hedron, which has both the faces of the cube and of ti*c octahedron; the octahedron wanting the edges; the cube wanting the edges, and either one face or two faces in place of each. Werner divides this species into three sub-species. 1. Earthy. Colour greenish white or blueish green. Composed of earthy powder, somewhat agglutinated. Moderately heavy. Phosphoresces on hot coals. Found in Hungary in a vein. According to Pelletier, it is com- posed of 21 lime 15 alumina 31 silica 28 fluoric acid 1 phosphoric acid 1 muriatic acid 1 oxide of iron 1 water 99 2. Compact fluor. Colour greenish grey, often .spotted. Found in mass. Greasy. Fracture even, passing to the conchoidal. Scratches calcareous spar. Moderately heavy. 3. Fluor spar. The texture of fluat of lime is foliated. Causes single refraction. Very brittle. Specific gravity from 3.0943 to 3.1911. Colours numerous, red, violet, green, reddish yellow, blackish purple. Its powder thrown upon hot coals emits a blueish or greenish light. Two pieces of it rubbed in the dark phosphoresce. It de- crepitates when heated. Before the blowpipe it melts in- to a transparent glass. It admits of a polish, and is often formed into vases and other ornaments. FLUENT, in fluxions, the following quantity, or that which is continually either increasing, or decreas- ing, whether line, surface, solid, &c. See Fluxion. FLUID, in physiology, an appellation given to all bo- dies whose particles easily yield to the least partial pres- sure, or force impressed. See Hydrostatics. FLUIDITY, is that state or affection of bodies which exhibits them in a liquid form. All substances in nature, as far as we are acquainted with them, occur in one or other of the three following states; namely, the state of solids, of liquids, or of elas- tic fluids or vapours. It has been ascertained, that iu a vast number of cases, the same substance is capable of existing successively in each of these states. Thus sul- phur is usually a solid body; but when heated to 212° it is converted into a liquid; and at a still higher tempera- ture (about 570°), it assumes the form of an elastic va- pour of a deep-brown colour. Water also in our climate is usually a liquid; but when cooled down to 32<>, it is converted into a solid body, and at 212° it assumes the form of an elastic fluid. All solid bodies, a very small number excepted, may be converted into liquids by heating them sufficiently, and on the other hand, every liquid, except spirit of wine, is convertible into a solid body, by exposing it to a suffi- cient degree of cold. All liquid bodies may, by heating them, he converted into elastic fluids, and a great many solids are capable of undergoing the same change: a.id, lastly, the number of elasth fluids which by cold arc condensible into liquids or solids, is by no means incon- FLUIDITY. siderable. These facts have led philosophers to form this general conclusion, " that all bodies, -A placed in a temperature sufficiently low, would assume a solid form; that all solids become liquids when sufficiently heated; and that all liquids, when exposed to a certain tempera- ture, assume the form of elastic fluids." The state of bo- dies then depends upon the temperature in which they are placed; in the lowest temperatures they are all solid, in the higher temperatures they are converted into liquids, and in the highest of all they become elastic flu- ids. The particular temperatures at which bodies under- go those changes, are exceeding various, but they are always constant for the same bodies. Thus we see that heat produces changes on the state of bodies, converting them all, first into liquids, and then elastic fluids. I. When solid bodies are converted by heat into li- quids, the change in some cases takes place at once. There is no interval between solidity and liquidity; but in other cases a very gradual change may be perceived; the solid becomes first soft, and it passes slowly through all the degrees of softness, till at last it becomes perfectly fluid. The conversion of ice into water is an instance of the first change, for in that substance there is no intervening state between solidity and fluidity. The melting of glass, of wax, and of tallow, exhibits instances of the second kind of change; for these bodies pass through every pos- sible degree of softness before they terminate in perfect fluidity. In general, those solid bodies which crystallize or assume regular prismatic figures, have no interval between solidity and fluidity, while those that do not usually assume shcIi shapes have the property of appear- ing successively in all the intermediate states. Solid bodies never begin to assume a liquid form till they are heated to a certain temperature; this tempera- ture is constant in all. In the first class of bodies it is very well defined; but in the second, though it is equally constant, the exact temperature of fluidity cannot be pointed out with such precision on account of the inti- mate number of shades of softness through which the bo- dies pass before they acquire their greatest possible fluidi- ty. But even in these bodies we can easily ascertain that the same temperature always produces the same degree of fluidity. The temperature at which this change from solidity to liquidity takes place, receive different names according to the usual state of the body thus changed. When the body is usually observed in a liquid state, we call the temperature at which it assumes the form of a solid, its freezing point, or congealing point. Thus the temperature in which water becomes ice, is called the freezing point of water; on the other hand, when the body is usually in the state of a solid, we call the temperature at which it liquifies its melting point: thus, 212° is the melting point of sulphur, 442° the melting point of tin. The following table contains a list of the melting points of a considerable number of solid bodies Substance. Melting- point. Lead t - 594" Bismuth - 576 Tin - - 442 Sulphur - - - 212 Wax - - - 142 Spermaceti - - 133 Phosphorus - - 100 Tallow Oil of anise Olive-oil Ice Milk Vinegar Blood Oil of bcrgamot Wines Oil of turpentine Sulphuric acid Mercury Liquid ammonia Ether Nitric acid 92 50 36 32 30 28 25 23 20 14 36 39 46 46 66 Before Dr. Black began to deliver his chemical lec- tures in Glasgow in 1757, it was universally supposed that solids were converted into liquids by a small addi- tion of heat, after they had been once raised to the melt- ing point, and that they returned again to the solid state on every small diminution of the quantity of heat neces- sary to keep them at that temperature. An attentive view of the phenomena of liquefaction and solidification gradually led this sagacious philosopher to observe their inconsistence with the then received opinions, and to form another, which he verified by direct experiments, and drew up an account of his theory, and the proofs of it, which was read to a literary society in Glasgow on April 23d, 1762; and every year after he gave a detailed account of the whole doctrine in his Jectures. The opinion which he formed was, that when a solid body is converted into a liquid, a much greater quantity of heat enters into it than is perceptible immediately af- ter by the thermometer. This great quantity of heat does not make the body apparently warmer, but it must be thrown into it in order to convert it into a liquid; and this great addition of heat is the principal and most im- mediate cause of the fluidity induced. On the other hand, when a liquid body assumes the form of a solid, a very great quantity of heat leaves it without sensibly dimin- ishing its temperature; and the state of solidity cannot be induced without the abstraction of this great quanti- ty of heat. Or, in other words, whenever a solid is con- verted into a fluid, it combines with a certain dose of ca- loric, without any augmentation of its temperature; and it is this dose of caloric which occasions the change of the solid into a fluid. WThen the fluid is converted again into a solid, the dose of caloric leaves it, without any di- minution of its temperature; and it is this abstraction which occasions the change. Thus the combination of a certain dose of caloric with ice causes it to become wa- ter, and the abstraction of a certain dose of caloric from water causes it to become ice. Water is then a compound of ice and caloric; and in general all fluids are combina- tions of the solid, to which they may be converted bj the application of cold, and a certain dose of caloric. Such is the opinion concerning the cause of fluidity taught by Dr. Black as early as i 762, Its truth was es- tablished by the following experiments: First. If a lump of ice, at the temperature of 22°, & brought into a warm room, in a very short time it & heated to 32», the freezing point, It then begins to melt! but the process goes on very slowly, and several hours FLUIDITY. elapse before the whole ice is melted. During the whole of that time its temperature continues at 32"; yet as it is constantly surrounded by warm air, we have reason to believe that caloric is constantly entering into it. Now as none of the caloric is indicated by the thermometer, what becomes of it, unless it has combined with that por- tion of the ice which is converted into water, and unless it is the cause of the melting of the ice? Dr. Black took two thin globular glasses, four inches in diameter, and very nearly of the same weight. Both were filled with water; the contents of the one was fro- zen into a solid mass of ice, the contents of the other were cooled down to 33°; the two glasses were then sus- pended in a large room at a distance from all other bo- dies, the temperature of the air being 47°. In half an hour the themometer placed in the water-glass rose from 33° to 40° or 7 degrees; the ice was at first 4 or 5 de- grees colder than melting snow, but in a few minutes the thermometer applied to it stood at 32°. The instant of time when it reached that temperature was noted, and the whole left undisturbed for ten hours and a half'.. At the end of that time the whole ice was melted, except a very small spongy mass, which floated at the top, and disappeared in a few minutes. The temperature of the ice water was 40°. Thus 10§ hours were necessary to melt the ice, and raise the product to the temperature of-10°. During all this time it must have been receiving heat with the same celerity as the water-glass received it during the first half-hour. The whole quantity received then was 21 times 7, or 147°; but its temperature was only 40°: there- fore 139 or 140 degrees had been absorbed by the melt- ing ice, and remained concealed in the water into which it had.been converted, its presence not being indicated by the. thermometer. That caloric, or heat, is actually entering into the ice, is easily ascertained by placing the hand on a thermome- ter under the vessel containing it. A current of cold air may be perceived descending from it during the whole time of the process. But. it will be said, perhaps, that the heat which en- ters into the ice does not remain there, but is altogether destroyed. This opinion is refuted by the following ex- periment. Second. If, when the thermometer is at 2-2°, we ex- pose a vessel full of water at 52° to tiie open air, and beside it another vessel full of brine at the same tem- perature, wilh thermometers in each, we shall find that both of them gradually lose caloric, and are cooled down to 32°. After this the brine (which does not freeze till cooled down to 0°) continues to cool without interruption, and gradually reaches 22°, tbe temperature of the air, but the pure wafer remains stationary at 32°. It freezes, indeed, but very slowly; and during tbe whole process its temperature is 3-2°. Sow, why should the one liquid ^refuse all on a sudden to give out caloric and not the ibther? Is it not much in ire probable that the water, as (it freezes, gradually gives out the heat which it had ab- sorbed during its liquefaction; and that this evolution naintains the temperature of the water at 32°, notwith- standing what it parts with to the air during the whole jfrpocess? \V.; may easily satisfy ours.-Ives thai the water vvhile congealing is constantly imparting heat to the sur- 4 rounding air; for a delicate thermometer suspended above it is constantly affected by an ascending stream of air less cold than the air around. The follow ing experi- ment, first made by Fahrenheit, and afterwards often repeated by Dr. Black and others, affords a palpable evidence, that such an evolution of caloric actually takes place during congelation. Third. If, when the air is at 22°, we expose to it a quantity of water in a tall beer-glass, with a thermome- ter in it and covered, the water gradually cools down to 22° without freezing. It is therefore 10° below the frez- ing point. Things being in this situation, if the water is shaken, part of it instantly freezes into a spongy mass, and the temperature of the whole instantly rises to the freezing point, so that the water has acquired ten de- grees of caloric in an instant. Now whence came these ten degrees? Is it not evident that it must have come from that part of the water which was frozen, and con- sequently that water in the act of freezing gives out ca- loric? From many experiments made on wTater in these cir- cumstances, it is found that the quantity of ice which forms suddenly on the agitation of water, cooled down below the freezing point, bears always a constant ratio to the coldness of the liquid before agitation. Thus when water is cooled down to 22° very nearly T\ of the whole freezes; when the previous temperature is 27°, about -^ of the whole freezes. In all cases when water is cooled**' down below 32°, it loses a portion of the caloric which is necessary to constitute its liquidity. The instant that such water is agitated, one portion of the liquid seizes upon the quantity of caloric in which it is deficient, at the expense of another portion, which of course becomes ice. Thus when water is cooled down to 22°, every par- ticle of it wants 10° of the caloric necessary to keep it in a state of liquidity. Thirteen parts of it seize 10 de- grees each from the fourteenth part. These thirteen of course acquire the temperature of 32°; and the other part, being deprived of 10 x 13 = 130, which with the ten degrees that it had lost before constitute 140°, or the whole of the caloric necessary to keep it fluid, assumes of consequence the form of ice. Fourth. If these experiments should not be considered as sufficient to warrant Dr. Black's conclusion, the fol- lowing, for which we are indebted to the same philoso- pher, puts the truth of his own opinion beyond the reach of dispute. He mixed together given weights of ice at 32r, and water at 190° of temperature. The ice was melted in a few seconds, and the temperature produced was 53°. The weight of the ice was 119 half-drachms; That of the hot water 135 of the mixture 254 of the glass vessel 16 Sixteen parts of glass have the same effect in heatin0* cold bodies, as eight parts of equally hot water. There* lore, instead of the 16 half-drachms of glass, eight of water may be substituted, which makes the hot water amount to 143 half-drachms. In this experiment there were 158 degrees of heat con- tained in the hot water, to be divided between the ice and the water. Had they been divided equalh, and had the whole been afterwards sensible to the thermometer, the FISHERY. water would have retained .||| parts of this heat, and the ice would have received ]J| parts: that is to say, the water would have retained 86°, and the ice would have received 72°; and the temperature after mixture would have been 104°. But the temperature by experiment is found to be only 53°; the hot water lost 137°, and the ice only received an addition of temperature equal to 21°. But the loss of 18° of temperature in the water is equi- valent to the gain of 21° in the ice. Therefore 158°—18° = 140° of heal have disappeared altogether from the hot water. These 140° must have entered into the ice, and converted it into water w ithout raising its temperature. In the same manner, if we take any quantity of ice, or, which is the same thing, snow at 32°, and mix it with an equal weight of water at 172°, the snow instant- ly melts, and the temperature of the mixture is only 32°. Here the water is cooled 140°, while the temperature of the snow is not increased at all; so that 140° of caloric have disappeared. They must have combined with the snow; but they have only melted it, without increasing its temperature. Hence it follows irresistibly, that ice, when it is converted into water, absorbs and combines with 140° of caloric. Water, then, after being cooled down to 32°, cannot freeze till it has parted with 140° of caloric; and ice, after being heated to 32°, cannot melt till it has absorb- ed 140° of caloric. This is the cause of the extreme Jjljflowncss of these operations. With regard to water, then, there can be no doubt that it owes its fluidity to the caloric which it contains, and that the caloric ne- cessary to give fluidity to ice is equal to 140°. To the quantity of caloric which thus occasions the fluidity of solid bodies by combining with them, Dr. Black gave the name of latent heat, because its presence is not indicated by the thermometer; a term sufficiently expressive, but other philosophers have rather chosen to call it caloric of fluidity. Dr. Black and his friends ascertained also, by expe- riment, thatthe fluidity of melted wax, tallow, spermace- ti, and metals, is owing to the same cause. Landriani proved, that this is the case with sulphur, alum, nitric, and several of the metals; and it has been found to be the case with every substance hitherto examined. We may consider it therefore as a general law, that whenev- er a solid is converted into a fluid, it combines with ca- loric, and that this is the cause of its fluidity. From the experiments of Dr. Irvine, it appears that the caloric of fluidity of spermaceti is 145° Bees-wax 175 Tin 500. These are the only substances in which the quantity of caloric, absorbed during fusion, has been ascertained. In all of them we see this rule to hold, that the caloric of fluidity increases with the temperature at which liqui- dity takes place. Dr. Black has rendered it exceedingly probable also, or rather he has proved by his experiments and observa- tions, that the softness of such bodies as are rendered plastic by heat, depends upon a quantity of latent heat which combines with them. Metals also owe their mal- leability and ductility to the same cause. Hence the rea- son why they become hot and brittle when hammered. II. Thus it appears, that the conversion of solids into liquids, is occasioned by the combination of a dose of ca- loric with the solid. But there is another change of state still more remarkable, to which bodies are liable when exposed to the action of heat. Almost all liquids, when raised to a certain temperature, gradually assume the form of an elastic fluid, invisible like air, and posses- sed of the same mechanical properties. Thus water, by boiling, is converted into steam, an invisible fluid, 1800 times more bulky than water, and as elastic as air. These fluids retain their elastic form as long as their tempera- ture remains sufficiently high; but when cooled down again, they lose that form, and are convented into li- quids. All liquids, and even a considerable number of solids, are capable of undergoing this change when suffi. ciently heated. With respect to the temperatures at which liquids un- dergo this change, they may be all arranged under two divisions. There are some liquids which are gradually converted into elastic fluids at every temperature, while others again never begin to assume that change till their temperature reaches a certain point. Water is a well- known example of the first class of bodies. If an open vessel, filled with water, is carefully examined, we find that the water diminishes in bulk day after day, and at last disappears altogether. If the experiment is made in a vessel sufficiently large, and previously exhausted of air, we shall find that the water will fill the vessel in the state of invisible vapour, in whatever temperature it is placed. Alcohol likewise, and ether, and volatile, oils, gradually assume the form of an elastic fluid in all tem- peratures. But sulphuric acid and the fixed oils never be- gin to assume the form of vapour till they are raised to a certain temperature. Though left in open vessels they lose no perceptible weight; neither does sulphuric acid lose any weight, though kept ever so long in the tempe- rature of boiling water. When liquids gradually assume the form of elastic fluids in all temperatures, they are said to evaporate spontaneously. The second class of liquids want that property altogether. When all other circumstances are the same, the eva- poration of liquids increases with their temperature; and after they are heated to a certain temperature, they as- sume the form of elastic fluids with great rapidity. If the heat is applied to the bottom of the vessel containing the liquids, as is usually the case, after the whole liquid lias acquired this temperature, those particles of it which are next the bottom become an elastic fluid first: they rise up, as they are formed, through the liquid, like air-bubbles, and throw the whole into violent agitation. The liquid is then said to boil. Every particular liquid has a fixed point at which this boiling commences (other things be- ing the same), and this is" called the boiling point of the liquid. Thus water begins to boil when raised to 212°. It is remarkable, that after a liquid has begun to boil, it never becomes any hotter, however strong the fire to which it is exposed. A strong heat indeed makes it boil more rapidly, but does not increase its temperature. This was first observed by Dr. Hooke. See Boiling. It was observed, when treating of the melting poin* of solids, that it is capable of being varied considerably by altering the situation of the body. Thus water maybe cooled down considerably lower than 32°, without freez- ing. The boiling point is»still less fixed, depending en- FLUIDITY tirely on the degree of pressure U which the liquid to be boiled is exposed. If we diminish the pressure, the liquid boils at a lower temperature; if we increase it, a higher temperature is necessary to produce ebullition. From the experiments of professor Robinson, it appears that, in a vacuum, all liquids boil about 145° lower than in the open air under a pressure of 30 inches of mercury; therefore water would boil in vacuo at 67°, and alcohol at 34°. In a Papin's digester, the temperature of water may be raised to 300°, or even 400°, without ebullition: but the instant that this great pressure is removed, the boiling commences with prodigious violence. The elasticity of all the elastic fluids into which liquids are converted by heat, increases with the tempe- rature; and the vapour formed, when the liquid boils in the open air, possesses an elasticity just equal to that of air, or capable at a medium of balancing a column of mercury 30 inches high. The following very important table, drawn up by Mr. Dalton from his own experi- ments, exhibits the elasticity of steam, or the vapour of water of cr cry temperature, from—40° to 325°. The elasticities of all the temperatures from 32° to 212° were ascertained by experiment; the rest were calculated by observing the rate at which the elasticity increased or diminished according to the temperature. TABLE OF' rHE ELASTICITY OF STEAM. 4> U a —> u 8. £ V a. a ? ° . ° u ■-J= 3 o 1.36 1.40 1.44 1.48 1.53 1.58 1.63 1.68 1.74 1.80 1.86 1.92 1.98 2.04 2.11 2.18 2.25 2.32 2 39 2^6 2.53 2.60 2.68 2 76 2.84 2.92 3.00 3.08 3.16 3.25 3 33 3.42 3.50 3.59 3.69 3.79 3.89 4.00 411 4.22 4 34 4.47 4.60 4.73 4.86 5.00 5.14 5.29 5.44 559 5 74 5 90 6.05 6.2' 637 6.53 6.70 6.87 7.05: 7.23 7.42 51° 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 o. t. > c o sj C u "o y o = ■: 7.61 7.81 8.01 8.20 8.40 8.60 8.81 9.02 9.24 9.46 9.68 9.91 10.15 10.41 10.68 10.96 11.25 11.54 11.83 12.13 12.43 12.73 13.02 13.32 13.62 13 92 14.22 14.52 14.83 15.15 15.50 1586 1623 16.6' 17.00 17.40 17.80 18.20 18.60 19.00 19.42 19.86 20.32 20.77 21.22 21.68 22.13 22.69 23.16 23.64 24.12 24.61 25.10 25.61 26.;3 26.66 27.20 27.74 28.29 28.84 29.41 A > o 212° 213 214 2!5 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 339 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 25 1 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 27*^ 30 00 30.60 31.21 31.83 32.46 33 09 33.72 34.35 34.99 35.63 36.25 36.88 37.53 38.20 38.89 39.59 40.30 41.02 41.75 42.49 43.24 44.00 44.78 45.58 46.39 47.20 48.02 48.84 49.67 50.50 51.34 52.18 53.03 53.88 54.68 55.54 56.42 57.31 58.21 5912 60.05 61.00 61.92 62.85 63.76 64.82 65.78 66.75 67.73 68.72 69.72 70-73 71.74 72 76 73.77 74.79 75.80 7682 77.85 78.89 VOL. II. 18 FLUIDITY. 3 >"3 ci u 3 ■" O | ti 3 a. u £ O M u J= 3 i, o y y S t, 1-.— y c« h 8. E n ° % ^ i a* "5 3 , !j(l j; C l< t V p. E Force of 1 in inches 1 Mercury. 272° 79.94 l 290° 100.12 308» 121.20 273 8098 | 291 101.23 ; 309 122.37 274 82.01 j 292 102.45 310 1^3.53 275 83.13 | 293 103.63 i 311 124.69 276 84.35 , 294 104.80 ■ 312 125 85 277 85.47 ! 295 105.97 313 127.00 278 8650 1 296 107 14 314 128.15 279 87.63 ! 297 108.31 315 129.29 280 88.75 298 109.48 316 130.43 281 89.87 299 110.64 317 131.57 282 90.99 300 111.81 318 132 72 283 92.11 301 112.98 319 133.86 284 93.23 302 114.15 320 135.00 285 94.35 303 115.32 321 136.14 286 95.48 304 116.50 322 137.28 287 96.64 305 117.68 323 138.42 588 97.80 306 118.86 324 13y.56 289 98.96 307 120.03 325 140 70 Mr. Dalton has discovered that the elasticity of every other vapour or steam is precisely the sarrfe, with that of the steam of water at the same distance from its boiling point. Thus water boils at 212°; its elasticity at the temperature of 182°, or 30 under its boiling point, we see from the table is 15.86. Alcohol boils at 176°; the elasticity of the steam of alcohol at 146°, or 30o un- der its boiling point, is likewise 15.86. This very im- portant discovery enables us to ascertain the elasticity of the vapours of all liquids whatever at any temperature, provided their boiling points are known. We have only to find how many degrees the temperature at which the elasticity required is distant from the boiling point of this liquid. The same number of degrees, added to or subtracted from 212°, gives us a temperature, opposite to which in the above table we shall find the elasticity required. Such arc the phenomena of the conversion of liquid into elastic fluids. Dr. Black applied his theory of la- tent heat to this conversion with great sagacity; and de- monstrated, that it is owing to the very same cause as the conversion of solids into liquids; namely, to the com- bination of a certain dose of caloric with the liquid, without any increase of temperature. The truth of this very important point was established by the following experiments. First. When a vessel of water is put upon the fire, the water gradually becomes hotter till it reaches 212°; but afterwards its temperature is not increased. Now caloric must be constantly entering from the fire and combining with the water. But as the water does not become hotter, the caloric must combine with that part of it which flies off in the form of steam; but the tem- perature of the steam is only 212°; therefore the caloric combined with it does not increase its temperature. We mustconclu«>f then, thatthe change of water to steam is owing to the combination of this caloric; for it produces no other change. Dr. Black put some water in a tin-plate vessel upon a -»• 2 red-hot iron. The water was of the temperature of so*, in four minutes it began to boil, and in 20 minutes it was all boiled off. During the first four minutes it had re- ceived 162°, or40| per minute. If we suppose that it, re- ceived as much per minute during the whole process of boiling, the caloric which entered into the water and converted it into steam would amount to 40^ x 20 = 810°. This caloric is not indicated by the thermometer, for the temperature of steam is only 212°; therefore Dr. Black called it latvnt heat. Second. Water may be heated in a Papin's digester' to 400° without boiling; because the steam is forcibly compressed, and prevented from making its escape. If the mouth of the vessel is suddenly opened while things are in this state, part of the water rushes out in the form of steam, but the greater part still remains in the form of water, and its temperature instantly sinks to 212°; consequently 188° of caloric have suddenly disappeared. This caloric must have been carried off by the steam. Now as only about I-5th of the water is converted into steam, that steam must contain not only its own 188°, but also the 188° lost by each of the other four parts; that is, it must contain 188° x 5, or about 940°. Steam there- fore is water combined with at least 9400 of caloric, the presence of which is not indicated by the thermometer. This experiment was first made by Dr. Black, and after- wards with more precision by Mr. Watt. Third. When hot liquids are put under the receiver of an air-pump, and the air is suddenly drawn off, the li- quids boil, and their temperature sinks with great rapi- dity a considerable number of degrees. Thus water, however hot at first, is very soon reduced to the tempera- ture of 70°, and ether becomes suddenly so cold, that it freezes water placed round tbe vessel which contains it. In these cases the vapour undoubtedly carries off the heat of the liquid: but the temperature of the vapour is never greater than that of the liquid itself; the heat there- fore must combine with the vapour, and become latent. Fourth. It' one part of steam at 212° is mixed with nine parts by weight of water at 62°, the steam instantly assumes the form of water, and the temperature after mixture is 178.6°, consequently each of the nine parts of water has received 116.6° of caloric; of course the steam has lost 9 x 116.6° = 1049.4° of caloric. But as the temperature of the steam is diminished by 33.3°, we must subtract this sum. There will remain rather more than 1000°, which is the quantity of caloric which ex- isted in the steam without increasing its temperature. This experiment cannot be made directly; but it may be made by passing a given weight of steam through a me- tallic worm, surrounded by a given weight of water. The heat acquired by the water indicates the caloric which the steam gives out during its condensation. From the experiments of Mr. W^att made in this manner, it appears that the latent heat of steam amounts to 940°. The experiments of M. Lavoisier make it rather more than 1000°. By the experiments of Dr. Black and his friends, it was ascertained, that not only water, but all other li- quids during their conversion into vapour, combine with a dose of caloric, without any change of temperature; and that ev; ry kind of elastic fluid, during its conver- sion into a liquid, gives out a portion of caloric without FLU F L r any change of temperature. Dr. Black's law is then very general, and comprehends every change in the state of a body. The cause of the conversion of a solid into a liquid is the combination of the solid with calorie; that of the conversion of a liquid into an elastic fluid is the combination of the liquid with caloric. Liquids are so- lids combined with caloric; elastic fluids are liquids com- bined with caloric. This law, in its most general form, may be stated as follows: whenever a body changes its state, it cither combines with caloric, or separates from: aloric. No person will dispute that this is one of the most im- portant discoveries hitherto made in philosophy. Science is indebted for it entirely to tbe sagacity of Dr. Black. Other philosophers indeed have laid claim to it; but these claims are either without any foundation, or their no- tions may be traced to Dr. Black's lectures, as their opinions originated many years posterior to the public explanation of Dr. Black's theory in the chemical chairs of Glasgow and Edinburgh. III. A very considerable number of bodies, both solids and liquids, may be converted into elastic fluids by heat; and as long as the temperature continues sufficiently high, they retaiH all the mechanical properties of gaseous bo- dies. It is exceedingly probable, that if we could com- mand a heat suffii iently intense, the same change might be produced on all bodies in nature. This accordingly is the opinion at present admitted by philosophers. But if all bodies are convertible into elasth' fluids by heat, it is exceedingly probable that all elastic fluids in their turn might be converted into solids or liquids, if we could ex- pose them to a sufficiently low temperature. In that case, all the gases must be supposed to owe their elasticity to a certain dose of caloric: they must be considered as compounds of caloric with a solid or liquid body. This opinion was first stated by Amontons, and it was sup- ported with much ingenuity both by Dr. Black and La- voisier, and his associates. It is at present the prevail- ing opinion; and it is certainly supported not only by analogy, but by several very striking facts. If its truth is admitted, we must consider all the gases as capable of losing their elasticity by depriving them of their heat: they differ merely from the vapours in the great cold which is necessary to produce this change. Now the fact is, that several of the ga»es may be con- densed into liquh'sby lowering their temperatures. Oxy- muriatic acid gas becomes liquid at a temperature not much under 40°; and at 32° it even forms solid crystals. Ammoniacal gas condenses into a liquid at— 45°. None of the other gases have been hitherto condensed. It is well known, that the condensation of vapours is greatly assisted by pressure; but the effect of pressure diminishes as fie temperature of vapours increases. It is xvvy likely that pressure would also contribute to assist the condensation of gases. It has been tried without ef- fect indeed in several of them. Thus air has been con- densed till it was heavier than water; yet it showed no disposition to I -t.se its elasticity. But this m;:y be ascribed to the high temperature at which the experiment was made relative to the point at which air Would lose its elasticity. At the same time it cannot be denied, that there are several phenomena scarcely reconcilable to this constitu- tion of the gases, ingenious and plausible as it is. One of the most striking is the sudden solidification which en- sues when certain gases are mixed together. Thus when ammoniacal gas and muriatic acid gas are mixed, the product is a solid salt; yet the heat evolved is very incon- siderable, if we compare it with the difficulty of condens- ing these gases separately, and the great cold which they ettd«re before losing their elasticity. In other cases too, gaseous bodies unite, and form a new gas, which retains its elasticity as powerfully as ever. Thus oxygen gas and nitroUs gas combined form a new gas, namely, nitric acid, which is permanent till it comes into contact with some body on which it can act. FLUOR-ALBUS. See Medicine. Fluor-spar. See Fluat of Lime. The principal use of fluats is for smelting ores, where they act as very powerful fluxes, and on this account are much valued. They are found in various countries, par- ticularly Sweden, and some other northern countries of Europe. From this quality of melting easily in combi- nation with other earthy matters, they have got the name of fluors. "The resemblance between the coloured fluors and the composition made of coloured glass (says Cronstedt), has perhaps contributed not only to the fluors being reckoned of the same value with tiie co- loured quartz crystals, by such collectors as only mind colour and figure, but to their also obtaining a rank among the precious stones in the apothecaries' and druggists' shops." Mr. Fabroni observes, that the combination of calcareous earth with tbe sparry acid is almost always transparent: it often crystallizes in regular cubes, some- times single from one line to two inches in diameter, and sometimes of an indeterminate figure. They are some- times of a blue colour; others are purple like amethysts; some are of a brown colour, others opaque. M. Magel- lan says, that fluors in general have this singular pro- perty, that on being melted by the flame of the blow -pipe, together w ith gypsum, the product resulting from both is all formed with facets on the outside; but if melted with terra ponde rosa, its surface is quite, round or spherical. FLUORIC ACID. The mineral called fluor, or fu- sible spar, and in this country Derbyshire spar, was not properly distinguished from other spars till Margraff published a dissertation on it in the Berlin Transactions for 1768. He first proved, that it contained no sulphuric acid, as had been formerly supposed: he then attempted to decompose it, by mixing together equal quantities of this mineral and sulphuric acid, and distilling them. By this method he obtained a white sublimate, which he sup- posed to be the fluor itself volatilized by the acid, lie observed with astonishment, that the glass retort was corroded, and even pierced with holes. Nothing more was known concerning fluor till Scheele published his experiments three years after, by which he proved that it is composed chiefly of lime and a particular acid, which has been called fluoric acid. The composition of fluoric acid is equally unknown with that of muriatic a< id. Mr. Henry tried in vain to decompose it by means of electricity. It is always ob- tained from fluor spar, in which mineral it is foimd in abundance. For tbe investigation of the properties of this acid, we are indebted chiefly to Scheele and Priestly. 1. It may be obtained by putting a quantity of the spar in powder into a retort, pouring over it an equal FLU FLU quantity of sulphuric acid, and then applying a very gentle heat. A gas issues from the beak of the retort, which may be received in the usual manner in glass jars standing over mercury. This gas is fluoric acid. The acid may be obtained dissolved in water by luting to the retort a receiver containing water. The distilla- tion is to be conducted with a very moderate heat, not only to allow the gas to condense, but also to prevent the fluor itself from subliming. After the process, provided a glass retort has been employed, a crust of white earth is found in the receiver, which has all the properties of silica. Scheele supposed that the silica produced was formed of fluoric acid and water; and Bergman adopted the same opinion. But Wiegleb and Buccholz showed that the quantity of silica was exactly equal to what the retort lost in weight; and Meyer completed the proof that it was derived from the glass, by the following experiment. He put into each of three equal cylindrical tin vessels a mixture of three ounces of sulphuric acid and one ounce of fluor, which had been pulverized in a mortar of metal. Into the first be put one ounce oi pounded glass; into the second the same quantity of quartz in powder; and into the third nothing. Above each of the vessels he hung a spunge moistened with water, and having covered them, he exposed them to a moderate heat. The sponge in the first cylinder was covered with the crust in half an hour; the sponge in the second in two hours; but no crust was formed in the third, though it was exposed several days. In consequence of this decisive experiment, Bergman gave up his opinion; and wrote an account of Meyer's experiment to Morveau, who was employed in translating his works, to enable him to correct the mistake in his notes. Soon after the discovery of this acid, difficulties and doubts concerning its existence as a peculiar acid were started by some French chemists. To remove these ob- jections, Mr. Scheele instituted and published a new set of experiments; which not only completely established the peculiar nature of the fluoric acid, but once more display ed the unrivalled abilities of the illustrious discoverer. It would be needless to enumerate these objections, as they Originated entirely from want of precision, and did not produce a single convert. 2. Fluoric acid gas is invisible and elastic like air; it does not maintain combustion, nor can animals breathe it without death. It has a pungent smell, not unlike that of muriatic acid. It is heavier than common air. It corrodes the skin almost instantly. 3. Neither caloric nor light produces any alteration on it 4. When water is admitted in contact with this gas, it absorbs it rapidly; and if the gas has been obtained by means of glass vessels, it deposits at the same time a quantity of silica. Water absorbs a considerable proportion of this gas, but the precise quantity has not been determined. The compound is usually termed fluoric acid by chemists. It is specifically heavier than water, has an arid taste, red- dens vegetable blues, and does not freeze till cooled down to 23°. " When heated, the acid gas is easily expelled, except the last portions of it, which adhere with great obstinacy. 5. Neither oxygen gas nor any of the simple com bustibles or incombustibles produce any change on Aiuk. ric acid, either in the gaseous or liquid state. 6. Fluoric acid gas does not act upon any of the me- tals, but liquid fluoric acid is capable of oxidizing iron, zinc, copper, and arsenic. It does not act upon gold, pla- tinum, silver, mercury, lead, tin, antimony, cobalt. 7. It combines with alkalies, earths, and metallic ox- ides, and forms with them salts which are denominated fluats. See Fluat. The most singular property of fluoric acid is the faci- lity with which it corrodes glass and siliceous bodies, especially when hot, and the case with which it holds silica in solution even when in the state of gas. This affi- nity for silica is so great, that .he thickest glass vessels can only withstand its action for a short time; and the greatest precautions are scarcely sufficient to obtain it entirely free from siliceous earth. 8. It produces no change, as far as is known, upon any of the acids already described. 9. Its affinities are as follows: Lime, Barytes, Strontian, Magnesia, Potass, Soda, Ammonia, Glucina, Alumina, Zirconia, Silica. 10. As fluoric acid produces an insoluble compound with lime, it may be employed with great advantage, as Pelletier has observed, to detect the presence sf that earth when held in solution. A drop or two of the acid causes a milky cloud or precipitate to appear, if any lime is present. The property which this acid has of corroding glass, has induced several ingenicus men to attempt, by means of it, to engrave, or rather etch, upon glass. The glass is covered completely with wax; and then that part where the letters or figures are to appear is laid bare, by removing the wax. The whole is then exposed for some time to the hot vapours of fluoric acid. This simple process is employed with advantage in writing. labels on glass vessels, and in graduating thermometers, and other similar instruments. The discovery is by no means new; it has been shewn by Beckman and Accum, that this acid was employed for that purpose by Henry Swanhard, an artist of Nuremberg, as early as 1670. He seems to have kept his art for some time secret, but the receipt was made public by Pauli in 1725. See Etch- ing ox Glass. FLUSTRA, a genus of insects of the order zoophyta; an animal of the polypus kind, proceeding from porous shells; stem fixed, foliaceous, membranaceous, consisting of numerous rows of cells united together, and woven like a mat. There are many species. The verticillata is found in the Mediterranean, adhering to fuci: the cells, when magnified, appear surrounded by sharp denticles, with along bristle in the front of each, bending inwards like a horn; the mouths incline forwards, and their whole substance appears full of small points. PL U 1? L U ¥L{jTK, fistula, an instrument of music, the simplest of all those of the wind kind. It is played on by blowing it with the mouth, and the tones or notes are changed by stopping and opening the holes disposed for that purpose along its side. The ancient fistula), or flutes, were made of rods, afterwards of wood, and last of metal; but how they were blown, whether as our flutes, or as hautboys, does not appear. Flute, German, is an instrument entirely different from the common flute. It is not, like that, put into the mouth to be played, but the end is topt with a tampion, or plug, and the lower lip is applied to a hole about two inches and a half, or three inches, distant from the end. This instrument is usually about a foot and a half long, rather larger at the upper end than the lower, and per- forated with holes, besides that for the mouth, the low- est of which is stopt and opened by the little finger's pressing on a brass, or sometimes a silver key, like those iu hautboys, bassoons, kc. It is found exceeding sweet and agreeable, and serves as a treble in a concert. Flute, or Fluyt, (originally perhaps float) is a kind of long vessel, with flat ribs, or floor timbers; round behind, and swelled in the middle; serving chiefly for the carrying of provisions in fleets, or squadrons of ships, though it is also used for merchandize. Flutes, or Flutings, in architecture, perpendicular channels, or cavities, cut along the shaft of a column, or pilaster. See Architecture. FLUX, in medicine, an extraordinary issue, or evac- uation, of some humours of the body. See Medicine. Flux, in metallurgy, is sometimes used synonymously with fusion: for instance, an ore, or rather matter, is said to be in liquid flux, when it is completely fused. But the word flux is generally used to signify certain saline matters, which facilitate the fusion of ores, and other substances which arc difficultly fusible in assays, and in the reductions of ores. We shall here describe the fluxes recommended by Bergman, in vol. ii. 1. The phosphoric acid, or rather the microcosmic salt, as it is called, which contains that acid partly satu- rated with mineral, partly with ammonia, and loaded besides with much water. This salt, when exposed to the flame, boils and foams violently, with a continual crackling noise, until the water and ammonia have flown off; afterwards it is less agitated, sending forth some- thing like black scoriae arising from the burned gelati- nous part: these, however, are soon dispelled, and exhib- it a pellucid sphericle encompassed by a beautiful green cloud, which is occasioned by the deflagration of the phosphorus, arising from the extrication of the acid by means of the inflammable matter. The clearglobule which remains, upon the removal of the flame, continues long- er soft than that formed by borax, and therefore is more fit for the addition of the matter to be dissolved. The ammonia is expelled by tbe fire; therefore an excess of acid remains in what is left behind, which readily at- tracts moisture in a cool place. 2. Soda, when put upon charcoal, melts superficially, penetrates the charcoal with a crackling noise, and then disappears. In the spoon it yields a permanent and pullucid sphericle, as long as it is kept fluid by the blue apex of the flame; but when the heat is diminished, it becomes opaque, aud assumes a milky colour. It attacks several earthy mat- ter?, particularly those of the siliceous kind, hut cannot be employed on charcoal. 3. Crystallized borax, expos- ed to the flame urged by the blow-pipe or charcoal, first becomes opaque, white, and excessively swelled, with various protuberances, or branches proceeding out from it. When the water is expelled, it easily collects itself into a mass, which, when well fused, yields a transpa- rent sphericle, retaining its transparency even after cooling. If calcined borax is employed, the clear sphe- ricle is obtained the sooner. Having provided every thing necessary, the following directions are next to be attended to. 1. A common tal- low candle, not too thick, is generally preferable to a wax candle, or to a lamp. The snuff must not be cut too short, as the wick should bend towards the object. 2. The weaker exterior flame must first be directed upon the object, until its effects are discovered; after which the interior flame must be applied. 3. We must observe with attention whether the matter decrepitates, splits* swells, vegetates, boils, kc. 4. The piece exposed to the flame should scarcely ever exceed the size of a peppi r- corn, but ought always to be large enough to he taken up by the forceps. 5. A small piece should he added sepa- rately to each of the fluxes; concerning which it must he observed whether it dissolves wholly or only in part; whether this is effected with or without effervescence, quickly or slowly; whether the mass is divided into a powder, or gradually and externally corroded; with what colour the glass is tinged, and whether it becomes opaque, or remains pellucid. Having given these directions, Mr. Bergman pro- ceeds next to consider the subjects proper to he exam- ined by the blowpipe. These he divides into four classes: 1. Saline; 2. Earthy; 3. Inflammable; and 4. Metallic. As the subject, however, is treated at considerable length, we shall refer the reader to Mr. Bergman's writings, and confine ourselves in this place to what he has ad- vanced concerning the last of these subjects, namely, metallic substances. The perfect metals, when calcined (oxygenated) in the moist way, recover their former nature by simple fusion. The imperfect metals are calcined by fire, especially by the exterior flame; and then, in order to their being re- duced, indispensably require the contact of an inflamma- ble substance. With respect to fusibility, the two ex- tremes are mercury and platina; the former being scarce- ly ever seen in a solid form, and the latter almost as difficult of fusion. The metals, therefore, may he rank- ed in this order, according to their degrees of fusibility. 1. Mercury; 2. Tin; 3. Bismuth; 4. Lead; ;". Zinc; 6. Antimony; 7. Silver; 8. Gold; 9. Arsenic; io. Cobalt; 11. Nickel; 12. Iron; 13. Manganese; 14. Platinum. The last two do not yield to the. blowpipe, and indeed f »rgcd iron does not melt without difficulty; but cast iron per fectly. Metals in fusion affect a globular form, and easily roll off tbe charcoal, especiallv when of the size of a grain of pepper. Either smaller pieces, therefore, ought to be used, or they should rest in hollows made in the charcoal. On their first melting they assume a polished surface, an appearance always retained by the perfect metals; but the imperfect are soon obscured by a pollute formed of the calx (oxide) of the metal. The colours FLUX. communicated by the calces vary, according to the na- ture of the metal from which the calx is produced. Some of the calces easily recover their metallic form by simple exposure to flame upon the charcoal; others are reduced iu this way with more difficulty; and some not at all. The reduced calces of the volatile metals immediately fly offfrom the charcoal. In the spoon they exhibit glo- bules; but it is very difficult to prevent them from being first dissipated by the blast. The metals are taken up by the fluxes; but as soda yields an opaque spherule, it is not to be made use of. Globules of borax dissolve and melt any metallic calx; and, unless too much loaded with it, appear pellucid and coloured. A piece of metal calcined in flux produces the same effect, but more slowly. A portion of the calx gene- rally recovers its metallic form, and floats on the melted matter like one or more excrescences. The calces of the perfect metals arc reduced by borax in the spoon, and adhere to it at the point of contact, and there only. The microcosmic salt acts like borax, but does not reduce the metals. It attacks them more powerfully on account of its acid nature; at the same time it preserves the spherical form, and therefore is adapted in a peculiar manner to the investigation of metals. The tinge communicated to the flux frequently varies, being different in the fused and in the cooled globule; for some of the dissolved calces, while fused, show no co- lour, but acquire one while cooling; but others, on the contrary, have a much more intense colour while in the state of fluidity. Should the transparency be injured by too great a concentration of colour, the globule, on com- pressing it with the forceps, or drawing it out into a thread, will exhibit a thin and transparent mass; but if the opacity arises from supersaturation, more flux must be added; and as the fluxes attract the metals with une- qual forces, the latter precipitate one another. Metals when mineralized by acids have the properties of metallic salts; when mineralized by carbonic acid, they possess the properties of calces, that volatile sub- stance being easily expelled without any effervescence; but when combined with sulphur they possess properties of a peculiar kind. They may then be melted, or even calcined upon the charcoal, as also in a golden or silver spoon. The volatile parts are distinguished by the smell or smoke; the fixed residua, by the particles reduced or precipitated upon iron, or from the tinge of the fluxes. Gold in its metallic state fuses on the charcoal, and is the only metal which remains unchanged.lt may be oxy- genated in the moist way by solution in aqua regia; but to calcine it also by fire, we must pursue the following method: To a globule of microcosmic salt, let there be added a small piece of solid gold, of gold leaf, purple mineral, or, which is best of all, of the crystalline salt formed by a solution of gold in aqua regia containing sea-salt. Let this again be melted, and added while yet soft toturbith mineral, which will immediately grow red on the contact. The fusion being afterwards repeated, a vehement effervescence arises; and when this is conside- rably diminished, let the blast be stopped for a few mo- ments, again begun, and so continued until almost all the bubbles disappear. After this the spherule, on cooling, assumes a ruby colour; but if this does not happen, let it be just made soft by the exterior flame, and upon harden. ing, this tinge generally appears. Should the process fail at first, owing to some, minute circumstances which cannot be described, it will succeed on the second or third trial. The ruby-coloured globule, when compressed by the forceps while hot, frequently becomes blue; by sudden fusion it generally assumes an opal colour, which by refraction appears blue, and by reflection of a brown red. If further urged by the fire it loses all colour, and appears like water; but the redness may be reproduced several times by the addition of turbith mineral. The flux is reddened in the same manner by the addition of tin instead of turbith; but it has a yellowish hue, and more easily becomes opaque; while the redness communicated by turbith mineral has a purple tinge, and quite resem- bles a ruby. Borax produces the same phenomena, but more rarely; and in all cases the slightest variation in the management of the fire will make the experiment fail entirely. The ruby colour may also be produced by copper; whence a doubt may arise, whether it is the gold or the remains of the copper that produce this effect. Mr. Berg- man thinks it probable that both may contribute towards it, especially as copper is often found to contain gold. This precious metal cannot directly be mineralized by sulphur; but by the medium of iron is sometimes formed into a golden pyrites. Here, however, the quan- tity of gold is so small, that a globule cannot scarcely be extracted from it by the blowpipe. Grains of native platinum are not affected by the blowpipe, either alone or mixed with fluxes; which, how- ever, are frequently tinged green by it: but platinum, precipitated from aqua regia by vegetable or volatile al- kali, is reduced by microefcsmic salt to a small mallea- ble globule. Our author has been able to unite seven or eight of these into a malleable mass; but more of them produced only a brittle one. Platinum scarcely loses all its iron, unless reduced to very thin fusion. Silver in its metallic state easily melts, and resists cal- cination. Silver leaf fastened by means of the breath, or a solution of borax, may easily be fixed on it by the flame, and through the glass it appears of a gold colour; but care must be taken not to crack the glass. Calcined silver precipitated from nitrous acid by fixed alkali is easily reduced. The microscomic acid dissolves it speedily and copiously; but on cooling it becomes opaque, and of a whitish yellow, which is also sometimes the case with leaf-silver. Copper is discovered by a green colour, and sometimes by that of a ruby, unless we choose rather to impute that to gold. The globules can scarcely be ob- tained pellucid, unless the quantity of calx is very small} but a longer fusion is necessary to produce an opacity with borax. The globule, loaded with dissolved silver during the time of its fusion in the spoon, covers a piece of copper with silver, and becomes itself of a pellucid green: antimony quickly takes away the milky opacity of dissolved luna cornea, and separates the silver in dis- tinct grains. Cobalt, and most of the other metals like- wise, precipitate silver on the same principles as in the moist way, viz. by a double elective attraction. This me- tal, when mineralized by marine and vitriolic acids? yields a natural luna cornea, which produces a number of small metallic globules on the charcoal: it dissolves to FLUX. microcosmic salt, and renders it opaque, and is reduced, partially at least, by borax. Suluhurated silver, called also the glassy ore of that metal, fused upon charcoal, easily parts with the sulphur it contains; so that a polish- ed globule is often produced, which, it necessary, may be depurated by borax. The silver may also be precipitat- ed by the addition of copper, iron, or manganese. When arsenic makes part of the compound, as in the red ore of arsenic, it must first be freed from the sulphur by gentle roasting, and finally entirely depurated by borax. It decrepitates in the fire at first. Copper, together with sulphur and arsenic mixed with silver, called the white ore of silver, yields a regu 1 us having the same alloy. Galena, which is an ore of lead containing sulphur and silver, is to be freed in the same manner from the sulphur; after which the lead is gradually dissipated by alternately melting and cooling, or is separated in a cu- pel from the galena by means of the flame. Bergman has not been able to precipitate the silver distinct from the lead, but the whole mass becomes malleable; and the same is true of tin, but the mass becomes more brittle. Pure mercury flies off from the charcoal with a mode- rate heat, the fixed heterogeneous matters remaining be- hind. When calcined, it is easily reduced and dissipated, and the fluxes take it up with effervescence; but it is soon totally driven off. When mineralized by sulphur, it liquefies upon the charcoal, burns with a blue flame, smokes, and gradually disappears; but, on exposing cin- nabar to the fire on a polished piece of copper, the mer- curial globules are fixed upon it all round. Lead in its metallic state readily melts, and continues to retain a metallic splendour for some time. By a more intense heat it boils and smokes, forming a yellow circle upon the charcoal. It communicates a yellow colour, scarcely visible, to the fluxes; and when the quantity is large, the globule, on cooling, contracts more or less of a white opacity. It is not precipitated by copper when dissolved; nor do the metals precipitate it from sulphur in the same order as from the acids. When united to car- bonic acid, it grows red on the first touch of the flame; when the heat is increased it melts, and is reduced to a multitude of small globules. When united with phospho- ric acid it melts, and yields an opaque globule, but is not reduced. With fluxes it shows the same appearances as oxide of lead. When mineralized by sulphur, lead ea- sily liquefies, and being gradually deprived of the vola- tile part, yields a distinct regulus, unless too much loaded with iron. It may be precipitated by iron and cop- per. A small piece of copper, either solid or foliated, some- times communicates a ruby colour to fluxes, especially when assisted by tin or turbith mineral. If the copper is a little more or further calcined, it produces a green pellucid globule, the tinge of which grows weaker by cooling, and even verges towards a blue. By long fusion with borax, the colour is totally destroyed upon char- coal, but scarcely in the spoon. When once destroyed, this colour can srarcely be reproduced by nitre; but it remains fixed with microcosmic salt. If the calx or metal to be calcined is added in considerable quantity during fusion, it acquires an opaque red on cooling, though it appears green while pellucid and fusedj but by a still larger quantity it contracts an opacity even while in fu- sion, and upon cooling a metallic splendour. Even when the quantity of copper is so small as scarcely to tinge the flux, a visible pellicle is precipitated upon a piece of polished iron added to it during strong fusion, and the globule in its turn takes the colour of polished iron; and in this way the smallest portions of copper may be dis- covered. The globule made green by copper, when fused in the spoon with a small portion of tin, yields a sphe- rule of the latter mixed with copper, very hard and brit- tle: in this case the precipitated metal pervades the whole of the mass, and does not adhere to the surface. Cobalt precipitates the calx of copper dissolved in the spoon by a flux, in a metallic form, and imparts its own colour to glass, which nickel cannot do. Zinc also pre- cipitates it separately, and rarely upon its own surface, ?.s we can scarcely avoid melting it. When mineralized by the carbonic acid, coppergrows black on the first contact of the flame, and melts in the spoon; on the charcoal the lower part, which touches the support, is reduced. With a superabundance of marine acid, it tinges the flame of a beautiful colour: but with a small quantity shows no appearance of the metal in that way. Thus the beauti- ful crystals of Saxony, which arc cubic, and of a deep green, do not tinge the flame, though they impart a pel- lucid greenness to microcosmic salt. An opaque redness is easily obtained with borax: but Mr. Bergman could not produce this colour with microcosmic salt. Copper simply sulphurated, when cautiously and gently roasted by the exterior flame, yields at last by fusion a rugulus surrounded with a sulphurated crust. The mass roasted with borax separates the regulus more quickly. If a small quantity of iron happens to be present, the piece to be examined must first be roasted, after which it must be dissolved in borax, and tin added to precipi- tate the copper. The regulus may also be obtained by sufficient calcination and fusion, even without any pre- cipitant, unless the ore is very poor. When the pyrites contain copper, even in the quantity of the one-hundredth part of their weight, its presence may be detected by these experiments. Let a grain of pyrites, of the size of a flax-seed, be roasted, but not so much as to expel all the sulphur; let it then be dissolved by borax, a polish- ed rod of iron added, and the fusion continued until the surface when cooled loses all splendour. As much borax is required as will make the whole of the size of a grain of hemp-seed. Slow fusion is injurious, and the precipi- tation is also retarded by too great tenuity; but this may be corrected by the addition of a little lime. Too much calcination is also inconvenient; for by this t!ie globule forms slowly,is somewhat spread, becomes knotty when warm, corrodes the charcoal, destroys the iron, and the copper does not precipitate distinctly. This detect is cor- rected by a small portion of crude ore. When the globule is properly melted, according to the directions already given, it ought to be thrown into cold water immediate- ly on stopping the blast, in order to break it suddenly. If the copper contained in it is less than one-hundredth part, one end of tbe wire only has a cupreous appearance, but otherwise the whole. Dr. Gahn has another method of examining the ores of copper, namely, by exposing a grain of h >.e, well freed from sulphur by calcination, to the action of the FLUXION. flame driven suddenly upon it by intervals. At those in- stances a cupreous splendour appears on the surface, which otherwise is black; and this splendour is more quickiy produced in proportion as the ore is poorer. The flame is tinged green by cupreous pyrites on roast- ing. Forged iron is calcined, but can scarcely be melted. It cannot be melted by borax, though it may by micro- cosmic sah, and then it becomes brittle. Calcined iron becomes magnetic by being heated on the charcoal, but melts in the spoon. The fluxes become green by this me- tal; but in proportion as the oxygen is more abundant, they grow more of a brownish yellow. On cooling, the tinge is much weakened, and when originally weak, vanishes entirely. By too much saturation the glo- bule becomes black and opaque. The sulphureous pyrites may be collected into a globule by fusion, and is first surrounded by a blue flame; but as the metal is ea- sily calcined, and changes into black scoria;, neither by itself nor with fluxes does it exhibit a regulus. It grows red on roasting. Tin easily melts before the blowpipe, and is calcined. The fluxes dissolve the calx sparingly; and when satu- rated, contract a milky opacity. Some small particles of this metal dissolved in any flux may be distinctly pre- cipitated upon iron. Crystallized ore of tin, urged by fire upon the charcoal, yields its metal in a reguline state. Bismuth presents nearly the same appearances as lead; the calx is reduced on the coal, and fused in the spoon. The calx, dissolved in microcosmic salt, yields a brown- ish yellow globule, which grows more pale upon cooling, at the same time losing some of its transparency. Too much calx renders the matter perfectly opaque. Borax produces a similar mass in the spoon, but on the coal a grey one, which can scarcely be freed from bubbles. On fusion the glass smokes, and forms a cloud about it. Bismuth is easily precipitated by copper and iron. Sul- phurated bismuth is easily fused, exhibiting a blue flame and sulphureous smell. Cabalt, when added, by means of sulphur, enters the globule; but the scoria soon swells into distinct partitions; which, when further urged by fire, throw out globules of bismuth. Sulphurated bis- muth, by the addition of borax, may be uistinctly pre- cipitated by iron or manganese. Regulus of nickel when melted is calcined, but more slowly than other metals. The calx imparts an hyacin- thine colour to fluxes, which grows yellow on cooling, and by long continued lire may be destroyed. If the calx of nickel is contaminated by ochre of iron, the latter is first dissolved. Nickel dissolved is precipitated on iron, or even on copper; an evident proof that it does not ori- ginate from ciiher of these metals. Sulphurated nickel is no where found without iron and arsenic: the regulus is obtained by roasting, and fusing with borax, though it still remains mixed with some other metals. Regulus of arsenic takes fire by a sudden heat, and not only deposits a white smoke on charcoal, but diffu- ses the same all around. The calx smokes with a smell of garlic, but does not burn. The fluxes grow yellow, without growing opaque, on adding a proper quantity of calx, which is dispelled by along continuance of the heat. This semimetal is precipitated in a metallic form by iron and copper, but not by gold. Yellow arsenic lique- fies, smokes, and totally evaporates: when heated by the external flame, so as neither to liquefy nor smoke, it grows red, and yellow again upon cooling. W hen it on- ly begins to melt, it acquires a red colour, which re- mains after cooling. Realgar liquefies more easily, and is besides totally dissipated. Regulus of cobalt melts, and may partly be depurated by borax, as the iron is first calcined and taken up. The smallest portion of the calx tinges the flux of a deep- blue colour, which appears of a violet by refraction, and this colour is very fixed in the fire. Cobalt is precipitat- ed upon iron from the blue globule, but not upon copper. Wlien calx of iron is mixed with that of cobalt in a flux, the former is dissolved. This semimetal take up about one-third of its wreight of sulphur in fusion, after which it can hardly be melted again. It is precipitated by iron, copper, and several other metals. The common ore yields an impure regulus by roasting. The green cobalt, examined bykour author, tinges the microcosmic salt Iduc but at tbe same time shows red spots, indicating copper. Zinc exposed to the blowpipe melts, takes lire, send- ing forth a beautiful blueish-green flame, which however is soon extinguished by a lanuginous calx; but if the reguline nucleus included in this lanuginous matter (com- monly called flowers of zinc) is urged by the flame, it will be now and then inflamed, and as it were, explode and fly about. With borax it froths, and at first tinges the flame. It continually diminishes, and the flux spreads upon the charcoal; but in used microcosmic salt, it not on- Iy froths, but sends forth flashes with a crackling noise. Too great heat makes it explode with the emission of ignited particles. The white calx, or flower, exposed to the flame on charcoal, becomes yellow ish, and has a kind of splendour which vanishes when the flame ceases. It remains fixed, and cannot be melted. The fluxes are scarcely tinged, but when saturated by fusion, they grow opaque and white on cooling. Clouds are formed around the globules, of a nature similar to those of the metallic calx. Dissolved zinc is not precipitated by any other metal. When mineralized by carbonic acid gas, it has the same properties as calcined zinc. In the pscudo galena sulphur and iron are present. These generally, on the charcoal, smell of sulphur, melt, and tinge the flame more or less, depositing a cloud all around. Those which have no matrix are tinged by those which con. tain iron, and acquire by saturation a white opaque co- lour, verging to brown or black, according to the varie- ty of composition. Regulus of antimony, fused and ignited on the charcoal, affords a beautiful object; for if the blast of air be sud- denly stopped, a thick white smoke rises perpendicular- ly, while the lower part round the globule is condensed into crystalline spicule, similar to those called argentine flowers. The calx tinges fluxes of an byacinthinecolour; but on fusion smokes, and is easily dissipated, especially on the charcoal, though it also deposits a cloud on it. The dissolved metal may be precipitated by iron and copper, but not by gold. Crude antimony liquefies on the charcoal, spreads, smokes, penetrates it, and at last disappears entirely, except a ring which it leaves behind, Regulus of manganese scarcely yields to the flame. The black calx tinges the fluxes of a blueish colour; bo- FLU FLU rax, unless saturated, communicates more of a yellow colour. The colour may be gradually 'dissolved altogeth- er by the interior flame, and again reproduced by a small particle of nitre, or the exterior flame alone. Com- bined with carbonic acid, it is of a white colour, which changes by ignitition to black. In other respects it shows the same experiments as the black calx. Fixed alkalis, nitre, borax, tartar, and common salt, are the saline matters of which fluxes are generally com- posed. But the word flux is more particularly applied to mixtures of different proportions of only nitre and tar- tar; and these fluxes are called by particular names, ac- cording to the proportions of these ingredients, as in the following instances. Flux, white, is made with equal parts of nitre and of tartar detonated together, by which they are alkaliscd. The residuum of this detonation is an alkali composed of alkalis of the nitre and of the tartar, both which are ab- solutely of the same nature. As the proportion of nitre in this mixture is more than is sufficient to consume en- tirely all the inflammable matter of the tartar, the alkali remaining after the detonation is perfectly white, and is therefore called white flux; and as this alkali is made very quickly, it is also called extemporaneous alkali. When a small quantity only of white flux is made, as a few ounces for instance, some nitre always remains un- dccomposed, and a little of the acid of the tartar, which gives a red, or even a black colour, to some part of the flux; but this does not happen when a large quantity of white flux is made, because then the heat is much great- er. The small quantity of undecomposed nitre and tar- tar which remains in white flux is not hurtful in most of the metallic fusions in which this flux is employed; but if the flux is required perfectly pure, it might easily be disengaged from those extraneous matters by a long and strong calcination, without fusion. Flux, crude. By crude flux is meant the mixture of nitre and tartar in any proportions, without detonation. Thus the mixture of equal parts of the two salts used in the preparation of the white flux, or the mixture of one part of nitre and two parts of tartar for the preparation of the black flux, arc each of them a crude flux before detonation. It has also been called white flux, from its colour; but this might occasion it to be confounded with the white flux above described. The name, therefore, of crude flux is more convenient. Crude flux is detonated and alkalised during the reductions and fusions in which it is employed; and is then changed into white or black flux, according to the proportions of which it is compos- ed. This detonation produces good effects in these fu- sions and reductions, if the swelling and extravasation of the detonating matters are guarded against. Accordingly, crude flux may be employed successfully in many ope- rations; as, for instance, in the ordinary operation for procuring the regulus of antimony. Flux, black. Black flux is produced from the mixture of two parts of tartar and one part of nitre detonated together. As the quantity of nitre which enters into the composition of this 11 ix is not sufficient to consume all the inflammable matter of the tartar, the alkali which remains after the detonation contains much black mat- ter, of the nature of coal, and is therefore called black flux. This flux is designedly so prepared, that it shall contain a certain quantity of inflammable matter; for it VOL. II. 19 is thereby capable, not only of facilitating the fusion ot metallic earths like the white flux, but also of reviving these metals. From this property it is also called reduc- ing flux; the black flux, therefore, or crude flux made with such proportions of the ingredients as to be con- vertible into black flux, ought always to be used when considered as metallic matters are at once to be fused and reduced. See Fusion. FLUXION, in mathematics, denotes the velocity by which tbe fluents or flowing quantities, increase or de- crease; and may be positive or negative, according as it relates to an increment or decrement. The doctrine of fluxions, first invented by sir Isaac Newton, is of great use in the investigation of curves, and in the discovery of the quadratures of curvilinear spaces, and their rectifications. In this method, magni- tudes are conceived to be generated by motion, and the velocity of the generating motion is the fluxion of the magnitude. Thus, the velocity of the point that describes aline, is its fluxion, and measures its increase or de- crease. When the motion of this point is uniform, its fluxion or velocity is constant, and may be measured by the space described in a given time. But when the mo- tion varies, the fluxion or velocity at any given point is measured by the.space that would be described in a giv- en time, if the motion was to be continued uniformly from that term. Thus let the point m be conceived to move from A, A m m r -------------f-------------4-................ R and generate the variable right line Am, by a motion any how regulated; and let its velocity, when it arrives at any proposed position or point R, be such as would, was it to continue uniform from that point, be sufficient to describe the line Rr, in the given time allotted for the fluxion, then will Rr be the fluxion of the variable line Am, in tbe term or point R. The fluxion of a plain suiv face is conceived iu like manner, by supposing a given right line 7?i?i (plate LX1V. Misccl. fig. 89) to move parallel to itself, in the plane of the parallel and immove- able lines AF and BG; for if, as above, Rr be taken to express the fluxion of the line Am, and the rectangle RrsS be completed: then that rectangle, being the space which would be uniformly described by the generating line mn, in the time that Am would be uniformly increas- ed by mr, is therefore the fluxion of the generated rec- tangle Bm, iu that position. If the length of the generat- ing line mn continually varies, the fluxion of the area will still be expounded by a rectangle under that line, and the fluxion of the abciss or base; for let the curvili- near space Anm (fig. 90) be generated by the continual and parallel motion of the variable line mn; and let Rr be the fluxion of the base or absciss A7W, as before; then the rectangle RrsS, will be the fluxion of the gen-rated space Amu. Because, if the length and velocity of the generating line mn were to continue invariable from the position RS, the rectangle RrsS would then be uniformly generated with the very velocity wherewith it begins to be generated, or vviih which the space Ainu is increased in that position. Fluxions. .Vot:, d, kc. FLUXIONS. and the variable or flowing quantities by the last letters, as v, w, x, y, z>\ thus, the diameter of a given circle may be denoted by a; and the sine of any arch thereof, considered as variable, by x. The fluxion of a quantity represented by a single letter, is expressed by the same letter with a dot or full point over it: thus, the fluxion of x is represented by x, and that of y by y. And, because these fluxions are themselves often vaiiable quantities, the velocities with which they either increase or decrease, are the fluxions of the former fluxions, which may be called second fluxions, and are denoted by the same let- ters w ith two dots over them, as x, if. In the same man- ner tbe fluxions of second fluxions are called third flux- iwns, and denoted by the same letters with three dots over them, as x. y; and so on for fourth, fifth, kc. fluxions. The whole doctrine of fluxions consists in solving the two following problems, viz. 1. From the fluent, or va- riable flowing quantity given, to find the fluxion; which constitute what is called the direct method of fluxions. 2. From the fluxion given, to find the fluent, or flowing quantity; which makes the inverse method of fluxions. Direct Method of Fluxions___The doctrine of this part of fluxions is comprized in these rules: 1. To find the fluxion of any simple variable quantity, the rule is to place a dot over it: thus, the fluxion of x is x, and of y, y. Again, the fluxion of the compound quantity x4-y, is x4-y; also the fluxion of x—y, is x—y. 2. To find the fluxion of any given power of a variable quantity, multiply the fluxion of the root by the exponent of the power, and the product by that power of the same root, whose exponent is less by unity than the given expo- nent. This rule is expressed more briefly, in algebraical character, by nx ~ a?=thefluxion of x . Thus, the flux- ion of x3 is x X 3 x x2 z=3x2x; and the fluxion of Xs is ,c x 5 X #4 = 5 x* x. In the same manner the fluxion of a +~y} 7 jS ~y % a -f if6; for the quantity a being con- stant, y is the true fluxion of the root a -f y. Again, the fluxion of «2-f z2 ¥ will be -| x %*- X a2 -}- z2] \\ for here, x being put = a2 -f z2, we have x = Qzz; and therc- fore | x z x, for the fluxion of a; £ (or a2 -f z2 3) is = 3zz y/a2 -f K2. S. To find the fluxion of the product of several variable quantities, multiply the fluxion of each, by the product of the rest of the quantities; and the sum of the products, thus arising, will be the fluxion sought. Thus, the fluxion of xy is xy + yx; that of xyz. is xyz + ijxz + zxy; and that of vxyz, is vxyz -f- xryz + yvxz zvxy. Again, the fluxion of x + xxb — y ^ ab -{- bx — ay — xy, is bx —ay — xy—yx. 4. To find the fluxion of a fraction, the rule is, from the fluxion of the numerator multiplied by the denomina- tor, subtract the fl ixion of the denominator multiplied by the numerator, and divide the remainder by the square _,, , _ . _ x . yx—xy of the denominator. Thus the fluxion of—, is :----—-; that of ■T + 1/ + 3 or 1 -f x + y * + y and so of others. In the examples hitherto given, each is resolved by its own particular rule: but in those that follow, the use of two or more of the above rules is requisite: thus (by rules 2. and 3.) the fluxion of x2if is found to he 2x* yy x^ + 2y*xx; that of —, is found (by rules 2. and 4.) to be r Zytxx-Zx^l Rnd thftt Qf ££. ig (by rule8 2> y* Z and Qx2ijy 2y2xx x % — x2y2z that of x x + y . x + x + y — x+ yxx yx — xy. is----------r^r-------= ==r—, anu 4.) found to be 5. When the proposed quantity is affected by a co-efli- cient, or constant niultiplicator, the fluxion found as above must be multiplied by that co-efficient or multiplication thus, the fluxion of 5x3, is 15x2o?; for the fluxion of x* is 3x2x, which, multiplied by 5, gives \5x2x. And, in the very same manner, the fluxion of ax will be n — 1 • nax x. Having thus explained the manner of determining the first fluxions of variable quantities, it remains to say something of second, third, kc. fluxions. We have al- ready observed, that the second fluxion of a quantity is the fluxion of the first fluxion; and by the third fluxion is meant the fluxion of the second; the fourth, of the third, and so on. The fluxions, therefore, of every order, are only the measures of the velocities by which their re- spective flowing quantities, viz. the fluxions of the im- mediately preceding order, are generated. Hence it ap- pears, that a second fluxion always shows the rate of the increase or decrease of the first fluxion; and that the thin!, Tourth, kc. the fluxions differ in nothing, except their order and notation, from first fluxions; and therefore, arc also determinable in the vvry same manner, by the rules already laid down: thus (by rule 4.) the (lirsl) fluxion of ,*3 is 3x2x; and if x is supposed constant, that is, if the root x be generated with an equable or uniform velocity, the fluxion of 3x*x (or Sx x x2) again taken (by tiie same rule) will be Sx x Qxx, or 6xx2; which,'therefore, is the second fluxion of x3. Again, the third fluxion of x3, or the fluxion of 6XX2, is found to be Ga.J; further than which we cannot go in this case, because the last fluxion, Ci:, is here a constant quantity. In the preceding example, the. root x is supposed to be generated with an equable velocity: but if tbe velocity be an increasing or decreasing one, then x, expressing the measure thereof, being variable, will also have its fluxion, which is denoted, as said above, by x; and the fluxion of x by x, and so on with respect to the higher orders. Here follow some examples, in which the root x (or y) is supposed to be generated with a variable velocity. Thus, the fluxion of a:3 being 3x2x (or 3x*xx), the fluxion of 3a2 x x. considered as a rectangle, will (by rule S.) be found to be 6xx x x + 3x2 v x=6xx* + 3x2x; which is the second fluxion of x3. Moreover, from the fluxion last found, we shall in like manner get 6x x x* -f 6x X FLUXIONS. Zx'x -r 6.x.c x x -f 3x% x x (or 6x3 -±\%xxx + 3x2x) for * n — I * the third fluxion of x\ Thus also, if y -=nx x, then will y — u xn— l < x x2 -f ti.ivr ; and if z2 = a//, then will 2%z = .cy -f ?/x: and so of others. The reader is here desired, once for all, to take parti- cular notice, that the fluxions of all kinds and orders whatever, are contemporaneous, or such as may be gen- erated together, with their respective velocities, in one and the same time. Inverse Method of Fluxions, or the manner of deter- mining the fluents of given fluxions. If what is already delivered, concerning the direct method, be duly considered, there will be no great diffi- culty in conceiving the reasons of the inverse method: though the difficulties that occur in this last part, upon another account, are indeed vastly greater. It is an easy matter, or not imposible at most, to find the fluxion of any flowing quantity whalever; but, in the inverse method, the case is quite otherwise; for, as there is no method for deducing the fluent from the fluxion a priori, by a direct investigation; so it is impossible to lay down rules for any other forms of fluxions, than those, particular ones that we know, from the direct method, belong to such kinds of flowing quantities; thus, for example, the fluent of Ixx is known to be a2; because, by the direct method, the fluxion of X* is found to be 2xx: but the fluent of yx is unknown, since no expression has been discovered that produces yx for its fluxion. Be this as it will, the following rules are those used by the best ma- thematicians, for finding the fluents of given fluxions. 1. To find the fluent of any simple fluxion, you need only write the letters without the dots over them: thus, the fluent of x is x, and that of ax + by, is ax + by. 2. To assign the fluent of any power of a variable quan- tity, multiplied by the fluxion*of the root; first divide by the fluxion of the root, add unity to the exponent of the power, and divide by the exponent so increased; for, di- viding the fluxion n.in x by .■»,-, it becomes nx "~ ; and adding 1 to the exponent (w—l) we have nx ; which, divided by n, gives x , the true fluent of nx " x. Heir c,by thesameru' \ the fluent of 3x2x will =.x3; that /. , , • x6 of i5.l = L_; that of y | y = f >/J; that of ay § y — m ml n m __ +i ---- j _ 3aV and that of y y = n n « • __ y nV m T+1 in -r u ar that of— , or aara? n x ax l — u ■ that of u-f- x\3x» = and that of 711 , m\n m — 1 • m , a -f "InTV1 + 1 in n i In assigning the fluents of given fluxions, it ought to be considered, whether the flowing quantity, found as above, requires the addition or subtraction of some con- stant quantity, to render it complete: thus, for instance* the fluent of nx ' ~ x may be either represented by x or by x 2_a; for a being a constant quantity, the flux- c n i H n n . n — 1 • ion of x J^ a, as well as of x , is nx x. Hence it appears, that the variable part of a fluent only can be assigned by the common method, the con stant part being only assignable from the particular na- ture of the problem. Now to do this, the best way is to consider how much the variable part of the fluent first found, differs from the truth, when the quantity which the whole fluent ought to express is equal to nothing; then that difference, added to, or subtracted from, the said variable part, as occasion requires, will give the flu- ent truly corrected. To make this plainer by an exam- ple or two, let ?/ = a + x\3 x x. Here we first find y --. a x\* , , , a + x^4 , a* -------; but when w = 0, then---------becomes = -■: since x, by hypothesis, is then = 0: therefore x .< a* always exceeds y by —: and so the fluent, properly cor- a i aY — "4 3«2.^ rected, will be y =-------— = a3x 4- + ax3 -f x* i a m , m\n JM—\ ' i *» * —. Again, let y = a + a ' x x x: here we first 4 have y — ~m\n+ ] m ^ n -f- l __ ; and making y = 0, the latter m \n + l mn -J- m part of the equation becomes ----■■ m x n l m x n I whence the. equation or fluent, properly corrected, is y m m | n + 1 mn -t m 4- x I — a -----------. Hitherto x and y arc m n l both supposed equal to nothing, at the same time; which will not always be the e ase: thus, for instance, though the sine and tangent of an arch are both equal to nothing, when the arch itself is so; yei the secant is then equal to the radius. It will therefore be proper to add some ex- amples, in which the value of y is equal to nothing, when that of a? is equal to any given quantity a. Thus, let the equation y — x2x be propped; whereof the fluent first x3 :r3 a3 found is y = —; but when y — 0, then — = —, by the hypothesis; therefore the fluent, corrected, is y = n 4- 1 • 11 ' x Again, suppose (2/ -—x a); then will y— — x3—a3 which, corrected, becomes y = n-rl_xn+l n -t- l And, lastly, if y = U„i. llx xx; then, first, t/=-—TilL; therefore, the fluent corrected, is y = C3 6a2 ? _cs To^ | 36 FLUCTIONS. 3. To find the fluents of such fluxionary expressions as involve two or more variable quantities, substitute, instead of such fluxion, its respective flowing quantity; and, adding all the terms together, divide the sum by the number of terms, and the quotient will be the fluent. Thus, the fluent of xy 4- yx = " J'' = ^-j-=xy; and . . . xyz 4- xyz 4- xyz the fluent of xyz f- ya» 4- xj/x =—'■---------------'■— = O 3xyz ~ir~ = ■*'?/%. But it seldom happens that these kinds of fluxions, which involve two variable quantities in one term, and yet admit of known and perfect fluents, are to he met with in practice. Having thus shown the manner of finding such fluents as can be truly exhibited in algebraic terms, it remains now to say something with regard to those other forms of expressions involving one variable quantity only; which yet are so affected by compound divisors and radical quantities, that their fluents cannot be accurately deter- mined by any method whatsoever. The only method with regard to these, of which there are innumerable kinds, is to find their fluents by approximation, which, by the method of infinite series, may be done to any de- gree of exactness. See the article Series. ax Thus, if it were proposed to find the fluent of------, it becomes necessary to throw the fluxion into an infi- nite series, by dividing ax by a — x: thus, ax-4-a— x Now the fluent = x +--+ —- a a2 , x*x , x*x „ f—- +—- +, &c. a3 a4 of each term of this series, may he found by the forego- T*^ ir^ 1*4 nr^ ing rules to be a? + — 4-----1----f- ^---(-, &c. s 2a 3a2 4a3 5a* Again, to approximate the fluent of a2 — a.^ 2 xx x aM- we first find the value of a2 X2 C2 _ X2) 2 -, expressed in a se- a a l ries, to be----f- —- —- -- x x2 9 c 2c3 Sac 3a 8c5 4acJ 8a3c X x* -r 5a 16c7 l6ac5 16a3c3 l6a5c n x x6 4-, &c. which value being multiplied by x x, and the fluent taken by the «+l ~—f XM + S ax rules laid down, we get 3a x w-rlXC n-f-5 + 2c3' 2ac~ n + 3 + 5 a greatest possible. Let AB =a, and let the part AC. en sidered as variable (by the motion of C towards B) be de- noted by x. Then BC being = a — x, we have AC x BC = ax— a2, whose fluxion ax — Zxx being put == 0, wc get ax = 2xx; and, consequently, x = \a. Hence it appears that AC (or a?) must be half of AB. (2) To find the fraction which shall exceed its cube by the greatest quantity possible: Let x denote a variable quantity; then the excess of x above x3, being represent- ed by a- — x3, if the fluxion of it be taken, we shall have x — 3x2x = 0; therefore 1 = 3a2, x2 —$, and x = y/lT (3) To determine the greatest rectangle that can be inscribed in a given triangle. See Plate LXIV. Miscel. fig. 91. Put AC = 6, and its altitude BD --= a: let the altitude BS of the inscribed rectangle an, considered as variable, be denoted by x. Then, since AC and ac are parallel, it will be BD (a) : AC (6) : : DS (a — x) : ab— bx ------- = the line ac. And the area of the rectangle, or __ abx—bx2 _ . . . . ab'x—Qbxx. ac x BS =------—, the fluxion of which is ———---' a a and being put equal to 0, we have a = 2.x, and x = — • Hence the greatest inscribed rectangle is that, the altitude of which is half the altitude of the triangle. (4) Of all right-angled plain triangles, containing the same given area, to find that of which the sum of the legs AB -+- BC is the least possible. Let one leg AB be denoted by rr, and the area of the triangle by a, then the other leg will be —, the fluxion of the sum is x____^ x a? 2a, and x = s/Za. Whence BC = = V7 2a« Hence the triangle is isosceles. = 0: therefore x2 /2a\ 2a \"x) ~\7Ta (5) To determine the dimensions of the least isosceles triangle, ALD, fig. 92, that can circumscribe a given circle. Let the distance OD of the vertex of the triangle from the centre of the circle be called x, and the remain.- ing part OB, or radius, be represented by a; then, if OS perpendicular to DC be drawn, we have DS=va-—a-. and since DS : OS:: DB : BC, we have BC = axx+a, \/x2—a2 which multiplied by BD or x + a, gives ay x a_ for y/ X2—a2 the area of the triangle. Which being a minimum, its . • • X 4- flf* square is also a minimum, consequently -_______-, or its x2 — a2 -- i - „,_ , ,. I, M ■■■■■I DC IL \3 8c^" 4ac3 ba3c x n + 5 15c7 I6ac5 l(ja3c3 16a5c equal ~------ , a minimum also: the fluxion of which is _ «*< — a X n+7 n -7 +, &c. 3x x a 4- a \* x x — a— x x x + d\* In order to show the usefulness of fluxions, we shall give an example or two. Thus, suppose it were required, divided by (1) To divide a given right line AB into two such parts, AC, CB, that their products or rectangles may be the x — aV = 0; this being XXX ., we get 3 xx—a—x a = 0, x — a \2 whence 9.x = 4a, and x = 2a. Therefore OD is equal FLUXIONS. to 20S, and DC ■=. 2BC = AC; and so the triangle AC1), when the least psssible, is equilateral. (6) Again, suppose it were required to find the solid content of a spheriod,-AFBH (plate LXIV. Miccl. fig. 93). LettheaxisAB, about which the solid is generated, be = a, the radius ~p — \, and the other axis FH of the generating ellipsis = b; then, from the property of the ellipsis, we have a2 : b2 : : AD x BD (ax a~^x) : DE* (j)2). Hence y2 = — xax—xx; and the fluxion of the solid s (— py'.r) =Z— x aaar— a2a; and the solidity s u2 = *L_ x \axx— \ x* = the segment AlE; which, when AD (x) = AB (a), becomes (JL.. x |a3 — *a3) \pate = the content of the whole spheroid Where, if b (FH) be taken =a (AB), we shall get %pa3 for the true con- tent of the sphere, whose diameter is a. Heuce a sphere or spheriod is \ of its circumscribing cylinder: for the vb2 area of the circle FH being expressed by —, the content 4 of the cylinder, whose diameter is FH, and altitude vb2a AB, will be £-—; of which £fab2 is evidently two-third parts. [The preceding articles serve to show the general principles of the doctrine of fluxions; but the reader who is desirous of obtaining more information on the subject is referred to the following authois, viz. Woodhouse, Vince, and Simpson. It is often convenient for the ma- thematician to have a table of fluents which will serve for the more readily finding the fluents of other expressions. The following table exhibits the fluxions, and opposite to them the corresponding fluents. N. B. The logarisms here used are of the hyperbolic kind. FLUXIONS. n , , n) m n — 1 • a + bx ! xx x. FLUENTS. an + bxn^m + X -an+bcn>% + l bn.m -r 1 }- x when/2=0. nm — 1 • x x an+bxn>l + 1 1 x X nm nm .„««Tl n . , n)m n , , n)m nma a 4- bx ' a 4- be ' . > c=xw hen^=0. n —1 • x x (a2 —x2 Jz j "J Cisthecor- C -|-----x circular arc. rad. a , sine a? . I rection to na11 J be applied. Jl~lx a?n + a2" C + —- x circ. arc. rad. a , tang x . na2U b x______1 d a~TTx d ex j e >or c = x when/i = 0. ° a 4- be d + ex) J x(dx — x2) ■ | circ. seg. to diameter d and versed sine x. xy° log. y+xyx y. x x (a2 4- 2bdx — d2x2)\ Cl , . dx —— 6 + -—x circ. arc. rad. 1. sine -----——. d (a2 4 62)| x (a2 ■'■- Zbdx 4- d?x*)l C + —. x log. 6 4- dx 4- (a2 4- 2bdx + d%x2){. nx- c x. nx n. log. c xjn~lx (£ a+ *")§" -i log. xT+ (+ a +xn>K FLY F L Y FLUXIONS. x?x it ---X ■■ • i!2x2 4- Zadhx ■ cxx X------------- n2 a%2 , , nxm m— 1 \ (a + x ) x2 x. 5(i—*»)** FLUENTS. — i x3 — |aa2—a2x + a3 x log. (a—a). rt,x£*±«fl±*H*-». 12 ^-----------X .....----r- m 4- l. m ""J^~ }'2 X (5 + 12»2 + 24^-'). ['J FLY, in zoology, a large order of insects, the distin- guishing characteristic of which is, that their wings are transparent; by this they are distinguished from beetles, butter-flies, and grasshoppers. See Musca. Fly, in mechanics, a cross with leaden weights at its ends, or rather a heavy wheel at right angles to the axis of a windlass, jack, kc; by means of which the force of the power, whatever it may be, is not only preserved, but equally distributed in all parts of the revolution of the machine. See Mechanics. The fly may be applied to several sorts of engines, whether moved by men, horses, wind, or water, or any other animate or inanimate power; and is of great use in those parts of an engine which have a quick circular motion, and where the power or the resistance acts un- equally in the different parts of a revolution. This has made some people imagine, that the fly adds a new pow- er; but though it may be truly said to facilitate the motion, by making it more uniform, yet upon the whole it causes a loss of power, and not an increase; for as the fly has no motion of its own, it certainly requires a constant force to keep it in motion; not to mention the friction of the pivots of the axis, and the resistance of the air. The rea- son, therefore, why the fly becomes useful in many en- gines, is not that it adds a new force to them; but because, in cases where the power acts unequally, it serves as a moderator to make the motion of revolution almost every where equal: for as the fly has accumulated in itself a great degree of power, which it equally and gradually exerts, and as equally and gradually receives, it makes the mo- tion in all parts of the revolution pretty nearly equal and uniform. The consequence of this is, that the engine becomes more easy and convenient to be acted on and moved by the impelling force; and this is the only benefit obtained bv the fly. The best form for a fly, is that of a heavy wheel or circle, of a fit size, as this will not only meet with less resistance from the air, but being continuous, and the weight every where equally distributed through the pe- rimeter of the wheel, the motion will be more easy, uni- form, and regular. In this form, the fly is more aptly applied to the perpendicular drill, which it likewise serves to keep upright by its centrifugal force: also to a w ind- lass or common winch, where the motion is quick; for in pulling upwards from the lower part, a person can ex- ercise more power than in thrusting forward in the up- per quarter; where, of course, part of his force would be lost, was it not accumulated and conserved in the equable motion of the fly. Hence, by this means, a man may work all day iu drawing up a weight of 40lh. whereas 30lb. Mould create him more labour in a day without the fly. In order to calculate the force of the fly joined to the screw for stamping the image upon coins, let us suppose the two arms of the fly to be each fifteen inches long, measuring from the centre of the weight t > the axis of motion, the weight to be fifty pounds each, and the di- ameter of the axis pressing upon the dye, to be one inch. If every stroke is made iu half a second, and the weights describe an half-circumference, which in this case will be four feet, the velocity will at the instant of the stroke be at the rate of eight feet in a second, so that the momentum of it will be 800; but the arms of the fly being as levers, each fifteen inches long, whilst the semi-axis is only half an inch, we must increase this force thirty times, which will give 24000; an immense force equal to 1001b. falling 120 feet, or near two se- conds in time; or to a body of 750lb. falling 16-^ feet, or one second in time. Some of the engines for coining crown-pieces have the arms of the fly five times as long, and the weights twice as heavy; so that the effect is ten times greater. Fly, in the sea-language, that part of the mariner's compass, on which the several w inds or points are drawn. Let fly the sheet, is a word of command to let loose the sheet, in case of a gust of wind, lest the ship should overset, or spend her topsails and masts; which is pre- vented by letting the sheet go amain, that it may hold no wind. Fly-boat, a large vessel with a double prow, carry- ing from seven to eight hundred weight of goods. Fly, vegetable, a very curious natural production, chiefly found in the West Indies. Excepting that it has no wings, it resembles the drone both in size and colour more than any other British insect. In the mouth ot May it buries itself in the earth, and begins to vege- tate. By the end of July, the tree is arrived at its full growth, and resembles a coral branch; and is about three inches high, and bears several little pods, which dropping off become worms, and thence flies, like the British caterpillar. Such was the account originally given of this extraordinary production. But several FLY F 0 ( boxes of these flies having been sent to Dr. Hill for ex- amination, his report was this: "There is in Martinique a fungus of the clavaria kind, different in species from those hith i'to known. It produces soboles from its sides; I call it therefore clavaria s obolifera. It grows on pu- trid animal bodies, as our fungus ex pede equino, from the dead horse's h >of. The cicada is common in Mar- tinique, and in its nympha state, in which the old au- thors call it tettigoinetra: it buries itself under dead leaves to wait its change; and when the season is unfa- vourable, many perish. The seeds of the clavaria find a proper bed in this dead insect, and grow. The tetti- goinetra is among the cicada; in the British museum; the clavaria is just now known. This is the fact, and all the fact; though the untaught inhabitants suppose a fly to vegetate, and though there is a Spanish drawing of tbe plants growing into a trifoliate tree, and it has been figured with the creature flying with this tree upon its back." Edwards has taken notice of this extraordi- nary production in his Gleanings of Natural History. FLYEliS, in architecture, such stairs as go straight, and do not wind round. FLYING, the progressive motion of a bird, or other winged animal, iu the liquid air. The parts of birds chiefly concerned in flying, are the wings, by which they are sustained or wafted along. The tail. Messrs. Wil- lughby, Ray, and many others, imagine to be principally employed in steering and turning the body in the air, as a rudder; butBorelli has put it beyond all doubt, that this is the least use of it, which is chiefly to assist the bird in its ascent and descent iu the air; and to obviate the vacillations of the body and wings: for, as to turn- ing to this or that side, it is performed by the wings and inclinations of the body, and but very little by the help of the tail. The flying of a bird, iu effect, is finite a different thing from the rowing of a vessel. Birds da not vibrate their wings towards the tail, as oars are struck towards the stern, but. waft them downwards; nor does the tail of the bird rut the air at right angles, as the rudder does the water, but is disposed horizontally, and preserves the same situation what way soever the bird turns. In effect, as a vessel is turned about on its centre of grav iiy to the right, by a brisk application of the oars to the left, so a bird in beating the air with its right wing al »ne, towards the tail, will turn its fore part to the left. Thus pigeons, changing their course to the left, would labour with their right wing, keeping the other almost at rest. Birds of a long neck alter their course by the inclinations of their head and neck, which altering the course of gravity, the bird will proceed in a new direc- tion. The manner ol living is thus: The bird first bends his lei-s. and springs with a violent leap from the ground; then opens and expands the joints of his wings, so as to make a right line perpendicular to the sides of his body: thus the wings, with all the feathers in them, constitute one continued lamina. Being now raised a little above the horizon, and vibrating the wings with great force and velocity perpendicularly against the subject air, that fluid resists those successions, both from its natural inactivity and elasticity, by means of which the whole body of the bird is protruded. The resistance the air makes to the withdrawing of the wings, and consequently the progress of the bird, will be so much the greater, as the waft or stroke of the fan of the wing is longer; but as the force of the wing is continually diminished by this resistance. when the two forces come to be in eqiiilibrio, the bird will remain suspended in the same place: for the bird only ascends so long as the arch of air the wing de- scribes, makes a resistance equal to the excess of. the specific gravity of the bird above the air. If the air, therefore, is so rare as to give way with the same velo- city that it is struck with, there will be no resistance. aud consequently the bird can never mount. Birds never fly upwards in a perpendicular line, but always in a pa- rabola. In a direct ascent, the natural and artificial ten- dency would oppose and destroy each other, so that the progress would be very slow. In a direct descent they would aid one another, so that the fall would be too pre- cipitate. Artificial Flying, that attempted byr men, by the as- sistance of mechanics. The art of flying has been attempted by several per- sons in all ages. The Leucadians, out of superstition, are reported to have bad a custom of precipitating a man from a high tliff into the sea, first fixing feathers, vari- ously expanded, round his body, in order to break his fall. Friar Bacon, who lived five hundred years ago, not only affirms the art of flying possible, but assures us, that he himself knew how to make an engine in which a man sitting might be able to convey himself through the air, like a bird; and further acids, that there was then one who had tried it with success; but this method, which consisted of a couple of large, thin, hollow, cop- per globes, exhausted of the air, and sustaining a person who sat thereon. Dr. Hook shows to be impracticable. The philosophers of king Charles the Second's reign, were exceedingly busied about this art. The famous bi- shop Wilkins was so confident of success in it, that he says, he does not question that, in future ages, it will be as usual to hear a man call for his wings, when he is go- ing a journey, as it is now to call for his boots. Fi.vixg akmy, a small boiher in the periphery of the ellipsis, their stun will be always equal to the longest axis; and therefore when an ellipsis and its two axis are given, and the foci are required, you need only take half the longest axis in your comoa s s, and setting one foot in the end of the shorter, the other foot will cut the longer in the focus required. Foci-, of an hyperbola, is that point iu the axis, through which the latus rectum passes; from whence if F 0 I F 0 L any two right lines are drawn meeting in either of the opposite hyperbolas, their difference willjbe equal to the principal axis. Focus of a parabola, a point in the axis within the figure, distant from the vertex one fourth part of the latus rectum. Focus, in optics, is the point in which the rays are collected, after they have undergone reflection or refrac- tion. Sec Optics. FODDER, in the civil law, is used for a prerogative that the prince has, to be provided of corn, and other meats for his horses, by the subjects, in his warlike ex- peditions. Fodder, or Fother, in mining, a measure contain- ing twenty-two hundred and a half weight, though in London but twenty hundred weight. FOETUS. See Physiology. FOG, or Mist, a meteor, consisting of condensed va- pours, floating near the surface of the earth. Mists, ac- cording to lord Bacon, are imperfect condensations of the air, consisting of a large proportion of the air, and a small one of the aqueous v apour: and these happen in the winter, about the change of the weather from frost to thaw, or from thaw to frost; but in the summer and in the spring, from the expansion of the dew. If the vapours, which are raised plentifully from the earth and waters, either by the solar or subterraneous heat, do at their first entrance into the atmosphere meet with cold enough to condense them to a considerable degree, their specific gravity is by that means increased, and thus they will be stopped from ascending; and either return back in form of dew or of drizzling rain, or remain sus- pended some time in the form of a fog. Vapours may lie seen on the high grounds as well as the low, but more especially about marshy places. They are easily dissipated by the wind, as also by tbe heat of the sun. They continue longest in the lowest grounds, because those places contain most moisture, and are least ex- posed to the action of the wind. Hence we may easily conceive, that fogs are only low clouds, or clouds in the lowest region of the air; as clouds are no other than fogs raised on high. When fogs stink, then the vapours are mixed with putrid and offensive exhalations. Objects viewed through fogs appear larger and more remote than through the common air. Mr. Boyle observes that, upon the coast of Coromandel, and most maritime parts of the East Indies, there are, notwithstanding the heat of the climate, annual fogs, so thick, as to occasion peo- ple of other nations who reside there, and even the more tender sort of the natives, to keep their houses close shut up. Fogs are commonly pretty strongly electrified, as appears from Mr. CavahVs experiments upon them. See Meteorology. FOIL, among glass-grinders, a sheet of tin, with quicksilver-, kc. laid on the back-side of a looking-glass, to make it reflect. See Foliating of Looking-glasses. Foil, among jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed un- der a precious st me. in order, to increase its brilliancy, or give it an agreeable and different colour. These foils are made eitlier of copper, gold, or gold and silver to- gether; the copper foils are commonly known by the name of Nuremberg, or German foils; they are prepar- ed as follows: Procure the thinnest copper-plates you can get; beat these plates gently upon a well polished anvil, with a polished hammer, as thin as possible; and placing them between two iron plates as thin as writing- paper, heat them in the fire; then boil the foils, in a pip- kin, with equal quantities of tartar and salt, constantly stirring them till by boiling they become white; after which, taking them out, and drying them, give them an- other hammering till they are made fit for your pur- pose; however, care must be taken not to give the foils too much heat, for fear of melting, nor must they be too long boiled, for fear of attracting too much salt. The manner of polishing these foils is as follows: take a plate of the best copper, one foot long, and about five or six inches wide, polished to the greatest perfec- tion; bend this to a long convex, fasten it upon a half roll, and fix it to a bench or table; then take some chalk, washed as clean as possible, and filtred through a fine linen-cloth, till it is as fine as you can make it; and hav- ing laid some on the roll, and wetted the copper all over, lay your foils upon it, and with a polishing stone and the chalk, polish your foils till they are bright as a look- ing-glass; after which they must be dried, and laid up secure from dust. FOLD-net, among sportsmen, a sort of net with which small birds are taken in the night, of which there are two sorts; the least may be managed by one man only, but the greatest must be carried by two, and used thus: let the net be fixed on both sides to two strong, straight, and light poles about twelve feet long, each man holding one of them; let there be one behind them, at the distance of two yards, to carry Tights: the nets must be carried between the wind and the birds, which all naturally roost on their perches with their breasts against the wind; in consequence of this, he that beats the bushes on the other side of the hedge, will drive them out that way towards the light. FOLDING of sheep. See Husbandry. FOLIAGE, in architecture, is used for the represent- ations of such flowers, leaves, branches, rinds, &c. whe- ther natural or artificial, as are used for enrichments on capitals, friezes, pediments, kc. FOLIATE, in the higher geometry, a name given by Mr. de Moivre to a curve of the second order, expressed by the equation x3-ry3=axy; being a species of defective hyperbolas with one asymptote, and consisting of two infinite legs crossing one another, and forming a sort of leaf. FOLIATING of looking-glasses, the spreading tiie plates over, after they are polished, with amalgam, in order to reflect the image. It is performed thus: a thin blotting paper is spread on the table, and sprinkled with line chalk; and then a fine lamina or leaf of tin, called foil, is laid over the paper; upon this mercury is poured, which is to be distributed equally over the* leaf with a hare's foot, or cotton: over this is laid a clean paper, and over that the glass plate, which is pressed down with the right-hand, and the paper drawn gently out with the left: this being done, the plate is covered with a thicker pa- per, and loaden with a greater weight, thatthe superflu- ous mercury may be driven out, and the tin adhere more closely to the glass. When it is dried, the weight is re- moved, and the looking-glass is complete. Some add an ounce of marcasite, melted by the fire; and, lest the mer- F O 0 F 0 0 uiry should evaporate in smoke, pour it into cold watery and when cooled, squeeze it through a cloth or through leather. Some add a quarter of an ounce of tin and lead to the marcasite, that the glass may dry the sooner. Foliating of globe looking-glasses, is done as follows: Take five ounces of quick-silver, and one ounce of bis- muth; of lead and tin half an ounce each: first put the lead and tin into fusion, then put in the bismuth, and when you perceive that in fusion too, let it stand till it is almost cold, and pour the quick-silver into it; after this, take the glass globe, which must be very clean, and the inside free from dust; make a paper funnel, which put into the hole of the globe, as near to the glass as you can, so that the amalgam when you pour it in, may not splash, and cause the glass to be full of spots; pour it in gently, and move it about, so that the amalgam may touch every where. If you find the amalgam begin to get curdly and fixed, then hold it over a gentle fire, and it will easily flow again. And if you find the amalgam too thin, add a lit- tle more lead, tin, and bismuth to it. The finer and clearer your globe is, the better will the looking-glass be. FOLKMOTE, or Folcmote, according to Kennet, was the common-council of all the inhabitants of a city, town, or borough; though Spelman will have the folkmote to have been a sort of annual parliament or convention of the bishops, thanes, aldermen, and freemen, on every May-day. Dr. Brady, on the contrary, tells us, that it was an inferior court, held before the king's-reeve, or his steward, every mouth, to do folk right. FOMAlf AUT, in astronomy, a star of the first mag- nitude, in the constellation Aquarius. See Astronomy. FOMENTATION, in medicine, the bathing any part of the body with a w arm liquor. FONTEVRAUD, or order of Fontcvraud, a religious order instituted about the latter part of the 11th century. By the rules of this order the nuns were to keep silence for ever, and their faces to be always covered with their veils; and the monks wore a leathern girdle, at which hung a knife and sheath. FONTA>.ESlA, a genes of the diandria monogynia class anil order. The caly x is four-parted, inferior: petals two, two-parted: capsule membranaceous, not opening, two-celled, one-seeded. There is one species, an herb of Syria. FONTINAL1S, water-moss, a genus of the natural order of inusci, in the cry ptogamia class of plants. The antherais hooded; the calyptra, or covering of the an- thera, sessile, inclosed in a pericha;tium or empalement of leaflets different from those of tiie rest of the plant. There are six species, all of them natives of Britain. They grow on the brinks of rivulets, and on the trunks of trees. The most remarkable is the antipyrciiea, with purple stalks. The Scandinavians line the insides of their chim- neys with this moss, to defend them against the fire; for, contrary to the nature of all other mosses, this is scarcely capable of burning. FOOD. See Materia Medica. Food of plants. See Plants. FOOT, a part of the body of most animals whereon they stand, walk, kc. Animals are distinguished with respect to the number of their feet, into bipedes, two-footed; such are men and vol. ii. 30 birds: quadrupeds, four-footed; which are most land ani- mals; and multipedes, or many-footed, as insects. The reptile kind, as serpents, &c. have no feet; the crab kind of fish have ten feet, but most other fishes have no feet at all: the spider, mites, and polypuses, have eight; flies, grasshoppers, and butterflies, have six feet. Ani- mals destined to swim, and water-fowl, have their toes webbed together, as the phocae, goose, duck, kc. The fore feet of the mole, rabbit, &c. are wonderfully form- ed for digging and scratching up the earth, in order to make way for their head. Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a metre or mea- sure composed of a certain number of long and short syllables. These feet are commonly reckoned twenty- eight, of which some are simple, as consisting of two or three syllables, and therefore called disyllabic or trisyl- labic feet; others "are compound, consisting of four syl- lables, and are therefore called tetrasyllable feet. Foot is also a long measure, consisting of twelve in- ches. Geometricians divide the foot into ten digits, and the digit into ten lines. Foot, square, is tbe same measure both in breadth and length, containing 144 square or superficial inches. Foot, cubic, or solid, is the same measure in all the three dimensions, length, breadth, and depth or thick- ness, containing 1728 cubic inches. The foot is of differ- ent lengths in different countries. The Paris royal foot exceeds the English by nine lines; the ancient Roman foot of the capital, consisted of 4 palms, equal to 11T7T in- ches English; Rhincland or Leyden foot, by which the northern nations go, is to the Roman foot as 950 to 1000. The proportions of the principal feet of several nations, compared with the English, are as follow. The English foot being divided into 1000 parts, or into 12 inches, the other feet will be as follow: London or American foot Amsterdam Autwerp Bologna Bremen Cologne Copenhagen Dantzick Dort Frankfort on the Maine The Greek Lorrain - Mantua - <- Mechlin Middleburg Paris royal Prague Rhincland or Leyden Riga Roman Old Roman Scotch Strasburg Toledo Turin Venice 1000 feet. inch, lines- parts. 1000 0 12 0 942 0 11 3 946 0 11 2 1204 1 2 4 964 0 11 6 954 0 11 4 965 0 11 6 944 0 11 3 1184 1 2 2 948 0 11 4 1007 1 0 1 958 0 11 4 1569 1 6 8 919 0 11 0 991 0 11 9 1068 1 0 9 1026 1 0 3 1033 10 4 1831 1 9 9 967 0 11 6 970 0 11 8 1005 1 0 4 920 0 11 0 899 0 10 7 1062 1 0 7 1102 1 19 FOR l< oot of the forest, [pes forcstje, in our ancient cus- toms, contained eighteen inches, or 1| of the common foot. Foot-level, among artificeis, an instrument that serves as a foot-rule, a square, and a level. See the ar- ticles Level, Rule, and Square. Foot-pace, or Half-pack, among carpenters, a pair of stairs, w hereon, after four or six steps, you arrive at :i broad place, where you may make two or three paces before you ascend another step. The design of this is, to case the legs in ascending the rest of the steps. FORAMEN, in anatomy, a name given to several apertures or perforations in divers parts of the body. FORCE, in mechanics, denotes the cause of the change in the state of a body when being at rest it be- gins to move, or has a motion which is either not uni- form, or not direct. See Mechanics. , FORCE, in our common law, is most usually applied in its worst sense, signifying unlawful violence. Force is either simple or compound: simple force is that which is so committed, that it is accompanied by no other crime; as if one by force shall enter into another man's possession, without doing any other unlawful act; mixed or compound force, is that violence which is committed with such a fact, as of itself only is criminal; as if one by force enters into another man's possession, and kills a man, or ravishes a woman there, kc. All force is against law; and it is lawful to repel force by force. 1 Inst. 267. Where a crime, in itself capital, is endeavoured to be committed by force, it is lawful to repel that force, by the death of the party attempting. 4 Black. 181. FORCEPS, in surgery, &c. a pair of scissars for cut- ting off, or dividing, the fleshy membranous parts of the body, as occasion requires. See Surgery. FORCER, or Forcing-pump, in mechanics, is a kind of pump in which there is a force or piston without a valve. See Hydraulics, and Fire-engine. FORCIBLE entry and detainer. Forcible entry is a violent actual entry into a house or land, &c. or tak- ing a distress of any person weaponed, whether he offers violence or fear of hurt to any there, or furiously drives any out of the possession thereof. West. Symbol, p. 2. Where one or more persons armed with unusual wea- pons, violently enter into the house or land of another; or where they do not enter violently, if they forcibly put an- other out of his possession; or if one enters another's house without his consent, although the doors be open, kc. these are all forcible entries punishable by the law. Co. Lit. 257. So when a tenant keeps possession of the land at the end of his term against the landlord, it is a forcible detainer. 1 Haw. 145. If any person is put out or disseised of any lands and tenements in a forcible manner; or put out peaceably, and after holden out with strong hand; the party grieved shall have assize of novel disseisin, or writ of trespass against the disseisor; and if he recovers (or if any alienation is made to defraud the possessor of his right, which is also declared by the statute to be void), he shall have treble damages, and the defendant shall al- so make fine and ransom to the king. 8 H. VI. c. 9. But as this action is at the suit of the party, and only for the right, it lies only where the entry for the defendant was FOR not lawful; for though a man enters with force, where his entry is lawful, he shall not be punished liy way of action, but he may be indicted by the statute, jfor the in- dictment is for the force and for the king, and he shall make fine to the king, be his right ever so good. Dalt. c. 129. He shall recover treble damages, as well for the mesne occupation, as for the first entry; and though ho shall recover treble damages, he shall recover costs which shall be treble also; for the word damages includes costs of suit. 1 Inst. -257. An indictment will lie at common law for a forcible entry, though generally brought on the statutes; but it must show on the face of it sufficient actual force. 3 Bur. 1702. If the party grieved will lose the benefit of his treble damages and costs, he may have the assistance of the jus- tices at the general session, by way of indictment on the statute 8 H. VI. which being found there, he shall be restored to his possession by a writ of restitution grant- ed out of the same court to the sheriff. Dalt. c. 129. Forcible entry and detainer is also punishable un- der the statute, by one justice of peace, and by cer- tiorari. Dalt. c. 44. Forcible marriage. If any person shall take away any woman having lands or goods, or that is heir appa- rent to her ancestor, by force and against lier will, and afterwards she be married to him, or to another by his procurement, or defiled; he and also tfie procurers and receivers of such a woman, shall be adjudged principal felons. And by 39 Eliz. c. 9, the benefit of clergy is taken away from the principals, procurers, and accessaries be- fore. And by 4 and 5 P. et M. c. 8, if any person shall take or convey away any unmarried woman under the age of sixteen (though not attended with force), he shall be imprisoned two years, or fined at the discretion of the court; and if he deflower her, or contract matrimony without consent of parents or guardians, he shall be im- prisoned five years or fined, and the marrying of any person under 21 without such consent is void. FORCING, among gardeners, signifies the making trees produce ripe fruit before their usual time. Forcing of wine. See Wine. FORE-Castle, of a ship, that part where the fore- mast stands. It is divided from the rest by a bulk-head. See Ship. Fore-closed, in law, signifies the being shut out, and excluded or barred, the equity of redemption on mortga- ges, kc. See Mortgage. Fore-foot, in the sea-language, signifies one ship's lying, or sailing, across another's way; as if two ships being under sail, and in ken of one another, one of them lying in her course with her stem so much a weather the other that holding on their several ways, neither of them altering their courses, the windward ship will run ahead of the other; then it is said, such a ship lies with the other's forefoot. FOREIGN attachment, is an attachment of the goods of foreigners, found within a city or liberty, for the sa- tisfaction of some citizen to whom the foreigner is in- debted; or it signifies an attachment of a foreigner's mo- ney in the hands of another person. Foreign courts. Upon ;. principle of the law of na- tions, every state being free, independent, and uncon- FOR FOR (rolable, the sentence of any foreign "court of compe- tent jurisdiction, is not to be called in question, but is admitted as evidence of the fact upon which it is found- ed. If however in such sentence any foreign jurisdiction should state the evidence, upon which its sentence or de- vice is founded, subsequent evidence may be admitted to disprove such evidence, and consequently the sentence or decree which is a deduction from it. But where it is peremptorily given as a sentence, it is conclusive evi- dence which the English courts will not allow to be ques- tioned. FOREIGNERS, are persons subject to a foreign state to which they owe an allegiance, and although made free denizens or naturalized in Great Britain, they are nevertheless expressly disabled by the act of settlement from bearing offices in the government, from being members of the privy council, or members of par- liament. See Alien. Foreign opposer, or apposer, an officer in the exche- quer to whom all sheriffs, after they arc apposed of their sums out of the pipe-office, repair to be apposed by him of their green wax. He examines the sheriff's es- treats with the record, and apposes the sheriff, what he say s to every particular sum therein. Foreign plantations: a writ of error lies here upon any of the judgments in foreign plantations, or in any dominions belonging to England. Vaugh. 402. Foreign plea: a foreign plea is where the action is carried out of the county where it is laid, and is to be sworn, which a plea to the jurisdiction is not. Carth. 402. Foreign service, is that whereby a mesne lord holds over of another, without the compass of his own fee; or that which a tenant performs either to his own lord, or to the lord paramount out of the fee. Bracton, lib. 2. c. 16. Foreign state, is the dominion of a foreign power. Thus, if any foreign subject purchase goods in London, and then depart privately to his own country, the own- er of the goods may have a certificate from the lord-may- or of London, on an affidavit being made of the sale and delivery of the goods, upon which the proper court in that state, will execute a legal process upon the party. At the instance of an embassador also or consul, any criminal flying from justice to any foreign state, may be delivered up to the laws of the country where the crime was committed. Where any contract is made abroad if the party is resident in England, it may be recovered by the English courts. Foreign seamen, serving two years on board British ships, whether of war, trade, or privateers, during the time of war, shall be deemed natural-born subjects. FOREJUDGER, a judgment whereby a man is de- prived, or put out, of the thing in question. FOREJUDGED the court, is when an officer or at- torney of the court of common pleas is expelled the same for some offence, or for not appearing to an action by bill filed against him; and in the latter he is not to be read- mitted till he shall appear. By 2 H. IV. c. 8. he shall lose his office and be forejudged the court. FORLORN-hope, in the military art, signifies men detached from several regiments, or otherwise appoint- ed, to make the first attack in day of b.ittle, or at a siege, to storm the counterscarp, mount the breach, etc. FOREMAST of a ship, that which carries the tore- sail and fore-top-sail yards. Its length is usually \ <.l the mainmast; and the fore-top-gallant-mast is I the length of the forc-top-inast. Foremast-men, are those on board a ship that take in the top-sails, sling the yards, furl the sails, bowse, trice, and take their turn at the helm, &c. FORE-reach, in the sea-language: a ship is said to fore-reach upon another, when both sailing together, one sails better, or outgoes the other. FORESTS, in England are waste grounds belonging to the king, replenished with all manner of beasts of chace; or venery, which are under the king's protection, for the sake of his royal recreation and delight; and to that end, and for the preservation of the king's game, there are par- ticular laws, privileges, courts and officers, belonging to the king's forests. 1 Black. 279. The forest courts are, the courts of attachments, of re- gard, of swainmote, and of justice seat. The court of attachments is to be held before the ver- derers of the forest, once in every forty days, to inquire of all offenders against the king's deer, or covert for the game, who may be attached by their bodies, if found in the very act of transgression, otherwise by their goods; and in this court the forests are to bring in their attach- ment, or presentments of vert and venison: and the ver- derers are to receive the same, and to enroll them, and to certify them under their seals, to the court of justice seat, or swainmote, for this court can only inquire of but not convict offenders. The court of regard or survey of dogs is be holden every third year, for the lawing or cxpeditating of mas- tiffs, which is done by cutting of the claws of the fore- feet, to prevent them from running after deer. No other dogs than mastiffs were permitted to be kept within the king's forests, it being supposed thatthe keeping of these, and these only, was necessary for the defence of a man's house. The court of swainmote is to be holden before the ver- derers as judges, by the steward of the swainmote, thrice in every year, the swains or freeholders within the for- est composing the jury. The jurisdiction of this court, is, to inquire into the oppressions and grievances com- mitted by the officers of the forest, and to receive and try presentments certified from the court of attachments, against the offenders in vert and venison; and this court may not only inquire, but convict also, which conviction shall be certified to the court of justice seat, under the seals of the jury, for this court cannot proceed to judg- ment. The court of justice scat, is the principal court; which is held before the chief justice in eyre, or chief itinerant judge, or his deputy, to hear and determine all trespasses within the forest, and all claims of franchises, liberti s, and privileges, and all pleas and causes whatsoever therein arising. It may also proceed to try presentments made in the inferior courts of the foresT, and to i^ivc judgment upon the com ictions that hare been made in the swainmote courts. It may be held every third v< ar. This court may fine and imprison, it being a court of re" cord: and a writ of error lies to the court of king's bench. 1 Black. 289. 2 Black. 38. 3 Black. 71. But the FOREST-TREES, forest laws have long ago ceased to be put in execution. 1 Black. G89. Forest-trees. The planting of forest-trees is pro- fitable as well as pleasing and respectable; and a^young planter may live to reap much reward from bis labour, or he may leave a valuable inheritance to his children. " The plantation and care of timber is like buying the reversion of an estate; for a little money expended, we become heirs to great sums. In countries scarce of fir- ing, and where poles and rails are wanted, underwood will pay the proprietor triple more in value than the best fields of corn, and the oaks among it remain a great es- tate to succeeding generations." Poor land, that does not for corn, would be profitably cultivated in wood; but such ground should be sown, rather than planted. Wet places may be advantageously planted with the amphi- bious tribe, as willow, sallow, withy, osier, kc. For those who may be disposed to plant forest-trees, the following directions are offered: The manual work proper to this business, is nearly the same as for fruit- trees and shrubs; and though plantations of forest-trees need not be so nicely attended to as fruit-trees, yet the better the work is performed, the fairer is the prospect in growing good timber: a check by an error at first plant- ing is a loss of time, and a damage done to trees which is sometimes never recovered. To give an instance: the mould is often thrown on the root of a forest-tree in lumps, when if a little sifted earth was used, so as just to cover them with fine mould, the trouble would be am- ply repaid by the quick striking, and future strength of the tree. Ground designed for planting should be prepared as long as it can beforehand, by the use of the plough or spade; and if some sort of previous cultivation, either in corn or vegetables, was adopted, the soil would be better fitted to receive the trees. At any rate, the places where the trees are to be set, should be previously dug somewhat deep, and cleared of rubbish, perennial weeds, tcouch, &c. If wet, let it be properly drained, for none but aquatics can do well in a cold and very moist soil. In open planting for timber, to make only the holes good where the trees are set, is sufficient, if the soil is not strong (which generally speaking however it should be); and in such plantations the plough being used for corn, or some sort of crop to be carried off, the whole soil \v ill be prepared for the trees' roots to spread. A plantation of this sort may be constantly under the plough, till the trees shade too much; and then it may be sown down for grass, which lying warm, and coming early, would be found useful. The opportunity given to improve a soil by this cultivation, would insure very fine timber. But a plantation of trees being made (as suppose of oaks) at due distances, and the ground ploughed for two or three years, while they got a little ahead, then it might he sown profitably, with nuts, keys, and seeds for underwood, observing to thin the plants the second year, and again the third, till two or three feet asunder in poor ground, and to three or four feet distance if rich. In fourteen or fifteen years (or much sooner for some pur- poses), the ash-poles, &c. will be fine, and meet with a ready sale as useful stuff: afterwards the underwood will be fit to cut, In a strong state, every eleven or twelve years In the management of-underwood, some have thinned the plants while young, to three feet asunder, and cut them down at throe years, to about six inches, in order to form stools, which in about ten years are cut, having produced several stems from each. Some persona have cut seedling trees down at this age to three inches for timber, leaving only one strong shoot to grow from each stool; and thus finer trees are frequently (or rather certainly) produced, than from seedlings not cut down. Tbe distances of the timber-jilants, may be from twen- ty-five to thirty-five feet, according to the soil, or opi- nion of the planter. If no view to underwood, the above open planting may be made close, by setting first the principals (which should be fine plants), and then filling up with others that are worse, to within about eight or nine feet of one another. They will at this distance come to fair timber, or may be thinned at pleasure; and even among these, a small crop of underwood might be had which would shelter the timber-plants, and help to draw tbem up straight. As to little plantations, of thickets, coppices, clumps, and rows of trees, they are to be set close according to their nature, and the particular view the planter has, who will take care to consider the usual size they at- tain, and their mode of growth. An advantage at home for shade or shelter, and a more distant object of sight, will make a difference. For some immediate advantage, very close planting may take place, but good trees can- not be thus expected; yet if thinned in time, a straight tall stem is thus procured, which afterwards is of great advantage. F'or little clumps or groups of forest-trees (as elms), these may be planted three or four in a spot, within five or six feet of one another, and thus be easily fenced; hav- ing the air freely all round, and a good soil, such clumps produce fine timber. Single trees of every sort grow off apace, and are more beautiful than when in the neighbourhood of others, and particularly firs, pines, larches, limes, walnuts, and chesnuts: the edible fruited chesnut is exceedingly good for timber; but the horse is only ornamental, flourish- ing most on high dry ground. As to rows of trees, whe- ther single or double, when planted for a screen, they may be set about seven or eight feet asunder, upon an average, according to their nature, taking care to prune them occasionally, from too galling an interference. Avenues are now seldom planted; but when they are, two good rows of elms, limes, chesnuts, &c. should be set at the width of the house, at full thirty feet distance in the rows: to thicken which, intermediate plants may be set; and also an inner row, to be removed when the principal trees are full grown. Avenues to prospects should be fifty or sixty feet wide. The best season for planting the deciduous kinds of forest-trees, is toward the end of October, and forever- green sorts, the end of March; though the soil, whether light and dry, or heavy and wet, should somewhat direct; evergreen trees being to !.» planted generally with safety, early in autumn, if the soil is warm; but in all cases trees should he planted in dry weather, that the mould may be loose to drop in, and lie close between the roots, which is a material thing: trees planted in rain or mistSi are injured by the moisture moulding tbe roots. FOR Forest-trees for planting are generally preferred ra- ther large, and being so, should not be taken up care- lessly, but with as much of an uninjured spread of roots as possible; yet free-growing plants of about three or four feet high, promise in the end to make finer trees than those that are planted larger. Some say they are best at this size from the seed-bed; and others, to have been once planted out, having had their tap roots then cut: and generally speaking this is the case, as they have a more bushy and horizontal root. In the act of planting, let every thing be done as for fruit-trees; i. e. the hole dug wide and deep, the ground well broken, or rather sifted, to lie immediately about the roots, kc. Let the trees be made fast by stakes, and litter laid about their roots to keep out frost and drought. It is of much consequence to take care that the roots (especially of evergreen trees) do not e;et withered be- fore planted. Evergreens do best in a dry, but decidu- ous forest-trees (generally) in a moist soil, if it is not wet. Oaks, in particular, though at first they may ap- pear to do poorly, grow well in strong moist ground, and make the best timber. Fencing is the last thing to be considered. If trees are planted where cattle go, their stems must be protect- ed from barking and rubbing. The common way of small posts and little rails is well known; but if large cattle arc not led where the trees are, good thorns stuck round them, and tied to them, are sufficient, and indeed this might do in almost all cases. There arc various ways, ordinarily known; but whatever mode is used, let it be at first well executed, and afterwards repaired in time, as often as there is need. Whoever plants forest-trees, should take care to dress them by proper pruning, and suffering no suckers to re- main about their roots. The tops should be kept equal, and not permitted to spread too much in heavy branches, hut trained in a light and spiral way, always preserving the leading shoot, to encourage mounting, which is the perfection of a forest-tree. The stems of all trees de- signed for timber, should be constantly and timely at- tended to, as it is necessary to rub off buds, or to cut off the side shoots, except here and there a small one, which may serve to detain the sap to the swelling of the trunk; but branches being left on of any strength, keep the tree from mounting, and draw it crooked; and such branches, if cut off when large, occasion knots, and sometimes a decay at the part. Plantations growing thick should be thinned in time, but not too much at once, especially in hilly situations; for those trees which remain, come suddenly to be ex- posed (after having been brought up under the shelter of others), and suffer much; getting crooked, stunted, and bushy, instead of having their desirable erect form, without which they are not adapted for superior uses, or agreeable to the eye. Ornamental trees, as the crab, black cherry, mountain ash, &c. may prove profitable, as well as agreeable, here and there one amongst forest-trees, and should therefore not be omitted: the wood is good. FORE-STAFF, or Crqss-staff, an instrument used at sea for taking the altitude of the sun, moon, or stars. It is called fore-staff, because the observer, in using it, -tarns bis face towards the object; whereas in using Da- F 0 R vis's quadrant, the back of the observer is towards the object; and hence its denomination of back-staff. Sec Instruments Astronomical. FORESTALLING, is the buying or bargaining for any corn, cattle, or other merchandize, by the way, be- fore it comes to any market or fair, to be sold; or by the way, as it comes from beyond the seas, or otherwise, to- wards any city, port, haven, or creek, of England, to the intent to sell the same at a higher price. At the common law, all endeavours to enhance the price of any merchandize, and all practices which have an apparent tendency thereto, whether by spreading false rumours, or by purchasing things in a market before the accustomed hour, or by buying and selling again the same thing in the same market, or by any such-like de- vices, are highly criminal, and punishable by fine and imprisonment. I Haw. 234. Several statutes have from time to time been made against these offences in general, which were repealed by 12 Geo. III. c. 71. But though these offences are no longer combated by the statutes, they are still punishable upon indictment at the common law, by fine and imprisonment. FORESTER, a sworn officer of the forest, appointed by the king's letters patent, to walk the forest at all hours, watch over the vert and venison; also to make at- tachments and true presentments of all trespasses com- mitted within the fewest. FORFEITURE, is a punishment annexed by law, to some illegal act or negligence in the owner of finds, te- nements, or hereditaments, whereby he loses all his in- terest therein, and they go to the party injured, as a re- compense for the wrong which either he alone or the public together with him have sustained. 2_Black. 267. The offences which induce a forfeiture of lands and tenements, are principally the following: treason, felony, misprison of treason, praemunire, drawing a weapon on a judgo, striking any one in the presence of the king's court of justice, and popish recusancy, or non-observ- ance of any certain laws enacted in restraint of papists. By the common law, all lands of inheritance of which the offender is seised in his own right, and also all rights of entry to lands in the hands of a wrong-doer, are for- feited to the king on an attainder of high treason, al- though the lands are holden of another; for there is an exception in the oath of fealty, which saves the tenant's allegiance to the king; so that if he forfeits his allegi- ance, even the lands he held of another lord arc forfeit- ed to the king, for the lord himself cannot give of lands but upon that condition. Co. Lit. 8. Also upon an attainder of petit treason or felony, all lands of inheritance of which the offender is seised in his own right, as also all rights of entry to lands in the hands of a wrong-doer, arc forfeited to the lord of whom they are immediately holden: for this by the feudal law was deemed a breach of the tenant's oath of fealty in the highest manner; his body with which he had engaged to serve the lord being forfeited to the king, and thereby his blood corrupted, so that no person could represent him; and all personal estates, whether they are in action or possession, which the party has or is entitled to, in his own right, and not as executor or administrator to FOR another, are liable to such forfeiture in the following cases: 1st. Upon a conviction of treason or felony. But the lord cannot enter into the lands, holden of him upon an escheabfor petit treason or felony, without a special grant, till it appears by due process that the king has had his due prerogative of the year, day, and waste. Stamf. P. C. 191. As to forfeiture of goods and chattels, it seems agreed that all things whatever, which are comprehended under the notion of a personal estate, are liable to such forfei- ture. 2nd. Upon a flight found before the coroner, on view of a dead body. 3d. Upon an acquittal of a capital felony, if the party is found to have fled. 2 Haw. 450. 4th. If a person indicted of petit larceny and acquit- ted is found to have fled for it, he forfeits his goods as in cases of grand larceny. 2 Haw. 451. But the party may iu all cases, except that of the coroner's inquest, traverse the finding of the flight; and it seems agreed that the particulars of the goods found to be forfeited may also be traversed. 5th. Upon a presentment by the oaths of twelve men, that a person arrested for treason or felony fled from, or resisted, those who had him in custody, and was kill- ed by them in the pursuit or scuffle. Id. 6th.*lf a felon waive, that is, leave any goods in his flight from those who either pursue him, or are appre- hended by him so to do, he forfeits them, whether they are his own goods, or goods stolen by him; and at com- mon law, if the owner did not pursue and appeal the felon he lost the goods for ever: but by 21 H. VIII. c. 11, for encouraging the prosecution of felons, it is pro- vided, that if the party comes in as evidence on the in- dictment, and attaints the felon, he shall have a writ of restitution. 4 Inst. 134. 7th. If a man is felo de se, he forfeits his goods and chattels. 5 Co. 109. 8th. A convict within clergy forfeits all his goods, though he may be burnt in the hand; yet thereby he be- comes capable of purchasing other goods. But, on burn- ing in the hand, he ought to be immediately restored to the possession of his lands. 2 H. 388, 389. The forfeiture upon an attainder of treason or felony shall have relation to the time of the offence for the avoiding all subsequent alienation of the lauds; hut to the time of conviction, or fugam fecit found, &c. only as to chattels, unless the party was killed in flying from, or resisting those who had arrested him: in which case it is said that the forfeiture shall relate to the time of the offence. Plowd. 488. Forfeiture in civil cases. A forfeiture of copyhold by selling timber was relieved in equity; but the lord- keeper declared, that in case of a wilful forfeiture he would not relieve. Chan. Cas. 96. Incase of a forfei- ture equity can relieve, where they can give satisfaction. 1 Salk. 156. Forfeiture of marriage, a writ which anciently lay against him, who by holding knight's service, and being under age, and unmarried, refused her whom the lord offered him without his disparagement, and married an- other. F.N. B. 141. FOR FORFICULA, earwig, an insect of the coleoptera order. The generic character is, antennae setaceous; wing-sheaths halved; wings covered; tail forcipated. This is not a numerous genus. The forficula auricularia, or common earwig, is an insect so familiarly known, that a formal description might seem unnecessary: its struc- ture, however, is highly curious, and its natural history well worthy of particular observation. The wings of this insect are remarkably elegant, and are convoluted be- neath their small sheaths in so curious a manner that they cannot be viewed without admiration: they are very large in proportion to the animal, transparent, ami slightly iridescent. The earwig flies only by night, and it is not without great difficulty that it can be made to expand its wings by day: it is even probable that they would receive injury by any long exposure to the diur- nal air; the animal therefore keeps them completely co- vered; and indeed so unusual a circumstance is it to see them expanded, that sir Thomas Brown, in his Pseudo- doxiaEpidemica, has thought it necessary to confute the commonly received opinion, that the earwig is an " im- pennous insect." The female earwig deposits her eggs, which are rather large for the size of the animal, of a white colour, and of an oval shape, under stones, or in any damp situa- tion, where they may be secure from too much heat or drought. From these eggs are hatched the young lar- vae, which are at first very small, but have very much the general aspect of the parent animal, except that they are of a white or whitish colour, and that the limbs of the forceps at the tip of the abdomen are not yet curved in- wards. The parent insect, according to the observa- tions of Degeer, guards and broods over her young nearly in the same manner as a hen does over her chickens; and they generally remain close to the sides, or under the abdomen of the parent, for several hours in the day. They change their skin at certain intervals during the earlier stages of their growth; and after each change ac- quire a darker colour and a greater degree of resem- blance to the full-grown insect; till at length the wing- sheaths and wings are formed, and the animals may be considered as perfect. The usual food of the earwig consists of decayed fruit, and other vegetable substances; and it docs not seem to be naturally carnivorous, though, if kept without pro- per nourishment, it will, like many other animals, occa- sionally attack and even devour its own species. The popular dread in which this insect is held, on a supposition of its sometimes entering the cavity of tbe ear, and piercing the tympanum, is considered by some as problematical, though we believe there are instances of earwigs, which naturally creep into holes and aper- tures of every kind, having accidentally taken shelter in the ears of persons asleep, and occasioning great pain. The best means of expelling them, we have heard, is to drop a small quantity of brandy or other spirit into the ear, FORGE, properly signifies a small furnace, in which smiths and other artificers of iron or steel, &c. beat their metals red-hot, in order to soften and render them more malleable and manageable on the anvil. The forge used by the several operators in iron is very simple: we shall instance that of the blacksmiths) FOR FOR to which all the rest are reducible, the construction of which is as follows. The hearth or fireplace of the forge is to be built up from your floor with brick, about two feet and a half, or sometimes more, according to the pur- pose you design to forge for: if your forge is intended for heavy work, your hearth must lie lower than it need be for light work: the forge may be of what breadth is thought convenient. It may be built with hollow arches underneath, to set several things out of the way: the back of it is built upright to the top of the ceiling, and inclosed over the fireplace with a hovel, which ends in a chimney to carry away the smoke. In the back of the forge, against the fireplace, is fixed a thick iron plate, with a taper pipe in it, about five inches long, which pipe comes through the back of the forge. Into this taper pipe is placed the nose or pipe of the bellows: the office of this is to preserve the pipe of the bellows and the back of the forge about the fireplace, from burning. Right before the back is placed, at about two feet distance, the trough, which reaches commonly the whole breadth of the forge, and is as broad as is thought neces ary. The bellows is placed behind the back of the forge, having one of its boards so fixed, that it can neither move upwards nor downwards. At the ear of the lower board is fastened a rope or chain, which reaches up to the rocker, and is fastened there to the further end of the handle. This handle is fastened across a rock-staff, which moves be- tween two checks upon the centre pins, in two sockets; so that by drawing down this handle the moving board of the bellows rises; and by a considerable weight set on the top of its upper board, sinks down again, and by this agitation performs the office of a pair of bellows. Forge is also used for a large furnace, in which iron ore, taken out of the mine, is melted down; or it is more properly applied to another kind of furnace, where the iron ore, melted down and separated in a former furnace, and then cast into sows and pigs, is heated and fused over again, and beaten afterwards with large hammers, and thus rendered more soft, pure, ductile, and fit for use. Of these there are two kinds: the first is called the fi- nery, where the pigs arc worked into gross iron, and prepared for the second, which is called the chafery, where it is further wrought into bars fit for use. FORGERY, is where a person counterfeits the signa- ture of another with intent to defraud, which by the law of England is made a capital felony. A receipt to a Cash memorandum is not a receipt on acquittance for the payment of money within 2 Geo. II. c. 25, against forgery. Fofgery may be committed by making a mark in the name of another person. It may also be committed inthe name of a person who had never had existence. And it may be committed of an instrument, though such an in- strument as the one forged does not exist cither in law or fact. Indorsing a real bill of exchange with a fictitious name is forgery; although the use of a fictious name was not essential to the negotiation. A forged bank-note (although the word pounds is omitted in the body of it), and there is no water-mark in the paper, is a counterfeit note for the payment of money. Altering an entry of money received, made by a cash- ier of the bank, in the bank-book of a person keeping cash there, by prefixing a figure to increase the amount of the sum received, is forging a receipt for money. A receipt indorsed on a bill of exchange in a fictitious name is forgery, although such name does not purport to bo the name of any particular person. If a person who has for many years been known by a name which was not his own, and afterwards as- sume his real name, in that name draws a bill of ex- change, he will not be guilty of forgery, although such bill was drawn for fraudulent purposes. If any person shall falsely make, forge, or counterfeit, or cause or procure to be falsely made, forged, or coun- terfeited, or willingly aid or assist in the false making or counterfeiting, any deed, will, bond, writing obli- gatory, bill of exchange, promissory note for payment of money, acquittance, or receipt, either for money or goods, with intent to defraud any person; or shall utter or pub- lish the same as true, knowing the same to be false, forg- ed, or counterfeited, be shall be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy; but not to work corruption of blood, or disherison of heirs. 2 Geo. II. c. 25. Forging or imitating stamps to defraud the revenue is forgery by the several stamp acts; and the receiving of them is made single felony, punishablo with seven years transportation. 12 Geo. III. c. 48. FORGING, in smithery, tbe beating or hammering iron on the anvil, after having first made it red-hot in the forge, in order to extend it into various forms, and fash- ion it into works. There are two ways of forging and hammering iron; one is by the force of the hand, in which there are usu- ally several persons employed, one of them turning the iron and hammering likewise, and the rest only ham- mering. The other way is by the force of a water-mill, which raises and works several huge hammers beyond tbe force of man; under the strokes of which the work- men present large lumps or pieces of iron, which are sustained at one end by the anvils, and at the other by iron chains fastened to the ceiling of the forge. This last way of forging is only used in the largest works, as anchors for ships, &c. which usually weigh several thousand pounds. For the lighter works, a sin- gle man serves to hold, heat, and turn with one hand, while he hammers w ith the other. Each purpose the work is designed for requires its pro- per heat; for if it is too cold, it will not feel the weight of the hammer, as the smiths call it, when it will not bat- ter under the hammer; and if it is too hot, it will red- sear, that is, break or crack under the hammer. The several degrees of heats the smiths give their irons, are, first, a blood-red heat; secondly, a white flame heat; and, thirdly, a sparkling or welding heat. FORISI AMILIARI. A son is properly said to be forisfamiliari when he accepts of his father's part of his lands, and is contented with it in the life-time of his father, so that he cannot claim any more. FORM, printer's, an assemblage of letters, words and lines, ranged in order, and so disposed into pages by the compositor; from which, by means of ink and a press, the printed sheets are drawn. Every form is inclosed in an iron chase, wherein it is firmly locked by a number FOR FOR of pieces of wood; some long and narrow, and others of the form of wedges. There are two forms required for every sheet, one for each side; and each form consists of more or fewer pages, according t» the size of the book. See Printing. Form of a series, in algebra, that affection of an un- determinate seiies, which arises from the differeut values of the indices of the unknown quantity. Form, is required in law proceedings, otherwise the law would be no art; but it ought not to be used to en- snare or entrap. Hob. 232. The formal part of the law, or method of proceeding, cannot be altered but by par- liament: for if once those outworks were demolished, there would be an inlet to all manner of. innovation in the body of the law itself. 1 Black. 142. FORMA PAUPERIS, is when any person has cause of suit, and is so poor that he cannot support the usual charges of suing at law or in equity. In this case, upon his making oath that he is not worth five pounds his debts being paid, and bringing a certificate from some lawyer that he has just cause of suit, the judge admits him to sue in forma pauperis, that is, without paying fees to counsellor, attorneys, or clerk; and he shall have ori- ginal writs and subpoenas gratis. 11 H. VII. c. 12. And he shall when plaintiff be excused from costs, but shall suffer other punishment at the discretion of the judge. And it was formerly usual to give such paupers, if non- suited, their election either to be whipped or pay the costs, though the practice is now disused. 3 Black. 400. It seems agreed that a pauper may recover costs, though he pay none; for although the counsel and clerks are bound to give their labour to him, yet they are not bound to give it to his antagonist. Id. FORME DON, in law, a writ that lies for a person who has a right to lands or tenements, by virtue of any entail, arising from the statute of Westm. 2 Cb. II. This writ is of three kinds, viz. a descender, remain- der, and reverter. Formedon in descender lies where a tenant entail infeoffs a stranger, or is disseised and dies, the heir may bring this writ to recover the land. Forme- don in remainder lies where a man gives lands, kc. to a person in tail, and for default of issue of his body, the remainder to another in tail: here if the tenant in tail dies without issue, and a stranger abates and enters into the land, he in remainder shall have this writ. Formedon in reverter lies where lands are entailed on certain persons and their issue, with remainder over for want of issue, and on that remainder failing, then to revert to the donor and his heirs: in this case, if the tenant in tail dies without issue, and also he in remainder, the donor and his heirs, to whom the reversion returns, may have this writ for the recovery of the estate, though the same be aliened, kc. "Writs of formedon are now scarcely ever brought, the title to lands being commonly tried upon an ejectment. FORMIC ACID, in chemistry, an acid that exists abundantly in the formica rufa, or red ant. The existence of this acid was first made known by Mr. Ray, in a cor- respondence with Dr. Hulse. The doctor informed him that these insects, when irritated, give out a clear liquid, which tinges blue flowers red: a fact which had been ob- served by others. Hence it wras found to be an acid, which was obtained by bruising the insects, by distilling them, jmd by infusing them in water. The French chemists ob- tained the acid by bruising ants, and macerating them in alcohol. When the alcohol was distilled over, an acid liquor remained, which saturated with lime, mixed with sulphuric acid, and distilled, yielded a liquid that pos- sessed all the properties of acetic acid. This acid was formerly considered as possessing peculiar properties, and then denominated formic acid; hut it has lately4been ascertained to consist of a mixture of acetic and malic acids. FORMICA, ant, an insect of the hymenoptera class. The generic character is, head large, with diffracted fili- form antennae; mouth with large jaws, and four unequal feelers; thorax narrowed behind, and furnished with an upright scale; abdomen subglobose; males and females winged; neutrals apterous; females and neutrals furnished with a concealed sting. According to Linnaeus there are 18 species. The insects of this genus live in large societies, somewhat in the manner of bees and wasps, and are like them divided into males, females, and neutrals, which lat- ter constitute the great or general assortment, and appear to conduct the business of the nest, which is usually pla- ced at a small distance from the surface in some slight ele- vation either prepared by the insects themselves, or previ- ously formed by some other animals, as moles, kc. They feed both on animal and vegetable substances, devouring the smaller kinds of insects, caterpillars, kc. as well as fruits of different kinds. They are particularly attract- ed by sweets; and for this reason they ascend such trees as are infested with aphides, in order to obtain the sac- charine substance discharged by those animals; and hence seems to have arisen the idea of their |enmity against the genus aphis. Some species of ants are fur- nished with a sting, while others are destitute of that part. The largest of the European ants is the formica her- cutanea, or great wood-ant, of a chesnut colour, with the abdomen measuring two lines or more in length. This species is chiefly found in dry woods of pine or fir, where it inhabits a large conical nest or hillock, composed of dry vegetable fragments, chiefly of fir-leaves: the nest is internally distributed into several paths or tubes, con- verging towards the central part, and opening externally: in the middle or centre reside the young, or larvae, which are nursed by the neutral ants, and are occasionally brought to the surface, in order to be more within the influence of the air and sunshine for a certain time, after which they are again conveyed to the bottom or centre. When full-grown, they envelop themselves in oval, white, silken cases, in which they undergo their change into chrysalis, and at length emerge in their complete form. The males and females are winged, and the females are much larger than the males. The common or black ant, formica nigra Lin. is a well-known inhabitant of our fields and gardens, residing in great numbers beneath mole-hills and other elevated spots. It is of a brownish-black colour, and of a glossy or polished surface. The eggs of this species are depo- sited early in the spring, and are extremely small, and of a white colour. From these are hatched the larvffi which are of a thickish form, destitute of legs, and some- what resemble in miniature the maggots of wasps a™ bees. They are carefully nourished by the neutral or labouring ants till they are arrived at their full growth when they enclose themselves in smooth, oval, pale-y* FOR FOR low, silken webs or cases, in which state they are popu- larly known by the mistaken title of ant-eggs; the real eggs, as before observed, being white, and extremely small. It is generally in the months of June and July that the larvse thus enclose themselves. The chrysalis, if taken out of its silken case, is of a white colour, and exhibits all the limbs of the future animal in an imperfect or contracted state. During the time of their remaining as chrysalis, the neutral ants attend them with the same care as when in their larva state, frequently shifting their situation, and placing them at greater or smaller eleva- tions, according to the different state of the atmosphere. This care of the ants in conveying their pupse from place to place, seems to have been often mistaken for a sedulous industry in collecting grains of wheat, which the pupse, on a cursory review much resemble. About the beginning of August the males and females may be observed iu the nests: these differ from the neu- trals in being furnished with wings, and the female is far larger than the male, the body equalling in size that of the common window-fly, and the upper wings being very long and large. At this time of the year the males and females emigrate in vast numbers; sometimes flying at a considerable height, and sometimes creeping along the surface. It is not uncommon to sec them enter houses at this period, attracted by sweets in particular, either moist or dry. After the breeding season the males live but a very short time, and the females return to their nests in order to deposit their eggs. During the winter this spe- cies, like the rest of the European ants, remains in a state of torpor, without laying up provisions for that season, as erroneously supposed; and during the spring emerges from its concealment, and recommences its labours. Ants feed both on animal and vegetable substances of various kinds. Their addiction to animal substances is often turned to good account by anatomists, who, when they wish to obtain the skeleton of any animal too small or delicate to admit of being prepared the usual way, dispose the animal in a proper position in a small box, with perforations in the lid, aud deposit it in a large ant- hill; in consequence of which, after a certain space, tbe whole of the softer parts are eaten away by these insects, and the skeleton remains in its proper position. It is thus that very elegant skeletons of frogs, snakes, &c. may be obtained. This addiction to animal food in the insects of the ge- nus formica can hardly be said to be productive of any mischief in the European regions; but in various parts of America and the West Indian islands the ravages committed by ants are incredible. One of the chief of these destroyers is the formica omnivora of Linnfeus, a very small species, of a brown or chesnut colour: it is ex- tremely voracious, attacking every animal substance to which it can gain ace ess. It occurs in various parts of Africa as well as in America and in the West Indies; and it is said to be so numerous in some districts, that a deer, hog, kc. being killed, and left on the ground by night, will by the next morning have the flesh entirely cleared from the bones, and be reduced to a complete skeleton. The formica rtifa is black; thorax compressed; and with legs ferruginous. See Plate LX. Nat. Hist. fig. 208. FOUR AGE, in the military art, denotes hay, oats, VOL. II. 21 barley, wheat, grass, clover, &c. brought into tiie cam by the troopers for the sustenance of their horses. FORSKOHLEA, a genus of the pentagynia order, iu the decandria class of plants. The calyx is pentaphy Ilous, and longer than the corolla. There are ten petals spatu- lated, i. c. roundish before, with a linear base. There are three species, two of them annuals, natives of Egypt, the Cape, and Teneriffe. FORSTERA, a genus of the triandria order, in the gynandria class of plants. The pcrianthium is double; the exterior one beneath, three-leaved; the interior one above, and six-cleft; the corolla tubular. There is one species, an herbaceous plant of New Zealand. FORT, in the military art, a small fortified place, en- vironed on all sides with a moat, rampart, and parapet. Its use is to secure some high ground, or the passage of a river, to make good an advantageous post, to defend the lines and quarters of a siege, &c. Forts arc made of different figures and extents, accord- ing as the ground requires. Some are fortified with bas- tions, others with demi-bastions. Some again are in form of a square, others of a pentagon. A fort differs from a citadel, as this last is built to command some town. See Fortification. FORTIFICATION, may be defined the science of military architecture; and when applied to a city, town. or other place, it consists in the art of putting any of these in such a posture of preparation, by means of ram- parts, parapets, ditches, and outworks, that each indivi- dual part defends, and is defended by, some other parts, so that a small number of men can hold out for a consi- derable time against a multitude. When scattered families, abandoning a wandering and pastoral life, settled in communities for mutual support, and built towns for common advantage, it became neces- sary to think of the means of defence: the trunks and branches of trees, and then walls and ditches, rudely constructed, were accordingly the first elements of forti- fication; and as the art of war was also in its infancy, these were sufficient to defeat hasty attacks, and prevent sudden incursions. At length offensive weapons were invented; and as the assailants had thus acquired a decided advantage, it became necessary to employ qcw means to frustrate them. Loop-holes, through which the arrows of the besieged might be directed with almost unerring certainty, were accordingly recurred to; and at length square towers were made to project from the walls, so as to enable the men placed within them to scour the ditches and defend the walls. In the progress of improve- ment the outer line of these quadrangular masses was made to assume a curvilinear direct'ion; and at the present day there still remain numerous .races of this mode in all the ancient castles in the kingdom. But as the science advanced toward; jh -fection new advantages were obtained; and instead of presenting a large semicircular portion of masonry to *' vj neiny, an angle only was projected, and such a fortunm;* .lisposi- tion of the works thereby produced, that no part ccuu he attacked with impunity. In process of time ramparts were added; and the ancient towers, which had been changed into bastions, were provided with ravelins, horn- works, and outworks of all kinds, so as to resist the vio- lence of cannon and mortar batteries; and defy, at least FORTIFICATION. for a time, the efforts of the besiegers, provided with all the various implements of modern warfare. Fortification is either regular or irregular. The re- gular is that built in a polygon, the sides and angles of which are all equal, being commonly about a musket- shot from each other. Irregular fortification, on the con- trary, is where the sides and angles are not uniform, equidistant, or equal. I. Of regular Fortification. Authors in general agree as to the form, but they dif- fer m respect to the construction of the parts. The chief of those who have written on this art, are Pagan, Blon- del, Vauban, Coehorn, Scheiter, and Muller: in addition to these the names of Robins, Belidor, Folard, le Blond, marshal Saxe, Tielke, and Belair, ought also to be enu- merated, as they have greatly contributed to the general knowledge of the science. It must be constantly recollected by every engineer, that his views are not to be confined to the mere art of fortification. He must be able to take advantage of na- tural strength and position. Chains of mountains and streams of water, together with the influence of climate, should constitute a part of the natural system to which he should direct his application. According to count Pagan, fortification consists of three different sorts, viz. the great, the mean, and the little, the principal dimensions of which are contained in the following Table. j3 Ji H For all other Polygons © to —I o CO © CM 1 CO CM rr © lf3 CO 1 CN *H i-H M fc «-fcu 3 a4 CO o to CM »n rr CO CO T—1 »n 1 CO to >n 1 1—< • H en =3 , C a fc o 52 be &, O o o 00 1-* O GO >n «n CM rr 1 o to »n 1 to r-4 to o CO CM i—C 1 OS rr 1 eo to 1 to o rr —< CO U U fa § cr1 o o en CN o to CM CM cm 1 CO rT 1 i-H rr —< TS 03 u #o "u a u s 1 o - I 2 1 s-o 0) c ^—< a a o Blondel fortifies within the given polygon: he estab- lishes two sorts of fortification; the great one, whose ex- terior side is 200 toises, and the lesser one, 170; because he will not have the line of defence exceed 140 toises, which is the greatest musket-shot, nor less than 120 toi- ses, not to increase the number of bastions. He begins bv tbe diminishing angle, which may be found by tak- 9. ing 90 degrees from the angle of the polygon, and by adding 15 degrees to the third of the remainder. Vauban's method is divided into little, mean, and great; the little is chiefly used in the construction of cita- dels; the mean, in that of all sorts of towns; and the great, in particular cases only. © w o r° +z to o? to >n <* 1 ©i 1 © »o m O o cm o< m to o 1-H co »f» Oi CO >n >o ""• s o o o »o 00 CO V} in .—1 o IO *~ CM ^ CM rr w ,—' o CO m o to CN rr »o z J o TH f5 CO 00 CM rrt CO CO —* o rT o in 1—1 —, CO CO as «■* k. WIN £ © CM 00 o o l-H CM CO 1-* o TH 1ft 00 as 1.H CM o O CM m 00 '"' CM CM | c | c s o "3 >> 3 > -*J O c o en p. Cm o a! to -a a, & cc =h fa U In the first vertical column are the numbers express- ing the lengths of the exterior sides from 80 to 260. In the second, the perpendiculars answering to these sides. In the third, the lengths of the faces of the bastions; and in the fourth, the lengths of the capitals of the rave- lins. Belidor's method is divided also into little, mean, and great; and in all three the exterior side is 200 toises; the perpendicular of the little is 50, that of the mean 55, and the great 40; the faces of the first 70, the second 70, and the third 55 toises. Scheiter's method is divided into the great, mean, and small sort. The exterior side of the polygon for the great sort is 200 toises, the mean sort 180, and the small 160. The line of defence in the first is 140 to toises, the second 130, and the third 120. Tbis line is always razant. All the other lines are fixed at the same length for all poly- FORTIFICATION. gons, whose structure chiefly depends upon the know- ledge of the exterior side, of the capital, or of the flank- ed angle, the rest being easily finished. C/2 fa o < Q fa U fa £ CS en < H >— fa fa es si 103 m rf MN © m M »-« 00 rT o X © l-H >n m «n H« ~l<-l w|N rt o> to CM 00 os m >n rr mW HN t^ rr —* »>- OS m in rr ~ >n eo © to >• as »n «n rr •h;n H o CM 00 in > O m rr rr w|M WIN _: rr l-H to CM f> CO m rr rr w|N HN • to OS rr l-H > '- rr rr rr »■» bhrr 4< tO x to •- rr CM rr OS CO ^ *J +-> +" s e.2 11 — i. u u c C/3 OS V Sri 3 c o C o Sri- — 5 *- 5* 0> s X as bo C8 o .fl JZ£ 5** ^3 -t-s d< a a cl Ct ct +J -*-> +-> © «= •—4 Oh & O-i -S CO rt si «e H u w U Errard, of Bois-le-Duc, who was employed by Henry IV. and was the first that laid down rules in France res- pecting the best method of fortifying a place so as to cover its flank, constructs that flank perpendicular to the face of the bastion; but by endeavouring to cover it effec- tually, he makes the gorges too exiguous, the cnibra- zures too oblique, and leaves the ditch almost defence- less. The chevalier de Ville, who succeeded Errard, draws the flank line perpendicular to the curtin; but here again the embrasures are too oblique, especially in the poly- gons, and the ditch is necessarily ill guarded. This en- gineer's method of fortifying is styled by most authors, the French method. His favourite maxim is, to make the flank angle straight, and the flank equal to the demi- gorge. Count Pagan makes the flank perpendicular to the line of defence, which method seems to agree perfectly with this maxim, because by that means the flank so raised covers as much as possible the face of the opposite bas- tion; but notwithstanding this apparent advantage, the flank becomes too small, and is too much exposed to the enemy's batteries. This engineer acquired great reputa- tion during the several sieges which he assisted in con- ducting under Louis XIII. His system has been improv- ed upon by Alain Marrison Mallet, and his construc- tion in fortification is to this day esteemed the most per- fect. It differs very little from marshal Vauban's first system. C«unt Pagan has pointed out the method of building casements in a manner peculiar to himself. Marshal Vauban has judiciously steered between these different methods. He has drawn his flank in such a manner, that it does not stand too much exposed, nor does its collateral line of defence extend too far from the direct line of defence. He has effected this by lengthen- ing out his flank, and giving it a circular form. It cannot be disputed that large and extensive flanks and demigorges are superior to narrow and confined ones. The more capacious the flank is, the better calcu- lated will it prove for the disposition of a formidable train of artillery. From this conviction many writers, in their proposed system of fortification, have added a second flank, in order to augment the line of defence; but they did not foresee that this second flank is not on- ly incapable of covering the face of the opposed bastion, except in a very oblique and insecure direction; but .that the right flank or the flank of the bastion, is thereby more exposed to the enemy's batteries, which, it must be acknowledged on all sides, is a great fault. The prevailing system of the present day is, to make the flanks of the bastion as wide as possible, without hav- ing recourse to a second flank, unless it be absolutely ne- cessary. Those gorges are likewise best which arc most capacious, because they afford space and ground in the bastion for the construction of entrenchments within, should the enemy have effected a practicable breach. All parts of a fortification which stand exposed to the immediate attacks of a besieging enemy, must be strong enough to bear the boldest attempts, and the most vigo- rous impressions. This is a self-evident maxim, because it must be manifest to the most common understanding, that works are erected round a place for the specific pur- pose of preventing an enemy from getting possession of it. It consequently follows, that flanked angles are ex- tremely defective when they are too acute, since their points may be easily flanked and destroyed by the be- siegers' cannon. The Dutch construct at sixty degrees; but according to Vauban's method, no work should bv under seventy- five degrees, unless circumstances and situation should particularly require it. The diagram annexed, together with the explanation that follows, will convey an idea of M. Vauban's meth- od, in respect to the fortification of towns. See Plate LV1. Farriery, kc. Inscribe in a circle a polygon of as many sides as the fortification is designed to have fronts; let AB, fig. 9, be one of the sides of half an hexagon, which bisect by the perpendicular CD; divide half of it AC into nine equal parts, and one of these into ten ethers; then these divisions will serve as a scale to construct all the parts of the fortification, and each of them supposed to be a toise or fathom, that is, six French fe t; and theref re the whole side AB is supposed to be 180 toises. As the dividing a line into so many equal parts is troublesome and tedious, it is more convenient to have a scale of equal parts, by which the works may be constructed. If therefore, in this case, the radius is taken equal to 180 tenses, and the circle described with that radius be- ing divided into six equal parts, or the radius being car- ried six times round, jou will have an hexagon iiise rib- ed; AB being bisected by the perpendicular CD as before, FORTIFICATION. set off 30 toises from C to D, and draw the indifinite lines ADG, BDr"; in which take the parts AE, BH, each equal to 50 toises; from the centre E describe an arc through the point H, meeting AD in G, and from the centre II describe an arc through the point E, meeting BD in F; or, which is the same, make each of the lines EG, HF, equal to the distance EH; then the lines join- ing the points A, E, F, G, H, B, will be the principal or outline of the front. If the same construction be performed on the other sides of the polygon, you will have the principal or out- line of the whole fortification. If, with a radius of 20 toi- ses, there be described circular arcs from the angular points B, A, M, T, and lines are drawn from the oppo- site angles E, H, &c. so as to touch these arcs, their parts ab, be, kc. together with these arcs, will present the outline of the ditch. Definitions. 1. The part FEALN is called the bastion. 2. AE, AL, the faces of the bastion. 3. EB', LN, the flanks. 4. FG, the curtin. 5. FN, the gorge of the bastion. 6. AG, BF, tiie lines of defence. 7. AB, the exterior side of the polygon. 8. CD, the perpendicular. 9. Any line which divides a work into two equal parts is called the capital of that work. 10. a, b, c, the counterscarp of the ditch. 11. A, M, the flanked angles. 12. H, E, L, the angles of the shoulder, or shoulder only. 13. G, F, N, the angles of the flank. 14. Any angle whose point turns from the place is call- ed saliant angle, such as A, M: and any angle whose point turns towards the place, re-entering angle, such as 6, F, N. 15. If there be drawn two lines parallel to the princi- pal or outline, the one at 3 toises distance, and the other at 8 from it, then the space yx included between the principal one and that farthest distant is called the ram- part. And the space x, contained by the principal line and that near to it, and which is generally stained black, is called the parapet. 16. There is a fine line drawn within four feet of the parapet, which expresses a step called banquette. All works have a parapet of three toises thick, and a rampart of from 8 to 10, besides their slopes. The ram- part is elevated more or less above the level of the place, from 10 to 20 feet, according to the nature of the ground, and the particular constructions of engineers. The parapet is a part of the rampart elevated from 6 to 71 feet above the rest, in order to cover the troops which are drawn up there from the fire of the enemy in a siege; and the banquette is two or three feet higher than the rampart, or about four feet lower than the parapet; so that when the troops stand upon it, they may just be able to fire over the parapet. 17. The body of the place is all that which is contain- ed within this first rampart; for which reason it is often said to construct the body of the place: which means, properly, the construction of the bastions and curtins. 18. All the works which are c onstructed beyond the. ditch, before the body of the place, are called outworks, II. Of inRE(;iLAn Fortification. The most essential principle in fortification consists in making all the fronts equally strong, so that the enemy may find no particular advantage in attacking either of the sides. But this can only occur in a regulai-N work, situated in a plain, or even ground; consequently there are hut few places which are not irregular: and the great art here is, to remedy the defects and inconveniences occasioned by this circumstance. If the situation to be fortified is an old town, inclosed by a wall or rampart, the engineer ought to consider well all the different circumstances of the figure, position, and nature of the ground, and to regulate his plan accor- dingly, so as to avoid as many disadvantages, on one hand, and to obtain as many advantages, on the other, as possible. If there is a rampart without towers, it must be decided whether bastions ought not to be added, and revelins and counter-guards constructed. Special care must be taken to make all the sides of the polygon near- ly equal, and that the length of the lines of defence do not exceed the reach of musket-shot. Wherever the sides are inaccessible, either on account of a precipice, or mar- shy ground, they may be made much larger than those which are easy of access. If the place to be fortified is new, and the situation will not admit of a regular construction, particular care must be taken to choose such a spot of ground as is most ad- vantageous. All hills, or rising grounds, should be avoid- ed, as these might command some parts of the works; marshes, because such situations are unwholesome, and lakes and standing waters for the same reason, except they can be rendered navigable. Places built on mountains or rocks should never be large; for their use is generally to guard passes or inlets into a country, and it is difficult to provide for a large garrison under such circumstances. When fortifications are to be placed in the neighbourhood of the sea, for the purposes of protecting trade, the first thing to be con- sidered is their situation, which ought to afford a good harbour for shipping. When M. Vauban fortified near rivers, he always made the exterior side next to the water much longer than any of the others; for as that part is not so liable to be attacked, great and manifest advantages were of course derived from this circum- stance. To illustrate this method of M. Vauban's, we shall give the plan of Hunninghen. That place was built for the sake of having a bridge over the Rhine, for which reason he made it only a pentagon; the side AB (fig. 10) next to the river is 200 toises, and each of the others but 180. About the space abc, which lies before the front AB, is a stone wall: and the passages, are shut up with slui- ces, to retain the water in the ditches in dry seasons; and to prevent an enemy from destroying the sluice near the point c, whereby the water would run out and leave the ditches dry, the redoubt y was built in the lit- tle island hard by, in order to cover that sluice; without which precaution the place might be insulated from the river side, where the water is shallow in dry seasons. Thehornwork K, beyond the Rhine, was built to cov- FOR FOR er the bridge; but as this work cannot be well defended across the river, the horn work H was made to support the other. Before finishing the description of this plan, we shall show how to find the long side AB. After having inscrib- ed the two sides GE, GF, in a circle, draw the diame- ter CD, so as to be equally distant from the line joining the points EF that is parallel to it. On this diameter set off 100 toises on each side of the centre; from these points draw two indefinite perpendiculars to-the diame- ter; then if from the points, EF, as centres, two arcs are described with a radius of 180 toises, their intersec- tions A and B, with tbe said perpendiculars, will deter- mine the long side AB, as likewise the other two FB and EA. In like manner may be found the long or short side of any polygon whatsoever. When a place near a river is to be fortified for the safety of commerce, particular care should be taken in leaving a good space between the houses and the water- side, to have a quay or landing-place for goods brought by water; it should also be contrived to have proper places for ships and boats to lie secure in stormy wea- ther, and in time of a siege; and as water-carriage is very advantageous for transporting goods from one place to another, as likewise for bringing the necessary mate- rials, not only for building the fortifications, but also the place itself, the expenses will be lessened considerably when this convenience can be had; for which reason places should never be built any where but near rivers, lakes, or the sea, excepting in extraordinary cases, where it cannot be avoided. The principal maxims of fortification are these, viz. 1. That every part of the works be seen and defended by other parts, so that the enemy cannot lodge any where without being exposed to the fire of the place. 2. A fortress should command all places round it; and therefore all the outworks should be lower than the body of the place. 3. The works furthest from the centre should always be open to those that are nearer. 4. The defence of every part should always be with- in the reach of musket-shot, that is, from 120 to 150 fathoms, so as to be defended both by ordnance and small fire-arms; for if it is only defended by cannon, the enemy may dismount them by the superiority of their own, and then the defence will be destroyed at once; whereas, when a work is likewise defended by small- arms, if the one is destroyed, the other will still subsist. 5. All the defences should be as nearly direct as pos- sible; for it has been found by experience, that the sol- diers are too apt to fire directly before them, without troubling themselves whether they do execution or not. 6. A fortification should be equally strong on all sides; otherwise the enemy will attack it in the weakest part, whereby its strength will become use less. 7. The more acute the angle at the centre is, the stronger will be the place. 8. In great places dry ditches are preferable to those filled with water, because sallies, retreats, succours, &c. are necessary; but, in small fortresses, wet ditches, that can be drained, arc the best, as standing in need of no sallies Ffe/ci-FoRTiFiCATioN is the art of constructing all kinds of temporary works in the field, such as redoubts, field-forts, star-forts, triangular and square forts, heads of bridges, and various sorts of lines, kc. An army entrenched, or fortified in the field, produces, in many respects, the same effect as a fortress; "for it covers a country, supplies the want of numbers, stops a superior enemy, or at least obliges him to engage at a disadvan- tage. The knowledge of a field-engineer being founded on the principles of fortification, it must be allowed, that the art of fortifying is as necessary to an army in the field as in fortified places; and though the maxims are nearly the same in both, yet the manner of applying and executing them with judgment, is very different. The materials used in the field are such as can be rea- dily obtained, viz. sand-bags, carth, and fascines ten feet long and one foot thick, which are fastened to the para- pet, by means of five pickets driven obliquely into the bank. When wood cannot be obtained for the fascines, the parapet must be clothed with turf, four inches thick, and a foot and a half square. The palisades for fortifying the ditch ought to be nine or ten feet long and six inches thick. The beams belonging to chevaux-de-frize should be twelve feet long, and six inches broad; the spokes seven feet long, four inches thick, and six inches distant from each other. Gabions must be three or four feet high, and two or three feet in diameter. FORTIN, Fortlet, or field-fort, a sconce or little fort, whose flanked angles are generally distant from one another 120 fathoms. FORTS, vitrified, a very singular kind of structures found in the Highlands and northern parts of Scotland, in which the walls have the appearance of being melted into a solid mass, so as to resemble the lava of a volcano, for which indeed they have been taken by several per- sons who have visited them. These walls were taken notice of by Mr. Williams, an engineer, who wrote a treatise on the subject, and was the first who supposed them to be the works of art; other naturalists having attributed them to a volcanic origin. These works are commonly situated on the tops of small hills, commanding an extensive view of the adjacent val- ley or low country. The area on the summit, varying, as is supposed, according to the number of cattle the •proprietor had to protect, or the dependants he was ob- liged to accommodate, is surrounded with a high and strong wall, of which the stones are melted, most of them entirely; while others, in which the fusion has not been so complete, are sunk in the vitrified matter in such a manner as to be quite inclosed with it; and in some places the fusion has been so perfect, that the ruins ap- pear like masses of coarse glass. Mr. Williams had not only determined the walls in question to be the works of art, but has even hazarded a conjecture as to the man- ner in which they were constructed, and which, accord- ing to him, was as follows. Two parallel dikes of earth or soil being raised, inthe direction of the intended wall, with a space between them sufficient for its thickness, the fuel was put in, and set on fire. The stones best adapted for the purpose, called the plum-pudding stone, are every where to be found in the neighbourhood. These FLU F L U were laid on the fuel, and, when melted, were kept by the frame of earth from running off; and by repeating the operation, the wall was raised to a sufficient height. This opinion of the stones being thrown in without any order, is thought to be confirmed by the circumstance of there not being any where a large one to be seen, nor a stone laid in any particular direction, nor one piece which has not in some degree been affected by the fire. Mr. Williams mentions a fact tending to confirm his hy- pothesis, viz. of a brick-kiln situated on the declivity of an eminence, so as to be exposed to the wind, which, happening to rise briskly one time when the kiln was burning, so increased the heat, that the bricks were melted, and ran like a lava, for a considerable way dowrn the hill. This opinion of Mr. Williams has been embraced by several other authors; particularly Mr. Freebairn and Dr. Anderson, the latter having published two treatises upon the buildings in the Archseologia. In the same work, however, we meet with a paper by the lion. Dailies Barrington, in which the author expresses quite differ- ent sentiments. He observes, that Mr. Williams and the other antiquaries, who suppose the walls in question to be the works of art, imagine that the reason of their being constructed in this manner was the ignorance of cement, which in these remote ages prevailed in Scot- land: but with respect to this circumstance he says, that if one side of the wall only was heated, and that to any considerable height, the matter in fusion would in all likelihood drop down to the bottom, without operating as any cement to the loose stones thrown in amongst it. This circumstance of the walls being vitrified only on one side is indeed remarkable, and takes place in most of the forts of this kind to be met with at present; but with regard to it Mr. Barrington observes that he him- self has been twice in the Highlands of Scotland, and has found very few hills of any height which were clothed with wood: the trouble therefore of carrying it up to the top of such a mountain would be very considerable. According to Mr. Cardonnel, the largest of the vitri- fied forts is situated on the hill of Knockfarril, to the south of the valley of Strathpeffer, two miles west from Dingwall in Ross-shire. The inclosure is 120 feet long and 40 broad within the walls; strengthened on the outside with works at each end. The fort next in consequence to that of Knockfarril is situated on the hill of Craig- Phadric near Inverness. Besides these fortifications, the hill of Noth affords a remarkable appearance of the san e kind: of which Mr. Cordiner gives the following description, not from his own observation, but those of a gentleman of credit who visited the place. « On the top of the hill there is an oblong hollow, as I could guess, of about an English acre, covered with a fine sward of grass: in the middle towards the east end of this hollow is a large and deep well. The hollow is surrounded on all sides with a thick rampart of stones. On three sides of this rampart, from eight to twelve feet thick, is one compact body of stones and minerals which have been in a state of fusion, re- sembling a mixture of stone and iron-ore, all vitrified, calcined, and incorporated. On the north side, the ram- part consists of broken pieces of rock, which have the appearance of having been torn to pieces by some extra- ordinary violence. If the calcined compact wall exists under them, it is not at present visible." In the Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society of London for 1777, part II. is an account of Creek Faterick, there termed a volcanic hill near Inverness, in which the writer does not hesitate to pronounce this hill an extinguished volcano: and, having sent specimens of the burnt matter for the inspection of the Royal Society, the secretary sub- joins a note to the paper, intimating that these speci- mens, having been examined by some of the members well acquainted with volcanic productions, were by thena judged to be real lava. Mr. Tytler agrees with those who think the vitrified structures to be artificial works; but he differs from Mr. Williams and others who think that they were vitrified on purpose for cementing the materials together. His reason for this is, that the number of forts that show marks of vitrification is inconsiderable when compared with those that do not. He therefore considers the vi- trification as accidental, and describes the manner in which he conceives it must have been accomplished. Among other observations in confirmation of his opi- nion, lie urges, that in the fortification on Craig-Pha- dric, a large portion of the outward rampart bears no marks of vitrifications. Mr. Cordiner, on the other hand, is of opinion that the vitrifications in question cannot have been the works of art, and ridicules the contrary hypothesis, though without adducing any ar- gument against it. Mr. Tytler concludes his dissertation with a conjec- ture, which indeed seems well supported, that the forts in question were constructed, not only before the Roman invasion, but before the introduction of the rites of the Druids into Britain; as " there appears no probability that the inhabitants either lived under such a govern- ment as we know to have prevailed under the influence of the Druids, or had any acquaintance with those arts which it is certain they cultivated." On a view of the disputes which have agitated the learned on this obscure subject, we can only observe, that their arguments seem to have placed it in a state of equiponderance, and that the fact remains open to the investigation of future spe- culators. FOSS, in fortification, a hollow place, commonly full of water, lying between the scarp and counterscarp, below the rampart; and turning round a fortified place or a post that is to be defended. FOSSA, in ancient English customs, was used to sig- nify a ditch full of water, wherein women, convicted of felony, were drowned. Foss- way, one of the four principal highways of Eng- land, that anciently led through the kingdom; supposed to be made by the Romans, having a ditch upon one side. FOSSARII, in antiquity, a sort of officers in the Eas- tern church, whose business it was to inter the dead. FOSSIL, in natural history, denotes in general all things dug out of the earth: whether they'be natives thereof, as metals, stones, salts, earths, and other mi- nerals; or extraneous, reposited in the bowels of the earth by some extraordinary means, as earthquakes, the deluge, &c. See Metai, Stone, &c. Native fossils, according to Dr. Hill, are substance! F 0 S F 0 U found either buried in the earth, or lying on its surface, of a plain simple structure, and showing no signs of having contained vessels or circulating juices. These are subdivided by the same author, 1. Into fossils natu- rally and essentially simple. Of these some are neither inflammable, nor soluble in water; as simple earths, talcs, fibrarix, gypsum, selenitae, crystals, and spars: others, though uninflammable, are soluble in water; as all the simple salts: and others, on the contrary, are in- flammable, but not soluble in water; as sulphur, auripig- mentum, zarnich, amber, ambergris, gagates, asphal- tum, ampclites, lithanthrax, naphtha, and pissaspbalta. 2. The second general subdivision of fossils compre- hends all such as are naturally compound, but unmetal- lic. Of these some are neither inflammable, nor soluble in water; as compound earths, stone, septarise, side- rochita, semipellucid gems, kc: others arc soluble in water, but not inflammable; as all the metallic salts: and, lastly, some are inflammable, but not soluble in wa- ter; as the marcasites, pyritse, and phlogonia. 3. The third and last general division of fossils comprehends all the metallic ores; which are bodies naturally hard, remarkably heavy, and fusible in fire. Of these some are perfectly metallic, as being malleable when pure; such are gold, lead, silver, copper, iron, and tin: others are imperfectly metallic, as not being malleable even in their purest state; such are antimony, bismuth, cobalt, zinc, &c. Of all these substances the reader will find a particular description under their respective heads. Extraneous fossils are bodies of the vegetable or ani- mal kingdoms accidentally buried in the earth. Of the vegetable kingdom there are principally three kinds, trees or parts of them, herbaceous plants, and corals; and of the animal kingdom there are four kinds, sea- shells, the teeth or bony palates and bones of fishes, complete fishes, and the bones of land-animals. See Bonks, Tree, Woon, Plant, Shell, &c. These ad- ventitious, or extraneous fossils, thus found buried in great abundance in divers parts of the earth, have em- ployed the curiosity of several of our latest naturalists, who have each a different system to account for the sur- prizing appearances of petrified sea-fishes, in places far remote from the sea, and on the tops of mountains; shells in the middle of quarries of stone; and of elephants' teeth, and bones of various animals, peculiar to the southern climates, and plants only growing in the East, found fossil in our northern and western parts. Some will have these shells, &c. to be real stones, and stone plants, formed after the usual manner of other figured stones; of which opinion is the learned Dr. Lis- ter. Another opinion is, that these fossil shells, with all tlwir foreign bodies found within the earth, as bones, trees, plants, kc. were buried therein at the time of the universal deluge; and that, having been penetrated by the calcareous or siliceous matter abounding chiefly in watery places, and then in a state of solution they have been preserved entire, and sometimes petrified. Others think, that those shells, found at the tops of the highest mountains, could never have been carried thither by the waters, even of the Deluge; inasmuch as most of these aquatic animals, em account of the weight of their shells, always remain at the bottom of the water, and never move but close along the ground. They imagine, that a year's continuance of the waters of the Deluge, inter- mixed with the salt waters of the sea, upon the surface of the earth, might well give occasion to the production of shells of various kinds in different climates; and that the universal saltness of the water was the real cause of their resemblance to the sea-shells, as the lakes formed daily by the retention of rain or spring water produce different kinds. Others think, that the waters of the sea and the rivers, with those which fell from heaven, turned the whole surface of the earth upside down; after the same manner as the waters of the Loire, and other rivers, which roll in a sandy bottom, overturn all their sands, and even the earth itself, in their swellings and inundations; and that in this general subversion, the shells came to be interred here, fishes there, trees in another place, kc. Dr. Woodward, in his Natural History of the Earth, pursuing and improving the hypothesis of Dr. Burnet, maintains the whole mass of earth, with every thing be- longing to it, to have been so broken and dissolved at the time of the Deluge^that a new earth was then form- ed on the bosom of the water, consisting of different strata, or beds of terrestrial matter, ranged over each other usually according to the order of their specific gravity. By this means plants, animals, and especially fishes and shells, not yet dissolved among the rest, re- mained mixed and blended among the mineral and fos- sil matters; which preserved them, or at least assumed an4 retained their figures and impressions either indentedly, or in relievo. FOTHER, or fodder, in mining. See Fodder. FOTHERGILLA, a genus of the polyandria and digy- nia class and order. The calyx is an anient ovate; scales one-flowered; corolla calyx-form, one-petalled, five-cleft. There is one species, a tree of Caroline resembling the alder. FOUL, in the sea-language, is used when a ship has been long untrimmed, so that the grass, weeds, or bar- nacles, grow to her sides under water. A rope is also foul when it is either tangled in itself, or hindered by another, so that it cannot run, or be overhawlcd. Foul, imports, also, the running of one ship against another. This happens sometimes by the violence of the wind, and sometimes by the carelessness of the people on board, to ships in the same convoy, and to ships in port by means of others coming in. The damages oc- casioned by running foul, are of the nature of those in which both parties must bear a part. They are usually made half to fall upon the sufferer, and half upon the vessel which did the injury: but in cases where it is evi- dently the fault of the master of the vessel, he alone is to bear the damage. Foul-water. A ship is said to make foul-water, when being under sail, she comes into such shoal-water, that though her keel does not touch the ground, yet it comes so near it, that the motion of water under her raises the mud from the bottom. FOUNDATION, in architecture, is that part of a building which is under ground. See Architecture. FOUNDER, in a general sense, the person who lays a foundation, or endows a church, school, religious- house, or other charitable institution. The founder of f ou F 0 U a church may preserve to himself the right of patron- age or presentation to the living. Founder, also implies an artist who casts metals, in various forms, for different uses, as guns, bells, statues, printing characters, candlesticks, buckles, kc. whence they are denominated gun-founders, bell-founders, fi- gure-founders, letter-founders, founders of small works, kc. See Foundery. The most common implements used by the founder are, several different sized pairs of open frames, fig. 1, called flasks; two or three single-handed ladles, fig. 4; a large double-handed ladle, fig. 5; a wooden bar, fig. 6, called a striker; a flat iron rammer, fig. 7; several hand screws, fig. 8; a small trowel with a square end, fig. 9; also, a great quantity of damp loamy sand, and a small quantity of the^ame, which has been burnt in the furnace, and is kept dry. An exact pattern of the thing to be cast is, in most cases, to be made in wood: the workmen selects a pair of flasks, whose size is best adapted to the size of the article, sets it on a board, II, fills the under one with sand, rams it in with the ram- mer, fig. 7, and scrapes off the loose sand with the striker, fig. 6; he then with his trowel, fig. 9, digs out a space large enough to contain the pattern for the article (which we will in this case suppose to be a crow for a mill-stone, see Flour-mill, and Figs 2 and 3,) into this space the pattern is placed, and the sand is laid close round it, and pressed and flattened down with the trow- el, so as to bury the lower half of it, as shown in the flask GI; a thin layer of dry sand is then sprinkled over it, and the other empty flask, EF, is put upon the under one, its place being determined by the points, h i k, in the upper flask EF, which enter the holes, m n, in the under flask GI; a round stick is then held upright upon the pattern, and the sand filled and rammed round it; the stick is then withdrawn, wdiich leaves a hole, d, through the sand, through which the metal is to be pour- ed. The upper flask, with the sand in it, is then lifted off, and laid upon its side, as shown in fig. 1, the dry sand making the separation at the proper place, so as to leave an impression, o p q r, in the upper flask, of the same size and shape as the upper half of the pattern: the sand around the pattern, s t v w, in the flask GI is then slightly damped, with a sponge, to make it adhere better together, and the pattern is lifted out, by screwing one or more of the screws, fig. 8, into it, leaving an impres- sion of the lower half of the pattern, so that when the two flasks are put together again, the cavity of the whole article is formed, into Which the metal is poured, through the hole d. For small work, the metal is melted in a furnace, blown by bellows; it has a small hole near its bottom, which is stopped with clay: when the metal is melted, this clay is poked out, and the metal which runs out, is caught in the ladle, fig. 5; when this is nearly full, it is taken up by two men (one of whom walks first, between the handles, a b, and another at the end, d,) and is distributed to the different flasks: for still smaller work, this is done by one man, who uses the ladle, fig. 4. For large works, the metal is melted in an air or draft furnace; and is conveyed to the moulds, which are in that case sunk in the ground, by little channels made in the sand, of which the floor of the foundery is com- posed. When the article tbat has been cast, is first taken out of the sand, it has a knob or runner sticking to it, in the hole, d, fig. 1, and has usually thin pieces stick- ing out from the sides of it, where the two flasks did not exactly fit: these arc all taken off with a chisel, the sand is shook off the surface by knocking, and the founder's business is done. For some articles which have one side a plain surface, as square bars, &c. no flasks are used, but the pattern is laid in a space large enough to bury it, which is made in the sand on the ground, and, the sand is banked up round it; it is then taken out as above, and the metal is poured into the cavity formed by it, till the same is full enough. The mould for large articles, as bells, boilers, cylinders, pipes, &c. are made of wet tempered loam, and dried. Founder, in the sea-language, a ship is said to founder, when by an extraordinary leak, or by a great sea break- ing in upon her, she is so filled with water, that she can- not be freed of it; so that she can neither veer nor steer, but lies like a log; and not being able to swim along, will at last sink. FOUNDERY or foundry, the art of casting all sorts of metals into different forms. It likewise signifies the work-house, or smelting-hut, in which these operations are performed. Foundery in small works, or cutting in sand. The sand used for casting small works is, at first, of a pret- ty soft, yellowish, and clammy nature; but it being ne- cessary to strew charcoal dust in the mould, it at length becomes of a quite black colour. This sand is worked over and over, on a board, with a roller, and a sort of knife; being placed over a trough to receive it, after it is by these means sufficiently prepared. This done, they take a wooden board of a length and breadth proportioned to the things to be cast, and putting a ledge round it, they fill it with sand, a little moistened, to make it duly cohere. Then they take out either wood or metal models of what they intend to cast, and apply them so to the mould and press them into the sand, as to leave their impression there. Along the middle of the mould is laid half a small brass-cylinder, as the chief canal for the metal to run through, when melted into the models, or patterns; and from this chief canal are placed several others, which extend to each model or pattern placed in the frame. After this frame is finished they take out the patterns, by first loosening them all round, that the sand may not give way. Then they proceed to work the other half of the mould with the same patterns in just such another frame, only that it has pins, which, entering into holes that corres- pond to it in the other, make the two cavities of the pat- tern fall exactly on each other. The frame thus moulded, is carried to the melter, who, after extending the chief canal of the cemnterpart, and adding the cross canals to the several models in botb, and strewing mill-dust over them, dries them in a kind of oven for that purpose. Both parts of the mould being dry, they are joined together by means of the pins; and to prevent their giv- ing way, on account of the melted metal passing through the chief cylindrical canal, they are screwed or wedged up like a kind of press. While the moulds are thus preparing, the metal is fus- FOUNDERY. ing in a crucible of a size proportioned to the quantity of met-1 intended to be cast. Foundi.rv of statues. See Bronze and Statue. Foundery of bells. The metal, it is to be observed, is different for bells, from what it is for statues; there be- ing no tin in the statue-metal: but there is a fifth, and sometimes more, in the bell metal. The dimensions of the cure, and the wax, for bells, (if a ring of bells especiallv) are not left to chance, but must be measured on a scale, which gives the height, aper- ture, and thickness necessary for the several tones re- quired. It is on the wax that the several mouldings and other ornaments are formed to be represented in relievo, on the outside of the bell. The business of bell-foundry is reducible to three par- ticulars, l. The proportion of a bell. 2. Tbe forming of the mould; and, 3. Tbe melting of the metal. The proportions of our bells differ much from those of the Chinese: in ours the modern proportions are to make the diameter fifteen times the- thickness of the brim, and twelve- times in height. There are two kinds of proportions, viz. the simple and the relative; the former are those proportions only that are between the several parts of a bell, to render it sonorous; the relative proportions establish a requisite harmony between several bells. The particulars necessary for making the mould of a bell, are, 1. The earth: the most cohesive is the best: it must be well ground and sifted, to prevent any chinks. 2. Brick-stone; which must be used for the mine, mould, or core, and for the furnace. 3. Horse-dung, hair, and hemp, mixed with the carth, to render the cement more binding. 4. The wax for inscriptions, coats of arms, &c. 5. The tallow equally mixed with the wax, in or- der to put a slight lay of it upon the outer mould, be- fore any letters are applied to it. 6. The coals to dry the mould. For making the mould, they have a scaffold consisting of four boards, ranged upon tressels. Upon this, they carry the earth, grossly diluted, to mix it with horse- dung, beating the whole with a large spatula. The compasses of construction is the chief instru- ment for making the mould, which consists of two differ- ent legs joined by a third piece. And last of all, the founders shelves on which arc the engravings of the let- ters, cartridges, coats of arms, (Slc. They first dig a hole, of a sufficient depth to contain the mould of tbe bell, together with the case or cannon, under-ground: and about six inches lower than the ter- replaiu, where the work is performed. The whole must be wide enough for a free passage between the mould and walls of the hole; or between one mould and another, when several bells are to be cast. At the centre of the hole is a stake erected, that is strongly fastened in the ground. This supports an iron peg, on which the pivot of the second branch of the compasses turns. The stake is encompassed with a solid brick work, perfectly round, about half a foot high, and of the proposed bell's diame- ter. This they call a mill-stone. The parts of the mould are the core, the model of the bell, and the shell. When the outer surface of the core is formed, they begin to raise the core, which is made of bricks that are laid in vol. ii. 22 courses of equal height upon a lay of plain earth. At the laying of each brick they bring near it the branch of the compasses, on which the curve of the core is shaped, so that there may remain between it and the curve the distance of a line, to be afterwards filled up with layers of cement. The work is continued to the top, only leaving an opening for the coals to bake the core. This work is covered with a layer of cement, made of earth and horse-dung, on which they move the compasses of construction, to make it of an even smooth- ness every where. The first layer being finished, they put the fire to the core, by filling it half with coals, through an opening that is kept shut, during the baking, with a cake of earth, that has been separately baked. The first fire consumes the stake, and the fire is left in the core half, and sometimes a whole day; the«first layer being tho- roughly dry, they cover it with a second, third, and fourth; each being smoothed by the board of the com- passes, and thoroughly dried before they proceed to ano- ther. The core being completed, they take the compasses to pieces, with iiitent to cut oft" the thickness of the mo- del, and the compasses are immediately put in their place, to begin a second piece of the mould. It consists of a mixture of earth and hair, applied with the hand on the core, in several cakes that close together. This work is finished by several layers of a thinner cement of the same matter, smoothed by the compasses, and thoroughly dried before another is laid on. The first layer ot the model is a mixture of wax and grease spread over the whole. After which are applied the in- scriptions, coats of arms, kc. besmeared with a pencil dipt in a vessel of wax in a rhaffing-dish: this is done for every letter. Before tbe shell is begun, the com- passes are taken to pieces, to cut oft' all the wood that fills the place of tin thic kness to be given to the shell. The first layer is the same earth with the rest, sifted xery fine: whilst it is tempering in water, it is mixed with cow's hair, to make it cohere. The whole being a thin cullis, is gently poured on the model, that fills ex- actly all the sinuosiiie s of the figures, kc and this is repeated till the whole is two lines thick over the model. >V hen this layer is thoroughly dried, they cover it with a second of the same matter, but something thicken when this second layer becomes of some consistence, they apply the compasses again, and light a fire in the core, so as to melt (tff tbe wax of the inscriptions, &c. After this, they go em with other layers of the shell, by means of the compasses. Here they add to the cow's hair a quantity of hemp, spread upon the layers, and afterwards smoothed by the board of tbe compas- ses. The thickness of the shell comes to four or five inches lower than the mill-stone before observed, and surrounds it quite close, which prevents the extravasa- tion of the metal. The wax should be taken out before the melting of the metal. The ear of the bell requires a separate work, which is done during the drying of the several incrustations of the cement. It has seven rings, the seventh is called the biidg-, and unites the others, being a perpendicular sup- port t • .strengthen the curves. It has an aperture at the top, to admit a large iron-peg bent at the bottom; and F 0 U F O U this is introduced into two holes in the beam, fastened with two strong iron-keys. There arc models made of the rings, with masses of beaten earth, that are dried in the fire, in order to have the hollow of them. These rings are gently pressed upon a layer of earth and cow's hair, one half of its depth; and then taken out, without break- ing the mould. This operation is repeated twelve times for twelve half-moulds, that two and two united make the hollows of the six rings: the same they do for the hollow of the bridge, and bake them all, to unite thein together. Upon the open place left for the coals to be put in, are placed the rings that constitute the ear. They first put into this open place the iron-ring to support the clapper of the bell; then they make a round cake of clay, to fill up the diameter of the thickness of the core. This case alter baking, is clappetl upon the opening, and soldered with a thin mortar spread over it, which binds the cover close to the core. The hollow of the model is filled with an earth, suffi- ciently moist, to fix on the place which is strewed, at several times, upon the cover of the core; and they beat it gently with a pestle, to a proper height; and a work- man smooths the earth at top with a wooden trowel dip- ped in water. Upon this cover, to be taken off afterwards, they as- semble the hollows of the rings. When every thing is in its proper place, they strengthen the outside of the hol- lows with mortar, in order to bind them with the bridge, and keep them steady at the bottom, by means of a cake of the same mortar which fills up the whole aperture of the shell. This they let dry, that it may be removed with- out breaking. To make room for the metal they pull off the hollows of the rings, through which the metal is to pass, before it enters into the vacuity of the mould. The shell being unloaded of its ear, they range under the mill-stone five or six pieces of wood, about two feet long, and thick enough to reach almost the lower part of the shell; between these and the mould they drive in wooden wedges with a mallet, to shake the shell of the model whereon it rests, so as to be pulled up and got out of the pit. When this and the wax are removed, they break the model and layer of earth, through which the metal must run, from the hollow of the rings, between the shell and the core. They smoke the inside of the shell, by burning straw under it that helps to smooth the surface of the bell. Then they put the shell in the place, so as to leave the same interval between that and tbe core; and before the hollows of the rings or the cap are put on again, they add two vents, that are united to the rings, and to each other, by a mass of baked cement. After which they put on this mass of the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the shell, and solder it with thin cement, which is dried gradually by covering it with burning coals. Then they fill up the pit with earth, beating it strongly all the time round the mould. The furnace has a place for the fire, and another for the metal. The fire-place has a large chimney with a spacious ash-hole. The furnace which contains the me- tal, is vaulted, the bottom is made of earth, rammed down; the rest is built with brick. It has four apertures; the first, through which the flame reverberates; the se- cond is dosed with a stoppel that is opened for the me- tal to run; the others arc to separate the dross or scoria1, of the metal by wooden rakes: through these last aper- tures passes the thick smoke. The ground of the furnace is built sloping, for the metal to run down. Foundery of great guns and mortar pieces. The method of casting these pieces is little different from that of bells: they arc run massy, without any core, being de- termined by the hollow of the shell; and they are after. wards bored with a steel trapan, which is worked either by horses, or a water-mill. For the metal parts, proportions, &c. of these pieces. See Cannon. Foundry, letter, or casting of printing letters. See Type. FOUNT, or font, among printers, a set or quantity of letters, and all tbe appendages belonging thereto, as numeral characters, quadrates, points, &c. cast by a let- ter-founder, and sorted. Founts are large or small, ac- cording to tbe demand of the printer, who orders them by the hundred weight, or by sheets. When a printer or- ders a fount of five hundred, he means that the fount, consisting of letters, points, spaces, quadrates, &c. shall weigh 500lb. When he demands a fount of ten sheets, itis understood, that with that fount he shall be able to com* pose ten sheets, or twenty forms, without being obliged to distribute, that is, take them to pieces. The founder proceeds accordingly; he reckons 1201b. for a sheet, in- cluding the quadrates, &c. or 60lb. for a form, which is only half a sheet: not that the sheet always weighs 120lb. or the form 60lb. on the contrary it varies according to the size of the form: besides, it is always supposed that there are letters left in the cases. As therefore every sheet does not comprehend the same number of letters, nor the same sort of letters, we must observe, that, as in every language some sounds recur more frequently than others, some letters will be in much more use, and oftener repeated than others, and consequently their cells or cases should be better stored than those of the letters which do not recur so frequently: thus, a fount does not contain an equal number of a and b, or of b and c, kc. the letter-founders have therefore a list or tariff, or, as the French call it, a police, by which they regulate the proportions between the different sorts of characters that compose a fount; and it is evident that this tariff will vary in different languages, but will remain the same for all sorts of characters employed in the same language. See Printing. FOUNTAIN, or artificialfountain in hydraulics, call- ed also a jet d'eau, is a contrivance by which water is violently spouted upwards. See Hydraulics. FOLJRCHE'E, or fourchy, in heraldry, an appella- tion given to a cross forked at the ends. Fourche'e, or fourching, in law, signifies the delay- ing or putting off an action, which might have been brought to determination in a shorter time. FOURTEENTH, in music, the octave, or replicate, of the seventh. A distance comprehending thirteen diato- nic intervals. FOURTH, in music, a distance comprising three dia- tonic intervals: i. e. two tones and a half. The fourth is the third of the consonances in the order of their gen** ration. F R A F R A Lesser Fourth, an interval consisting of five semi- tones. Greater or sharp Fourth, an interval consisting of six semitones. FOX. See Canis. Fox-glove See Digitalis. FRACTION. See Algebra and Arithmetic. FRACTURE, in surgery, a rupture of a bone, or a solution of a continuity in a bone, when it is crushed or broken by some external cause. See Surgery. FRAG ARIA, the strawberry; a genus of the polygy- nia order, in the icosandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 35th order, senticosse. The calyx is decemfid; the petals five; the receptacle of the seeds ovate, in the form of a berry and deciduous. There are three species, but only one is deserving of particular notice, viz. I. the vesca,or cultivated straw- berry. The principal varieties are, 1. The sylvestris, or wood strawberry, with oval sawed leaves, and small round fruit. 2. The Virginian scarlet, or Virginia straw- berry with oblong oval sawed leaves, and a roundish scar- let coloured fruit. 3. The moschatta, or hautboy, or musky strawberry, having oval, lanceolate rough leaves, and large pale red fruit.4. Thechiloensis,or Chili strawberry, of which the Carolina is a variety with large, oval, thick, downy leaves, large flowers, and very large firm fruit. 5. The alpina, alpine, or monthly strawberry, having small oval leaves, small flowers, and moderate-sized, oblong, pointed fruit. All these varieties are hardy, low, peren- nials, durable in root; but the leaves and fruit-stalks are renewed annually in spring. They flower in May and June, and their fruit comes to perfection in June, July, and August; the alpine kind continuing till the begin- ning of winter. They all thrive in any common garden soil, producing abundant crops annually without much trouble. They increase exceedingly every summer, both by off-sets or suckers from the sides of the plants, and by the runners or strings, all of these rooting and form- ing plants at every joint, each of which separately plant- ed bears a fevv fruit the following year, and bear in great perfection the succeeding summer. Those of the alpine kind will even bear fruit the same year that they are formed. All the sorts are commonly cultivated in kitch- en-gardens, in beds or borders of common earth, in rows lengthwise 15 or 18 inches distance; the plants the same distance from one another in each row. Patches of the different sorts, disposed here and there in the fronts of the different compartments of the pleasure-ground, will appear ornamental both in their flowers and fruit, and make an agreeable variety. Strawberries, eaten either alone, or with sugar and cream, are universally esteem- ed a most delicious fruit. They are grateful, cooling, subacid, and juicy. Though taken in large quantities, they seldom disagree. They promote perspiration, im- part a violet smell to the urine, and dissolve the tarta- reous incrustations on the teeth. People afflicted with the gout or stone have found relief by using them very largely; and Hoffman says, he has known consumptive people cured by them. The barkot the root is astringent. Sheap and goats cat the plant; cows are not found of it; horses and swine refuse it. II. The monophylla, or simple leaved strawberry, produces also esculent fruit, and differs from the former species only in the leaf. III. The sterilis, or barren strawberry, is destitute of fruit, though it perfects seed. FR./ENUM, in anatomy, a term applied to some mem- branous ligaments of the body. Frjenum LiNGUiB, the ligament under the tongue, which sometimes ties it down too close to the bottom of the mouth; and then requires to be incised or divided, in order to give this organ its proper and free motion. FRAISE, in fortification, a kind of defence consisting of pointed stakes, six or seven feet long, driven parallel to the horizon into the retrenchments of a camp, a half- moon, &c. and to prevent any approach or scalade. See Fortification. FRANCHISE, in a general sense, a privilege or ex- emption from ordinary jurisdiction; as that for a corpora- tion to hold pleas among themselves to such a value, or the like. Franchises and liberties being usually held by char- ter, are all said to be derived from the crown, but some lie in prescription without the help of any charter. Farnchise royal, seems to be that where the king's writ does not run; but Bracton says, that a franchise royal is where the king grants to one and his heirs an exemption of toll, kc. Franchise of quarters, a certain place or district at Rome, wherein are the houses of the ambassadors of the princes of Europe; and where such as retire cannot be arrested or seized by the sbirri or Serjeants, nor pro- secuted at law. Several of the popes published their bulls and ordinances against the abuse made of this privilege, which rescued so considerable a part of the city, by the enlargement of these places, from their authority, and rendered them a retreat for the most abandoned per- sons. At last Innocent XI. expressly refused to receive any more ambassadors, but such as would make a for- mal renunciation of the franchise of quarters. FRANCISCAN MONKS, Friars' Minor, or Grey Friars, religious of the order of St. Francis, founded by him in the year 1209. The rule of the Franciscans, as established by St. Francis himself, is briefly this: they are to live in com- mon, to observe chastity, and to pay obedience to the pope and their superiors. Before they can be admitted into the order they are obliged to sell all they have, and give it to the poor; they are to perform a year's novici- ate, and when admitted, never to quit the order on any account. They are to fast from the feast of All Saints to the Nativity. This order has produced four p >pes, forty-two cardinals, and an infinite number of patriarchs. The Franciscans had sixty-three monasteries in Eng- land, one of which was in the parish of St. Nicholas in London. It is said this order possessed (before the French revolution) 40,000 monasteries, hermitages, or chapels, in the different quarters of the globe. FRANK ALMOIGN, signifies a tenure by spiritual service, where lands or tenements were held by an ec- clesiastical corporation, sole or aggregate, to them and their successors, of some lord and his heirs, in free and perpetual alms. Frank fee, signifies the same thing as holding lands and tenements in fee simple; that is, to any person and his heirs, and not by such services as is required by ancient demesne, but is pleaded at common law. F R A F R A Frank ferm, anciently signified lands charged in the nature of the fee by feoffment, kc out of the knight's service for other certain yearly services. Frank fold, is where the lord has the liberty of folding his tenants' sheep within his manor. Frank incense, in chemistry. It is well known that a resinous juice exudes from the pinus sylvestris, or common Scotch fir, which hardens into tears. The same, or a similar exudation, appears in the spruce fir. These tears constitute the substance called thus, or common frankincense. See Resin and Pinus. Franklanguage, or lingua franca, a kind of jargon spoken on the Mediterranean, and particularly through- out the coasts and parts of the Levant, composed of Italian, Spanish, French, vulgar Greek, and other languages. Frank law, a word applied to the fi-ee and common law of the land, or the benefit a person has by it. Frank marriage, is where a person, seized in fee of lands or tenements, has given them to another with his daughter, sister, or some women otherwise of kin to him, in free marriage, by virtue of which the husband and wife have an estate in special tail, and shall hold the land of the donor, discharged of all services, except fe- alty, to the fifth degree. Frank pledge, in English law, signifies a pledge or surety for the behaviour of freemen. According to the an- cient custom of England, for the preservation of the pub- lic peace, every free-born man, at the age of 14, except religious persons, clerks, knights, and their eldest sons, was obliged to give security for his truth and behaviour towards the king and his subjects, or else be imprison- ed. Accordingly, a certain number of neighbours became interchangeably bound for each other, to sec each per- son of their pledge forthcoming at all times, or to answer for the offence of any one gone away; so that whenever any person offended, it was presently inquired in what pledge he was; and there the persons bound either pro- duced the offender in 31 days, or made satisfaction for his offence. Frank, or Franc, an ancient coin, either of gold or silver, struck and current in France. The value of the gold frank was somcwjiat more than that of the gold crown; the silver frank * as a third of the gold one: this coin is long out of use, Ijhough the term is still retained as the name of a money of account; in which sense it is equivalent to the livre, or 20 sols. FRANKENIA, sea-heath, or sea-chick-weed, a genus of the hexandria monogynia class of plants, the flower of which consists of five petals, with a plain limb: the fruit is an oval, unilocular capsule, covered by tbe cup, and containing a great many ovatedvery small seeds. There are three species of this weed. FRATERNITY, in the Roman catholic countries, signifies a society for the improvement of devotion. r Fraternity, in a civil sense, a company or guild of ^ certain artificers or traders. FRATRICELLI, little brothers, in church history, a sect of heretics who appeared in Italy about the year 1298, and afterwards spread all over Europe. They wore the habit of the Franciscan order, and pretended that ecclesiastics ought to have no possessions of their own. FRATRIAGE, the partition among brothers or co- heirs, coming to the same inheritance or sucrc-sion. It more particularly signifies a younger brother's inheri- tance; or whatever the younger sons possess of the fa- ther's estate, which, in our ancient law, they are said to enjoy rationc fratriagii; and were to do homage for the same to the elder brother, he being bound to do homage to the superior Io: ei for the whole. FRAUD, in law. All deceitful practices in defraud- ing or endeavouring to defraud another of his own right, by means of some artful device, contrary to the plain rules of common honesty, are condemned by the com- mon law, and punishable according to theheinousness of the offence. Co. Lit, b. 3. The distinction laid down as proper to be attended to in all cases of this kind, is this, that in such impositions or deceits, where common prudence might guard persons from the offence, it is not indictable, but the party is left to his civil remedy; but where false weights or mea- sures are used, or false tokens produced, or such mea- sures taken to defraud or deceive, as people cannot by any ordinary care or prudence be guarded against, there it is an offence indictable. Burr. 1120. Persons convicted of obtaining money or goods by false pretences, or sending threatening letters to extort money or goods, may be punished by fine and imprison- ment, or by pillory, whipping, or transportation. 30 G. II. C. 24. A fraudulent conveyance of lands or goods to deceive creditors, as to creditors is void in law. And a fraudu- lent conveyance in order to defraud purchasers, is also to such purchasess void; and the persons justifying or putting off such grants as good, shall forfeit a year's value of the lands, and the full value of the goods and chattels, and likewise shall be imprisoned. When, how- ever, conveyances are fraudently made, they are not void to all persons, but only to those that afterwards come to the land as purchasers on good consideration. A general gift made of all the goods of a person may be reasonably suspected to be by fraud, even though a true debt is owing to the party to whom made; and it is void against other creditors of the donor. Here the seve- ral marks of fraud in a gift or grant of goods, are as fol- low, viz. 1. If it is general, without any exception of some things of necessity. 2. If the donor continues to possess and use the goods. 3. If the deed is made in se- cret. 3. If there is a trust between the parties; or, 5. If made whilst the action is depending. Where a person is party to a fraud, all that follows thereupon will be intend' ed to be done by him, though fraud shall not be presum- ed or adjudged to be so, until found by jury. By the statute of frauds, 29 Car. II. agreements for the sale of lands, leases, &c. are required to be in writing. Sec 3 and 4 Will, and Mary, c. 14. FRAXINUS, the ash, a genus of the dioecia order, in the polygamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 44th order, sepiarise. There is no her- maphrodite calyx, or it is quadripartite; and there is either no corolla, or it is tetrapetalous; there are two stamina, one pistil, one lanceolated seed, and the pistil of the female is lanceolated. There are four species, of which the most useful is the common ash, which is so well known that it needs no description. If a wood of these trees is rightly managed, it will turn F R E F R E greatly to the advantag • of the owner: for by the under- wood, which will be fit to cut every eight or ten years, there will be a continual income, more than sufiicient to pay the rent of the ground and all other charges; and still there will be a stock preserved for timber, which in 23 years will be worth 114f. per acre. This tree flourish- es best in groves, but grows very well in rich soil in open fields. It bears transplanting and lopping. In the north of Lancashire they lop the tops of these trees to feed the cattle in autumn when the grass is on the de- cline, the cattle peeling off the bark as food. The wood has the singular property of being nearly as good when young as when old. It is bard and tough, and is much used to make the tools employed in husbandry. The ashes of the wood afford very good potash. The bark is used in tanning calf-skin. A slight infusion of it appears of a pale yellow ish colour, when viewed betwixt the eye and the light; but when looked down upon, or placed be- twixt the eye and an opaque object, appears blue. This blueness is destroyed by the addition of an acid, but re- covered by alkalies. The seeds are acrid and bitter. In the church-yard of Lochabar in Scotland, Dr. Walker measured the trunk of a dead ash-tree, which, at five feet from the surface of the ground, was 58 feet in cir- cumference. FRFIE, among seamen. The pump is said to free the ship, when it throws out the water faster than it leaks into her. To free the boat, is bailing or lading out the water therein. Free-bench, signifies that estate in copyhold which the wife, being espoused a virgin, has after the decease of her husband for her dower, according to the custom of the manor. In regard to this free-bench, different manors have different customs, and in the manor of east and west En- bourne in the county of Berks, and in other parts of Eng- land, there is a custom, that when a copyhold tenant dies, the widow shall have her free-bench in all the deceased husband's lands, dum sola et casta fuerit, while she lives single and chaste; but if she is found to be guilty of incon- tinency, she shall forfeit her estate. Nevertheless, upon her coming into the court of the manor riding back- wards on a black ram, with his tail in her band, re- hearsing a certain form of words, the steward is bound by custom to restore her to her free-bench. FREEDOM of a corporation, the right of enjoying all tbe privileges and immunities belonging to it. The freedom of cities, and other corporations, is re- gularly obtained by serving an apprenticeship of seven years; but it is also sometimes purchased with money, and sometimes conferred by way of compliment. FREEHOLD, may be in deed or in law. A freehold in deed is actual seisin of lands or tenements in fee-sim- ple, fee-tail, or for life. A freehold in law is a right to such lands or tenements before entry or seizure. So there is a seisin in deed, and a seisin in law. A seisin in deed is when a corporal possession is taken; and a seisin in law is where lands descend before entry, or where something is done which amounts in law to an actual seisin. 1 Inst. 31. Tenant in fee-simple, or fee-tail for life, is said to have a freehold, so called because it distinguishes it from terms of years, chattels upon uncertain interests, lands in villenage, or customary or copyhold lands, l Inst. 43. A freehold cannot be conveyed to pass in future; for then there would be want of a tenant against whom to bring a praecipe; and therefore, notwithstanding such conveyance, the freehold continues in the vendor: but if livery of seisin is afterwards given, the freehold thence passes to the vendee. 2 Wils. 165. A man is said to be seised of freehold, but to be pos- sessed of other estates, as of copyhold lands, leases for years, or goods and chattels. See Estate and Fee simple. FREEHOLDERS, such as hold any freehold estate. FREESTONE, a whitish stone dug up in many parts ofEngland, that works like alabaster, but is more hard and durable, being of excellent use in building, &c. It is a variety of the gritstone, but finer sanded, and a smoother stone, and is called free, from its being of such a constitution as to cut freely in any direction: such is the Portland-stone, and the freestone of Kent. FREEZE, or Frieze, in commerce, a coarse kind of woollen stuff, or cloth, for winter wear; so called as be- ing freezed or naped on one side. Freezing, in philosophy, the same with congelation. or the fixing a fluid body into a firm or solid mass by the action of cold. See Cold. In general cold contracts most bodies, and heat ex- pands them: though there are some instances to the contrary, especially in the extreme cases or states of these qualities of bodies. Thus, though iron, in common with other bodies, expands with heat, yet, when melted, it is always found to expand in cooling again. So also, though water always is found to expand gradually as it is heated, and to contract as it cools, yet in the act of freezing it suddenly expands again, and that with a most enormous force, capable of rending rocks, or burst- ing very thick shells of metal, kc. A computation of the force of freezing Water has been made by the Florentine academicians, from the bursting of a very strong brass globe or shell, by freezing water in it; when, from the known thickness and tenacity of the metal, it was found that the expansive power of a spherule of water only one inch in diameter was sufficient to overcome a resistance of more than 27,000lhs. or 13 tons and a half. See the experiments on bursting thick bomb-shells, by freezin*- water in them, by major Edward Williams, of the royal artillery, in the Edin. Philos. Trans, vol. ii. Such a prodigious power of expansion, almost double that of the most powerful steam engines, and exerted in so small a mass, seemingly by the force of cold, was thought a very material argument in favour of those who supposed that cold, like heat, is a positive substance. Dr. Black's discovery of latent heat, however, has now af- forded a very easy and natural explication of this pheno- menon. He has shown that, in the act of congelation, water is not cooled more than it was before, but rather grows warmer: that as much heat is discharged, and pas- ses from a latent to a sensible state, as, had it been applied to water in its fluid state, would have heated it to 135°. In this process the expansion is occasioned bv a great number of minute bubbles suddenly produced. Formerly these were supposed to be cold in the abstract; and to he so subtile that, insinuating themselves into the substance of the fluid, they augmented its bulk, at the same time that, by impeding the motion of its particles upon each other, they changed it from a fluid to a solid. But Dr. Black shows, that these are only air extricated during the F R E F R E congelation; and to the extrication of this air he ascribes the prodigious expansive force exerted by freezing water. The only question, therefore, now remaining is, by what means this air is extricated, and to take up more room than it naturally does in the fluid? To this it may be answered, that perhaps part of the heat, which is dis- charged from the freezing water, combines with the air in its unelastic state, and, by restoring its elasticity, gives it that extraordinary force, as is seen also in the case of air suddenly extricated in the explosion of gun- powder. Cold also usually tends to make bodies electric, which are not so naturally, and to increase the electric proper- ties of such as are so. And it is farther found, that all substances do not transmit cold equally well; but that the best conductors of electricity, viz. metals, are like- wise the best conductors of cold. It may farther be ad- ded, that when the cold has been carried to such an ex- tremity as to render any body an electric, it then ceases to conduct the cold so well as before. This is exemplifi- ed in the practice of the Laplanders and Siberians; where, to exclude the extreme cold of the winters from their habitations the more effectually, and yet to admit a lit- tle light, they cut pieces of ice, which in the winter time must always be electric in those countries, and put them into their windows; which they find to be much more ef- fectual in keeping out the cold than any other substance. » Cold, or rather the absence of heat, is the destroyer of all vegetable life, when increased to an excessive degree. It is found that many garden plants and flowers, which seem to be very stout and hardy, go off at a little in- crease of cold beyond the ordinary standard. And, in severe winters, nature has provided the best natural de- fence for the cornfields and gardens, namely, a covering of snow, which preserves such parts green and healthy as are under it, while such as are uncovered by it are either killed or greatly injured. Although the thermometer in England hardly ever descends so low as 0, yet, in the winter of 1780, Mr. Wil- son, of Glasgow, observed, that a thermometer laid on the snow sunk to 25° below 0; and Mr. Derham, in the year 1708, observed in England that the mercury stood within one-tenth of an inch of its station when plunged into a mixture of snow and salt. At Petersburgh, in 1732, the thermometer stood at 28° below 0; and when the French academicians wintered near the polar circle, the thermometer sunk to 33° below 0; and in the Asiatic and American continents still greater degrees of cold arc of- ten observed. The effects of these extreme degrees of cold are very surprising. Trees are burst, rocks rent, and rivers and lakes frozen several feet deep: metallic substances blis- ter the skin like red-hot iron: the air, when drawn in by breathing, hurts the lungs, and excites a cough: even the effects of fire, in a great measure, seem to cease; and it is observed, that though metals arc kept for a con- siderable time before a strong fire, they will still freeze •water when thrown upon them. When the French mathe- maticians wintered at Tornea, in Lapland, the external air, when suddenly admitted into their rooms, converted the moisture of the atmosphere into whirls of snow; their breasts seemed to be rent when they breathed it, the contact of it was intolerable to their bodies; and the spirit of wine, which had not been highly rectified, burst some of their thermometers by the congelation of the aqueous part. Extreme cold too often proves fatal to animals in those countries where the winters are very severe: thus 7000 Swedes perished at once in attempting to pass the mountains which divide Norway from Sweden. But it is not necessary that the cold, in order to prove fatal to human life, should be so very intense as has just been mentioned; it is only requisite to be a little below 32° of Fahrenheit, or the freezing point, accompanied with snow or hail, from which shelter cannot be obtained. The snow which falls upon the cloths, or the uncovered parts of the body, then melts, and by a continual evapo- ration carries off the animal heat to such a degree, that a sufficient quantity is not left for the support of life. In such cases, the person first feels himself extremely chill and uneasy; he turns listless, unwilling to walk or use exercise to keep himself warm, and at last turns drow- sy, sits down to refresh himself with sleep, but wakes no more. With regard to the term congelation, it is applied to water when it freezes into ice; to metals, when they re- sume their solid form after being melted by heat; or to glass, wax, pitch, tallow, &c. when they harden again after having been rendered fluid by heat. But it differs from crystallization, which is rather a separation of the particles of a solid from a fluid in which it had been dis- solved more by the moisture than the action of heat. The process of congelation is always attended with the emission of heat, as is found by experiments on the freez- ing of water, wax, spermaceti, &c; for in such cases it is always found that a thermometer dipt into the fluid mass keeps continually descending as this cools, till it arrives at a certain point; being the point of freezing, which is peculiar to each fluid, where it is rather sta- tionary, and then rises for a little, while the congelation goes on. Freezing-point, denotes the point or degree of cold, shown by a mercurial thermometer, at which certain fluids begin to freeze, or, when frozen, at which they begin to thaw again. On Fahrenheit's thermometer this point is at + 32 for water, and at — 40 fen-quicksilver, these fluids freezing at those two points respectively. It would also be well if the freezing points for other fluids were ascertained, and the whole arranged in a table. See Thermometer. Freezing-rain, or raining ice, a very uncommon kind of shower, which fell in the west of England, in December 1762, of which we have various accounts in the Philosophical Transactions. This rain, as soon as it touched any thing above ground, as a bough, kc. imme- diately settled into ice; and, by multiplying and cnlarg- mg of the icicles, broke all down with its weight. The ram that fell on the snow immediately froze into ice, without sinking in the snow at all. It made an incredi- ble destruction of trees, beyond any thing in all history. " Had it concluded with some gust of wind (says a gentleman on the spot), it might have been of terrible consequence. I weighed the sprig of an ash-tree, of just three-quarters of a pound, the ice on which weigh- ed 16 pounds. Some were frightened with the noise in F R E F R E the air, till they discerned it was the clatter of icy boughs, dashed against each oilier." This phenomenon, howerer, is not uncommon in a less degree, and depends* wholly on the nice balance of temperatures in the rain and atmosphere. Dr. Bcale observes, that there was no considerable frost observed on tbe ground during the whole; whence he concludes, that a frost may be very in- tense and dangerous on the tops of some hills and plains; while in other places it keeps at two, three, or four feet distance above the ground, rivers, lakes, kc. and may wander about very furious in some places, and remiss in others not far off. The frost was followed by glowing heats, and a wonderful forwardness of flowers and fruits. Freezing mixture. See Cold. FREIGHT, or Fraigiit, in navigation and com- merce, is the consideration of money agreed to be paid for the use of hire of a ship, or, in a larger sense, the burthen of such ship. The freight is most frequently determined for the voyage, without respect to time: sometimes it depends on time; in the former case it is either fixed at a certain sum for tlve whole cargo, or so much per ton, barrel bulk, or other weight or measure, or so much per cent. on the value of the cargo. If a certain sum is agreed on for the freight of the ship, it must all be paid, although tbe ship when mea- sured should prove less, unless the burthen is warranted. If the ship is freighted for transporting cattle or slaves at so much per head, and some of them die on the pas- sage, freight is only due for such as are delivered alive; if for lading them, it is due for all put on board. When a whole ship is freighted, if the master suffers any goods besides those of the freight to be put on board, he is liable for damages. If the voyage is completed according to the agree- ment, without* any accident, the master has a right to demand the freight before the delivery of the goods; but if such delivery Ys prevented by negligence or accidents, the parties will be reciprocally responsible in the follow- ing manner. . . If the merchant should not load the ship within the time agreed on, the master may engage with another, and recover damages. If the merchant recals the ship after she is laden and sailed, he must pay the whole freight; but if he unloads before the ship has actually sailed, he will in such case pnly be responsible for damages. If the merchant loads goods which are not lawful to export, and the ship is prevented from proceeding on that account, he must nevertheless pay the freight. If the master is not ready to proceed on the voyage at the time stipulated, the merchant may load the whole or part of the cargo on boai'd another ship, and recover damages; but any real casualties will release the mas- ter from all damages. If an embargo is laid on the ship before she sails, the charterparty is dissolved, and the merchant pays the expense of loading and unloading; but if the embargo is only for a short limited time, the voyage shall be per- formed when it expires; and neither party is liable for damages. If the master sails to any other port than that agreed on, without necessity, he must sail to the port agreed on at his own expense, and is also liable for any damages in consequence of it. If a ship is taken by the enemy, and retaken or ran- somed, the charterparty continues in force. If the master transfers the goods from his own ship to another, without necessity, and they perish, he is res- ponsible for the full value, and all charges; but if his own ship is in imminent danger, the goods may be put on board another ship at the risk of the owner. If a ship is freighted out and home, and a sum agreed on for the whole voyage, nothing becomes due until the return of such ship. If a certain sum is specified for the homeward voyage, it is due, although the correspondent abroad should have no goods to send home. A ship was freighted to a particular port and home, a particular freight agreed upon for the homeward voy- age, with an option reserved for the correspondent to decline it, unless the ship arrived before a certain day. The master did not go to the port agreed on, and there- fore became liable to damages; the obligation being abso- lute on his part, and conditional only on the part of the freight. If the goods are damaged without fault of the ship or master, the owner is not obliged to receive them and pay the freight, but he must either receive or abandon the whole; he cannot receive those that are not damaged, and reject the others. If the goods are damaged through the insufficiency of the ship, the master is liable for the same; but if it is owing to stress of weather he is not accountable. If part of the goods are thrown overboard, or taken by the enemy, the part delivered pays freight. The master is accountable for all the goods received onboard by himself and mariners, unless they perish by the act of God, or the king's enemies. The master is not liable for leakage of liquors, nor ac- countable for contents of packages, unless packed in his presence. FRESCO, a method of painting in relievo on walls, so as to endure the weather. It is performed with water-colours on fresh plaster; or a wall laid with mortar not yet dry. This sort of painting has a great advantage by its incorporating with the mortar, and dry ing along with it, becomes very durable. The ancients painted on stucco; and we may remark in Vitruvius, what infinite care they took in making the incrustations or plastering of their buildings, to render them beautiful and lasting; though the modern painters find a plaster of lime and sand preferable to it. See Painting. FRESHES, in sea language, denote the impetuosity of an ebb-tide, increased by heavy rains, and flowing out into the sea, often discolouring it to a considerable dis- tance, and forming a line that separates the two colours, and which may be distinctly perceived for a great length along the coast. FRET, Frette, in architecture, a kind of knot, or ornament, consisting of two lists or small fillets variously interlaced or interwoven, and running at parallel dis- tances equal to their breadth. See Architecture. F R I F R I Fret, in heraldry, a bearing composed of six bars, crossed, and variously interlaced. Some call it the true- lover's knot. Fret, in music, signifies a kind of stop on some in- struments, particularly bass-viols and lutes. Frets con- sists of strings tied round the neck of the instrument, at certain distances, within which such and such notes are to be found. Fret-work. See Architecture. FRETTY, in heraldry, an appellation given to bear- ings made up of six, eight, or more bars laid across each other inthe manner of frets. FRIAR, or Frier, from the Frenchfrere, a brother, a term common to monks of all orders, founded on this, that there is a kind of fraternity, or brotherhood, be- tween the several religious persons of the same convent or monastery. Friars are generally distinguished into these four principal branches, viz. 1. Minors, grey fri- ars, or franciscans. 2. Augustines. 3. Dominicans, or black friars. 4. White friars, or carmelites. From these four the rest of the orders descend. See the articles Fran- ciscans, Augustines, kc. Friar observant, is a branch of the franciscan friars; thus called, because they are not combined to- gether in any cloister, convent, or corporation, as the conventuals are; but have bound themselves only to ob- serve the rules of their order more strictly than the con- ventuals do, from whom they separated, out of a singu- larity of zeal, living in certain places of their own choos- ing. FRICTION, in mechanics, is the resistance which a body meets with from the surface on which it moves. It is hardly possible to lay down general rules con- cerning the quantity of friction; since it depends upon a multiplicity of circumstances, as the structure, firmness, elasticity, &c. of the bodies rubbing against each other. Some authors make friction upon an horizontal plane, equal to one third of the weight to be moved; whilst others have found it to be considerably less. Two objects must however be observed, viz. the loss of power which is occasioned by it, and the contrivances which have been made, and are in use, for the purpose of diminishing its effects. A body on an horizontal plane should be capable of being moved by the application of the least force; but this is not the case, and the principal causes which ren- der a greater or less quantity of force necessary for it are, 1st, the roughness of the contiguous surfaces; 2dly, the irregularity of the figure, which arises either from the imperfect workmanship, or from the pressure of one body upon the other; Sdly, an adhesion or at- traction which is more or less powerful according to the nature of the bodies in question; and 4thly, the interpo- sition of extraneous bodies; such as moisture, dust, &c. Innumerable experiments have been made for the pur- pose of determining the quantity of obstruction, or of friction, which is produced in particular circumstances. But the results of apparently similar experiments, which have been made by different experimenters, do not agree; nor is it likely they should, since the least difference of smoothness or polish, or of hardness, or, in short, of any of the various concurring circumstan- ces, produces a different result. Hence no certain and determinate rules can be laid down with respect to the subject of friction. Mr. Vince, who has made many experiments on fric- tion, infers, - 1st, That friction is an uniformly retarding force in hard bodies, not subject to alteration by the velocity; except when the body is covered with cloth, woollen, kc. and in this case the friction increases a little with the velocity. 2dly, Friction increases in a less ratio than the quan- tity of matter or weight of the body. This increase, how- ever, is different for the different bodies, more orless; nor is it yet sufficiently known, for any one body, what proportion the increase of friction hears to the increase of weight. Sdly. The smallest surface has the least friction, the weight being the same. But the ratio of the friction to the surface is not yet accurately known. Mr. Vince's experiments consisted in determining how far the sliding bodies would be drawn in given times, by a weight hanging freely over a pulley. This method would both show him if the friction was a constant re- tarding force, and the other conclusions above stated. For as tho spaces described by any constant force, in given times, are as the sejuares of the times, and as the weight drawing the body is a constant force, if the fric- tion, which acts in opposition to the weight, should also be a constant force, then their difference, or the force by which the body is urged, will also be constant, in which case the spaces described ought to be as the squares of the times, which happened accordingly in the experi- ments. Mr. Vince adds some remarks on the nature of the ex- periments which have been made by others. These, he ob- serves, the authors "have instituted to find what moving force would justput a body at rest in motion, and they con- cluded thence that the accelerative force was then equal to the friction; but it is manifest, that any force which will put a body in motion must be greater than the force which opposes its motion, otherwise it could not overcome it: and hence, if there were no other objections than this, it is evident that the friction could not be very accurate- ly obtained; but there is another objection, which totally destroys the experiment, so far as it tends to show the quantity of friction, which is the strong cohesion of the body to the plane when It lies at rest." This he confirms by several experiments, and then udds: " From these ex- periments, therefore, it appears how very considerable the cohesion was in proportion to the friction when the body was in motion; it being in one case almost \, and in another it was found to be very nearly equal to the whole friction. All the conclusions, therefore, deduced from the experiments which have been instituted to de- termine the friction, from the force necessary to put a body in motion, (and I have never seen any described but upon such a principle) have manifestly been totally false; as such experiments only show the resistance which arises from the cohesion and friction conjointly." Philos. Trans, vol. 75, pa. 165. If a body is laid upon another body, and soon after is moved along the surface of it, a less*force will be found sufficient for the purpose, than if the body be left some FRICTION. time at rest before it be moved. This arises principally from an actual change of figure, which is produced in a longer or shorter time, according to the nature of the bodies. Thus the maximum of adhesion between wood and wood takes place in a few minutes' time; between metal and metal it takes place almost immediately. A hard and heavy body laid upon a softer one will some- times continue to increase its adhesion for days and weeks. When a cubic foot of soft wood of eight pounds weight is to be moved upon a smooth horizontal plane of soft wood, at the rate of three feet per second, the power which is necessary to move it, and which is equivalent to the friction, amounts to between l-4th and l-3d of the weight of the cube. When the wood is hard, the friction amounts to between l-7th and l-8thof the weight of the cube. In general the softer or the rougher the bodies are, the greater is their friction. Yet when two pieces of metal, extremely well polished, are laid one upon the other with an ample surface of contact, they adhere to each other much more forcibly than when the) arc not so well polished. Iron or steel moves easiest in brass. Other metals acting against each other produce more friction. The friction, cieteris paribus, increases with the weight of the superincumbent body, and almost in the same pro- portion. The friction or obstruction which arises from the bend- ing of ropes about machines, is influenced by a variety of circumstances, such as their peculiar quality, the tem- perature of the atmosphere, and the diameter or curva- ture of the surface to which they are to be adapted. But when other circumstances remain the same, the difficulty of bending a rope increases with the square of its diame- ter, as also with its tension, and it decreases according as the radius of the curvature of the body to which it is adapted, increases. Of the simple mechanical powers the lever is the least subject to friction. In,a wheel, the friction upon the axis is, as the weight that lies upon it, as the diameter of the axis, and as tiie velocity of the motion. But upon the whole, this sort of friction is not very great, provided the machine is well executed. In common pulleys, especially those of a small size, the friction is very great. It increases in propor- tion as the diameter of the axis increases, as the velocity increases, and as the diameter of the pulley decreases. With a moveable tackle, or block of five pulleys, a power of 150 pounds will barely be able to draw up a weight of 500 pounds. The screw is subject to a great deal of friction; so much so that the power which must be applied to it, in order to produce a given effect, is at least double that which is given by the calculation independent of friction. But the degree of friction in the screw is influenced con- siderably by the nature of the construction; for much of it is owing to the tightness of the screw, to the distance between its threads, and to the shape of the threads; the square threads producing upon the whole, less friction than those which are sharp. The friction which attends the use of the wedge, ex- ceeds in general that of any other mechanical power. Its quantity depends so much upon the nature of the body vol. ii. 23 upon which the wedge acts, besides other circumstances, that it is impossible to give even an approximate esti- mate of it. The friction of mechanical engines not only diminishes the effect, or, which is the same thing, occasions a loss of power; but is attended with the corrosion and wear of the principal parts of the machine, besides producing a considerable degree of heat, and even actual fire; it is therefore of great importance in mechanics to contrive means capable of diminishing, if not of quite removing, the effects of friction. In compound engines, the obstruction which arises from friction can be ascertained only by means of actual experiments. An allowance, indeed, may be made for each simple component mechanical power; but the error in estimating the friction of any one single power is mul- tiplied and increased so fast by the other parts, that the estimate generally turns out very erroneous. Besides, much depends on the execution of the work; the quality of which cannot be learned but by experience. Novices arc generally apt to expect too much or too little from any mechanism. In general it can only be said, that in compound engines, at least one-third of the power islost on account of the friction. The methods of obtaining the important object of diminishing the friction, are of two sorts, viz. either by the interposition of particular unctuous or oily substances between the contiguous moving parts, or by particular mechanical contrivances. Olive-oil is the best, and perhaps the only substance that can be used in smalhworks, as in watches and clocks, when metal works against metal. But in large works the oil is liable to drain off, unless some method is adopt- ed to confine it. Therefore for large works tallow is mostly used, or grease of any sort; \ hich is useful for metal, as well as for wood. In the last case tar is also frequently used. In delicate works of wood, viz. when a piece of wood is to slide into or over wood, and when a wooden axis is to turn into wood, the fine powTder of what is commonly called black-leaa, when interposed between the parts, eases the motion considerably, and is at the same time a clean and durable substance. Though olive-oil is the best and the only substance that is used for delicate mechanisms; yet it is far from being free from objections. Oil, when in contact with brass, is liable to grow rancid, in which state it slowly corrodes the brass. In different temperatures it becomes more or less fluid; but upon the whole it grows continually thicker, and of course less fit to ease the motion of the parts, &c. Trifling as those defects may at first sight appear, they are however of such moment in delicate works, that in the greatly improved state to which watchwork has been brought, the changeable quality of the oil seems at pre- sent to be the principal, if not the only impediment to the perfection of chronometers. The meehanical contrivances which have been made, and are in use, for the purpose of diminishing the effects of friction, consist either in avoiding the contact of such bodies as produce much friction, or in the interposition of rollers, viz. cylindrical bodies, between the moving parts of machines, or between moving bodies in general. Such cylinders derive, from their various size and ap FRICTION. plication, the different names of rollers, friction-wheels, and friction-rollers. Thus in mill-work and other large machines,, the wooden axes of large wheels terminate in iron gudgeons, which turn in wood, or more frequently in iron or brass, which construction produces less friction than the turn- ing of wood in wood. In the finest sort of watch-work the holes are jewelled, viz. many of the pivots of the wheels, ccc. move in holes made in rubies, or topazes, or other hard stone, which, hen well finished, arc not lia- ble to wear, nor do they require much oil. In order to understand the nature of rollers, and the advantage with which their use is attended, it must be considered, that when a body is dragged over the surface of another body, the inequalities of the surfaces of both bodies meet and oppose each other, which is the princi- pal cause of the friction or obstruction; but when one bo- dy, such as a cask, a cylinder, or a ball, is rolled upon another body, the surface of the roller is not rubbed against the other body, but is only successively applied to, or laid on*'the other, and is then successively lifted up from it. Therefore, in rolling, the principal cause of friction is avoided, besides other advantages: hence a body may be rolled upon another body, when the shape admits of it, with incomparably less exertion than that which is required to drag it over the surface of that other body. In fact, we commonly see large pieces of timber, and enormous blocks of stone, moved upon rol- lers, that are laid between them and the ground, with ease and safety, when it would be almost impossible to move them otherwise. The form and disposition of friction-wheels is represen- ted by fig. 94, Plate LXIV. Miscel. which exhibits a front view of the axis of a large wheel, which moves between the friction-wheels A, B, C. Here the end of the axis (and the same thing must be understood of the opposite extremity of the axis) instead of moving in a hole, moves between the circumferences of three wheels, each of which i«s moveable upon its own axis, and is unconnected with the others. Now if the end of the axis turned in a hole, the surface of the hole would stand still, and the surface of the axis would rub against it; whereas, when the axis moves between the circumferences of the wheels A, B, C, its surface does not rub against, but is successively ap- plied to the circumferences of those wheels; so that this sort of motion has the same advantage over the turning of the axis in a hole, that the moving of a heavy bod'v upon rollers has over the simple method of dragging it upon the ground. In this construction the contact of the axis moves the wheels A, B, C, round their axis, where indeed somo friction must unavoidably take place, but that friction is very trifling; for if the circumference of the axis be to that of each wheel as 1 to 20, the axis must make 20 revolutions whilst the friction-wheels will turn round once only. A few years ago the same principle was applied in a very ingenious manner, by Mr. J. Garnett, then of Bris- tol, to pulleys, and other sorts of circular motion round an axis, for which he obtained a patent. The use of this application has proved very advantageous, especially on board of ships, where it has been found, that with a set of Mr. Garnctt's pulleys, three men were able to draw 2 as much weight as five men were barely able to accom- plish with a similar set of common pulleys. One of these pulleys is represented by fig. 95, Plate LXIV. Miscel. where the shaded part B B B is the pulley, A is the axis, round which are the cylindrical rollers, which are situated between the axis and the inside cavity of the pulley. The ends of the axis A aro fixed in a block, af- ter the usual manner. Every one of the rollers has an axis, the extremities of which turn in holes made in two brass or iron flat rings. After having given a general explanation of the ac- tion of rollers, the advantage which Mr. Garnctt's pul- leys must have over those of the common sort, needs no farther illustration. We shall, however, only observe, that the friction of the pivots of each roller in the holes of the brass rings is very inconsiderable; for those holes are made rather large, the use of the axes to the rollers being only to prevent their running one against the other. Nor does the addition of weight upon the pulley increase that friction, for the addition of weight upon the pulley will press the rollers harder upon the axis A, but not upon their own axes, as maybe easily understood by in- specting the figure. See Brewster's edition of Fer- guson's Lectures. Friction may be considered chemically as a source of caloric. Fires are often kindled by rubbing pieces of dry wood smartly against one another. It is well known that heavy loaded carts sometimes take fire by the fric- tion between the axle-tree and the wheel. Now in what manner is the caloric evolved or accumulated by friction? Not by increasing the density of the bodies rubbed against each other, as happens in cases of percussion, for heat is produced by rubbing soft bodies against each other, the density of which therefore cannot be increased by that means, as any one may convince himself by rub- bing his hand smartly against his coat. It is true, in- deed, that heat is not produced by the friction of liquids; but then they are too yielding to be subjected to strong friction. It is not owing to the specific caloric of the rubbed bodies decreasing; for Count Runiford founu that there was no sensible decrease, nor, if there was a de- crease, would it be sufficient to account for the vast quantity of heat which is sometimes produced by fric- tion. l J Count Rumford took a cannon cast solid and rough, as it came from the foundery; he caused its extremity to be cut ofl", and formed, in that part, a solid cylinder at- tached to the cannon 7f inches in diameter, and 9» in- ches long. It remained joined to the rest of the metal by a.small cylindrical neck. In this cylinder a hole was bored 3.7 inches in diameter and 7.2 inches in length. Into this hole was put a blunt steel borer, which bv means of horses was made to rub against its bottom: at the same time asmall hole was made in the cylinder perpendicular to the bore, and ending in the solid part a little beyond the end of the bore. This was for introducing a ther- mometer to measure the heat of the cylinder. The cylin- der was wrapt round with flannel to keep in the heat. Ihc borer pressed against the bottom of the hole with a force equal to about l0,000lbs. avoirdupois, and the cylinder was turned round at the rate of 32 times in a minute. At the beginning of the experiment the tempera- FRICTION. ture of the cylinder was 60°; at the end of 30 minutes, when it bad made 960 revolutions, its temperature was 130°. The quantity of metallic dust or scales produced by this friction amounted to 837 grains. Now if we were to suppose that all the caloric was evolved from these scales, as they amounted to just ^\T part of the cylin- der, they must have given enit 94H to raise the cylinder 1°, and consequently 66300° to raise it 70° or to 130°, which is certainly incredible. Neither is the caloric evolved during friction, owing to the combination of oxygen with the bodies themselves, or any part of them. By means of a piece of dock-work, Mr. Pictet made small cups (fixed on the axis of one of the wheels), to move round with considerable rapidity, and he made various substances rub against the outsides of these cups, while the bulb of a very delicate thermome- ter placed within them marked the heat produced. The whole machine was of a size sufficiently small to be in- troduced into the receiver of an air-pump. By means of this machine a piece of adamantine spar was made to rub against a steel cup in air: Sparks were produced in great abundance during the whole time, but the ther- mometer did not rise. The same experiment was re- peated in the exhausted receiver of an air-pump (the manometer standing at four lines); no sparks were pro- duced, but a kind of phosphoric light was visible in the dark. The thermometer did not rise. A piece of brass being made to rub in the same manner against a much smaller brass cup in air, the thermometer (which almost filled the cup) rose 0.3°, but did not begin to rise till (he fl-iction was over. This shows us that the motion pro- duced in the air carried off the caloric as it was evolved. In the exhausted receiver it began to rise the moment the friction began, and rose in all 1.2°. When a bit of wood was made to rub against the brass cup in the air, the thermometer rose 0.7°, and on substituting also a wooden cup, it rose 2.1°, and in the exhausted receiver 2.4°, and in air condensed to l| atmospheres it rose 0.5°. If these experiments should not be thought conclusive, there are others, which will not leave a doubt that the heat produced by friction is not connected with the de- composition of oxygen gas. Count Rum ford contrived, with his usual ingenuity, to inclose the cylinder above described in a wooden box filled with water, which ef- fectually excluded all air, as the cylinder itself and the borer were surrounded with water, and at the same time did not impede the motion of the instrument. The quan- tity of water amounted to 18.77lbs. avoirdupois, and at the beginning of the experiment was at the temperature of 60c. After the cylinder had revolved for an hour at the rate of 32 times in a minute, the temperature of the water was 107°; in 30 minutes more it was 178°; and in two hours and 30 minutes after the experiment began, the water actually boiled. According to the computation of Count Rumford, the caloric produced would have been sufficient to heat 26.58lbs. avoirdupois of ice-cold water boiling hot; and it would have required nine wax candles of a moderate size, burning with a clear flame all the time the experiment lasted, to have produced as much heat. In this experiment all access of water into the hole in the cylinder where the friction took place was prevented. But in another experiment, the result of which was pre- cisely the same, the water was allowed free access. The caloric then, which appears ir. conscqiieucc of friction, is neither produced by an increase of the den- sity, nor by an alteration in the specific caloric of the substances exposed to friction, nor is it owing to the de- composition of the oxygen of the atmosphere. Whence then is it derived? This question cannot at present be answered: but this is no reason for concluding with count Rumford, that there is no such substance as caloric at all, but that it is merely a peculiar kind of motion; be- cause other facts demonstrate the existence of caloric as a substance. Was it possible to prove that the accumu- lation of caloric by friction is incompatible with its being a substance, in that case count Rum ford's conclusion would be a fair one; but this surely has not been done. Wc arc certainly not yet sufficiently acquainted with the laws of the motion of caloric, to be able to affirm with certainty that friction cannot cause it to accumulate in the bodies rubbed. This we know at least to be the case with electricity. Nobody has been hitherto able to de- monstrate in vvhat manner it is accumulated by friction; and yet this has not been thought a sufficient reason to deny its existence. Indeed there seems to be a very close analogy between caloric and electric matter. Both of them tend to diffuse themselves equally, both of them dilate bodies, both of them fuse metals, and both of them kindle combustible substances. See Electricity. Mr. Achard has proved, that electricity can be sub- stituted for caloric even in those cases where its agency seems peculiarly necessary; for he found that by con- stantly supplying a certain quantity of the electricfluid, eggs could be hatched just as when they are kept at the temperature of 103°. An accident indeed prevented the chickens from actually comingout, but they were formed and living, and within two days of bursting their shell. Electricity has also a great deal of influence on the heat- ing and cooling of bodies. Mr. Pictet exhausted a glass globe, the capacity of which was 1200.199 cubic inches, till the manometer within it stood at 1.75 lines. In the middle of this globe was suspended a thermometer, which hung from the top of a glass rod fixed at the bottom of the globe, and going almost to its top. Opposite to the bulb of this thermometer two lighted candles were placed, the rays of which, by means of two concave mirrors, were concentrated on the bulb. The candles and the globe were placed on the same board, which was sup- ported by a non-conductor of electricity. Two feet and a half from the globe there was an electrifying machine, which communicated with a brass ring at the mouth of the globe by means of a metallic conductor. This ma- chine was kept working during the whole time of the ex- periment; and consequently a quantity of electric matter was constantly passing into the globe, which, in the language of I'ictet, formed an atmosphere not only with- in it, but at some distance round, as was evident from the imperfect manner in which the candles burned. When the experiment began the thermometer stood at 49.8°. It rose to 70.2° in 732". The same experiment was re- peated, but no electric matter thrown in; the thermome- ter rose from 49.8° to 70.2° in 1050''; so that the electri- city hastened the heating almost a third. In the first experiment the thermometer rose only to 71.3°, but in the second it rose to 77°. This difference was doubtless F R 1 F R I •iwing to the candles* burning better in the second than first experiment; for in other two experimects made ex- actly inthe same manner, the maximum was equal both when there was and was not electric matter present. These experiments were repeated with this difference, that the candles were now insulated, by placing their can- dlesticks in vessels of varnished glass. The thermome- ter rose in the electrical vacuum from 52.2° to 74.7° in 1050"; in the simple vacuum in 965". In the electrical vacuum the thermometer rose to 77°; in the simple va- cuum to 86°. It follows from these experiments, that when the globe and the candles communicated with each other, electricity hastened the heating of the thermome- ter; but that when they were insulated separately, it re- tarded it. One would be apt to suspect the agency of electricity in the following experiment of Mr. Pictet: in- to one of the brass cups formerly described, a small quan- tity of cotton was put to prevent the bulb of the ther- mometer from being broken. As the cup turned round, two or three fibres of the cotton rubbed against the bulb, and without any other friction the thermometer rose five or six degrees. A greater quantity of cotton being made to rub against the bulb, the thermometer rose 15°. FRIDSTOL, mentioned in our ancient writers among the immunities granted to churches, signifies a seat, chair, or place of peace and security, where criminals might find safety and protection: of these there were many in England, but the mostfamous was at Beverley, and that in St. Peter's church at York, granted by charter of king Henry I. FRIEND, or Quaker. A society of dissenters from the church of England, obtained the latter appellation in the middle of the seventeenth century; the former they had before applied, and continue to apply, to themselves. The first preacher of this society was George Fox, a man of humble birth, and illiterate. The undertaking to which he considered himself called, that of promul- gating a more simple and spiritual form of Christianity than any of those which prevailed, and of directing the attention of christians to immediate Revelation, required little more reading than that of the Bible. A constant reference to the scriptures, with great zeal, courage, and perseverance, in preaching and suffering, did more than literature could have done, to spread his doctrine among the middle and lower classes. By those who treated re- ligion scientifically, it was, with a few exceptions, more warmly opposed than sufficiently investigated. Argu- ments of civil coercion, of which the Friends had a full, and from their stiffness more than a common share, have been found to recommend, instead of repressing dissent. A more liberal and laudable treatment of conscientious scruples has succeeded; and it may be now said, in a bet- ter sense, respecting religion, Subjudice lis est. The most prominent feature in the Friends' view of Christianity is this: seeing, no man knoweth the Father but the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal him, and seeing the revelation of the Son is in and by the Spirit; therefore the testimony of the Spirit is that alone by which the true knowledge of God is revealed. In this doctrine they agree in substance with the church of Eng- land, and all others who acknowledge the efficacy of grace. For in whatever way this is afforded to chris- tians, it is powerfully given to know and to do the will of God; and the communication of grace may be termed, m strict consistency with the sense of the New Testament, a revelation of Christ in the Spirit. The Friends receive the Holy Scriptures as having proceeded from the reve- lations of the Holy Spirit; they account them the seconda- ry rule for christians, subordinate to the word, and therefore not the word of God. According to these they profess their belief in one God, as Father, Word, and Holy Spirit; in one mediator, the word made flesh, Jebus Christ; in the conception, birth, life, miracles, death, re- surrection, and ascension of Jesus; and in the remission of sins thereby purchased for the whole world of fallen mankind. Christ's redemption they believe to be per- fected in us by his second coming in Spirit; in which they who obey him are, through the obedience of faith, restored from their state of alienation, and reconciled to God. They affirm, that for this end there is given to every man a measure of the light of Christ, (called by their early preachers the light within) a manifestation of the spirit to profit withal; which discovers sin, re- proves for it, leads out of it, and if not resisted, will save from it, and lead on the christian to perfection. In public worship they profess to wait on God in this gift, in order to have their conditions made manifest, in silence and retirement of mind. They look for an extraordinary motion of it for vocal worship, and considering the qualification of a minister as a further gift which God confers, and of which the church ought to judge in the same spirit, they do not limit its exercise to any descrip- tion of persons. They suffer some inconvenience here- by, as they acknowledge, but they prefer bearing this to the establishing of any form of worship, save the fore- mentioned, waiting in silence. They do not baptize formally, or use the sign of the communion; they say the one has ceased as to obligation, and that the true ad- ministration of the other is by the spirit alone. They deem it unlawful for christians to swear at all; and their affirmation in civil causes is made legal, in- stead of an oath. They refuse to " learn war or to lift up the sword," as well as to contribute directly to mili- tary proceedings. Yet as they inculcate implicit sub- mission, actively or passively, to Csesar, they neither resist nor evade the legal appropriation of their substance by him, as well to these as to ecclesiastical purposes. Against the claims of the clergy, as well as many other things apparently lawful, they say in their phraseology they have a testimony to bear. Some peculiarities, well enough known, mark them out from their fellow citizens. Simplicity in dress, in some instances, nearly amounting to an adherence to their original, though not prescribed, costume; simplicity of language, thou to one person, and without compliments; simplicity in their manners of living; the non-observance of fasts and feasts; the rejection of those which they call the unchristian names of days and months; and the re- nunciation of the theatres and other promiscuous amuse- ments, gaming, and the usual outward signs of mourning and rejoicing, may be considered as their Shibboleth. They marry among themselves by a ceremony or con- tract, religiously conducted, and bury their dead in the most simple manner. They maintain their poor, and en- force their own rules, by means of an excellent system of discipline, founded bf G. Fox. They receive ap* F R I F R I proved applicants into their society by an act of monthly meeting, or particular congregation, and without sub- sc rij'lion of articles. They disown in the same manner, after repeated admonition, not officially only, but actually extended, to offenders against morality, or their peculiar rules. The latter may be seen in a book entitled, " Ex- tracts from the Minutes and Advices of the Yearly Meeting of Friends, held in London, from its first institu- tion:" their principles and doctrines in Barclay's Apolo- gy, and their history in a large work by William Sewel. FRIEZE, Freeze, or Frize. See Architecture. FRIGATE, among seamen, a ship of war, light built, aud that is a good sailer. A frigate has commonly two decks, whence that called a light frigate is a frigate with only one deck. All ships of war that carry from 20 guns to 50 guns are called frigates. FRIGATOON, a Venetian vessel, commonly used in the Adriatic sea, with a square stern, and carrying only a mainmast, mizen, and bowsprit. FRILAZIN, the name of a class or rank of people among the Anglo-Saxons, consisting of those who had been slaves, but had cither purchased, or by some other means obtained, their liberty. Though these were in reality free men, they were not considered as of the same rank and dignity with those who had been born free, but were still in a more ignoble condition, and dependent either on their former masters or on some new patrons. This custom the Anglo Saxons seem to have derived from their ancestors in Germany, among whom those who had been made free did not differ much in point of dignity or importance in the state from those who continued in servitude. This distinction between those who have been made free, and those who enjoy freedom by descent from a long race of free men, still prevails in many parts of Germany; and particularly in the original seats of the Anglo-Saxons. Many of the inhabitants of towns and cities in England, in this period, seem to have been of this class of men, who were in a kind of middle state be- tween slaves aud freemen. FRIXGELLA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order of passeres. The bill is conical, straight, and sharp-pointed. There are no less than 108 species com- prehended under this genus, distinguished principally by varieties in their colour. The following are the most remarkable. 1. The carduelis, or goldfinch, with the quill feathers red forwards, and the outermost without any spots; the two outermost are white in the middle, as the rest are at the point. The young bird, before it moults, is grey on the head; and hence it is termed by the bird-catchers a grey-pate. There is a variety of goldfinches called by the London bird-catchers achcverel, from the manner in which it concludes its jerk. It is distinguished from the common sort by a white streak, or by two, sometimes three, white spots under the throat. The note of the goldfinch is very sweet, and they are much esteemed on that account, as well as for their great docility. Towards winter, they assemble in flocks, and feed on seeds of dif- ferent kinds, particularly those of the thistle. They are fond of orchards, and frequently build in an apple or pear-tree; the nest is very elegantly formed of fine moss, liverworts, aud bents, on the outside: lined first with wool or hair, and then with the goslinor cotton of the sallow. The goldfinch lays five white eggs, marked with deep purple spots on the upper end, and has two broods in the year. When kept in cages, they are commonly fed much on hemp-seed, which they eat freely, hut which is said to make them grow black, and lose both their red and yel- low. The goldfinch is a long-lived bird, often attaining the age of 20 years. This species is numerous through- out Europe; it is also met with both in Asia and Africa, but less common in those countries. 2. The cselebs, or chaffinch, has black limbs, and the wings white on both sides; the three first feathers of the tail are without spots, but two of the chief are obliquely spot- ted. It has its name from delighting in chaff. This species entertains us agreeably with its song very early in the year, but towards the end of the summer assumes a chirping note. Both sexes continue with us the whole year. What is very singular in Sweden, tbe female quits that country in September, migrating in flocks into Hol- land, leaving their mates behind: in the spring they re- turn. In Hampshire Mr. White has observed sometimes vast flocks of females with scarcely any males among them. Their nest is as elegantly constructed as that of the goldfinch, and of much the same materials, only the inside has the addition of some large feathers. They lay four or five eggs of a dull white colour, tinged and spot- ted with deep purple. They are caught in plenty in flight- time. 3. The montifringilla, or brambling, has a yellow bill tipt with black; the head, hind part of the neck, and back, arc black; the throat, fore part of the neck, and breast, pale rufous orange; lower part of tbe breast and belly white; the quill feathers brown, with yellowish edges; the tail a little forked; the legs grey. This species migrates into England at certain seasons, but does not build there. It is frequently found among chaffinches, and sometimes comes in vast flocks. They are also seen at certain times in vast clouds in France, insomuch that the ground has been quite covered with their dung, and more than 600 dozen were killed each night. They are said to be particularly fond of beech mast, but will also eat seeds of various other kinds. Their flesh is eaten by many, but is apt to prove bitter. They are said to breed about Luxemburg!!, making their nests on the tall fig-trees, composed of long moss without, and lined with wool and feathers within; the eggs are four or five in number, yellowish, and spotted; and the young arc fledg- ed at the end of May. This species is found more or less throughout Europe, and is common iu the pine forests of Russia and Siberia, but those of the last are darker in colour and less in size. 4. The domestica, or sparrow, has the prime feathers of the wings and tail brown, the body variegated with grey and black, and a single white streak on the wings. These well-known birds are proverbially salacious, and have three broods in a year. They are every where common about our houses, where they build in every place they can find admittance to; under the roof, at the cor- ner of the brick-work, or in holes of the wall. They make a slovenly nest; generally a little hay ill put to- gether, but lined well with feathers, where they lay five or six eggs of a reddish white colour spotted with brown. They will sometimes build in the neighbouring trees, in which case they take more pains with the nest; and not FRINGELLA. unfrequently they expel the martins from theirs, to save the trouble of constructing one of their own. The spar- row, from frequenting only habitations and parts adja- cent, may be said to be chiefly fed from human industry; for, in spite of every precaution, it will partake with the pigeons, poultry, kc. in the food thrown out to them, grain'of all kinds being most agreeable to its taste, though it will eat refuse from the kitchen of most kinds. It is a familiar but crafty bird, and will not so easily come into a snare as many others. In autumn they often collect in- to flocks, and roost in numbers on the neighbouring trees, when they may be shot by dozens, or at night caught in great numbers by a bat fowling-net. 5. The spinus, or siskin, has the prime feathers of the wings yellow in the middle, and the four first chief tail-feathers without spots; but they are yellow at the base, and black at the points. Mr. Willughby tells us, that this is a song-bird; that in Sussex it is called the bar- ley-bird, because it comes to them in barley-seed time. Wc are informed that it visits these islands at very un- certain times, like the gross-beak, &c. It is to be met with in the bird-shops in London; and being rather-a scarce bird, sells at a higher price than the merit of its song deserves: it is known there by the name of theaber- davine. It is a very tame and docile species, and is often kept and paired with the Canary-bird, with which it breeds freely. The bird-catchers have a notion of its com- ing out of Russia. Dr. Kramer informs us, that this bird conceals its nest with great art; and though there are in- finite numbers of young birds in the woods on the banks of the Danube, which seem just to have taken flight, yet no one could discover the nest. 6. The linota, or linnet, has the bottom of the breast of a fine blood-red, which heightens as the spring ad- vances. These birds are much esteemed for their song. They feed on seeds of different kinds, which they peel be- fore they eat; the seed of the linum or flax is their fa- vourite food; whence the name of the linnet tribe. They breed among furze and white thorn; the outside of their nest is made with moss and bents, and lined with wool and hair. They lay five whitish eggs, spotted like those of the goldfinch. 7. The cannabina, or greater red-pole, is less than the common linnet, and has a blood-coloured spot on the forehead, and the breast of the male is tinged with a fine rose-colour. It is a common fraud in the bird-shops in London, when a male bird is digtinguished from the fe- male by a red-breast, as in the case of this bird, to stain or paint the feathers, so that the deceit is not easily dis- covered, without at least close inspection. These birds are frequent on the coasts of Britain, and are often taken in flight-time near London: it is a familiar bird, and is chereful in five minutes after it is caught. 8. The linaria, or lesser red-pole, is about half the size of the last, with a rich spot of purplish red on the forehead; the breast is of the same colour, butless bright. Mr. Pennant mentions an instance of this bird being so tenacious of her nest, as to suffer herself to be taken off by the hand, and that when released she would not for- sake it. This species is known about London by the name of stone red-pole. Linnseus, Kramer, and others, mention its being very fond of the seeds of alder. Whole flocks of them, mixed with the siskin, frequent places where alders grow, for the sake of picking the catkins: they generally hang like the titmouse, with the back downwards; and in this state are so intent on their work, that they may be entangled one after another by dozens, by means of a twig, smeared with bird-lime, fas- tened to the end of a fishing-rod or other long pole. This species seems to be in plenty throughout Europe, from the extreme parts of Russia on the one hand to Italy on the other; is very common in Greenland, and was also met with by our late voyagers at Aoonalashka. In Ame- rica it is likewise well known. Hence it seems to be a bird common to the whole ofthe northern part of the globe without exception. 9. The montium.or twite, is about the size of a linnet It has the feathers of the upper part ofthe body dusky, those on the head edged with ash-colour, the others with brownish red: the rump is pale crimson; the wings and tail arc dusky, the tips ofthe greater coverts and secon- daries whitish; the legs pale brown. The female wants the red mark on the rump. Twites are taken in the flight- season near London, along with other linnets. It is pro- bable that the name has been taken from their twitter- ing note, having no music in it; and indeed the bird- catchers will tell, at some distance, whether there'arc any twites mixed among linnets merely from this cir- cumstance. The twite is supposed to breed in the more northern parts of England. 10. The amandava, or amaduvade bird, is about the size of a wren. The colour of the bill is of a dull red; all the upper parts are brown, with a mixture of red; the un- der the same, but paler, the middle-of the belly darkest; all the feathers of the upper wing-coverts, breast, and sides, have a spot of white at the tip: the quills are of a grey brown; the tail is black, and the legs are of a pale yel- lowish white. It inhabits Bengal, Java, Malacca, and other parts of Asia. 11. The senagala, or Senegal finch, is a species very little larger than a wren. The bill is reddish, edged all round with brown, and beneath the under mandible a line of brown quite to the tip: the same also is seen on the ridge of the upper mandible; the upper parts of the body areofavinaccous red colour; the lower parts, with the thighs and under tail-coverts, of a greenish brown; the hind part of the head and neck, the back, scapulars, and wing-coverts, are brown; the tail is black; and the legs are pale grey. It inhabits Bengal; and, with the former species, feeds on millet. This affords the natives an easy method of catching them: they have no more to do than to support a large hollowed gourd, the bottom uppermost, on a stick, with a string leading to some covered place, and strewing under it some millet; the little birds, hastening in numbers to pick it up, are caught beneath the trap, by the stick being pulled away by the observer at a distance. The females arc said to sing nearly as well as the males. They are familiar birds; and when once used to the climate, will frequently live five or six years in a cage. They have been bred in Holland by the fanciers of birds. See Plate LX. Nat. Hist. fig. 209. 12. The canaria, or canary-bird, has a whitish body and bill, w ith the prime feathers of the wings and tail greenish. It was originally peculiar to those islands to which it owes its name; the same that were known to F R I F R 1 the ancients by the addition of the Fortunate. Though the ancients celebrate the island of Canaria for the mul- titude of birds, they have not mentioned any in particu- lar. It is probable then, that this species was not intro- duced into Europe till after the second discovery of these islands, which was between the 13th and 14th cen- turies. We are uncertain when it first made its appear- ance in that quarter of the globe. Belon, who wrote in 1555, is silent in respect to these birds; Gesner is the first who mentions them; and Aldrovand speaks of them as rarities, observing that they were very dear, on account of the difficulty attending the bringing them from so distant a country, and that they were purchased by people of rank alone. They are still found on the same spot to which we were first indebted for the production of such charming songsters; but they arc now become so very numerous, that we are under no necessity of crossing the ocean for them. The canary-bird will prove fertile with the siskin and goldfinch; but in this case the produce, for the most part, proves sterile: the pairs succeed best when the hen-bird is the canary, and the cock of the opposite species. It will also prove prolific with the linnet, yellow-hammer, chaffinch, and even the house sparrow; but the male canary-bird will not assimilate with the female of these birds; the hen must be ever of the canary species, and the young of these mostly prove male birds. This bird is said by some to live 10 or 15 years; by others as far as 18. 13. The inaja, or cubafincli, is about three and one quarter inches long, is found in Cuba, and feeds principally on rice. See Plate LX. Nat. Hist. fig. 210. FRIT, or Fritt, in the glass manufacture, is the matter or ingredients of which glass is to be made, when they have been calcined or baked in a furnace. A salt drawn from the ashes of the plant kali or from fern, or other plants, mixed with sand or flint, and baked to- gether, makes an opaque mass, called by glass-men frit; probably from the Italian frittare, to fry; or because the frit when melted runs into lumps, like fritters, called by the Italians fritelli. Frit by the ancients was called ammonitrum, from frapp, sand, and »»Tp«r, nitre; under which name it is described by Pliny thus: Fine sand from the Volturnian sea, mixed with three times the quantity of nitre, and melted, makes a mass called ammonitrum; which being rebuked makes pure glass. Frit, Neri ob- serves, is only the calx of the materials which makes glass; which, though they might be melted, and glass be made withoutthus calcining them, yet it would take up much more time. This calcining, or making of frit, serves to mix and incorporate the materials together, and to evaporate all the superfluous humidity. The frit, once made, is readily fused and turned into glass. There are three kinds of frit: the first crystal frit, or that for crystal or clear glass, is made with salt of pul- verine and sand. The second and ordinary frit is made of the bare ashes of pulverine or barilla, without extract- ing the salt from them. This makes the ordinary white or crystal glass. The third is frit for green glasses, made of common ashes, without any preparation. This last frit will require 10 or 12 hours baking. The mate- rials in each are to be finely p vd red, washed, and scarred; then equally mixed, and frequently stirred to- gether in the melting pot. FRITH, in its most usual acceptation, signifies an arm of the sea: such are the frith of Forth or of Edin- burgh, the frith of Clyde, Murray frith, &c. FRITILLARIA, fritiulary, a genus of the mono- gynia order, in the hexandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the loth order, corona- rise. The corolla is hexapetalous and campanulated, with a nectariferous cavity above the heel in each petal; the stamina are as long as the corolla. There are five species, all of them bulbous-rooted flowery perennials, producing annual stalks from about one foot to a yard or more high, terminated by large, bell-shaped, liliace- ous flowers, of a great variety of colours. They are all propagated by offsets, which they furnish abundantly from the sides of the roots, and which may be separat- ed every second or third year; they are hardy plants, and will thrive in any of the common borders. The crown-imperial is well known. FRIZING of cloth, a term in the wollen manufactory, applied to the forming of the nap of cloth or stuff into a number of little hard burrs or prominences, covering almost the whole ground. Some cloths are only frized on the back-side, as black cloths; others on the right side, as coloured and mixed cloths, rateens, bays, freezes, kc. Frizing may be per- formed two ways: one with the hand, that is, by means of two workmen, who conduct a kind of plank that serves for a frizing instrument. The other way is by a mill, worked either by water or a horse, or sometimes by men. This latter is esteemed the better way of friz- ing, the motion being uniform and regular, the little knobs of the frizing are formed more equably and regu- larly. The structure of this useful machine is as follows: The three principal parts arc the frizer or crisper, the frizing-table, and the drawer or beam. The two first are two equal planks or boards, each about 10 feet long, and 15 inches broad, differing only in this, that the frizing-table is lined or covered with a kind of coarse woollen stuff, of a rough sturdy nap; and the frizer is incrustatcd with a kind of cement composed of glue, gum arabic, and a yellow sand, with a little aqua vita? or urine. The beam or drawer, thus called because it draws the stuff from between the frizer and the frizing- table, is a wooden roller, beset all over with little, fine, short points, or ends of wire, like those of cards used in carding of wool. The disposition and use of the machine is thus: The table stands immoveable, and sustains the cloth to be frized, which is laid with that side uppermost on which nap is to be raised: over the table is placed the friz'-r, at such a distance from it as to give room for the stuff to be passed between them, so that the frizer, having a very slow semicircular motion, meeting the long hairs or naps of the cloth, twists and rolls them in- to little knobs or burrs, while at the same time the drawer, which is continually turning, draws away the stuff from umier the frizer, and winds it over its own points. All that the workman has to do while the machine is going, is to stretch the stuff on the table as fast as the dr. wer takes it off: and from time to time to r;ike off the stuff from the ptjjnls ofthe drawer. The design of liv- ing the frizing-table HVd v.it;? ,«i.ff ot ;. <»'. F R U F R VS stubby nap, is that it may detain the cloth between the table and the frizer long enough for the grain to be formed, that the drawer may not take it away too readi- ly, which must otherwise be the case, as it is not held by any thing at the other end. It is unnecessary to say any thing particular of the manner of frizing stuffs with the hand, it being the aim of the workmen to imitate as near as they can, with their wooden instrument, the slow, equable, and circular motion of the machine: it needs only be added, that their frizer is but about two feet long and one broad; and that, to form the nap more easily, they moisten the surface of the stuff lightly with water mingled with whites of eggs or honey. FROG. See Ran a. Frog-fish of Surinam, a very singular animal, of which there is no specimen in the British or any public museum. In Surinam these fishes are called jakjes. They are cartilaginous, of a substance like our mustela, and exquisite food: they are formed with regular vertebrae, and small bones all over the body divided into equal parts; are first darkish, and then grey; their scales make a beautiful appearance. Whether this animal is, in its perfect state, a species of frog with a tail, or a kind of water-lizard, Mr. Edwards does not pre- tend to determine, but observes, that when its size is considered, if it should be deemed a tadpole at first pro- duced from spawn and in its progress towards a frog, such an animal, when full grown, if it bears the same proportion to its tadpole as those in Europe do, must be of enormous size; for our full-grown frogs exceed the tadpoles at least 50 times. FRONT of a battalion, among military men, is the first rank, or file-leaders. It is likewise called the face or head of the battalion. FRONTAL, or Frontlet, orBRownAND, is used in speaking of the Jewish ceremonies. It consists of four several pieces of vellum, on each whereof is written some text of scripture: they are all laid on a piece of calf's leather, with thongs to tie it by. " The Jews apply the leather with the velum on their foreheads in the synagogue, and tie it round the head with the thongs. Frontal muscles. See Anatomy. FRONTIS os, in anatomy, called also os coronale, the bone of the forehead. See Anatomy. FROST. SeeCoLn and Freezing. FROTH-spit, or CuckoW-spit, a name given to a white froth or spume, very common in the spring. It forms the nidus of a species of cicada. FRUCTIFICATION. See Botany. FRUIT. Every person who shall bark any fruit-tree, shall forfeit to the party grieved treble damages by ac- tion at the common law, and also 10/. to the king. 37 H. VIII. c. 6. Every person who shall rob any orchard or garden, or dig or pull up any fruit-trees, with intent to take the same away (the same not being felony by the laws of England), shall, on conviction before one justice, give to the party such satisfaction for damages as such justices shall appoint; and in default of payment to be whipped. 43 Eliz. c. 7. And with respect to what shall be deemed felony by (be laws of England, the distinction seems to be, that if they arc any way annexed to the freehold, as trees growing, or apples growing upon the trees, then the taking and carrying them away is not felony but tres- pass only, for a man cannot steal part of a freehold; but if they are severed from the freehold, as wood cut or apples gathered from the trees, then the taking of them is not a trespass only, but felony. Id. Fine and imprisonment may be inflicted on persons destroying fruit-trees. 1 Geo. I. c. 48. Robbing orchards or gardens of fruit growing therein, may be punished by fine, whipping, kc. Fruit-trees. See Gardening. FRUMENTARII, a kind of soldiers ov archer.?, un- der the western empire. The first time we read of these officers is in the time of the emperor Adrian, who made use of them to inform himself of whatever passed. They did not make any particular corps distinct from the rest of the forces, but there was a certain number of them in each legion. It is supposed that they were at first a num- ber of young persons disposed by Augustus, throughout the provinces, particularly on all the grand roads, to ac- quaint the emperor, with all expedition, of every thing that happened. FRUMENTATION, in Roman antiquity, a largess of corn bestowed on the people. This practice of giving corn to the people was very ancient among the Romans, and frequently used to sooth the turbulent humour of the populace. At first the number of those to whom this lar- gess was given was indeterminate, till Augustus fixed it at two hundred thousand. FRUSTUM, in mathematics, a part of some solid bo- dy separated from the rest. The frustum of a cone is the part that remains, when the top is cut off by a plane parallell to the base, and is otherwise called a truncated cone: for finding the sur- face and solidity of which, see Geometry and Mensu- ration. The frustum of a globe or sphere is any part of it cut off by a plane, the solid contents of which may be found by this rule. To three times the square ofthe semidiarae- ter ofthe base add the square of its height; then multi- plying that sum by the height, and this product multi- plied by .5236, gives the solidity of the frustum. A frustum or portion of any solid, generated by the revolution of any conic section upon its axis, and termi- nated by any two parallel planes, may be thus compared to a cylinder of the same altitude, and whose base is equal to the middle section ofthe frustum made by a par- allel plane. 1. The difference between such frustum and cylinder is always the same in different parts of the same or of similar solids; when the inclination of the planes to the axis, and the altitude of the frustum are given. 2. In the parabolic conoid, this difference vanish- es; the frustum being always equal to a cylinder ofthe same height, upon the section of the conoid that bisects the altitude of the frustum, and is parallel to its basis. 3. In the sphere, the friction is always less than the cylin- der by one fourth part of a right-angled cone of the same height with the frustum, or, by one half of a sphere, of a diameter equal to that height: and this difference is al- ways the same in all spheres whatever, when this alti- tude of the frustum is given. 4. In the cone the frustum always exceeds the cylinder by one fourth part of the F U C F U C content of a similar cone, that has the same height with the frustum. FUCHSIA, a genus of plants of the octandria mono- gynia class and order. The calyx is one-leafed, coloured, bearing; the corolla very large; petals four, small. Ber- ry inferior, four-celled, many seeds. There are five spe- cies, of which the fuchsia coccinea is \ery beautiful, and is now a common-plant, though only introduced in 1788 from Chili. It will live in the open ground, though the stem will then die off annually. In the greenhouse it is a shrub, as are all the other species. FUCUS, a name given by the ancients to certain dyes and paints. By this name they called a purple sea- plant used by them to dye woollen and linen cloths of that colour. The dye was very beautiful, but not last- ing; for it soon began to change, and in time went whol- ly off. This is the account Theophrastus gives of it. The women of those times also used .something called fucus to stain their checks red; and many have supposed, from the same word expressing both, thatthe same sub- stance was used on both occasions. But this, on a strict inquiry, proves not to be the case. The Greeks called everything fucus that would stain or paint the flesh. But this peculiar substance, used by the women to paint their cheeks, was distinguished from the others by the name of rizion among the more correct writers, and was in- deed a root brought from Syria into Greece. The La- tins, in imitation of the Greek name, called this root ra- dicula; and Pliny very erroneously confounds the plant with the radix lunaria, or struthion of the Greeks. The word fucus was in these times become such an universal name for paint, that the Greeks and Romans had a fucus mellicus, which wasthecerus used for paint- ing the neck and arms white; after which they used the purpurissum, or red fucus ofthe rizium, to give the co- lour to the cheeks. In aftertimes they also used a pecu- liar fucus or paint, for the purpose, prepared of the cretal argentaria or silverchalk, and some of the rich purple dyes that were in use at that time: and this seems to have been very little different from our rosepink, a co- lour commonly sold at the colour-shops. Fucus, in the Linnaean system of botany, is a genus ofthe order of algae, belonging to the cryptogam ia class of plants. The most remarkable species are, l.Thc serrantus, serrated fucus, or sea-wrack. This is frequent at all seasons of the year upon the rocks at low-water-mark, but produces its seeds in July and Au- gust. It consists of a flat, radical, and dichotomous leaf, about two feet long; the branches half an inch w ide, ser- rated on the edges with dents ofuncqual size, and at un- equal distances, having a flat stalk or rib divided like the leaf, and running in the middle of it through all its various ramifications. A small species of coralline, call- ed by Linnaeus certularia pumila, frequently creeps along the leaf. All the species of fucus afford a quantity ef impure alkaline salts; but this much less than some others, eight ounces of the ashes yielding only three of fixed salt. The Dutch cover their crabs and lobsters with this fucus, to keep them alive and moist, and prefer it to any other, as being destitute of those mucous vesicles with which some of the rest abound, and which would sooner ferment and become putrid. 2. The vesiculosus, bladder fucus, common sea-wrack, vox. n. 24 or sea-ware. It grows in great abundance on the sea- rocks about low-water-mark, producing its fructifica- tions in July and August. It has the same habit, colour, and substance as the foregoing, but differs from it in the following respects: the edges ofthe leaf have no serra- tures, but are quite entire. In the disc or surface are immersed hollow, spherical, or oval air-bladders, hairy within, growing generally in pairs, but often single in the angles of the branches, which are most probably air- bladders destined to buoy up the plant in the water. Lastly, on the summits or extreme segments of the leaves appear tumid vesicles about three quarters of an inch long, sometimes oval and in pairs, sometimes single and bifid, with a clear viscid mucus interspersed with downy hairs. This species is an excellent manure for land; for which purpose it is often applied in the mari- time parts of Scotland and other countries. In the isl- ands of Jura and Skye it frequently serves as a winter food for cattle, which regularly come down to the shores at the recess of the tides to seek for it. And sometimes even the stags have been observed, after a storm, to de- scend from the mountains to the sea-sides to feed upon this plant. Linnaeus informs us, that the inhabitants of Gothland in Sweden boil this fucus in water, and, mixing with it a little coarse meal or flour, feed their hogs with it; for which reason they call the plant svvinetang. And in Scania, he says, the poor people cover their cottages with it, and sometimes use it for fuel. In Jura, and some other of the Hebrides, the inhabitants dry their cheeses without salt, by covering them with the ashes of this plant, which abounds with such a quantity of salts, that from five ounces of the ashes may be procured two oun- ces and a half of fixed alkaline salts, that is, half to their whole weight. But the most beneficial use to which the fucus vesiculosa is applied, in the way of economy, is in making pot-ash or kelp, a work much practised in the Western Isles. There is great difference in the goodness and price of this commodity, and much care and skill required in properly making it. That is es- teemed the best which is hardest, finest grained, and free from sand or earth. The price of kelp in Jura is 31. 10s. per ton, and about 40 or 50 tons are exported an- nually from that island. So great a value is set upon this fucus by the inhabitants of that place, that they have sometimes thought it worth their while to roll frag- ments of rocks and huge stones into the sea, in order to invite the growth of it. Its virtues in the medical way have been mu '- cele- brated by Dr. Russel, in his Dissertation concerning the use of Sea-water in the Diseases ofthe Glands. He found the saponaceous liquor or mucus in the vesicles of this plant to be an excellent resolvent, extremely ser- viceable in dispersing all scorbutic and scrophuloussw ell- ings ofthe glands. He recommends the patient to rub the tumour with these vesicles bruised in his hand, till the mucus has thoroughly penetrated the part, and after- wards to wash with sea water. Or othc rwise, to gather two pounds ofthe tumid vesicles, in the month of July, when they are full of mucus, and infuse them in a quart of sea water, in a glass vessel, for the space of 15 days, when the liquor will have acquired nearly the consis- tence of honey. Then strain it off through a liucn cloth, FUCUS. and rub tliis liquor with the hand, as before, three or four times a day, upon any hard or srrophulous swell- ings, washing the parts alterwards with sea water; and nothing can be more efficacious to disperse them. Even scirrhosities, he says, in women's breasts, have been dis- pelled by this treatment. The same author, by calcining the plant in tbe open air, made a very black salt pow- der, which he called vegetable aethiops; a medicine much in use as a resolvent and dcobstruent, and recommended also as an excellent dentrifice to correct the scorbutic laxity of the gums, and to take off the fouluess of the teeth. 3. The plicatus, matted or Indian-grass fucus, grows ~t)n the sea-shores in many places both of England and Scotland. It is generally about three or four, but some- times six, inches long. Its colour, after being exposed to the sun and air, is yellowish or auburn; its substance pellucid, tough, and horney, so as to bear a strong re- semblance to what anglers call Indian-grass, that is, the tendrils issuing from the ovary ofthe dog-fish. 4. The palmatus, palmated or sweet fucus, commonly called dulse or dilse. This grows plentifully on the sea- coasts of Scotland and the adjoining islands. Its sub- stance is membranaceous, thin, and pellucid; the colour red; sometimes green with a little mixture of red; its length generally about five or six inches, but varies from three inches to a foot; its manner of growth fan- shaped, or gradually dilated from the base upwards. Its divisions are extremely various. The inhabitants both of Scotland and England take pleasure in eating this plant, without expecting any medical virtues from it. The inhabitants ofthe Archipelago also are fond of it, as we learn from Steller. They sometimes eat it raw, but esteem it most when added to ragouts, oglios, &c. to which it gives a red colour, and, dissolving, renders them thick and gelatinous. In the isle of Skyc it is sometimes used in fevers to promote a sweat, being boiled in water with the addition of a little butter. In this manner it al- so frequently purges. The leaves, infused in water, ex- hale a scent like that of dried violets. 5. The csculentus, eatable fucus, or bladder-locks, commonly called tangle, in Scotland, is likewise a na- tive of the British shores. It is commonly about four feet long, and seven or eight inches wide; but is some- times found three yards or more in length, and a foot in width. Small specimens are not above a cubit long, and two inches broad. The substance is thin, membranace- ous, and pellucid; the colour green or olive. The root consists of tough cartilaginous fibres. The stalk is about six inches long, and half an inch wide, nearly square, and pinnated in the middle between the root and origin of the leaf, with ten or a dozen pair of thick, cartilagi- nous, oval-obtuse, foliaccous ligaments, each about two inches long, and crowded together. The leaf is of an oval-lanceolate, or long elliptic form, simple and undi- vided, waved on the edges, and widely ribbed on the middle from bottom to top, the stalk running through its whole length, and standing out on both sides of the leaf. This fucus is eaten in the north both by men and cattle. Its proper season is in the month of September, when it is in the greatest perfection. The membranous part is rejected, and the stalk only is eaten. It is recom- mended in the disorder called pica, to strengthen the stomach and restore the appetite. 6. The saecharinus, sweet fucus, or sea-belt, is very common on the sea-coast. The substance of this is car- tilaginous and leathern, and the leaf is quite riblcss. By these characters it is distinguished from the precediii", to which it is nearly allied. It consists only of one sim- ple, linear, elliptic leaf, of a tawny green colour, about five feet long, and three inches wide in its full-grown state, but varies so exceedingly as to be found from a foot to four yards in length. The ordinary length of the stalk is two inches; but it varies even to a foot. The root is composed of branched fibres, which adhere to the stones like claws. This plant is often infested with the sertularia ciliata. The inhabitants of Iceland make a kind of pottage of this fucus, boiling it in milk, and cat- ing it with a spoon. They also soak it in fresh water, dry it in the sun, and then lay it up in wooden vessels, where in a short time it is covered with a white efflorescence of sea-salt, which has a sweet taste like sugar. This they eat with butter; but if taken in too great a quanti- ty, the salt is apt to irritate the bowels, and bring on a purging. Their cattle feed and get fat upon this plant, both in its recent and dry state; but their flesh acquires a bad flavour. It is sometimes eaten by the common peo- ple on the coast of England, being boiled as a pot-herb. 7. The ciliatus, ciliated or ligulated fucus, is found on the shores of Iona and other places, but is not com- mon. The colour of this is red, the substance membra- nous and pellucid, without rib or nerve; the ordinary height of the whole plant about four or five inches. It is variable in its appearance, according to the different sta- ges of its growth. This fucus is eaten by the Scots and Irish promiscuously with the fucus palmatus or dilse. 8. The prolifer, or proliferous fucus, is found on the shores of the western coast, adhering to shells and stones. The colour is red; the substance membranaceous, but tough, and somewhat cartilaginous, without rib or nerve, though thicker in the middle than at the edges. Tiie whole length of the plant is about four or five inches, the breadth of each leaf about a quarter of an inch. The growth of this fucus, when examined with attention, ap- pears to be extremely singular and wonderful. It takes its origin either from a simple, entire, narrow, elliptic leaf, about an inch and a half long; or from a dilated forked one of the same length. Near the extremity of the elliptic leaf, or the points of the forked one (but out of the surface, and not the edge), arises one or more el- liptic or forked leaves, which produce other similar ones in the same manner near the summits; and so on con* tinually one or more leaves from near the ends of each other, in a proliferous and dichotomous order, to the top of the plant, which in the manner of its growth resem- bles in a good measure the cactus opuntia, or flat-leaved Indian fig. Sometimes two or three leaves or more grow out of the middle of the disc of another leaf; but this h not the common order of their growth. The fructifica- tions are red, spherical, rough warts, less than the smallest pin's head, scattered without order on the sur- face of the leaves. These warts, when highly magnified, appear to be the curled rudiments of young leaves, which in due time either drop off and form new plants, or con- tinue on and germinate upon the parent This plant is FUG FUL very much infested with the flustra pilosa, the mandre- pora verrucaria, and other corallines, which make it ap- pear as if covered with scabs. 9. The pinnatifidus, jagged fucus, or pcpper-dilse, is frequent on sea-rocks which are covered by the tides both on the eastern and western coasts. It is of a yel- low olive-colour, often tinged with red. The substance is cartilaginous, but yet tender and transparent; the height about two or three inches. This fucus has a hot taste in the mouth, and is therefore called pepper-dilse by the people in Scotland, who frequently eat it as a sa- lad, in the same manner they do the fucus palmatus. 10. The plocaraium, or pectinated fucus, is frequent on the sea-rocks, and in basins of water left by the re- cess of the tides. Its natural colour is a most beautiful bright red or purple, but is often variegated with white or yellow. Its substance is cartilaginous, but extremely thin, delicate, and transparent; its height commonly about three or four inches. The stalk is compressed, about half a line in diameter, erect, but waved in its growth, and divided almost from the base into many widely-expanded branches. These primary branches are very long, alternate, exactly like the stalk, and sub- divided into alternate secondary branches, which are again frequently compounded in like manner, and these divisions decorated with subulated teeth growing in al- ternate rows, curiously pectinated or finely toothed on the upper side like a comb, the smallest of these teeth scarcely visible to( the naked eye. The fructifications are minute spherical capsules, or smooth dark-red glo- bules, scattered without order on the sides of the bran- ches, generally sessile, but some few of them supported on short peduncles. This fucus, on account of its elegant colours and fine divisions, is the species most admired by the ladies who are fond of pictures and mimic land- scapes composed of marine vegetables. 11. The filum, thread-fucus, or sea-laces, is found on the sea-rocks, and waving under the water like long strings, frequent on many parts of the coast. The sub- stance of this is opaque and cartilaginous, but not diffi- cult to be broken. The coloiirrwhcn recent, a dull olive- green; when dry, fuscous or nearly black; and, when ex- posed for some time on the shores to the sun and air, it becomes yellow, straw-coloured, or white. It consists on- ly of a simple, unbranched, naked, cylindrical stalk, three or four yards long, more or less, from the size of a large lid die-string to that of a thick whip-cord; small- est at the base and summit, smooth on the outside, full of mucus within, often twisted, and always intercepted by numerous transverse diaphragms, visible when the plant is held between the eye and the light. The fructi- fications have not yet been discovered; but from the transverse septa in its structure, it is reasonable to sup- pose this plant to belong rather to the genus of conferva than that of fucus. The stalks, skinned when half dry, and twisted, acquire so considerable a degree of strength and toughness, that we are informed the Highlanders sometimes use them for the same pjirpose as Indian- grass. 12. Thegiganteus, or gigantic fucus, is a native ofthe Straits Le Main-, and grows on rocky ground, which in those countries is distinguished from sand or ooze by the enormous length of the sea-weeds that grow upon it, The leaves are four feet long, and some of the stalks, though not thicker than a man's thumb, are 120. Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander sounded over some of them which were 84 feet long; and as they made a very acute angle with the bottom, they were thought to be at least one half longer. FUEL. All faggots made for sale, shall contain in compass, besides the knot ofthe bond, 24 inches of as- size; and every faggot-stick within the bond shall con- tain full three feet of assize, except only one stick to be but one foot long, to stop or harden thte binding. 43 Eliz. c. 14. All billets (except those made of beech) that lie ex- posed inthe public places, where they are usually bought or sold, shall be assized and cut as directed by 9 Anne, c. 15. FUGAM FECIT, is where it is found by inquisition that a person fled for treason or felony; as to which it is agreed, that wheresoever a person found guilty by such inquest, cither as a principal or as an accessary before the fact, is found also to have fled for the same, he for- feits his goods absolutely, and the issues of his lands, till he is pardoned or acquitted. But wherever the indictment against a man is insuffi- cient, the finding a fugaui fecit will not hurt him; and that in all cases the particulars of the goods found to be forfeited mav be traversed. 2 Haw. 450. FUGITIVE'S GOODS, are the proper goods of him that flies, which after the flight lawfully found, belong to the king or lord of the manor. 5 Co. Rep. 109. See Felon's Goods. FUGLE, in music, a term derived front the Latin word fuga, a flight, and signifying a composition either vocal or instrumental, or both, in which ono part leads off some determined succession of notes called the sub- ject, which, after being answered in the fifth and eighth by the other parts, is interspersed through the movement, and distributed amid all the parts in a desultory manner, at the pleasure ofthe composer; sometimes accompanied by other adventitious matter, and sometimes by itself. There are distinct descriptions of fugues; the simple fugue, the double fugue, and the counter fugue. The Simple Fugle contains but one subject, is the least elaborate in its construction, and the easiest in its com- position. Double Fugue, consists of two subjects, occasionally intermingled and moving together; and the Counter Fugue, is that fugue in which the subjects move in a direction contrary to each other. In all the different species of fugues, the parts fly, or run after each other, and hence the derivation of the general name fugue. FULCRUM, in mechanics, the prop or support by which a lever is sustained. Sec Mechanics. FUIRENA, a genus of the triandria monogynia class and order. The anient is imbricate; calyx none; corolla with three petal-shaped orbicular glumes, ending in a tendril. There is one species, a grass of Surinam. FULGORA, or lantern-fly, an insect belonging to th* hemiptera order. The generic character is: head produ- ced into an inflated hollow front; antennae beneath the eyes, of two joints, the exterior larger and globosej snout inflected; feet formed for walking. F U L F U L The fulgora lanternaria, or Peruvian lantern-fly, is undoubtedly one of the most curious of insects. It is of a very considerable size, measuring nearly three inches and a half from the tip of the front to that of the tail, and about five inches and a half from wing's end to wing's end when expanded: the body is of a lengthened oval shape, and divided into several rings or segments; the head is nearly equal to the length of the rest of the animal, and is oval, inflated, and bent slightly upwards; the ground-colour j£ an elegant yellow, w ith a strong tinge of green in some parts, and marked with numerous bright red-brown variegations in the form of stripes and spots; the wings are very large, of a yellow colour, most elegantly varied with brown undulations and spots, and the lower pair are decorated by a very large eye-shaped spot on the middle of each, the iris or border of the spot being red, and the centre half red and half semitranspa- rent white; the head or lantern is pale yellow, with lon- gitudinal red stripes. This beautiful insect is a native of Surinam and many other parts of South America, and during the night diffuses so strong a phosphoric splendor fVom its head or lantern, that it may be employed for the purpose of a candle or torch; and it is said that three or four of the insects, tied to the top of a stick, are frequently Used by travellers for that purpose. The celebrated madam Merian, in her work on the insects of Surinam, gives a very agreeable account of the surprise into which she was thrown by the first view of the flashes of light proceeding from these insects. "The Indians once brought me," says she, "before I knew that they shone by night, a number of these lantern-flies, which I shut up in a large wooden box. In the night they made such a noise that I awoke in a fright, and ordered a light to be brought, not knowing whence the noise proceeded. As we found that it came from the box, we opened it, but were still much more alarmed, and let it fall to the ground in a fright, at seeing a flame of fire come out of it; and as many animals as came out, so many flames of fire appeared. When we found this to be the case, we recovered from our fright, and again collected the insects, highly admiring their splendid appearance." Dr. Darwin, in a note to some lines relative to lumi- nous insects, in his beautiful poem the Loves of the Plants, makes madam Merian affirm, that she drew and finished her figure of the insect by its own light. On examination, however, we cannot find the least authority for this declaration on the part of madam Merian, who relates only what is above stated, with the observation that the light of one of the insects is sufficient to read a common newspaper by. It may be proper to add, that this celebrated lady falls into a mistake in supposing that a species of cicada, which she represents on the same plate with the lantern-fly, was its larva; and that it gradually was transformed into the fulgora. This information indeed she merely gives as the popular re- port, but at the same time takes the liberty of represent- ing the insect in its supposed half-complete state, with the head of the fulgora, and the wings and body of the cicada. See Plate LX. Nat. Hist. fig. 211. 2. The fulgora candelaria is a much smaller species than the preceding, and is a native of China. It mea- sures nearly two inches in length, and two inches and a half in breadth, with the wings expanded: the body is oval, and the head produced into a long horn-shaped pro- cess; the colours are very elegant, the head and born be- ing of a fine reddish brown or purple, and covered with numerous white specks of a mealy appearance; the tho- rax is of a deep or orange-yellow, and the body black above, but deep yellow beneath; the wings are oval, the upper pair blackish, with very numerous and close-set green reticulations, dividing the whole surface into in- numerable squares or marks, and are farther decorated by several yellow bars and spots; the under wings are orange coloured, with broad black tips. 3. Fulgora diadema is an Indian species, and is dis- tinguished by having a long, spiny, or murieated front, with a triple division at the tip; its colour is brown, with red and yellow variegations; it seems to have been first described and figured in the work of Seba: in size it is nearly similar to that of the preceding species. FULICA, the gaUinule and coot, in ornithology, a genus of birds of the order of grallse. It has a convex bill, with the upper mandible fornicated over the lower at the edge; the lower mandible is gibbous behind the tip. The forehead is bald, and the feet have four toes, subpinnated. There are 25 species, 18 of which belong to the gaUinule division, distinguished by having the toes furnished with broad scalloped membranes, and seven comprehend the coots which have the toes divided to their origin. The following species are among the most distinguish! d: 1. The cbloropus, or common gaUinule, is in length about 14 inches, and has a bald forehead and broad flat toes. It gets its food on grassy banks, and borders near fresh waters, and in the very waters if they are weedy. It builds upon low trees and shrubs by the water-side, breeding twice or thrice in a summer, and, when the young are grown up, drives them away to shift for them- selves. This bird strikes with its bill like a hen, and in the spring has a shrill call. In flying, it hangs down its legs; in running, it often flirts up its tail, and shows the white feathers. We may observe, that the bottoms of its toes are so very flat and broad that it seems to be the bird which connects the cloven-footed aquatics with the next tribe, viz. fin-toed. It is pretty common on the con- tinent, though in some parts more scarce than in others. It is also an inhabitant of America, from New York to Carolina, and is recorded as a native of Jamaica and other islands in the West Indies. It is said to feed on plants and small fish, and the flesh is for the most part pretty good. See Plate LX. Nat. Hist. fig. 213. 2. The porphyrio, or purple gaUinule, is about the size of a domestic fowl, or 17 inches in length. It is more or less common in all the warmer parts of the globe. On the coasts of Barbary they abound, as well as in some of the islands ofthe Mediterranean. In Sicily they are bred in plenty, and kept for their beauty; but whether indige- nous there, is uncertain. It is frequently met with in va- rious parts of the south of Russia and the western parts of Siberia, among reedy places: in the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea it»is not uncommon; but in the cultivated rice grounds of Ghilar in Persia, it is in great plenty and high plumage. The female makes her nest among the re^ds in the middle of March; lays three or four eggs, and sits from three to four weeks. It will feed on many things, such as fruit, roots of plants, and grain; but will F U L F U L eat fish with avidity, dipping them into the water before it swallows them. It will frequently stand on one leg, and lift the food to its mouth with the other like a parrot. A pair of these kept in an aviary in France made a nest of small sticks mixed with a quantity of straw, and laid six white eggs, perfectly round; but the hen was careless of them, and they came to nothing. The flesh is said to be exquisite in flavour. 3. The atraor common coot, has a bald forehead, a black body, and lobated toes, and is about fifteen inches in length. They frequent lakes and still rivers; making their nests among the rushes, with grass, reeds, kc. float- ing on the water, so as to rise and fall with it. They lay five or six large eggs, of a dirty whitish hue, sprinkled over with minute deep rust-coloured spots; and it is said that sometimes they will lay 14 or more eggs. The young, when just hatched, are very deformed, and the head mixed with a red coarse down. In winter they of- ten repair to the sea; and the channel near Southampton is sometimes observed almost covered with them. They are often brought to that market, where they are ex- posed to sale without their feathers, and scalded like pigs. This species is not so numerous as might be ex- pected; for we find that vast numbers fall a prey while young to the buzzards, which frequent the marshes. Their food is small fish and water-insects; but they will sometimes eat the roots of the bulrush, and with it feed the young: they are said likewise to eat grain. This species is supposed to extend throughout the old conti- nent, and perhaps the new also. 4. The aterrima, or greater coot, is of a larger size than the last, and its plumage is blacker. Tbis species is said to be found in Lancashire and Scotland; but is more plentiful on the continent, being found in Russia and the western parts of Siberia very common. See Plate LX. Nat. Hist. fig. 212. FULLER, a workman employed in the woollen manu- factories to mill or scour cloths, serges, and other stuffs, in order to render thein more thick, compact, and dura- ble. See Fulling. FULLER'S Earth, in natural history, a species of clay, of a greyish ash-coloured brown, in all degrees from very pale to almost black, and it has generally some- thing of a greenish cast. It is very hard and firm, of a compact texture, of a rough and somewhat dusty sur- face that adheres slightly to the tongue. It is very soft to the touch, not staining the hands, nor breaking easily between the fingers. It has a little harshness between the teeth, and melts freely in the mouth. Thrown into water, it makes no ebullition or hissing; but swells grad- ually in bulk, and falls into a fine soft powder. It makes no effervescence with nitrous acid. A specimen from Hampshire, analysed by Bergman, contained 51.8 silica 25.0 alumina 3.3 carbonat of lime 3.7 oxyd of iron 0.7 carbonat of magnesia 15.5 moisture 100.0 This carth is used by fullers to take grease out of their cloth before they apply soap. It is essential to fuller's earth that the particles of silica should be very fine, other- wise they would cut the cloth. Any clay possessed of this property may be considered as fuller's earth; for it is the alumina alone which acts upon the cloth, on ac- count of its strong affinity for greasy substances. FULLING, the art or act of cleansing, scouring, and pressing cloths, stuffs, and stockings, to render them stronger, closer, and firmer; called also milling. The fulling of cloths and other stuffs is performed by a kind of water-mill, thence called fulling or scouring-mill. These mills, except in what relates to the mill-stones and hopper, are much the same with corn-mills: and there are even some which serve indifferently for either use; corn being ground, and cloths fulled, by the motion of the same wheel. Whence in some places, particularly in France, the fullers are called millers; as grinding corn and milling stuffs at the same time. The principal parts of the fulling-mill are: the wheel, with its trundle; which gives motion to the tree or mid- dle, whose teeth communicate it to the pestles or stam- pers, which are hereby raised and made to fall alternate- ly, according as its teeth catch on or quit a kind of latch in the middle of each pestle. The pestles and troughs are of wood; each trough having at least two, sometimes three, pestles, at the discretion of the master, or ac- cording to the force of the stream of water. In these troughs are laid the cloths, stuffs, &c. intended to be fulled: then, letting the current of waterfall on the wheel, the pestles are successively let fall thereon, and by their weight and velocity stamp and press the stuffs very strongly, which by this means become thickened and condensed. In the course of the operation, they some- times make use of urine, sometimes of fuller's carth, and sometimes of soap. To prepare the stuffs to receive the first impressions of the pestle, they are usually laid in urine; then in fuller's earth and water; and, lastly, in soap dissolved in hot water. Soap alone would do very well; but this is expensive: though fuller's earth, in the way of our dressing, is scarcely inferior to it; but then it must be well cleared of all stones and grittinesses, which are apt to make holes in tbe stuff. As to urine, it is certainly prejudical, and ought to be entirely discard- ed; not so much on account of its ill smell, as of i s sharp- ness and saltness, which qualities are apt to render the stuffs dry and harsh. The method of fulling cloths and woollen stuffs with soap is this: A coloured cloth, of about 45 ells, is to be laid in the usual manner in the trough of a fulling-mill, without first soaking it in water, as is commonly prac- tised in many places. To full this trough of cloth, 15 pounds of soap are required, one-half of which is to be melted in two pails of river or spring water, made as hot as the hand can well bear it. This solution is to be pour- ed by little and little upon the cloth, in proportion as it is laid in the trough; and thus it is to be fulled for at least two hours; after which it is to be taken out and stretched. This done, the cloth is immediately returned into the same trough, without any new soap,'and there fulled two hours more. Then taking it out, they wring it well, to express all the grease and filth. After the se- cond fulling, the remainder of the foap is dissolved as in tbe former, and cast four different times on the cloth, re- FULMINATION. membering to take out the cloth every two hours to stretch it, and undo the plaits and wrinkles it has acquir- ed in the trough. When they perceive it sufficiently ful- led, and brought to the quality and thickness required, they scour it in hot water, keeping it in the trough till it is quite clean. As to white cloths, as these full more easi- ly and in less time than coloured ones, a third part of the soap may be spared. The fulling of stockings, caps, &c. should be perform- ed somewhat differently, viz. either with the feet or the bands, or a kind of wooden rack, either armed with teeth ofthe same matter, or else horses or bullocks teeth. The ingredients made use of are, urine, green soap, white soap, and fuller's earth. But the urine also is reckoned prejudicial here. Woven stockings, &c. should be fulled With the soap alone: for those that are knit, earth may be used with the soap. Indeed it is common to full these kinds of works with the mill, after the usual manner of cloths, &c; but that is too coarse and violent a manner, and apt to damage the work, unless it is very strong. Plate Foundry, &c. fig. 10. is a perspective view of a fulling-mill. A is the shaft which works it by the power of horses, water, steam, kc. This shaft has four arms or lifters BD upon it, two of which are to raise the wooden beater E, and the other two are to raise the beater F. In well executed mills, the shaft is made of cast-iron, as shown in fig. 12; and then tbe arms BDMN have rol- lers at their ends. The beaters E, F, are made of hard wood, as shown in fig. 11; G is the centre on which it turns, made of wood; II is a large block of wood wedged to the bar IK, which passes through it; it has three pieces of board abc pegged to it. The part K of the piece IK is shod with iron at the under side, to preserve it from being worn by the lifters. Two of these beaters work in a frame, shown open in fig. 13. OPQRis a large block of wood, hewn out as in the figure; to this are fastened the curved pieces ST, in which there is left two openings de, through which the parts K of the beaters, fig. 11. pass, and the centres Tay in small holes fghi: when the beaters are in, as shown in fig. 10. the outside of the head H move as close to the curves ST as possible with- out touching, when they are in motion. The block is boarded up on both sides, as shown in fig. 10.; hut one side is not boarded so high as the other, and has a move- able board Im, which fits into a groove for the conve- nience of putting in and taking out the cloth. The oper- ation is as follows: The board Im is removed, and the cloth put in so as to lay between the heads H of the beaters, and the curve partXY, fig. 13.; the beaters are then set to work, and the lifters first take up one beater, and as soon as it lets that fall, it begins to take up the other: this motion continually shoves tbe cloth round in the curve from Y to X; and by its falling again when the beater is lifted into the place it before occupied, a fresh surface is continually exposed to the action of the boards abc, fig. 11. and to small streams of water supplied by a pipe no, fig. 10. which is full of holes: the quantity is regulated by a cock p. When the beaters are to be stop- ped, the workman takes a hankspike and lays it over the book q, and when the heater is lifted to the highest, he shoves the end of the handspike under it, so as to pre- vent its falling down again; he then raises it enough to put an iron rod through the bole r: this operation is re- peated to the other beater, and the iron is pushed fartlrer in, so as to hold them both up. This machine is fixed down by two beams under the floor, between which the projector W of fig. 13. is bolted, and it is steadied by two struts, fig. 10. FULMINATION, in chemistry. When three parts of nitre, two parts of potass, and one part of sulphur, all previously well dried, are mixed together in a warm mortar, the resulting compound is known by the name of fulminating powder. If a little of this powder is put upon an iron spoon, and placed upon burning coals, or held above the flame of a candle, it gradually blackens, and at last melts. At that instant it explodes with a very violent report, and a strong impression is made upon the bottom of the spoon, as if it had been pressed down very violently. This sudden and violent combustion is occasioned by the rapid action of the sulphur on the nitre. By the appli- cation ofthe heat, the sulphur and potass form a sulphu- ret, which is combustible at a lower heat than even sulphur. Sulphurated hydrogen gas, azotic gas, and perhaps sulphuric acid gas, are disengaged almost instantane- ously. It is to the sudden action of these on the sur- rounding air that the report is to be ascribed. Its loudness depends upon the combustion of the whole pow- der at the same instant, which is secured by the previous fusion that it undergoes; whereas the grains of gunpowder burn in succession. Fulminating gold. Dissolve pure gold in nitro-muriatic acid to saturation, and dilute the solution with three times its bulk of distilled water, and add to it gradually some pure ammonia, a yellow precipitate will be obtained, which must be repeatedly washed with distilled water, and dried on a chalk-stone or in a filter. When per- fectly dry, it is Called fulminating gold, and detonates by heat, as may be shown by heating a few grains of it on the point of a knife over the candle. Fulminating silver. Dissolve fine silver in pale nitric acid, and precipitate the solution by lime water; decant the fluid, mix the precipitate with liquid ammonia, and stir it till it assumes a black colour; then decant the fluid, and leave it in the open air to dry. This product is ful- minating silver, which when once obtained cannot be touched without producing a violent explosion. It is the most dangerous preparation known, for the contact of fire is not necessary to cause it to detonate. It explodes by the mere touch. Its preparation is so hazardous, that it ought not to be attempted without a mask, with strong glass eyes, upon the face. No more than a single grain ought at any time to be tried as an expei iment. This was invented by M. Berthollet. M. Chenevix has invented a fulminating silver not so dangerous as that just mentioned. It explodes only by a slight friction in contact with combustible bodies. It is thus prepared: Diffuse a quantity of alumina through water, and let a current of oxygenated muriatic acid gag pass through it for some time. Then digest some phos- phate of silver on the solution of the oxygenated muriate of alumina, and evaporate it slowly. The product ob- tained will be a hyper-oxygenated muriate of silver, a single grain of which, in contact with two or three of sulphur, will explode violently with the slightest friction. FULMINATION. Fulminating mercury. The mercurial preparations which fulminate, when mixed with sulphur, and gradu- ally exposed to a gentle heat, are well known to chemists: they were discovered, and have been fully described, by Mr. Bayen. "MM. Brugnatelli and Van Mons have likevyisepro- duced fulminations by concussion, as well by nitrate of ■mercury and phosphorus as with phosphorus and most other nitrates. Cinnabar likewise is amongst the sub- stances which, according to MM. Fourcroy and Vau- qticlin, detonate by concussion with oxymuriate of potash. "M. Ameilon had, according to M. Berthollet, obser- ved, that the precipitate obtained from nitrato of mercury, by oxalic acid, fuses with a hissing noise. " But mercury, and most if not all its oxyds, may, by treatment with nitric acid and alcohol, be converted into a whitish crystallized powder, possessing all the inflam- mable properties of gunpowder, as well as many peculiar to itself. " I was led to this discovery (says Mr. Howard, the inventor) by a late assertion, that hydrogen is the basis of the muriatic acid: it induced me to attempt to combine different substances with hydrogen and oxygen. With this view I mixed such substances with alcohol and nitric acid as might (by predisposing affinity) favour as well as attract an acid combination of the hydrogen of the one, and the oxygen of the other. The pure red oxyd of mercury appeared not unfit for this purpose; it was therefore intermixed with alcohol, and upon both nitric acid was affused. The acid did not act upon the alcohol so immediately as when these fluids are alone mixed together, but first gradually dissolved the oxide: however, after some minutes had elapsed, a smell of ether was perceptible, and a white dense smoke, much resembling that from the liquor finnans of Libavius, was emitted with ebullition. The mixture then threw down a dark-coloured precipitate, which by degrees became nearly white. This precipitate I separated by filtration; and observing it to be crystallized in smaller acicular crystals, of a saline taste/and also finding a part of the mercury volatilized in the white fumes, I must acknow- ledge I was not altogether without hopes that muriatic acid had been formed, and united to the mercurial oxide; I therefore, for obvious reasons, poured sulphuric acid upon the dried cystalline mass, When a violent efferve- scence ensued, and, to my great astonishment, an explo- sion took place. The singularity of this explosion induced me to repeat the process several times, and finding that 1 alwavs obtained the same kind of powder, 1 prepared a quantity of it, and was led to make the series of experi- ments which 1 shall have the honour to relate in this paper. « 1 first attempted to make the mercurial powder ful- minate by concussion; and for that purpose laid about a grain of it upon a cold anvil, and struck it with a ham- mer, likew ise cold. It detonated slightly, not being, as I suppose, struck with a flat blow: for upon using three or four grains, a very stunning disagreeable noise was produced, and the faces both of the hammer and the an- vil were much indented. » Haifa grain, or a grain, if quite dry, is as much as ought to be used on such an occasion. « The shock, of an electrical battery, sent through five or six grains ofthe powder, produces a very similar effect. It seems, indeed, that a strong electrical shock generally acts on fulminating substances like the blow of a hammer. MM. Fourcroy and Vauquelin found this to be the case with all their mixtures of oxy muriate of potass. " To ascertain at what temperature the mercurial powder explodes, two or three grains of it were floated on oil, in a capsule of leaf tin; the bulb of a Fahrenheit's thermometer was made just to touch the surface of the oil, which was then gradually heated till the powder ex- ploded, as the mercury of the thermometer reached the 368th degree. " Desirous of comparing the strength ofthe mercuri- al compound with that of gunpowder, I made the follow- ing experiment in the presence of my friend Mr. Aber nethy. " Finding that the powder could be fired by flint and steel, without a disagreeable noise, a common gunpow- der proof, capable of containing eleven grains of fine gunpowder, was filled with it, and fired in the usual way: the report was sharp, but not loud. The person who held the instrument in his hand felt no recoil; but the explosion laid open the upper part of the barrel, near- ly from the touch-hole to the muzzle, and struck off the hand of the register, the surface of which was evenly in- dented, to the depth of 0.1 of an inch, as if it had received the impression of a punch. " The instrument used in this experiment being fa- miliarly known, it is therefore scarcely necessary to des- cribe it: suffice it to say, that it was of brass, mounted with a spring register, the moveable hand of which clos- ed up the muzzle, to receive and graduate the violence ofthe explosion. The barrel was half an inch in caliber, and nearly half an inch thick, except where a spring of the lock impaired half its thickness. "A gun belonging to Mr. Kcir, an ingenious artist of Camden-Town, was next charged with 17 grains of the mercurial powder, and a leaden bullet. A block of wood was placed at about eight yards from the muzzle to re- ceive the ball, and the gun was fired by a fuse. No re- coil seemed to have taken place, as the barrel was not moved from its position, although it was in no ways confined. The report was feeble: the bullet, Mr. Keir conceived, from the impression made upon the wood, had been projected with about half the force it would have been by an ordinary charge, or 68 grains, of the best gunpowder. We therefore re-charged the gun with 34 grains of the mercurial powder; and as the great strength of the piece removed any apprehension of dan- ger, Mr. Kcir fired it from his shoulder, aiming at the same block of wood. The report was like the first, sharp, but not louder than might have been expected from a charge of gunpowder. Fortunately Mr. Keir was not hurt; but the gun was burst in an extraordinary man- ner. The breech was what is called a patent one, of the best forged iron, consisting of a chamber 0.4 of an inch tliick all round, and 0.4 of an inch in caliber; it was torn open and flawed in many directions, and the gold touch- hole driven out. The barrel into which the breach was screwed was 0.5 of an inch thick; it was split by a sin- gle crack three inches long, but this did not appear to FULMINATION. me to be the immediate effect of the explosion. I think the screw of the breech, being suddenly enlarged, acted as a wedge upon the barrel. The ball missed the block of wood, and struck against a wall, which "had already been the receptacle of so many bullets, that we could not satisfy ourselves about the impression made by the last. " As it was pretty plain that no gun could confine a quantity of the mercurial powder sufficient to project a bullet with a greater force than an ordinary charge of gunpowder, I determined to try its comparative strength in another way. I procured two blocks of wood, very nearly of the same size and strength, and bored them with the same instrument to the same depth. The one was charged with half an ounce of the best Dartford gunpowder, and the other with half an ounce of the mer- curial powder; both were alike buried in sand, and fired by a train communicating with the powders by a small touch-hole. The block containing the gunpowder was simply split into three pieces: that charged with the mercurial powder was burst in every direction, and the parts immediately contiguous to the powder were abso- lutely pounded, yet the whole hung together, whereas the block split by the gunpowder had its parts fairly se- parated. The sand surrounding the gunpowder was un- doubtedly most disturbed: in short, the mercurial powder appeared to have acted with the greatest energy, but on- ly within certain limits. " The effects of the mercurial powder, in the last ex- periments, made me believe that it might be confined, during its explosion, in the centre of a hollow glass globe. Having therefore provided such a vessel, seven inches in diameter, and nearly half an inch thick, mount- ed with brass caps, and a stop-cock, I placed ten grains of mercurial powder on thin paper, laid on iron wire, 149th of an inch thick, across the paper, through the midst of the powder, and, closing the paper, tied it fast at both extremities with silk to the wire. As the enclos- ed powder wTas now attached to the middle of the wire, each end of which was connected with the brass caps, the packet of powder became, by this disposition, fixed in the centre of the globe. Such a charge of the electrical bat- tery was then sent along the wire, as a preliminary ex- periment (with Mr. Cuthbertson's electrometer) had shown me would, by making the wire red hot, inflame £he powrder. The glass globe withstood the explosion, and of course retained whatever gases were generated; its interior was thinly coated with the quicksilver, in a very divided state. A bent glass tube was now screwed to the stop-cock of the brass cap, which being introduc- ed under a glass jar standing in the mercurial bath, the stop-cock was opened. Three cubical inches of air rush- ed out, and a fourth was set at liberty when the appara- tus was removed to the water tub. The explosion being repeated, and the air all received over water, the quanti- ty did not vary. To avoid an error from change of tem- perature, the glass globe was, both before and after the explosion, immersed in water of the same temperature. Jt appears, therefore, that the ten grains of powder pro- duced four cubical inches only of air. « To continue the comparison between the mercurial powder and gunpowder, 10 grains ofthe best Dartford gunpowder were in a similar manner set fire to in the glass globe: it remained entire. The whole of the powder did not explode, for some complete grains were to be observ. ed adhering to the interior surface of the glass. Little need be said of the nature of the gases generated during the combustion ofthe gunpowder: they must have been carbonic acid gas, sulphureous acid gas, nitrogen gas, and (according to Lavoisier) perhaps hydrogen gas. As to the quantify of these, it is obvious that it could not be ascertained; because the two first were, at least in part, speedily absorbed by the alkali of the nitre, left pure after the decomposition of its nitric acid." The following description will give the experimental philosopher a clear idea of the instrument used in this business. The ball or globe of glass is nearly half an inch thick, and seven inches in diameter. It has two necks, on which are cemented two brass caps, each being perforated with a female screw, to receive the male ones; through the former a small hole is drilled; the latter is furnished with a perforated stud or shank. By means of a leather collar the neck can be air-tightly closed. When a portion ofthe powder is to be exploded^, it must be placed on a piece of paper, and a small wire laid across the paper, through tbe midst of the powder: the paper being then closed, it is to be tied at each end to the wire with a sil- ken thread. One end of this wire is to be fastened to the end of the shank, and the screw inserted to half its length into the brass cap; the other end of the wire, by means of a needle, is to be drawn through the hole. The screw being now fixed in its place, and the wire drawn tight, is to be secured by pushing the irregular wooden plug into the aperture of the screws taking care to leave a passage for the air. The stop-cock is now to be screw- ed on. The glass tube re bent, that it may moreconveni- ently be introduced under the receiver of a pneumatic apparatus. " From some of the experiments in which the gun- powder proof and the gun were burst, it might be infer- red, that the astonishing force of the mercurial powder is to be attributed to the rapidity of its combustion; and a train of several inches in length being consumed in a single flash, it is evident that its combustion must be ra- pid. But from other experiments it is plain that this 1 force is restrained to a narrow limit, both because the block of wood charged with the mercurial powder was more shattered than that charged with the gunpowder, whilst the sand surrounding it was least disturbed, and likewise because the glass globe withstood the explosion of ten grains of powder fixed in its centre; a charge I have twice found sufficient to destrov old pistol barrels, which were not injured by being fired when full of the best gunpowder. It also appears from the last experi- ment, that 10 grains of the powder produced by ignition four cubical inches only of air; and it is not to be sup- posed that the generation, however rapid, of four cubi- cal inches of air, will alone account for the described force; neither can it be accounted for by the formation of a little water, which, as will hereafter be shown, hap- pens at the same moment; the quantity formed from ten grains must be so trifling, that I cannot ascribe much force to the expansion of its vapour. The sudden vapo- ration of a part of the mercury seems to me a principal cause of this immense yet limited force; because its limi- tation may then be explained, as it is well known that FULMINATION, mercury easily parts with caloric, and requires a tempe- rature of 600 degrees of Fahrenheit, to be maintained in the vaporous state. That the mercury is really convert- ed into vapour, by ignition ofthe powder, may be inferred from the thin coat of divided quicksilver, which, after the explosion in the glass globe, covered its interior surface; and likewise from the quicksilver with which a tallow candle, or a piece of gold, may be evenly coated, by be- ing held at a small distance from the inflamed powder. These facts certainly render it more than probable, al- though they do not demonstrate that the mercury is vo- latilized; because it is not unlikely that many mercurial particles are mechanically impelled against the surface of the glass, the gold, and the tallow. " As to the force of the dilated mercury, Mr. Baume relates a remarkable instance of it, as follows: ' Un alchymiste se presenta a Mr. Geoffrey, ct 1'assu- ra qu'il avoit trouve le moyen de fixer le mercure par une operation fort simple. II fit construire six boites rondes, en fer fort epais, qui cntroient le3 lines dans les autrcs: la demiere etoit «assujcttie par deux cercles dc fer qui se croisoicnten angles droits. On avoit misquel- ques livres de mercure dans la capacite de la premiere: on mit cct appareil dans un fourncau assez rempli de charbon pour faire rougir a blanc les boites de fer; mais, lorsque la chaleur eut penetre suffisamment le mercure, les boites crevercnt, avec uuc telle explosion qu'il se fit un bruit epouvantable: des morceaux dc boites furent lances avec taut de rapidite qu'il y en eut qui passercnt au travers dc deux planchers; d'autres firent sur la mu- raille des effects semblables a ceux des eclats de bombes.' —Chymie Experimental ct Raisonnee torn. ii. p. 393. " Had Ihe ale hemist proposed to fix water by the same apparatus, the nest of boxes must, I suppose, have like- wise been ruptured; yet it does not follow that the ex- plosion would have been so tremendous: indeed, it is probable that it would not, for if (as Mr. Kirwan re- marked to me) substances which have the greatest spe- cific gravity have likewise the greatest attraction of co- hesion, the supposition that the vapour of water, would agree with a position of sir Isaac Newton, that those particles recede from one another with the greatest force, and are most difficultly brought together, which upon contact cohere most strongly. " Before I attempt to investigate the constituent prin- ciples of this powder, it will be proper to describe the process and manipulations which, from frequent trials, seem to be best calculated to produce it. 100 grains, or a greater proportional quantity of quicksilver, (not ex- ceeding 500 grains), are to be dissolved, with heat, in a measured ounce and a half of nitric acid. This solution being poured cold upon two measured ounces of alcohol, previously introduced into any convenient glass vessel, a moderate heat is to be applied until an effervescence is excited. A white fume then begins to undulate on the surface ofthe liquor; and the powder will be gradually precipitated, upon the cessation of action and re-action. The precipitate is to be immediately collected on a filter, well washed with distilled water, and carefully dried in a heat not much exceeding that of a water bath. The im- mediate cdulcoration of the powder is material, because it is liable to the re-action of nitric acid; and, whilst any of that acid adheres to it, it is very subject to the influ- VOL. II. 25 ence of light. Let it also be cautiously remembered, that the mercurial solution is to be poured upon the alcohol. " I have recommended quicksilver to be used in pre- ference to an oxide, because it seems to answer equally, and is less expensive; otherwise, not only the pure red oxide, but the red nitrous oxide, and turpeth, may be substituted; neither does it seem essential to attend to the precise specific gravity of the acid, or the alcohol. The rectified spirit of wine, and the nitrous acid of commerce, never failed, with me, to produce a fulminating mercury. It is indeed true, that the powder prepared without at- tention is produced in different quantities, varieties in co- lour, and probably in strength. From analogy, 1 am dis- posed to think the whitest is the strongest; for it is well known that the black precipitates of mercury approach the nearest to the metallic state. The variation in quan- tity is remarkable; the smallest quantity I ever obtained from 100 grains of quicksilver being 120 grains, and the largest 132 grains. Much depends on very minute circumstances. The greatest product seems to be obtain- ed when a vessel is used which condenses and causes most ether to return into the mother liquor; besides which, care is to be had in applying the requisite heat, that a speedy and not a violent action be effected. 100 grains of an oxide are not so productive as 100 grains of quick- silver. " As to the colour, it seems to incline to black when the action ofthe acid ofthe alcohol is most violent, and vice versa. «I need not observe, that the gases which were gene- rated during the combustion of tbe powder in the glass globe, were necessarily mixed with atmospheric air; the facility with which the electric fluid passes through a vacuum, made such a mixture unavoidable. " The cubical inch of gas received over water was not readily absorbed by it; and, as it soon extinguished a taper without becoming red, or being itself inflamed, barvtes water was let up to the three cubical inches re- ceived ove/ mercury, when a carbonate of barytes was immediately precipitated. " The residue of several explosions, after the carbo- nic acid bad been separated, was found, by the test of ni- trous gas, to contain nitrogen or azotic gas; which does not proceed from any decomposition of atmospheric air, because the powder may be made to explode under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump. It is therefore mani- fest that the gases generated during the cobustion of the fulminating mercury, consist of carbonic acid and nitro- gen gases. " The principal re-agents which decompose the mer- curial powder are the nitric, the sulphuric, and the mu- riatic acids. The nitric changes the whole into nitrous gas, carbonic acid gas, acetous acid, and nitrate of mer- cury. I resolved it into these different principles, by dis- tilling it pneumatically with nitric acid: this acid, upon the application of heat, soon dissolved the powder, and extricated a quantity of gas, which was found, by well- known tests, to be nitrous gas mixed with carbonic acid gas. The distillation was carried on until gas no longer came over. The liquor ofthe retort was then mix- ed with the liquor collected in the receiver, and tbe whole saturated with potass; which precipitated the mer- cury in a yellowish brown powder, nearly as it would FULMINATION. have done from a solution of nitrate of mercury. This precipitate was separated by a filter, and the filtrated liquor evaporated to a dry salt, which was washed with alcohol. A portion of the salt being refused by this men- struum, it was separated by filtration, and recognized, by all its properties, to be nitrate of potass. The alcoholic liquor was likewise evaporated to a dry salt, which, upon the effusion of a little concentrate sulphuric acid, emit- ted acetous acid, contaminated with a feeble smell of ni- trous acid, owing to the solubility of a small portion of the nitre in the alcohol. " The sulphuric acid acts upon the powder in a re- markable manner, as has already been noticed. A very concentrate acid produces an explosion nearly at the instant of contact, on account, I presume, of the sudden and copious disengagement of caloric from a portion of powder which is decomposed by the acid. An acid some- what less concentrate likewise extricates a considerable quantity of caloric, with a good deal of gas; but, as it ef- fects a complete decomposition, it causes no explosion. An acid diluted writh an equal quantity of water, by the aid of a little heat, separates the gas so much less rapid- ly, that it may with safety be collected in a pneumatic apparatus. But, whatever be the density ofthe acid (pro- vided no explosion be produced), there remains in the sulphuric liquor, after the separation of the gas, a white inflammable and uncrystallized powder mixed with some minute globules of quicksilver. "To estimate the quantity, and observe the nature, of this uninflammable substance^ I treated 100 grains ofthe fulminating mercury with sulphuric acid a little diluted. The gas being separated, I decanted off the liquor as it became clear, and freed the insoluble powder from acid by edulcoration with distilled water; alter which I dried it, and found it weighed only 84 grains; consequently had lost 16 grains of its original weight. Suspecting, from the operation ofthe nitric acid in the former experiment, that these 84 grains (with the exception of the quicksilver globules) were oxalate of mercury, I digested them in nitrate of lime, and found my suspicion just. The mer- cury of the oxalate united to the nitric acid, and the oxalic acid to the lime. A new insoluble compound was formed; it weighed, when washed and dry, 48.5 grains. Carbo- nate of potass separated the lime, and formed oxalate of potass, capable of precipitating lime-water and muriate of lime; although it had been depurated from excess of alkali, and from carbonate acid, by a previous addition of acetous acid. That the mercury ofthe oxalate in the 84 grains had united to the nitric acid of the nitrate of lime was proved, by dropping muriatic acid into liquor from which the substance demonstrated to be oxalate of lime had separated; for a copious precipitation of calomel instantly ensued. "The sulphuric liquor, decanted from the oxalate of mercury, was now added to that with which it was edul- corated, and the whole saturated with carbonate of po- tass. As effervescence ceased, a cloudiness and precipi- tation followed; and the precipitate being collected, wash- ed and dried, weighed 3.4 grains: it appeared to be a carbonate of mercury. Upon evaporating a portion of the saturated sulphuric liquor, I found nothing but sul- phate of potass; nor had it any metallic taste. There then remains, without allowing for the weight of the car- bonic acid united to the 3.4 grains, a deficit from the 100 grains of mercurial powder of 12.6 grains, which I as- cribe to the gas separated by the action ofthe sulphuric acid. To ascertain the quantity, and examine the nature of the gas so separated, I introduced into a very small tubulated retort 50 grains of the mercurial powder, and poured upon it three drachms, by measure, of sulphuric acid, with the assistance of a gentle heat. I first received it over quicksilver; the surface of which, during the ope- ration, partially covered itself with a little black powder. " The gas, by different trials, amounted to from 28 to 31 cubical inches: it first appeared to be nothing but carbonic acid, as it precipitated barytes water, and ex- tinguished a taper, without being itself inflamed, or be- coming red. But upon letting up to it liquid caustic ammonia, there was a residue of from 5 to 7 inches of a peculiar inflammable gas, which burnt with a greenish- blue flame. When I made use of the water-tub, I obtain- ed from the same materials, from 25 to 27 inches only of gas, although the average quantity of the peculiar in- flammable gas was likewise from 5 to 7 inches: therefore, the difference of the aggregate product, over the two fluids, must have arisen from the absorption, by the wa- ter, of a part of the carbonic acid in its nascent state. The variation of the quantity of the inflammable gas, when powder from the same parcel is used, seems to de- pend upon the acid being a little more or less dilute. " With respect to the nature of the peculiar inflamma- ble gas, it is plain to me, from the reasons I shall imme- diately adduce, that it is no other than the gas (in a pure state) into which the nitrous etherized gas can be resolv- ed, by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid. "The Dutch chemists have shown, that the nitrous etherized gas can be resolved into nitrous gas, by expo- sure to concentrate sulphuric acid, and that, by using a dilute instead of a concentrate acid, a gas is obtained which enlarges the flame of a burning taper, so much like the gaseous oxide of azote, that they mistook it for that substance, until they discovered that it was permanent over water, refused to detonate with hydrogen, and that the fallacious appearance was owing to a mixture of ni- trous gas with inflammable gas. "The inflammable gas separated from the powder, answers to the description of the gas which at first de- ceived the Dutch chemists: 1st, in being permanent over water; 2dly, refusing to detonate with hydrogen; and, 3dly, having the appearance of the gaseous oxide of azote, when mixed with nitrous gas. " The gas separable by the same acid, from nitrous etherized gas, and from the mercurial powder, have there- fore the same properties. Every chemist would thence conclude, that the nitrous etherized gas is a constituent part of the powder, and the inflammable and nitrous gas, instead of the inflammable and carbonic acid gas, had been the mixed product extricated from it by dilute sul- phuric acid. " It however appears to mc, that nitrous gas was really produced by the actioirof the dilute sulphuric acid; and that, when produced, it united to an excess of oxygen present in the oxalate of mercury. " To explain how this change might happen, I must premise, that my experiments have shown me that oxa- late of mercury can exist in two, if not in three states. FULMINATION. 1 st. By the discovery of Mr. Ameilon, the precipitate obtained by oxalic acid, from nitrate of mercury, fuses with a hissing noise. The precipitate is an oxalate of mercury, seemingly with excess of oxygen. Mercury disscdved in sulphuric acid and precipitated by oxalic acid, and also the pure red oxide of mercury digested with oxalic acid, give oxalates in the same state. 2dly. Acetate of mercury, precipitated by oxalic acid, although a true oxalate is formed, has no kind of inflammability. I consider it as an oxalate with less oxygen than those above-mentioned. 3dly. A solution of nitrate of mercu- ry, boiled witli dulcified spirit of nitre, gives an oxalate more inflammable than any other; perhaps it contains most oxygen. " The oxalate of mercury remaining from the powder in the sulphuric liquor is not only always in the same state as that precipitated from acetate of mercury, entirely devoid of inflammability, but contains globules of quick- silver, consequently it must have parted with even more than its excess of oxygen; and if nitrous gas was present, it would of course seize at least a portion of that oxygen. It is true, that globules of quicksilver may seem incom- patible with nitrous acid; but the quantity of the one may not correspond with that of the other, or the dilution of the acid may destroy its action. "As to the presence of the carbonic acid, it must have arisen either from a complete decomposition of a part of the oxalate; or admitting the nitrous etherized gas to be a constituent principle of the powder, from a portion of the oxygen, not taken up by tbe nitrous gas, being united with the carbon of tbe etherized gas. «• The muriatic acid, digested w ith the mercurial pow- der, dissolves a portion of it, without extricating any notable quantity of gas. The dissolution evaporated to a dry salt tastes like the corrosive sublimate; and the portion which the acid does not take up, is left in a state of an uninflammable oxalate. • ♦These effects all tend to establish the existence of the nitrous etherized gas, as a constituent part of the powder; and likewise corroborate the explanation I have ventured to give of the action of the sulphuric acid. Moreover, a measured ounce and a half of nitrous acid, holding 100 grains of mercury in solution and two mea- sured ounces of alcohol, yield 90 cubical inches only of gas: whereas, without the intervention of mercury, they yield 210 inches. Upon the whole, I trust it will be thought reasonable to conclude, that the mercurial pow- der is composed ofthe nitrous etherized gas, and of oxa- late of mercury with excess of oxygen. 1st. Because the nitric acid converts the mercurial powder entirely into nitrous gas, carbonic acid gas, acetous acid, and nitrate of mercury. 2dly. Because the dilute sulphuric acid resolves it into an uninflammable oxalate of mercu- ry, and separates from it a gas resembling that into which the same acid resolves the nitrous etherized gas. Sdly. Because an uninflammable oxalate is likewise left, after the muriatic acid has converted a part of it into sublimate. 4t!iiv. Because it cannot be formed by boil- ing nitrate of mercury in dulcified spirits of nitre; al- though a verj inflammable oxalate is by this means pro- duced. 5thly. Because the difference of the product of gas, from the same measures of alcohol and nitreus acid, with and without mercury in solution, is not trifling; aud, 6thly. Because nitrogen gas was generated during its combustion in the glass globe. " Should my conclusion be thought warranted by the reasons I have adduced, the theory of the combustion of the mercurial powder will be obvious to every chemist. The hydrogen of the oxalic acid, and of the etherized gas, is first united to the oxygen of the oxalate, forming water; the carbon is saturated with oxygen, forming car- bonic acid gas; and a part, if not the whole ofthe nitro- gen of the etherized gas, is separated in the state of nitro- gen gas; both which last gases, it may be recollected, were after the explosion present in the glass globe. The mercury is revived, and, I presume, thrown into vapour; as may well be imagined, from the immense quantity of caloric extricated, by adding concentrate sulphuric acid to the mercurial powder. " I will not venture to state with accuracy in what pro- portions its constituent principles are combined. The affinities I have brought into play are complicated, and the constitution of the substances I have to deal with not fully known. But to make round numbers, I will resume the statement, that 100 grains of the mercurial powder lost 16 grains of its original weight, by treatment with dilute sulphuric acid: 84 grains of the mercurial oxalate, mixed with a few minute globules of quicksilver, remain- ed undissolved in the acid. The sulphuric liquor vyas saturated with carbonic of potass, and yielded 3.4 grains of carbonate of mercury. If 1.4 grains should bethought a proper allowance for the weight of carbonic acid in the S.4 grains, I will make that deduction, and add the*re- maining 2 grains to tbe 84 grains of mercurial oxalate and quicksilver; I shall then have, Of oxalate and mercury 86 grains. And a deficit, to be ascribed to the nitrous etherized gas and excess of oxygen, 14 100 " It may perhaps be proper to proceed still further, and recur to the 48.5 grains, separated by nitrate of lime from the 84 grains of mercurial oxalate and glo- bules of quicksilver. These 48.5 grains were proved to be oxalate of lime; but they contained a minute insepara- ble quantity of mercury, almost in the state of quicksil- ver, formerly part of the 84 grains from which they were separated. Had the 48.5 grains been pure calcareous oxalate, the quantity of pure oxalic acid in them would, according to Bergmann, be 23.28 grains. Hence, by omitting the 2 grains of mercury, in the 3.4 grains of carbonate, 100 grains of the mercurial powder might have been said to contain of pure oxalic acid 23.28 grains; of mercury 62.72 grains; and of nitrous etherized gas and excess of oxygen 14 grains. But as the 48.5 grains were not pure oxalate, inasmuch as they contained the mercury they received from the 84 grains, from which they were generated by the nitrate of lime, some allow- ance must be made for the mercury successively inter- mixed with the 84 grains aud the 48.5 grains. In order to make corresponding numbers, and allow for unavoida- ble errors, I shall estimate the quantity of that mereury to have amounted to 2 grains, which I must of course deduct frem the 33.28 grains of oxalic acid. I shall then have the following statement: FULMINATION. That 100 grains of fulminating mercury ought to contain of pure oxalic acid, 21.28 grains. Of mercury formerly united to the oxalic acid 60.72 Of mercury dissolved in the sulphuric liquor, 2 And of mercury left in the sulphuric li- quor after the separation of the gases, 2 Total of mercury, Of nitrous etherized gas, and excess of oxygen, 64.7 14 100 " Since 100 grains of the powder seem to contain 64. 72 grains of mercury, it will be immediately inquired, what becomes of 100 grains of quicksilver, when treated as directed, in the description of the process for prepar- ing the fulminating mercury. "It has been stated that 100 grains of quicksilver produce, under different circumstances, from 120 to 132 grains of mercurial powder; and, if 100 grains of this powder contain 64.72 grains, 120 grains, or 132 grains, must, by parity of reasoning, contain 78.06 grains, or 35.47 grains; therefore 13.34 grains, or 20.75 grains, more of the 100 grains are immediately accounted for; because 64.72 grains -f- 13.34 grains =■ 78.06, and 64.72 grains-f 20.75 grains = 85.47 grains. The remaining deficiency of 21.94 grains, or 14.53 grains, which with the 78.06 grains, or 85.47 grains, would complete the original 100 of quicksilver, remains partly in the liquor from which the powder is separated, and is partly vola- tilized in the white dense fumes, which in the beginning of this paper I compared to the liquor fumans of Libavius. The mercury cannot, in either instance, be obtained in a form immediately indicative of its quantity; and a series of experiments, to ascertain the quantities in which many different substances can combine with mercury, is not my present object. After observing thatthe mercury left in the residuary liquor can be precipitated in a very subtile dark powder, by carbonate of potass, I shall content my- self with examining the nature ofthe white fumes. " It is clear that these white fumes contain mercury: they may be wholly condensed in a range of Woulfe's apparatus, charged with a solution of muriate of ammo- nia. When the operation is over, a white powder is seen floating with ether on the saline liquor, which, if the bot- tles are agitated, is entirely dissolved. After the mix- ture has been boiled, or for some time exposed to the at- mosphere, it yields to caustic ammonia a precipitate, in all respects similar to that which is separated by caustic ammonia from corrosive sublimate. " I would infer from these facts, that the white dense fumes consist of mercury, or perhaps oxide of mercury, united to the nitrous etherized gas; and that, when the muriate of ammonia containing them is exposed to the atmosphere, or is boiled, the gas separates from the mer- cury; and the excess of nitrous acid, which always comes over with nitrous ether, decomposes the ammoniacal mu- riate of sublimate, and forms corrosive mercurial muriate or sublimate. This theory is corroborated by comparing the quantity of gas estimated to be contained in the ful- minating mercury witlvthe quantities of gas yielded from alcohol and nitrous acid, with and without mercury in solution; not to mention that more ether, as well as more gas, is produced without the intervention of mercury; and that, according to tbe Dutch chemists, the product of ether is always in the inverse ratio to the product of ni- trous etherized gas. Should a further proof be thought necessary to the existence of the nitrous etherized gas in the fulminating mercury, as well as in the white dense fumes, it may be added, that if a mixture of alcohol and nitrous acid holding mercury in solution be so dilute, and exposed of a temperature so low, that neither ether nor nitrous etherized gas are produced, the fulminating mer- cury, or the white fumes, will never be generated; for, under such circumstances, the mercury is precipitated chiefly in the state of an inflammable oxalate. Further, when we consider the different substances formed by an union of nitrous acid and alcohol, we are so far acquaint- ed with all, except the ether and the nitrous etherized gas, as to create a presumption, that no others are capable of volatilizing mercury, at the very low temperature in which the white fumes exist, since during some minutes, they are permanent over water of 40° Fahrenheit. " Hitherto, as much only has been said of the gas which is separated from the mercurial powder by dilute sulphuric acid, as was necessary to identify it with that into which the same acid can resolve the nitrous ether- ized gas: 1 have further to speak of its peculiarity. " The characteristic properties of the inflammable gas seem to me to be the following: 1st. It does not diminish in volume, either with oxygen or nitrous gas. 2dlv. It will not explode with oxygen by the electric shock," in a close vessel. Sdly. It bums like hydrocarbonate, but with a blueish-grcen flame; and, 4thly. It is permanent over water. " It is of course either not formed, on is convertible into nitrous gas by the concentrate nitric and muriatic acids; because by those acids, no inflammable gas was extricated from the powder. " Should this inflammable gas prove not to be hydro- carbonate, I shall be disposed to conclude that it has ni- trogen tor its basis; indeed, I am at this moment inclined to that opinion, because I find that Dr. Priestley, during his experiments on his dephlogistigated nitrous air, once produced a gas which seems to have resembled this in- flammable gas, both in the mode of burning and in the colour of the flame. " After the termination of the common solution of iron in spirit of nitre, he used heat, and got, savs he, from the same process, the flame "'e v^r" VClT rai,idl> fr°m thC ** to thC ^ "These greenish and blue-coloured flames, descend- ing from the top to the bottom of the vessel, are precisely descriptive 0f the inflammable gas separated from the powder. If it can be produced with certainty by the FULMINATION. repetition of Dr. Priestley's experiments, or should it by any means be got pure from the nitrous etherized gas, my curiosity will excite me to make it the object of future research; otherwise, 1 must confess, 1 shall feel more disposed to prosecute other chemical subjects: for having reason to think that the density of the arid made a va- riation in the product of this gas, and having never found that any acid, however dense, produced an imme- diate explosion, I once, poured 6 drachms of concentrate acid upon 50 grains ofthe powder. An explosion, nearly at the instant of contact, was effected: I was wounded severely, and most of my apparatus destroyed. A quan- tity moreover of the gas I had previously prepared, was lost by the inadvertency of a person who went into my laboratory, whilst I was confined by the consequences of this discouraging accident. But should any one be desirous of giving the gas a further examination, I again repeat, that as far as I am enabled to judge, it may with safety be prepared by pouring 3 drachms of sulphuric acid, diluted with the same quantity of water upon 50 grains ofthe powder, and then applying the flame of a candle until gas begins to be extricated. The only at- tempt I have made to decompose it, was by exposing it to copper and ammonia; which during several weeks did not effect the least alteration. "I will now conclude (says Mr. Howard), by obser- ving, that the fulminating mercury seems to be charac- terised by the following properties: " It takes fire at the temperature of 368 Fahrenheit; explodes by friction, by flint and steel, and by being thrown into concentrate sulphuric acid. It is equally inflammable under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, as surrounded by atmospheric air; and it detonates loudly, both by the blow of a hammer, and by a strong electrical shock. "Notwithstanding the compositions of fulminating silver and of fulminating gold differ essentially from that of fulminating mercury, all three have similar qualities. In tremendous effects, silver undoutedly stands first, and gold perhaps the last. The effects ofthe mercurial powder and of gunpowder admit of little comparison. The one exerts, within certain limits, an almost incon- ceivable force: its agents seem to be gas and caloric, very suddenly set at liberty, and both mercury and water thrown into vapour. The other displays a more extended but inferior power: gas and caloric are, comparatively speaking, liberated by degrees; and water, according to count Rumford, is thrown into vapour. " Hence it seems that the fulminating mercury, from the limitation of its sphere of action, can seldom, if ever, be applied to mining; and. from the immensity of its initial force, cannot be used in fire-arms, unless in cases where it becomes an object to destroy them; and where it is the practice to spike cannon, it may be of service, because I apprehend it may be used in such a manner as to burst cannon without dispersing any splinters. •'The inflammation of fulminating mercury by con- cussion offers nothing more novel or remarkable than the inflammation, by concussion, of many other substan- ces. The theory of such inflammations has been long since exposed by the celebrated Mr. Berthollet, and confirmed by Messieurs Fourcroy, and Vanquelin: yet, I must confess, I am at a loss to understand why a small quantity of mercurial powder made to detonate by the hammer, or the electric shock, should produce a report so much louder than when it is inflamed by a match, or by flint and steel. It might at first be imagined, that the loudness of the report could be accounted for, by suppo- sing the instant of the inflammation, and that of the powder's confinement between the hammer and anvil, to be precisely the same, but, when the electrical shock is sent though or over a few grains of the powder, merely laid on ivory, and a loud report in consequence, I can form no idea of what causes such a report. "The operation by which the powder is prepared, is perhaps one of the most beautiful and surprising in che- mistry; and it is not a little interesting to consider the affinities which are brought into play. The superabun- dant nitrous acid of the mercurial solution must first act on the alcohol, and generate ether, nitrous etherized gas, and oxalic acid. Tbe mercury unites to the two last in their nascent state, and relinquishes fresh nitrous acid, to act upon any unaltered alcohol. The oxalic acid, a predisposing affinity seems exerted in favour of its quantity, is evidently not formed fast enough to retain all the mercury; otherwise, no white fumes during a considerable period of the operation, but fulminating mercury alone will be produced. " Should any doubt still be entertained ofthe existence ofthe affinities which have been called predisposing or conspiring, a proof that such affinities really exist, will, I think, be afforded, by comparing the quantity of oxalic acid which can be generated from given measures of ni- trous acid and alcohol, with the intervention of mercury, and the intervention of other metals. For instance, when two measured ounces of alcohol are treated with a solu- tion of 100 grains of nickel in a measured ounce and a half of nitrous acid, little or no precipitate is prod.iced; yet, by the addilion of oxalic acid to the residuary liquor, a quantity of oxalate of nickel, after some repose, is de- posited. Copper aff >rds another illustration; 100 grains of copper dissolved in a measured ounce and a half of nitrous acid, and treated with alcohol, yielded me about 18 grains of oxalate, although cupreous oxalate was plen- tifully generated by dropping oxalic acid into the resi- duary liquor. About 21 grains of pure oxalic acid seem to be produced from the same materials, when 100 grains of mercury are interposed. Besides, according to the Dutch paper, more than once referred to, acetous acid is the principal residue after the preparation of nitrous ether. How can we explain the formation of a greater quantity of oxalic acid from the same materials, with the intervention of 100 grains of mercury, than with the intervention of 100 grains of copper, otherwise than bv the notion of conspiring affinities, so analogous to what we see in other phenomena of nature? "I have attempted, without success, to communicate fulminating properties, by means of alcohol, to gold, platina, antimony, tin. copper, iron, lead, zinc, ni< kel, bismuth, cobalt, arsenic, and manganese; but 1 have not yet sufficiently varied my experiments to enable me to speak with absolute certainty. Silver, when 20 grains of it were treated with nearly the same proportions of nitrous acid, and alcohol as 100 grains of mercury, yielded, at the end • f the operation," about three grains of a grey precipitate, which fulminated with extreme FUL F U N violence. Mr. Cruickshank had the goodness to repeat the experiment: he dissolved 40 grains of silver in two ounces ofthe strongest nitrous acid diluted with an equal quantity of water, and obtained (by means of two ounces of alcohol) 60 grains of a very wliite powder, which ful- minated like the grey precipitate above described. It probably combines with the same principles as the mer- cury, and of course differs from Mr. Berthollet's fulmi- nating silver, before alluded to. I observe, that a white precipitate is always produced in the first instance; and that it may be preserved by adding water as soon as it is formed; otherwise, when the mother liquor is abundant, it often becomes grey, and is re-dissolved." Several trials ofthe mercurial powder were afterwards made at Woolwich, in conjunction with colonel Bloom- field and Mr. Cruickshank, upon heavy guns, carron- ades, &c. from which Mr. Howard generally infers, that any piece of ordinance might be destroyed, by employing a quantity of the mercurial powder equal in weight to one half of the service-charge of gunpowder; and, from the seventh and last experiment, we may also conclude, that it would be possible so to proportion the charge of mercurial powder to the size of different cannons, as to burst them without dispersing any splinters. But the great danger attending the use of fulminating mercury, on account of the facility with which it explodes, will probably prevent its being employed for that purpose. " In addition to the other singular properties of the fulminating mercury (says Mr. Howard), it may be ob- served, that two ounces inflamed in the open air seem to produce a report much louder than when the same quan- tity is exploded in a gun capable of resisting its action. Mr. Cruickshank, who made some of the powder by my process, remarked that it would not inflame gunpowder. In consequence of which, we spread a mixture of coarse and fine-grained gunpowder upon a parcel of the mercu- rial powder; and after the inflammation ofthe latter, we collected most, if not all, of the grains of gunpowder. Can this extraordinary fact be explained by the rapidity ofthe combustion of fulminating mercury? or is it to be supposed (as gunpowder will not explode at the tempe- rature at which mercury is thrown into vapour) that sufficient caloric is not extricated during this combustion? From the late opportunity I have had of conversing with Mr. Cruickshank, I find that he has made many accurate experiments on gunpowder; and he has permitted me to state, that the matter which remains after the explosion of gunpowder consists of potass united with a small pro- portion of carbonic acid, sulphate of potass, and a very small quantity of sulphuret of potass, and unconsumed charcoal. That 100 grains of good gunpowder yielded about 53 grains of this residuum, of which three are charcoal. That it is extremely deliquescent, and when exposed to the air, soon absorbs moisture sufficient to dissolve a part of the alkali; in consequence of which the charcoal becomes exposed, and the whole assumes a black or very dark colour. Mr. Cruickshank likewise informs me, that after the combustion of good gunpowder under mercury, no water is ever perceptible." Fulmination, in the Romish canon law, a sentence of a bishop, official, or other ecclesiastic appointed by the pope, by which it is decreed, that some bull sent from the pope shall be executed. Fulmination is also used for the denunciation, or execution of a sentence of anathema, made public with due solemnity. FU M A RI A, fumitory, a genus ofthe pentandria order, belonging to the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 24th order, corydales. The calyx is diphyllous, the corolla ringent, and there are two membranaceous filaments, each of which has three antheraj. There are a number of different species, all of them low, shrubby, and deciduous and evergreen plants, growing from two to six or seven feet high, adorned with small simple leaves, and papilionaceous flowers of different colours. The most remarkable is the officinalis or common fumitory, which grows natu- rally in shady cultivated grounds, and produces spikes or purplish flowers in May and June. It is very juicy, of a bitter taste, without any remarkable smell. The medical effects of this herb are, to strengthen the tone of the bowels, gently loosen the belly, and promote the urinary and other natural secretions. The old physi- cians recommended it in melancholic, scorbutic, and cu- taneous disorders, for opening obstructions ofthe viscera, attenuating and promoting the evacuation of viscid juices. Frederic Hoffman had a very great opinion of it as a purifier of the blood; and assures us that in this inten- tion scarce any plant exceeds it. Cows and sheep eat this plant; goats are not fond of; horses and swine re- fuse it. FUMIGATION, in chemistry, a kind of calcination, when metals, or other hard bodies, are corroded or sof- tened, by receiving certain fumes for that purpose. Fumigation, in medicine and surgery, the application of fumes to particular parts of the body; as those of fac- titious cinnabar to venereal ulcers. See Surgery. FUNCTION, the act of fulfilling the duties of any employment. Function, animal, applied to the actions of the body, is by physicians divided into vital, animal, and natural. The vital functions are those necessary to life, and with- out which the individual cannot subsist; as the motion of the heart, lungs, kc. The natural functions are such as it cannot subsist any considerable time without them, as the digestion of the aliment, and its conversion into blood. Under animal functions are included the senses of touching, tasting, &c. memory, judgment, and voluntary motion, without any or all of which an animal may live, but not very comfortably. The animal functions perform the motion ofthe body by the action of the muscles, and this action consists chiefly in shortening the fleshy fibres, which is called contraction, the principal agents of which are the arteries and nerves distributed in the fleshy fibres. In short, all parts of the body have their own func- tions, or actions peculiar to themselves. Life consists in the exercise of these functions, and health in the free and ready exertion of them. See Physiology, Diges- tion, Respiration, Perspiration. FUND, in anatomy, signifies the bottom of any cavity in the body: thus, the fund of the eye is that part pos- sessed by the choroides and retina. FUNDS, public. When the practice was first adopted of borrowing money of individuals, for defraying the extraordinary expenses of the state, the produce of some FUNDS. particular tax was generally appropriated as the fund out of which the principal and interest of the debt was to be discharged. The possession of the acknowledgment given by government for the money advanced, estab- lishing a right to receive the payments from the fund originally agreed upon, the sale of these securities was considered as a sale of the claim upon the fund, and as the acknowledgments given were of different kinds, the general appellation of the provision on which they rested was found more convenient for purposes of business: thus the sale and purchase of the government securities was commonly called the sale or purchase of the public funds, till at length the expression has so far varied from its original signification, that instead of meaning the revenue out of which public debts or the interest of them is payable, it denominates the capital of such debts, in which sense it is generally used. Variations in the saleable value of the public funds at first were caused chiefly by political events, which were supposed to affect either the authority of those by whom the debts were contracted, or the means of paying them; but since their great increase has induced many persons to make buying and selling shares therein a regular trade, the fluctua- tions of the current price in general depends principally on the proportion of buyers to sellers, and on the schemes and combinations in which they engage iu support of their respective speculations. The chief part of the public funds consists of perpetual annuities, or those debts on which a stipulated rate of in- terest is to continue to be paid, unless the principal should be redeemed; the other parts consist of annuities for a certain number of years, and life annuities. The per- petual annuities arc distinguished by different titles, ac- cording to the rate of interest they pay or the time and purpose of their creation; and when government, by a loan, contracts an additional debt, bearing a certain fix- ed interest, it is usual to add the capital thus created to the amount of that part of the public debt which bears the same interest ami denomination, and to add the pro- duce ofthe taxes imposed for payment of the interest of such new debt to the fund provided for paying the inter- est of the former capital, thus consolidating the old and new debts, and making the interest payable out of the general produce ofthe same fund; hence we have 3 per cent. 4 per cent, and 5 per cent, consolidated annuities. The reduced 3 per cent, annuities take their title from having originally consisted of sums which had been bor- rowed at higher rates of interest, and reduced at different periods to 3 per cent. The navy 5 per cents are so called from having been created by funding navy and victualling bills. The long annuities have been granted at different periods, and for different terms, but all extended to 5th January 1806. The short annuities expired 5th January 1808. The imperial 3 per cent, annuities, and annuities for 25 years, arose from loans to the emperor of Germany, the dividends on which are guaranteed by the government of this country. The public funds were formerly all payable and trans- ferable at the exchequer; but, except a few annuities, of which the term is nearly expired, and so-nc life and ton- tine annuities, they are all now payable at the Bank or South Sea house. ? * S 8 rs* « w c?.3 ** J: i: & ec «j * «j«e:5 §« % §88S8jJJ§SsJ £ £ ■ft s r^ * <° is IN O oo nz) C r. d i K. o C b- a (J TH S . . . •* •-. -> *3 w O +1 -£ C = S C 3 c £ *^> ?" 03 .2 2 . U s 9 as >*■» —. »o es g* or?* 3 «.s S3 C 03 w ■♦J ~. '3 *3 . = T -q «■* s s -i g s c c u t"' £ ij » ^ u 'r - r r -* £ r i "j i i a t' i o ?j P- S *■* 33 r- _~ 03 03 S C "^ 03 03 cn co co e c 03 I—< o j- P. w The dividend payable to the proprietors of bank-stock is 7 per cent.; on South-Sea stock 3\ per cent. Indian stock can no longer be classed among the public funds, as the debt due from the public to the company was cai - celled on the last renewal of their charter, the dividend payable to the proprietors is 10| per cent. Transfers of stock in any of the government funds, if made on the ap- pointed transfer days, are free from any expense to the parties, but the same stock cannot be transferred twice on the same day. The person who transfers property in the funds, or his broker, must be known to the witness- ing clerk, or some person known must be pro;!need to vouch for his being the identical person he is represent- ed to be. The seller's receipt should be kept by the buy- er, as a voucher for the transfer, till one dividend has been received. Dividends on bank-stock, South-sea stock, and India- stock, after acceptance, are payable to a written order; but those respecting India-stock arc payable the day af- ter they become due; but the dividends on the stock of other companies, and on the government funds, are not payable till about a week after. The space between the shutting and opening the books of any stock is usually FUN FUN about six weeks. At the time of shutting, the dividends due are carried to a separate account, and cannot be transferred with the stock of a proprietor, the warrants being filled up in the name the stock stands in when the books shut, and of course are payable only to him or his attorney. All letters of attorney, to sell or accept stock or to receive dividends, should be taken out at the res- fiective offices, in order that the description may exact- y accord with that in the bank-books, and there must be a separate letter of attorney for each different stock. Letters to sell must be deposited in tbe proper office pri- or to sale, as must also probates of wills, till registered. Acting personally, after granting a letter of attorney, revokes the power of the letter. Any one trustee after the acceptance of the whole trust, may receive di- vidends; and, upon the death of any of the trustees being proved by producing their wills or a certificate of burial, the survivor may transfer the stock. Persons having occasion to invest money in the public funds generally employ a broker, to whom the party must give his name, place of abode, and usual addition, with the sum intended to be purchased. The broker soon finds a seller of the sum wanted; and having agreed up- on the rate per cent, to be paid, according to the current price of the day, the particulars of the bargain are de- livered to a clerk in the office in the Bank in which the description of stock intended to be purchased is transfcr- rable. The clerk on finding that such stock stands in the seller's name, fills up a form of transfer, which is signed by the seller, conveying all his right and title to the stock to the purchaser, his heirs or assigns. A form of acceptance is then signed by the purchaser, and the sel- ler having given him a receipt expressing the considera- tion paid, which is witnessed by the bank-clerk, the bu- siness is concluded. As the prices of the several funds are continually fluc- tuating, and there is frequently a considerable differ- ence in the interest produced by investing money in dif- ferent funds, the following table of the prices which each fund should be at to produce an equal interest, will be found very useful to persons investing their money in these securities. TABLE Shewing the Comparative Value per Cent, of the several Public Funds, and the Jlnnual Interest produced by L. 100 invested at different Prices. 3 per Cuits 45 45| 46§ 47* 48 48| 49| 50$ 51 51| 52| 53{ 5 A | 4 per 5 per Bank S:ock, Ind.Sc. 10i Annual 1 Cents. Cents. 7 per c. per Ccit. Interest. 60 75 105 15"! 6 13 4 61 76$ 106| 160^ 6 11 1 62 77k 108! 162| 6 9 0 63 78| uo$ 165| 6 6 11 64 80 112 168 6 5 0 65 81$ 113| 170 J 6 3 0 66 82| 115! 173$ 6 1 2 67 8S| 117$ 175 J 5 19 4 68 85 119 178i 5 17 7 69 86$ 120| I84 5 15 11 70 87! 122! 183| 5 14 3 71 88| 124$ 186| 5 12 8 72 90 J 126 189 k 5 11 1 54| 55k 56$ 57 57\ 58! 59$ 60 60| 61! 62$ 63 63| 64! 65$ 66 66| 67! 68$ 69 69| 70! 7H 72 72| 73! 74$ 75 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96- 97 98 99 100 92i 93| 95 96$ 97! 98| 100 101| 102! 103| 105 106$ 107! 108| 110 ni| 112! nsf 115 116$ 117! H8| 120 121$ 122|- 123| 125 127$ 129! 131$ 133 134| 136! 138$ 140 141| 143! 145$ 147 148| 150! 152$ 154 155| 157! 159$ 161 162| 164! 166$ 168 169| 171! ITOI 1 < O^ 175 194$ 196' 199| 202.1 204| 2073 210 212* 215$ 217' 2201 223? 225| 228s 2318 233* 236$ 238| 241! 244£ 246| 2493 252 254| 257$ 259| 2624 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 9 8 6 5 3 2 1 0 18 17 16 15 14 13 6 1 3 10 6 3 0 9 6 4 2 0 0 11 u to 10 9 10 8 10 Table of all the intermediate prices, and for compar- ing the value of the terminable Annuities with the other Funds, are given in Fairman's Guide to Purchasers in the Public Funds. Some useful information respecting the Funds, and the mode of transacting business at the Bank and Stock Exchange, will also be found in Mor- timer's Every Man his Own Broker. FUNDAMENTAL note, in music, the principal note in a song, or composition, to which ail the rest are in some measure adapted, and by which they are swaved: it is otherwise called the key to the song. FUNERAL EXPENSES, are allowed previous to all cither debts and charges; but if the executor or ad- ministrator be extravagant, it is a species of devasta- tion or waste of the substance of the deceased, and shall only be prejudical to himself and not to the creditors or legatees of the deceased. 2 Bl. 508. But in strictness, no funeral expenses are allowed against a creditor, except for the shroud, coffin, ring- ing the hell, parson, clerk, grave-digger, and bearers' fees, but not for pall or ornaments, l Salk 190. And in general it is said, that no more than 40s. in the whole for funeral expenses, shall be allowed against creditors. 3 Atk. 249. FUNGI, from rpty„s, fungus, the name ofthe 4th or- der ofthe 24th class of vegetables, in the Linnaan sys- tem; comprehending all those which are ofthe mushroon 4fi *"(' ^ ' in Tournefort, constitute the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th genera of the first section it the class xvn. This order in Linnaeus contains 10 gene- ra. See Agaricus, Boletus, Clavaria, Lycopebdo.v, The ancients called fungi children of the earth, mean- ing, no doubt, to indicate the obscurity of their origin. FUR FUR The moderns have likewise been at a loss in what rank to place them; some referring them to the animal, sirae to the vegetable, and others to the mineral kingdom. Messrs. Wile k and Munchausen have not scrupled to rank these bodies in the number of animal productions; because when fragments of them or their seeds were ma- cerated in water, these gentlemen perceived a quantity of animalcules discharged, which they supposed capable of being changed into the same substance. It was the ancient opinion that beef could produce bees; but it was reserved for Messrs. Wilckand Munchausen to suppose, that bees could produce beef. Wile k asserts, that fungi consist of innumerable cavities, each inhabited by a po- lype; and he ascribes the formation of them to their in- habitants, in the same way as it has been said that the coral, the lichen, and the mucor were formed. Hedwig has lately shown how ill founded this opinion is with respect to the lichen; and M. Durande has demonstrated its falsity with regard to the corallines. " Indeed (says M. Bonnet, talking of the animality of fungi) nothing but the rage for paradox could induce any one to publish such a fable; anil t regret that posterity will be able to reproach our times with it. Observation and experiment should enable us to overcome the prejudices of modern philosophy, now that those of the ancient have disap- peared and are forgotten." It cannot be denied that the mushroom is one of the most perishable of all plants, and it is therefore the most favourable for the generation of insects. Considering the quickness of its growth, it must be furnished with a power of copious absorption; the extremities of its ves- sels must be more dilated than in other plants. Its root seems, in many cases, to be merely intended for its sup- port; for some species grow upon stones or moveable sand, from which it is impossible that they can draw much nourishment. We must therefore suppose, that it is chief- ly by the stalk that they absorb. These stalks grow in a moist aud tainted air, in which float multitudes of eggs, so small, that the very insects they produce are with dif- ficulty seen by the microscope. These eggs maybe com- pared to the particles of the byssus, 100.000 of which, as M. Gleditsch sa\s, arc not equal to the fourth of a grain. May we not suppose that a quantity of such eggs are absorbed by the vessels of the fungus, that they re- main there, without any change, till the plant begins to decay? FUNGIT.¥*, in natural history, a kind of fossile co- ral, of a conic figure, though sometimes flatted and striat- ed longitudinally. FUNGUS, in surgery, denotes any spongy excres- cence. See Surgery. FURCA and Fossa, in our old customs, the power of gallows and pit, or a jurisdiction of punishing felons, viz. the men by hanging, and the women by drowning. Fcrca, in antiquity, a piece of timber resembling a fork, used by the Romans as an instrument of punish- ment, which was of three kinds: the first only ignomini- ous, when a master, for small offences, forced his servant to carry a furca on his shoulders about the city. The second was penal, when the party was led about the cir- cus, or other place, with the furca- about his neck, and Whipped all the way. The third was capital, when the vol. II. 26 malefactor, having his head fastened to the furca, was whipped to death. FURCAM, et flagellum, the meanest of all ser- vile tenures, the bondman being at the lord's disposal for life and limb. FURCHE', in heraldry, a cross forked at the ends FURIA, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to the order of vermes zoophyta. There is but one species, viz. the infernalis. This has a linear smooth body ciliat- ed on each side, with reflexed feelers pressed to its body. In Finland, Bothnia, and the northern provinces of Swe- den, it is not unfrequently that people are seized with a pungent pain, confined to a point, in the hand or other exposed part of the body, which presently increases to a most excruciating degree and even sometimes proves sud- denly fatal. This disorder, caused by the insect dropping out of the air, and in a moment burying itself in the flesh, is relieved by a poultice of curds or cheese. FURLING, in the sea-language, signifies the wrap- ping up and binding any sail close to the yard; which is done by hauling upon the clew-lines, bunt-lines, &c. which wraps the sail close together, and being bound fast to the yard, the sail is furled. FURLONG, a long measure, equal to | of a mile, or forty poles. It is also used, in some law-books, for the eighth part of an acre. FURLOUGH, in the military language, a licence granted by an officer to a soldier, to be absent for some tioie from his duty. FURNACE, an utensil to raise and maintain a ve- hement fire in, whether of coal or wood. In order to apoly lire, to manage and to direct it where it is to act, furnaces are convenient, and they are the most necessary and indispensable instruments to chem- ists. The materials of which they are constructed ought to be sufficiently proof against that degree of heat, which they are inten led to be exposed to. Commonly they are built of bricks, made of sand an 1 clay, or of cast-iron, or of iron plates, which, the better to be de- fended against the fire, are coated fin the inside) to the thickness of an inch with Windsor loam. According to Lmvis, various kinds of fireproof furnaces, for soiall ex- periments, mry the fire-place is thoroughly closed, it must be provided with some vent-holes, or registers, to all >w access of air. Such wind-furnaces as are closed by a vaulted cover, and have either at top or on the inside, a narrow vent- FUR F U S pipe, or chimney, are called rcverberatory furnaces, cuppelling furnaces. Sometimes the fire-place is a part of a seprate furnace, from which, however, by the draught of air, the flame of the fuel is forced over, striking upon the hearth of the cuppelling-furnace, which then is to be considered as the laboratory. The current of air in wind-furnaces arises from the increased elasticity of that portion of air which is con- tained in the upper cavity of the fire-place, it being there heated by the fire, and naturally caused to expand. When this air rises by its increased elasticity, the denser and colder air below the grate must, of course, force its way to the hearth, blow up the fire, and thus maintain the combustion. It is obvious that, the air bring rarer in the upper regions of the atmosphere, the higher the chimney in a close air or wind-furnace, the stronger will be the draught; that is, the air in the upper part of the chimney being exceedingly rarefied by the heat, and the atmospheric air at the vent or upper orifice ofthe chim- ney being rarer than the air below, there will be less re- sistance to the stream of rarefied air. The cold and dense air from below will therefore rush violently towards the ash-pit, to restore the equilibrium, and will penetrate through the fire, which it thus furnishes with a constant supply of fresh oxygen gas (the proper food of fire), and becoming rarefied in its turn by the accession of caloric, will force its way up the chimney, and thus a continual circulation is maintained, which will support almost any degree of heat while there is a regular supply of fuel, if the chimney is of a considerable height. It is evident that the size of the ash-hole should not be too large, but bear a proportion to the height of the chimney. The perfection of a wind-furnace therefore consists, 1, in a good current of air; 2, in keeping the heat together, without losing too great a quantity of it unused; and, 3, in the facility with which the heat may be increased or weakened. The heat in wind-furnaces is increased, partly by an additional supply of fuel, partly by accelerating the draught of air. The last is effected by opening the door ofthe ash-pit wider, by shutting that of the fire- place, by opening the registers, and lengthening the chimney by additional vent-pipe, and also occasionally by applying the action of the bellows. The heat again is diminished by diminishing the quantity or celerity ofthe current of air; hence, by shutting the ash-hole, the regis- ters, and vent-pipes, and by the proper application of these means the action of fire is weakened, or thoroughly suppressed. Blast-furnaces increase the heat upon the same princi- ple, by bringing in contact with the fuel of a fresh sup- ply of oxygen, but this being effected by mechanical means, viz. by bellows, they are of a simpler construction than wind-furnaces, and their ash-pit, hearth, and labo- ratory, are commonly but one and the same part. The blowing is most frequently effected by bellows, which for small experiments are always made of leather, and to act without interruption, should be double. At the smelting works, wooden bellows are used; but these being single, there are always at the same time two of them employed, alternately opening and shutting. The cylinder-bellows are a discovery of modern times, and exceed the common by many advantages. Water-drums, as they are called, may likewise serve for these purposes. When the vessels in which bodies are exposed to the action of heat are not placed in immediate contact with the fire in the wind-furnace, but receive the required de- grec of heat by another intermediate body, such appa- ratus is called a bath. Tbe proper instrument for this purpose is the sand-furnace, or a wind-furnace, whose upper aperture is shut by the sand-pot. Sand-pots are cylindrical vessels, having an outwardly convex bottom, and made of cast or sheet-iron, and at times of baked clay. Glass vessels, however, containing bodies that are to be exposed to heat, are not placed in the pot while empty; but in order that they may be heated uniformly, this last is filled with some other body, into which the vessels are lodged. The matter most commonly employed in this case is dry, finely sifted sand; and the pot filled with it is called a sand-bath. Of all baths the sand-bath is the most convenient, and sufficient to apply any degree, from gentle warmth to red-heat. Crucibles placed be- tween coals, are also used for a sand-bath instead of sand- pots. If vessels are heated by means of hot water, in which they are immersed, it is called a water-bath, balneum marise; but if they are heated merely by the steam of boiling water, it is called a vapour-bath. Since water boiling in the open air is capable of receiving only a de- terminate degree of heat, it becomes thereby a sure means to impart heat, without danger of exceeding a certain degree. Furnace, glass painters, is made of brick, nearly square, and about 2! feet each way. It is cut horizon- tally inthe middle by a grate, which sustains the pan or shovel the glass is baked in. This furnace has two aper- tures, one below the grate, to put the fuel in at; the other above it, through which the workman spies how the action of the colours goes on. Furnaces, haitcrs, arc of three kinds: a little one under the mould, whereon they form their hats; a larger in the scouring-room, under a little copper, full of lees; and a very large one under the great copper, wherein they dye their hats. FURR, in commerce, signifies the skin of several wild beasts, dressed in alum with the hair on, and used as a part of dress by princes, magistrates, and others. The kinds most in use are those ofthe ermine, sable, castor, hare, rabbit, kc. Fuuus, in heraldry, a bearing which represents the skins of certain beasts, used as well in the doublings of the mantles belonging to the coat-armours, as in the coat- armour themselves. FURZE, or furze-bush. See Ulex. FLSAN US. a genus of the polygamia monoecia class and order. The hcrm. callyx is five-cleft; corolla none; stamina four; germen inferior; stigma four drupe. Male calyx, kc the same. Fruit abortive. There is one spe- cies, a tree ofthe Cape. FUSEE, in clock-work, is that part drawn by the spring, and about which the chain or string is wound. See Clock and Watch-work. ^ FUSES, in artillery, according to captain George Smith, formerly inspector to the military academy at Woolwich, are chiefly made of very dry beech wood, and sometimes of horn-beam taken near the root. They are turned rough and bored at first, and then kept for F U S FUT several years in a dry place. The diameter of the whole is about $ of an inch; the hole does not go quit* through, having about $ of an inch at the bottom; and the head is made hollow in the form of a bowl. The composition for fuses is, saltpetre 3, sulphur 1, and mealed powder S, or 4, and sometimes 5. This composition is driven in with an iron driver whose ends are capped with copper, to prevent the composition from takingfire; and to keep it equally hard; the last shovel-full being all mealed powder, and 2 strands of quick match laid across each other, being driven in with it, the ends of which are folded up into the hollow top, and a cap of parchment tied over it until it is used. FUSILEERS, in the British service, are soldiers armed like the rest of the infantry, with this difference only, that their musquets are shorter and lighter than those of the battalion and the grenadiers. They wear caps which are somewhat less, in point of height, than common grenadier caps. There are three regiments in the English service: the royal regiment of Scotch fusi- leers, raised in 1678; the royal regiment of Welch fusi- lecrs, raised in 1685; and the roval regiment of Welch fusileers, raised in l6b8-9. FUSILY, or fusile, in heraldry, signifies a field or ordinary, entirely covered over with, or divided into fusils. FUSION, the action of fire, or more properly, of ca- loric, on solid bodies, by which they are caused to pass into the state of fluidity; and a body rendered liquid by fire is said to be in fusion, to flow, to melt. From tbe difference between solid and fluid bodies, it follows, thatthe active expansive power ofthe caloric is the principal or true cause of fusion; since, by combining with the solid substance, it diminishes and destroys, iu a high degree, the attractive force of its particles. The fluidity of all liquid bodies, we know at present, is merely derivative, and the effect ofthe influx of caloric. If we attend to the different strength of the attractive power which the particles of substances, specifically dif- ferent, exert on one side amongst themselves, and on the other towards the caloric, we find no ground to wonder why some bodies require a lower, others a higher, tem- perature to be fused; and that it is possible to meet with some bodies, which at any degree of temperature we hi- therto know in our atmosphere, continue in the liquid state. According to the various degrees of fusibility, bodies are discriminated into refractory, or of difficult fusion, which require the utmost violence of fire to be melted; and simply fusible, or of easy fusion, that will flow in less heat; yet the limits between these have not yet been ascertained by any fixed scale. Some mixtures melt with greater ease than the single substances of which they are composed. Some bodies cannot be rendered fluid by any degree of beat which we are able to produce. These are called infusible, apyrous or fire-proof. Several of them may, however, be fused by adding other bodies, which on ac- count of this property arc called fluxes. Such addition is called at the smeltiiig-works dressing ofthe ores. It is worth re marking, that sometimes these additions are of theuiKvlv is infusible. The true fusion ought not to be confounded with the melting of some salt en stals by heat. The last is caused by the aqueous particles contained in them dissolving the salt at an increased heat, which they cannot at a weaker. When melted bodies, by a circumambient medium of a lower temperature, are deprived of so much caloric that the original attractive forces of the bodies of which they are compounded, acquire again the degree of inten- sity requisite to produce the form of solidity; or when by this loss of caloric, the native attraction among the sur- faces ofthe primitive molecules becomes again active, they concrete, or congeal. All bodies must, in consequence of the explanation given of fusion, assume in fusion a greater volume than that which they had in their former state of solidity. This is in every respect confirmed by experience. The exception which some bodies, as ice, bismuth, antimony sulphur, seem to make, may be easily explained by the crystallization of their parts on concreting. Since no solution takes place without liquidity, fusion becomes one of the most effectual operations for solu- tions and precipitations in the dry way. Fusion is, be- sides, of importance in separating heterogeneous parts simply mingled by means of their different degrees of fusibility; as also by the circumstance, that various shapes may be given to bodies by casting them into moulds while in a fluid state. Fusion is sometimes performed without any vessel at all. and then in small quantities, by the flame of a candle or lamp, with the assistance of the blow-pipe: but, in larger quantities, by placing the bodies to be fused amongst the coals in a melting furnace* At other times, the operation is done iu vessels, subjected to the requisite heat, in the furnace. When the blow-pipe made of glass or metal, is em- ployed, the air compressed by the mouth is directed on the flame; and the heat, by that means increased, is communicated to the substance to be fused, which gen- erally rests on a support, in a cavity made in a lump of charcoal. The apparatus by which the air is made to stream through the blow-pipe, by means of double bel- lows, renders this useful instrument capable of being employed by persons whose lungs do not permit them to continue the blowing long, or who are not sufficiently skilled in its management. Lastly, the heat of a lamp- flame may be raised to the highest degree, by conducting oxygen gas through the blow-pipe, by means of a pecu- liar apparatus* In smelting-houses, the fusion without vessels is per- formed in a very simple way, by placing the substances to be fused immediately betwixt burning charcoal in the melting-furnaces. In these the fusion is urged by bellows; and they are of various constructions, to suit a variety of purposes. Hence also they have received different denominations. Other kinds of fusion, especially in small quantities, are performed in vessels of various shape and materials. Their most essential properties, are their being infusible at any degree of heat required for melting the bodies to be fused in them; and, besides, their insolubilitv in that body when melted. FUSTIAN, in commerce, a kind of cotton stuff, which seems as if it was whaled on one side. FUTTOCKS, in a ship, the timbers raised over the keel, or the encompassing timbers that make her breadth. GAD GAD Of these are first, second, third, and fourth, denominated per futtocks: those timbers, being put together, make a according to their distance from the keel, those next it frame-bend. being called first or ground futtocks, and the others up- G. rj. the seventh letter of our alphabet; as a numeral *-* ? was anciently used to denote 400; and with a dash over it thus, G~, 40,000. In music it is the character or mark of the treble cliff; and from its being placed at the head, or marking the first sound in Guido's scale, the whole scale took the name gamut. As an abbreviature, G. stands for Gaius, Gellius, gens, genius, &c. G. G. for gemina, gessit, gesserunt, &c. G. C. genio civitatis, or Csesaris. G. L. for Gaius libertus, or genio loci. G. V. S. for genio urbis sacrum. G. B. for genio bono. And G. T. for genio tutelari. GABARA, or gabbara, in antiquity, the dead bodies which the Egyptians embalmed, and kept in their houses, especially those of such of their friends as died with the reputation of great piety and holiness, or as martyrs. GABEL, a word met with in old records, signifying a tax, rent, custom, or serv ice, paid to the king, or other lord. GABIONS, in fortification, baskets made of ozier- twigs, of a cylindrical form, six feet high, and four wide; which being filled with earth, serve as a shelter from the enemy's fire. See Fortification. GAB RES, or gaurs, in the religious custom of Persia. See GaursT GAD, among miners, a small punch of iron, with a long wooden handle, used to break up the ore. One of the miners holds this in his hand, directing the point to a proper place, while the other drives it into the vein, by striking it with a sledge-hammer. Gad-fly, or breeze-fly. See Oestrus. GADOLINTTE, a mineral first found in a white felspar in the quarry of Ytterby in Sweden, and received the name gadolinite, because Gadolin was the chemist who first ascertained its composition. Colour perfect black, passing sometimes to brown. Found in mass. Fracture conchoidal. Scratches quartz. Brittle. Specific gravity 4.0497. Gelatinizes with hot diluted nitric acid. Before the blow-pipe decrepitates, and assumes a whitish-red colour, but does not melt. "With borax it melts into a topaz-yellow glass. Affects the magnetic needle. Accor- ding to the Vanalysis of auqucliu, it is composed of. 35.0 yttria 25.5 silica 25.') oxide of iron % 2.0 lime 2.0 oxide of manganese 10.5 water and carbonic aoijd 100.0 Klaproth, on the other hand, found 59.75 yttria 21.25 silica 18.00 oxide of iron 0.50 alumina 99.50 This last analysis does not differ much from that which Ekeberg had before published. GADUS, cod, in ichthyology, a genus of fishes be- longing to the order of jugulares. The generic character is, head smooth; gill-membrane, seven-rayed; body ob- long, covered with deciduous scales; fins all covered by the common skin; dorsal and anal generally more than one; the rays unarmed; ventral fins slender, ending in a point. There are 17 species, the principal of which are, 1. Gadus morhua, or common cod. This highly im- portant and prolific species, which furnishes employment for so many thousands, and forms so considerable a part of the subsistence of mankind, is an inhabitant of the northern seas, where it resides in immense shoals, per- forming various migrations at stated seasons, and visi- ting in succession the different coasts of Europe and America. Its history is so well detailed by Mr. Pennant, that little can be added to what that author has collected in his British and Arctic Zoology. "The general rendezvous of the cod-fish," says Mr. Pennant, "is on the banks of Newfoundland, and the other sand-banks that lie off the coasts of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and New England. They prefer those situations on account of the quantity of worms produced in those sandy bottoms, which tempt them to resort thither for food; but another cause of this particular attachment to those spots is their vicinity to the polar seas, where they return to spawn: there they deposit their roe in full security, but want of food forces them, as soon as the first more southern seas arc open, to repair thither for subsistence. Few are taken north of Iceland, but on the south and west coasts they abound: they are again found to swarm on the coasts of Norway, in the Baltic, off the Orkney and the Western isles; after which their num- bers decrease, in proportion as they advance towards the south, when they seem quite to cease before they reach the mouth ofthe Straits of Gibraltar." Before the discovery of Newfoundland, the greater fisheries of cod were on the seas of Iceland and our own Western isles, which were the grand resort of the ships of all the commercial nations; but it seems that the great- est plenty was met with near Iceland. Newfoundland, a name in the infancy of discovery common to all North America, was discovered in the year 1496, by the celebrated Venetians, Sebastian Cabot and his three sons; who, at their own charges, under a grant of Henry the seventh, giving them possession, as vassals of his, of all lands they might discover, coasted from lat. 67° 30' to the Cape of Florida. The isle of Newfoundland is of a triangular form, and lies between lat. 46° 40' and 51° 30': visited occasionally, but not inhabited, by savages from the continent. The boasted mine of this land, viz. its sand-bank, is represen- ted as a vast sub-marine mountain, of above 500 miles long, and near 300 broad, and seamen know when they approach it by the great swell of the sea, and the thick GADUS. mists that impend over it. The water on the bank is from twenty-two to fifty fathoms; on the outside from sixty to eighty; and on the smaller banks much the same: the increase of shipping that resort to these fertile banks is now unspeakable: England still enjoys the great- est share, and it ought to be esteemed one of it chiefest treasures, bringing wealth to individuals, and strength to the state. All this immense fishery is carried on by the hook and line only: the principal baits are herring, the small fish called a capelin, the shell-fish called clams, and pieces of sea-fowl; and with these are caught sufficient to find employ for fifteen thousand Bri- tish seamen, and to afford subsistence to a much more numerous body of people at home, who are engaged in the various manufactures which so vast a fishery demands. The fish, when taken, are properly cleaned, salted, and dried, and in this state sent into various parts of the European continent. The cod grows to a very large size. Mr. Pennant commemorates a specimen taken on the British coast which weighed 78 lbs. and measured 5 feet 8 inches in length, and 5 feet in girth round the shoulders; but the general size, at least in the British seas, is far less, and the weight from about 14 to 40 pounds; and such as are of middling size are most esteemed for the table. The cod is of a moderately long shape, with tbe abdo- men very thick and prominent: the head is of a moderate size, and the eyes large: the jaws of equal length, the lower one bearded at the tip by a single cirrus; in the jaws and palate are numerous shatp teeth: the dorsal and anal fins are rather large, the pectoral rather small: the ventral small and slender: the tail of moderate size and even at the end, the first ray on each side being short, strong, and bony. The usual colour of this fish is cine- reous on the back and sides, and commonly spotted with dull yellow: the belly white or silvery; but tbe colours occasionally vary very considerably, and instances are often seen in wdiich a yellow, orange, or even red tint prevails on the upper parts of the body, while the spots arc lighter or deeper according to the different seasons in which the fish is taken: the lateral line, which is one ofthe principal distinctive marks ofthe species, is broad and whitish, and the scales arc somewhat larger than in others of the genus. The food ofthe cod is eitlier small fish, worms, testace- ous or crustaceous animals, such as crabs, large whelks, &c. its digestion is so powerful as to dissolve the great- est part of the shells it swallows; it is very voracious, catching at any small body it perceives moved by the water, even stones and pebbles, which are often found in the stomach. The fishermen are well acquainted with the use ofthe air bladder or sound of this fish, and dexter- ously perforate the living fish with a needle, in order to let out the air contained in that part; for without this ope- ration the fish could not be kept under water in the well- boats, and brought fresh to market. The sounds when sal- ted, are reckoned a delicacy, and are often brought in this state from Newfoundland. A species of isinglass is also prepared from this part of the fish by the natives of Iceland. 2. Gadusreglcfinus, or haddock, is distinguished from the rest of this genus by having a forked tail, and the lower jaw longer than the upper: the colour ofthe body is silvery or white, with a dusky cast on the back: 1 he la- teral line is black, and on each side at some distance be- yond the head, and above the pectoral fins, is a mode- rately large, squarish black spot: the tip of the lower jaw is furnished with a cirrus: the eyes are large; the scales small, round, and pretty closely attached to the skin. This species is a native of the northern seas, where, like the cod, it assembles in prodigious shoals, visiting particular coasts at stated seasons; the shoals arc some- times near six miles in length, and more than a mile in breadth. "The grand shoal of haddocks," says Mr. Pennant, " comes periodically on the Yorkshire coasts. It is remarkable that they appeared in 1766 on the 10th of December, and exactly on the same day 1767. These shoals extended from the shore near three miles in breadth, and iu length from Flamborough Head to Tin- mouth castle, and perhaps much farther northwards. An idea may be given of their numbers by the following fact: three fishermen within the distance of a mile from Scar- borough harbour frequently loaded their coble or boat with them twice a day, taking each time about a ton of fish: when they put down their lines beyond the distance of three miles from the shore they caught nothing but dog- fish, which shows how exactly these fish keep their limits. The best were sold from eight pence to a shilling per score, and the poor had the smaller sort at a penny, and sometimes a halfpenny per score." The haddock is ta- ken in vast quantities about Heligoland, and thence sent to Hamburgh. In stormy weather this fish is said to im- bed itself in the ooze at the bottom of the sea, none being taken in such weather; and those which are taken after- wards are observed to be covered with mud on their backs. The haddock is, in general, of moderate size, measur- ing about eighteen inches or two feet in length: those which are most esteemed for the table weighing from two to four pounds; but it sometimes arrives at the length of three feet, and the weight of fourteen pounds. Its food consists of small fishes, worms, and sea-insects. It spawns in the month of February. 3. Gad us rallarias, or dorse, is a somewhat smaller species than the haddock, those which are usually taken rarely exceeding the weight of two pounds. The head is smaller than that of the haddock, and is marked by several spots, which in the summer are ge- nerally brown, and in the winter black: the general colour of the fish is cinereous above, and white beneath, several brown spots being scattered over the body, which, in the young fish, are often of an orange-colour: the scales are small, thin, and soft: the upper jaw is longer than the lower, and is furnished with more rows of teeth: at the tip ofthe lower jaw is a cirrus or beard. The dorse is a native of the northern seas, as well as of the Mediterranean and the Baltic. It is taken both by the line and the net, and is highly esteemed as an article of food. It lives, like most others of this genus, on tbe smaller fishes, and sea-insects. Instances are adduced by authors in which this fish, like the haddock, has been found greatly to exceed the usual size, and to weigh se- ven, eight, ten, or even fourteen pounds. It spawns in the month of February. GADUS. 4. Gudus barbatus, or whiting-pout, according to Mr. Pennant, never grows to a large size, rarely exceeding a foot in length, and is distinguished from all others by its great depth; one of the size above mentioned being near four inches deep in the broadest part: the back is very much arched, and carinated: the scales larger than those of the cod-fish: the mouth small, and the head short, on each side tbe lower jaw are seven or eight punc- tures: the first dorsal fin is triangular, and terminates in a long fibre: the colour of the fins and tail are dusky or blackish, and at the bottom ofthe pectoral fins is a black spot: the body is white, but more obscure on the back than the belly, and tinged with yellow: the lateral line is whiter broad, and crooked. This fish is in high estimation as a food, and is found in the Mediterranean and north- ern seas. 5. Gad us minutus, or poor, is a small species, seldom exceeding six or seven inches in length, and of a more slender form than any of the preceding kinds. It is found in the Baltic and the Mediterranean, as well as in some parts ofthe northern seas. Its appearance in the Medi- terranean, is considered by the fishermen as the precur- sor of the cod, and the haddock, of which it is supposed to indicate very plentiful shoals. It is reckoned a whole- some food, and is taken both by the line and net. It is supposed to feed chiefly on worms and sea-insects, and deposits its spawn among the stones and sea-plants to- wards the borders of the shore. 6. Gad us merlangus, or whiting, with three dorsal fins, as in the preceding kinds, but with a beardless mouth. The whiting is, according to Mr. Pennant, the most de- licate as well as the most wholesome of the genus, but does not grow to a large size, the usual length being about ten or twelve inches, and the largest scarcely exceeding that of twenty. It is a fish of an elegant make: the bo- dy is rather long, and covered with small, round silvery scales: the head and back are of a pale brown, and the sides slightly streaked with yellow. This fish is an in- habitant of the Baltic, and the northern seas, and is found in some parts of the Mediterranean. Vast shoals appear in the British seas during the spring; keeping at the dis- tance of from about half a mile to that of three from the shore; they are caught in vast numbers by the line, and afford excellent diversion: their food consists of small fishes, sea insects and Worms: they are said to be parti- cularly fond of sprats and young herrings, with which the fishermen generally bait for them, and in defect of these with pieces of fresh herring, one being sufficient, wdien cut, for twenty baits. According to Dr. Bloch, the chief time of the whiting fishery in France is in the months of January and February, though in England and Holland it is practised at a much later period. It spawns in December and January. 7. Gadus carbonarius, or coal-fish, when full grown, is, in general, readily distinguished from its congeners by its very dark or black colour, though in this respect it sometimes varies, it is of a moderately long and elegant shape, with a small head, sharpened snout, and lower jaw exceeding the upper in length: when full grown the head, dorsal fins, tail and upper parts ofthe body arc of a dus- ky black, which gradually softens into a silvery tinge as it approaches the abdomen. It is an inhabitant of the Baltic, the northern and Mediterranean seas: it is com- mon on the most of our rocky and deep coasts, but par- ticularly on those of Scotland and the Orkneys, where, according to Mr. Pennant, it swarms, and where the young or fry forms a great part of the support of the poor. 8. Gadus merluccius, or hake, with two dorsal fins. The hake is of a considerably lengthened form: the head is rather large, broad and flat at the top, but compressed on the sides; the opening of the mouth wide, and the jaws armed with two rows of long, sharp-pointed, curved teeth intermixed alternately with smaller ones: the palate is also furnished with a row of teeth on each side; the pec- toral and ventral fins arc of moderate size, and of a shar- pened shape, and the tail is nearly even at the end* the lateral line commences by several small warts beyond the head, and is continued in a straight direction to the tail- the usual length of the hake is from one to two feet, but it is sometimes found of the length of three feet. This fish is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean and northern seas, in both of which its fishery is very consi- derable: it is salted and dried in the manner of cod, had- dock, kc. but is not considered as a delicate fish, either in its fresh or salted state, and is rarely admitted to the tables of the rich and luxurious: it forms however a verv useful article of food for the lower orders in many parts both of England and other countries. It is found in vast abundance on many of the coasts of England and, Ireland. We arc informed by Mr. Pennant that there was formerly a vast stationary fishery of the hake on the Nymph Bank, off the eclast of Waterford, immense quan- tities appearing there twice a year; the first shoal com- ing in June, during themackarel season, and the other in September, at the beginning ofthe herring season, pro- bably in pursuit of those fish: it was no unusual thim? for six men with hooks and lines to take a thousand hake m one night, besides a considerable quantity of other fish At present, as we are informed by Dr. Bloch, one of the greatest hake-fisheries is carried on about the coasts of Britanny, both by tbohook and net. It is carried on cri fly by night, in boats properly manned for the purpose- the principal baits for such as are taken bv the line arelaun- ces, sardines, and other small fishes. * 9. Gadus molva, or the ling, takes its name from its length, being corrupted from the word long: the body is very slender; the head flat. The usual size of the ling is from three to four feet, but is said to have been sometimes seen ofthe length of seven feet: in colour it varies, being sometimes of an olive hue on the sides and back, and sometimes cinereous: the abdomen is white, as are also the ventral fins, and the dorsal and anal are edged with white: the tail is marked near the end with a transverse black bar, and tipped with white. The ling is an inhabitant of the northern seas, and forms in many places a considerable article of commerce. It chiefly frequents the depths of the sea, living on small bshes, shrimps, &c. It spawns in June, depositing its eggs among the fuci on the oozy bottoms. In the Yorkshire seas the ling is in perfection from the beginning of Feb- ruary to the beginning of May, and some till the end of that month: as long as they continue in season the liver is very white, and abounds with fine flavoured oil; but as soon as the fish goes out of season the liver becomes red, and affords no more oil: the same circumstance is obser- GAG G A G vablc in several other fish in a certain degree, but not so remarkably as in the ling. Vast quantities of this fish are salted for exportation as well as for home consumption. When it is cut or split for curing it must measure 1 wenty-six inches, or upwards, from the shoulder to the tail; if less than that it is not reckoned a sizeable fish, and consequently not entitled to the bounty on exportation. 11. Gadus lota, or the burbot, highly esteemed for its superior delicacy, is an inhabitant of clear lakes and ri- vers, and is found in many parts of Europe and Asia. In England it occurs chiefly in the lakes of the north- ern counties, in some of the fens of Lincolnshire, and the rivers Witham and Trent; but it is said to arrive at its greatest perfection in the Lake of Geneva, where it is found in great plenty. In its habit or general appear- ance the barbot makes an obscure approach to the mu- rajna, having a remarkably lengthened body of a subcy- lindric shape. The burbot is considered as a very voracious fish, preying on all the smaller fishes, as well as on frogs, worms, and aquatic insects: it grows to a considerable size: the largest however of those which arc taken in England have been rarely known to exceed the weight of three pounds, but in some parts of Europe they are found of more than double that weight, and of the length of three feet or more. The reputation of this fish as a food has long been established, but its liver is celebrated as an article of peculiar luxury; and we arc informed by Aldrovandus, that an old German countess carried her epicurism so far as to expend the greatest part of her in- come in the purchase of this dish. The gall has been famed, like that of the stargazcr, the barbel, and some other fishes, for its supposed efficacy in external disor- ders of the e\ ts. G/EUTNERE, a genus of the decandria monogynia class and order. The calyx is five-parted; corolla five- petalled; seed-vessel nearly globose, with wings. There is one species, a shrub of the East Indies. GAGE, in law-books, the same with surety or pledge. Gage, in the sea-language. When one ship is to windward of another, she is said to have the weather- gage of her. They likewise call the number of feet that a vessel sinks in the water, the ship's gage: this they find by driving a nail into a pike near the end, and put- ting it down beside the rudder till the nail catches hold under it; then as many feet as the pike is under water, is the ship's gage. Gage, among Utter-founders, a piece of box, or other hard wood, variously notched; the use of which is to ad- just the dimensions, slopes, &.c.-of the different sorts of letters. There are several kinds of these gages, as the flat-gage, the face-gage, and italic-gage, &c. Gage, sliding, a tool used by mathematical instrument- makers, for measuring and setting off distances. It is also of use in letter-cutting, and making of moulds. Gage, sea, an instrument invented by Dr. Hayles, and Dr. Desaguliers, for finding the depth of the sea, the description of which is this. A B, (Plate LXIV. fig. 96. Miscel.) is the gage-bottle, in which is cemented the gage-tube E/, in the brass-cap at G. The upper end of the tube E, is hermetically sealed, and the open lower end/, is imuieised in mercury, marked C, on which swims a small thickness or surface of treacle. On the top of the bottle is screwed a tube of brass H G, pierced with several holes, to admit the water into the bottle A B. The body K, is a weight, hanging by its shank L, in a socket N, with a notch on one side at m, in which is fixed the catch I ofthe spring s, and passing through the hole L, in the shank of the weight K, prevents its falling out, when once hung on. On the top, in the upper part of the brass-tube at II. is fixed a large empty ball, or full-blown bladder I, which must not be so large, but that the weight K may be able to sink the whole under water. The instrument, thus constructed, is used in the fol- lowing manner. The weight K. being hung on, the gage is let fall into deep water, and sinks to the bottom; the socket N, is somewhat longer than the shank L, and therefore, after the weight K comes to the bottom, the gage will continue to descend, till the lower part ofthe socket strickes against the weight; this gives liberty to the catch to fly off the hole L, and let go the weight K; when this is done, the ball or bladder I, instantly buoys up the gage to the top of the water. While the gage is under water, the water having free access to the treacle and mercury in the bottle, will by its pressure force it up into the tube E/, and the height to which it has been forced by the greatest pressure, viz. that at the bottom, will be shown by the mark in the tube which the treacle leaves behind it, and which is the only use of the treacle. This shows into what space the whole, air in the tube E/ is compressed; and consequently the height or depth of the water, which by its weight produced that compres- sion, which is the thing required. If the gage tube E/, is of glass, a scale might be drawn on it with a point of a diamond, showing by in- spection, what height the water stands above the bottom. But the length of 10 inches is not sufficient for fathom- ing depths at sea, since that, when all the air in such a length of tube is compressed into half an inch, the depth of water is not more than 634 feet, which is not half a quarter of a mile. If to remedy this, we make use of a tube 50 inches long, which for strength may be a musquet-barrcl, and suppose the air compressed into an hundreth part of half an inch ; by saying as 1 : 99 :: 400 : 396000 inches, or 3300 feet: even this is but little more than half a mile, or 2640. But since it is reasonable to suppose the cavi- ties of the sea bear some proportion to the mountainous parts of the land, some of which are more than three miles above the earth's surface, therefore, to explore such great depths, the Doctor contrived a new form for his sea-gage, or rather for the gage-tube in it, as follows: B C D F (fig. 97.) is a hollow metallic globe communi- cating on the top with a long tube A B, whose capacity is a ninth part of that globe. On the lower part at D, it has also a short tube D E, to stand in the mercury and treacle. The air contained in the compound gage- tube is compressed by the water as before; but the degree of compression, or height to which the treacle lias been forced, cannot here be seen through the tube; therefore, to answer that end, a slender rod of metal or wood, with a knob on the top of the tube A B, will receive the mark ofthe treacle, and show it, when taken out. If the tube A B be 50 iuches long, and of such a bore GAGE. that every inch in length shall be a cubic inch of air, and the contents of the globe and tube together 500 cubic inches; then, when the air is compressed within an hundredth part of the whole, it is evident the treacle will not approach nearer than 5 inches ofthe top of the tube, w hich will agree to the depth of 3300 feet of water as above. Twice this depth will compress the air into half that space nearly, viz. 2! inches, which correspond to 6600, which is a mile and a quarter. Again, half that space, or 1$ inch, will show double the former depth, viz. 13200 feet, or 2! miles, which is probably very nearly the greatest depth of the sea. Bucket-sea-GABE, an instrument contrived by Dr. Hales, to find the different degrees of coolness and salt- ness of the sea, at different depths; consisting of a com- mon houshold pail or bucket, with two heads to it. These beads have each a round hole in the middle, near four inches diameter, and covered with valves opening up- wards; and that they might both open and shut together, there is a small iron-rod fixed to the upper part ofthe lower valve, and at the other end to the under part of the upper valve: so that as the bucket descends with its sinking weight into the sea, both the valves open by the force of the water, which by that means has a free pas- sage through the bucket. But when the bucket is drawn up, then both the valves shut by the force ofthe water at the upper part of the bucket; so that the bucket is brought up full of the lowest sea-water to which it had descended. Wrhen the bucket is drawn up, the mercurial thermo- meter, fixed in it, is examined; but great care must be taken to observe the degree at which the mercury stands, before the lower part of the thermometer is taken out of the water in the bucket, else it would be altered by the different temperature of the air. In order to keep the bucket in a right position, there are four cords fixed to it, reaching about four feet below it. to which the sinking weight is fixed. Wrndf-GAGE, an instrument for measuring the force of the wind upon any given surface. It was invented by Dr. Lind, who gives the following description of it, Phil. Trans, vol. lxv. This instrument consists of two glass tubes, A a, C D, Plate LXIV. Miscel. fig. 98. of five or six inches in length. Their bores, which are so much the better for being equal, are about four-tenths of an inch in diameter. They are connected together like a siphon, by a small bent glass-tube marked a b, the bore of which is about one-tenth ol an inch in diameter. On the upper end of the leg A a there is a tube of latten brass, which is kneed or bent perpendicularly outwards, and has its mouth open towards F. On the other leg C D is a cover with a round hole G in the upper part of it, two-tenths of an inch in diameter. This cover and the kneed tube are connected together by a slip of brass c d, which not only gives strength to the whole instrument, but also serves to hold the scale H I. The kneed tube and cover are fixed on with hard cement or sealing-wax. To the same tube is soldered a piece of brass e, with a round bole in it to receive the steel spindle K L; and at /"there is just such another piece of brass soldered to the brass-hoopg, which surrounds both legs of the instru- ment. There is a small shoulder on the spindle at f, upon which the instrument rests, and a small nut at i, to prevent it from being blown off the spindle by the wind. The whole instrument is easily turned round upon the spindle by the wind, so as always to present the mouth of the kneed tube towards it. The end of the spindle has a screw on it, by which it may be screwed into tbe top of a post or a stand made on purpose. It has also a hole at L, to admit a small lever for screwing it into wood with more readiness and facility. A thin plate of brass k is soldered to the kneed tube, about half an inch above the round hole G, so as to prevent rain from falling into it. There is likewise a crooked tube A B, fig. 99. to be put occasionally upon the mouth of the kneed tube F, in order to prevent rain from being blown into the mouth of the wind-gage when it is left out all night or exposed in the time of rain. The force or momentum of the wind may be ascertained by the assistance of this instrument, by filling the tubes half full of water, and pushing the scale a little up or down, till the 0 of the scale, when the instrument is held up perpendicularly, be on a line with the surface of the water in both legs ofthe wind-gage. The instrument be- ing thus adjusted, hold it up perpendicularly, and, turn- ing the mouth ofthe kneed tube towards the wind, ob- serve how much the water is depressed by it in the one leg, and raised in the other. The sum of the two is the height of a column of water which the wind is capable of sustaining at that time; and every body that is opposed to that wind will be pressed upon by a force equal to the weight of a column of water having its base equal to the altitude of a column of water, sustained by the wind in the wind-gage. Hence the force of the wind upon any body where the surface opposed to it is know n may be easily found; and a ready comparison may be made be- twixt the strength of one gale of wind and that of another. The force of the wind may be likewise measured with this instrument, by filling it until the water runs out at the hole G. For if we then hold it up to the wind as be- fore, a quantity of water will be blown out; and if both legs ofthe instrument are of the same bore, the height of the column sustained will be equal to double the column of water in eitlier leg, or the sum of what is wanting in both legs. But if the legs are of unequal bores, neither of these will give the true height of the column of water which the wind sustained. But the true height may be obtained by the following formulre. Suppose that after a gale of wind which had blown the water from A toB, fig. 100, forcing it at the same time through the other tube out at E, the surface of the water should be found standing at some level as DG, and it were required to know what was the height ofthe column EF or AB, which the wind sustained. * In order to obtain this, it is only necessary to find the height of the columns DB or GF, which are constantly equal to one another; for either of these, added to one of the equal columns AD, EG, will give the true height of the column of water which the wind sustained. 1. Let the diameters AC, EH, of the tubes, be respectively represented by cd; and let a = AD or EG, and x=DB or GF; then it is evident, that the column DB is to the column EG, as &x to d?a. But these colums are equal. Therefore c3x = d2a\ and consequently x --£? * But if, at any instant of G A H GAL time whilst the wind was blowing, it was observed, that when the water stood at E, the top of the tube out of which it is forced, it was depressed iu the other to some given level BE, the altitude at which it would have stood in each had it immediately subsided, may be found in the following manner. Lct'o = AB or EF. Then it is evident that the column DB is equal to the difference of columns EF, GF. But the difference of these columns d*b is as d2b — d2x; and consequently x = —---— For the cases when the wind blows in at the narrow leg ofthe instrument: Let AB = EF =- b, EG or AD = a, GF =DB=x, and the diameters EH, CA, respectively = d, c, as before. Then it is evident, that the column AD is to the column GF as ac2 to d2x. But these columns are ac2 equal; therefore d2x=ac2; and consequently x = —j—• It is also evident, that the column AD is equal to the difference ofthe columns AB, DB; but the difference of these columns is as be2— c2x. Therefore d2x = be?— c2x. be2 Whence we get x =------ d2 + c* * The use of the small tube of communication a b, fig. 98. is to check the undulation ofthe water, so that the height of it may be read oft' from the scale with case and certainty. But it is particularly designed to prevent the water from being thrown up to a much greater or less altitude, than the true height of the column which the wind is able at that time to sustain, from its receiving a sudden impulse whilst it is vibrating eitlier in its ascent or descent. As in some cases fresh water in this instru- ment might be liable to freeze, and thus break the tubes, Dr. Lind recommends a saturated solution of sea-salt to be used instead of it, which does not freeze till Fahren- heit's thermometer falls to 0. Tide-GAGE, an instrument used for determining the height of the tides by Mr. Bay ley, in the course of a voyage towards the south pole, kc. in the Resolution and Adventure, in the years 1772,1773, 1774, and 1775. This instrument consists of a glass tube, whose internal diameter was 7-10ths of an inch, lashed fast to a 10 foot fir rod, divided into feet, inches, and parts, the rod being fastened to a strong post fixed firm and upright in the water. At the lower end of the tube was an exceedingly small aperture, through which the water was admitted. In consequence of this construction, the surface of the water in the tube was so little affected by the agitation ofthe sea, that its height was not altered the 10 th part of an inch when the swell of the sea was 2 feet; and Mr. Bayley was certain, that with this instrument he could discern the difference of the 10th of an inch in the height of the tide. GAHNIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants. The calyx is an involucrum with two or five flowers; the corolla is two-valved; the stamina six capillary and very short filaments; the an- therse linear, sh.irp-pointcd at the apex, and as long as the corolla; there is no pericarpium: the seed is single and oblong. There are two species, herbs of New Zealand and Otaheite. voj,. ii. 27 GAIANTTES, gainaile. in church history, a brau L of eutychians. GALBULA, in ornithology, a genus of tic- order pica*, bill straight, very long, quadrangular, pointed; nostrils oval, at the base of the bill; tongue short, sharp-pointed; thighs downy on the forepart. The viridis inhabits tiie moist woods of Guinea and Brazil; the size of a lark: it feeds on insects. There are three other species, viz. the grandis, the paradisca and albirostris. GALANGALS, the name of two roots kept in the shops, a greater and a smaller; of which the smaller is by far most esteemed. See Materia Medica. GAL AN THUS, the Sxow-drop, a genus of the mo- nogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the ninth order, spa- thacese. There are three concave petals; and the necta- riuin consists of three small emarginated petals; the stig- ma is simple. There is but one species, viz. the nivalis: which is a bulbous rooted flowery perennial, rising bu* a few inches in height, and adorned at top with small tripetalous flowers of a white colour. There are three varieties, viz. the common single-flowered snow-drop, the semi double snow-drop, and the double snow-drop. They are beautiful little plants, and are much valued on account of their early appearance, often adorning the gardens early in the spring, when scarcely any other flower is to be seen, making a very ornamental appear- ance especially when disposed in clusters towards the fronts of the borders, kc The single kind conies first into bloom, then the semi-double, and after that the double. They will succeed any where, and multiply exceedingly by off-sets from the roots. GALARDIA, a genus of the class and order syngene- sia polygamia frustranea. The recept. is chaffy; seed crowned with five-leaved calycle; cal. two-rows of scales-, almost equal. There is one species; an annual of Loui- siana. GALAX, a genus ofthe pentandria monogynia class and order. The cal. is ten-leaved; cor. silver-shaped; caps, one-celled, two-valved, and elastic. There is one species, an herb of Virginia. GALAXIA, a genus of the monodelphia triandria class and order. The spethe. is one-valved; cor. one-pe- tailed, six-cleft; tube capillary; stigma many parted. There are two species, herbs ofthe Cape. GALAXY, in astronomy, the via lactea, or milky way of the heavens: a tract of a whitish colour, and conside- rable breadth, which runs through a great compass of the heavens, sometimes in a double, but for the greatest part of its cours in a single stream; and is composed of a vast number of stars, too minute or too remote from the earth, to be distinguished by the naked eye; but are discovered in all parts of it, in great numbers, by the assistance of the telescope. See Astronomy. GALBANUM, a gum issuing from the stem of an umbelliferous plant, growing in Persia and many parts of Africa. It is sometimes met with in the shops in loose gra- nules, called drops oc tears, and sometimes in large mas- ses, formed of a number of these blended together; but in these masses some accidental foulness is often mixed with the gum. The single drops usually approach to a round- G A L GAL nil, oblong, pcarlike form. Galhanum is soft like wax, and, when fresh drawn, white; but it afterwards becomes yellowish or reddish: it is of a strong smell, of an acrid and bitterish taste; it is inflammable in the manner of a resin, and soluble in water like a gum. It attenuates and dissolves tough phlegm, and is therefore of service in asthmas and inveterate coughs: it is also of great ser- vice in hysteric complaints; it dissipates flatulencies. It is given in pills and electuaries, and is used externally in form of a plaster, applied to the abdomen, against ha- bitual hysteric complaints, and on many other occasions. GALE ASSE, a large low-built vessel, using both sails and oars, and the largest of all the vessels that make use ofthe latter. It may carry twenty guns, and has a stern capable of lodging a great number of marines. It has three masts, which are never to be lowered or taken down. It has also thirty-twTo benches of rowers, and to each bench six or seven slaves, who sit under cover. This vessel has latterly been only used by the Venetians. GALEGA, a genus ofthe class and order diadelpbia decandria. The cal. has tubulate teeth nearly equal; le- gume with streaks between the seeds. There are ^spe- cies, some of them known by the name of goat's rue. GALEN I A, a genus of the digynia order, in the octan- dria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 13th order, succulentse. The calyx is trifid; there is no corolla; the capsule is roundish and dispcr- mous. There are two species, shrubs of the Cape. GALENIC, or Galenical, in pharmacy, a manner of treating diseases founded on the principles of Galen. The distinction of galenical and chemical, was occasion- ed by a division ofthe practitioners of medicine into two sects, which happened on the introduction of chemistry into medicine; then the chemists, arrogating to themselves every kind of merit and ability, stirred up an opposition to their pretensions, founded on the invariable adherence of the other party to the ancient practice. And although this division into two sects of galenists and chemists has long ceased, yet the distinction of medicines which re- sulted from it is still retained. Galenical medicines are those which are formed by the easier preparations of herbs, roots, &c. by infusion, de- coction, kc. and by combining and multiplying ingre- dients; while those of chemistry draw their more imimate and remote virtues by means of fire and elaborate pre- parations, as calcination, digestion, fermentation, kc. GALENISTS, in church history, abranch of anabap- tists, who are said to have adopted several arian opinions concerning the divinity of our Saviour. GALENA, in mineralogy, sulphuret of lead, is very common, and is found both in masses and crystallized. The primitive form of its crystals is a cube. The most common varieties are the cube, sometimes with its angles wanting, and the octahedron, composed of two four-sided pyramids applied base to base. The summits of these pyramids are sometimes cuneiform, and sometimes their solid angles are wanting. Its colour is commonly blueish grey like lead, but brighter. Streak blueish grey and metallic. Lustre metallic. Sometimes stains the fingers. Texture foli- ated. Fragments cubical. Soft; but brittle. Specific gravity 7.22 to 7.587. Effervesces with nitric and mu- riatic acids. Before the blow-pipe decrepitates, aud melts 2 with a sulphureous smell; part sinks into the charcoal. It is composed of from .45 to .83 lead, and from .086 to .16 of sulphur. It generally contains some silver, and sometimes also antimony and zinc. To this species is to be referred a mineral which oc- curs but rarely, called Compact galena. Found in mass; sometimes in spe- cular plates. Texture compact. Fracture even. Softer than common galena. Specific gravity 7.444. Streak lead grey, brighter, and metallic. Feels soft, and stains the fingers. Fragments indeterminate. Found in Der- byshire, and in different parts of Germany and Italy. Often mistaken for plumbago or molybdcna. Another species is Blue lead ore. This ore has hitherto been observed only at Zschopau in Saxony. It occurs rarely in mass, usually crystallized in small six-sided prisms. Colour between indigo blue and lead grey; sometimes inclining to black. Usually striated longitudinally. Internal lus- tre metallic. Streak brighter. Texture compact. Spe- cific gravity 5.461. Before the blow-pipe melts with a low blue flame and a sulphureous smell, and is easily re- duced. It has not been analysed. Its crystals resemble those of phosphat of lead; but its component parts seem to be the same as those of galena. Brochan supposes it a phosphat converted into a galena by some unknown process. A third species is Black lead ore. This ore is found in Saxony, Poland, Siberia, and in different parts of Britain. It occurs in mass, disseminated and cellular; but more frequently crystallized in six-sided prisms, which are generally trunoated and confused. Colour greyish black. Streak greyish black. Brittle. Specific gravity from 5.744 to to 5.77. Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates, melts easily and is reduced. GALEOITTHECUS. Colugo. A genus of quadrn- peds. The generic character is front-teeth in the upper jaw none; in the lower six, short, broad, distant, pecti- nated; canine-teeth very short, triangular, broad, sharp, serrated; grinders four, truncated, and muricated with conical proturberances; flying-skin surrounding the bod v, limbs, and tail. This singular animal, which, from its size and extra- ordinary conformation, claims a conspicuous place among the productions of nature, has but lately been examined with the degree of exactness necessary for ascertaining clearly its generic characters. It is to Dr. Pallas that we owe the exact knowledge of these particulars, and an accurate description, accompanied by good figures, may be found in the transactions of the Academy of Pe- tersburgh for the year 1780. Galeopithccus volans, the flying colugo, is a native of the Molucca and Philippine islands, where it is said to frequent woody places, and to feed principally on fruits. It almost constantly resides on trees, and* makes use ri its membranes in the same manner as the flying squirrel. In descending from the top of a tree, it spreads its mem- hranes, and balances itself to the place it aims at in a gentle manner; but in ascending it uses a leaping pace. It has two young, which are said to adhere to its breasts by the mouth and claws. The whole length of the animal is about three feet: the breadth, when expanded, nearly the same: the tail is slender and about a span long. The GAL GAL membrane, or ex.pan-.ile skin, by which it is enabled to fly, is continued, on each side, from the neck to the fore feet; thence to the hind feet: and again to the tip of the tail: it is not naked, like the skin of a bat's wing, but co- vered with fur, in the same manner as the body: the in- ner or lower side, however, appears membranaceous, and is marked by numerous veins and fibres dispersed through it. The whole upper side of the animal is ge- nerally of a deep ash-colour, most so in those which are full-grown, and blacker in the younger or less advanced specimens: the back also, inthe full-grown animals, is crossed transversely with blackish lines; towards the edges, is commonly a tinge of yellowish, and the whole under side, both of the body and membrane, is of a yel- lowish colour. The head is long; the. mouth rather small; the tongue, according to Dr. Pailas, fleshy, broad, rounded, attenuated on the edges, and ciliated with papilla*, as in the opossums-, it is also slightly beset with papilla; on its surface. There are no fore-teeth in the upper jaw, but in the lower are six, which arc short, broad, and pretty deeply pectinated, so as to resemble little combs on their upper part: the canine teeth, or at least those which Dr. Pallas considers as such, arc shap- ed somewhat like the petrifactions known by the name of glossopetrie, being triangular, very broad at their base, very short, sharp-pointed, and serrated; the grin- ders, or molares, which arc generally four, both above and below, are of an abrupt or truncated form, and roughened vviih conical protuberances. The ears are small, round, membranaceous, and marked internally by numerous semicircular transverse streaks, as in a bat. The legs are clothed with a soft yellow down: there are five toes on each foot, united by a common membrane, and terminating in large, thin, broad, very sharp crooked claws. This animal is said to be called by the Indians caguang, colugo, and gigua. It was first described by Bontius, in his llisiory of Java. He informs us that it is found in Guzarat, in India; that it is a gregarious ani- mal, and flics principally in the evening; and that its body is of the size of a cat, and is covered above with a soft, grey fur. like that of a rabbit; thatthe head is oblong, the ears small and round, and that it has five .strong claws on each foot, by which it holds firmly whatever it seizes, and that it feeds chiefly on fruits. Camelli. in bis enumeration of the animals of the Philippine isles, published by Petiver in the Philosophical Transactions, describes it as about the size of a cat, shaped like a ♦aonkey, but more slender, and of the length of about three spans from head to tail; but adds, that in some parts it arrives at a far larger size, so as to equal a Chinese umbrella in expanse. He desc ribes the colour on the upper parts as dusky, and elegantly variegated with whitish streaks on the back, running beyond the body over the flying membrane; the face he compares to that of a monkey, and the manner of flight to that of a flying squirrel: Camelli adds, that the young adhere to the teats of the parent by their mouth and claws; but it is remarkable, that in his manuscript on this subject now preserved in the British Museum, he expressly asserts that the female is furnished with two sacs or pouches on her belly, in which she carries her young while sucking. Linnaeus, judging of this animal's place in systematic Arrangements, from the figures and descriptions of au- thors, but not having had an opportunity of examining its generic characters himself, placed it in the genus Le- mur, to which he supposed it most allied: but was care- ful, at the same time to observe, that, as its teeth had not been examined, its real genus was, of course, not determinable. By the count de Buffon it was, with un- pardonable negligence, entirely omitted ; nor was it till Dr. Pallas's description in the Petersburgh Transactions appeared, that its generic characters were ascertained. GALILEANS, a sect of the Jews. Their founder was one Judas, a native of Galilee, from which place tin-y derived their name. Their chief, esteeming it an indig- nity for the Jews to pay tribute to strangers, excited hie countrymen against the edict ofthe emperor Augustus, which had ordered a taxation or enrolment of all the subjects of the Roman empire. They pretended that God alone should be owned as master and lord; and in other respects were of the opinions of the pharisees: but, as they judged it unlawful to pray for infidel princes, they separated themselves from the rest of the Jews, and per- formed their sacrifices apart. GALIUM, a genus of the monogynia order, in thete- trandria class of plants, and in the natural method rank- ing under the 47th order, stellate. The corolla is mono- petalous and plain; and there are two roundish seeds. There are 48 species, of which the most remarkable are, the verum or yellow lady's bed-straw, and the aperine, clivers or goose-grass. The former has a firm, erect, brown, square, stem; the leaves generally eight in each whorl, linear, pointed, brittle, and often reflex: branches short, generally two from each joint, terminating in spikes of small yellow flowers. It grows commonly in dry ground and on road-sides. The flowers will coagu- late boiling milk; and the best Cheshire cheese is said to be prepared with them. The French prescribe them in hysteric and epileptic cases. Boiled iu alum-water, they tinge v.ool yellow. The roots dye a red not inferior to madder; for which purpose they are used in the island of Jura. In the Edinburgh Medical Commentaries wc have accounts of some violent scorbutic complaints being cured by the juice of this plant. Sheep and goats eat the plant; horses and swine refuse it; cows are not fond of it. The aperine or clivers has a square, very rough, jointed, very weak stem, two, three, or four feet long, and adhesive: the branches are opposite; the joints hairy at the base. The expressed juice of this plant taken internally, and the bruised leaves applied by way of poultice, are said to have been used with success as a cure for the cancer. The effects are, however, uncer- tain: the course, it is said, often requires to be contin- ued for nine or ten months. GALL, in the animal (economy, the same with bile. See Physiology. Gall-bladder, called vesicula, and cystis fellca, is usually of the shape of a pear, and of the size of a small hen's egg. It is situated in the concave side ofthe liver, and lies upon the colon, part of which it tinges with its own colour. It is composed of four membranes, or coats: the common coat; a vesicular one; a muscular one, con- sisting of straight, oblique, and transverse fibres; and a nervous one, of a wrinkled or reticulated surface within. and furnished with an unctuous liquor. See Anatomy, The use of the gall-bh.dder is to collect the bile, fir » GAL GAL secreted in the liver, and mixing with its own peculiar produce, to perfect it farther, to retain it together a cer- tain time, and then to expel it. G a.!,, in natural history, denotes any protuberance or tumour produced by the puncture of the insects on plants and trees of different kinds. Galls are of various forms and sizes, and no less different with regard to their internal structure. Some have only one cavity, and others a number of small cells communicating with each other. Some of them are as hard as the wood of the tree they grow on, whilst others are soft and spongy; the first being termed gall-nuts, and the latter berry-galls, or apple-galls. The general history of galls is this: an insect of the fly-kind (See Cynips), is instructed by nature to take care for the safety of her young, by lodging her eggs in a woody substance, where they will be defended from all injuries: she for this purpose wounds the branches or leaves of a tree, and the lacerated vessels, discharging their contents, soon form tumours about the holes thus made. The hole in each of these tumours, through which the fly has made its way, may for the most part he found; and when it is not, the maggot inhabitant or its remains, arc sure to be found within, on breaking the gall. It is to be observed, however, that in those galls which contain several cells, there may be insects found in some of them, though there is a hole by which the in- habitant of another cell has escaped. Oak-galls put, in a very small quantity, into a solu- tion of vitriol in water, though but a very weak one, give it a purple or vitriol colour; which, as it grows stronger, becomes black; and on this property depends the art of making our writing-ink, as also a great deal of those of dying and dressing leather, and other manufactures. See Ink, kc. Gall-stones. Sec Concretions. GALLATS, in chemistry: whether gallic acid is ca- pable of forming crystallizable salts with the different bases, is still a problem which chemists have not resolved. 1. When the alkalies are droptinto a solution of gallic acid in water, or into a solution containing gallic acid, it assumes a green colour. This change is considered by froust as the most decisive test of the presence of gallic acid. The same change of colour takes place when gal- lic acid is poured into barytes water, strontian water, or lime water, and at the same time a powder of a greenish brown colour precipitates. The green liquid which remains contains only gallic acid combined with the earth employed in the experiment. But if we attempt to eva- porate it to dryness, the green colour disappears, and the acid is almost completely decomposed, 2. When magnesia is boiled with the infusion of nut- galls, the liquid becomes almost limpid, and assumes the same green colour as the former mixtures. From the experiments of Mr. Davy, it appears, that in this case all the extract of tan is separated from the infusion, toge- ther with a portion of the gallic acid; and that the liquid holds in solution nothing but a combination of that acid aud magnesia. But in this case also the acid is decom- posed, and the green colour disappears when we attempt to obtain the composition in a dry state. 3. When a small portion of alum is mixed with the in fusion of nut-galls, it separates the whole of the tan and extract, and leaves the liquid limpid and of a very- pale yellowish green colour. This liquid, by spontane- ous evaporation, yields small transparent prismatic cry,. tals, which, according to Mr. Davy, are supergsdiats of allumina. They afford the only instance of a gallat capa- ble of existing in the state of crystals. The quantity of allumina is very small; two small to disguise the proper- ties of the acid. GALLEON, in naval affairs, a sort of ships employed by Spain in the commerce of the West-Indies. The Spaniards send annually two fleets; the one for Mexico, which they call the flota; and the other for Peru, which they call the galleons. By a general regulation made in Spain, it has been established, that there should be twelve men of war, and five tenders annually fitted out for the armada or galleons; eight ships of 600 tons bur- den each, and three tenders, one of 100 tons, for the island of Margarita, and two of 80 each, to follow the armada: for the New Spain fleet, two ships of 600 tons each, and two tenders of 80 each; and for the Honduras fleet, two ships of 500 tons each: and in case no fleet hap- pened to sail any year, three galleons and a tender should be sent to New Spain for the plate. They are appointed to sail from Cadiz in January, that they may arrive at Porto Bello about the middle of April; where, the fair being over, they may take on board the plate, and be at Havannah with it about the middle of June; where they are joined by the flota, that they may return to Spain with the greater safety. GALLERY, in fortification, a covered walk, across the ditch of a town, made of strong beams, covered over head with planks, and loaded with earth: sometimes it is covered with raw hides to defend it from the artificial fires of the besieged. See Fortification. Gallery of a mine, is a narrow passage, or branch of a mine carried on under-ground to a work designed to be blown up. Both the besiegers and the besieged also, car- ry on galleries in search of each others mines, and these sometimes meet and destroy each other. Gallery, in a ship, that beautiful frame, which is made in the form of a balcony, at the stern of a ship without board; into which there is a passage out of the admiral's or captain's cabin, and is for the ornament of the ship. GALLEY, iu naval affairs, a low-built vessel using both sails and oars, and commonly carrying only a main- mast and foremast, to be struck or lowered at pleasure. GALLIAMBIC verse, in ancient poetry, a verse con- sisting of six feet, viz. an anapest or a spondee; an iam- bus, or an anapest, or a tribrach; an iambus; a dactyl; an anapest. GALLIC acid, in chemistry, is obtained from the nut- gall which grows on some species of oak. In an infusion of galls made with cold water, a sediment is formed which on examination is found to have a crystalline form and an acid taste. By letting an infusion of galls remain a long time exposed to the air, and removing now and then the mouldy skin which formed on its surface, a large quantity of this sediment was obtained; which being edul- corated with cold water, redissolved in hot water, filtra- ted and evaporated very slowly, yielded an acid salt in crystals as fine as sand. Mr. Davy has lately pointed out another method which G L A Yields gallic acid in a state of considerable purity. Boil lor some time a mixture of carbonat of barytes and infu- sion of nut-galls. A blueish green liquid is obtained, which consists of a solution of gallic acid and barytes. Filter and saturate with diluted sulphuric acid. Sulphat of barvtes is deposited in the state of an insoluble pow- der, and a colourless solution of gallic acid remains behind. „ , Gallic acid, when pure, is in the form of transparent i.lates or octahedrons. Its taste is acid, and somewhat astringent; and when heated it has a peculiar and rather unpleasant aromatic odour. It is soluble in one and a half parts of boiling vyater, and in 12 parts of cold water. When this solution is heated, the acid undergoes a very speedy decomposition. Alcohol dissolves one-fourth of its weight of this acid at the temperature of the atmosphere. When boiling hot, it dissolves a quantity equal to its own weight. It is in- soluble in ether. When exposed to the action of heat, it is sublimed without alteration: but a strong heat decom- poses it in part, and converts it into an acid water, car- bureted hydrogen gas, carbonic acid gas, oil, and charcoal. When distilled, a quantity of oxygen gas is disengaged, an acid liquor is found in the receiver, with some gallic acid not decomposed, and there remains in the retort a quantity of charcoal. If what has passed into the receiver is again distilled, more oxygen gas is obtained, some gallic .acid still sublimes, and a quantity of charcoal remains in the retort. By repeated distilla- tions the whole of the acid may be decomposed. This de- composition may be more earily accomplished by' d,st,J- im? repeatedly a solution of gallic acid m water The mSducts are owgen gas, charcoal, and an acid liquor. P From these expcrinTents it was concluded, that gallic acid is composed of oxygen, and a much larger propor- tion of carbon than enters into the composition of cai- honic acid. But this conclusion is not warranted by the analysis: for the quantity of oxygen gas and carbon ob- ahied was not equal to that of the gallic acid decom- posed; and in the acid liquor which canie over, there evideutly existed a quantity of water, which doubtless was formed during the distillation. Scheele, by treating callic acid with nitric acid in the usual manner, con- ?e ted it into oxalic acid. Now it is certain that oxalic acid contains hydrogen as well as carbon. It cannot be doubted, then, that gallic acid is composed of oxv gen, hydrogen, and carbon, in proportions not yet ascer- tained? But Mr. Deyeux has proved, that the quantity of carbon is very great, compared with that ot the hy- drogen. ,, Gallic acid is not altered by exposure to the air. Neither o\yg«n gas, the simple combustibles, nor azote, seem to have anv particular action on it. Its action on the metals has not been examined. It combines with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, and forms com- pounds called gallats, most of which are still but very imperfectly known. As the greater number of its combinations with metal- lic oxides are insoluble, it for the most part occasions a precipitate when poured into a solution containing a metal; and this precipitate differs in colour, according to the metal which occasions it. Hence this acid, or at least the infusion of nut-galls, is very much used by chemists GAL to detect the presence of metals when held in solution. The formation of a precipitate, with infusion of nut-galls, is even considered as a property almost peculiar to me- tallic oxides. It ought to be remarked, however, that all the metals are by no means precipitated from their solutions by gallic acid. The following must be excepted: 1. Platinum, 4. Cobalt, 2. Tin, 5. Manganese, 3. Zinc, 6. Arsenic. The following Table exhibits a view of the colours of the precipitates of different metals by means of this acid: Gold Brown Silver Brown Mercury Orange yellow Copper Brown Iron Black Lead White Nickel Grey Bismuth Orange Antimony White Tellurium Yellow Uranium Chocolate Titanium Reddish brown Chromium Brown Columbium Orange Molybdic acid acquires a dark yellow colour, but does not precipitate. But the colour of these metallic precipitates varies considerably according to the state of oxydizement, and the acid with which they are composed. These differ- ences are especially remarkable in the solutions of mer- cury and copper. Gallic acid produces no change in the solutions of alka- line salts: but when dropt into barytes water, strontian water, or lime water, it gives them a blueish-rcd colour, and occasions a flaky precipitate, composed of the acid combined with the earths. Gallic acid occasions a precipitate when poured into solutions of glucina, yttria, and zirconia in acids. This property distinguishes these three bodies from all the other earths, none of which are precipitated from their solutions in acids by gallic acid. The affinities of gallic acid are still undetermined. Mr. Ric liter has shown, that it is not capable of taking iron from sulphuric acid, as has been hitherto supposed, unless it is assisted by the action of some other body which has an affinity for sulphuric acid. He has endea- voured to show, too, contrary to the experiments of Proust, that it strikes a black with all the oxides of iron; but his proofs are by no means sufficient to decide that point. GALLIN^E, in ornithology, the fifth order of birds: the upper mandible is channelled, extending with a mar- gin above the lower, and a little bowed; the nostrils are covered with a cartilaginous membrane; they live upon grain, dust themselves, make an artless nest and lay many eggs. Under this order are comprehended the peacock, pheasant, turkey, the common dunghill cock, partridge, grous, dodo, curissoa, &c. GALLIUM, ladies bed-straw. See Galium. GALLON, a measure of capacity both for dry and liquid articles, containing four quarts; but these quarts, and consequently the gallon itself, are different, accord- GAL GAL ing to the quality of the thing measured; 1'or instance, the wine gallon contains 2 31 cubic inches, and holds eight pounds five ounces and two-thirds avoirdupois, of pure water: the beer and ale gallon contains 282 solid inches, and holds ten pounds three ounces and a quarter avoirdupois, of water: and the gallon for corn, meal, kc two hundred and sixty-eight cubic inches and four-fifths, and holds nine pounds eleven ounces and a half of pure water. GALLOON, in commerce, a narrow thick kind of fer- ret or lace, used to edge or border clothes, sometimes made of wool, and at others of gold or silver. GALOPINA, a genus of the tetandria digynia class and order. Cal. none; cor. four cleft; seeds two, naked. A plant of the Cape. GALVANISM, a term used to denote the influence of metals by mere external contact with the animal body. In the year 1791, a very remarkable discovery made by Dr. Galvani of Bologna was announced to the scientific world in a publication entitled, Aloysii Galvani de Viri- bus Elcctricitatis in motu musculari Commentarius. Bononia? 1791. The discoveries of Galvani were made principally with dead frogs. He in the first place discovered that a frog dead and skinned, is capable of having its muscles brought into action by means of electricity, even in ex- ceedingly small quantities. Secondly, that independant of any apparent electricity, the same motions may be produced in the dead animal, or even in a detached limb, merely by making a com- munication between the nerves and the muscles, with sub- stances that are conductors of electricity. If the circuit of communication consists of non-conductors of electri- city, as glass, sealing-wax, and the like, no motion will take place. Similar experiments were also successfully instituted upon other animals; and as the power seemed to be inherent in the animal parts, those experiments, or the power which produces the motion of the muscles in those experiments, were denominated animal electri- city. But it being now fully ascertained, that by the mere contact of metallic and other conducting substances, some electricity is generated, it is evident thatthe mus- cular motions in the above-mentioned experiments are produced by that electricity; hence we have confined the name of animal electricity to denote the power of the fishes which give the shock, kc as described in a pre- ceding article. (See Electricity.) And, at least for the present, we shall examine the electricity which is pro- duced by the contact, or by the action, of metallic and other conducting substances upon each other, under the title of galvanism; though in truth Galvani's discoveries go no farther than what relates to certain effects of the contact of animal parts principally with metallic. We Shall briefly describe the several facts which relate to the above-mentioned sort of muscular motion, and shall then proceed to those which refer to the wonderful effects of the mere contact or action of one conducting substance upon another, amongst which the metallic are the most conspicuous. The action of electricity on a frog, recently dead and skinned, (and indeed on other animals more or less) oc- casions a tremulous, motion of the muscles, and gene- rally an extension of the limbs. Dr. Galvani used to skin the legs of a frog recently dead, and to leave them attached to a small part of the spine, hut separated from the rest of the body. Any other limb may be prepared in a similar manner: viz. the limb is deprived of its Integuments, and the nerve which belongs to it is partly laid bare. If the limbs thus prepared, for instance the legs of a frog, are situated so that a little electricity may pass through them, be it by the immediate contact of an elec- trified body, or by the action of electric atmospheres (as when the preparation is placed within a certain distance of an electrical machine, and a spark is taken from the prime conductor); the prepared legs will be instantly af- fected with a kind of spasmodic contraction, sometimes so strong as to jump a considerable way. When the electricity is caused to pass through the prepared frog by the immediate contact of the electri- fied body, a much smaller quantity of it is sufficient to occasion the movements, than when it is made to pass from one conductor to another, at a certain distance from the prepared animal. The movements are much stronger when the electri- city is caused to pass through a nerve to the muscle or muscles, than through any other part. The sensibility of the prepared animal is greatest at first, but it diminishes by degrees till it vanishes entirely. Animals with cold blood, and especially frogs, retain that sensibility for several hours, sometimes even for a day or two. With other animals the sensibility does not last long after death, and sometimes not above a few minutes. The like movements may be produced in the prepared animal without the aid of any apparent electricity. In an animal recently dead, detach one end of a nerve from the surrounding parts, taking care to cut it not too near its insertion into the muscle; remove the integuments from over the muscles which depend on that nerve; take a piece of metal, as a wire, and touch the nerve with one extremity of it, and the muscles with its other extremity; on tloing which you will find that the prepared limbs move in the same manner as when some electricity is passed through them. This, however, is not the most effectual way of forming the communication; yet it will generally succeed, and the experiment will answer whe- ther the preparation is laid upon conductors or upon electrics. If the communication between the nerve and the mus- cle is formed by the interposition of non-conductors of electricity,such as glass, sealing-wax, &c. then no move- ments will take place. When the application of the metal or metals is con- tinued upon the parts, the contractions will cease after a certain time, and on removing the metal, seldom, if ever, any contraction is observed. The conducting communication between the muscle and the nerve may consist of one or more pieces, and of the same or, much better, of different bodies connected together, as metals, water, a number of persons, and even wood. But it must be observed, that the various bodies, which form this circuit, must be placed in full and perfect contact with each other, which is done by pressure, or by the interposition of water, 6cc. The less perfect conductors will answer only at first, when the GALVANISM prepared animal is vigorous; but when the power begins to diminish, then the more perfect conductors only will answer, and even these will produce various effects. The most effectual way of producing those movements in prepared animal parts is by the application of two metals, of which silver and zinc seem upon the whole to be best, thong ii silver and tin, or copper and zinc, and other combinations, are not much inferior. If part of the nerve proceeding from a prepared limb is wrapped up in a bit of tin foil, or only laid upon zinc, and a piece of silver laid with one end upon the bare muscle, and with the other upon the above-mentioned tin or zinc, the motion of the prepared limb will be very vigorous. The two metals may be placed not in contact with the pre- paration, but in any other part of the circuit, which may be completed by means of other conductors, as water, &c. Tbe best preparation for this experiment is made in the following manner: Separate with a pair of scissars the head and upper extremities of a frog from the rest of the body. Open the integuments and muscles of the abdomen, and remove the entrails, by which means you will lay hare the crural nerves. Then pass one blade of the scissars under the nerve, and cut off the spine with the flesh close to the thighs, by which means the legs will remain attached to the" spine by the nerves alone. This done, leave a small bit only of the spine attached to the crural nerves, and cut oft' all the rest. Thus you will have the lower limbs G, H, (fig. 1, Plate LXI. Galvanism) ofthe frog adhering to the bit of spine A B, by means of the crural nerves C, D. These legs must be flayed in order to lay bare the muscles; and a bit of tinfoil should be wrapped round the spine A B. With this preparation the experiment may be performed in various ways, but the two which follow are the best. Hold the preparation by the extremity of one leg, the other leg hanging down, with the armed bundle of nerves and spine lving' upon it. In this situation interpose a piece of silver," as a halt-crown, between the lower thigh and the nerves, so that it may touch the former with one surface, and the metallic coating of the latter with the other surface, or with its edge; and you will find that the hanging leg will vibrate very powerfully, sometimes so far as to strike against the hand of the operator, which holds the other leg. Otherwise, place two wine-glasses, both full of water, contiguous to each other, but not actually touching. Put the thighs and legs of the preparation in the water of one glass, and laying the nerves over the edges of the two glasses, let the bit of spine with its armour (viz. tin foil) touch the water of the other glass. Things being thus prepared, if you form the communication between the waters of the two glasses, by means of silver, or put the fingers of one hand into the water of the glass that con- tains the legs, and holding a piece of silver in the other, you touch the coating of the nerves with it, you will find that the prepared legs move so powerfully as sometimes to jump fairly out of the glass. Fig. 2 represents a prepared frog suspended on a me- tallic wire, and parallel to the animal, a metallic chain. When the receiver x is exhausted, on pushing down the rod so thtt the nerve of the frog and the chain may touch the metallic plate z at the butioui, the frog is con vulsed as in the open air. By the application of armours of different metallic sub- stances, and forming a communication between them, the motions may be excited even in an entire living frog, as also in some other living animals, particularly eels and flounders. The living frog is placed upon a piece of zinc, with a slip of tin foil pasted upon its back. This done, whenever the communication is formed between that zinc and the tin foil, especially if silver is used, the spasmodic convulsions are excited, not only in the mus- cles which touch the metallic substances, but likewise iu the neighbouring muscles. This experiment may be per- formed entirely under water. Fig. 3 represents a living frog placed in an exhausted receiver, the animal being tied to a plate of silver by a silken string, and having a piece of tin foil on its back. As often as the circuit is completed, the convulsions ensue. The experiment may be performed with a flounder in a similar easy and harmless manner. Take a living flounder; wipe it pretty dry, and lay it flat on a pewter plate, or upon a sheet of tin foil; and place a piece of silver, as a shilling, a crown piece, kc. upon the fish. Then, by means of a piece of metal, complete the com- munication between the pewter plate or tin foil and the silver piece: on doing which the animal will give evident tokens of being affected. It seems that such movements may be excited by the contact of metallic substances in all the animals; at least they have succeeded, but in different degrees, in a great variety of animals from the ox to the fly. Fig. 4 shows the method of producing convulsions in cold-blooded animals, by the influence of warm-blooded animals. The right hand of the experimentalist is placed in the ear, previously moistened with salt and water, of an ox's head, while in the other hand a prepared frog is suspended by the foot, and the sciatic nerves brought into contact w ith the ox's tongue. Convulsions are immedi- ately produced in the muscles of the frog. The human body, whilst undergoing certain clururgi- cal operations, or its amputated limbs, have been con- vulsed by the application of metals. But the living animal body may be rendered sensible of the action of metallic application in an harmless way, and both the senses of taste and sight may be affected by it, but in different degrees according to the various constitutions of individuals. Let a man lay a piece of metal, as zinc, upon his tongue, and a piece of some other metal, as silver, under the tongue; on forming the communication between those two metals, cither by bringing their outer edges in con- tact, or by the interposition of some other piece of metal, he will perceive a peculiar sensation, a kind of irritation, accompanied with a sort of cool and subacid taste, not exactly like, and yet not much different from, that which is produced by artificial electricity. The sensation seems to be more distinct when the metals are ofthe usual tem- perature ofthe tongue. The silver or gold may be applied to any other part of the mouth, to the nostrils, to the ear, or to other sensible parts of the body, whilst the zinc is applied to the tongue; and on making the communication betweeen the two metals, the taste will be perceived upon GALVANISM. the tongue. The effect is rather more remarkable when the zinc touches the tongue in a small part, and the silver in a great portion of its surface, than vice versa. In- stead of the tongue, the two metals may also be placed in contact with the roof of the mouth, as far back as possible; and on completing the communication, the taste or irritation will be perceived. Different persons are variously affected by this appli- cation of metals; with some the sensation or taste is so slight as to be hardly perceived, whilst with others it is very strong and even disagreeable. Some persons feel merely a pungency, and not properly a taste. In order to affect the sense of sight by means of metals, let a man in a dark place put a slip of tin foil upon the bulb of one of his eyes, and let him put a piece of silver, as a spoon or the like, in his mouth. On completing the communication between the spoon and the tin foil, a faint flash of white light will appear before his eyes. This experiment may be performed in a more convenient manner, by placing a piece of zinc between the upper lip and the gums, as high up as possible, and a silver piece of money upon the tongue; or else by putting a piece of silver high up in one ofthe nostrils, and a piece of zinc in contact with the upper part of the tongue; for in either case the flash of light will appear whenever the two metals are made to communicate, either by the im- mediate contact of their edges, or by the interposition of other good conductors. By continuing the contact ofthe two metals, the ap- pearance of light is not continued, it being only visible at the moment of making the contact, and sometimes, though rarely, at the instant of separation: it may there- fore be repeated at pleasure, by disjoining, and again connecting, the two metals. When the eyes are in a state of inflammation, the appearance of light is much stronger. When the science was advanced no farther than the knowledge of the above-mentioned facts, it was doubtful whether the convulsions of prepared animal limbs, and the sensations which are produced by the application of metallic substances, were owing to some electrical pro- perty peculiar to the animal parts, which might perhaps be conducted through the metals from one part to the other;or to a small quantity of electricity, which might be supplied by the metals themselves. The latter supposition however was soon verified by the result of various experi- ments, which prove in the most convincing manner that electricity is produced by the mere contact, not only of metallic substances, but likewise of other bodies. The electricity thus produced by the mere contact of bodies is so very small as not to be perceived without great care, and without using some of those artifices for discovering small quantities of electricity, which have been mentioned above. But the discoveries ofthe inge- nious Mr. Volta have shown a method of increasing that electricity to a most extraordinary degree. We shall now proceed to state those facts in as compendious a manner as the nature ofthe subject will admit of. The action of metallic substances upon the organs of living, or of recently dead animals, has been fully mani- fested by the above-mentioned discoveries of Galvani and others; but, previously to these discoveries, a variety of facts, frequently asserted, imperfectly known, and often disbelieved, indicated a peculiar action arising from a combination of different metallic bodies in certain cases. It had been long asserted, that when porter (and sonio other liquors also) is drunk out of a pewter pot, it has a taste different from what it has when drunk out of glass or earthenware. It has been observed, that pure mercury retains its metallic splendour during a long time; but its amalgam with any other metal is soon tarnished or oxidated. The Etruscan inscriptions, engraved upon pure lead, are preserved to this day; whereas some medals of lead and tin, of no great antiquity, are much corroded. Works of metal, whose parts are soldered together by the interposition of other metals, soon tarnish about the places where the different metals are joined. When the copper sheeting of ships is fastened on by means of iron nails, those nails, but particularly the cop- per, are readily corroded about the place of contact. It had been observed that a piece of zinc might be kept in water for a considerable time, with hardly oxidat- ing at all; but that the oxidation would soon take place if a piece of silver happened to touch the zinc, whilst standing in water. Since Galvani's discoveries, the action arising from the combination of three conductors has been examined with great care, and with considerable success, especially by Mr. Volta, who lately discovered that the slight effect of such a combination may be increased to a prodigious degree by repeating the combination; for instance, if a combination of silver, zinc, and water, produce a certain effect, a second combination (viz. another piece of silver, another piece of zinc, and another quantity of water) added to the first, will increase the effect; the addition of a third combination will increase the effect still more, and so on. Previously to the description of the construction of the very remarkable effects of those repeated combinations, which are now generally called galvanic batteries, it will be necessary to state the principal laws, which have been pretty well ascertained with respect to the simple combinations. 1. The conductors of electricity, which, strictly speak; ing, do almost all differ from each other in conducting power, are nevertheless divided into two principal classes. Those of the first class, otherwise called dry and perfect conductors, are the metallic substances and charcoal. Those of the second class, or therimperfect conductors, arc water and other oxidating fluids, as also the sub- stances which contain those fluids. Eut as the substan- ces ofthe second class differ in conducting power much more than those ofthe first class, so they may be sub- divided into species. Mr. Volta arranges those substances in the following order, commencing with the least active; observing, how- ever, that this order is subject to a considerable devia- tion, especially with respect to the latter species, and according as they are combined with certain bodies of the first class. "1. Pure water; (it may be observed, that water hold- ing in solution common air, and especially oxygen gas, is much more active than water deprived of air by boil- ing or otherwise.) 2. Water mixed with clay or chalk; S. A solution of sugar; 4. Alcohol; 5. Milk; 6. Mucilagi- GALVANISM. nous fluids; 7. Animal gelatinous fluids; 8. Wine; 9. Vinegar and other vegetable juices and acids; 10. Saliva; 1 I. Mucus from the nose; 12. Blood; 13. Brains; 14. Solution of salt; 15. Soapsuds; 16. Chalk-water; 17. Concent rated mineral acids; 18. Strong alkaline leys; 19. Alkaline fluids; 20. Livers of sulphur.*' 2. The simplest combinations capable of producing galvanic effects, (viz. to convulse the prepared limbs of a frog, or to excite the taste upon the tongue, kc.) must consist of three different conductors; for two conductors only will not produce any sensible effect. If the three conductors are all ofthe first class, or all ofthe second, then the effect is seldom sensible. In this case such conductors ofthe second class as differ more from each other, are more likely to produce a sensible effect than those of the first class. But a proper active simple com- bination must consist of three different bodies; viz. of one conductor of cue class, and two different conductors of the other class. Thus (denoting the bodies of the first clas< by means of large capital letters, and those of the secciid class by small letters) the combinations of fig. 5 and 6, are acti\e; bet those of fig. 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11, are not arti\e; because that of fig. 7, 8, or 9, consists of two bodies only, and that of fig. 10 or 11, consists of three bodies, of which two aro of the same sort, and of course act as a single body. When two of the three bodies arc of the first class, and one is ofthe second, the combination is said to be of the first order; otherwise it is said to be of the second order. In a single active galvanic combination, or, as it is commonly called, in a simple galvanic circle, the two bodies of one class must touch each other in one or more points, at the same time that they are connected together at other points by the body of the other class. Thus, when a prepared frog is convulsed by the contact of the same piece of metal in two different places; then the fluids of those parts, which must he somewhat different from each other, are the two conductors of the second class, and the metal is the third body, or the conductor ofthe first class. If two metals are used, then the fluids of the prepared animal, differing but little from each other, may be considered as one body of the second class. Thus also, when a person drinks out of a pewter mug, the saliva or moisture of his under lip is one fluid or one conductor of the second class, the liquor in the mug is the other, and the metal is the third body, or conductor ofthe first class. ■3. It seems to be indispensably requisite, that in a simple galvanic- circle, the conductor or conductors of one class should have some chemical action upon the other conductor or conductors; without which circum- stance the combination of three bodies will have either no galvanic action at all, or a very slight one. Farther, ihe galvanic action seems to be proportionate to the de- gree of chemical agency; which seems to show that such rhemical action is the primary cause ofthe electric phe- nomena. The most active galvanic circles ofthe first order, are when two solids of different degrees of oxidability are combined with a fluid capaole of oxidating at least one of the solids. Thus gdld, silver, and water, do not form an active galvanic circle; but the circle will become active vol. ii. 28 if a little nitric acid, or any fluid decomposable by siiver, is mixed with the water. A combination of zinc, silver, and water, forms an ac- tive galvanic circle; and the water is found to oxidate the zinc, provided the water holds some atmospheric air, as it commonly does, and especially if it contains oxygen gas. But zinc, silver, and water containing a little nitric acid, form a more powerful galvanic circle, the fluid being capable id' acting both upon the zinc and upon the silver. The most powerful galvanic combinations of tbe se second order, are when two conductors of the second class have different chemical actions on the conductors ofthe first class, at the same time that they have an ac- tion upon each other. Thus copper, or silver, or lead, with a solution of an alkaline sulphuret, and diluted ni- trous acid, forms a very active galvanic circle. The present state of knowledge relative to this subject, docs not enable us actually to determine the particular powers of all sorts of galvanic combinations; the follow- ing lists, however, contain an useful arrangement ofthe best combinations, disposed inthe order of their powers, and commencing with the most powerful. Table of galvanic circles of the first order, viz. which consist of two conductors of tho first class, and one of the second. Zinc, with gold, or charcoal, or silver, or copper, or tin, or iron, or mercury; and water containing a small quantity of any ofthe mineral acids. Iron, with gold, or charcoal, or silver, or copper, or tin, and a weak solution of any of the mineral acids, as above. Tin, with gold, or silver, or charcoal, and a weak so- lution of any ofthe mineral acids, as above. Lead, with gold, or silver, and a weak acid solution, as above. Any ofthe above metallic combinations, and common water, viz. water containing atmospheric air, or espe- cially water containing oxygen air. Copper, with gold, or silver, and a solution of nitrate of silver and mercury; or the nitric acid; or the acetous acid. Silver, with gold, and the nitric acid. Table of galvanic circles ofthe second order, wz. which consist of one conductor ofthe first class, and two of the second. Charcoal, or with water, or with Copper, or a solution of any Silver, or hydrogenatcd al- Lead, or kaline s.ilphurets, Tin, or capable of acting Iron, or on the first three Zinc, metals only; The action of a simple galvanic circle seems to be in some measure dependant upon the quantity of surface of contact between the acting bodies. A higher temperature, within certain limits, renders the activity of the circle greater than a lower temperature. The activity of a galvanic circle is not altered bv the interposition of such conductors as have no action "upon the adjoining conductors of the circle. Tims, if a circle consists of zinc, gold, and water; and if you interpose a piece of iron, or of silver, or both, between the zinc and and a solution of nitrous acid, or oxygenated mu- riatic acid, kc capable of acting upon all the me- tals. GALVANISM. the gold; the activity of the circle will not be alter- ed. Hence it appears that the action of a galvanic cir- cle may be conveyed through extraneous conductors to a considerable distance; but it must be observed, that the activity is w eakened by the great length of the con- ductors, especially if they are of an imperfect nature. 4. When the three bodies which form a galvanic circle of the first order arc laid one upon the other, but the low- el* and the upper one do not touch each other; then these two extremes are in opposite electric states, viz. the ex- tremity which is next to that metallic surface that touch- es the body of the second class, is positive, and the op- posite extremity is negative. Thus let copper, zinc, and moistened leather, be laid one upon the other, as in fig. 12, and the upper end W, viz. the wetted leather, will be found possessed of positive electricity; whilst the lower end C, or the copper, will be found negative. 5. The galvanic effects may be increased to almost any degree, by connecting several ofthe above-mentioned ac- tive combinations, or by a repetition of the same simple galvanic combination (the most active simple combina- tions forming the most powerful batteries, and vice versa) provided the simple combinations are disposed so as not to contract each other. Those batteries are said to be of the first or of the se- cond order, according as the simple combinations, of which they consist, are ofthe first or ofthe second order. Thus, if a piece of zinc is laid upon a piece of copper, and a piece of moistened card upon the zinc; then a simi- lar arrangement of three other such pieces laid upon them, and a third arrangement upon this, kc. all in the same order; the whole will form a battery of the first or- der. But if the arrangement is made by connecting a piece of copper with apiece of cloth moistened with water; the latter with a piece of cloth moistened with a solution of sulphuret of potass, and this again with another piece of copper, kc the whole will form a battery ofthe second order. Mr. Davy distinguishes the batteries of the second or- der into the following three classes: 1. The most feeble is composed, whenever single me- tallic plates, or arcs, are arranged in such a manner, that two of their surfaces, or ends opposite to each other, are in contact with different fluids, one capable and the other incapable of oxidating the metal. And regular series of such combinations are formed. 2. When the single combinations or elements of the series consist each of a single plate or arc of a metallic substance capable of acting upon sulphureted hydrogen, or upon sulphuret dissolved in water, accompanied with portions of a solution of sulphurcts of potass on one side, and water on the other. 3. The most powerful class is formed when metallic substances oxidable in acids, and capable of acting on so- lutions of sulphurets, are connected, as plates, with oxi- dating fluids and solutions of sulphuret of potass, in such a maner thatthe opposite sides of every plate may be un- dergoing different chemical changes, the mode of alter- nation being regular. The above-mentioned restriction, viz. thatthe parts of a battery must not counteract each other, will be easily understood by considering that every simple, but inter- rupted galvanic combination, has a positive and a nega- tive end; or that in every complete galvanic circle, the electric fluid circulates in one way only. Thus, if two simple combinations arc disposed as in fig. 14, this ar- rangement will not have any galvanic power, because the actions of the two simple combinations, or the two currents of electricity, are opposed to each other; the two positive ends being called p, and the two negative ends n. But if those fixed bodies are disposed as in fig. 15, then the combination will be very active; because, ac- cording to the hypothesis, the direction of the electric fluid in each simple arrangement tends the same way, and probably the one accelerates the other. What has been said above of the arrangement of two simple galvanic combinations, must be likewise under- stood to hold good with respect to the connection of any number of the same; viz. that they must not counteract each other; or, if a certain number of them counteract each other, then the remaining only form the active part of the battery. For instance, if a battery consists of 40 simple combinations, and if 12 of them are placed in a direction contrary to the others; then these 12 will coun- teract 12 others, and of course the whole battery will have no more power than if it consisted of 16 simple combinations properly disposed. This points out a method of comparing the powers of two batteries; for if those batteries are connected in an inverted order, viz. the positive end of one to touch the negative end of the other; then, on connecting the two other extremities, or on applying them to proper instru- ments, the whole power will be annihilated, if the sepa- rate batteries had equal power; otherwise the power of the whole will be the excess of the power of the most powerful battery above that of the weakest; and the di- rection, viz. its being positive or negative, will show to which battery it belongs. It must be observed, with res- pect to the inactive arrangement of fig. 14, that if one of the separate bodies Z, is removed, then the remaining five bodies will form an active combination; for in that case, W, W, become one body, and S, S, likewise act as one body. It is almost superfluous to observe, that (as has been said with respect to simple circles) in a galvanic battery the interposition of conductors that have no particular action, or of the conductors of the same class as the ad- joining bodies, does not alter the effect ofthe battery. Thus far we have stated the general laws, which have been pretty well ascertained with respect to galvanic combinations. We shall now proceed to describe the practical construction, and the effects of those combina- tions, especially of the compound arrangements or bat- teries. The simplicity of single galvanic circles is so great, that nothing more need be said with respect to their con- struction; for when the three bodies are selected, the ope- rator needs only take care that their contact is perfect. Galvanic batteries have been constructed of various shapes, and they may be endlessly diversified. But the most useful forms are represented by figs. 16, 17, and 19. Those of figs. 16 and 17 are more easily constructed; that of fig. 16, however, is the most commodious. The battery, fig. 16, consists of several glasses, or china cups, full of water, or of water containing salt, 6cc; and two plates unconnected with each othcri viz. a GALVANISM. plate of zinc and a plate of silver, are plunged in the flu- id of each cup, excepting the first and last cups; but each of those plates must have a sort of tail or prolon- gation, by which they are so connected that the silver plate of one cup communicates with the zinc plate of the next, and so on. The battery, fig. 17, consists of pieces of silver, about as big as half-crowns, pieces of zinc, of an equal size to those of silver, and pieces of card, or cloth, or leather, or other bibulous substance, a little smaller in diameter than the metallic pieces, and soaked in water or in other proper fluid. Those pieces are disposed in the order of silver, zinc, and wet cloth, &c. as indicated by the letters S, Z, W. The pieces of card, or cloth, must be well soaked in the fluid; but before they are applied, they should be squeez- ed, in order that the superfluous fluid may not run down the outside of the pile, or insinuate itself between the con- tiguous pieces of silver and zinc. Those pieces, espe- cially if soaked in plain water, lose their moisture pretty soon, so that they can hardly serve longer than for a day or two; after which time the pile must be decomposed, the metallic pieces cleaned, those of cloth or card soaked again, and the whole arranged as before. The three rods R, R, R, are of glass or of baked wood; and tbe piece of wood, O, slides freely up or down the reds. This serves to prevent the falling ofthe pieces. When such battery is to be very powerful, viz. is to consist of numerous pieces, the best way is to form two or three or more piles, and to join them by pieces of metal, as c c in fig. 18, where two piles are joined to- gether, so that a is the negative extremity, and b is the other or positive extremity of the whole arrangement, or ofthe two piles considered as one. The battery, fig. 19, consists of a strong oblong vessel of baked wood, about three inches deep and about as much broad. In the sides of this vessel grooves are made opposite to each other, and about one-eighth of an inch in depth. In each pair of opposite grooves a double metallic plate, viz. a plate of zinc and a plate of silver sol- dered together at their edges, are cemented; by which means the wooden vessel is divided into several parti- tions, or cells, about half an inch broad, as is sufficiently indicated by the figure. The cementation of the metal- lic pieces into the sides and the bottom of the wooden vessel, must be so accurate as not to permit the passage of any fluid from one cell into the next. The cement proper for this purpose is made by melting together 5 parts of resin, 4 parts of bees'-wax, and 2 parts of pow- dered red ochre. Those cells are afterwards filled almost to the top with water, or any other fluid, according to the foregoing table; and thus the whole will form a battery, consisting of various repetitions of silver, zinc, and fluid. Two or more of such batteries may be joined, as has been said of the preceding battery. See fig. 24. It need hardly be observed, that instead of zinc, cop- per, and water, other combinations may be made accord- ing to the table. At present the last-described batteries are constructed with copper, zinc, and water mixed with a small proportion of nitric or muriatic acid. For the con- struction of such batteries it is immaterial whether the petals are quite pure or slightly alloyed. The action of all these batteries is greatest when thev are first completed or filled with the fluid; and it de- clines in proportion as the metal is oxidated, or the fluid loses its power. Hence, after a certain time, not only the fluid must be changed, but the metallic pieces must be cleaned by removing the oxidated surface; which is done eitlier by filing or by rubbing them with sand or sand-paper, or by immersing them for a short time in diluted muriatic acid, and then wiping them with a coarse cloth. The metallic pieces of the battery, fig. 19, may be cleaned by the last method, and may be wiped by introducing a stick with a rag into the cells. Thus much may be sufiicient with respect td"~the con- struction of simple and compound galvanic arrangements. It is now necessary to state the effects of those combina- tions. Indeed, the mode of applying single galvanic circles, and their principal effects, have already been described; yet, for the sake of assisting the memory, it will be useful to collect those effects under the four fol- lowing heads, in explanation of which we shall add such farther experiments and observations as could not with propriety be mentioned before. (l) The action of a single galvanic circle affects the organs of living animals, or of animals recently dead, especially when one end of the combination is connected with a nerve, and the other end is connected with a mus- cle of the same limb. (2) That action maybe transmitted through good con- ductors of electricity, but not through electrics, or through less perfect conductors. (3) It affects the electrometer by the intermediation of other instruments. (4) That action increases, or otherwise modifies, the chemical agency of the bodies concerned, upon each other. The limbs of animals, especially of frogs recently dead, are the most sensible instruments of galvanic powers; and, intact, the simplest galvanic circle's will affect them, when they will not produce any other decisive electrical effect. The various powers of different simple circles may be ascertained by applying them to such animal prepara- tions as have their vitality or irritability more or less exhausted. Thus Mr. Volta, in his letter to Grcn, says, " If you take a frog, the head of which has been cut off, and which has been deprived of all life by thrusting a needle into the spinal marrow, and immerse it without skinning, taking out the bowels, or any other prepara- tion, into two glasses of water, the rump into one, aud the legs into the other as usual; it will be strongly agi- tated and violently convulsed when you connect the water in both glasses by a bow formed of very different metals, such as silver and lead, or, what is better, silver and zinc; but this will by no means be the case when the two metals are less different in regard to their powers, such as gold and silver, silver and copper, copper and iron, tin and lead. But what is more, the effect will be fully produced on this so little prepared frog, when you immerse in one of the two glasses the end of a bow merely of tin or zinc, and into the other glass the other end of this bo«v which has been rubbed over with a little alkali. You may perform the experiment still better with an iron bow, one end of which has been covered GALVANISM. with a drop of thin coating of nitrous acid; and beyond all expectation, when you take a silver bow, having a little sulphuret of potass adhering to its extremity." When a single powerful galvanic combination of the second order is applied with one end to the tongue, and with the other fluid end to some other sensible part of the body, an acid taste is perceived on the tongue, which taste, by continuing the contact, becomes less distinct, and is even changed into an alkaline taste. If a tin bason is filled with soap-suds, lime-water, or a strong ley. which is still better; and if you then lay bold of the bason with both your hands, having first moistened them with pure water, and apply the tip of your tongue to the fluid in the bason, you will immedi- ately be sensible of an acid taste upon your tongue, which is in contact with the alkaline liquor. This taste is very perceptible, and, for the moment, pretty strong; but it is changed afterwards into a different one, less acid, but more saline and pungent, until at last it becomes alka- line and sharp, in proportion as the fluid acts more upon the tongue. Mr. Davy observes, that if zinc and silver are made to form a circle with distilled water, holding in solution air, for many weeks, a considerable oxidation ofthe zinc is perceived, without the perceptible evolution of gas; and the water, at its point of contact with the silver, be- comes possessed ofthe power of tinging green, red cab- bage juice1, and of rendering turbid, solution of muriate of magnesia. ' The chemical action of bodies upon each other is in- creased by the galvanic arrangement so much, that sonic of them are by that means enabled to act upon bodies that otherwise the y would have no action upon. Fig. 20. represents a glass tube about four inches long. Two corks are thrust into its apertures A and B. An oblong piece of zinc, CD, is fixed into one ofthe corks, and is made to project within and without the tube. EFGis a silver wire, which, being fixed into the other cork, pro- jects with the extremity E within the tube; and its other extremity is bent so as to come near the projecting part of the zinc C. Remove one of those corks, and fill the tube with water, in which you must mix a drop or two of muriatic acid; then replace the cork, and you will find that the zinc is acted upon by the diluted acid, is oxidated by it, and bubbles of gas arc evolved from it; but the silver wire E remains untouched, and no gass whatever is evolved from it. Now, if you bend tbe silver wire FG, so that its end G may touch the zinc at C, then the gal- vanic circle of silver, zinc, and diluted ac id is completed, in conse/jucncc of which the diluted acid is enabled to act stronger upon the zinc D, which is manifested by the more ccpious evolution of gas. and is besides enabled to act upon the silver wire; for now you will observe the evolution of gas from the siver E also. Break the con- tact between G and C, and the silver E will cease to yield gas. Form it again, and gas will again proceed from the silver. Instead of silver, zinc, and diluted muriatic acid, you may in thesame manner use gold, tin, and diluted nitric acid; and by completing the circle, the acid will be ena- bled to act upon the gold. It has been observed, that whenever an oxidating in- fluence is exerted at one of the places of contact of the perfect and imperfect conductors, a deoxidating action appears to be produced at the other place. Thus when iron, which oxidates rapidly when forming a circle with si her and common water, is arranged with zinc and common water, it remains perfectly unaltered, whilst the zinc is rapidly acted upon. Such are the facts which have as yet been discovered with respect to the power of single galvanic circles. Thev form a remarkable addition to the science of electricity, and open a vast field of speculation and experimental investigation; yet we are unable to form a theory suffi- cient to account for the original cause, or for the action of that very remarkable power; and we can only wait with patience for the probable elucidation, which maybe afforded by farther discoveries. If the effects of single circles are very remarkable, the collected power of several single circles, or of the bat- tery,, cannot fail of surprising the least reflecting mind. The battery not only convulses the prepared limbs of a frog, or produces the appearance of a flash of light before the human eye1; but it shows all the phenomena of elec- tricity in a very considerable degree. It gives the shock; it affects the electrometer; shows a luminous spark, ac- companied with an audible report; it burns metallic and other combustible bodies; and continues in action for a very long time, viz. until the chemical action between the component parts of the battery is quite exhausted. The following paragraphs contain a more particular,yet concise, enumeration of those wonderful effects. When the galvanic battery of the first order consists of 20 repetitions of simple combinations, if you touch with one hand one extremity ofthe battery, as at b, in any one of the above described batteries (Sec figs. I r, 18, 19), and apply your other hand to the other extremity of the battery, as at a, you will feel a very slight shock, like that which is communicated by a Lev den phial weakly charged, and it will be hardly felt beyond the fingers, or at most the wrists. This shock is frit as often as you renew the contact. If you continue the hands in contact with the extremities b and a, you will perceive a slight but continued irritation; and, when the hand or other part of the body, which touches the extremity of the battery, is excoriated or wounded, this sensation is disagreeable and rather painful. The dry skin ofthe human body is seldom capable of conducting this shock; therefore the touching fingers should be well moistened with water. It will he better to immerse a wire that proceeds from one extremity ofthe battery, in a bason of water, wherein you may plunge one of your hands; then grasping with your other hand well moistened a large piece of metal, for instance a large sil- ver spoon, touch the other end of the batter* with it, and the shock will be felt more distinctly. By this means the shock has been felt when the battery consisted of less than twenty repetitions. Instead of one person, several persons may join hands (which must be well moistened with water), and on com- pleting the circuit, they will all feel the shock at the same instant. But the strength of the shock is much dimin- ished by its passing through the several persons, or, in general, by passing through less perfect conductors. The shock from a battery consisting of 50 or 60 repe- GALV titions ofthe most aci.ve combinations of the first order may be felt as far as the elbow-,: and the combined force of five1 or six; such batteries will give a shock perhaps much stronger than most men would be willing to receive. The prepared limits of a frog or other animal are vio- lently conv.ilscd, but soon exhausted of their irritability by the action of a galvnii' battery. This shock is similar to 1hat of a large common elec- trical battery weakly charged, and not to that of a small Leyden phial fully charged. The difference consists in this, viz. that the latter contains a small quantity of elec- tric fluid h'ghly condensed; hence its discharge will force its way through perhaps an inch e>f air; whereas tiie former contains a vast ejuautity of electricity but little condensed; hence its sparks, viz. its course through the air, is so very short, that the fingers must be brought almost into perfect contact in order to receive the shock: and such is the case with the galvanic battery: for the shook from a very powerful battery of this sort will hardly ever lercc its way through the air, when the ex- tremities of the circle of communication are mtfrc than a fortieth of an inch distant, even when those extremi- ties consist of perfect conductors. In this case a small but very vivid spark is seen at that extremity, accompa- nied with an audible but not strong report. There is no perceptible difference of appearance between the spark of the positive and that ofthe negative end of the battery. If a wire proceeding from one extremity of a pretty strong battery is made. to romuiunieatc with the inside coating, and a wire, which proceeds from tin- other ex- tremity ofthe battery, is made1 to communicate with the outside coating of a common large jar or electrical bat- tery; the latter will become weakly, but almost instanta- neously, charged, in the same manner as if it had been charged by a few turns of a common electrical machine; and with that charge you may eitlier give the shock or affect on electrometer, kc In short, every thing conspires to prove that a galvanic battery produces a vast quantity of electric fluid, but which is little condensed: and indeed it would be impos- sible to suppose that the electric fluid could proceed in a very condensed state from an arrangement of bodies, which, whether more or less, are however all good con- ductors of electricity; for if the fluid was much con- densed at one extremity ofthe battery, and much rare- fied at the other extremity, the condensation would soon be made through the pile itself. Indeed, it is difficult to comprehend how this compensation does not take place in all cases. Having mentioned above, that the charge of a battery may be communicated to a common electrical battery, it is almost superfluous to observe, that the same may be communicated to a condenser, or to a multiplier, and from it to the electrometer. If the battery consists of 200 repetitious, the electrometer will be affected by the sim- ple contact. The spark, or the discharge of a galvanic battery, when sent through thin inflammable bodies that are in contact with common or oxygen air. sets them on fire, and consumes them with wonderful activity. It fires gun-powder, hvdrogen gas, phosphenm. and other com- bustibles; it renders red-hot. lose-, and consumes very slender metallic wires and mete.iiic leaves. The mode of VNISM. • applying the power of the battery for such purposes is shown in fig. 21, where AB represents a powerful gal- vanic battery; ACDF is a wire which communicates with the last plate ofthe battery at A; BKIHG is ano- ther wire which communicates with the last plate at B. DE, HI, are two glass tubes, through which those wires pass, and into which they are fastened <■> ;*i i ntly steady. Those tubes serve to move the wires by; for iftlo ope- rator applies his fingers to the middlemost parts of tho^e tubes, he may move the wires wherever he pleases, with- out the fear of receiving a shock. If the two extremi- ties F, G, are brought sufficiently near to each other, the spark will be seen between them. It is between those ex- tremities that the combustible substances, or metalic leaf, (Sec. is to be placed, in order to be fired or consumed. This figure represents the situation ofthe wires in the act of inflaming gunpowder. A battery consisting of 200 pairs of metallic- plates (viz. copper and zinc, each five inches square) melted 23 inches of very fine iron wire. A pla- tina wire about TjT inch in diameter, was melted into a globule. Fig. 24 is the representation of a compound bat- tery of the same kind, fastened together with iron cramps a, ft, c. Under the exhausted receiver of the air pump, the gal- vanic battery acts less powerfully than in the open air; but in oxygen air it acts with increased power. The flash of light which aj pears before the eye ofthe cxpcriiiiener. when the eye itself, or some other part not very remote from it, is put in the circuit of a galvanic combination, does not appear much greater when a bat- tery is employed than when two plates are applied inthe manner which has been already mentioned; but when the battery is used, the sensation of a Hash may he prod "iced in various ways. If one hand or both be placed in per- fect contact with one extremity of the battery, and almost any part of the face brougitt into contact with the other extremity ofthe battery, the flash will appear very c'isinc tly, the experimenter being in the dark, or keep- ing his eyes shut. This flash appears very strong, when a wire which proceeds from one extremity of the battery is held between the teeth, and rests upon the tongue, whilst the other wire is held in the hand. Iu this case the lips and the tongue are convulsed, the fl.ish appears before the eyes, and a very pungent taste is perceiNed in the mouth. If any part of the human body, forming part of the circuit of a galvanic battery, is kept sometime in that situation, the irritation or numbness is more or less dis- tinct, and me.re or less painful, according to the sensi- bility ofthe parts o neerned. This application is likely to prove most useful as a remedy in various disorders. It is said that it has already proved beneficial in dcaf- n-saes and in rheumatisms. It iiighly deserves to be tried by medical persons. See fig. 25. The most extraordinary phenomena of a g.dvanic bat- tery are the chemical effects and the modifications which are produced by it upon the bodies concerned, or up n such as are placed in the circuit. We shall first describe the simplest mode of exhibiting the principal of those phenomena, namely, the evolution of gas from water, from which the mode of conducting similar exj.'eriiiie-nts is easily derived; then shall tianscribc the various parti- culars which relate to those chemical effects, from the 1933 GALVANISM. Journals ofthe British Royal Institution, where they arc concisely expressed. AB, fig. 22, exhibits a glass tube full of distilled water and having a cork at each extremity. EF is a brass or copper wire, which proceeds from one extremity of a gal- vanic battery, and, passing through the cork A, projects within the tube. HG is a similar wire, which proceeds from the other extremity of the battery, and comes with its extremity G within the distance of about an inch or two from the wire F. In this situation of things, you will find that bubbles of gas proceed in a constant stream from the surface G of the wire which proceeds from the negative end of the bat- tery; these bubbles of gas, ascending to the upper part of the tube, accumulate by degrees. This gas is the hy- drogen, and may be inflamed. At the same time the other w ire F deposits a stream of oxide in the form of a stream or cloud, which gradually accumulates in a green- ish form in the water, or on the sides of the tube, and is a perfect, oxide of the brass. The wire F is readily dis- coloured and corroded. If you interrupt the circuit, the production of gas and of oxide ceases immediately. Com- plete the circuit, and the production of gas re-app^ars. This production of gas may be observed even where the battery consists of not more than six or eight repeti- tions of silver, zinc, and water. In short, if the power of the battery is sufficient to oxidate one of the wires of communication, the other wire will afford hydrogen gas; both extremities of the wires being in water. In this experiment it seems thatthe hydrogen is sepa- rated from the water, and is converted into a gaseous state by the wire connected with the negative extremity of the battery; whilst the oxygen unites with and oxi- dates the wire connected with the positive end of the bat- tery. If you connect the positive end of the battery with the lower wire of the tube, and the negative with the up- per, then the hydrogen proceeds from the upper wire, and the lower wire is oxidated. If the two wires of gold or platinum are used, which arc not oxidable; then the stream of gas issues from each, the water is diminished, and the collected gas is found to be a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen. It explodes violently. Those two different elastic fluids may be obtained separate from each other by the following means: Let the extremities ofthe two wires which proceed from the battery, be immersed in water, at the distance of about an inch from each other, and place over each of them a small glass vessel inverted and full of water, as in fig. 23. Dr. Priestley, however, who denies the converti- bility of water into hydrogen and oxygen air, thinks that the elastic fluid in these experiments originates from the air which is contained in the water; «• since," says he, "if by means of oil upon the water, or a vacuum, ac- cess to the atmosphere is cut off, the whole production of gas ceases." Nor is any air produced when the water has been exhausted of it. In the above described apparatus, a little hole must he made in the lower cork B, for the purpose of giving exit to the water in proportion as the gas is formed. In all batteries of the first order, when the connexion is completed, changes take place which denote the evo- lution of influences capable of producing from common water oxygen and hydrogen, acid and alkali, in differ- ent parts of the body. Thus in tbe battery with a series of zinc plates, silver wires, and common water, oxide of zinc is formed on all the plates of zinc, whilst hydrogen is produced from the silver wires; and if the water in contact with them is tinged with red cabbage juice, it becomes green. And in the battery with silver, gold, and weak nitric acid, the silver is dissolved, wliilst the acid becomes green, and slowly evolves gas at its points of contact with the gold. The chemical agencies exerted in the compound batte- ries ofthe first order can be best observed by the substi- tution of single metallic wires for some ofthe plates; for in this case, the changes taking place in the series with wires, will be exactly analogous to those produced in the series with plates; silver, and all the more oxidable me- tals, oxidating in water, in thefisual place, and gold and platina evolving oxygen gas. Thus, when in two small glass tubes, connected by a moist animal substance, and filled with distilled water two gold wires are introduced from a large battery in the proper order, oxygen is produced in one quantity of water, and hydrogen in the other, nearly in the propor- tions in which they are required to form water by com- bustion: and if the process is continued for some time, the apparatus being exposed to the atmosphere, the water in the oxygen-giving tube, will become impregnated with an acid (apparently the nitrous); whilst that in the hy- drogen-giving tube will be found to hold in solution an alkali, which, in certain cases, has appeared to be fixed. From some experiments it would appear probable, that the quantities of hydrogen, produced in series, are small, and the quantities of alkali great, in proportion as the surfaces of contact of the least oxidable metals with the water are more extended. All the oxygenated solutions of bodies possessing less affinity for oxygen than nascent hydrogen, are decom- posed when exposed to the action ofthe metal occupying the place of the least oxidable part of the series in the compound circle. Thus, sulphur may be produced from sulphuric arid; and copper and other metals precipitated in the metallic form fr-om their solvents. It is well known that hydrogen gas, in its nascent state, reduces the oxides of metals. Accordingly, when the tube. fig. 22. is filled with a solution of acctite of lead in distilled water, and a communication is made with the battery as above described, no gas is perceived to issue from the wire which proceeds from the negative end of the battery; but, in a few minutes, beautiful me- tallic needles are perceived on the extremity of this wire; these soon increase, and assume the form of a fern or other vegetable. The lead thus separated is in its per- fect metallic state, and very brilliant. When a solution of sulphat of copper is employcd,fhe copper is precipitated in its metallic state; but instead of appearing in crystals, it forms a kind of button, which adheres firmly to tbe end of the wire. On making the experiment with a solution of nitrate of silver, the silver is precipitated in the form of a beau- tiful metallic brush, the metal shooting into fine needle- like crystals. GAL G A M If iron is immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper, the latter metal will be precipitated in a metallic form, and will ad he re to the surface of the former. Upon silver merely immersed in the same solution, no such effect is produced; but as soon as the two metals, viz. the silver and the copper, are brought into contact, the silver re- ceives a coating of copper. Little knowledge has yet been obtained concerning the chemical changes taking place in the batteries of the se- cond order. But from several experiments it would ap- pear that they are materially different in the laws of their production from those taking place in the first or- der. Thus, when single metallic wires with water arc placed as series in powerful batteries of the second order, the influence producing oxygen seems to be transmitted by the point in the place of that part of the plate which was apparently incapable of undergoing oxidation; whilst the hydrogen is evolved from that point where the oxidating part of the primary series appeared to exist. The agency of the galvanic influence, which occasions chemical changes and communicates electrical charges, is probably in some measure distinct from that agency which produces sparks and the combustion of bodies. The one appears (all other circumstances being simi- lar) to have little relation to surface in compound cir- cles, but to be great in some unknown proportion, as the number of series are numerous. The intensity of the other seems to be as much connected with the exten- sion ofthe surfaces ofthe series as with their number. Thus, though eight series composed of plates of zinc and copper, about 10 inches square, and of cloths of the same size, moistened in diluted muriatic acid, give sparks so vivid as to burn iron wire, yet the shocks they produce are hardly sensible, and the chemical changes indistinct; whilst 24 series of similar plates and cloths, about two inches square, which occasion shocks and chemical agencies more than three times as intense, pro- duce no light whatever. A measure of the intensity of the power in galvanic batteries, producing chemical changes, may be derived frem the quantity of gas it is capable of evolving from water in a given tim£ The preceding facts can hardly leave any doubt with respect to the identity of the galvanic power and the electricity which is produced by means of a common electrical machine, or that is brought down from the clouds; but, what is still more remarkable, it reconciles to the same principle the animal electricity, viz. the pow- er ofthe torpedo, gymnotus electricus, kc. since all the phenomena of the animal electricity agree with those of the galvanic battery. See Electricity. But the most striking circumstance is, that the elec- tric organ of any of the above-mentioned fishes seems to be constructed exactly lite a galvanic battery; for it consists of little laminse or pellicles arranged in columns, and separated by moisture. It seems, in short, to be a galvanic battery, consisting of conductors ofthe second order only, but undoubtedly of different conducting pow- ers. Though the galvanic battery exhibits all the leading properties of common electricity, such as the attraction, the spark, &c. yet in some effects, viz. the decomposi- tion of water, oxygenation of metals, kc. the former seem to differ considerably from the latter; but those ap- parent differences have been sufficiently reconciled by some very ingenious experiments and observations of Dr. W. H. Wedlaston. See Phil. Trans. 1801. With respect to the decomposition of water, which was thought to require very powerful electrical ma- chines, he justly suspected, that by reducing tbe surface of communication, the decomposition of water might be effected with less powerful means; and this was verified by actual experiments. " Having," he says, » procured a small wire of fine gold, and given it as fine a point as I could, I inserted it into a capillary glass tube; and af- ter beating the tube so as to make it adhere to the point, and cover it in e\cvy part, I gradually ground it down, till, with a pocket-lens, I could discern that the point of the gold was exposed. " The success of this method exceeding my expecta- tions, I coated several wires in the same manner, and found that when sparks from the conductors were made to pass through water by means of a point so guarded, a spark passing to the distance of one-eighth of an inch would decompose water, when the point exposed did not exceed Tl^ of an inch in diameter. With another point which I estimated at r,lro- of an inch, a succession of of sparks, ^ of an inch m length, afforded a current of small bubbles of air. •• I have since found that the same apparatus will decom- pose water with a wire -^ of an inch diameter, coated in the manner before described, if the spark from the prime conductor passes to the distance of T*T of an inch of air." He also found that with a gold point similar to, but much smaller than any ofthe above-mentioned, and si- milarly situated in water, the mere current of electri- city, without any sparks, would occasion a stream of very small bubbles to rise from the extremity of the gold. " Having coloured a card," he adds, " with a strong infusion of litmus, I passed a current of electric sparks along it, by means of two fine gold points, touching it at the distance of an inch from each other. The effect, as in other cases, depending on the smallness of the quantity of water, was most discernible when the card was nearly dry. In this state, a very few turns of the machine were sufficient to occasion a redness at the positive wire, very manifest to the naked eye. The negative wire being afterwards placed on the same spot, soon restored it to its original blue colour." Dr. Wollaston likewise remarks another strong point of analogy between the electricity of the galvanic bat- tery and that of a common electrical machine, viz. that they both seem to depend upon oxidation. In fact, a common electrical machine will act more or less power- fully, according as the amalgam which is applied to its rubber consists of metals that arc more or less oxidable. GAMBEZON, or Gamba, in antiquity, a kind of soft quilted waistcoat, worn under the coat of mail to prevent its hurting the body. It was made of wool or cotton, quilted between two stuffs, and was also called counterpoint. GAMBOGE, is a concreted vegetable juice, and is partly of a gummy and partly of a resinous nature. It GAME. is brought to us either in form of orbicular masses, or of cylindrical rolls of various sizes, and is of a dense, compact, and firm texture, and of a beautiful yellow. It is chiefly brought to us from Camhaja, in the East Indies, called also Camhodja and Cambogia; and thence it has obtained its names of camhadiuin, cambogium, and gambogium. It is a very rough and strong purge; it operates both by vomit and stool, and both ways with much vicdence, almost in the instant in which it is swallowed, but yet without griping. It requires caution and judgment in administering it; but those who know how to give it properly, find it an excellent remedy in dropsies, ca- chexies, jaundice, asthmas, catarrhs, and in the worst cutaneous eruptions. Its dose is from two or three grains to six, eight, or ten: four grains generally operate briskly without vo- miting, and eigfit or ten grains usually vomit briskly, and afterwards purge downwards. It is at present much more esteemed by painters in w »rer-rolours than by physicians. GAME, in general, signifies any diversion or sport that is performed with regularity, and restrained to cer- tain rules. Games are usually distinguished into those of address and those of hazard. To the first belong chess, tennis, billiards, wrestling, kc and to the latter those perform- ed with cards or dice, as back-gammon, ombre, picquet, whist, &c. It would be a most salutary maxim to be adopted ge- nerally, that no game should be pursued but such as af- forded exercise, and consequently contributed to the health ofthe body. In this view we greatly prefer such as tennis and billiards to the pernicious sedentary games at present pursued, which are only productive of gouts, palsies, kc Games, in antiquity, were public diversions, exhibit- ed on solemn occasions. Such, among the Greeks, were the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, Nemsean, kc. games; and. among the liomans, the Apollinarian, Circcnsian, Capitoline, kc. games. It was also customary among the Greeks for persons of quality to institute games, with all sorts of exercises, as running, wrestling, boxing, kc. at the funerals of their friends, to do them honour, and render their death more remarkable. This practice is frequently mentioned by ancient writers, as Miltiades's funeral in Herodotus, Brasidas's in Thucydides, Timoleon's in Plutarch, with many more. Nor was this custom peculiar to later ages, since we find the description of Patroeius's fune- ral games takes up the greatest part of one of Homer's Iliads; and even prior to this, the funeral of CEdipus is said to have been solemnized with sports. Among the Romans, there were three sorts of games, viz. sacred, honorary, and ludicrous. The first were instituted immediately in honour of some deity or hero; of which kind were those already mentioned, together with the augustales, floralcs, palatini, kc The second class were those exhibited by private persons at ttoir own expense, in order to please the people, and in- gratiate themselves with them, to make way for their own preferment: such were the combats of gladiators, the sce- nicgames. and other amphithcatrical sports. The ludi- crous games were much of the same nature with the games of exercise and hazard among us: such were the Indus trojanus, tessera?, tali, trochus, kc By a decree of the Roman senate, it was enacted, that the public games should be consecrated and united with the worshij) of the gods; whence it appears, that feasts, sacrifices, and games, made up the greatest part, or ra- ther the whole, of the external worshij) offered by the Romans to their deities. Others distinguish the Roman games into I. The equestrian, or curulc games, which were the same with the circcnsian. 2. The gymnic games, wherein were exhibited gladiatorial and other shows of the like nature: these were sacred to Mars and Minerva. 3. The theatrical entertainments, consisting of tragedies, come- dies, &c; these were sacred to Apollo, Bacchus, Miner- va, Venus, kc. Game. It is a maxim of the common law of Eng- land, that goods of which no person can claim any pro- perty belong to the king by his prerogative. Hence those animals ferse naturee, which come under the deno- mination of game, are styled in our laws his majesty's game; and that which he has he may grant to another; in consequence of which another may prescribe to have the same, within such a precinct or lordship. And hence originated the right of lords of manors or others to the game within their respective liberties. As the sole right of taking and destroying game be- longs exclusively to the king, as such he may authorize the only persons who can acquire any property, how- ever fugitive and transitory, in the animals coining un- der that denomination. For the preservation of these species of animals; for the recreation and amusement of persons of fortune, to whom the king, with the advice and assent of parlia- ment, has granted the same; and to prevent persons of inferior rank from miscmjiloying their time, the follow- ing acts of parliament have been made. The common people are not injured by these restrictions, no right be- ing taken from them which they ever c-KJoyed; but privi- leges are granted to those who have certain qualifica- tions therein mentioned, which before rested solely inthe king. 2 Bac. Abr. 612. For the sake of perspicuity, we have arranged the different acts of jiarliament in alphabetical order. Certificates to be dated the day of the month when is sued, and shall be in force till the 1st of July following and no longer: and if any clerk of the peace, his de- puty or steward, clerk, kc. issue certificates otherwise than directed, to forfeit 20l. 25 G. III. sess. 2. No person to destroy game until he has delivered an account of his name and place of abode to the clerk of the peace, or his deputy, or to the sheriff or steward clerk of the county, riding, shire, stewartry. or place where such person shall reside, and anuoally take out a certificate thereof, which must have a stamp duty of 3/. 3s. 25 Geo. HI. sess. 2. Any person counterfeiting or forging any seal or stamp directed to be used by this'act, with intent to defraud the revenue, or shall utter and sell such counterfeit, on con- viction thereof shall be adjudged a felon, and shall suf- fer death without benefit of clergy; and all provisions of GAME. former acts relative to stamp duties to be m force in ex- ecuting this act. Id. Every qualified person shooting at, killing, taking, or shooting any pheasant, partridge, heath-fowl, or black- game, or any grouse or red game, or any other game, or killing, taking or destroying any hare with any grey- hound, hound, pointer, spaniel, setting-dog, or other dog, without having obtained such certificate, shall for- feit the sum of 201. Id. Clerks of the peace or their deputies, or the sheriff or steward clerks, in their respective counties, ridings, shires, stewartries, or places, shall, on or before Novem- ber 1, 178.5, or sooner if required by tbe commissioners of his majesty's stamp duties, transmit to the head office of stamps in London, a correct list in alphabetical order of the certificates by them issued between the 25th day of ' March, in the year 1785, and the 1st of October in the same year; and shall also in every subsequent year, on or before the 1st of August in each year, make out and transmit to the stamp-office in London, correct alphabe- tical lists of the certificates so granted by them, distin- guishing the duties paid on each respective certificate so Issued; and on delivery thereof, the receiver-general of the stamp duties shall pay to the clerk ofthe peace, &c. for the same one halfpenny a name; and in case of ne- glect or refusal, or not inserting a full, true, and per- fect account, he shall forfeit 20/. Id. Lists may be inspected at the stamp-office for Is. each search; id. which lists shall once or oftener in every year, be inserted in the newspapers in each respective county. If any qualified jierson, or one baring a deputation, shall be found in pursuit of game, with gun, dog, or net, or other engine for the destruction of game, or taking or killing thereof, and shall be required to show his certifi- cate by the lord or lady of the manor, or proprietor of the land whereon such person shall be using such gun, &c. or by any duly-appointed game-keeper, or by any qualified or certified person, or by any officer of tbe stamps, properly authorized by the commissioners, he shall produce his certificate; and if such person shall re- fuse, upon the production ofthe certificate ofthe person requiring the same, to show the certificate granted to him for the like purpose; or in case of not having such certificate to produce, shall refuse to tell his christian and surname, and his jdace of residence, and the name of the county where his certificate was issued, or shall give in any false or fictitious name, he shall forfeit 50/. Id. Certificates do not authorize any person to shoot at, kill, take or destroy any game at any time that is pro- hibited by law, nor give any person a right to shoot at, &c. unless he is duly qualified by law. Id. No certificate obtained under any deputation shall be pleaded or given in evidence, where any person shall shoot at, kc. any game out of the manors or lands for which it was given. The royal family are exempted from taking out certificates for themselves or their depu- ties. Id. Conies.—Destroying conies, transportation. 5 G. III. c. 14. Robbing warrens, felony without clergy. 9 G. I. s. 22. Killing them in the night, or endeavouring to kill them, fine of 10s. or commitment. 22 and 23 Car. II. C. 25. VOL. II. 29 Unqualified person using a gun to kill them, the same may be seized. 3 Jac. I. c. 13. Beer.—Stalking deer without leave, 10/. 19 H. VII. c. 11. Hunting or killing them, 10/., costs, and sureties for good behaviour. 5 Eliz. c. 21. Buck stalls or engines kept by unqualified persons may be seized. 3 Jac. I. c. 13. Selling or buying them to sell again, 40/. 3 Jac. I. C 27. Coursing or killing them without consent, 20L 13 Car. II. c. 10. Hunting, taking, killing, or wounding, 30/. or trans- portation. 3 W. III. c. 10.; 5 G. I. c. 15.; 9 G. I. C.22.; 10 G. II. c. 32. Destroying pales or walls of inclosed grounds, with- out consent, 30/. 5 G. I. c. 15. Keeper of parks privately killing or taking them, 501. Id. Robbing places where kept, felony without clergy. 9 G. I. c. 22. Game-keepers.—All lords of manors, or other royal- ties, may appoint game-keepers, and empower them to kill game. 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 25. But if game-keejiers dispose of the game without the lord's consent, he shall be committed for three months, and kept to hard labour. 5 Anne, c. 14. But no lord shall make above one game-keeper within one manor, with power to kill game, and his name shall be entered with the clerk of tbe peace; certificate where- of shall be granted by the clerk of the peace on payment of 10s. 6; call a 3, and b 2, and you will have the ratio of chances in numbers, viz. 1759077 to 194048. A and B play at single quoits, and A is the best game- ster, so that he can give B 2 in 3, what is the ratio of their chances at a single throw? Suppose the chances as * to 1, and raise * + 1 to its cube, which willebc z3 + 3%% + 3* + l. Now, since A could givefB 2 out of 3, A might undertake to win three throws running, and, consequent- ly, the chances in this case will be as »3 to 3z2 + 3% + 1. Hence z3 = 3z2 + 3% + 1; or, 2*3 = «3 + 5z* + 3» + 1. And therefore, z3y/2 = » + l; and, consequently, % = , ~^----:• The chances, therefore, are_______- V2 — 1 3v2 _ i, and 1, respectively. Again, Suppose I have two wagers, depending, in the first of which I have 3 to 2 the best of the lay, and in the second 7 to 4, what is the probability I win both wa- gers? 1. The probability of winning the first is j, that is, the number of chances I have to win, divided by the num- ber of all the chances: the probability of winning the se- GAMING. cond is T7T: therefore, multiplying these two fractions to- gether, the product will be |j, which is the probability of winning both wagers. Now, this fraction being subtract- ed from 1, the remainder is |*, which is the probability I do not win both wagers; therefore the odds against me are 34 to 21. 2. If I would know what the probability is of winning the first, and losing the second, I argue thus: the proba- bility of winning the first is |, the probability of losing the second is T*T; therefore multiplying! by T^., the pro- duct || will be the probability of my winning the first, and losing the second; which being subtracted from 1, there will remain |f, which is the probability I do not win the first, and at the same time lose the second. 3. If I would know what the probability is of winning thetecond, and at the same time losing the first, I say thus: the probability of winning the second is y\; the probability of losing the first is f: therefore, multiplying these two fractions together, the product i| is the pro- bability I win the second, and also lose the ti.st. 4. If 1 would know what the probability is of losing both wagers, I say, the probability of losing the first is \, and the probability of losing the secon i x\; therefore, the probability of losing them h -th is T8T; which being subtracted from 1, there remains |^: therefore, the odds of losing both wagers is 47 to 8. This way of reasoning is applicable to the happening or failing of any events that may fall under cnsidera- tion. Thus, if I would know what the probability is of missing an ace four times together with a die, this I consider as the failing of four different events. Now the probability of missing the first is £, the second is also *, the third £, and the fourth f; therefore the probabili- ty of missing it four times together is £ X £ x £ f = ■fV/vJ which being subtracted from 1, there will remain tVtV» for tlie probability of throwing it once or oftener in four times; therefore the odds of throwing an ace in four times, is 671 to 625. But if the flinging of an ace was undertaken in three times, the probability of missing it three times would be s 5 x * = ns. which being subtracted from 1, there will remain /,V for the probability of throwing it once or oftener in three times; therefore the odds against throwing it in three times are 125 to 91. Again, suppose we would know the probability of throwing an ace once in four times, and no more: since the probability of throwing it the first time is £, and of missing it the other three times is £ £ v £. it follows that the probability of throwing it the first time, and missing it the other three successive times, is £ > £ x £ x £ = iWV» but because it is possible to hit it every throw as well as the first, it follows, that the probability of throwing it once in four throws, and missing the other 4 x 125 500 three, is—r^r- = -y^; which being subtracted from 1, there will remain T\9/ff for the probability of throwing it once, and no more, in four times. Therefore, if one undertake to throw an ace once, and no more, in four times, he has 500 to 796 the worst of the lay, or 5 to 8 very near. Suppose two events are such, that one of thein has twice as many chances to come up as the other, what is the probability that the event which has the greatei number of chances to come up, does not happen twice before the other happens once, which is the case of fling- ing 7 with two dice before 4 once? Since the number of chances are as 2 to 1, the probability ofthe first happen- ing before the second is £, but the probability of ks hap pening twice before it, is but f x |. or |; therefore it is 5 to 4 seven does not come up twice before four once. But if it were demanded, what must be the proportion of the facilities of the coming up of two events, to make that which has the most chances come up twice, before the other comes up once, the answer is 12 to 5 very near- ly: whence it follows, that the probability of throwing the first before the second is \2, and the probability of throwing it twice is \2 x \\, or l£f; therefore, the pro- bability of not doing it is ||f: therefore the odds against it are as 145 to 144,Which comes very near an equality. Suppose there is a heap of thirteen cards of one colour, and another heap of thirteen cards of another colour. what is the probability that, taking one card at a ven- ture out of each heap, I shall take out the two aces? Tbe probability of taking the ace out of the first heap is -j1,. tbe probability of taking tbe ace out of the second heap is ,L; therefore the probability of taking out both aces is x\ x A = i }*• which being subtracted from \, there will remain '•»: therefore the odds against me are 168 to 1. In cases where the events depend on one another, tbe manner of arguing is somewhat altered. Thus, suppose that out of one single heap of thirteen cards of one co- lour, I should undertake to take out first the ace; and, secondly, the two: though the probability of taking out the ace be T»T, and the probability of taking out the two be likewise TJ7; yet, the ace being supposed as taken out already, there will remain only twelve cards in the heap, which will make the probability of taking out the two to be t\; therefore the probability of taking out the ace, and then the two, will be ^ x t|. In this last question the two events have a dependance on each other, which consists in this, that one of tbe events being supposed as having happened: the proba- bility ofthe other's happening is thereby altered. But the *case is not so in the two heaps of cards. If the events in question be n in number, and be such as have the same number a of chances by which the> may happen, and likewise the same number 6 of chances by which they may fail, raise a -f 6 to the power n. And if A and B play together, on condition that either one or more of the events in question happen, A shall win, and B lose, the probability of A's winning will be T\n-6n and that of B's winning will be aT7nH o -&T for when a + b is actually raised to the power n, the only n term in which a does not occur is the last b : therefore, all the terms but the last are favourable to A. Thus, if n = 3, raising a -f b to the cube a3 -f Su2b f Sab2 f b3, all tbe terms but b3 will be favourable to A; and therefore the probability of A's winning will be as ; Sa*b Sob2 a W\3 — b3 . A, , .... or i___ ----; and the probability of a+ty u-tby G A 0 G A 0 b* B's winning will be -i---... . But if A and B play on con- a + b\3 dition,that if either two or more ofthe events in question happen, A shall win; but in case one only happen, or none, B snail win; the probability of A's winning will be •a-rB\n-nabn-1 -bn -------------------------; for the only two terms in n—l which aa docs not occur, are the two last, viz. nab n and b . See Chance. GAMMONING, among seamen, denotes several turns cf rope taken round the bowsprit, and reeved through holes in knees of the head, for the greatei security ofthe bowsprit. GAMMUT, in music, the name given to the table or scale laid down by Guido, and to the notes of which he applied the mon syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la. Having added a note below the proslambanomenos, or lowest tone ofthe ancients, he adopted for its sign the gamma, or third letter of the Greek alphabet; and hence his scale was afterwards called gainmut. This gammrt consisted of twenty notes, viz. two octaves and a major-sixth. The first octave was distinguished by capital letters, as G, A, B, kc. the second by small letters, g, a, b, &c. and the supernumerary sixth by double letters, as gg, aa, bb, kc By the word gammut, we now generally understand the whole present existing scale; and to learn the names and situations of its different notes is to learn the gam- mut. It, however, sometimes simply signifies the lowest note ofthe Guidonian or common compass. GANG, inthe sea language, the same with crew. The company with which a ship's boat is manned is called the cockswain's crew or gang. Gang, or Gangue, in mineralogy. The word gang is used by German mineralogists to denote a metallic vein. Now, it is not often that these veins consist entire- ly of ore; in general they contain stony matter besides. For instance, in the copper-mine at Airthry, near Stir- ling, the copper ore is merely a narrow stripe in the middle of the vein, and the rest of it is filled up with sul- phat of barytes. We use the word gangue as the French do, to denote not the metallic vein, but the stony matter which accompanies the ore in the vein. The gangue of the copper ore at Airthry is sulphat of barytes. Gang-way, is the several passages or ways from one part of the ship to the other; and whatever is laid in any of those passages is said to lie in the gang-way. GANGLIO, or Ganglion. See Surgery. GANGRENE. See Surgery. GANTLET, or Gauktlet, a large kind of glove made of iron, and the fingers covered with small plates. It was formerly worn by cavaliers, when armed at all points. GAOL. Gaols are of such 'universal concern to the public, that none can be erected by any less authority than an act of parliament. 2 Inst. 705. All prisons and gaols belong to the king, although a subject may have the custody or keeping of them. 2 Inst. 100. The justices of the peace at their general quarter- sessions, or the major part of them, provided that such major part shall not be less than seven, upon present- ment made by the grand jury at the assizes ofthe insuf- ficiency, inconvenience, or want of repair of the gaol, may contract for the building, repairing, or enlarging the same, together with the yards, courts, and outlets thereof, and adding such other building, and making such conveniences, as shall be thought requisite; or for erecting any new gaol within any distance not exceeding two miles from the site, and in that case for selling the old gaol and the site thereof, and also the materials of the old gaol; the contractors giving security to the clerk of the peace for the performance of the contract. 24 Geo, III. c. 54. The expense of building, rebuilding, or enlarging such gaols, and such other necessary incidental expenses aa aforesaid, shall be paid out of the county-rate; and wiien the account of such expense shall exceed half the amount of the ordinary annual assessment for the county rate (to be computed at a medium for the last proceeding five years), the justices in session may borrow in inortgageof il'e said rates any sum not less than 50/. nor exceeding 100/. and may order the growing interest and so much of the principal sum as shall be equal at least to such inter- est, to be paid off yearly, till the whole thereof shall be discharged* and an account thereof shall be kept in a book provided for that purpose; and such book shall be delivered into court at every quarter-session to be inspected by the justices, who shall make such orders relating thereto as to them shall seem meet: provided thatthe whole sum of money borrowed be fully paid within fourteen years from the time of borrowing it. Id. As there are several persons confined in the county and city gaols under sentence and order made by one or more justices at their sessions, or otherwise, upon con- viction in a summary way without the intervention of a jury; it is therefore, by 24 Geo. III. c. 56., enacted, that any judge of assize, or two justices, within whose juris- diction such gaol is situated, may remove such persons to any house of correction within the same jurisdiction, there to be confined, and to remain in execution of such sentence or order. For the relief of prisoners in gaols, justices of the peace in sessions have power to tax every parish in the county, not exceeding 6s. 8d. per week, leviable by con- stables, and distributed by collectors, kc. 12 Car. II. c. 29. But it is observed by lord Coke, that the gaoler can- not refuse the prisoner victuals, for he ought not to suf- fer him to die for want of sustenance. 1 Inst. 295. If any subject of this realm shall be committed to pri- son for any criminal or supposed criminal matter, he shall not be removed thence, unless by habeas corpus, or some other legal writ; or where he is removed from one prison or place to another within the same county, in or- der to his trial or discharge; or in case of sudden fire or infection, or other necessity; on pain that the person signing any warrant for such removal, and he who exe- cutes the same, shall forfeit to the party grieved 100/. for the first offence, and 200/. for the second, kc. Gaql or Prison Breaking, at the common law, was G A 0 GAR felony, for whatever cause the party was imprisoned; but by 1 Ed. II. st. 2. the severity of the common law is miti- gated, which enacts, that no person shall have judgment of life or member, for breaking prison, unless committed for some capital offence; so that, unless the commitment is for treason or felony, the breaking of prison is not felony, but is otherwise punishable as a misdemeanor only, by fine and imprisonment 4 Black. 130. Any place whatever, wherein a person under a lawful arrest for a supposed crime is restrained of his liberty, whether in the stocks or street, or in the common gaol, or the house of a constable, or a private person, is a pri- son in this respect, for a prison is nothing else but a restraint of liberty; and therefore this extends as well to a prison in law, as to a prison in deed. 2 Inst. 589. He that breaks prison may be proceeded against for such a crime, before he is convicted of the crime for which he is committed, because the breach id'prison is a distinct independant offence; hut the sheriff's return of a breach of prison is not a sufficient ground to arraign a man without an indictment. 2 Haw. 197. It is not sufficient to indict a man generally for hav- ing feloniously broken prison; but the case must be set forth specially, that it may appear that he was lawfully iu prison, and for a capital offence. 2 Inst. 591. Hale's P. C. 109. GAOLER. Besides the duties enjoined on gaolers by act of parliament, and the abuses for which by sta- tute they are punishable, the common law subjects them to fine and imprisonment, as also to the forfeiture of their offices, for gross and palpable abuses in the execu- tion of their offices. 2 Inst. 381. Also gaolers arc punishable by attachment, as all other officers are, by the courts to which they more immediate- ly belong, for any gross misbehaviour in their offices, or contempt ofthe rules of such courts, and punishable by any other courts for disobeying writs of habeas corpus awarded by such courts, and not bringing up the pri- soner at the day pcrfixed by such Writs. 2 Haw. 151. If the gaoler, by keeping the prisoner more strictly than he ought, occasions the prisoner's death, this is felony in the gaoler by the. common law. Therefore, if a prisoner dies in gaol, the coroner ought to sit upon him; and if the death was occasioned by cruel and op- pressive usage on the part of the gaoler, or any officer of his, it will be. deemed wilful murder in the person guilty of such duress. 3 Inst. 91. But if a criminal endeavouring to break gaol, assaults the gaoler, he may be lawfully killed by him in the af- fray. Jcnk. 23. 1 Haw. 71. A gaoler is considered as an officer relating to the administration of justice, and is under the same spec rial protection of the law that other ministers of justice are. If a person threatens him for keeping a prisoner in safe custody, he may be indicted, and fined and imprisoned for it. 2 Rol. Abr. 71. If in the necessary discharge of his duty he should meet with resistance, whether from prisoners in civil or criminal suits, or from others in behalf of sue h prisoners, he is not obliged to retreat as far as he can with safety, but may freely and without retreating repel force with force; and if the party so resisting happens to be killed, this will be justifiable homicide in the gaoler or his offi- cer, or any person coming in aid of him. On the oth»*r hand, if the gaoler or his officer, or any person in aid of him, should fall in the conflict, this will amount to wilful murder in all persons joining in such resistance; for it is homicide iu defiance of the justice of the kingdom. Fost. 321. The justices in their sessions, or in any special ad- journment held for such express purpose, may. if they shall think it necessary or proper, appoint salaries or allowances to gaolers, in lieu of the profits derived from the sale of liquors, as to them shall seem meet, and order the same to be paid out of the county-rate, by a certificate of such allowance being signed by the chairman of the sessions: but no chairman shall sign such certificate, un- less notice of such intended application, signed by the clerk of the peace, has been given 14 days at least before the holding of such session or adjournment thereof, by two several advertisements in some newspaper which shall be printed and circulated in such county. 24 Geo. III. C. 54. It seems clearly agreed, that a gaoler, by suffering voluntary escapes, by abusing his prisoners, by extorting unreasonable fees from them, or by detaining them in gaol after they have been legally discharged, and paid their just fees, forfeits his office; for that in the grant of every office it is implied, that the grantee executes it faithfully and diligently. Co. Lit. 233. Gaol-delivery. By the law of the land, that men might not be long detained in prison, but might receive full and speedy justice, commissions of gaol-delivery are issued out, directed to two of the judges, and the clerk of assize associate; by virtue of which commission, they have power to try every prisoner in the gaol, committed for any offence whatsoever. GARBE, in heraldry, a sheaf of any kind of grain, said to represent summer, as a bunch of grapes docs au- tumn. GARBOARD-STKAKE, the plank next the keel of a ship, one edge of which is run into the rabbit made in the upper edge of the keel on each side. GARCIMA, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the dodecandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the IStli order, Incomes. The calyx is tetraphyllous inferior: there are four petals: the berry is octospernious, and crowned with a shield-like stigma. There are three species. The mangostana is a tree e»f great elegance, and producing tbe most pleasant fruit of any yet known. This tree has been very accurately described by Dr. Garcin, in honour of whom, as its most accurate- describ- ee Linnseus gave it the name of Garcinia, in the 35th volume ofthe Philosophical Transactions. It grows, he informs us, to about 17 or 18 fe.et high, " with a straight taper stem like a fir," having a regular tuft in form' of an oblong cone, composed of many branches and twigs, spreading out equally < n all sides without leaving any hollow. Its leaves, he observes, are oblong, pointed at both ends, entire, smooth, ed' a shining green on the up- per side, and of an olive on the Inn k. Its flower is com- posed of four petals alme.st round or a little pointed: its colour resembles that of a rose, only deeper aud less lively. The calyx of the flower is of one piece, e xpand- ed, aud cut into four lobes. ThCMwo upper lobes ace GAR G A 11 something larger than the lower ones: they are greenish on the outside, and of a fine deep red within: the red of the upper ones is more lively than that of the lower ones. This calyx incloses all the parts ofthe flower; it is sup- ported by a pedicle, which is green, and constantly conies out at the end of a twig above the last pair of leaves. The fruit is round, of the size of a small orange, from an inch and a half to two inches diameter. The body of this fruit is a capsule of one cavity, composed of a thick rind a little like that of a pomegranate, but softer, thicker, and fi.lh-r of juice. Its thickness is commonly a quarter of an inch. Its outer colour is of a dark- brown purple, mixed with a little grey and dark-green. The inside ofthe peel is of a rose-colour, and its juice is purple. Last of all, this skin is of a styptic or as- tringent taste, like that of a pomegranate; nor does it stie k to the fruit it contains. The inside of this fruit is a furrowed globe, divided into segments much like those of an orange, but unequal in size, which do not adhere to each other. The number of these segments is always equal to that of the rays of the top which covers the fruit. The fewer there are of these segments the larger they are. There are often in the same fruit segments as large again as any of those that are on the side of them. These segments are white, a little transparent, fleshy, membranous, full of juice like cherries or rasp- berries, of a taste of strawberries and grapes together. Each of the segments incloses a seed of the figure and size of an almond stripped of its shell, having a protu- berance on one of its sides. These seeds are covered with two small skins, the outermost of which serves for a basis to the filaments and membranes of which the pulp is composed. The substance of these seeds comes very near to that of chesnuts, as to their consistency, colour, and astringent quality. " This tree (according to our author) originally grows in the Molucca islands, where it is called mangostan, but has been transplanted to the islands of Java and Malacca, at which last place it thrives very well. Its tuft is so fine, so regular, so equal, and the appearance of its leaves so beautiful, that it is at present looked upon at Batavia as the most proper for adorning a gar- den, and affording an agreeable shade. There are few seeds, however, (he observes) to be met with in this fruit that are good for planting, most part of them be- ing abortive." He concludes his description by men- tioning that one may eat a great deal of this fruit with- out any inconvenience; and that it is the only one which sick people may be allowed without any scruple. Other writers concur in their praise of this fruit. Kuinphius observes, that the mangostan is universally acknowledged to be the best and wholesomest fruit that grows in India; that its flesh is juicy, white, almost trans- parent, and of as delicate and agreeable a flavour as the richest grapes; the taste and smell being so grateful that it is scarcely possible to be cloyed with eating it. He adds, that when sick people have no relish for any other food, they generally eat this with great delight; but should they refuse it, their recovery is no longer expect- ed. " It is remarkable (says he) that the mangostan is given with safety in almost every disorder. The dried bark is used with success in the dysentery and tenesmus, and an infusion of it is esteemed a good gargle for a sore mouth or ulcers in the throat. The Chinese dyers use this bark for the ground or basis of a black colour, in order to fix it the firmer." According to captain Cook, in his Voyage round the World, vol. iii. p. 737, the garcinia mangostana of Lin- naeus is peculiar to the East Indies. It is about the size of the crab-apple, and of a deep red-wine colour. On the top of it is the figure of five or six small triangles joined in a circle, and at the bottom are several hollow green leaves, which are remains of the blossom. When they are to be eaten, the skin or rather flesh must be taken off, under which are found six or seven white ker- nels, placed in a circular order; and the pulp with which these are enveloped is the fruit, than which nothing can be more delicious. It is a happy mixture of the tart and the sweet, which is no less wholesome than pleasant, and, as well as the sweet orange, is allowed in any quantity to those who are afflicted with fevers either of the putrid or inflammatory kind. GARDENIA, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class and order. The corolla is one-petalled, contorted or twisted; stigma lobed; berry inferior, two or four cel- led, many-seeded. There are 15 species, chiefly shrubs of the Cape and Japan. They are known in our stoves by the name of Cape jasmin, and some of them are highly ornamental. They are propagated by cuttings, plunged in a hotbed, &c. GARDENING. This art, so natural to man, so im- proving to health, so conducive to the comforts and the best luxuries of life, may properly be divided into two branches; practical, and picturesque or landscape gar- dening. The former is what every person, except the inhabi- tants of populous cities, has more or less occasion to practise; the latter is a privilege which only the very opulent can enjoy, and which must consequently be the elegant amusement of a chosen few. Picturesque or landscape gardening should certainly never be attempted on a small scale. Indeed we are not certain that we may not be incurring a solecism in ap- plying the term gardening to this department of agricul- ture. It is properly the art of laying out grounds; and the park or the farm, not the garden, is its object. It never can be attempted with success on a smaller scale than 20 acres; but 50 or 100, or even more, are better adapted to the design. That style of gardening which would unite both ob- jects, and which would give a picturesque effect to an acre or two of ground, is truly absurd. Many an im- provident citizen wastes unprofitably the morsel of earth which should grow cabbages for his family, on an un- profitable grass-plat or shrubbery, on serpentines and mazes, and fish-ponds; or even on cascades, to the infi- nite annoyance of his visitors, the prejudice of his own health, and the merriment of all persons of true taste. This mania for the picturesque would have been not less deserving the ridicule of an Addison, than the perverse taste which displayed our first parents in yew, and the Graces and Muses in Portugal laurel. A garden, properly speaking, is a small spot of ground attached to the house. As the house is itself a regular and formal object, so we naturally expect something of the same regularity in this appendage. Neatness too is GARDENING. one of the chief excellencies of a garden, and this is found to be wholly inconsistent with this rage for the picturesque. Littered walks, and parched and cankered vegetables, with a wretched patch of green in the mid- dle where a weekly exhibition is made from the buck- basket, arc the usual effects of this rus-in-urbe taste; while all the real beauty, neatness, and utility, which a small spe>t of ground is really capable of affording, are pre- posterously neglected. It is also fashionable to make a separation between the pleasure and the kitchen garden. This may indeed preserve the few shrivelled fruit which the latter, on a diminutive scale, is capable of affording, from the hands of rapacious visitors; but the range of the proprietor becomes by this appointment most deplorably limited and diminished; and the vegetables will want what alone can render them fine and flourishing, the free circula- tion of air. For our own parts we cannot enter into that fastidi- ousness of taste, which can see no beauty in the escu- lent vegetables. There is a variety, and often a beauty, in their foliage, not inferior to the' furniture of a shrub- bery. The common pea, was it an exotic, would be ad- mired for its milk-white blossom; and the bean for its agreeable fragrance. Few hot-house plants can vie in colour, or even in habit and growth, with the scarlet runner; and even the plants of more humble growth are not wholly destitute of beauty. The garden of which we shall in the first place treat, as taking that practical view of the subject which is con- sistent with our design, is one in which vegetables, fruits, and flowers, are cultivated under the same inclosure. The work of making a new garden can happen to few; and when it does, soil, situation, {Till space, all favour- ably are happy circumstances not always at command. It often happens, however, that pieces of ground are taken into use as additions; and some judgment should be exercised in the choice, thatthe business may be well effected. With respect to the cxteut, a general idea may be given in observing, that an acre with wall-trees, hot- beds, pots, kc. will furnish employment for a man, who at some busy times will even need assistance. The size of the garden should, however, be proportioned to the house, as to the number of inhabitants it does or may contain. This is naturally dictated; but yet it is better to have too much ground allotted than too little, and there is nothing monstrous in a large garden annexed to a small house. Some families use few, others many vegetables, and it makes a great difference whether the owner is curious to have a long season of the same production, or is con- tent to have a supply only at the more common times. But to give some rule for the quantity of ground to be laid out, a family of four persons (exclusive of servants) may have a rood of good working open ground, and so in proportion. Hut if possible let the garden be rather extensive ac- cording to the family; for then a useful sprinkling of fruit-trees can be planted in it, which may be expected to do well, under the common culture of the ground about them; a good portion of it also may be allotted for that agreeable fruit the strawberry in all its vari- VOL. II. 30 eties; and the very disagreeable circumstance of bein^ at any time short of vegetables will be avoided. It should be considered also, that artichokes, asparagus, and a long succession of peas and beans, require a gr*nd deal of ground. Hotbeds will also take up some room, if any thing considerable is done in the way of raising cu- cumbers, melons, flowers, &c. The situation of a garden should be dry, but rather low" than high, and as sheltered as can be from the north and east w inds. These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good fences; by a wall of at least ten feet high; lower walls do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated, to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision fences. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered. As to trees planted without the wall, to break the wind, we cannot expect to reap much good this way, ex- cept from something more than a single row, t. e. a plan- tation. Yet the fall of the leaves by the autumnal winds is troublesome, and a high wall is therefore advisable. Spruce* firs have been used in close-shorn hedges; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single row, though not very near to the wall; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the evergreen oak and the cork-tree. The witch elm, planted close, grows quick, and has a pretty summer appearance behind a wall; but is of little use then as a screen, except to the west; where still it may shade too much (if planted near), as it mounts high. In a dry hungry soil the beech also is very proper; and both bear cutting. The great ma- ple, commonly called the sycamore, is handsome, of quick growth, and being fit to stand the rudest blasts, will protect a garden well in every exposed situation: the wind to be chiefly guarded against as to strength, in most places, being westerly. The form of a garden may be a square, but an oblong is preferred, and the area rather a level; or if there is any slope it should be southward, a point either to the east or west not much signifying; but not to the north, if it can be avoided, because crops coinc in late, and plants do not stand the winter so well, in such a situ- tion. A garden with a northern aspect has, however, its advantages, being cooler for some summer produc- tions, as strawberries, spring-sown cauliflowers, kc. and therefore to have a little ground under cultivation so si- tuated is desirable, especially for late succession crops. The soil that suits general cultivation best is a loam, rather the red than the black; but there are good soils of various colours, and this must be as it happens. The worst soil is a cold heavy clay, and the next a light sand; a moderate clay, however, is better than a light soil, though not so pleasant to work. If the soil is not good, i. e. too poor, too strong, or too light, it is to be carefully improved without delay. Let it first, at least, be thoroughly broken and cleaned of all rubbish, to a re- gular level depth at bottom as well as at top, so as to give full eighteen inches of working mould, if the good soil will admit of it; none that is bad should be thrown up for use, but rather moved away. This rule of bottom levelling is particularly necessary "when there is clay be- GARDENING. low, as it will secrcUy hold up wet, which should not stand in any part of the garden. (See Draining.) When a piece of ground is cleared of roots, weeds, stones, kc. it would be of advantage to have the whole thrown into two-feet-wide trenches, and lie thus as long as .conveniently may be. The ground cannot be too well prepared; for when this business is not performed to the bottom at first, it is often neglected, and is.not conveniently done afterwards; and so it happens, that barely a spade's depth (or less) is too often thought suf- ficient to go on with. There is this great advantage of a deep staple, that in the cultivation of it the bottom may be brought to the top every other year, by double trenching; and being thus renewed, less dung will do, and sweeter vegetables be grown. Tap-rooted things, as carrots and parsnips, require a good depth of soil. The aspect of the wall designed for the best fruits may be full south; or rather inclining to the cast, by which it will catch the sun's rays at its rise, the cold-night dews be earlier and more gently dissipated, and the scorch- ing rays of the afternoon summer's sun are sooner off. By thus having the walls of a garden not directly to the four points, the north wall is greatly advantaged by having more sun. The border next this wall should be of very good earth, about two feet deep, rising a little towards the wall. A free moderate loam, or some fresh maiden soil, not too light* is necessary: and if it is not naturally there, let no trouble be spared to procure it, if it can be had, so as to make all the borders promising good; and in order to this, if manure is necessary, let it rather be that of rotted vegetables, or turf, with a small quantity of wood-ashes; for the roots of fruit-trees should not meet with much dung, at least of horses: that of cows is the best, or that of sheep and hogs will do well rotted, well mixed, &c. being worked in the borders as long as possible before the trees arc so planted. Let the holes be some time opened beforehand, that they may be improv- ed by exposure to the atmosphere. Thus due care will be taken, and all things be ready to go about the work of planting properly. The borders for peaches, &c. cannot be too wide, for in a few years the roots will spread a considerable way: and that they may do it without impediment of rubbish in the walks, and without meeting with a bad soil, is of f.he greatest consequence to the future health and fruit- fulness of the trees. If a garden is large and square, a second south wall, running down the middle of it, would be very useful; and so, if large and long, a cross wall or two might be adopted, as giving opportunity for the cultivation of more trained fruit-trees, these intersecting walls, ranging east and west, are proper for it (as situated within the ring-fence), furnished with flues, kc. The best fruit-border being prepared for peaches, nec- tarines, and apricots, or vinCs and figs, the trees should take their residence there (if the leaf is falling) about the latter part of October, or as soon after as can be. If the middle of December is past, February is then the time; though gardeners plant all winter, if the weather is open enough at the time to work the ground. March, nowever, may do, or even the beginning of April. Wall-trees should not be older than two years from grafting or budding. Much disappointment has been the consequence of planting old trained trees, through their being accustomed (perhaps) to a contrary soil, or by damage done to the roots in taking the trees up; and thus, instead of saving time, it has frequently been lost, being obliged (after years) to be replaced with young ones. But if trained trees are to be made use of, let them be planted as early, and with as full roots as possi- ble, and in a good soil. Except in fine situations as to sun, shelter,'and climate, never plant early and late peaches; as the first may be cut off, and the latter, not ripen. The distance to plant should be about 12 inches from the wall: and let apricots, peaches, and nectarines, be twenty feet asunder, more or 1 ss, according to the height of the wall; though for the small early sorts fifteen or sixteen feet will do. As the larger apricots, however, grow freely, and do not well endure the knife, they ought to have twenty-five feet allowed them. This is for a wall of nine or ten feet high; if higher, the distance may be less, and if lower, the contrary. This room may seem to some too great; but when trees are planted in too con- fined a space, after a few years it is troublesome to keep thein pruned within bounds: and the cutting they must have makes them run to wood, and thus to become less fruitful. Fig-trees require as much room as the apricot, or rather more; as they grow freely, and are to extend without shortening. Though other trees are best plant- ed in October, the fig should not be till Marc h. The intermediate spaces between peaches, nectarines, and apricots, may have a vine, a dwarf cherry, or cur- rant or gooseberry tree of the early sorts, as the smooth green and small rcuV to come in early; and will be im- proved in the beauty, size, and flavour, of their fruit, by the advantage of situation. But wherever grapes can be expected to ripen, there let a young plant, or cutting, be set, though the spare should be confined; for the vine, freely as it shoots, bears the knife well to keep it within bounds. If the wall is high, the cherry or plum may be half-standards; which being after a while kept above, will be more out of the way of the principal trees; though dwarfs may he trained so as not to interfere. Some have planted half-standards of the same kind of fruit as the dwarfs: but whichever mode is adopted, let the interme- diate trees be pruned away below in good time, in order to accommodate the principals freely as they mount and extend. The better way however is, when the wall is tolerably covered to extirpate the intermediate trees; as, when large, they impoverish the border, and rob the principals of nutriment. If taken up well in season, and pruned properly, they may be planted elsewhere. Some- thing merely ornamental may occupy the vacancies also, as some double-blossomed fruit-tree, passion-tree, roses, &c. or in a fine situation a pomegranate; any of which may be removed when their room is wanted. Plums, cherries* and pears, may occupy the other walls; the two former at about fifteen feet, or it may be twenty feet asunder. Cherries, except the morella, will not do well in a full north aspect; but any sort of plum (rather a late one) and summer pears, and also nut-trees, will, if you chuse to train them. There should always be some currants and gooseberries in an east and north GARDENING. situation, at the di->tance of eight feet, where they will he easily matted, when ripe, to come in late, as October, November, eo.- perhaps December. Pear trees of free growth are hardly to be kept within tolerable compass on low walls; but if attempted, should have at least thirty feet allowed them. The best sorts of winter pears deserve a southerly wall to ripen them well, and im- prove them in shs -.-, and flavour. The gable end of a house is well adapted for a pear-tree, as it affords room, which they require. Apples may do on a wall (and if any on a good wall, let it be the golden-pippin), yet the practice is seldom adopted. The same may be said of mulberries, though they come to bearing much sooner against a wall; but they need not have a south aspect, indeed it has been asserted that they succeed the best in a north one. For furnishing walls chuse trees of mode- rate wood, young, well rooted, clean, and healthy. When the planting of a garden is finished, it will be a good way to have a plan of it taken, with the name of every peculiar tree marked on it in their place, to be assured of the sorts when they come to bear. Some have the names ofthe trees painted on boards, and placed be- hind them; to which if added the time of ripening, (fixed late enough) it would tend to prevent a premature pluck- ing by visitors, kc. Here it may be observed, that if any ever-green hedges are desired in or about the garden, yew, box, alaternfts, celastrus, pbillyrea, and pyracantha, may be kept low, and clipped in form, if so desired; in addition to which, if a few roses were intermixed, it would have a very pretty effect. A deciduous hedge for subdivision, or screen, kc. may be made of elms or limes, setting the larger plants at five feet asunder, and a smaller one be- tween. Or an ordinary fence, or subdivision, may be quickly formed of elder cuttings, stuck in at two feet asunder, which may.be kept cut within bounds. A wide border next the south wall, as was said, is best for the trees; and moreover for the many uses that may be made of it for the smaller early, or late tender escu- lents, and a few parly cauliflowers. For the sake of a pleasant warm walk in spring, to have the south border narrow may be desirable; but on no account let it be less than six feet. Take care that this w alk is not sunk too much; and that it have a bottom of good earth, as deep as where the trees are planted. Let the body of gravel be thin, and then the roots of the trees will be admitted to run properly under the walk, and find whole- some nourishment; where, if they were stopped by rub- bish, they would be apt to canker, and irrevocably dis- ease the trees. The number and breadth of the walks must in a mea- sure be determined by the quantity of allotted ground; exceeding in these particulars where there is room. But few and wide walks are better than many and contracted. If the garden is small, one good walk all round is suffi- cient; and if long and narrow, the cross walks should not be many; six or eight feet walks are not too wide for a moderate-sized garden. If the ground is laid out in autumn, defer the making of the walks till spring, when the earth will be settled. Gravel laid towards winter would be disturbed by the frost, and the necessary work about the quarters and borders. But whenever made, the garden ought to be brought to an exact level, or slope; then the walks sho fi j bestumpt, keeping the tops ofthe stumps very level (as guide i) to the true pitch of the quarters by a light line, made of good hemp, that will bear pulling tight. Pro- ceed to take the earth out of the alleys about eight inches deep, which may be thrown towards the middle of the quarters, to give them a small convexity, which make* them look well. Rake the bottom of the walk level, and lay the gravel to within two inches of the top of the stumps. The gravel will settle a little, but the walks should always be about three or four inches at their edge, below the quarters, or these wilji have a flat, and so a mean appearance. If edgings are to be made, in order to separate be- tween tfic earth and gravel, especially if of stone, or wood, or box, they should be done first, and they will be a good rule to lay the box by. If you have plenty of gravel, lay it moderately fine* if littje, some small stones, or rubbish of any kind, may be laid in first, and rammed down level with a broad rammer; but do not spare for a little expense, if gravel can be had, as a thick coat of fine gravel will bear relay- ing, or turning over, to refresh it occasionally in the spring. As tbe gravel is laid, let the operator neatly rake the larger parts down to the bottom, leaving a fine surface, in a small degree convex, i. e. just barely suffi- cient to throw off wet; walks that lie very high in the middle are unpleasant to both eye and feet, and cannot be so well rolled and kept in order. When deep walks of gravel are designed, for the sake of the mould dug out of the alleys, it should be forborne, and laid thin, if any trees are intended to be planted near the edge: for if the roots of trees have not a good soil to strike into, when they reach the walks, they will not prosper. In laying gravel very thick it is a good way to do it at two courses; the first of which may be rough, as it comes from the pit, yet still raking the larger parts down, and then ramming or treading it; and the last course should be all of screened materials. It is best to lay a few yards of gravel only at a time, before ramming or treading: after which it may be ne- cessary to go over it wiih a fine iron rake, tooth and back; and then a whole walk being finished, it should be repeatedly pressed with a moderately .heavy roller; and again soon after the next rain that falls. So will the walks become nicely level and firm, in which their ex- cellence consists. Grass walks may answer where gravel is scarce; but the latter is»so clearly preferable, that except for a little variety in large gardens where there are many walks, they will hardly be made choice of. They are trouble- some to keep in order, and if much used are apt to get bare, and out of level, especially when narrow; they are also frequently damp to the feet. Camomile has been used also to form green or carpet walks, planting it in sets about nine or ten inches asun- der; which naturally spreading, the runners are fixed by walking on them, or rolling. Sand may be adopted for walks, and there is a bind- ing sort of it that does very well; but lay not any of it too thick, as it is the less firm for it. Drift sand is a good substitute for gravel. GARDENING. Coal-ashes strewed thinly in the alleys are better than nothing, as they at least serve to keep the feet dry and clean. If the garden is of a strong soil, these ashes, when worn down, may be thrown out ofthe walks, with a lit- tle of the earth, and will prove a good manure for the quarters. Sea-shells make very good walks. All trees designed to be planted are to be thought of before winter. Those of the wall have been spoken of; and as to standards, they must have a fair depth of good soil to grow in, for it should be remembered, that tree roots in a garden are prevented from running over the surface, as they do in an undisturbed orchard. It is ne- cessary that some caution should be used not to dig the ground too near and too deep about garden trees, lest loosening the roots they should not be able to stand the wind; and because thc^nearer the surface any root grows, the more and choicer fruit the tree bears. But the fewer standard trees in a garden the better, as they take up much room, and by their shade prevent the proper growth of vegetables that are near them; so that if a garden is small, there should be no trees except those ofthe wall. The case is different where there is ample room; and the blossoms of fruit-trees (apples particu- larly) are so delightful, that if they produced nothing for the palate, there would be a sufficient inducement to plant them for ornament; but let them be dwarf standards in preference to espaliers. Dwarf-standards occasion less trouble to keep them in order than espaliers, and are generally more productive; for espalier trees are seldom managed well, and thus appear unsightly: at best they arc stiff and formal, and obstruct the sight in viewing the quarters of a gardeu, which, if in order, are worthy of coming under the eye; the violence done to nature, to keep espaliers in form, is commonly paid by disappointment. A writer of re- pute observes, apples on French paradise stocks, planted at eight or nine feet distance, pruned and kept in an easy manner, make a fine appearance, and produce better fruit, and in greater quantities, than when they are in espa- liers. Dutch paradise stocks however last longer, and are altogether superior. If espaliers are planted, let them be only fruit of the best sorts, and in spacious gardens, where they may have a good length and height allowed them to grow freely; and let it be resolved to do the business neatly. If they miy have nothing better than poles or stakes to be trained to, let them at least be straight, and of some equality iu size as to height and thickness, smooth, and not too clumsy for the purpose; fix them well in the ground, upright, and about nine inches asunder; at first only four feet from the ground, and raised as the trees advance in height. Apples on paradise stocks best suit for espaliers in small gardens, and pears on quince slocks, as they maintain a small size; but they are apt to decay by the cutting they must have, and so do not prove enduring trees. Espalier trees should rather be trained to sawed ma- terials properly fran.ed together, smoothed, and painted. But for a year or two they may be fastened to light stakes, when they will have formed a head, to begin to train them for bearing in the neat manner proposed, that is, to slips of deal joined to light oak posts, as trellises. Whether the slips are placed perpendicularly, or longi- tudinally, seems indifferent. If the longitudinal mode of training is the best approved, strong iron wire may be recommended to run through tbe posts instead of slips of wood, as it shades less, and is stronger and neater. If upright slips are used, they should be slender, and from six to eight inches distance, according to the greater or less freedom of the natural growth of the tree. The height may be also according to the nature of the tree, from five to six feet, and it will not answer to have them lower. Only a moderate length of trellis (on each hand) need be fixed at first, and so additions made as the tree extends. The posts may be about four feet asun- der; the first on each hand being two feet, or a yard, from the stem of the tree. Apples should be allowed 24 feet, and pears 30; ex- cept those grafted on paradise or quince stocks, for which little more than half this distance may answer. Cherries and plums should have about 18 or 20 feet allowed them. Quinces, medlars, mulberries, and filbcrds, may also be espaliered. The trees should be planted about a yard from the edge, but farther off is better, if the walks lie deep of gravel or poor materials. The Breda and Brussels apricots have succeeded in espaliers, as also in dwarf and full standards; but the general climate ofthe place must be mild, and the situa- tion they are planted in must be very sunny and well sheltered. The fruit i'rom standard apricots is v -vy fine, and abundant; but they come not to bearing under seve- ral (sometimes 10 or 12) years. Currants, gooseberries, and raspberries, do well espa- liered, as to a production of early and fine fruit. Trees of a more humble nature, and shrubs, next oc- cupy attention in furnishing a garden. Currants and gooseberries (as bushes) should be planted three feet from the edge, and full six feet asunder. Some of these very useful shrubs should grow in every aspect of the garden, in order to have a succession of their fruits, as long as may be. Those who choose to plant whole quar- ters of currants and goose berries ought to do it at six feet asunder in the rows, and the rows eight feet from one another. Raspberries may be set in plantations, in rows five feet asunder, allowing three feet between the plants. These shrubs are always best by themselves, as otherwise their suckers over-run the quarters. Between rows of rasp- berries planted at the above distance, coleworts, early cabbages, cauliflowers, and lettuces, may be set, or spi- nach sowed in drills; the raspberries having had their pruning and dressing early in autumn, for the purpose. Every year a little short manure, dug in close about the roots,, (and deeper as the plantation gets older) will insure fine fruit. Raspberries are not very nice as to soil and situation; but the twice-bearing sort should have a dry soil and warm birth to forward the crops, that the last may be in time. See that the plants to be set have good brushy roots, and two or three eyes to each root near the steins, for the next year's bearing. The smooth-wooded, or cane rasp, is to be preferred for a principal crop. The large, white, or Antwerp, is also good. Straw berries may be planted at the edges of borders and quarters, either in single or double rows (rather the latter) for the convenience of gathering, and for orna- GARDENING. ment; but the common and best way is, in four-feet beds, with eighteen-inch and two-feet alleys, on which beds may be five rows ofthe wood and alpine, four of the scar- let and pine-apple, three ofthe Carolina, and two ofthe Chili; setting the plants at the same distance in the rows, as the rows are from one another in what is called tbe quincunx order, that is, like the five of cards. In a good, cool, loamy soil, which suits them best, a little more dis- tance may be allowed the first four sorts; and in a quite dry light soil, somewhat less, that they may shade one another the better from drought. The best situation for strawberries is an open and sun- ny one, as thus they bear more, aud finer-flavoured fruit. Some ofthe scarlets should be planted under warm walls to come early. The woods bear shade as natural to them, and the alpines do tolerably well in it. As lengthening the season of fruit is a desirable circumstance, for these three sorts (at least) the situation should be various. The most proper time for planting the strawberry is the first moist weather in September, (or even earlier) that they may be established in the ground before win- ter, and the} will bear the better the first year. Frost is apt to throw up late-planted ones, and injures, if not de- stroys them. Those planted in spring often suffer from drought, and bear very little tin* first year, except the alpines. Choose forward runners for planting, and let them be from beds in full bearing, that is, of two or three years old; for plants from old beds are ne>t so fruitful. Take care also they come from beds producing fruit good in its kind, and true as to sort: much depends on this. Press the mould to the roots, give thein a water- ing, and again once or twice, if the weather proves dry. Some gardeners let them run over the beds, which in a dry light soil may be proper; but in this case, a greater distance should be allowed thein at planting. If the alpine sort is planted on a warm border, eigh- teen inches asunder, and suffered to spread, the first run- ners will fruit the same year, and sometimes this prolific strawberry bears till November. Fresh plantations of straw berries should be made every fourth year, though in a good soil and with good man- agement they will continue longer: so that where they are suffered to run, the plants being frequently renewed, and old ones removed, beds have borne tolerably for ten years. Some gardeners insist that this spreading mode is the best way of cultivating the strawberry. In a dry season, such full-covered beds have the advantage, but in a wet one the fruit is apt to rot, though still in such a season it is cleaner than from plants grow ing in an open way; but this carries the appearance of neglected culture. The method of keeping them in detached plants produces the largest and best-ripened fruit, and on the whole is preferable; for which practice there cannot be a stronger argument, than that those follow it who cultivate the strawberry for sale. The watering of strawberries should not be neglected, doing it almost daily when in flower, and setting their fruit, if the went her proves dry, particularly to those under a warm wall; but this is not to be continued when the fruit is nearly ripe, which would spoil the flavour,. and dispose thein to decay. Flowering shrubs mav be dispersed about, and herba- ceous perennial flowers; but plant thein not too near the edge, lest they hang over the walks. The bulbous sorts may however, be within six inches, especially crocuses aud snowdrops Asparagus and artichokes should be thought of, but they take up much room, and in small gardens may therefore be left out. It will be of little use to have less than 50 or 60 feet of asparagus beds, as there would be so few heads to cut at a time; and artichokes must be planted wide, or they will not grow large and fleshy, in which their merit consists. Let not pot-herbs be forgotten, but provide a general herbary in that part of the garden which is warmest, and best-shaded, for these are tender plants. Having spoken of stationary things, the routine ofthe seasons must dictate the rest; and the inclinations ofthe palate will refresh the memory to take care of providing the most necessary and agreeable esculents for dressing, and raw salads. Perennial flowers have been mentioned; but let fancy direct as many annuals and biennials to be cultivated, as room can conveniently be found for, that the garden may be, as much as possible, ornamented. In furnishing a garden with shrubs and flowers, res- pect should be had to their usual height, their bulk, co- lour, and season, thatthe mixture may be properly vari- ricd, harmonious to the eye, and come in regular suc- cession. The latter part of the year is seldom provided for so well as it might be; late flowers should be set in warm situations, as their proper place. In the most drea- ry months, by judicious planting, evergreens in their neat and cheerful " winter liveries," may be viewed from our windows, and serve instead of flowers. Those who garden upon a large scale, should take care to have every thing proper and convenient liberally pro- vided. Let there be a well-situated place for hot-beds, with some building as a tool-house, and (if dry) for keep- ing bulbs, seeds, and herbs. Those also who garden even upon a small scale will do well to have every needful im- plement. It is the way to save time and* labour, and have work done well. If water can be introduced, and kept clean with verdant banks around it, it would be found very useful where a garden is large; but let it be as near the centre as possi- ble, as the most convenient situation. It should be fed from a pond in preference to a spring. Mixed gardening, as comprehending the useful with the sweet, the profitable with the pleasant, has hem the subject hitherto; but if the flower garden and the kitch- en garden are to be distinct, the case is altered; not so much indeed butthat still the kitchen garden should be adorned with a sprinkling ofthe more ordinary decora- tions, to skirt the quarters, chiefly those ofthe most pow- erful sweet scents, as roses, sweet-briars, and honey-suc- kles, wall-flowers, stocks, pinks, minionet, kc. in Order to counteract the coarser effluvia of ve^c tables, or of dead leaves, which, however, should not be suffered toann.y. The flower garden, properly so called, should be rather small than large; and if a seperate portion of ground is appropriated for this, only the choisest flowers should he introduced, and no trouble spared tocultivate them inthe best manner. The beds of this garden should be narrow, and consequently the walks numerous; and not more than one-half or two-thirds the width of the beds, except one principal walk, all round, which may be a little wider. The gravel, or whatever walks are made of, should lie about four inches below the edge. The beds for tulips, hyacinths, anemonies, ranunculuses, &c. may be three and a half or four feet wide, and those for single flowers the same, or only two and a half feet wide in the borders, which was the most usual breadth in the old flower gardens. Let the beds lie rather rounded in the middle, but the walks flat Figured parterres have got out of fashion, as a taste for open and extensive gardening has prevailed; but when the beds are not too fanciful, but regular in their shapes, and chiefly at right angles, afterthe Chinese man- ner, an assemblage of all sorts of flowers, in a fancy spot of about 60 feet square, is a delightful home scource of pleasure, worthy of pursuit. There should be neat edg- ings of box to these beds, or rather of neat inch-boards, painted lead colour, to keep up the mould. Be sure to keep the box from the very first, as soon as rooted, and always after, as low as possible: clip it twice a year, April and July. Landscape or picturesque gardening, is so much the work of fancy, and so much depends upon the situation, or what the celebrated Mr. Brown used to call the ca- pability of the place, that no precise rules can be laid down concerning it. All, therefore, that can be expect- ed, is a few lose hints, on which the man of taste may improve according to circumstances. Those, however, who would do much in landscape gardening, should not be forward to trust their own taste altogether. In this business there is no making experiments, but all should be executed, as much as pos- sible, upon certainty. There is a variety of works and decorations in extensive gardening, which injudiciously introduced, might create a wasteful expense. This is an error that ought to be avoided, and most probably would be by those who have been in the habit of studying na- ture, and the powers of art as her submissive handmaid. The pleasure we seek in laying out gardens, is now justly founded upon the principles of concealed art, which appears like nature; but still, whether ingenious con- trivances, and decorations, (altogether artificial,) should be "so entirely laid aside as they are, may deserve to be considered. Gardens were formerly loaded with statues, and great improprieties were committed in placing them, as Neptune in a grove, and Vulcan at a fountain, large figures iu small gardens, and small in large, &c. but per- haps the works of the statuary might still be intro- duced if well excuted, and in proper places. A terrace as a boundary, is now seldom formed; but in some situa- tions, such an eminence might in several respects be agreeable. If trees are planted injudiciously, the error is a trifle; but if cut down so, the consequence is serious, and has of- ten been sorely lamented; extirpation should therefore be well thought of before it is executed; especially trees about houses, for many dwellings have been thus too hasti- ly exposed, and deprived of comfortable shelter and shade. And why should a taste have prevailed for so sudden a transition, as no sooner out of the house than to arrive in tbe open country; or why should an extensive garden be thrown as much as possible into a single view, when meeting with new objects in our walks is »o agreeable? 2NING. Hilly spots that are in view ofthe house should be plant- ed with firs, as fine-looking trees, and very hardy. Beech does well on high ground, especially if chalky. In low ground, not to mention alders, and that tribe, the birch, and even the oak, should not be forgotten, where the wet does not long stand. About the house some shady walks ought always be pro vided, by thick planting, if not of trees, yet of flowering shrubs, and evergreens, of which the laurel will be found the most useful. If there is good room, single trees of the fir kind, at due distances, are admirable ornaments about a house, and clumps of shrubs all of the same kind have a good effect. Those who have much space of ground to decorate, do well to plant trees and shrubs of every kind, as enlarging the sources of amusement, and affording opportunities for observation; but if the allotment of ground fortius pur. pose is contracted, then, of course, those only should be planted, which by their neat foliage, natural symmetry, and gay flowers, may be truly esteemed ornamental. They should be such as strike the eye of persons in gen- eral, though they have nothing of singularity to engage the attention of the curious in plants. It too often bap- pens, that good old sorts of trees, shrubs and flowers, are excluded for new ones; but if the latter are not more ele- gant, and generally pleasing, the practice is surely not a wise one: in ornamental gardening, great care should be taken, in the choice of what is really handsome, that nothing dull or rambling be introduced. The walks should always be wide, some inclining to serpentine, and contrived as much as possible upon a le- vel, as walking up and down hills can hardly be called pleasure. That they may be extensive, they should skirt the grounds, and seldom go across them. In small plea- sure-grounds the edges of the walks should be regularly planted with flowers, and long ones occasionally so, or with the most dwarf shrubs; and neat sheltered compartments of flowers, (every now and then to be met with) have a pretty effect. If the walks are extended to distant plan- tations of forest-trees, every opportunity should betaken, to introduce something of the herbaceous flowery kind, which will prove the more pleasing, as found in unex- pected situations. The outer walk of pleasure grounds and plantations, should every now and then break into open views of tbe country, and to parts of the internal space, made pleasing, if not striking, by some work of art, or decoration of nature. Water should only be introduced where it will run it- self clear, or may be easily kept so, as also in full sight; and some fall of it should be contrived, (if possble) for the sake of giving it motion and sound, because a lively scene of this element is always much more pleasant than a dead one. Every spring of water should be made the most of, and though fountains, kc. are out of fashion, some- thing of this kind is agreeable enough. Near some pieces of water, as a cool retreat, it is desirable that there should be something ofthe summer-house kind; and why not the simple rustic: arbour, embowered with the woodbine, the swectbriar, the jessamine, and the rose? Pole arbours are tied well together with hurk or x>zier twigs. Before the design of a rural and extensive garden is put in execution, it ought to be considered, or anticipated, what it will be in twenty or thirty years time; for it of- GARDENING. ten happens that a design which looks handsome when first planted, and in good proportion, becomes so small and ridiculous in process of time, that there is a necessity either to alter it, or destroy it entirely, and so plant it anew. To proportion the breath of walks, the size of car- pets, casting and levelling of grounds, parterres, kc; the disposal of fountains, statues, vases, dials, and other de- corations of magnificience to most advantage, requires a particular address, says Mr. Evelyn, or to speak more emphatically, a prophetic eye; and though the taste is not what it was in Mr. Evelyn's time, yet, perhaps, the on- ly difference is that more skill is requisite. Landscape gardening depends much on the form ofthe ground, and therefore to shape that is the first object, Some situations may not need it, and perhaps a little al- teration may produce a happy effect in others; therefore great alterations should not be attempted without manifest advantages, as either levelling, or raising ground, is a heavier business than is commonly supposed, both as to time and expense. Too much plane is to be guarded against; and when it abounds, the eye should be relieved by clumps, or some other agreeable- object. Hollows are not easily filled; and eminences mostly arc advantageous, in the formation of picturesque scenes, in which the general principle of or- namental gardening consists. This idea has been press- ed so far, that it is contended, a gardener should be a studicr of landscape paintings. But without an immedi- ate view to pictures, no doubt, grounds may be laid out in a way sufficiently picturesque. That view may be very agreeable in nature, which would not be so in a pic- ture, and the contrary. Picturesque gardening is effected by a number of means which a true rural genius, and the study of examples, on- ly can produce. These examples may be pictures, but the better instructors will be scenes in nature; and the pro- per grouping of trees, according to their mode of growth, shades of green, and appearance in autumn, will effect a great deal. To plant picturesquely, a knowledge of the character- istic differences of trees and shrubs, is evidently a prin- ciple qualification. Some trees spread their branches wide, others grow spiral, and some conical; some have a close foliage, others an open one; and some form regular, others irregular heads, the branches and leaves of which may grow erect, level, or pendant. The mode of growth in trees, as quick or slow, the time of leafing, and shedding leaf, with the colour of the bark, are all circumstances of consideration in order to pro- duce striking contrasts, and happy assemblages, in the way of ornamental gardening. To range the shrubs and small trees, so that they mu- tually set off the beauties, and conceal the blemishes, of each other; to aim at no effects which depend on a nicety for their success, and which the soil, the exposure, or the season ofthe day, may destroy; to attend more to the groupes than to the individuals; and to consider the whole as a plantation, not as a collection of plants; are tbe best general rules which can be given concerning them. In considering the subjects of gardening, ground and wood first present themselves; and water next; which, though not absolutely necessary to a beautiful composi- tion, yet occurs so often, and is so capital a feature, that it is always regretted when wanting; and no large place can be supposed, a little spot can hardly be imagined, in which it may not be agreeable. It accommodates itself to every situation, is the most interesting object in a land- scape, and tbe happiest circumstance in a retired recess: captivates the eye at a distance, invites approach, and is delightful when near: it refreshes an open exposure, it animates a shade, cheers the dreariness of a waste, and enriches the most crowded view.. In form, in style, and in extent, it may be made equal to the greatest composi- tions, or adapted to the least: it may spread in a calm ex- panse to sooth the tranquility of a spaceful scene; or hur- rying along a devious course, add splendour to a gay, and extravagance to a romantic situation. So various are the characters which water can assume.that there is scarce- ly an idea in which it may not concur, or an impression which it cannot enforce. On the works of art in gardening, the following passage is pertinent: « Art was carried to excess, when ground, wood, and water, were reduced to mathematical figure, and similarity and order were preferred to freedom and variety. These mischiefs, however, were occasioned, not by the use, but the perversion of art; it excluded, in- stead of improving upon nature, and thereby destroyed the very end it was called in to promote. Architecture requires symmetry, the objects of nature freedom; and the properties of the one, cannot with justice be trans- ferred to the other. But if by the term art no more is meant than merely design, the dispute is at an end; choice, arrangement, composition, improvement, and pre- servation, are so many symptoms of art, which may oc- casionally appear in several parts of a plantation, but ought to be displayed without reserve near the house: no- thing there should seem neglected; it is a scene of the most cultivated nature, it ought to be enriched, it ought to be adorned; and design may be avowed in the plan, and even in the execution. Regularity is not excluded: a ca- pital structure may extend its influence beyond its walls; but this power should be exercised only over its imme- diate apendages. Works of sculpture are not, like build- ings, objects familiar in scenes of cultivated nature; but vases, statues, and termini, arc usual app ndages to a considerable edifice: as such, they may attend the man- sion, and trespass a little upon the garden, provided they are not carried so far into it as to lose their connection with the structure." The cultivation of a garden—The first- object with a view to produce should be, to keep the ground in such a state as will enable it to produce good crops. Good ve- getables cannot be had without good manure. Yet raw unwrought dung is not good for a garden. The most economical plan therefore, that can be pursued, is for the first year to make good hot-beds of your dung, and spread it out upon the quarters, and dig it in in autumn and win- ter. You by this means have a double produce, and the dung is the better. Dung, however, used in great quantities, and lying in lumps, breeds worms, grubs, and other insects, and caus- es plants to grow too rampant and rank-flavoured. Carrots it cankers, and it disagrees with many things.' On these accounts some persons have been induced* to dress their gardens only with rich fresh earth; which, if they do not overcrop, will do very well, bang acconv GARDENING. pauicd with good tillage: which alone is of much use, and is essential to due cultivation. The method just recom- mended, of letting dung lie in the state of a hotbed for a time, is good, as it abates theranknes: of it. If the ground is in proper heart, every spot may be contrived to be constantly and successfully cropped. The common gardeners about London, who give high rents for their land, contrive (manuring well) a suc- cession of crops, one un.er another, very dexterously; and this sort of conduct should be imitated by private persons. Thus a little spot, in skilful and industrious bands, will be much more productive than a greater un- der contrary management: but when hard worked, the soil will not do without a good deal of manure. In the occupation of ground, the change of crops will be proper, as each sort of plant draws a somewhat different nourishment: so that after a full crop of one thing, one of another kind may often be immediately sown; but it should be contrived that a wide crop may follow a close one, and contrariwise. Close crops, as onions, leeks, carrots, &c. are conveni- ently and neatly cultivated in beds of from four to five feet width, with alleys of from a foot to eighteen inches between them. The seasons proper for furnishing the ground with every particular vegetable, should be well attended to, that each may be obtained as early as its nature will permit; and of the seeds and plants we use, care must be taken to procure the best of the kind, lest after all the trouble of cultivation, disappointment as to quality should ensue. Seeds and plants should be adapted as much as possi- ble to the soil and situation which best suit them; for in the same garden some difference will be found, not only as to sun and shelter, but the earth; .as some will be richer, some poorer, some deeper, some, shallower, and some per- haps, heavier, some lighter, in due attention to which, advantage is to be reaped. The thinning of seedling crops should be done in time, before the young plants have drawn one another up too much. All plants grow stronger, and ripen better, when the air circulates freely round them, and the sun is not prevented from an immediate influence; an attention to which should be paid from the first appearance of plants breaking ground. In the pricking and planting out of crops, be sure to do it as early as may be; let every thing be regular, (not spar- ing to use the line) allowing always room enough for this work; and being thus treated, vegetables will come forwarded, larger, and of a superior flavour. These advantages are seen in all things, but in letuces particularly, which have not half the room allowed them they should have. Over-cropping robs the ground of strength to no purpose, except increasing the dunghill; it makes it also inconvenient to weed, rake, clean up, which ina private garden, at least, it is proper frequently to do. Shading of new-planted things, particularly flowers, is of much benefit, and that in proportion as the season is sunny, as neglecting this business has frequently proved: as a little water in a cloudy time docs plants much good, so when shaded. Strawberries and cauliflowers are generally watered in a dry season; that is, the strawberries when in bloom, in order to set the fruit, and the cauliflowers when they show fruit, in order to swell the. head. In a light soil, this ought particularly to be donr. In very dry weather, asparagus seedlings, early turnips, carrots, radishes, and small salads, will need watering. Slips, cuttings, and layers of any kind, will need water. Pots of flowers must have it frequently. When watering is undertaken, let it be a complete business; i. e. to the bottom and extent of the roots; as much as may be. The wetting only the surface of the ground is of little use, and of some certain harm, as it binds and cracks the earth, and so excludes the benefit of showers, dews, air and sun, from entering the soil, and benefiting the roots as they otherwise would do. Wet- ting the surface ofthe ground, however, in a summer's evening, makes a cool atmosphere; a dew is formed, which pervades the leaves, and helps to fill their exhausted ves- sels. Watering the roots of wall-trees, (if dry weather,} when the fruit is setting, is by some thought necessary. The best way to do this effectually, is to make a few holes at some distance from the three with a smooth sharp-pointed stake, the better to let the water down; hut this may wound the roots; and should only be practised in a light soil, and very dry season. To young trees only it can how ever be of use, for the roots of old ones run far and wide; and it is the small fibres of these dis- tant roots, on which the tree chiefly depends for food. Vines should have no water till they are off blossom, (July) and the fruit as bigaslarge pins' heads; and then if the season is very hot and dry, w ateringthe roots twice a week will help the fruit to swell. As watering is apt to make ground hide-bound and unsightly, let tbe surface be occasionally stirred and rak- ed, which will make future waterings enter the ground the better; when the ground is hard on the top, the water runs away from its proper place, and half the labour is lost. Many things are impatient of being kept wet about the shanks, and therefore watering should be generally at a little distance. The quality of water used for refreshing plants is a material thing, and is very various in its nature, ac- cording to the peculiar earths and mineral substances that it passes through. Rain wrater is by far the best, as appears by the verdure and vivacity it gives. Pond water is next in fitness, and river water follows. Well water is of least account, though local circum- stances occasion its use the most. So that in forming a judgment concerning watering, it is not simply to be con- sidered, whether plants should be watered; but whether with well-water, and that too from a pump. Pump- water, if used directly, is so cold in summer, thaf it is found prejudicial to plants: and great cold so contracts their vessels, that they perform their proper offices with difficulty, and become diseased.* The management of a garden, as somewhat distinct from the cultivation of it, is an object of consequence; that is, to keep it in such order, that it may not fail in those general impressions of pleasure it is capable of affording, when things are shown in their best manner. A garden may be cultivated so as to be profitable; and yet not con- ducted so as to be agreeable to walk in, which in a pri- vate garden is a circumstance surely to be lamented. The proper appearance of a well managed one is express- GARDENING. ed by the word neat. Let all be done that can be in order to it. To be neat, weeding must be industriously followed up, and all litter that is made in working, quickly car- ried off. The ground also should be frequently stirred and raked between crops, and about the borders, to give all a fresh appearance. There is a pleasantness to the eye in the new-broken earth: and when there are no flow- el's left in the borders, this gives an air of culture, and is always agreeable. The observation is particularly meant to apply in autumn, that the garden may not become dreary too soon, and so bring on winter before its time. An asparagus-fork is expeditious and useful in this case; but it must be slightly used, lest it disturb the roots of plants too much. Vegetables should not be suffered to rock themselves by wind, so as to form holes round their stems, but be well earthed up or otherwise supported. Trees and shrubs should be constantly freed from suckers and dangling shoots, and wall trees ought to be regularly kept in order. Grass plats and walks should have their edges occasionally cut, and be mowed as often as there is the least hold for the scythe, for they lose much of their beauty, when the grass gets long; leaves should not be suffered to remain on them, as it stains the grass; and worm-casts should be cleared away. Edgings of all sorts should be kept in good order, as having a singularly neat effect in the appearance of a garden. The dead edgings will sometimes, and the live edgings often, want putting to rights; either cutting, clipping, er mak- ing up complete. Where there are no edgings, or but weak ones, let the earth bordering on the walks be kept firm, and now and then worked up by a line in moist weather, beating it smooth with the spade. Some fruits may need support, by tying their weak branches when they get heavy, to stakes, &c. Rows of raspberries and beans are kept neatly up in their lines, by putting in here and there a stake, and using pack- thread lengthwise; and thus will they bear better, and be more conveniently gathered. Strawberries of fine heavy sorts, will be preserved from getting dirty and rotten, by tv ing their steins to little sticks; by this prac- tice the fruit also g ts better ripened, and of a finer flavour. Some pci-sons lay tiles, or moss round the plants, when the fru-H is half-grown; but this is not, generally, so well, only it has the advantage in keeping the ground cooler in a hot season. The first and finest scarlets best de- serve this trouble. Flowers should be frequently tied up, and dead and dangling parts trimmed off. Some of them cannot do without support, and many sorts are made more secure and beautiful by proper ties. If this business is neglect- ed, a heavy rain or strong wind may come, and lay all prostrate, especially about the equinoctial seasons; but weakness or their own weight, will often bring flowers down. The sticks used for flowers, should be of smooth wood, as hazel or sallow, or of neat painted slips of deal, with or without an ornamental head; white is the best colour, on account of its contrast with the leaves. Decaying flowers should be timely trimmed or remov- ed, and perennials should be regularly freed from the parts running to seed, (except so much as may be want- ed) as the production of seeds weakens the root much; vol. XI. 51 sometimes even causing es harm, especially in heavy grn.od. It is to be observed, however, that sowing in drills or on beds .that are not to be trampled, the moisture ofthe ground is ra- ther an advantage, provided inthe last case, that the ground will admit a rake, and the soil is not too wet to drop somewhat 1 >scly about the seeds. The proper depth at which seeds should be sown is to be carefully observed; if too deep, they will either rot, or not thrive well; and if too shallow, they are liable to be injuriously affected by frost, wind, drought, or birds; but of the two rather too .-hallow, than too deep, is best, and this we are taught by nature, whose sowings are mostly superficial. The smaller the seed the finer should the soil be, and the less also the covering; so that while some, as the seed of celery, is to be but barely covered, others, as peas and beans, may have a depth of two, three, or four inches. But some regard is to be had to the season and soil; in a warm season, and light soil, sow deeper, and the con- trary shallower. The quantity of seed sown is a thing to be attended to with some exactness. Small seeds go a great way, and require a careful hand to distribute them; for though sowing a little too much is a trifle as to the value e,f seeds, yet to have them come up crowding thick is an evil. To sow evenly as to quantity, is an object of prac- tice worthy of care, as it secures a better crop, and more easily managed in the thinning. If the seed is suspected, sow thicker; poor land will require more seed than rich. It is not generally advisable to sow several sorts of seed on the same spot, as some persons are accustomed to do. The gardeners about London follow the practice; as profit is their great object, and not neatness or pro- priety. On the same piece they sow radishes, lettuces, and carrots; the radishes are drawn young for the table, the lettuces to plant out, and a sufficient crop of carrots is left, for carrots should not be very near to grow large: this is as reasonable a combination as any that is made; but still, if not short of ground, each kind separate will be found best. In defence of this mode of culture, it is said, if one crop fails, the others may do, and there is no loss of ground or time; and if ailsu ceed they do very well. Some little things of this sort, indeed, may well be done; as a piece of ground new-pi anted with horse- radish may be top-cropped with radish; s o;- spinach, eScc. A thin crop of onions upon new asparagus-beds, may also take place, drawing them while young from about the plants. All seeds come up best when moderately pressed with the earth; for if they lie too lightly in contact with it, cold and drought more easily affect them; and when once seeds begin to germinate, they are impatient of both. To trample seeds in is on the whole better than any other pressure. This done, lay all immediately and neatly level with a wide rake, drawing off' stones, kc. but do it lightly, to avoid driving in the teeth of the rake, which would remove the seed, and make it come up irre- gularly. Propagation by suckers is a mode of culture rather peculiar to trees and shrubs. The things to be observed in this business are, to take them up with some care from the mother plant, so as not to injure its root, nor the sucker's own root, by pulling it up without properly GAR GAR leioseuing it first. The earth should he moved aside by a trowel, and then the sucker cut off by a knife, and not with a spade, as is common. Of those hardy things of whie-h there is plenty, this rough way does not signify much as to the sucker, but it may injure the root too much that it Comes from. Wherever a root appears barked, the part below should be cut off. If it is desired to succeed well, in propagating by suckers, consider that all young roots are tender: let them be trimmed to form, and planted immediately; or at least let them be covered with earth or laid by the heels, as it is called. Suckers with poor roots, must have their heads reduced the more. Propagation by slips is of two sorts, either from the root, or stem; and several sorts of flowers and herbs are increased this way. When from the roots, if the whole is not taken up. movcthe earth carefully aside, and slip off'by a pressure of the thumb and finger, and be cautious of hurting the fibres of the slips, planting with fine and good mould about thein. Take off slips from the stem carefully by the push of the thumb, and not too many from the same plant, as it is apt to injure the place by tearing off some of the wood. Slips from the stem are to be considered as cuttings, and treated accordingly. They take more certainly, and make better roots, than cut- tings. Offset is a term sometimes applied to slips from fibrous roots; but more properly so from bulbous roots, which put forth many offsets. These are slipped away at the time they are taken up for removal orreplanting, and commonly Taketwoor three years be fore they bear flowers: di.-pose of them therefore in a nursery, where they may remain un- disturbed till they conic bc, with knobs, or buttons, and tassels at the end. The left shoulder e>f the mantle has from the institution been adorned with a large garter, with the device honi soit, kc within this is the cross of the order, which was ordaim-d to be worn at all times by king Charics I. At length the star was introduced, being a seirt of cross irradiated with beams of silver. The collar is appointed to be composed of pieces of gold in fashion of garters, the ground enamelled blue, ami the motto gedd. The manner of electing a knight-compa- nion into this most neible order, and the ceremonies of investure, are as fid low. When the sovereign desires to elect a companion of the garter, the chancellor be- longing to this order draws up the letters, which pa-s- ing both under the sovereign's sign manual and signet of the order, are sent to the person by garter principal king at arms, and are in this manner, or to the same ef- fect: ♦« We with the companions of our most noble order of the garter, assembled in chapter, holden this present day at our castle at Windsor, considering the virtuous fidelity you have shown, and the honourable exploits you iiave done in our service, by vindicating and maintain- ing our right, kc. have elected and chosen you one of tie companions of our order. Therefore we require >ou to make your speedy repair unto us, to receive the "en- signs thereof, and be ready for your installation upon upon the — day of this present mouth, &c." The garter, which is of blue velvet bordered with fine gold wire, having commonly the letters of the m.tto (,f the same, is, at tiie time of election, buckled upon the left leg, by two of the senior companions, who receive it GAS GAS from the sovereign, to whom it was presented upon a velvet cushion by garter king at amis, with the usual re- verence, whilst the chancellor reads the following ad- monition, enjoined by the statutes: "To the honour of God omnipotent, and in memorial of the blessed mar- tyr St. George, tie about thy leg, for thy renown, this noble garter; wear it as the symbol ofthe most illustri- ous order, never to be forgotten or laid aside; that there- by thou may est be admonished to be courageous, and having undertaken a just war in which thou shalt be en- gaged, thou mayest stand firm, valiantly fight, and suc- cessively conquer." The princely garter being thus buckled on, and the words of its signification pronounced, the knight elect is brought before the sovereign, who puts about his neck, kneeling, a sky-coloured ribbon, to which is appendant, wrought in gold within the garter, the image of St. George on horseback, with his sword drawn, encounter- ing with the dragon. In the mean time, the chancellor reads the following admonition: " Wear this ribbon about thy neck, adorned with the image of the blessed martyr and soldier of Christ, St. George, by whose imi- tation provoked, thou mayest so overpass both prosper- ous and adverse adventures, that having stoutly van- quished thine enemies both of body and soul, thou may- est not only receive the praise of this transient combat, but be crowned with the palm of eternal victory." Then the knight elected kisses the sovereign's hand, thanks his majesty for the great honour done him, rises up, and salutes all the companions severally, who return the ir congratulations. Since the institution of this order, there have been eight emperors, and twenty-eight kings, besides nume- rous sovereign princes, enrolled as companions. Its ori- gin is somewhat differently related: the common account is, that it was erected in honour of a gaiter ofthe coun- tess of Salisbury, which she dropped dancing with king Edward, and which that prince picked up; but our best antiquarians think it was instituted on account of the victory over the French at Crrssy, where the king or- dered his garter to be displayed as a signal of the battle. GAS, among chemists, a term made use of to denote a!l the aerial and permanently elastic fluids, except ihe atmospheric air. See Air. GASTEROSTKLS, Stickleback, in ichthyology, a fish of the order fhoracici. The generic character is, body somewhat lengthened: dorsal spines distinct: ven- tral fins spiny: abdomen carinated or shielded on the side, and bony beneath. There are eleven species: the following are the principal: 1. Gasterosteus aculeatus, common stickleback. This minute fish is an almost universal inhabitant of ponds, rivers, and marshes, occurring sometimes even in salt or brackish waters. When in its full perfection eif co- lour it is highly beautiful; the gills and abdomen being of a bright red, the hack a fine olive-green, and the sides silvery. It is chiefly in the early part of summer that it appears thus decorated; the colours in a great degree fading as the season advances. The general length of this species is about two inches, but it sometimes arrives to the length of three: the ventral fins consist merely of a verv strong and serrated spine on each side, accompa- nied by a single short ray. The stickleback or banstickle is a fish of an extremely active and vigorous nature, swimming rapidly, and prey- ing on the smaller kind of water-insects and worms, as well as on the spawn of other fishes, and is from this circumstance considered as highly prejudicial to fish- ponds. Iu the Philosophical Transactions we find some observations relative to the natural history of this fish by Mr. Henry Baker, who informs us that it will.spring occasionally to the perpendicular height of not less than a foot out of the water, and to a much greater space in an oblique direction, when wishing to get over stones or other obstacles. « It is scarcely to be conceived," says this writer, " what damage these little fish do, and how greatly detrimental they are to the increase of all tin- fish in general among which they live; for it is with the utmost industry, sagacity, and greediness, that they seek out and destroy all the young fry that come in their way, which are pursued with the utmost eagerness, and swal- lowed down without distinction, provided they are not too large: and in proof of this I must assert that a ban- stickle which I kept for some time did on the4th of May devour in five hours time seventy-four young dace, which were about a quarter of an inch long, and of the thick- ness of a horsehair: two days after, it swallowed sixty- two, and would, I am persuaded, have eaten as many every day, could I have procured them for it." The stickleback is sometimes observed to swarm in prodigious multitudes in some particular parts of Eu- rope. We are told by Mr. Pennant that at Spalding in Lincolnshire, there are, once in seven years, amazing shoals, which appear in the Welland, and come up tin- river in the form of a vast column: they are supposed to be the multitudes that have been washed out of the feus by the floods of several years, and collected in some deep hole, till, overcharged with numbers, they arc pe- riodically obliged to attempt change of place; the quan- tity is so great that a man employed to take them has got for a considerable time four shillings a nay by sell- ing them at the rate of a half-penny per bushel. 2. Gasterosteus spinachia, fiftcen-spined stickleback, is much larger than the preceding species, and of a much more slender form; general length from five to six or seven inches; head of a produced and somewhat tubular shape; hinder parts very slender towards the tail: lateral line broad, and composed of a series of small dusky la- mina? or scuta; dorsal spines concealed at pleasure in a f-j'tgitudinal channel; ventral fins each composed of two spines; the first long, the next short: native of the Eu- ropean seas, frequenting shallow places, and preying on marine insects, and the spawn of other fishes; sometimes seen in vast numbers about the coasts of Holland, kc. and occasionally used, like the common stickleback, for the purpose of manuring land, as well as for the prepa- ration of oil for lamps, kc. GASTRIC Juice, among physicians, a thin, pellucid, spumous, and saltish liquor, which continually distils from the glands of the stomach, for the dilution of the food. See Digestion. GASTROBRANCHUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fishes ofthe order chondropterigius: the generic charac- ter is, body eel-shaped; mouth beneath, with numerous pectinate teeth; spiracles two, beneath the abdomen. 1. Gastrobranchus csecus, blind gastrobranchus. Tb« GAS G A V fish which constitutes this genus has long since been de- scribed by Linnseus and others under the title of myxine giutinosa, and considered as belonging to the tribe of vermes, in which situation it ranks in the latest editions of the Svstema Naturae. Dr. liloch, however, from ac- curate examination both of its external and internal structure, has very justly considered it as a legitimate cartilaginous fish. The usual length of the European specimens is from four to six inches, but in the Indian ocean it appears to arrive at a far superior size, nearly equalling in this respect the common eel. In its general appearance it bears a near resemblance to the lampreys, with which by Kalm, its first describe-!-, it has been asso- ciated. It is remarkable for the total want of eyes, not the least vestige of any such organs being discoverable by the most attentive examination: the mouth, which is situated beneath, as in the lampreys, is of an obi rig form; on each side are two beards or cirri, and on the upper part four; in front of the top of the head is a small spout- hole, furnished with a valve, by which it can at pleasure be closed; the teeth, which arc situated very deep inthe mouth, and are of an orange-colour, as in the lamprey, are disposed on each side into a double row, in form of a pectinated bom'; each upper row consisting of nine and each lower row of eight teeth; and in the middle of the roof of the mouth is a single, sharp-pointed, and curved tooth; no nostrils are discoverable; the body is destitute of scales, lateral line, and every kind of fin, except that which forms the tail; this fin is shallow, and commencing at tbe lower part e>f the back, runs round the extremity of the body, and is continued beneath as far as the vent; the extremity of the body, where it is surrounded by the caudal fin, is taper or pointed; beneath the body, from head to tail, runs a double row of pretty conspi- cuous, equidistant pores, through which on pressure, ex- udes a viscid fluid, and at somewhat more than a third of the animal from the head, are situated beneath the body, the two spiracula, which consist of a pair of oval apertures. The manners of this fish are represented as highly singular; it is said to enter into the bodies of such fishes as it happens to find on the- fishermen's hooks, and which consequently have not the power of escaping its attack, and by gnawing its way through the skin to devour all the internal parts, leaving only the bones and the skin remaining. Another particularity in this animal con- sists iu its uncommonly glutinous nature; if put into a large vessel of sea water, it is said in a very shortspace to render the whole so glutinous as easily to be drawn out into the form of threads; when taken out of water the gastro-branehc s is said to be incapable of living more than three or four hours. It is an inhabitant of the northern seas, and appears also to occur in those of the southern hemisphere, where, as before mentioned, it ar- rives at a much larger size than in the northern re- gions. 2. Domheyan gastrobranclu . Size .much larger than the European specimens of the gastrobranchus csecus: head rounded, and broader than the body; on the upper lip four beards; number of those on the lower uncertain, the specimen being described in a dried state; teeth pointed, compressed, triangular, and disposed in two cir- cular ranges, the exterior of which is composed of twen- ty-two, and the interior of fourteen teeth; a single tooth longer than the rest, and of a curved form in the roof of the mouth, as in the European species; eyes and nos trils imperceptible; colour uncertain; tail rounded at the extremity, and terminated by a very shallow fin united with the anal. Native ofthe South American seas; ob- served by Mons. Dombey, and described by Cepede from the dried skin in the Paris museum. GASTROGRAPHV, in surgery, the operation of sow- ing up wounds ofthe abdomen. See Surgery. GATE, in a military sense, is made of strong planks, with iron bars, to oppose an enemy. They are generally made in the middle ofthe curtin, from whence they are seen, and defended by tbe two flanks of the bastions. They should be covered with a good ravelin, that they may not be seen or enfiladed by the enemy. These gates, belong- ing to a fortified place, are passages through the ram- part, which may be shut and opened by means of doors and a portcullis. They are either private or public. Private gates are those passages by which the troops can go out of the town unseen by the enemy, when they pass to and from the relief of the duty in the out- works, or on any other occasion which is to be conceal- ed from the besiegers. Public; gates are those passages through the middle of such curtins, to which the great roads of public ways lead. The dimensions of these are usually about 13 or 14 feet high, and 9 or 10 feet wide, continued through the rampart, with proper recesses for foot-passengers to stand in, e>ut of the way of wheel-carriages. GAVELKIND, a custom principally to be found among the men of Kent, and supposed to be one of the effects ofthe gallant struggles they made to preserve their liberty, though it is sometimes found in other parts of the kingdom. This tenure has various consequences: the principal are, 1. The tenant can alien his estate by feoffment at the age of 15. 2. The estate does not es- cheat in case of an attainder and execution for felony. 3. In most places he had a power of devising his estate by will, before the statute was made to restrain him. 4. The lands descend te> all the sons equally together, according to the ancient course of descent in England, aud not according to primogeniture. GAVELET, in law, an ancient and special cessavit used in Kent, where the custom of gavelkind continues, by which the tenant, if he withdraws his rent and ser- vices due to the lord, forfeits his lands and tenements. The process of the gavelet is thas. The lord is first to seek by the steward of his court, from three weeks to three weeks, to find some distress upon the tenement, till the fourth court; and if at that time he find none, at this fourth court it is awarded, that he take the tene- ment in his hand in name of a distress, and keep it a year and a day without manuring; within which time, if the tenant pays his arrears, and make reasonable amends for the withholding, he shall have and enjoy his tene- ment as before: if he come not before the year and day be past, the lord is to go to the next county-court with witnesses of what had passed at his own court, and pro- nounce there his process, to have further witnesses; and then by the award of his own court, he shall enter and manure the tenement as his own; so that if the tenant desired afterwards to have and hold it as before, he must Q A U G A TT •grce with the lord; according to this Md saying, "Has he not since any thing given, or any thing paid, then let him pay five pound for his were, e'er he become healder again." Other copies have the first part with some va- riation; « Let him nine times pay, and nine times re- pay." Gavelet, in London, is a writ used in the hustings, given to lords of rents in the city of London. Here the parties, tenant and demandant, appear by scire facias, to show cause why tic one should not have his tenement again on payment of his rent, or the other recover lands on default thereof. GAUGE-POINT, of a solid measure, the diameter of a circle, whe.se area is equal to the solid content of the same measure. Thus the solidity of a wine-gallon being 231 cubic inches, if you conceive a circle to con- tain so many inches, the diameter of it will be 17.15; and that will be the gauge-point of wine-measure. And of an ale-gallon, containing 282 cubic: inches, by the same rule, the gauge-point for ale-measure will be found to be 19.15. After the same manner, may the gauge- point of any foreign measure be obtained; and hence may be drawn tlds consequence, that when the diameter of a cylinder, in inches, is equal to the gauge-point of any measure, given likewise in inches, every im h in length thereof will contain an integer ofthe same measure, e. g. in a cylinder whose diamecr is 17.15 inches, every inch in height contains one entire gallon in wine-mea- sure; and in another, whose diameter is 18.95 inches, every inch in length contains one ale-gallon. GAUGER, a king's officer, who is appointed to ex- amine all tuns, pipes, hogsheads, and barrels of wine, beer, ale, oil, honey, kc and give them a mark of allow- ance, before they are sold in any place within the extent of his office. There are divers statutes that mention this officer and his office; as by 27 Ed. III. c. 8. all wines, &c. imported are to be gauged by the king's gaugers, or their depu- ties, otherwise they shall be forfeited, or their value; and on default ofthe gauge!', that he be not ready to do his office when required, or that he de frauds in doing his of- fice to the damage of tbe buyer or seller, he shall pay the party grieved his treble damage, lose his office, be pu- nished by imprisonment, and be ransomed at tbe king's will: and in case less is found in the tun or pipe than ought to be, the value of as much as shall lack, shall be deducted in the payment. Every ganger shall truly, within the limits of his of- fice, gauge all tuns, butts, pipes, tierces, puncheons, ter- tians, hogsheads, barrels, and runlets; and mark on the head of every vessel the contents, upon pain of forfeit- ing to the party to whose use the wine, kc. shall be sold, four times the value of that which the vessel marked shall lack of its content: the same forfeiture shall be re covered by an original writ, kc. and every person sell- ing the w ine, &c. in the vessel marked, shall allow of the price, the value of gauge, or default of filling, upon pain of forfeiture to the buyer, of double the value, to be recovered with costs as before. No brewer shall put to sale any beer or ale in vessels brought from beyond the sea, within the city of London, or suburbs of the same, or within two miles compass without the suburbs, before the same is gauged, and the true content of every such vessel set upon the same, by the gallon appointed for beer and ale, according to the standard, by the mas- ter and wardens of the coopers of London. GAUGING, the art e»r act of measuring the capacities or contents of all kinds of vessels, and determining the quantities of fluids or other matters contained therein. To gauge any vessel, or to find the quantity of liquor it can contain. Find how many solid inches will fill the cavity ofthe vessel, and divide these by the number of solid inches which make a pint or gallon; the quotient is the content of the vessel in pints or gallons. Table of Cubic Inches in several Measures. 282 Cubic inches = 1 English ale gallon 231 Ditto = 1 English wine gallon 268.8 Ditto = 1 English corn gallon 2150.4 Ditto = 1 English corn or malt bushel. From these divisors, multipliers may be found thus: Divide 1 by any number in this table, the quotient is a constant multiplier, by which the content of any vessel in cubic inches being multiplied, the product is its con- tent in that measure for which the multiplier was found. Table of Divisors and Multipliers. 282 .003546 ale gallons 231 .004329 wine gallons 268.8 .0037202 corn gallons 2150.42 .00046502 malt bushels. In gauging vessels, the dimensions are always taken in inches and decimals of an inch. Ex. 1. Suppose a vessel in form of a parallelopipcd, the length of its base 27 inches, breadth \6\ inches, and the depth of the vessel 3£| inches; required the content in English ale gallons? 27 x 16.5 x 32.25 = 14367.375 cubic inches. If you divide 14367.375 by 282, or multiply them by 003546, the result will be the content of tbe vessel in English ale gallons, viz. 50.946. In tiie same manner, the content of any vessel may be found; but those who practice gauging proceed thus: In any vessel equally wide from top to bottom, they compute the area of its base in square inches; and, by dividing or multiplying these by the numbers in the tables, get what they call the area in gallons, (that is, the number of gallons which the vessel contains when the liquid is only one inch deep), which multiplied by the depth of the liquid, gives the quantity contained in the Vessel. Ex. 2. Suppose a trough, or cistern, in form of aright- angled parallelopipcd, its base 27 inches long, and 16$ inches wide, and the height of the vessel 32± inches, but the depth of liquor only 20 inches; required its content in English ale gallons? .ins. 31.594. 27 x 16.5 x .003546 = 1.579743, the area of the base in gallons, which multiplied by 20, produces 31.594 ale gallons. Ex. 3. Suppose a cylindric vessel hath the diameter of its base 20 inches, and its height 30 inches; required the content in wine gallons? Ans. 40.8. 20 x 20 x .7854 X 30 X .004329 = 40.8. Suppose a tub having circular bases, the diameter «f the mouth is60 inches, and the diameter ofthe bottom* 36 inches, and the perpendicular depth from top to bsU GAUGING. torn is 30 inches; required its content in English ah? gal- Ions? This vessel is to be considered as the frustum of a cone; and, on this supposition its Content will be 55417.8 cubic inches; which, by reduction, is 196.5 English ale gallons. * The calculation is tedious by common arithmetic, but may be easily performed by logarithms; thus, To twice the logarithm of the diameter of one base add the loga- rithm eif .7854, the sum is the logarithm of the area of that base. Do the same for the area of the other base, and find the numbers answering to each. Then add the logarithms of the areas of the two bases, and take half of the sum, and find the number answering thereto. Add the areas of the two bases, and the last-found number, and multiply the sum by one-third part of the depth, the product is the content in cubic inches. Operation for tbe last Example. Log. Log. Diameter 60 1.7781513 Diameter 36 1.5563025 1.7781513 1.5563025 7854 9.8950909 .7854 9.8950909 2827.14 3.4513935 1017.8784 1696.404 1017.8784 = 3.0076959 28-27.44 3.4513935 2)6.4590894 5541.7824 Mult, by 1Q 1696.464 = 3.2295447 55417.824 Ans. The content of any vessel of this form may be found with less trouble by this rule: To the product ofthe diameters of the two bases, add one-third part ofthe square of their difference; the sum is the square of a mean diameter; which being multi- plied by .7854, and the product by the depth of the vessel, gives the content iu cubic inches. Exam. Let the diameter of the greater base be 60, and ofthe lesser base 57.6, and the perpendicular height of the tub 29.976 inches; required its content? Jus. 81410.3 cubic inches. To Gauge a Cask__Casks are distinguished into the follow ing four varieties : 1. Such as resemble the middle frustum of a spheroid. 2. Such as resemble the middle frustum of a parabo- lic spindle. 3. Such as being cut through in the middle, the two parts arc parabolic conoids. 4. Such as being cut through in the middle, the parts are the lower frustums of two equal cones. Measure the head and bung diameters, and the length ofthe cask in inches; and then, 1. If the staves are very much curved, the cask is sup- posed to be the middle zone, or frustum of a spheroid: and its coutent may be found by this rule: To twice the square of the bung diameter, add the square of the head diameter; multiply the sum by the length ofthe cask, and divide the product by 3.8197, the the quotient is the content in cubic inches. Exam. Suppose there is a spheroidal cask, its bung diameter=31.5 inches, head diameter = 24,5 inches, and Vol. II. 32 the length of cask = 42 inches; required its content in English ale gallons ? Ms. 100.78. 2. If the staves of a cask are less curved than was supposed in the last article, the cask is taken for the middle frustum, or zone, of a parabolic spindle; and its content is computed by this rule: To twice the square of the bung diameter, add the square of the head diameter, and from the sum subtract four-tenths ofthe square ofthe difference ofthe diame- ters; divide the remainder by 3.8197, and multiply the quotient by the length of the cask; the product is its con- tent in cubic inches. Exam. Let the bung diameter = 34 inches, the head diameter = 30, and the length of the cask = 40 inches; what is its content in English ale gallons? Jns. 119.039. 3. When the staves of a cask are very little curved, the cask is supposed to consist of the two lower frustums of two equal parabolic conoids, their greatest bases joined together in the middle of the cask; the content of such a vessel may be found by this rule: To the spuare of the bung diameter, add the square of the head diameter; multiply the sum by .3927, and the product by the length of the cask; the last product is the content in cubic inches. Exam. "Let the bung diameter of such a cask = 32 inches, the head diameter = 29, and the length of the cask = 42 inches; required its content in cubic inches and ale gallons? Jns. 30760.191 cubic inches, or 109.07 ale gallons. 4. If the staves of a cask are straight between the bung and the ends ofthe cask, the vessel is supposed to consist ofthe two lower frustums of equal cones; and its content is found by this rule: To the sum of the square of the head and bung diame- ters add their product; multiply the sum by the length of the cask, and divide the product by 3.8197; the quotient is the content in cubic inches. Exam. Required the content of a cask in ale gallons, its bung diameter being 32 inches, its head diameter 24 inches, and the length 40 inches? Jlns. 87.93. By these rules, the content of any cask may be found, it being known to which of the four varieties the cask belongs; hut in common practice, a mean diameter, whereby the cask is reduced to a cylinder in either va- riety, is found thus: 5. Multiply the difference between the bung and hea^ diameters by .7 for the spheroid, by .65 for the spindle, by .6 for the conoids, and by .55 for the cones; add the product to the head diameter; the sum is a mean diameter; or the diameter of the base of a cylinder equal to the cask, their lengths being the same. The mean diameter being squared and multiplied by .7854, and the product by the length of the cask, gives the content in cubic in- ches, which may be reduced to gallons by the table. Ex. Suppose the bung diameter is 30 inches, the head diameter 20 inches, and the length of the cask 40 inches, required its content in ale gallons according to each variety. Difference o/Bung and Heah Diameters is 10 Inches. M. D. 10 x >7 = 7. and 20 4- 7. = 2". for the spheroid, GAUGING. 10 x .65 = 6.5 and 20 -\- 6.5 = 26.5 for the spindle. 10 x.6 =6. and 20 -f 6. = 26. for the conoids. 10 x .55 = 5.5 and 20 + 5.5 = 25.5 for the cones. For the Content in Ale Gallons. 27. x 27. x .7854 x 40 x .003546 = 81.21 spheroid 26.5 x 26.5 X ."854 x 40'x .003546.= 78.23 spindle 26. x 26. x .7854 x 40 x .003546 = 75.3 conoids 25.5 x 25.5 X .7854 x 40 X .003546 = 72.43 cones. Mr. Ward, who had much practice in gauging, says, he never gauged a cask that contained so much as the first variety makes it; and therefore, recommends the 2d and 3d varieties as the best general rules for gaug- ing casks. The following rule is given by Dr. Hutton, which is not only general for all casks that are commonly met with, but easily to be worked, and accurate in its application. General Rule. Add into one sum, 39 times the square of the bung diameter, 25 times the square of the head diameter, and 26 times the product of those diameters; multiply the sum by the length of the cask, and the pro- duct by the number .00034; then this last product di- vided by 9 will give the wine gallons, and divided by 11 will give the ale gallons. Or, 39B2 +25H2 + 26B11 x-j^"is tne content in in- ches: which being divided by 231 for wine gallons, or by 282 for ale gallons, will be the content. For Ex. If the length of a cask be 40 inches, the hung diameter 32, and the head diameter 24, Here - 322 x 39 = 39936 and - 242 x 25 = J4400 and - 32 x 24 x 26 = 19968 the sum - 74304 multiplied by - 40 and divid. by 114)2972160 gives - 26071 cubic inches; this divided by 231 gives 112 wine gallons, or divided by 282 gives 92 ale gallons. But gauging, as now practised, is chiefly done by means of instruments called gauging rods or rulers, which do the business at once, and answer the question without so much calculation, which is no inconsiderable addition both to the ease and despatch ofthe work, though it is not so much to be depended on. The method of gauging which is mostly used, is by the four feet guaging-rod and Everard's sliding-rule; the description and uses of both are as follows: The four-feet gauging-rod (Plate LXIV. Miscel. fig. 101) is usually madeof box, and consists offourrules, each- a foot long, and about three-eighths of an inch square, joined together by three brass joints; by which means the rod is rendered four feet long when the four rules are opened, and but one foot when all are folded together. On the first face of this rod, marked 4, are placed two diago- nal lines, one for beer and the other for wine; by means of which the content of any common vessel in beer or wine gallons, may be readily found, by putting the bra- sed end of the guaging-rod into the bung-hole of the cask, with tbe diagonal lines upwards, and thrusting this bri sed end to the meeting of the head and staves; then with 2 chalk make a mark at the m iddle of the bung-hole ofthe vessel, and also on the diagonal lines of the rod, right against or over one another, when the brased end is thrust home to the head and staves; then turn the guag- ing-rod to the other end of the vessel, and thrust the brased end home to the end as before. Lastly, see if the mark made on the gauging-rod, come even with the mark made on the bung-hole, when the rod was thrust to the other end, which if it be, the mark made on the diago- nal lines will, on the same lines, show the whole content of the cask in beer or wine gallons. If the mark made on the bung-hole be not right against that made on the rod, when you put it the other way, then right against the mark made on the bung-hole, make another on the diognal lines; and the divisior on the diagonal line, be- tween the two chalks, will show the whole content of the vessel in beer or wine gallons. Thus, if the diagonal line of a vessel be 284-10 inches, its content in beer-gallons will be nearly 51, and in wine, gallons 62. If a vessel be open as a half-barrel, tun, or copper, and the measure from the middle on one side to the head and staves be 38 inches, the diagonal line gives 122 beer-gallons; half of which, viz. 61, is the content of the half-tub. If you have a large vessel, as a tun or copper, and the diagonal line taken by a long rule be 70 inches, then every inch at the beginning-end of the diagonal line call 10 inches; thus 10 inches become 100 inches, and every tenth of a gallon call 100 gallons, and every whole gal- lon call 1000 gallons. Example. At 44.8 inches on the diagonal beer line is 200 gallons; so that 4 inches 48 parts, now called 44 in- ches eight-tenths, is just two-tenths of a gallon, now called 200 gallons; so also, if the diagonal line be 76 inches and seven-tenths, a close cask of such diagonal will hold 1000 beer-gallons; but an open cask but half so much, viz. 500 beer-gallons. On the second face, 5, are a line of inches and the gauge-line, which is aline expressing the areas of circles (whose diameters are the correspondent inches) in ale gallons; at the beginning is written ale-area. Thus, to find the content of any cylindrical vessel in ale-gallons, seek the diameter of the vessel in inches, and just against it, on the gauge-line, is the quantity of ale-gallons con- tained at one inch deep; this multiplied by the length of the cylinder, will give its contents in ale-gallons. On the third face, 6, are three scales of lines; the first, at the end of which is written hogshead, is for finding how many gallons there are in a hogshead, when it is not full, lying with its axis parallel to the horison. The second line, at the end of which is written B. L. is for the same purpose. The third is to find how much liquor is wanting to fill up a butt, when it is standing; at the end of it is wrote B. S. signifying, butt standing. Half-way the fourth face of the gauging-rod, 7, there are three scales of lines, to find the wants in a firkin, kil- derkin, and barrel, lying with their areas parallel to the horizon. They are distinguished by the letters F.K.B. signifying a firkin, kilderkin, and barrel. Use of the gauge-line.—To find the content of any cylin- drical vessel in ale-gallons, seek the diameter ofthe ves- sel in inches, and just against it on the gauge-line is the quantity of ale-gallons contained in one inch deep; this g a r GEL multiplied by the length ofthe cylinder will give its con- tent in ale-gallons. For example, suppose the length of the vessel 32.06, and the diameter of its base 25 inches, to find what is the content in ale-gallons? Right against 25 inches on the gauge-line is one gallon and .745 of a gal- lon; which multiplied by 32.06, the length, gives 55.9447 gallons for the content of the vessel. The bung diameter of a hogshead being 25 inches, the head diameter 22 inches, and the length 32.06 inches, to find the quantity of ale-gallons contained in it ? Seek 25, the bung diam- eter, on the line of inches, and right against it on the gauge-line you will find 1.745: take one-third of it, which is .580, and set it down twice; seek 22 inches in the bead diameter, and against it you will find on the gauge-line 1.356; one-third of which added to twice .580 gives 1.6096; which multiplied by the length 32.06, the product will be 51.6, the content in ale-gallons. Everard's sliding-rule is principally used in gauging, be'yig ordinarily made of box, a foot long, an inch broad, and I 6-10th inch thick, with two small scales to slide in it, which may be drawn out, one towards the right hand, and the other towards the left, till the whole be 3 feet long. To gauge malt.—1. If the malt lies on the floor in a rectangular form, multiply the length by the breadth, and the product by the depth, all taken in inches; the product is the number of cubic inches in the quantity; which be- ing divided by 2150.42, the quotient is the number of bushels. The samc*rulc serves for finding the quantity of malt contained in any vessel in form of a parallelopipedon. Exam. Suppose a quantity of malt on the floor, 288 inches long, 144 inches broad, and 9£ inches deep; re- quired the number of bushels? Ans. 183.21. 2. When malt is iu a cistern, or any vessel, the con- tent of the vessel is to be found in cubic iii'hes, by some ot" the former rules, and then divided by 2150.42, the quotient is the number of bushels. 3. To find the solidity of any irregular solid. Put the irregular body into any vessel, and fill it with water; take out the body, and the water will fall lower, and leave a part of the vessel empty, equal to the solidity of the body to be measured; then measure so much wa- ter by a vessel of a known capacity as shall fill up the empty space; and the number of cubic inches in that space, and consequently in the irregular body, will be known. GAULTHERIA, a genus of the class and order de- candria monogynia. The cal. outer, 2-leavcd, inner 5- cleft; cor. ovate; nect. with 10 dagger-points; caps. 5- cclled, covered with the inner calyx, now become a ber- ry. There is one species, a small but beautiful shrub of Canada. GAUR.V, a genus of the class and order octandria monogynia. The calyx is four-cleft, tubulous; corolla four-petallcd, rising towards the upper side; nect. infe- rior, one-seeded, four-cornered. There is one species, a biennial plant of North America. GAURS, an ancient sect of the magicians in Persia. They have a suburb at Ispahan, which is called Gaura- bad, or the town of the gaurs, where they are employed only in the meanest and vilest drudgery; but they chiefly abound in Kcrman, the barrenest province in all Persia, where the Mahometans suffer them to live with some freedom, and in the full exercise of their religion. Some years ago many of them fled into India, w here their posterity remain. They are a poor harmless sort of people, zealocs in their superstition, rigorous in their morals, and exact in their dealings; they profess the worship of one God alone, the belief of a resurrection and a future judgment, and utterly detest all idolatry, though the Mahometans believe them to be the most guilty of it. It is true, they perform their worship before fire, for which they have an extraordinary veneration, as believing it to be the most perfect emblem ofthe Deity. They have the same veneration for Zoroaster that the Jews have for Moses, esteeming him a prophet sent from God. GAWSE,or Gawze, in commerce, a very slight, thin, open kind of stuff, made of silk, and sometimes of thread; there are also figured gawzes, and some with gold or silver flowers on a silk ground. GAZELLE, in zoology. See Antelope, and Capra. GAZONS, in fortification, pieces of fresh carth, co- vered with grass, and cut in form of a wedge, about a foot long and half a foot thick, to line the outsides of works made of earth, as ramparts, parapets, &c. See Fortification. GEARS, or Chains, in country-affairs, the trappings and other harness belonging to draught horses or oxen. GELATINE, in chemistry. If a piece ofthe fresh skin of an animal, after the hair and every impurity are care- fully separated, is washed repeatedly in cold water till the liquid ceases to be coloured, or te) subtract any thing; if the skin, thus purified, is put into a quantity of pure water, and boiled for some time, part of it w ill be. dis- solved. Let tbe decoction be slowly evaporated (ill it is reduced to a small quantity, and then put aside to cool. When cold, it will be found to have assumed a solid form, and to resemble precisely that tremulous substance well known to every body under the name of jelly. This is the substance called in chemistry gelatine. If the eva- poration is still farther continued, by exposing the jelly to dry air, it becomes hard, seinitransparent, breaks with a glassy fracture, and is, in short, the substance so much employed in different arts under the name of glue. Gelatine then is precisely the same with glue, only that it must be supposed always free from those impurities with which glue is so often contaminated. Gelatine is semitransparent and colourless when pure. Its consistency and hardness vary considerably. The best kinds are very hard, brittle, and br*cak with a glassy fracture. Its taste is insipid, and it has no smell. When thrown into water it swells very much, but does not readily dissolve; and when taken out, it is soft and gelatinous, but when allowed to dry, it recovers its former appearance. If it is put in this gelatinous state into warm water, it very soon dissolves, and forms a so- lution of an opal colour, and the more opaque according to the quantity of gelatine which it contains. Tremu- lous gelatine dissolves in a very small portion of hot wa- ter; but as the solution cools, it gelatinizes afresh. If this solution, as soon as it assumes the tremulous form, is mixed with cold water, and shaken, a complete solu- tion takes place. Dry gelatine undergoes no change when kept, but in a gelatinous state, or when dissolved in water, GELATINE. it very soon putrefies; an acid makes its appearance in the first place (probably tbe acetic), a fetid odour is ex- baled, and afterwards ammonia is formed. When dry gelatine is exposed to heat, it whitens, curls up like horn, then blackens and gradually consumes to a coal: but tremulous gelatine first melts, assuming a black colour. When distilled, it yields, like most animal substances, a watery liquid impregnated with ammonia, and a fetid empyreumatic oil, leaving a bulky charcoal of difficult incineration. It is by no means a very combustible sub- stance. Acids dissolve gelatine with facility, even when diluted, especially when assisted by heat; but we are still igno- rant of the changes produced upon it by these agents, except by nitric acid. When this acid is'digested on it, a small quantity of azotic gas is disengaged, then abun- dance of nitrous gas; the gelatine is dissolved, except an oily matter which appears on the surface, and con- verted partly into oxalic and malic acids. Muriatic acid dissolves glue with great ease. The solution is of a brown colour, and still continues strong- ly acid. It gradually lets fall a white powder. This so- lution precipitates tan in great abundance from water, and may be employed with advantage to detect tan when an alkali conceals it. Sulphuric acid acts much more slowly. The solution is brown and gradually deepens; sulphurous acid is exhaled during the action of sulphuric acid on glue. Neither sulphuric nor muriatic acid oc- casion any change in the solution of glue in water. Al- kalies also dissolve gelatine with facility,especially when assisted by heat; but the solution does not possess the pro- perties of soap. None of the earths seem to combine with gelatine; at least they do not pricipitate it from its solution in water. The following table exhibits the effect of different earth- ly solutions when mixed with a pretty concentrated solu- tion of common glue. Substances. Effects. Lime water Strontian water Barytes water Muriat of barytes Silicated potass Aluminated potass Oxalat of ammonia Phosphat of soda No (hange. No change. Became milky. Precipit not dissolved by acetic" acid. The same as the last. No change. No change. Became milky. Became slightly milky. The milkiness produced by some of these re-agents was not owing to their effect upon the gelatine, but up- on the lime and the sulphuric acid which it contained. The metals in their pure state have no effect upon ge- latine; but several of the metallic oxides, when agitated in a solution of gelatine, have the property of depriving tbe water of tbe greatest part of that body, with which they form an insoluble compound. Several of the metal- lic salts likewise precipitate gelatine from water. The following table exhibits the result of mixing various metallic salts with a concentrated solution of gelatine, as far as experiments have gone. Metallic Solutions. Nitromuriat of gold Nitrat of silver Nitrat of mercury Oxymuriat of mercury Sup. oxysulphat of mer. Dry oxysulphat of mer. Prussiat of mercury Oxynitrat of copper Muriat of copper Oxysulphat of copper Cuprat of ammonia Sulphat of iron Oxysulphat of iron Oxynitrat of iron Oxymuriat of iron Nitromuriat of tin Oxymuriat of tin Nitrat of lead Acetat of lead Plumbat of potass Plumbat of lime Muriat of zinc Effects. A copious yellowish-white precipitate. Soluble by adding water. Becomes slightly milky. A very copious curdy pre- cipitate. A copious white precip. No change. Crystals become yellow, white flakes appear, and the liquid becomes trans- parent. No change. Muriat of antimony Tartar emetic Nitrat of bismuth precipita- ble by water Ditto, not precipitable by water No change. Becomes milky. No change. No change. A few yellow flakes ap- pear. Becomes slightly milky, as when alcohol is add- ed. Assumes a pink colour. Becomes green. No change. Becomes slowly milky. 1 i ^>No change. U No change. A copious flaky precip. No change. Becomes milky No change. No change. Muriat of arsenic Gelatine is insoluble in alcohol. When alcohol is mixed with a solution of gelatine, the mixture becomes again transparent when agitated, unless the solution is concentrated, and the quantity of alcohol considerable. Gelatine is most probably equally insoluble in ether. When the solution of tan is dropped into gelatine, a copious white precipitate appears, which soon forms an clastic adhesive mass, not unlike vegetable gluten. This precipitate is composed of gelatine and tan; it soon dries GEL GEM in the open air, and forms a brittle resinous-like sub- stance, insdiiblc in water, capable of resisting the great- er number of chemical agents, and not susceptible of pu- trefaction. It resembles exactly overtanned leather. The precipitate is soluble in the solution of gelatine, as Mr. Davy first observed. Neither is the whole tan thrown down, unless the solutions both of tan and gelatine are somewhat concentrated. Tremulous gelatine, as was first observed by tbe same chemist, does not precipitate tan; but if we employ a solution of gelatine so strong that it galatinizes when cold, and heated till it becomes quite liquid, it answers best of all for throwing down tan. It is by this property of forming a white precipitate with tan that gelatine is usually detected in animal fluids. It is not, however, a perfectly decisive test, as there arc two other animal substances, namely, albumen and mu- cilage, which arc thrown down likewise by tan. Gela- tine docs not, properly speaking, combine with oils, but it renders them misciblc with water, and forms a kind of emulsion From the effects of different reagents on gelatine, and from the decomposition which it undergoes when heat- ed, we see that it contains carbon, hydrogen, azote, and oxygen. But what the proportion of these constituents is, cannot be ascertained. The plmsphat of lime, and the traces of soda, which it always yields, are most likely only held in solution by it. Gelatine, like all other constituents of animal bodies, is susceptible of numerousshudes of variations in its pro- perties, and of course is divisible into an indefinite num- ber of species. Several of these have been long known aud manufactured for different purposes; and many curious varieties have been pointed out by Mr. Hatchett, in his admirable dissertations on shell, bone, and zoophytes, published inthe Phih seqihical Transactions for 1797 and 1800. The- most important species are the following: 1. Glue.—This well-known substance has been long manufactured in most countries, and employed to cement pieces of wood together. It is extracted by water from animal substances, and differs in its qualities according to the substances employed. Bones, muscles, tendons, liga- ments, membi anes, and skins, all yield it: but the quality is best when skins arc employed: and those of old ani- mals yield a much stronger glue than those of young ani- mals. English glue is considered as the best, owing to the care with which it is made. The parings of hides, pelts from furriers, tbe hoofs and ears of boites. oxen, calves, sheep, be no more forgotten or lost; and since that time it has been very commonly practised in France, and sometimes in other places. Mr. Homberg was favoured in his attempts with all the engraved gems of the king's cabinet, and took such elegant impressions, and made such exact resemblances of the originals, and that in glasses so artfully tinged to the colour ofthe gems themselves, thatthe nicest judges were deceived in them, and often mistook them for the true antique stones. These counterfeit gems also serve, as well as the original ones, to make more copies from afterwards; so that there is no end ofthe numbers that may be made from one; and there is this farther advan- tage, that the copy may be easily made perfect, though the original should not be so, but should have sustained some damage from a blow or otherwise. The great care in the operation is, to take the impres- sion of the gem in a very fine earth, and to press down upon this a piece of proper glass/softened or half-melted at the fire, so that the figures of the impression made in the earth may be nicely and perfectly expressed upon the glass. In general the whole process much resembles that of the common founders. But when it is brought to the trial, there arc found a number of difficulties which were GEMS. not to be foreseen, and which would not at all affect the common works of the founder. For his purpose every earth will serve that is fine enough to receive the im- pressions, and tough enough not to crack in the drying; these all serve for their use, because the metals which they cast are of a nature incapable of mixing with earth, or receiving it into them, even if both are melted toge- ther, so that the metal always easily and perfectly sepa- rates itself from the mould; but it is very difficult in these casts of glass. They are composed of a matter which dif- fers in nothing from that of the mould, but that it has been run into this form by the force of fire, and the other has not yet been so run, and will mix itself inseparably with the glass in a large fire: consequently, if there is not great care used, as well in the choice of the glass as the manner of using it, when the whole is finished, there will be found great difficulty in separating the glass from the mould; and often this cannot be done without wholly destroying the impression. All earths run more or less easily in the fire as they are more or less mixed with saline particles in their na- tural formation. As all salts make earths run into glass, and as it is necessary to use an earth on this occasiem for the making a mould, it being also necessary, to the per- fection of the experiment, that this earth should not melt Or run, it is our business to search out for this purpose some carth which naturally contains very little salt. Of all the species of earth which Mr. Homberg examined on this occasion, none proved so much divested of salts, or so fit for the purpose, as the common tripela, or trip »li, used to polish glass and stones. Of this earth there are two common kinds; the one reddish, and composed of several flakes or strata; the other yellowish, and of a simple structure. These arc both to be had in the shops. The latter kind is from the Levant; the former is found in England, France, and many otherplaces. This tri pela must be chosen soft and smooth to the touch, and not mixed with sandy or other extraneous matter. The yellowish kind is the best of the two, and is commonly called Venetian tripoli. This receives the impression very beautifully, and never mixes with the glass in the operation which the red kind sometimes does. Mr. Hom- berg usually employed both kinds at once in the follow- ing manner: 1st, powder a quantity ofthe red tripela in an iron mortar, and sifting it through a fine sieve, set it by for use; then scrape with a knife a quantity of the yellow tripela into a sort of powder, and afterwards rub it till very fine iu a glass mortar with a glass pestle. The finer this powder is, the finer will be the impression, and the more accurately perfect the cast. The artificer migit naturally suppose, thatthe best method to obtain a perfectly fine powder of this carth, would be by washing it in water; but he must be cautioned against this. There is naturally in this yellowish tripela a sort of unctuosity, which, when it is formed into a mould, keeps its granules together, and gives the whole an uniform glossy sur- face; now washing the. powder takes away this unctuo- sity; and though it renders it much finer, it makes it leave a granulated surface, not tbis smooth one, in the mould; and this must render the surface of the cast less smooth. When the two tripelas are thus separately powdered, the red kiud must be mixed with so much water as will bring it to the consistence of paste, so that it may be moulded like a lump of dough between the fingers: this paste must be put into a small crucible of a flat shape, and about half an inch or little more in depth, and of such a breath at tbe surface as is a little more than that ofthe stone whose impression is to be taken. The cru- cible is to be nicely filled with this paste lightly pressed down into it, and the surface of the paste must be strew- ed over with the fine powder of the yellow tripela not wetted. When this is done, the stone of which the im- pression is to be taken must belaid upon the surface, and pressed evenly down into the paste with a finger and thumb, so as to make it give a strong and perfect im- pression; the tripela is then to be pressed nicely even to its sides with the fingers, or with an ivory knife. The stone must be thus left a few moments, for the humidity of the paste to moisten the dry powder of the yellow tripela which is strewed over it; then the stone is to be carefully raised by the point by a needle fixed in a handle of wood, and the crucible being then turned bottom up- wards, the stone will fall out, and the impression will remain very beautifully on the tripela. If the sides of the cavity have been injured in the falling out of the stone, they may be repaired, and the crucible must then be set, for the paste to dry, in a place where it w ill not be incommended by the dust. The- red tripela, being the more common and the chea- per kind, is here made to fill the crucible only to save the other, which alone is the substance fit for taking the impression. When the stone is taken out, it must be examined, to see whether any thing is lodged in any part of the engraving, because, if there is any of the tripela remaining, there will of course be so much want- ing in the impression. When the crucible and paste are dry, a piece of glass must be chosen of a proper colour, and cut to a size proper for the figure; this must be laid over the mould, but in such a manner that it shall not touch the figures, otherwise it would spoil them. The crucible is then to be brought near the furnace by degrees, and gradually heated till it cannot be touched without burning the fingers; then it is to be placed in the furnace under a muffle surrounded with charcoal. Several of these small crucibles may be placed under one muffle; and when they are properly disposed, the aperture of the muffle should have a large piece of burning charcoal put to it, and then t..; operator is to watch the process, and sec when the glass beg'ns to look bright: this is the signal of its being fit to receive the impression. Thee nicible is then to be taken out of the lire, and the hot glass must be. press- ed down upon the mould with an iron instrument, to make it receive the regular impression; as soon as this is done, the crucible is to be set by the side ofthe fur- nace out ofthe way of the wind, that it may cool gra- dually without breaking. When it is cold, the glass is to be taken out, and its edges should be grated round with pincers, in order to prevent its flying afterwards, which is an accident that sometimes happens when this caution has been omitted, especially when the glass is naturally tender. The different coloured glasses are of different degrees of hardness, according to their compo- sition; but the hardest to melt are always the best for this purpose, and this is known by a few trials. If it is desired to copy a stonc'in- relief which is natu- GEM G E JC rally iu crcax,or to take one in creux which is naturally in relief, there needs no more than to take an impression, first in wax or sulphur, and to mould that upon the paste of tripela instead of the stone itself; then proceeding in the manner before directed, the process will have the de- sired effect. A still more simple and easy method is by taking the casts in gypsum, or plaister of Paris, as it is commonly called. For this purpose the gypsum must be finely pul- verized, and then mixed with clear water to the con- sistence of thick cream. This is po ired upon the face of the gem or seal of which the impression is wanted, and..which must be previously moisten d with oil to faci- litate the separation of the cast; and in order to confine the liquid plaister it is only necessary to pin a slip of oiled paper round the sides ofthe seal by way of a cap or rim. When the plaister is dry, it is to be taken off, and set before the mouth of the furnace, iu order to free it entirely from moisture, when it is fit to be used as a matrix in the same way as that formed with the trip di earths. Only no crucible or other receptacle is at all necessary, the casts being formed like so many small cakes half an inch thick, and then put into the furnace with the hits of glass ufion them. The glass, after coming to a proper heat, is pressed down upon the mould with an iron spatula to receive the desired impression, the pressure required being more or less, according to the size of the stone. This method has been long practised very successful!y, and with no small emolument, by that ingenious seal-engraver, Mr. Deuchar of Edinburgh. The only respect in which it is inferior to the other more operose and expensive methods, consists in the chance of air-bubbles arising in pouring on the. plaister; which chance, however, is less in proportion to the fineness of the gypsum employed. When air-bubbles do occur, the easts may be laid aside, as it is so easy to replace them. Of all the artists and ingenious men who have taken impressions of engraved gems in sulphur and in paste, no one seems to have carried that art to such perfection as Mr. James Tassie, a native of Glasgow, but who latterly resided in London. Mr. Tassie. profiting bvr the former publications of this sort, and by expense, industry, and access to many cabinets in England and other kingdoms to which former artists had not obtained admission, increased his collec- tion of impressions of ancient and modern gems to the numberof above 15,00.0 articles. It is the greatest collec- tion of this kind that ever existed, and serves for all the purposes of artists, antiquaries, scholars, men of taste, and even philosophers. The great demand for his pastes was perhaps owing in the beginning to the London jew- ellers, who introduced them into fashion by setting them in rings, seals, bracelets, necklaces, and other trinkets. The reputation of this collection having reached the empress of Russia, she was pleased to order a complete set; which, being accordingly executed in the best and most durable manner, were arranged in elegant cabinets, and are now placed in the noble apartments of her impe- rial majesty's superb palace at CzarskoZelo. Mr. Tassie, in executing this commission, availed himself of all the advantages which the improved state of chemistry, the various ornamental arts, and the know- ledge of the age, seemed to afford. The impressions were taken in a beautiful white enamel comp'.sitioi, which is not subject to shrink or form air-bladders, which emits fire when struck with steel, and takes a fine pol- ish, and which sliows every stroke and touch ofthe artist in higher perfection than any other substance. When the colours, mixed colours, and nature of the respective originals, could be ascertained, they were imitated as completely as art can imitate them; insomuch that many ofthe paste intaglios and cameoes in this collection arc such faithful imitations, that artists themselves have owned they could hardly be distinguished from the ori- ginals. And when the colour and nature of the gems could not be authenticated, the pastes were executed in agreeable, and chiefly transparent, colours; constant at- tention being bestowed to preserve the outlines, cxtremi- tics, attributes, and inscriptions. GENDARMERIE, Fr. The gendarmerie was aselcct body of cavalry that took precedence of every regiment of horse in the French service, and ranked immedi- ately after the king's household. The reputation of tho gendarmerie was so great, and its services so well csti. mated by the king of Fiance, that when tho emperor Charles V. in 1552, sent a formal embassy to the court of Versailles to request a loan of money, and the assist- ance of the gendarmerie to enable him to repulse the Turks; Francis I. returned the following answer: " With respect to the first object of your mission, (addressing himself to the ambassador) I am not a banker; and with regard to the other, as my gendarmerie is the arm which supports my sceptre, I never expose it to danger, with- out myself sharing its fatigue and glory." The uniform of the gendarmerie, as well as of the light cavalry, under the old French government, was scarlet, with fac ings of the. same colour. The coat was formerly more or less laced with silver, according to the king's pleasure. A short period before the revolution, it was only laced on the cuff. The waistcoat was of buff leather, and the bandoolcer of the same, silver laced; the hat was edged with broad silver lace. The horse-cloths and holster-caps were red, and the arms of the captain em- broidered on the corners of the saddle-cloths, and on the front of the holsters. In 1762, a considerable body of men was raised by order of Louis XV. The soldiers who composed it were called gensdarmes. And in 1792 the number was consi- derably augmented, consisting of horse and foot, and being discriminatcly called gensdarmes; but their cloth- ing was altered to deep blue. Their pay was greater than what the rest of the army enjoyed; and when others were paid in paper currency, they received their sub- sistence iu hard cash (en argent sonant). They possess- ed these privileges on account of the proofs they were obliged to bring of superior claims to military honour, before they could be enlisted as gensdarmes. It was ne- cessary, in fact, that every individual amongst them should produce a certificate of six or eightyears service. GENDARMES (gens d'armes) de la garde, a select body of men so called during the old government of France, and still preserved in that country; but their services are applied to different purposes. They con- sisted originally of a single company which was form- ed by Henry IV. when he ascended the throne. He dis- tinguished them from his other troops by styling them GEN G E N hommes d'annes de ses ordonnances, men at arms under his own immediate orders. They consisted of men best qualified fur every species of military duty, and were to constitute a roval squadron, at whose head the king himself personally engaged the enemy, as necessity might require. He gave this squadron to his son, the dauphin, who was afterwards king of France, under the name and title of Louis XIII. GENDER, among grammarians, a division of nouns, or names, to distinguish the two sexes. GENEALOGICA arbor, or tree of consanguinity, signifies a genealogy or lineage drawn out under the figure of a tree, with its root, stock, branches, kc. The genealogical degrees are usually represented in circles, ranged over, under, and aside each other. This tbe Greeks called stemmata, a word signifying crown, or garland. GENEALOGY, an enumeration of a series of ances- tors, or a summary account of the relations and alliances of a person or family, both in the direct and collateral line. GENEPPA. See Garden ea. GENERAL, in a military sense, is an officer in chief, to whom the prince or senate of a country have judged proper to intrust the command of their troops. He holds this important trust under various titles: as cap- tain-general, in England and Spain; feldt mareschal in Germany, or mareschal in France. In the British service the king is constitutionally, and in his own proper right, captain-general. He has ten aid-dc-camps; every one of whom enjoys the brevet-rank of full colonel in the army. Next to his majesty is the commander in chief, whom he sometimes honours with the title of captain-general. During the expedition to Holland, his royal highness the duke of York was en- trusted with this important charge. The natural qualities of a general are a martial ge- nius, a solid judgment, a healthy robust constitution, in- trepidity and presence of mind on critical occasions, hi- de fatigability in business, goodness of heart, liberality, a reasonable age; if too young, he may want experience and prudence; if too old, he may not have vivacity enough. His conduct must be uniform, his temper affa- ble, but inflexible in maintaining the police and discipline of an army. The acquired qualities of a general should be secrecy, justice, sobriety, temperance, knowledge of the art of war from theory and practice, the art of commanding and speaking with precision and exactness, great atten- tion to preserve the lives and supply the wants of the soldiers; and a constant study of the characters ofthe officers of his army, that he may employ them according to their talents. His conduct appears in establishing his magazines in the most convenient places; in examin- ing the country, that he may not engage his troops too far, while he is ignorant of the means of bringing them off; in subsisting them, and in knowing lmw to take the most advantageous posts, either for fighting, retreating, or shunning a battle. His experience inspires his army with confidence, and an assurance of victory; and his quality, by creating respect, augments his authority. By his liberality begets intelligence ofthe strength and designs of the enemy, and by this means is enabled to take the most successful measures. He ought to be fond vol. n. 33 of glory, to have an aversion to flattery, to render him- self beloved, and to keep a strict discipline and regular subordination. The office of a general is to regulate the march and encampment of the army; in the day of battle to chusc out the most advantageous ground; to make the disposi- tion ofthe army; to post the artillery, and wbere there is occasion, to send his orders by bis aid-de-camps. At a siege he is to cause the place to be invested, to regulate the approaches and attacks, to visit the works, and to send out detachments to secure the convoy and foraging parties. General terms, among logicians, those which are made signs of general ideas. General of horse, and General of foot, are posts next under the general of the army, and these have upon all occasions an absolute authority over all the horse and foot in the army. General of the artillery, or Master General of the ordnance. See Oronance. General is also used for a particular inarch; or beat of drum, being the first which gives notice, commonly in the morning early, for the infantry to be in readiness to march. General is also used for the chief of an order of monks; or of all the houses and congregations, establish- ed under the same rule. Thus we say, the general of the Franciscans, Cistercians, kc. GENERALISSIMO, a supreme and absolute com- mander in the field. This vvoro is generally used in most foreign languages. It was first invented by the absolute authority of carnidal Richelieu, when he went to com- mand the French army in Italy. GENERATING line or figure, in geometry, is that which by its motion produces any other plane or s«»Iicl figure. Thus a right line moved any way parallel to itself, generates a parallelogram; round a point in the same plane, with one end fastened in that point, it gene- rates a circle. One entire revolution of a circle, in the same plane, generates the cyririd; and the revolution of a semicircle round its diameter, generates a sphere. GENERATION. See Comparative Anatomy, and Physiology. GENESIS, among mathematicians, signifies the for- mation or production of some figure or quantity. GENEVA, or Gin, among distillers, an ordinary malt-spirit distilled a second time, with the addition of some juniper-berries. See Distillation. GENIOSTOM.V, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants. The calyx is a turbinat- ed quinquefid perianthium; the corolla monopetalous and tubular; the stamina five short filaments; the anther* oblemg; the seeds very numerous and subangulated, placed on a filiform receptacle. There is one species, a native ofthe South Seas. GENISTA, broom, o" dyer's-weed, a genus ofthe decandria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 32(1 order, papi- lionaccje. The calyx is bilabiate; the upper lip Indent- ed, the under one tridentate; the vexillum is edilong and rehVxed, or turned bae k from the pistil and stamina. There are 17 species, of which the must remarkable are the cv tiso-genista, or common broom, and the tinctoria, GEN GEO or dyer's-weed. The first is too weft known to need de- scription. Its young flowers are sometimes preserved as pickles; and the piant, when burnt, affords a tolerably pure alkaline salt. Dr. Mead relates the case of a drop- sical patient that was cured by taking half a pint of a decoction of green broom-tops, with a spoonful of whole white inustard-seed, every morning and evening. The patient h id been tapped three times, and tried the usual remedies before. The seeds, or an infusion of them drunk freely, have been known to produce similar happy effects; but these are to be expected in very few in- stances. Cows, horses, and sheep, refuse the plant. 2 The tinctoria is also a native of Britain. It rises writh shrubby stalks three feet high, with spear-shaped leaves placed alternate, and terminated by several spikes of yellow flowers, succeeded by pods. The branches of the plant are used by dyers for giving a yellow colour; whence it is called dyer's-broom. green-wood, woodwax- en, or dyer's-weed. A dram and half of the powdered seeds operates as a mild purgative. A decoction ofthe plant is diuretic, and, like the former, has proved ser- viceable in dropsical cases. Horses, cows, goats, and sheep, eat it. GENITIVE, in grammar, the second case of the de- clension of nouns. GENTIAN A, Gentian, a genus ofthe digynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 20th order, rotacese. The corolla is monopetalous, the capsule bivalved and unilocular; there are two longitudinal receptacles. There are 53 species. The most remarkable are the following: i. The lutea, or common gentian of the shops. This is a native ofthe mountainous parts of Germany, whence the roots, the only part used in medicine, are brought to this country. They have a yellowish-brown colour, and a very bitter taste. The lower leaves arc of an oblong oval shape, a little pointed at the end, stiff, of a yellow- ish green, and have five large veins on the back of each. The stalk rises four or five feet high, with leaves grow- ing by pairs at each joint, almost embracing the stalk at their base. They are ofthe same form with the lower, but diminish gradually in their size to the top. The flow- ers come out in whorls at the joints on the upper part of the stalks, standing on short footstalks, whose origin is in the wings of the leaves. They are of a pale-yellow colour. The roots of this plant are very frequently used in medicine as stomachic bitters. In taste they are less exceptionable than most of the substances of this class. Infusions of gentian-root flavoured with orange-peel are sufficiently grateful. Some years ago a poisonous root was discovered among the gentian brought to London, the use of which occasioned violent disorders, and in some cases death. This root is easily distinguished from the gentian, by its being internally of a white colour, and void of bitterness. 2. The centaureum, or lesser centaury of the shops, is a native of many parts of Britain. It grows on dry pastures, and its height is commonly proportioned to the goodness of the soil, as in rich soils it will grow to the height of a foot, but in poor ones not above three or four inches. It is an annual plant, with upright branch- ing stalks, and small leaves, placed by pairs. The flow- ers grow in form of an umbel at the top of the stalk, and are of a bright purple colour. They come out in July, and the seed ripens in autumn, The plant cannot he cultivated in gardens. The tops are an useful ape. rient bitter, in which view th y have been often used iu the practice of medicine. 3. The acaulis, a beautiful little plant for the flower ganlen, conspicuous for its fine changeable azure blue flowers. It is a native of the Alps. GENTILE, gentilis, in the Roman law and history, a name which sometimes expresses what the Romans otherwise called barbarians, whether they were allies of Rome or not: but this word was used in a more particu- lar sense for all strangers and foreigners not subject to the Roman empire, in contradistinction to provincials, or an inhabitant of a province of the empire. GENTLEMAN, according to sir Edward Coke, is one who bears coat-armour, the grant of which adds gentility to a man's family. 2 Inst. 667. GENUS, among metaphysicians and logicians, de- notes a number of beings, which agree in certain gene- ral properties, common to them all, so that a genus is nothing but an abstract idea, expressed by some general name or term. Genus, in natural history, a subdivision of any class or order of natural beings, whether of the animal, ve- getable, or mineral kingdoms; all agreeing in certain common characters. Genus, iu music, by the ancients called genus melo- dire, is a certain manner of dividing and subdividing the principles of melody, that is, the consonant and dis- sonant intervals, into their concinnous parts. GEOCENTRIC, in astronomy, is applied to a pla- net or its orbit to denote it concentric with, the earth, or as having the earth for its centre, or the same centre with the earth. Geocentric latitude of a planet, is its distance from the ecliptic as it is seen from the earth, which even though the planet be in the same point of her orbit, is not constantly the same, but alters according to the position of the earth in respect to the planet. Geocentric place of a planet, the place in which it appears to v.n from the earth, supposing the eye there fixed: or it is a point in the ecliptic to which a planet seen from the earth is referred. GEOFFROYA, a genus of the decandria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 32d order, papilionacise. The calyx is quinquefid, the fruit an oval plum, the kernel compress- ed. There are two species; the interims, or cabbage hark tree, is a native of Brasil and Jamaica. The wood of this tree is used in building; but it is chiefly valued for its bark, which is administered as an anthelmintic me- dicine. From this medical property it is also called the worm-hark tree. This bark is of a grey colour exter- nally, hut black and furrowed on the inside. It has a mucilaginous and sweetish taste, and a disagreeable smell. It is given in cases of worms, in form of pow- der, decoction, syrup, and extract. The decoction is preferred, and is made by slowly boiling an ounce ol the fresh-dried bark in a quart of water, till it assumes the colour of Madeira wine. This, sweetened, is the syrup; evaporated, it forms an extract. It commonly produces some sickness and purging; sometimes violent effects, as GEOGRAPHY. vomiting, delirium, and fever. These last are said to be owing to an over-dose, or to drinking cold water, and are relieved by the use of warm water, castor oil, or a vegetable acid. It should always be begun in small doses. But when properly and cautiously administered, it is said to operate as a very powerful anthelmintic, particu- larly for the explosion of the luiubriei, which are a very common cause of disease iu the West Indies. GEOGRAPHY, is a word derived from the Greek lan- guage, and implies a description of the earth. It is some- times contrasted with hydrography, which signifies a description of the water, that is, of seas, lakes, rivers, etc. including marine charts. Anciently both were con- sidered in connection with astronomy, as parts of cosmo- graphy; which attempted to delineate the universe. Ge- ography is more justly contrasted with chorography, which illustrates a country or province; and still more with topography, which describes a particular place, or smaller district. What is calleel general geography embraces a wide view of the subject; regarding the earth astronomically as a planet, the grand divisions of land and water, the winds, tides, meteorology, and may extend to what is called mechanical geography,-including directions for the construction of globes, maps, and charts. Among other divisions of this science may be named sacred geography, solely employed in the illustration of the scriptures; ecclesiastical geography, which describes the government of the church as divided into patriarch- ates, arrhbishoprirks, bishopricks, archdeanrics, ivc. with their respective boundaries, whie h frequently vary much from those of the secular provinces; and physical geography, or geology which investigates the interior of the earth, so far only as real discoveries can be made. See- Geology. Geography, popularly considered, is occupied in the description ofthe various regions of this globe, chiefly as being divided among various nations, and improved by human art an 1 industry. " (JEoGicu'iiv, history of. The study of geography be- ing of so much practical importance in life, must have commenced in the early ages of the world. It was re- garded as a science by the Babyl mians and Egyptians, from wh mi it passed to the. Greeks, and from these to the Romans, the Arabians, and the western nations of Eu- rope. Thales of Miletus, in the 6th century before Christ, first made observations on the apparent progress of the sun from tropic to tropic; and is said to have written two treatises, the one on the tropic, and the other on the equinox, whence he was led to the discovery of the four seasons, which are determined by the eqtiiiu-xes and solstices. We are assured this knowledge was ob- tained by means ed' the gnomon. Thales, it is also said, constructed a globe, aud represented the land and sea upon a table of brass. Meton and Euctemon observed the summer solstice at Athens, on the 27th of June, 432 years before Christ, by watching narrowly the shadow of the gnomon, with the design of fixing the beginning of their cycle of 19 years. Timocharis and Aristillus. who bngan their observa- tions about 295 B. C, first attempted to fix the latitudes and longitudes of the fixed stars, by considering their distances from the equator, kc One of their observa- tions gave rise to the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes, which was first remarked by Hipparchus about 150 years after; who also made use of their me- thod for delineating the parallels of latitude and tire meridians, on the surface of the earth; thus laying the foundation of this science as it now appears. See Equi- noxes, precession of. The latitudes and longitudes, thus introduced by Hip- parchus, were not however much attended to till Ptole- my's time. Strabo, Vitruvius, and Pliny, have all of them entered into a minute geographical description of the situation of places, according to the length of the shadows of the gnomon, without noticing the longitudes and latitudes. Maps at first were little more than rude outlines, and topographical sketches of different countries. The ear- liest on record were those of Scsostt is, mentioned by Eustatbius, who says, that «*this Egyptian king, having traversed great part of the earth, recorded his inarch in maps, and gave copies of them not only to the Egv p- tians, but to the Scythians, to their great astonishment." Some have imagined, with much probability, that the Jews made a map ofthe Holy Land when they gave the different portions to the nine tribes at Shiloh; for Joshua tells us that they were sent to walk through the land, and that they described it in seven parts in a book; and Josephus relates that when Joshua sent out people from the different tribes to measure the land, he gave them as companions persons well skilled in geometry, who could not be mistaken in the truth. The first Grecian map on record was that of Anax- iinander, mentioned by Strabo, supposed to be that re- ferred to by Hipparchus under the designation ofthe an- cient map. Herodotus minutely describes a map made by Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, which will serve to give some idea of the maps of those times. He relates, that Aristagoras showed it te> Clcomencs, king of Spar- ta, to induce him to attack the king of Persia at Susa, in order to restore the Ionian* to their ancient, liberty. It was traced upon brass or copper, and seems to have been a mere itinerary, containing the route through the intermediate countries which were to be 1 reversed in that march, with the rivers Halys, the Euphrates, and Tigris, which Herodotus mentions as nee essarv to be crossed in that expedition. It contained one straight line called ihe royal road, or highway, which toe>k in all the stations or places of encampment from Sardis to Susa; being 111 in the whole journey, and containing 13,500 stadia, or 16375 Roman miles e>f 5(>no feet each. Eratosthenes first attempted to reduce geography to a regular system, and introduced a regular parallel of la- titude, which began at the straits of Gibraltar, passed eastwards through the isle of Rhodes, and so on to the mountains of India, noting all the intermediate places through which it passed. In drawing this tin , he was not regulated by the same latitude, but by observin- where the longest day was 14 hours and a half, which Hipparchus afterwards determined was the latitude of 36 degrees. This first parallel through Rhodes was ever after con- sidered with a degree of preference, iu constructing all the ancient maps; and the longitude of the then known GEOGRAPHY. world was often attempted to be measured in stadia and miles according to the extent of that line, by many suc- ceeding geographers. Eratosthenos soon after attempted not only to draw other parallels of latitude, but also to trace a meridian at right angles to these, passing through Rhodes and Alexandria down to Syene and Meroe; and at length he undertook the arduous task of determining the circum- ference of the globe, by an actual measurement of a seg- ment of one of iis great circles. To find the magnitude of the earth is indeed a problem which has engaged the attention of astronomers and geographers ever since the.spherical figure of it was known. It seems Anax- imandcr was the first among the Greeks who wrote upon this subject. Archytas of Tarentum, a Pythagorean, famous for his skill in mathematics and mechanics, also made some attempts in this way; and Dr. Long conjec- tures that these are , the authors of the most ancient opinion that the circumference of the earth is 400,000 stadia; and Archimedes makes mention of the ancients who estimated the circumference of the earth at only 30,000 stadia. As to the methods of measuring the circumference of the earth, it would seem, from what Aristotle says in his treatise DeCielo, that they were much the same as those used by the moderns, deficient only in the accuracy of the instruments. That philosopher there says, that dif- ferent stars pass through our zenith, according as our situation is more or less northerly; and that in the south- ern parts of the earth stars come above our horizon, which are no longer visible if we go northward. Hence it appears that there are two ways of measuring the circumference of the earth; one by observing stars which pass through the zenith of one place, and do not pass through that of another; the other, by observing some stars which come above the horizon of one place, and are observed at the same time to be in the horizon of another. The former of these methods, which is the best, was followed by Eratosthenes at Alexandria in Egypt, 250 years before Christ, lie knew that at the summer solstice, the sun was vertical to the inhabitants of Syene, a town on the confines of Ethiopia, under the tropic of Cancer, where they had a well made to observe it, at the bottom of which the rays of the sun fell per- pendicularly the day of the summer solstice: he observ- ed by the shadow of a wire set perpendicularly in an hemispherical bason, how far the sun was on that day at noon distant from the zenith of Alexandria; when he found that distance was equal to the 50th part of a great circle in theTieavens. Then supposing Syene and Alex- andria under the same meridian, he inferred that the dis- tance between them was the 50th part of a great circle upon the earth; and this distance bring by measure 5000 stadia, he concluded that the whole circumference of the earth was 250,000 stadia. But as this number divided by 360 would give 694| stadia to a degree, either Eratosthenes himself, or some of his followers, as- signed the round number 700 stadia to a degree, which multiplied by 360, makes the circumference ofthe earth 252,000 stadia; whence both these measures are given by different authors as that of Eratosthenes. In the time of Pompey the Great, Posidonius deter- mined the measure of the circumference of the earth by the 2d method above hinted by Aristotle, viz. the hori- zontal observations. Knowing that the star called Ca. nopus was but just visible in the horizon of Rhodes, and at Alexandria finding its meridian height was the 48th part of a great circle in the heavens, or 7\ deg. answering to the like quantity of a circle on the earth; then supposing these two places under the same meri- dian, and the distance between them 5000 stadia, the cir- cumference ofthe earth will be 240,000 stadia; which is the first measure of Posidonius. But accordingto Strabo, Posidonius made the measure ofthe earth to be 180,000 stadia, at the rate of 500 stadia to a degree. The rea- son of this difference is thought to be, that Eratosthenes measured the distance between Rhodes and Alexandria, and found it only 3750 stadia; taking this for a 48th part of the earth's circumference, which is the measure of Posidonius, the whole circumference will be 180,000 sta- dia. This measure was received by Marinus of Tyre, and is usually ascribed to Ptolemy. But this measure- ment is subject to great uncertainty, both on account of the great refraction of the stars near the horizon, the difficulty of measuring the distance at sea between Rhodes and Alexandria, and by supposing those places under the same meridian, when they are really very different. Several geographers afterwards made use of the differ- ent heights of the pole in distant places under the same meridian, to find the dimensions ofthe earth. About the year 800 the khalif Almcmun had the distance measured between two places that were two degrees asunder, and under the same meridian, in the plains of Sinjar in the Red Sea; and the result was, that the degree at one time was found equal to 56 miles, and at another 56\ or 56$ miles. The next attempt to find out the circumference of the earth was in 1525, by Fernelius, a learned philosopher of France. For this purpose he took the height of the pole at Paris, going thence directly northwards, till became to the place where the height ofthe pole wras one degree more than at that city. The length of the way was mea- sured by the number of revolutions made by one of the wheels of his carriage; and after proper allowances for the declivities and turnings of the road, he concluded that 68 Italian miles were equal to a degree of the earth. According to these methods many other measurements of the earth's circumference have since that time been made, with much greater accuracy: a particular account of which is give under the article Degree. Though the maps of Eratosthenes were the best of his time, they were yet very imperfect and inaccurate. They contained little more than the states of Greece, and the dominions of the successors of Alexander, digested ac- cording to the surveys above-mentioned. He had indeed seen, and has quoted, the voyages of Pythias into the great Atlantic ocean, which gave him some faint ideas of the western part of Europe: but so imperfect, that they could not be realized into the outlines of a chart. Strabo says he was very ignorant of Gaul, Spain, Ger- many, and Britain? and he was equally ignorant of Italy, the coast of the Adriatic, Pontus, and all the countries towards the north. Such was the state of geography, and the nature ofthe maps, before the time of Hipparchus. He made a closer GEOGRAPHY. connection between geography and astronomy, by deter- mining the latitudes from celestial observations. War has usually been the occasion of making or im- proving the maps of countries; and accordingly geo- graphy made great advances from the progress of the Roman arms. In all the provinces occupied by that people, camps were every where constructed at proper intervals, and good roads made for communication be- tween them; and thus civilization and surveying were carried on accordingto system through the whole extent of that empire. Every new war produced a new survey and itinerary of the countries where the scenes of action passed; so that the materials of geography were accumu- lated by every additional conquest. Polybius says, that at tbe beginning of the second Punic war, when Hannibal was preparing bis expedition against Reime, the coun- tries through which he was to pass were carefully mea- sured by the Romans. And Julius Caesar caused a ge- neral survey of the Rejman empire to be made, by a de- cree of the senate. Three surveyors had this task as- signed them, which they completed in 25 years. The Roman itineraries that are still extant, also shew what care and pains they had been at in making surveys in all the different provinces of their empire, and Pliny has filled the 3d, 4th, and 5th books of his Natural History with the geographical distances that were thus measured. Other maps are also still preserved, known by the name ofthe Pentigerian Tables, published by Welser and Ber- tius, which give a good specimen of what Vegetius calls the itinera picta, for the better direction of their armies in their march. The Roman empire had been enlarged to its greatest extent, and all its provinces well known and surveyed, when Ptolemy, about 150 years after Christ, composed his system of geography. Tbe chief materials he em- ployed in composing this work, were the proportions of the gnomon to its shadow, taken by different astrono- mers at the times ofthe equinoxes and solstices; calcula- tions founded on the length of the longest days; the mea- sured or computed distances of the principal roads con- tained in their surveys and itineraries; and the various reports of travellers and navigators. All these were compared together, and digested into one uniform body or system; and afterwards were translated by him into a now mathematical language, expressing the different de- grees of latitude and longitude, after the invention of Hipparchus, which had been neglected for 250 years. Ptolemy's system of geography, notwithstanding it was still very imperfect, continued in vogue till the last three or four centuries, within which time the great im- provements in astronomy, the many discoveries e>f new countries by voyagers, and the progress of war and arms, have contributed to bring it to a very considerable de- gree of perfection. Principals of geography. The fundamental principles ofgcograp'hy are, the spheri- cal figure ofthe earth, its rotation on its axis, its revolu tioiiroundthesun, and the position ofthe axis orline round which it revolves with regard to the celestial luminaries. That the earth and sea taken together constitute one vast sphere is demonstrable by the following arguments: 1. To people at sea the land disappears, though near enough to be visible was it not for the intervening convexity of the water. 2. The higher the eye is placed, the more extensive is the prospect; whence it is common for sai- lors to climb up to the tops of the masts to discover land or ships at a distance. But this would give them no ad- vantage, was it not for the convexity of the earth; for upon an infinitely extended plane objects would be visi- ble at the same distance whether the eye was high or low, nor would any of them vanish till the angle under which they appeared became too small to be perceived. 3. To people on shore, the mast of a ship at sea appears before the hull; but was the earth an infinite plane, not the high- est object, but the largest, would be longest visible; and the mast of a ship would disappear, by the smallness of its angle, long before the hull did so. 4. The convexity of any piece of still water of a mile or two in extent may be perceived by the eye. A little boat, for instance, may be perceived by a man who is any height above the water; but if he stoops down or lays his eye near the surface, he will find that the fluid appears to rise and intercept the view of the boat entirely. 5."The earth has been often sailed round, as by Magellan, Drake, Dampier, Anson, Cook, and many other navigators, which demonstrates that the surface of the ocean is spherical; and that the land is very little different may easily be proved from the small elevation of any part of it above the surface of the water. The mouths of rivers which run 1000 miles are not more than one mile below their sources, and the highest mountains are not quite four miles of perpendi- cular height; so that, though some parts of the land are elevated into hills, and others depressed into valleys, the whole may still be accounted spherical. 6. An undeni- able, and indeed ocular, demonstration of the spherical figure ofthe earth is taken from the round figure of its shadow which falls upon the moon in time of eclipses. As various sides of the earth are turned towards the sun during the time of different phenomena of this kind, and the shadow in all cases appears circular, it is impossible to suppose the figure of the earth to be any other than spherical. The inequalities of its surface have no effect upon the earth's shadow on the moon; for as the diame- ter of the terraqueous globe is very little less than 8000 miles, and tbe height of the highest mountains on earth not quite four, we cannot account the latter any more than the 2000th part of the former, so that the mountains bear no more proportion to the bulk of the earth, than grains of dust bear to that of a common globe. A great many of the terrestrial phenomena depend upon the globular figure of the earth, and the position of its axis with regard to the sun, particularly the rising aud setting of the celestial luminaries, the length of the days and nights, u any part of the earth, and which is very different according to the difference of our situation. The other, called the rational, is a circ lo parallel to the former, and passing through the centre of the earth, supposed to be continued as far as the celestial sphere itself. To the eyes of spectators there is always a vast difference between the sensible and rational hori- zons; but from the immense disparity betwixt the sizcof the earth and celestial sphere, planes of both circles may be considered as coincident. Hence in geography, when the horizon, or plane of the horizon, is spoken of, the rational is always undei-stood when nothing is said to the contrary. In consequence of the round figure ofthe earth, every part has a different horizon. The poles of the horizon, that is, the points directly above the head, and opptisite to the feet of the observer, are called the zenith and nadir. 2. A great circle described upon the sphere of the heaven, and passing through the two vertical points, is call- ed a vertical circle, or an azimuth; an 1 of these wc may suppose as many as we please all round the horizon. In geography every circle obtains the epithet of great whose plane passes through the centre of the earth; in other cases they are called lesser circles. The altitudes ofthe heavenly bodies are measured by an arch of the azimuth or vertical circle intercepted between the horizon and the b.uly itself. The most accurate method of taking them, with regard to the sun and moon, is for two persons to make their observations at the same time; one of thein to observe the altitude of the upper limb, the. other of the lower limb ofthe luminary; tbe mean betwixt these two giving the true height of the centre. The same thing may also be done accurately by one observer, having the apparent diameter of the luminary given. For, having found the height of the upper cd'ge of the limb by the quadrant, take from it half his diameter, the remainder is the height of his centre; or having found the altitude GEOGRAPHY of his lower edge, add to it half the diameter, and the sum is the height ofthe centre as before. When the ob- servations are made with a large instrument, it will be convenient to use a sextant, or sixth part of a circle, ra- ther than a quadrant, as being less iinvvieldly. 3. Almucantars are circles supposed to bedrawn upon the sphere parallel to the horizon, and grow less and less as they approach the vertical points, where they entirely vanish. The apparent distances betwixt any two celes- tial bodies are measured by supposing arches of great circles drawn through them, and then finding how many degrees, minutes, &.C. ofthe.se circles are intercepted be- tween them. 4. Sometimes the visible horizon is considered only with regard to the objects which are upon the earth itself, in which case we may define it to be a lesser circle on the surface of the earth, comprehending all such objects as are at once visible to us; and the higher the eye, the more is the visiblo horizon extended. It is most accura- tely observed, however, on the sea, on account of the absence of those inequalities which at land render the circle irregular; and for this reason it is called some- time s the horizon of the sea, and may be observed by looking through the sights of a quadrant at the most dis- tant part of the sea then visible. 5. The. equator is a great circle upon the earth, every part of which is equally distant from the poles or ex- tremities e)f the imaginary line on which the earth re- volves. In the sea-language it is usually called the line, and when people sail over it they arc said to cross the line. 6. The meridian of any place is a great circle on the earth drawn through that place and both poles of the earth. It cuts the horizon at right angles, marking upon it the true north and south pednt; dividing also the globe into two hemispheres, called the eastern and western from their relative situation to that place and to one another. The poles divide the m -ridians into two seiniciri les, one of which is drawn through the place to which the meri- dian belongs, the other through that point of the earth which is opposite to the place. By the meridian of a place, geographers and astronomers often mean that semicircle which passes through the place, and which may therefore be called the geographical meridian. All places lying under this semicircle are said to have the same meridian; the semicircle opposite to this is called the opposite meridian. The meridians are thus immov- ably fixed to the earth as much as the places themselves on its surface, and are carried along with it in its diurnal rotation. When the geographical meridian of any place is, by the rotation of the earth, brought to point at the sun, it is noon or mid-day at that place; in which case, was the plane of the circle extended, it would pass through the middle ofthe luminary's disk. Supposing the plane ofthe meridians to be extended to the sphere of the fixed stars, in that case, when by the rotation of the earth the meridian comes to any point in the heavens, then, from the apparent motion of the heavens, that point is said to come to the meridian. The rotation of the earth is from west to east; whence the celestial bodies appear to move the contrary way. East and west, however, are terms merely relative, since a place may be west from one part ofthe carth, aud east from another; but the true east and west points from any place are those where it* Iiorizou cuts the equator. 7. All places lying under the same meridian are said to have the same longitude, and those which lie undei different meridians to have different longitudes; the dif- ference of longitude being reckoned eastward or west- ward on the equator. Thus, if the meridian of any place cuts the equator in a point 15 degrees distant from one another, we say there is a difference of 15° longitude betwixt these two places. Geographers usually fix upon the meridian of some remarkable place for the first me- ridian, and reckon the longitude of all others by the dis- tance of their meridians from which they have determined upon as the first; measuring sometimes eastward on the equator all round the globe, or sometimes only one-half east and the other west; according to which last mea- surement no place can have more than 180° longitude either cast or west. By the ancient Greek geographers the first meridian was placed in Hera or Junonia, one of the Fortunate Islands, as they were then called, which is supposed to be the present island of Teneriffe, one of the Canaries. Tbese islands, being the most westerly part ofthe earth then known, were on that account mads the seat of the first meridian, the longitude of all other places being counted eastward from them. Among mo- dern geographers indeed, it is now become customary for each to make the first meridian pass through the capital of his own country; a practice, however, which is certainly improper, as it is thus impossible for the geo- graphers of one nation to understand the maps of another without a troublesome calculation, which answers no purpose. By the British geographers the royal observa- tory at Greenwich is accounted the place of the first meridian. 8. If we suppose 12 great circles, one of which is the meridian to a given place, to intersect each other at the poles of the earth, and divide the equator into 24 equal parts, these are the hour-circles of that place. These are by the poles divided into 24 semicircles, corresponding to the 24 hours ofthe day and night. The distance be- twixt each two of these semicircles is 15°, being the 24th part of 360; and by the rotation of the earth each succeed- ing semicircle points at the sun one hour after the pre- ceding: so that in 24 hours all the semicircles point suc- cessively at the sun. Hence it appears, that such as have their meridian 15° east from any other have likewise noon one hour sooner, and the contrary; and in like man- ner every other hour of the natural day is an hour sooner at the one place than at the other. Hence, from any instantaneous appearance iu the heavens observed at two distant places, the difference of longitude may be found, if the hour of the day is known at each place. Thus the beginning of an eclipse of the moon, when the luminary first touches the shadow of the earth, is an in- stantaneous appearance, as also the end of an eclipse of this kind, when the moon leaves the shadow ofthe earth visible to all the inhabitants on that side of the globe. If therefore we find, that at any place an eclipse of the moon begins an hour sooner than at another, woconcludo that there is a difference of 15° of longitude between the two places. Hence also was a man to travel or sail round the world from west to east, he would reckon one day more to have passed than they do who stay at the place GEOGRAPHY, whence he set out; so that their Monday would be his Tuesday, &c. On the other hand, if he sails westward, be will reckon a day less, or be one day in the week later, than those he leaves behind. 9. The equator divides the earth into two hemispheres, called the northern and southern; all places lying under the equator are said to have no latitude; and all others to have north or south latitude, according to their situation with respect to the equator. The latitude itself is the distance from the equator measured upon the meridian, in degrees, minutes, and seconds. The complement of latitude is the difference between the latitude itself and 90°, or as much as the place itself is distant from the pede; and this complement is always equal to the eleva- tion of the equator above the horizon of the place. The elevation of the pole of any place is equal to the latitude itself. An inhabitant of the earth who lived (if it was possi- ble) at either of the poles would have always one of the celestial poles in his zenith, and the other in his nadir, the equator coinciding with the horizon. Hence all the celestial parallels are also parallel to the horizon; whence the person is said to live in a parallel sphere, or to have a parallel horizon. Those who live under the equator have both poles in the horizon, all the celestial parallels cutting the hori- zon at right angles; whence they are said to live in a right sphere, or to have a right horizon. Lastly, those who live between either ofthe poles and the equator, are said to live in an oblique sphere, or to have an oblique horizon, because the celestial equator cuts their horizon obliquely, and all the parallels in the celestial sphere have their planes oblique to that of the horizon. In this sphere some of the parallels intersect the horizon at oblique angles, some are entirely above it; and Some are entirely below it; all of them, however, so situated, that they would obliquely intersect the plane of the horizon extended. The largest parallel which appears entire above the horizon of any place in north latitude is called by the ancient astronomers the arctic circle of that place; with- in this circle, that is, between it and the arctic pole, are comprehended all the stars which never set in that place, but are carried perpetually round the horizon in circles parallel to the equator. The largest parallel which is bid entirely beluw the horizon of any place in north lati- tude was called the antarctic circle of that place by the ancienfs. This circle comprehends all the stars which never rise in that place, but are carried perpetually round below the horison in circles parallel to the equa- tor. In a parallel sphere, however, the quator may be considered as both arctic and antarctic circle; for, being coincident with the horizon, all the parallels on one side are entirely above it, and those on the other entirely be- low it. In an oblique sphere, the nearer any place is to either of the poles, the larger are the arctic and antarc- tic circles, as being nearer to the celestial equator, which is a great circle. In a right sphere, the arctic and an- tarctic circles have no place, because no parallel appears either entirely above or below it. By the arctic and an- tarctic circles, however, modern geographers in general understand two fixed circles at the distance of 23§ degrees from the pole. Tbese are supposed to be described by the poles of the ecliptic, and mark out the space all round the globe where the sun appears to touch the ho- rizon at midnight in the summer time, and to be entirely sunk below it in the winter. These are also called tbe polar circles. According to the different positions of the globe with regard to the sun, the celestial bodies will exhibit differ. ent phenomena to the inhabitants. Thus, in a parallel sphere, they will appear to move in circles round the horizon; in a right sphere they would appear to rise and set as at present, but always in circles, cutting the hori- zon at right angles; but in an oblique sphere the angle varies according to the degree of obliquity, and the po- sition of the axis of the sphere with regard to the sun. Hence we easily perceive the reason ofthe sun's contin- ual change of place in the heavens; but though it is cer- tain that this change takes place every moment, the vast distance ofthe luminary renders it imperceptible for some time, unless to very nice astronomical observers. Hence we may generally suppose the place of the sun to be the same for a day or two together, though iu a considerable nnmber of days it becomes exceedingly obvious io every body, When he appears in the celestial equator, his motion appears for some time to be in tbe plane of that circle, though it is certain that his place there is only for a single moment; and in like manner, when he comes to any other point of the heavens, his apparent diurnal mo- tion is in a parallel drawn throughout. Twice a year he is in the equator, and then the days and nights are nearly equal all over the earth. This happens in the months of March and September; after which the sun proceeding either northward or south, according to the season of the year and the position of the observer, the days become longer or shorter than the nights, and sum- mar or winter comes on, as is fully explained under the article Astronomy. The secession of the sun from the equator either northward or southward is called his de- clination, and is either north or south according to the season of the year; and when this declination is at its greatest height, he is then said to be in the tropic, be- cause he begins to turn back (the word tropic being derived from the Greek t($xa, verto.) The space between the two tropics, called the torrid zone, extends for no less than 47 degrees of latitude all round the globe; and throughout the whole of that space the sun is vertical to some of the inhabitants twice a year, but to those who live directly under the tropics only once. Throughout the whole torrid zone also there is little difference be- tween the length of the days and nights. The ancient geographers found themselves considerably embarrassed in their attempts to fix the northern tropic; for though they took a very proper method, namely, to observe the most northerly place where objects had" no shadow on a certain day, yet they found that on the same day no sha- dow was cast for a space of no less than 300 stadia. The reason of this was, the apparent diameter of the sun, which, being about half a degree, seemed to extend him- self over as much of the surface of the earth, and to be vertical every where within that space. When the sun is in or near the equator, he seems to change his place in the heavens most rapidly; so that about the equinoxes one may very easily perceive the dif- erence in a day or two; but as he approaches the tropics* GEOGRAPHY. this apparent change becomes gradually slower, so that for a number of days he scarcely seems to move at all. The reason of this may easily be understood from any map on which the ecliptic is delineated; for by drawing lines through every degree of it parallel to the equator, we shall perceive them gradually approach nearer and nearer each other, until at last, when we approach the point of contact betwixt the ecliptic and tropic, they can for several degrees scarcely b? distinguished at all. From an observation of the diversity in the length of the days and nights, tbe rising and setting of the sun, with the other phenomena already mentioned, the ancient geographers d.vided the surface ofthe earth into certain districts, which they called climates; and instead of the method of describing the situation of places by their lati- tude and longitude as we do now, they contented them- selves with mentioning the climate in which they were situated. This method of dividing the surface ofthe earth into climates, though now very much disused, has been adop- ted by several modern geographers. Some of these begin their climates at the equator, reckoning them by the in- crease of half an hour in the length ofthe day northward. Thus they go on till they come to the polar circles, where the longest day is 24 hour.s: betwixt these and the poles they count the climates by the increase of a natural day in the length of time that the sun continues above the horizon, until they come to one where the longest day is 15 of ours, or half a month; and from this to the pole they count by the increase of half-months or whole months, the climates ending at the poles where the days are six months long. The climates betwixt the equa- tor and the polar circles are called hour-climates, and those between the polar circles and the poles are called month-climates. In common language, however, we take the word climate in a v cry different sense; so that when two countries are said to be iu different climates, we un- derstand only that the temperature of the air, seasons, kc are different. From the difference in the length and positions ofthe shadows of terrestrial substances, ancient geographers have given different terms to the inhabitants of certain places of the earth; the reason of which will be easily un- derstood from the following considerations: 1. Since the sun in his apparent annual revolution never removes far- ther from the equator than 23| degrees, it fedlows, that none of those who live without that space, or beyond the tropics, can have the luminary vertical to them at any season of the year. 2. All who live between the tropics have the sun vertical twice a year, though not all at the same time. Thus, to those who live directly under the equator, he is directly vertical in March and Septem- ber at the time of the equinox. If a place is in 10" north latitude, the sun is vertical when he has 10° north decli- nation, and so of every other place. 3. All who live be- tween the tropics have the sun at noon sometimes north and sometimes south of them. Thus those who live in a place situated in 20° north latitude have the sun at noon to the northward when he has more than 20 degrees north declination, and to the southward when he has less. 4. Such of the inhabitants of the earth as live without the tropics, if in the northern hemisphere, have the sun at noon to the southward of them, but to the northward vol. II. 34 if in the southern hemisphere. 1. Hence when the sun is in the zenith of any place, the shadow of a man or any upright object falls directly upon the place where they stand, and consequently is invisible; whence the inhabi- tants of such places were called Ascii, or without sha- dows. 2. Those who live between the tropics, and have the sun sometimes to the north and sometimes to the south of them, have of consequence their shadows pro- jecting north at some seasons of the year, and south at others, whence they were called Amphiscii, or having two kinds of shadows. 3. Those who live without the tropics have their noon-shadows always the same way, and are therefore called Heteroscii, that is, having only one kind of shadow. If they are in north latitude, the shadows are always turned towards the north, and if in the southern hemisphere, towards the south. 4. When a place is so far distant from the equator that the days are 24 hours long, or longer, the inhabitants were called Pe- riscii, because their shadows turn round thein. Names have likewise • been imposed upon the inhabi- tants of different parts of the earth from the parallels of latitude under which they live, and their situation with regard to one another. 1. Those who lived at distant places, but under the same parallel, were called Periseci, that is, living in the same circle. Some writers, how- ever, by the name of Pcriseci distinguish those who live under opposite points of the same parallel, where the noon of one is the midnight of the other. 2. When two places lie under parallels equally distant from the equa- tor, but in opposite hemispheres, the inhabitants were called Antaeci. These have a similar increase of days and nights, and similar seasons, but in opposite months ofthe year. According to some, the Antaeci were such as lived under the same geographical meridian, and had day and night at the same time. 3. If two places are in parallels equally distant from the equator, and in oppo- site meridians, the inhabitants were called Antipodes, that is, having their feet opposite to one another. When two persons are Antipodes, the zenith of the one is the na- dir of the other. They have a like elevation of the pole, but it is of different poles; they have also days and nights alike, and similar seasons ofthe year, but they have op- posite hours of the day and night, as well as seasons of the year. Thus, when it is mid-day with us, it is mid- night with our Antipodes; when it is summer with us, it is winter with them, kc. From the various appearances of the sun, and the effects of his light and heat upon different parts ofthe earth, the division of it into zones has arisen. These are five in number. 1. The torrid zone, lying between the two tropics for the space of 47° of latitude. This is di- vided into two equal parts by the equator. 2. The two temperate zones lie between the polar circles and the tro- pics, containing a space of 43« of latitude. And, 3. The two frigid zones lie between the polar circles and the poles. In these last the hmgest day is never below 24 hours; in the temperate zones it is never quite so much, and in the torrid zone it is never above 14. The zones are named from the degree of heat they were supposed to be subjected to. The torrid zone was supposed by the ancients to be uninhabitable, on account of its heat; but this is now found to be a mistake, and many parts e f the temperate zones are more intolerable in this respect than GEOGRAPHY. the torrid zone itself. Towards the polar circles also these zones are intolerably cold during the winter sea- son. Only a small part of the northern frigid zone, and none of the southern, is inhabited. Some geographers reckoned six zones, dividing the torrid zone into two by the equator. Besides these there are other technical terms belong- ing to geography which it is necessary to explain; some of these have relation to the earth, and others to the water. A continent is a large portion of the earth, which com- prehends several countries that are not separated" by any sea; such are Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. An island is a part of the earth which is entirely surrounded by water; as Great Britain. A peninsula is a tract of land almost surrounded with water, and is joined to a continent only by a narrow slip or neck; such is the Mo- rea in Greece. An isthmus, or neck of land, is that part by which a peninsula is joined to a continent, or two con- tinents together; as the isthmus of Suez, which joins Af- rica to Asia. A promontory, or cape, is a high part of land which stretches into the sea; thus the Cape of Good Hope is a promontory. An ocean is a vast collection of waters surrounding a considerable part of the continent; as the Atlantic. A sea is a smaller collection of waters; as the Black Sea. A gulf is a part of the sea which is nearly surrounded with land; as the gulf of Venice. A bay has a wider entrance than a gulf; as the Bay of Bis- cay. A'strait is a narrow passage that joins two seas; as the Strait of Gibraltar, which joins the Mediterran- ean to the Atlantic. A lake is a large collection of wa- ter entirely surrounded by land, having no visible com- munication with the sea; as the Caspian Lake in Asia. A river is a stream of water that has its source from a spring, which keeps constantly running till it falls into some other river, or into the sea. In a popular point of view, geography admits of three divisions: 1. The ancient or classical, which describes the state of the earth, not extending farther than the 500th year ofthe Christian sera. 2. That ofthe middle agesj which reaches to the 15th century, when the dis- coveries of the Portuguese began to lay broader founda- tions for this science. 3. Modern geography, the chief object of which is to present the most recent and authen- tic information concerning the nations and states which divide and diversify the earth. In some instances natu- ral barriers have divided, and continue to divide, na- tions; but in general the boundaries are arbitrary, so that the natural geography of a country may be regarded as a sequel to the science, which is chiefly occupied in describing the diversities of nations, and the conditions of the various races of mankind. The ancients considered the globe under the three grand divisions of Asia, Europe, and Africa. Here the dis- tinctions were arbitrary, as they often included Egypt under Asia, and they had not discovered the limits of Europe towards the N. E. Modern discoveries have added a fourth division, that of America, which exceed- ing even Asia in size, might have been admitted under two grand and distinct denominations, limited by the isthmus of Darien. Till within these last 30 years it was supposed that a vast continent existed in the south of the globe; but the second navigation of Capt. Cook dispelled the idea, and demonstrated, that if any continent existed there, it must be in the uninhabitable ice of the south pole. The vast extent of New Holland rewarded the views of enterprise; this, which seems too large to be ranked among islands, and two small for a continent, eludes the petty distinctions of man: and while geogra- phers hesitate whether to ascribe it to Asia, or to deno- minate it a fifth specific division of the earth, it is not improbable that the popular division of four quarters will still predominate over all speculative discussions. Of the grand divisions of the earth, Asia has ever been esteemed the most populous; and is supposed to contain five hundred millions of souls, if China, as has been averred by the latest writers, comprizes three hun- dred and thirty millions. The population of Africa may be estimated at thirty millions, of America at thirty millions, and one hundred and sixty millions may per- haps be assigned to Europe. Modern discoveries have evinced that more than two thirds ofthe globe is covered with water, which is con- tained in hollow spaces, or concavities, more or less large. But the chief convexities or protuberances ofthe globe consist of elevated uplands, sometimes crowned by mountains, sometimes rather level, as the extensive pro- tuberance of Asia. In cither case, long chains of moun- tains commonly proceed from those chief convexities in various directions, and the principal rivers usually spring from the most elevated grounds. The grandest concavity of this globe is filled by the Pacific Ocean; occupying nearly half its surface from the eastern shores of New Holland, to the western coast of America, and diversified with several groups of islands, which seem in a manner the summits of vast mountains emerging from the waves. This ocean receives but few rivers, the chief being the Amur from Tartary, the Hoan Ho and Kian Ku from China, while the principal rivers of America run towards the east. Next to this in magnitude is the Atlantic, between the Old and New Continents; and the third is the Indian Ocean. The seas between the arctic apd antarctic cir- cles and the poles, have been sometimes styled the Arc- tic and Antarctic Oceans; but the latter is only a con- tinuation of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian "Oceans; while the Arctic Sea is partly embraced by continents, and receives many important rivers. Besides these, there are other seas more minute, as the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and others still smaller, till we come by due gradation to inland lakes of fresh water. The courses of rivers are sometimes marked by ob- long concavities, which generally at first intersect the higher grounds, till the declivity becomes more gentle on their approach towards their inferior receptacles. But even large rivers are found sometimes to spring from lowland marshes, and wind though vast plains, un- accompanied by any concavity, except that of their im- mediate course; while on the other hand, extensive vales, and low hollow spaces, frequently occur destitute of any stream. Rivers will also sometimes force a passage where nature has erected mountains and rocks against it, and where the concavity would appear to be in ano- ther direction, which the river might have gained with more ease. In like manner, though the chief mountains of Europe extend in a south-easterly direction, yet there are so many exceptions, and such numerous and impor- GEOLOGY. tant variations in other parts of the globe, as to render any attempt at general theory vain. From the vast expanse of oceanic waters, arises in the ancient hemisphere, that wide continent, which con- tains Asia, Europe, aud Africa; and in the modern hemisphere the continent of America, which forms a kind of separate island, divided by a strait of the sea from the ancient continent. In the latter many discoveries of great importance to geography, are of very modern date, and it is not above 60 years since we obtained an imper- fect idea of the extent of Siberia and the Russian em- pire, nor above 25 since ample, real, and accurate know- ledge of these wide regions began to be diffused. So that, in truth, America may be said to have been discovered be- fore Asia; and of Africa our knowledge continues imper- fect, while the latest observations, instead of diminish- ing, rather increase our idea of its extent. But the grandest division of the ancient continent is Asia, the parent of nations, and of civilization: on the north-cast and south, surrounded by the ocean; but on the west, divided by an ideal line from Africa; and from Europe by boundaries not very strongly impressed by the hand of nature. The Russian and the Turkish em- pires, extending over large portions of both continents, intimately connect Asia with Europe. But for the sake of clearness and precision, geographers retain the strict division of the ancient continent into three parts, which, if not strictly natural, is ethical, as the manners of the Asiatic subjects of Russia, and even of Turkey, differ considerably from those of the European inhabitants of those empires. A description ofthe four quarters ofthe globe, and of the several kingdoms and states into which they are di- vided, belongs rather to a work devoted exclusively to geography, than to a dictionary of arts and sciences: we shall therefore forbear entering more into detail in this article. GEOLOGY, a science which treats of the decompo- sition and changes to which the stony part of our globe has been subjected. If it was permitted to man to follow, during several ages, the various changes which are produced on the surface of our globe by the numerous agents that alter it, we should at this time have been in possession of the most valuable information respecting these great pheno- mena: but thrown as we are, almost by accident, upon a small point of this vast theatre of observation, we fix our attention for a moment upon operations which have been the work of nature for ages; and we are unable either to perceive or to foretel the results, because seve- ral ages are scarcely sufficient to render the effects or changes perceptible. It must be allowed that those men who, by the mere efforts of their imagination, have endeavoured to form ideas respecting the construction, and the great pheno- mena, of this globe, have numerous titles to our indul- gence. In their proceedings we behold the efforts of ge- nius, tormented with the desire of acquiring knowledge, and irritated at the prospect of the scanty means which nature has put in its power; and when these naturalists, such as M. dc Button, have possessed the power of em- bellishing their hypotheses with every ornament which imagination and eloquence can furnish, either as instru- ments of illusion or entertainment, we ought to consider ourselves indebted to them. For our part, we shall confine ourselves to a few ideas respecting the successive decompositions of our planet, and shall endeavour to avoid every departure from ob- servation and matter of fact. The slightest observation shows us that living beings are kept up and perpetuated only by successive decompo- sitions and combinations. A slight view of the mineral kingdom exhibits the same changes; and our globe, in all its productions, presents continual modifications, and a circle; of activity, which might appear incompatible with the apparent inertia of earthy products. In order to arrange our ideas with greater regularity, we may consider this globe in two different states. We shall first examine the primitive rock which forms the nodule or central part. This appears to contain no germ of life; includes no remains or part of any living being; and from every circumstance appears to have been of primitive formation, anterior to the creation of animated or vegetating bodies. We shall pursue the various chang- es which are daily produced by the destructive action of such agents as alter or modify this substance. We shall then proceed to examine what stones have been successively placed upon this, and what are the de- compositions to which these secondary rocks have been subjected. 1. The observations of naturalists all unite to prove that the primitive part of the globe consists of the stone know n by the name of granite. The profound excavations which the art of man, or currents of water, have made in the surface of our planet, have all uncovered this rock, and have been incapable of penetrating lower: we may therefore consider this substance as the nucleus of the globe; and upon this substance it is that all meters of posterior formation rest. Granite exhibits many varieties in its form, composi- tion, and disposition: but it in general consists of an as- semblage of certain siliceous stones, such as quartz, schoii, fcldtspar, mica, &c; and the more or less consi- derable magnitude of these elements of granite, has caus- ed it to be divided into coarse-grained granite, and fine- grained granite. It is thought that these rocks owe their arrangement to water; and if we may be permitted to recur, by an ef- fort of the imagination, to that epocha in which, accord- ing to sacred and profane historians, the water and carth were confounded, and the confused mixture of all prin- ciples formed a choas, we shall see that the laws of gra- vity inherent in matter must have carried it down, and necessarily produced the arrangement which observation at present exhibits to us. The water, as the least heavy, must have purified itself, and arisen to the surface by a filtration through the other materials: wliile the earthy principles must have precipitated, and formed a mud, in which all the elements of stones were confounded. In this very natural order of things, the general law of affi- nities, which continually tends to bring together all ana- logous parts, must have exerted itself with its whole acti- vity upon the principles of this almost fluid paste; and the result have been a number of bodies of a more defi- nite kind, in crystals more or less regular; and from this muddy substance, in which the principles of the stones GEOLOGY. were confounded that compose the granite, a rock must have been produced, containing the elementary stones, all in possession of their distinct forms and characters. In this manner it is that we observe salts of very differ- ent kinds develope themselves in waters which hold them in solution; and in this manner it still happens that crys- tals of spar and gypsum are formed in clays which con- tain their component parts. It may easily be conceived that the laws of gravitation must have influenced the arrangement and disposition of the products. The most gross and heavy bodies must have fallen, and the lightest and most attenuated sub- stances must have arranged themselves on the surface of the foregoing; and this it is which constitutes the primi- tive schisti, the gneis, the rocks of mica, &c. which com- monly repose upon masses of coarse-grained granite. The disposition ofthe fine-grained granite in strata or beds, appears to depend on this position, and the fineness or tenuity of its parts. Being placed in immediate contact with water, this fluid must naturally have influenced the arrangement which it presents to us; and the elements of this rock being subjected to the effect of waves, and the action of currents, must have formed strata. The rocks of granite being once established as the nucleus of our globe, we may, from the analysis of its constituent principles, and by attending to the action of the various agents capable of altering it, follow the changes to which it has been subjected, step by step. Water is the principal agent whose effects we shall examine. This fluid, collected in the cavity of the ocean, is car- ried byr the atmosphere to the tops of the most elevated mountains, where it is precipitated in rain, and forms torrents, which return with various degrees of rapidity into this common reservoir. This uninterrupted motion and fall must gradually attenuate and wear away the hardest rocks, and carry their detached parts to distances more or less considera- ble. The action of the air, and the varying temperature ofthe atmosphere, facilitate the attenuation and tl-> de- struction of these rocks. Heat acts upon their surface,- and renders it more accessible and more penetrable to the water which succeeds; cold divides them, by freezing the water which has entered into their texture; the air itself affords the acid principle, which attacks the lime- stone, and causes it to effloresce; the oxygen unites to the iron, and calcines it: insomuch that this concurrence of causes favours the disunion of principles; and consequent- ly the action of water, which clears the surface, carries away the products of decomposition, and makes prepara- tion for a succeeding process of the same nature. The first effect of the rain is therefore to depress the mountains. But the stones which compose them must re- sist in proportion to their hardness; and we ought not to be surprised when we observe peaks which have braved the destructive action of time, and still remain to attest the primitive level of the mountains which have disap- peared. The primitive rocks, alike inaccessible to the injury of ages as to the animated beings which cover less elevated mountains with their remains, may be consider- ed as the source or origin of rivers and streams. The water which falls on their summits, flows down in tor- rents by their lateral surfaces. In its course it wears away the soil upon which it incessantly acts. It hollows out a bed, of a depth proportioned to the rapidity of its course, the quantity of its waters, and the hardness of the rock over which it flows; at the same time that it car- ries along with it portions and fragments of such stones as it loosens in its course. These stones, rolled along by the water, must strike together, and break off their prejecting angles: a process that must quickly have afforded those rounded flints which form the beds of rivers. These pebbles are found to diminish in size, in proportion to the distance from the mountain which affords them; and it is to this cause that Mr. Dorthes has referred the disproportionate magni- tude of the pebbles which form our ancient worn stones, when compared with those of modern date; for the sea extending itself formerly much more inland, in the direc- tion of the Rhone, the stones which it received from the rivers, and threw back again upon the shores, had not run through so long a space in their beds as those which they at present pass over. Thus it'is that the remains of the Alps, carried along by the Rhone, have successively covered the vast interval comprised between the moun- tains of Dauphiny and Vivaris; and are carried into seas, which deposit them in small pebbles on the shore. The pulverulent remains of mountains, or the powder which results from the rounding of these flints, are carried along with greater facility than the flints them- selves: they float for a long time in the water, whose transparency they impair; and when these same waters are less agitated, and their course becomes slackened, they are deposited in a fine and light paste, forming beds more or less thick, and ofthe same nature as that of the rocks to which they owe their origin. These strata gra- dually become drier by the agglutination of the ir princi- ples; they become consistent, acquire hardness, and form silecious clays, silex, petrosilex, and ail the numerous class of pebbles which are found dispersed in strata, or in banks, in the ancient beds of rivers. The mud is much more frequently deposited in the interstices left between the rounded flints themselves, which intervals it fills, and there forms a true cement that becomes hard, and constitutes the compound stones known by the name of pudding-stones and grit-stones; for these two kinds of stones do not appear to differ but in the coarseness of the grain which forms them, and the cement which connects them together. We sometimes observe the granite spontaneously de- composed. The texture of the stones which form it has been destroyed; the principles or component parts arc disunited and separated, and they arc gradually carried away by the waters. Water filtrating through mountains of primitive rock, frequently carries along with it very minutely divided particles of quartz; and proceeds to form, by deposition, stalactites, agates, rock crystal, kc These quartzose stalactites, differently Goloured, are of a formation considerably analogous to that of calca- reous alabasters; and we perceive no other difference between them than that of their constituent parts. II. Thus far we have exhibited, in a few words, the principal changes, and various modifications, to which the primitive rocks have been subjected. We have not yet observed either germination or life; and the metal* . GEOLOGY. sulphur, and bitumens, have not hitherto presented them- selves to our observation. Their formation appears to be posterior to the existence of this primitive globe; and the alterations and decompositions which now remain to be inquired into, appear to be produced by the class of living, or organized beings. On the one hand, we behold the numerous class of shell animals, which cause the stemy mass of our globe to increase by their remains. The spoils of these crea- tures, long agitated and driven about by the waves, and more or less altered by collision, form those strata and banks of limestone, in which we very often perceive im- pressions of those shells to which they owe their origin. On the other hand, we observe a numerous quantity of vegetables that grow and perish in the sea; and these plants likewise, deposited and heaped together by the currents, form strata, which are decomposed, lose their organization, and leave all the principles of the vegeta- ble confounded with the earthy principle. It is to this source that the origin of pit-coal, andsccondary schistus, is usually attributed; and this theory is established on the existence of the texture of decomposed vegetables very usually seen in schisti and coal, and likew ise on the presence of shells and fish in most of these products. It appears that the formation of pyrites ought in part to be attributed to the decomposition of vegetables: it exists in greater or less abundance in all schisti and coal. A wooden shovel has been found buried in the deposi- tions of the river De Cezc, converted into jet and py- rites. The decomposition of animal substances may be added to this cause; and it appears to be a confirmation of these ideas, that we find many shells passed to the state of pyrites. Not only the marine vegetables form considerable strata by their decomposition; but the remains of those which grow on the surface of the gleibe ought to be con- sidered among the causes or agonts which concur in pro- ducing changes up >n that surface. We shall separately consider how much is owing to each of these causes; and shall follow the effects of each, as if that cause alone was employed in modifying and altering our planet. 1. The secondary calcareous mountains are constant- ly placed upon the surface of the primitive mountains; and though a few solitary observations present a contra- ry order, we ought to consider this inversion and de- rangement as produced by shocks which have changed the primitive disposition. It must be observed alsei, that the disorder is sometimes merely apparent; and that some naturalists of little information have described cal- careous mountains as inclining beneath the granite, be- cause this last pierces through the envelope, rises to a greater height, and leaves at its feet, almost beneath it, the calcareous remains deposited at its base. Sometimes even the limestone fills to a very great depth the crevices or clefts formed in the granite. The writer of this article has seen in Gevaudan, towards Florae, a profound cavity in the granite filled with calca- reous stone. This vein is known to possess a depth of more than 150 fathoms, with a diameter of about two or three. It likewise happens frequently enough that such wa- ters as are loaded with the remains of the primitive gra- nite, heap them together, and form secondary granges, which may exist above the calcareous stone. The secalcareous mountains are decomposed by the com- bined action of air and water; and the product of their decomposition sometimes forms chalk or marie. The lightness of this earth renders it easy to be trans- ported by water; and this fluid, which does not possess the property of holding it in solution, soon deposits it in the fonnofgurhs, alabasters, stalactites, kc. Spars owe their formation to no other cause. Their crystallization is posterior to the origin of calcareous mountains. Waters wear down and carry away calcareous moun- tains with greater ease than the primitive mountains: their remains being very light, are rolled along, and more or less worn. The fragments of these rocks are some- times connected by a gluten or cement of the same nature; from which process calcareus grit and breccias arise. These calcareous remains formerly deposited themselves upon the quartzose sand; and the union of primitive matter, and secondary products, gives rise to a rock of mixed nature. 2. The mountains of secondary schistus frequently ex- hibit to us a pure mixture of earthy principles, without the smallest vestige of bitumen. These rocks afford, by analysis, silex, alumina, magnesia, lime in the state of carbeinate, and iron: principles which are more or less united, and consequently accessible in various degrees to the action of such agents as destroy the rocks hitherto treated of. The same principles, when disunited, and carried away by waters, give rise to a great part of the stones which are comprised in the magnesian class. The same elements, worn deiw n by the waters, and deposited under circumstances proper to facilitate crystallization, form the se -hen-Is, tourmaline, garnets, kc We do not pretend by tbis to exclude and absolutely reject the system of such naturalists as attribute the for- mation of magnesian stones to The decomposition of the primitive rocks. But we think that this formation can* not be objected to for several of them, more especially such as contain magnesia in the greatest abundance. It frequently happens that the secondary schisti are interspersed with pyrites; and, in this case, the simple contact of air and water facilitates their decomposition. Sulphuric acid is thus formed, which combines with the various constituent principles of the stone; whence result the sulphate of iron, of magnesia, of alumina, and of lime, which effloresce at the surface, and remains con- founded together. Schisti of this nature are wrought in most places where alum-works have been established; and the nmst laborious part of this undertaking consists in separating the sulphates e>f iron, of lime, and of mag- nesia from each other, which are mixed together. Some- times the magnesia is so abundant that its sulphate pre- dominates. The sulphate of lime, being xery sparingly soluble in water, is carried away by that liquid, and de- posited to form gypsum; while the other more seduble salts, remaining suspended, form vitriolic mineral waters. The pyritous schisti are frequently impregnated with bitumen, and the proportions constitute the various quali- ties of pit-coal. It appears that we may lay it down as an incontestable principle, that the pyrites is abundant is proportion as GEO GEO u»c bituminous principle is more scarce. Hence it arises, that coals of a bad qiality are the most sulphureous, and destroy metallic vessels, by converting them into pyrites. The foci of volcanos appear to be formed by a schistus of this nature; and in the analyses of the stony matters which are ejected, we find the same principles as those which cemstitute this schistus. We ought not therefore to be much surprised at finding schorls among volcanic products; and still less at observing that subterranean fires throw sulphuric salts, sulphur, and other analogous products, out of the entrails of the earth. 3. The remains of terrestrial vegetables exhibit a mix- ture of primitive earths more or less coloured by iron: we may therefore consider these as a matrix in which the seeds of all stony combinations are dispersed. The earthy principles assort themselves according to the laws of their affinities; and form crystals of spar, of plaister, and even the rock crystals, according to all appearance: for we find ochreous earihs in which these crystals are abundantly dispersed; we see them formed almost under our eyes. We have frequently observed indurated ochres full of these crystals terminating in two pyramids. The ochreous earths appear to deserve the greatest at- tention of naturalists. They constitute one ofthe most fertile means of action which nature employs; and it is even in earths nearly similar to these that she elaborates the diamond, in the kingdoms of Golcondaand Visapour. The spoils of animals, which live on the surface of the globe, are entitled to some consideration among the number of causes which we assign to explain the various changes our planet is subjected to. We find bones in a state of considerable preservation in certain places; we can even frequently enough distinguish the species of the animals to which they have belonged. From indications of this sort it is that some writers have endeavoured to explain the disappearance of certain species; and to draw conclusions thence, either that our planet is perceptibly cooled, or that a sensible change has taken place in the position of the axis of the earth. The phosphoric salts and phosphorus which have been found, in our time, in combination with lead, iron, eScc. prove that, in propor- tion as the principles are disengaged by animal decom- position, they combine with other bodies, and 'form the nitric acid, the alkalis, and in general all the numerous kinds of nitrous salts. See Mineralogy. GEOMETRICAL lines, as observed by Newton, are distinguished into classes, orders, or genera, according to the number of the dimensions of the equation that ex- presses the relation between the ordinates and abscisses; or, which becomes to tbe same thing, according to the number of points in which they may be cut by a< right line. Thus, a line of the first order, is a right line, since it can be only once cut by another right line, and is ex- pressed by the simple equation y -f ax -f b = 0; those of the 2d, or quadratic order, will be the circle, and the conic sections, since all these may be cut in two points by a right line, and expressed by the equation y2 -f ax + b. y + ex2 -f dx -f- e = 0; those of the 3d cubic or- der, will be such as may be cut in three points by a right line, whose most general equation isy3 + ax + b.y2 -+- ex2 + dx + e. y +fx3 + gx2 4- bx 4- i = 0; as the cubical parabola, the cissoid, &c. And a line of an infinite or- der, is that which a right line may cut in infinite points; as the spiral, the cycloid, the quadratrix, aud every line that is generated by the infinite revolutions of a radius, or circle, or wheel, &c. In each of those equations, x is the absciss, y its cor- responding ordinate, making any given angle with it; and a, b, c, kc. are given or constant quantities, affected with their signs -f and —, of which one or more may vanish, be wanting or equal to nothing, provided that by such defect the line or equation does not become one of an inferior order. It is to be observed that a curve of any kind is deno- minated by a number next less than the line of the same kind: thus, a curve of the first order (because the right line cannot be reckoned among curves), is the same with a line of the second order; and a curve ofthe second kind, •the same with a line ofthe third order, &c. It is to be observed also, that it is not so much the equa- tion, as the construction or description, that makes any curve, geometrical, or not. Thus, the circle is a geome- trical line, not because it may be expressed by an equa- tion, but because its description is a postulate; and it is not the simplicity of the equation, but the easiness ofthe description, that is to determine the choice of the lines for the construction of a problem. The equation that ex- presses a parabola, is more simple than that which ex- presses a circle; and yet the circle, by reason of its more simple construction, is admitted before it. Again, the circle and the conic sections, with respect to the dimen- sions of the equations, are of the same order; and yet the circle is not numbered with them in the construction of problems, but by reason of its simple description is de- pressed to a lower order, viz. that of a right line; so that it is not improper to express that by a circle, which may be expressed by a right line; but it is a fault to construct that by the conic sections, which may be constructed by a circle. Geometrical solution of a problem, is when the pro- blem is directly resolved accordingto the strict rules and principles of geometry, and by lines that are truly geo- metrical. This expression is used in contradistinction to an arithmetical, or a mechanical, or instrumental solu- tion; the problem being resolved only by a ruler and com- passes. The same term is likewise used in opposition to all indirect and inadequate kinds of solutions, as by ap- proximation, infinite series, kc. So, we have no geome- trical way of finding the quadrature of the circle, the du- plicature ofthe cube, or two mean proportionals; though there are mechanical ways, and others by infinite series, &c. Pappus informs us, that the ancients endeavoured in vain to trisect an angle and to find out two mean pro- portionals, by means ofthe right line and circle. After- wards they began to consider the proprieties of several other lines; as the conchoid, the cissoid, and the conic sections; and by some of these they endeavoured to re- solve some of 'those problems. At length, having more thoroughly examined the matter, and the conic sections being received into geometry, they distinguished geome- trical problems and solutions into three kinds; viz. 1. Plane ones, which deriving their origin from line* GEO GEO on a plane, may be properly resolved by aright line and a circle. 2. Solid ones, which are resolved by lines deriving their original from the consideration of a solid; that is, of a cone. 3. Linear ones, to the solution of which are required lines more compounded. According to this distinction, we are not to resolve solid problems by other lines than the conic sections, es- pecially if no other lines beside the right line, circle, and the conic sections, must be received into geometry. But the moderns, advancing much farther, have re- ceived into geometry all lines that can be expressed by equations; and have distinguished, according to the di- mensions ofthe equations, those lines into classes or or- ders; and have laid it down as a law, not to construct a problem by a line of a higher order, that may be con- structed by one of a lower. Geometrical progression, or proportion. See Al- gebra. GEOMETRY", the science and doctrine of local ex- tension, as of lines, surfaces, and solids, with that of ra- tios, kc. The name geometry literally signifies measuring ofthe earth, as it was the necessity of measuring the land that first gave occasion to contemplate the principles and rules of this art, which has since been extended to numberless other speculations; insomuch that, together with arithme- tic, geometry forms now the chief foundation of all the mathematics. Herodotus and Preclus ascribe the invention of geome- try to the Egyptians, and assert that the annual inunda- tions of the Nile gave occasion to it; for those waters bearing away the bounds and landmarks of estates and farms, covering the face of the ground uniformly with mud, the people, say they, were obliged every year to distinguish and lay out their lauds by the consideration of their figure and quantity; and thus by experience and habit they formed a method or art, which was the origin of geometry. A farther contemplation of the draughts of figures of fields, thus laid down and plotted in pro- portion, might naturally lead them to the discovery of some of their excellent and wonderful properties; which speculation continually improving, the art continually gained ground, and made advances more and more to- wards perfection. Geometry is distinguished into theoretical or specula- tive, and practical. Theoretical or speculative geometry, treats of the va- rious properties and relations in magnitudes, demonstrat- ing the theorems, kc. And Practical geometry, is that which applies those specu- lations and theorems to particular uses in the solution of problems, and in the measurements in the ordinary con- cerns of life. Speculative geometry again may be divided into ele- mentary and sublime. Elementary or common geometry, is that which is em- ployed in the consideration of right lines and plane sur- faces, with the solids generated from them. And the Higher or sublime geometry, is that which is employed in the consideration of curve lines, conic sections, and the bodies formed of them. This part has been chiefly cultivated by the moderns, by help of the improved state of algebra, and the modern analysis or fluxions. We shall now proceed to give tbe principles of practi- cal geometry, beginning with Difinitions or explanations of terms.—1. A mathemati- cal point has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. From this definition it may be easily understood that a mathematical point cannot be seen nor felt; it can only be imagined. What is commonly called a point, as a small dot made with a pencil or pen, or the point of a needle, is not in reality a mathematical point; for however small such a dot may be, yet if it be examined with a magnify- ing glass, it w ill be fround to be an irregular spot, of a very sensible length and breadth; and our not being able to measure its dimensions with the naked eye, arises only from its smallness. The same reasoning may be ap- plied to every thing that is usually called a point; even the point of the finest needle appears like that of a poker when examined with the microscope. 2. A line is length without breadth or thickness. What was said above of a point, is also applicable to the defini- tion of a line. What is drawn upon paper with a pencil or pen, is not in fact a line, but the representation of a line. For however fine you may make these representa- tions, they will still have some breadth. But by the de- finition, a line has no breadth whatever, yet it is impossi- ble to draw any thing so fine as to have no breath. A line therefore can only be imagined. The ends of a line are points. 3. Parallel lines are such as always keep at the same distance from each other, and which, if prolonged ever so far, would never meet. See Plate Geometry, fig. 1. 4. A right line is what is commonly called a straight line, or one that tends everyr where the same way. 5. A curve is a line which continually changes its di- rection between its extreme points. 6. An angle is the inclination or opening of two lines meeting in a point, fig. 2. 7. The lines AB, and BC, which form the angle, are called the legs or sides; and the point B, where they meet, is called the vertex of the angle, or the angu- lar point. An angle is sometimes expressed by a letter placed at the vertex, as the angle B, fig. 2; but most com- monly by three letters, observing to place in the middle the letter at the vertex, and the other two are tluse at the end of each leg, as the angle ABC. 8. When one line stands upon another, so as not to lean more to one side than to another, both the angles which it makes with the other are called right angles, as the angles ABC and ABD, fig. 3; and ail right angles are equal to each other, being all equal to 90°; and the line AB is said to be perpendicular to CD. Beginners are very apt to confound the terms pernen- dicular, and plumb or vertical line. A line is vertical when it is at right angles to the plane of the horizon, or level surface of the earth, or to the surface of water, wliich is always level. The sides of a house are vertical. But a line may be perpendicular to another, whether it stand upright, or inclines to the ground, or even if it lies flat upon it, provided only that it makes the two angles formed by meeting with the other line equal to each other; as for instance, if the angles ABC and ABD be GEOMETRY. equal, the line AB is perpendicular to CD, whatever may he. its position in other respects. 9. When one line BC (fig. 3), stands upon another, CD, so as to incline, the angle EBC, which is greater than a right angle, is ealleel an obtuse angle; and that will, h is less than a right angle is called an acute angle, as the angle EBD. 10. Two angles which have one leg in common, as the angles ABC and ABE, are called contiguous angles, or adjoining angles; those which are produced by the cross- ing of two lines, as the angles EBD and CBF, formed by CD and EF, crossing each other, are called opposite or vertical angles. 11. A figure is a bounded space, and is either a surface or a solid. 12. A superficies, or surface, has length and breadth only. The extremities of a superficies are lines. 13. A plane, or plane surface, is that which is every where perfectly flat and even, or will touch every part of a straight line, in whatever direction it may be laid upon it. The top of a marble slab, for instance, is an example of this, which a straight edge will touch in every point, so that you cannot see light any where between. 14. A curved surface is that which will not coincide with a straight line in any part. Curved surfaces may be either convex or concave. 15. A convex surface is when the surface rises up in the middle; as, for instance, a part of the outside of a globe. 16. A concave surface is when it sinks in the middle, or is hollow, and is the contrary to convex. A surface may be bounded either by straight lines, curved lines, or both these. 17. Every surface bounded by straight lines only is called a polygon. If the sides are all equal, it is called a regular polygon. If they are unequal, it is called an irregular polygon. Every polygon, whether equal or unequal, has the same number of sides as angles, and they are denominated sometimes according to the num- ber* of sides, and sometimes from the number of angles they contain. Thus a figure of three sides is called a triangle, and a figure of four sides a quadrangle. A pentagon is a polygon of five sides; a hexagon has six sides; a heptagon seven sides; an octagon eight sides; a nonagon nine sides; a decagon ten sides; an undecagon eleven sides; a duodecagon twelve sides. See Penta- gon, &c. When they have a greater number of sides it is usual to call them polygons of 13 sides, of 14 sides, and so on. Triangles are of different kinds, according to the lengths of their sides. 18. An equilateral triangle has all its sides equal, as ABC, fig. 4. 19. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides, as DEF, fig. 5. 20. A scalene triangle has all its sides unequal, as GHL fig. 6. Triangles are also denominated according to the an- gles they contain. 21. A right angled triangle is one that has in it a right- angle, as ABC, fig. 7. 22. A triangle cannot have more than one right angle. The side opposite the right angle B, as AC, is called the hypothenuse, and is always the longest side. 23. An obtuse-angled triangle has one obtuse angle, as fig. 8. 24. An acute-angled triangle has all its angles acute, as fig. 4. 25. An isosceles, or a scalene triangle, may he cither right angled, obtuse, or acute. 26. Any side of a triangle is said to subtend the angle opposite to it: thus AB (fig. 7) subtends the angle AC13. 27. If the side of a triangle be drawn out beyond thr figure AD (fig. 8), the angle A, or CAB, is called an internal angle, and the angle CAD, or that without the figure, an external angle. 28. A quadrangle is also called a quadrilateral figure. They are of various denominations, as their sides are equal or unequal, or as all their angles are right-angles or not. 29. Every four-sided figure whose opposite sides are parallel, is called a parallelogram. Provided that the sides opposite to each other be parallel, it is immaterial whether the angles are right or not. Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12, are all parallelograms. 30. When the angles of a parallelogram arc all right angles, it is called a rectangular parallelogram, or a rec- tangle, as figs. 11 and 12. 31. A rectangle may have all its sides equal, or only the opposite sides equal. When all its sides are equal, it is called a square, as fig. 12. 32. When the opposite sides are parallel, and all the sides equal to each other, but the angles not right angles, the parallelogram is called a rhombus, as fig. 10. 33. A parallelogram having all its angles oblique, and only its opposite equal, is called a rhomboid, as fig. 9. 34. When a quadrilateral, or four-sided figure, has none of its sides parallel, it is called a trapezium, as fig. 13; consequently every quadrangle, or quadrilateral, which is not a parallelogram, is a trapezium. 35. A trapezoid has only one pair of its sides parallel, as fig. 14. 36. A diagonal is a right line drawn between any two angles that are opposite in a polygon, as IK, fig. 15. In parallelograms the diagonal is sometimes called the diameter, because it passes through the centre of the figure. 37. Complements of a parallelogram. If any point, as E (fig. 15), he taken in the diagonal of a parallelogram, and through that point two lines are drawn parallel to the sides, as AB, CD, it will be divided into four paral- lelograms, D, D, L, F, G, G. The two divisions, L, F, through which the diameter does not pass, are called the complements. 38. Base of a figure, is the side on which it is sup- posed to stand erect, as AD and CD, fig. 16. 39. Altitude of a figure is its perpendicular height from the base to the highest part, as EF, fig. 16. 40. Area of a plane figure, or other surface, means the quantity of space contained within its boundaries, ex- pressed in square feet, yards, or any other superficial measure. 41. Similar figures are such as have the same angles* and whose sides are in the same proportion, as fig. 17- GEOMETRY. 42. Equal figures are such as have the same area or contends. 4.3. A circle is a plane figure, bounded by a curve line returning into itself, called its circumference, ABCD (fig. 18), every where equally distant from a point E within the circle, which is called the centre. 44. The radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the centre to the circumference, as EF (fig. 18). The radius is the opening ofthe compass when a circle is described; and consequently all the radii of a circle must be equal to each other. 45. A diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn from one side of the circumference to the other through tbe centre, as CB (fig. 18). Every diameter divides the cir- cle into two equal parts. 46. A segment of a circle is a part of a circle cut off by a straight line drawn across it. The straight line is called the chord. A segment may be either equal to, greater, or less than, a semicircle, which is a segment formed by the diameter of the circle, as CEB, and is equal to half the circle. 47. A tangent is a straight line drawn so as just to touch a circle without cutting it, as GH (fig. 18). The point A, where it touches the circle, is called the point of contact. And a tangent cannot touch a circle in more points than one. 48. A sector of a circle is a space comprehended be- tween two radii and an arc, as IK, fig. 19. 49. The circumference of every circle, whether great or small, is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, call- ed degrees; and every degree into 60 parts, called minutes; and every minute into 60 seconds. To measure the in- clination of lines to each other, or angles, a circle is de- scribed round the angular point as a centre, as IK, fig. 19; and according to the number of degrees, minutes, and seconds, cut off by the sides of the angle, so many degrees, minutes, and seconds, it is said to contain. De- grees are marked by °, and minutes by ', and seconds by "; thus an angle of 48 degrees, 15 minutes, and 7 se- conds, is written in this manner, 48° 15' 7". 50. A solid is any body that has length, breadth, and thickness: a book, for instance, is solid, so is a sheet of paper; for though its thickness is very small, yet it has some thickness. The boundaries of a solid are surfaces. 51. Similar solids are such as are bounded by an equal number of similar planes. 52. A prism is a solid, of which the sides are parallel- ograms, and the two ends or bases are similar polygons, parallel to each other. Prisms are denominated accord- ing to the number of angles iu the base, triangular prisms, quadrangular, beptangular, and so on, as figs. 20, 21, 22, 23. If the sides are perpendicular to the plane of the base, it is called an upright prism; if they are inclin- ed, it is called an oblique prism. 53. When the base of a prism is a parallelogram, it is called a parallelopipedon, as figs. 22 and 23. Hence a parallelopipedon is a solid terminated by six parallel- ograms. 54. When all the sides of a parallelopipedon are squares, the solid is called a cube, as fig. 23. 55. A rhomboid is an oblique prism, whose bases are parallelograms (fig. 24). 56. A pyramid (figs. 25 and 26) is a solid bounded by, VOL. II, Stf or contained within, a number of planes, whose base m.^ be any polygon, and whose faces are terminated iu one point, B, commonly called the vertex of the pyramid. 57. When the figure of the base is a triangle, it is called a triangular pyramid; when the figure of the base is a quadrilateral, it is called a quadrilateral pyramid, kc. 58. A pyramid is either regular or irregular, accord- ing as the base is regular or irregular. 59. A pyramid is also right or upright, or it is oblique. It is right, w hen a line drawn from the vertex to the centre ofthe base, is perpendicular to it, as fig. 25; and oblique, when this line inclines, as fig. 26. 60. A cylinder is a solid (figs. 27 and 28), generated or formed by the rotation ot a rectangle about one of its sides, supposed to be at rest: this quiescent side is called the axis ofthe cylinder. Or it may be conceived to be generated by the motion of a circle, in a direction per- pendicular to its surface, and always parallel to itself. 61. A cylinder is either right or oblique, as the axis is perpendicular to the base or inclined. 62. Every section of a right cylinder taken at right angles to its axis, is a circle; and every section taken across the cylinder, but oblique to the axis, is an ellipsis. 63. A circle being a polygon of an infinite number of sides, it follows, that the cylinder may be conceived as a prism, having such a polygon for bases. 64. A cone is a solid (figs. 29 and 30), having a circle for its base, and its sides a convex surface, terminating in a point A, called the vertex, or apex of the cone. It may be conceived to be generated by the revolution of a right-angled triangle about its perpendicular. 65. A line drawn from the vertex to the centre of the base is the axis of the cone. 66. When this line is perpendicular to the base, the cone is called an upright, or right cone; but when it is ine lined it is called an oblique cone. 67. If it be cut through the- axis from the vertex to the base, the section will be a triangle. 68. If a right cone be cut by a plane at right angles to the axis, the section will be a circle. 69. If it be cut oblique to the axis, and quite across from one side to the other, the section will be an ellipsis, as fig. 31. A secliem of a cylinder made in the same man- ner is also an ellipsis; and that is easily conceived: but it does not appear so readily to most people, that the ob- lique section of a cone is an ellipsis: they frequently ima- gine that it will be wider at one end than the other, or what is called an oval, which is the shape of an ogg. But that this is a mistake, any one may convince himself by making a cone, and cutting it across obliquely; it will be then seen that the section, in whatever direction it is taken, is a regular ellipsis; and this is the case, whether the cone be right or oblique, except only iu one case in the oblique cone; which is when the section is taken in a particular direction, which is called sub-contrary to its base. 70. When the section is made parallel to one of the Bides of the cone, as fig. 32, the curve ABC, which bounds the section, is called a parabola. 71. When the section is taken parallel to the axis, as fig. 33, the curve is called a hyperbola. These curves, which are formed by cutting a cone in GEOMETRY. different directions, have, various properties, which are of great importance in astronomy, gunnery, perspec- tive, and many other sciences. 72. A sphere is a solid, terminated by a convex sur- face, every point of which is at an equal distance from a point within, called the centre, fig. 34. 73. It may be conceived to be formed by making a semicircle revolve round its diameter. This may be il- lustrated by the process of forming a ball of clay by the potter's wheel, a semicircular mould being used for the purpose. The diameter of the semicircle round which it revolves, is called the axis of the sphere. 74. The ends of the axis are called poles. 75. Any line passing through the centre of the sphere, and terminated by the circumference, is a diameter of the sphere. 76. Every section of a sphere is a circle; every sec- tion taken through the centre of the sphere is called a great circle, as AB, fig. 34; every other is a lesser cir- cle, as CD. 77. Any portion of a sphere cut off by a plane is call- ed a segment; and when the plane passes through tbe centre, it divides the sphere into two equal parts, each of which is called a hemisphere. 78. A spheroid is a solid (fig. 35), generated by the rotation of a semi-ellipsis about the transverse or conju- gate axis; and the centre of the ellipsis is the centre of the spheroid. 79. The line about which the ellipsis revolves is call- ed the axis. If the spheroid be generated about the con- jugate axis of the semi-ellipsis, it is called a prolate spheroid. 80. If the spheroid be generated by the semi-ellipsis by revolving about the transverse axis, it is called an oblong spheroid. 81. Every section of a spheroid is an ellipsis, except when it is perpendicular to that axis about which it is generated; in which case it is a circle. 82. All sections of a spheroid parallel to each other, are similar figures. A frustum of a solid, means a piece cut off from the solid by a plane passed through it, usually parallel to the base of the solid, as the frustum of a cone? a pyra- mid, kc. There are a lower and an upper frustum, according as the piece spoken of does or does not contain the base of the solid. 83. Ratio is the proportion which one magnitude bears to another of the same kind, with respect to quantity, and is usually marked thus, A : B. Of these the first is called the antecedent, and the se- cond the consequent. 84. The measure or quantity of a ratio is conceived by considering what part of the consequent is the ante- cedent; consequently it is obtained by dividing the conse- quent by the antecedent. 85. Three magnitudes or quantities, A,B, C, are said to be proportional, when the ratio of the first to the se- cond is the same as that ofthe second to the third. Thus •2, 4, 8, are proportional; because 4 is contained in 8 as many times as 2 is in 4. 86. Four quantities, A, B, C, D, are said to be pro- portional when the ratio of the first A to the second B 2 is the same as the ratio of the third C to the fourth D. It is usually written A : B : : C : D, or, if expressed in numbers, 2 : 4 : : 8 : 16. 87. Of three proportional quantities, the middle one is said to be a mean proportional between the other two; and the last a third proportional to the first and second. 88. Of four proportional quantities, the last is said to be a fourth proportional to the other three, taken in order. 89. Ratio of equality is that which equal numbers bear to each other. 90. Inverse ratio is when the antecedent is made the consequent, and the consequent the antecedent. Thus, if 1 : 2 :: 3 : 6; then inversely, 2 : 1 :: 6 : 3. 91. Alternate proportion is when antecedent is com- pared with antecedent, and consequent with consequent. Thus, if 2 : 1 :: 6 : 3; then by alteration 2 : 6 :: 1 : 3. 92. Proportion by composition is when the antecedent and consequent, taken as one quantity, are compared eitlier with the consequent or with the antecedent. Thus, if 2 : 1 :: 6 : 3; then by comjiosition 2+1 : 1 :: 6 -f 3 : 3: and 2+1:2:6 + 3:6. 93. Divided proportion is when the difference of the antecedent and consequent is compared eitlier with the consequent or with the antecedent. Thus, if 3 : 1 :: 12: 4; then, by division, S — 1 : 1 :: 12— 4:4, and 3 — 1 : 3 :: 12 — 4 : 12. 94. Continued proportion is when the first is to the second as the second is to the third; as the third to the fourth; as the fourth to the fifth; and so on. 95. Compound ratio is formed by the multiplication of several antecedents and the several consequents of ratios together, in the following manner: If A be to B as 3 to 5, B to C as 5 to 8, and C to D „ 2. ^ x, .„ , „ 3 v 5 v 8 120 as 8 to 6; then A will be D, as--------- =------i- 5 x 8 a 6 240 ~~ 2' that is, A : D :: 1 : 2. 96. Bisect means to divide any thing into two equal parts. 97. Trisect is to divide any thing into three equal parts. 98. Inscribe, to draw one figure within another, so that all angles of the inner figure touch either the an- gles, sides, or planes, of the external figure. 99. Circumscribe, to draw a figure round another, so that either the angles, sides, or planes of the circum- scribed figure, touch all the angles ofthe figure within it. 100. Rectangle under any two lines, means a rectangle which has two of its sides equal to one of the lines, and two of them equal to the other. Also the rectangle un- der AB, CD, means AB x CD. 101. Scales of equal parts. A scale of equal parts is only a straight line, divided into any number of equal parts at pleasure. Each part may represent anv measure you please, as an inch, afoot,ayard,&c. One'of these is generally subdivided into parts of the next denomina- tion, or into tenths and hundredths. Scales may be con- structed in a variety of ways. The most usual manner is to make an inch, or some aliquot part of an inch, to represent a foot; and then they are called inch scales, three-quarter-inch scales, half-inch scales, quarter-inch scales, &c. They are usually drawn upon ivory or box- wood. See Instruments. GEOMETRY. 102. An axiom is a manifest-truth, not requiring any demonstration. 10 3. Postulates are things required to be granted true, before we proceed to demonstrate a proposition. 104. A proposition is when something is either pro- posed to be done, or to be demonstrated; and is either a problem or a theorem. 105. A problem is wlien something is proposed to be done, as some figure to be drawn. 106. A theorem is when something is proposed to be demonstrated or proved. 107. A lemma is when a premise is demonstrated, in order to render the thing in band more easy. 108. A corollary is an inference drawn from the de- monstration of some proposition. 109. A scholium is when some remark or observation is made upon something mentiemed before. 110. The sign = denotes that the quantities betwixt which it stands are equal. 111. The sign + denotes that the quantity after it, is to be added to that immediately before it. 112. Tbe sign — denotes that the quantity after it is to be taken away, or subtracted from, the quantity pre- ceding it. Geometrical Problems. Prob. 1. To divide a given line AB into two equal parts. From the points A and B as centres, and with any opening ofthe compasses greater than half AB, describe arches, cutting each other in c and d. Draw the line c d; and the point E, where it cuts AB, will be the mid- dle required. Prob. 2. To raise a perpendicular to a given line AB, from a point given at C. Case 1. When the given point is near the middle of the line on each side of the point C. Take any two equal distances, C d and C e; from d, and e, with any radius or opening of the compasses greater than C d, or C e, describe two ares cutting eadi other in f. Lastly,through the points f, C, draw the line f C, and it will be the per- pendicular required. Case 2. When the point is at, or near, the end of the line. Take any point d, above the line, and with the ra- dius or distance d C, describe the arc e C f, cutting AB in e and C. Through the centre d, and the point e, draw the line c d f, cutting the arc e C f in f. Through the points f, C, draw the line f C, and it will be the per- pendicular required. Prob. 3. From a given point f, to let fall a perpendi- cular upon a given line AB. From the point f, with any radius, describe the arc d e, cutting AB in e and d. From the points e d, with the same or any other radius, describe the two arcs, cutting each other in g. Through the points f and g, draw the line f g, and f C will be the perpendicular required* Prob. 4. To make an angle equal to another angle which is given, as a B b. From tbe point B, with any radius, describe the arc a b, cutting the legs B a, B b, in the points a and b. Draw the line D e, and from the point D, with the same radius as before, describe the arc e f, cutting D e in c. Take the distance b a, and apply it to the arc e f, from c to f. Lastly, througli the points D, f, draw the line D f, and the angle e D f will be equal to the angle bB a, as was required. Prob. 5. To divide a given angle. ABC, into two equal angles. From the point B, with any radius, describe the arc AC. From A and C with the same, or any other radius, describe arcs cutting each in d. Draw the line B d, and it will bisect the angle ABC, as was required. Prob. 6. To lay down an angle of any number of de grecs. There are various methods of doing this. One is by the use of an instrument called a protractor, with a se- micircle of brass, having its circumference divided into degrees. Let AB be a given line, and let it be required to draw from the angular point A, a line making with AB any number of degrees, suppose 20. Lay the straight side of the protractor along the line AB, and count 20° from the end B of the semicircle; at C, which is 20* from B, mark; then, removing the. protractor, draw the line AC, which makes with AB the angle required. Or, it may be done by a divided line, usually drawn upon scales, called a line of chords. Take 60° from the line of chords in the compasses, and setting one at the angu- lar point B, prob. 4, with that opening as a radius, de- scribe, an arch, as a b: then take the number of degrees you intend the angle to be of, and set it from b to a, then is a B b the angle required. Sec Instruments. Prob. 7. Through a given point C, to draw a line pa- rallel to a given line AB. Case 1. Take any point d, in AB; upon d and C, with the distance C d, describe two arcs, e C, and d f, cutting the line AB in e and d. Make d f equal to e C; through C and f draw C f, and it will be the line re- quired. Case 2. When the parallel is to be at a given distance from AB. From any two points, c and d, in the line AB, with a radius equal to the given distance, describe the arcs e and f: draw the line CB to touch those arc s without cutting them, and it will be parallel to AB, as was required. Prob. 8. To divide a given line AB, into any propos- ed number of equal parts. From A, one end ofthe line, draw A c, making any angle with AB; and from B, the other end, draw B d, making 1 he angle ABd equal to BAc. In each of these lines, A c, B d, beginning at A and B, set off as many equal parts of any length as AB is to be divided into. Join the points C 5, 46, 57, aud AB will be divided as required. Prob. 9. To find the centre of a given circle, or of any one already described. Draw any chord, AB, and bisect it with the perpendicular CD. Bisect CD with the di- ameter EF, and the intersection 0 will be the centre re- quired. Prob. 10. To draw a tangent to a given circle that shall pass through a given point, A. From the centre O, draw the radius OA. Through the point A, draw DE perpendicular to OA, and it will be the tangent required. Prob. 11. To draw a tangent to a circle, or any seg- ment of a circle ABC, through a given point B, without making use ofthe centre ofthe circle. Take any two equal divisions upon the cirele from the GEOMETRY. given point B, towards d and e, and draw the chord e B. Upon 15, as a centre, with the distance B d, describe the arc f d g. cutting the chord e B in f. Make d g equal to d f; tlirough g draw g B, and it will be the tangent required. Prob. 12. Given three points, A, B, C, not in a straight line, to describe a circle that shall pass through them. Bisect the lines AB, BC, by the perpendiculars ad, b d, meeting at d. Upon d, with tho distance d A, d B, describe ABC, and it will be the required circle. Prob. 13. To describe the segment of a circle to any length AB, and height CD. Bisect AB by the perpendicular D g, cutting AB in c. From c make c D on the perpendicular equal to CD. Draw AD, and bisect it by a perpendicular e f, cutting D g in g. Upon g the centre, describe ADB, and it will be the required segment. Prob. i4. In any given triangle to inscribe a circle. Bisect any two angles, A and C, with the lines AD and DC. From D the point of intersection, let fall the per- pendicular DE; it will be the radius of the circle required. Prob. 15. In a given square, to describe a regular oc- tagon. Draw the diagonals AC and BD, intersecting at c. Upon the points A, B, C, D, as centres, with a radius e C, describe the arcs k e n, m e g, f c i, &c. Join f n, m b, ki, 1 g, and it will be the required octagon. Prob. 16. In a given circle, to describe any regular polygon. Divide the circumference into as many parts as there are sides in the polygon to be drawn, and join the points of division. Prob. 17. Upon a given line AB, to construct an equilateral triangle. Upon the points A, and B, with a radius eejual to AB, describe arches cutting each other at C. Draw AC and BC, and ABC will be the triangle required. Prob. 18. To make a trapezium equal and similar to a given trapezium ABCD. Divide the given trapezium ABCD into two triangles by the diagonal DB. Make EF equal to AB; upon EF construct the triangle EFH, whose sides shall be respec- tively equal to those of the triangle ABD by the last prob- lem. Upon HF, which is equal to DB, construct the triangle HFG, whose sides are respectively equal to DBC; then EFGH will be the trapezium required. By the help of this problem any plan may be copied; as every figure, however irregular, may be divided into triangles. Upon this the practice of land-surveying and making plans of estates, is founded. Prob. 19. To make a square equal to two given squares. Make the sides DE and DF of the two given squares A and B, form the sides of a right-angled trian- gle FDE; draw the hypothenuse FE; on it describe the square EFGH, and it will be the square required. Prob. 20. Between two given lines, AB and CD, to find a mean proportional. Draw the right line EG, in which make EF equal to AB, and FG equal to CD. Bisect EG in H, and with HE or HG, as radius, describe the semicircle E1G. From F draw FI perpendicular to EG, cutting the circle in I; and IF will be the mean proportional required. Geometry, application of algebra to. When a geome- trical problem is proposed to be resolved by algebra, you are, in the first place, to describe a figure that shall re- present, or exhibit, the several parts or conditions there- of, and look upon that figure as the true one; then, having considered attentively the nature of the problem you are next to prepare the figure for a solution (if need be), by producing and drawing such lines there..i as appear most conducive to that end. This done, let the unknown line or lines which you think will be the easiest found (whether required or not), together with the known ones (or as many of them as are requisite), be denoted by proper symbols; then proceed to the operation, by ob- serving the relation that the several parts of the figure have to each other; in order to which a competent know- ledge of the elements of geometry is absolutely necessarv. As no general rule can be given for the drawing of lines, and electing the most proper quantities to substi- tute for, so as to always bring out the most simple con- clusions (because different problems require different methoels of solution); the best way, therefore, to gain experience in this matter, is to attempt the solution of the same problem several ways, and then apply that which succeeds best toother cases ofthe same kind when they afterwards occur. We shall, however, subjoin a few general directions, which will be found of use. 1. in preparing the figure, by drawing lines, let them be either parallel or perpendicular to other lines in the figure, or so as to form similar triangles; and, if an angle be given, let the perpendicular be opposite to that angle, and also fall from the end of a given line, if possible. 2. In electing the proper quantities to substitute for, let those be chosen (whether required or not) which lie nearest the known, or given parts of the figure, and by help whereof the next adjacent parts may be expressed, without the intervention of surds, by addition and sub- traction only. Thus, if the problem .were to find the perpendicular of a plane triangle, from the three sides given, it will be much better to substitute for one of the segments ofthe base than for the perpendicular, though the quantity required; because the whole base being giv- en, or expressed, by subtraction only, and so the final equation comes out a single one; from whence the seg- ments being known, the perpendicular is easily found by common arithmetic: whereas, if the perpendicular were to be first sought, both the segments would be surd quantities, and the final equation an unsightly quadratic one. 3. When, in any problem, there are two lines or quan- tities alike related to other parts ofthe figure, or prob- lem, the best way is to make use of neither of them, but to substitute for their sum, their rectangle, or the sum of their alternate quotients, or for some line or lines in the figure, to which they have both the same relation. 4. If the area, or the perimeter, of a figure be given, or such parts thereof as have but a remote relation to the parts required, it will sometimes be of use to assume an- other figure similar to the proposed one, whereof one side is unity, or some other known quantity; from whence the other parts of this figure, by the known proportions of tie homologous sides, or parts, may be found, and an equation obtained. These are the most general observations, which we shall now proceed to illustrate by examples. GEOMETRY. Prob. I. The base (b), and the sum ofthehypothenuseand pei-pendicidar (a) of a right-angled triangle ABC, be- ing given; to find the perpendicular. Sec Fig. 36. Let the perpendicular BC be denoted by x; then the hypothenuse AC will be expressed by a — x; but (by Euc. 47. 1.) AB* + BC* = AC; that is, 6* + x2 = a2 a2 — 62 —2ax -f xx; whence x = —-----= the perpendicu- lar required. Prob. II. The diagonal, and the perimeter of a rectangle, ABCD, being given; to find the sides. See Fig. 37. Put the diagonal BD == a, half the perimeter (DA -f AB) = b, and AB — x\ then will AD = b— x; and there- fore, AB2 + AD2 being = BD2, we have x2 + b2— 2bx v/2«2 — b2 -I- 6 -\-x2 = b2; which, solved, gives x =---------------. Prob. III. The area of a right-angled triangle ABC, and the sides of a rectangle EBDF, inscribed therein, being given; to determine the sides of the triangle. See Fig. 38. Put DF = a, DE = b, BC == x, and the measure of the given area ABC = d; then, by similar triangles, we shall have, x — b (CF) : a (DF) : : x (BC) : AB = ax x — 6 Therefore ax a — b ax2 — 2dx — 2bd, or x2 — x — = d, 2 2dx and consequently Qbd which, solv- ate/ from whence AB and i d , .fdd ed, gives x =---h V----- a — aa u, AC will likewise be known. Prob. IV. Having the lengths ofthe three perpendiculars, PF, PG, PH, drawn from a certain point P, within an equilateral triangle ABC, to the three sides thereof; from thence to determine the sides. See Fig. 39. Let lines be drawn from P to the three angles of the triangle; and let CD be perpendicular to AB: call PF, a; PG, 6; PH, c; and A O = x: then will AC (= AB) = 2.r, and CD(= ^/ AC2 — AD2) = ^/3xx = x r any seeds will vegetate as well as ever after having been frozen, or after having been kept in frozen water. We may conclude, then, that a certain degree of heat is neces- sary for the germination e>f seeds. And every species of plant seems to have a degree peculiar to itself, at which its seeds begin to germinate; for every seed has a pecu- liar season at which it begins to germinate, and this season varies with the temperature of the air. Mr. Adan- son found that seeds, when sown at the same time iu France and in Senegal, always appeared sooic-r above ground in the latter country, where the climate is hotter, than in France. Seeds, although supplied with moisture, and placed in a proper temperature, will not germinate, if atmosphe- rical air is completely excluded from them. Mr. Ray found that grains of lettuce did not germinate in the va- cuum of an air-pump, but they began to grow as soon as air was admitted to them. Homberg made a number of experiments on the same subject, which were published in the Memoirs of the French Academy for the year 1693. He found that the greater number of seeds which he tried refused to vegetate in the vacuum of an air-pump. Some, however, did germinate; but Boyle, Muscheu- broek, and Boerhaave, who made experiments on the same subject in succession, proved beyond a doubt that no plant vegetates in the vacuum of an air-pump; and that in those cases in which Horn berg's seeds germinated, the vacuum was far from perfect, a quantity of air still remaining in the receiver. It follows, therefore, that no seed will germinate unless almospherical air, or some air having the same properties, has access to it. It is for this reason that seeds will not germinate at a certain deplh below the surface of the earth. Mr. Scheele found that beans would not germinate except oxygen gas was present. Mr. Achard afterwards proved that oxygen gas is absolutely necessary for the germination of all seeds, and that no seed will germinate in azotic gas, or hydrogen gas, or carbonic acid gas, unless these gasses contain a mixture of oxygen gas. These experiments have been confirmed by Mr. Gough, Mr. Cruckshank, and many other philosophers. It fol- lows, therefore, thai it is not the whole atmospheric air, but merely the oxygen gas which it contains, that is ne- cessary for the germination of seeds. Nay, M. Humboldt has ascertained that seeds vege- tate meire rapidly when steeped in oxymuriatic acid, or when watered with it; and this acid is well known for the facility with which it parts with oxygen. This acid seems even to augment the vegetative power of seeds. At Vienna several seeds which had been long kept, and which had constantly refused to germinate, grew readily when treated with this acid. Light also has considerable influence in the germina- tion of seeds. Ingenhousz found that seeds always ger- minate faster in the dark than when exposed to the light. His experiments were repeated by Mr. Sennebier with equal success. But the abbe' Bertholin, who distinguish- ed himself so much by his labours to demonstrate the effect of electricity on vvgetation, objected to the conclu- sions of these philosophers; and affirmed that the dirter- ence in the germination of seeds in the shade and in the light was owing, not to the light itsrif, but to the differ- ence of the moisture in the two situations; the moisture evaporating much faster from the seeds in the light than from those in the shade; and he affirmed, that when pre- cautions were taken to keep the seeds equally moist, those in the sun germinated sooner than those in the shade. But when Mr. Sennebier repeated his former experi- ments, and employed every possible precaution to ensure the equality of moisture in both situations, he constantly found the seeds in the shade germinate sooner than those in the light. We may conclude, therefore, that light is injurious to germination; and hence one reason for cover- ing seeds with the soil in which they are to grow. Thus we have s en that seeds will not germinate un- less moisture, heat, and oxygen gas, are present; and that they do not germinate well if they are exposed to the action of light. Now, in what manner do these sub- stances affect the seed? What are the changes which they produce? It was observed before, that all seeds have one or more cotyledons. These cotyledons contain a quantity of far- inaceous matter, laid up on purpose to supply the embryo plant with food as it begins to require it. This food, however, must undergo some previous preparation before it can be applied by the plant to the formation or com- pletion of its organs. Now all the phenomena of germi- nation, which we can perceive, consists in the chemical changes which are produced in that food, and the con- sequent developement ofthe organs ofthe plant. When a seed is placed in favourable circumstances, it gradually imbibes moisture, and very soon after emits a quantity of carbonic acid gas, even though no oxygen gas .should be present. If no oxygen gas is present, the process stems here, and no germination takes place. But if oxygen gas is present, it is gradually absorbed by the seed; and at the same time the farina of the cotyledons assume a sweet taste, resembling sugar: it is therefore converted into sugar, or some substance analogous to it. M. Saussure, jun. has ascertained that the quantity of oxygen gas absorbed during the germination is always proportional to the carbonic acid gas emitted; that ;•;, the carbonic acid emitted contains in it precisely tho same quantity of oxygen as has been absorbed. Hence it is evident that the farina is changed into sugar by di- minishing its carbon, and of course by augmenting the proportion of its hydrogen and oxygen. This is precise- ly the process of malting, or of converting grain into malt; during which it is well known that there is a con- siderable heat envoived; so much indeed, that in certain circumstances grain improperly kept has even taken fire. We may conclude from this, that during the germination of seeds in the earth there is also an evolution of a consi- derable portion of heat. This indeed might hare been ex- pected, as it usually happens when oxygen gas is ab- sorbed. So far seems to be the work of chemistry alone, at least we have no right to conclude that anv other agent interferes; since hay, when it happens to imbibe moisture, exhibits nearly the same process. Carbonic acid gas is evolved, oxygen gas is absorbed, beat is produced so G E R abundantly that hay often takes fire: at the same time a quantity of sugar is formed. It is owing to a partial change of the same kind that old hay generally tastes much sweeter than new hay. Now we have no reason to suppose that any agents peculiar to the vegetable king- dom reside in hay: as all vegetation, and all power of vegetating, are evidently destroyed. But when the farina in the seeds of vegetables is con- verted into sugar, a number of vessels make their appear- ance in the cotyledon. These vessels may indeed be de- tected in many seeds before germination commences; but they become much more distinct after it has made some progress. Branches from them have been demonstrated by Grew, Maipighi, and Hedwig, passing into the radi- cle, and distributed through every part of it. These evi- dently carry the nourishment prepared in the cotyledons to the radicle; for if the cotyledons are cut off, even after the processes above described are completed, gcrmina* tion, as Bonnet and Sennebier ascertained by experiment, immediately stops. The food therefore is conveyed from the cotyledons into the radicle; the radicle increases in size, assumes the form of a root, sinks down into the earth, and soon becomes capable of extracting the nour- ishment necessary for the future growth of the plant. Even at this period, after the radicle has become a per- fect root, the plant, as Sennebier ascertained by expe- riment, ceases to vegetate if the cotyledons are cut off. They are still then absolutely necessary for the vegeta- tion of the plant. The cotyledons now assume the appearance of leaves, and appear above the ground, forming what are called the seminal leaves of the plant. After this the plumula gradually increases in size, rises out of the earth, and expands itself into branches and leaves. The seminal leaves, soon after this, decay and drop off; and the plant carries on all the processes of vegetation without,their assistance. Mr. Eller attempted to show that there is a vessel in seeds which passes from the cotyledons to the plumula; but later anatomists have not been able to perceive any such vessel. Even Mr. Hedwig, one ofthe most pa- tient, acute, and successful philosophers that ever exam- ined the structure of vegetables, could never discover any such vessel, although he traced the vessels of the cotyledons even through the radicle. As it does not ap- pear, then, that there is any communication between the cotyledons and the plumula, it must follow thatthe nour- ishment passes into the plumula from the radicle: and accordingly we see that the plumula does not begin to vegetate till the radicle has made some progress. Since the plant ceases to vegetate, even after the radicle has been converted into a root, if the cotyledons are removed before the plumula is developed, it follows that the radicle is insufficient of itself to carry on the processes of vege- tation, and that the cotyledons still continue to perform a part. Now we have*seen already what that part is; they prepare food for the nourishment of the plant. The root, then, is of itself insufficient for this purpose. When the cotyledons assume the form of seminal leaves, it is evi- dent that the nourishment, which was originally Lid up in them for the support of the embryo plant, is exhausted, yet they still continue as necessary as ever. They must therefore receive the nourishment which is imbibed by g e u the root; they must produce some changes on it, render it suitable for the purposes of vegetation, and then send it back again to be transmitted to the plumula. After the plumula has acquired a certain size, which must be at least aline, if the cotyledons are cut off, the plant, as Mr. Bonnet ascertained by a number of experiments, afterwards repeated with equal success by Mr. Senne- bier, does not cease to vegetate, but it continues always a mere pigmy: its size, when compared with that of a plant whose cotyledons are allowed to remain, being only as 2 to 7. When the plumula has expanded completely into leaves, the cotyledons may be removed without injuring the plant, and they very soon decay of themselves. It ap- pears, then, that this new office of the cotyledons is af- terwards performed by that part of the plant which is above ground. Thus we have traced the phenomena of germination as far as they have been detected. The facts are obvious; but the manner in which they are produced is a profound secret. We can neither explain how the food enters into the vessels, how it is conveyed to the different parts of the plant, how it is deposited in every organ, nor how it is employed to increase the size of the old parts, or to form new ones. These phenomena arc analogous to no- thing in mechanics or chemistry, but resemble exactly the organization and nourishment of animals. They be- long therefore to that difficult branch of science known by the name of physiology. GERUND, in grammar, a verbal noun ofthe neuter gender, partaking of the nature of a participle, declina- ble only in the singular number, through all the cases except the vocative: as, nom. amandum, gen. amandi, dat. amando, accus. amandum, abl. amando. GEROPOGON, a genus of the syngenesia polygamia aequalis class and order. The calyx is simple; recept. with bristle-shaped chaffs; seeds of the disk with feather- ed down, of the ray with five awns. There arc three species, all plants of Italy, having the same habit with , the tragopogons. GESNERIA, a genus of the angiospcrmia order, in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, per- sonatae. The calyx is quinquefid, and placed on thegcr- men; the corolla incurved and then recurvated; the cap- sule inferior and bilocular. There are 12 species, herbs and shrubs of the West Indies. GETH YLLIS, a genus of the monogynia order, in the dodecandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 9th order, spathacese. The corolla is six cleft, and the stamina are in six different directions; the capsule is trilocular. There are four species, herbs of the Cape. GEUM, avens, or herb-bennet, a genus of the polyga- mia order, in the icosandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 35th order, senticosa*. The calyx is cleft into ten parts; there are five petals, and each of the seeds has a jointed awn. There are nine species; of which the most remarkable are, 1. The urbanum, with thick fibrous roots, of an aro- matic taste: rough, serrated leaves; and upright, round, hairy stalks, terminated by large yellow flowers, suc- ceeded by globular fruit. 2. The rivale, with a very thick, fleshy, and fibrow G I \ G I A root, hairy leaves, and upright stalks 10 or 12 inches high, terminated by purple flowers nodding on orte side. Of this there are varieties with red and with yellow flow- ers. Both of these are natives of Britain, and are easily propagated either by the root or seed. The roots of the first, gathered in tbe spring before the stems come up, and infused in ale, give it a pleasant flavour, and pre- vent its growing sour: infused in wine they have a stomachic virtue. Tbe taste is mildly austere and aro- matic, especially when the plant grows in warm dry situations; but in moist shady places it has little virtue. Cows, goats, sheep, and swine, eat the plant; horses are not fond of it. The powdered root of the second species will cure tertian agues, and is daily used for that pur- pose by the Canadians. Sheep and goats eat the plant; cows, horses, and swine, are not fond of it. GlllNIA, a genus of the diandria monogynia class ami order. The calyx is five-toothed and acuminate; cor. two-lipped; stain, four, with two barren anthers at the shorter filaments; per. a drupe, containing a fourpr five-celled nut, with a seed in each cell. There are two species, annuals of the West Indies. GIV xT'S-c vuseway, a vast collection of basaltic pillars in the county of Antrim in Ireland. (SeeBvsAL- tes.) The principal or grand causeway (for there are several less considerable and scattered fragments) con- sists of a most irregular arrangement of many hundred thousands of columns: almost all of them are of a penta- gonal figure, but so closely and compactly situated on their sides, though perfectly distinct from top to bottom, that scarcely any thing can be introduced between them. The columns are of an unequal height and breadth; some of the highest, visible above the surface of the strand, and at the foot of the impending angular precipice, perhaps about 20 feet, they do not exceed this height, at least none- of the principal arrangement. How deep (hey are fixed inthe strand was never yet discovered. This grand arrangement extends nearly 200 yards, visible- at low water; he>w far beyond is uncertain: from its declining appearance, however, at low water, it is probable it does not extend under water to a distance any thing equal to what is seen above. The breadth ofthe principal cause- way which runs out in one continued rang.' of columns, is, in general, from 20 to 30 feet; at one place or two it m;iy be nearly 40 for a few yards. In this account are excluded the broken and scattered pieces of the same kind of construction, that are detached from the sides of the grand causeway, as they do not appear to have rver h -en contiguous to the principal arrangement, though they have frequently been taken into the width; which has been the cause of such wild and disimilar re- presentations of this cans-way, which different accounts have exhibited. The highest part of this causeway is the narrowest, ai the ve-ry sji >t of the impending cliff whence the whole prejrets, where, for four or five yards, it is not above- ten or fifteen wide. Tie- columns of this nar- row part incline from a perpendicular a little to the west- ward, and form a slope on their tops, by the unequal height of the columns on the two sides; by which an as- cent is made at the foot ofthe cliff, from the head of one column to the next above, gradatim, to the top of the gn-at caus-wvay, which, at the distance of half a dozen yards from the cliff, obtains a perpendicular position, vol. II. 36 and, lowering in its general height, widens to about 20 or between 20 and 30 feet, and for 100 yards nearly is al- ways above water. The tops of the columns for this length being nearly of an equal height, they form a grand and singular parade that may be easily walked on, rather inclining to the water's edge. But from high-water mark, as it is perpetually washed by the beating surges on eve- ry return of the tide, the platform lowers considerably, and becomes more and more uneven, so as n it to be walk- ed em but with the greatest care. At the distance of 150 yards from the cliff it turns a little, to the east for 20 or 30 yards, and then sinks into the sea. The figure of these columns is almost unexceplionably pentagonal, or com- posed of five sides; there are but very few of any other figure introduced: some few there are of three, four, and six sides, but the generality of them are five sided, and the spectateir must look very nicely to find any of a dif- ferent construction: yet what is very extraordinary, and particularly curious, there are not two columns in ten thousand to be found, that either have their sides equal among themselves, or whose figures are alike. Nor is the composition of these columns or pillars less deserving the attention of the curious spectator. They arc not of one solid stone in an upright position, but composed of several short lengths, curiously joined, not with flat sur- faces, but articulated into each other like a ball and sock- et, or like the joints in the vertebrae of some of the larger kind of fish, the one end at the joint having a cavity into which the convex end of the opposite is exactly fitted. This is not visible but by disjoining the two stones. The depth of the concavity or conve-xity is generally about two or three inches. And what is still farther remarka- ble of the joint, the convexity, and the correspondent concavity, are not conformed tei the external angular figure of the column, but exactly round, am! as large as the size or diameter of the column will admit; and con- sequently as the angles of these columns are in gene- ral extremely unequal, the circular edges of the jii.:t are seldom coincident with meire than two or three sides of the pentagonal, and from the edge of the ' ir- ctilar part of the joint to the exterior sides and angles they are quite plain. It is still farther very remarka- ble likewise, that the articulations of these joints are frequently inverted; in some tbe concavity is upwards, in others the reverse. This occasions that variety anil mixture of concavities and convexities on the tops ofthe columns, which is observable throughout the platform of this causeway, yet without any discoverable design or regularity with respect to the number of either. The length also of these particular stones, from joint to joint, is various: in general they are from 18 to 24 inches long; and, for the most part, longer towards the bo.torn of the columns than nearer the top, and the articulan ,n of> the joints something deeper. The size or diameter likewise of the columns is as different as theirlenglh and tigire: in general they arc from 15 to 20 inches diameter. Tie rz are no traces of uniformity or de-sign dis'vvere'i through- out the whole combination, except in tin- for.n of ihe j on' which is invariably by an articulation <>f ihe convex !»:•■> the concave of the piece n"xt above or bel . v it; u->r ai'.: there, any traces of a finishing in any ['irt,e:cr i,i height, length, or breadth, of t is curious ci^.way. If there is here aud there a smooth up to any o{ me columns G I A G I F above water, there arc others just by, of equal height, that are more or less convex or concave, which show them to have been joined to pieces that have been washed, or by other means taken off. And undoubtedly those parts that are alw ays above water have, from time to time, been made as even as might be; and the remaining surfaces of the joints must naturally have been worn smoother by the constant friction of weather and walk- ing, than where the sea, at every tide, is beating upon it, and continually removing some of the upper stones, and exposing fresh joints. And farther, as these columns preserve their diameters from top to bottom, in all the exterior ones, which have two or three sides exposed to view, the same may with reason be inferred of the inte- rior columns whose tops only are visible. Yet, what is very extraordinary and equally curious in this phenome- non is, that notwithstanding the universal dissimilitude of the columns, both as to their figure and diameter, and though perfectly distinct from top to bottom, yet is the whole arrangement so closely combined at all points, that hardly a knife can be introduced between them either upon the sides or angles. And it is a most curious enter- tainment to examine the close contexture and nice inser- tion of such an infinite variety of angular figures as are exhibited on the surface of this grand parade. From the infinite dissimilarity of the figure of these colums, this will appear a most surprising circumstance to the curious spectator; and would incline him to believe it a work of human art, was it not, on the other hand, inconceivable that the genius or invention of man should construct and combine such an infinite number of columns, which should have a general apparent likeness, and yet be so universally dissimilar in their figure, as that, from the minutest examination, not two in ten or twenty thousand should be found whose angles and sides are equal among themselves, or of the one column to those of the other. That it is the work of nature there can be no doubt to an attentive spectator, who carefully surveys the general form and situation, with the infinite- ly various configuration of the several parts of this cause- way. There are no traces of regularity or design in the outlines of this curious phenomenon; which, including the broken and detached pieces of the same kind of work- manship, are extremely scattered and confused; and, whatever they might be originally, do not at present ap- pear to have any connection with the grand or principal causeway, as to any supposable design or use in its first construction, and as little design can be inferred from the figure or situation of the several constituent parts. The whole exhibition is, indeed, extremely confused, un- uniform, and destitute of every appearance of use or design in its original construction. But what, beyond dispute, determines its original to have been from nature is, that the very cliffs, at a great distance from the cause- way, especially in the bay to the eastward, exhibit at many places the same kind of columns, figured and joint- ed in all respects like those of the grand causeway: some of them are seen near to the top of the cliff, which, in ge- neral, in these bays to the east and west of the causeway, is near 300 feet in height; others again are seen about midway, and at different elevations from the strand. A very considerable exposure of them is seen in the very bottom of the bay to the eastward, near 100 roods from 2 the causeway, where the earth has evidently fallen away from them upon the strand, and exhibits a most curious arrangement of many of these pentagonal columns, in a perpendicular position, supporting, in appearance, a cliff of different strata of earth, clay, rock, <\c. to the height of 150 feet or more, above. Some of these columns are between SO and 40 feet high, from the top of the sloping bank below them; and being longest in the middle ofthe arrangement, shortening on either hand in view, they have obtained the appellation of organs, from a rude like- ness in this particular to the ex t rior or frontal tubes of that instrument; and as there are few broken pieces on the strand near it, it is probable that the outside range of columns that now appears is really the original exte- rior line, toward the sea, of this collection. But how far they extend internally into the bowels of the incumbent cliff is unknown. The very substance, indeed, of that part of the cliff which projects to a point, between the two bays on the east and west of the causeway, seems composed of this kind of materials; for, besides the many pieces that are seen on the sides of the cliff that circulate to the bottom ofthe bays, particularly the eastern side, there is, at the very point of the cliff, and just above the narrow and highest part of the causeway, a long collec- tion of them seen, whose heads or tops just appearing without the sloping bank, plainly show them to be in an oblique position, and about half way between the perpen- dicular and horizontal. The heads of these, likewise, are of mixed surfaces, convex and concave, and the co- lumns evidently appear to have been removed from their original upright, to their present inclining or oblique po- sition, by the sinking or falling ofthe cliff. GIBBOUS, in astronomy, a term used in reference to the enlightened parts of the moon, whilst she is moving from the first quarter to the full, and from the full to the last quarter: for all that time the dark part appears horned or falcated, and the light one convex or gibbous. GIBELINS, or Gihellins, a famous faction in Ita- ly, opposite to another, called the Guelphs. These two factions ravaged and laid waste Italy for a long series of years, so that the history of that country, for the space of two centuries, is no more than a detail of their mutual violence and slaughters. The Gibclins adhered to the emperor against the pope: but concern- ing their origin, and the reason of their names, we have but a very obscure account. According to the generality of authors, they rose about the year 1240, upon the emperor Frederic IPs being excommunicated by pope Gregory IX. Other writers maintain, that the two fac- tions arose ten years before, though still under the same pope and emperor. But the most probable opinion is that of Mainbourg, who says, that the two factions of Guelphs and Gibelins arose from a quarrel between two ancient and illustrious houses on the confines of Germa- ny, that of the Henries of Gibeling, and that of the Guelphs of Adorf. GIFT, a transferring the property in a thing from one to another without a valuable consideration; for to transfer any thing upon a valuable consideration is a contract of sale: he who gives any thing is called the do- nor: and he to whom it is given is called the donee. By the common law all chattels, real or personal, may be granted or given, without deed, except in some spe* G I L G I L rial cases; and a free gift is good without a considera- tion, if not to defraud creditors. Park 57. But no leases, estates, or interests, either of freehold, or term of years, or any uncertain interest not being co- pyhold or customary interest, of, in, to, or out of, any messuage, manors, lands, tenements, hereditaments, shall at any time be assigned, granted or surrendered, unless it is by deed or act in writing, signed by the party bo assigning, granting, or surrendering the same, or their agents thereunto lawfully authorised by writing, or by act and operation of law. 29 Car. II. c. 3. A gift of any thing without a consideration, is good: but it is revocable before delivery to the donee, of the thing given. Jenk. 109 pi. 9. GILBERTINES, a religious order founded in Eng- land by St. Gilbert, in the reign of Henry I. The nuns followed the rule of St. Benedict, and the monks that of St. Augustiti. There are many monasteries of this or- der in different parts of England. GILD. Sec Geld. Gild Merchant, was a certain privilege or liberty granted to merchants, whereby they were enabled, among other things, to hold certain pleas of land within their own precincts; as the gild-merchant granted by king John to the burgesses of Nottingham. GILDING, is the application of gold to the surfaces of bodies: it is of two principal kinds, according to the method of applying the geild. Wood, leather, paper, anil-similar substances, arc gilt by fastening on leaves of gold by means of some cement. But metals are gilt by a chemical application of the gold to the surface. This last is called water-gilding. The gilding of wood, and similar substances, is of three kinds: oil-gilding, burnished gilding, and japanners' gilding, which we shall severally describe, after noticing the materials and tools necessary for the operations. Of gold-leaf.--* there are three kinds of gold-leaf in common use. Pure gold-leaf, which is made by hammer- ing gedd till it is sufficiently thin (see Gold-beating). Pale leaf-gold, which has a greenish colour, and is made in the same way of gold alloyed with silver. Dutch gold, which is brought from Holland, and is in fact only copper- leaf coloured by the fumes of zinc. It is much cheaper than true leaf-gold, and is very useful where large quan- tities e»f gilding are wanted, which can be defended from the weather, and where great nicety is not required; but it changes its colour entirely when exposed to moisture; and indeed, in all cases, its beauty is soon impaired, un- less well secured by varnish. It is therefore only a cheap substitute for true gold leaf, which may be useful where durability is not an object. Ofthe instruments necessary for gilding.—The first in- trunient is the cushion, for receiving the leaves of gold from the books in which they are bought. It is made by covering a board of about eight inches square, with a dou- ble thickness of flannel: and over that a pit-cc of buff leather, and fastening it tight round the edges. The knife for cutting the leaves into the requisite sizes should be made like a pallet knife, and should not have its eelge too sharp. The tip is a tool made by fastening the long hairs of a squirrel's tail between two cards; and is used for tak- ing up the gold-leaf after it is cut, and applying it to the article to be gilded- A fitch pencil is used for the same purpose as the last, in taking up very small bits of gold-leaf. A ball of cot- ton is necessary for pressing down the leaf, after it is laid on. A large camel's-hair brush is used for dusting the work, and clearing away the superfluous gold. Oil-gilding.—~First prime your work with boiled lin- seed-oil and white-lead; and when that is dry, cover it over with a thin coat of gold size, made of stone-ochre ground in fat oil. When that is so dry as to feel clam- my to the fingers, or to be what the gilders call tacky, it is fit for gilding. Having spread your leaves upon the cushion, cut thein into slips of the proper width for covering your work. Then breathe upon your tip, which, by moistening it, will cause it to take up the leaves from the cushion. Having applied thein by the tip on the pro- per parts of your work, press them down by the ball of cotton. Observe to repair, by putting small pieces of gold on, any parts which you have omitted to cover. Wrben all your work is sufficiently covered, let it dry, and clean it off with the brush. This sort of gilding is the easiest, least expensive, and stands the weather best, and may be cleaned with a lit- tle water at any time; but wants the lustre of burnished gilding. Burnished gilding.—This is the sort of gilding gene- rally used for picture-frames, looking-glasses, kc The wood intended to be gilt in this manner, should first be well sized, and then covered with seven or eight coats of size and whiting, so as to form a body of con- siderable thickness. Having got a sufficient quantity of whiting upon the work, it must be carefully cleaned, taking care to free all the cavities and hollows from the whiting that may have choked them up, and by proper moulds and tools restoring the sharpness of the mould- ings intended to be shown. It is then to receive a coat of size, which is made by boiling armenian bole with parchment size. This must also remain till it is sufficiently dry for gedd. It must not be quite dry, therefore it wouid not be prudent to lay on more at a time than can be gilt before it becomes too dry. The work being thus prepared, place it a little declin- ing from you; and having ready a cup of dean water, and some hair-pencils, moisten a part of the work, and then apply the gold by the tip to the moistened part. The gold will immediately adhere close to the work: proceed to wet the next part, and apply the gold as be- fore, repeating this operation till the whole is completed; taking care not to let any drops eff water come upon any part of the gedd already laid on. Care should therefore be taken that no part be missed in going over it at first, as it is not so easily mended as the oil nil din <". The work being thus gilt, it is suffered t;o remain about 24 hours; when the parts that are designed to be burnished, are polished with a dog's tooth, or, what is better, with an agate burnisher. The gilding must not be quite dry when burnished: there is a state 'proper for the purpose, which is only to Iv known by experience. Jupanner's gilding.—-The gilding of japanned work consists in drawing with i hair-pencil, in gold size, the intended ornaments, and afterwards applying gold-leaf, or gold powder. The gold size may be prepared in the following man- GILDING. ner: Take of linseed oil, and of gum animi, four ounces. Set the oil to boil in a proper vessel, and then add the gum animi gradually in powder, stirring each quantity about in 1 lie oil till it appears to be dissolved, and then putting in another, till the whole is mixed with the oil. Let tiie mixture continue to boil, till, on taking a small quantity out, it appears of a thicker consistence than tar. and then strain the whole through a coarse cloth, and keep it for use; but it must, when applied, be mixed with vermilion and oil of turpentine. Having laid on the gold size, and suffered it to dry, the gold-leaf is applied in the usual way; or if it is not wanted to shine so much, gold powder is applied, which is made by grinding gold-leaf upon a stone with honey, and afterwards washing the honey away with water. If the gilding is to be varnished over, Dutch gold maybe used, or aurum inusivum may be used instead of real gold powder. To write on paper with letters of gold.—Put some gum arable into common writing-ink, and write with it in the usual way. When the writing is dry, breathe on it; the warmth and moisture soften the gum, and will cause it to fasten on the gold-leaf; which may be laid on in the usual way, and the superfluous part brushed off. Or in- stead of this, any japanners' size may be used. To lay gold upon white earthenware, or glass.—Pro- cure some japanners' gold size, and with it draw your design upon the vessel to be gilt, moistening the gold size, as you find necessary, with oil of turpentine. Set your work iu a clean place to dry, for about an hour, and then 'place it so near the fire, that you could but just bear the heat of it with your hand for a few se- conds. Let it remain there till it feels quite tacky or clammy; then, having procured a cushion, and some leaf- gold, cut it into slips of the proper size, and lay it on with the little cotton ball. When the gedd is all on, put the ware into an oven to be baked for two or tnree hours. Glasses, &c. may also be gilt, by drawing the figures with shell gold mixed with gum arabic, and a little bo- rax. Then apply sufficient heat to it; and, lastly, bur- nish it. Gilding on glass or porcelain, by burning in.—Dissolve gold in aqua regia, and evaporate the acid by heat, you will obtain a gold powder; or precipitate the gold from the solution by pieces of copper. Lay this gold on with a strong solution of borax and gum watu»', and it will fre ready for burn ing-in. Gilding metals.—One method of applying gold upon metals is by first cleaning the metal to be gilt; then gold- leaf is laid on it, which, by means of rubbing with a po- lished blood-stone, and a certain degree of heat, are the mercury with an ion rod, the gold totally disap- pears. The proportion of mercury to gold is generally as six or eight to one. The method of gilding by amalgamation is chiefly used for gilding copper, or an alloy of copper, with a small portion of zinc, which more readily receives the amal- gam, and is also preferable on account of its colour, which more resembles that of gold than the colour of copper. When the metal to be gilt is wrought or chased, it ought to be previously covered with quicksilver before the amalgam is applied, that this may be easier spread; but when the surface of the metal is plane, the amalgam may be directly applied to it. The metal required to be gilt is first rubbed over with a little aquafortis, by which the surface is e'eaned from any rust or tarnish that might prevent the union of tiie two metals. The amalgam being then equally spread over the surface byr means of a brush, the mercury is evaporated by a heat just sufficient for that purpose; for if it is too great, part of tin- gold may also be expcllni, and part of it will run together, and leave some of the surface of the metal bare. While the mercury is evaporat- ing the piece is to be, from time to time, taken from the fire, that it may be examined; that the amalgam may lie spread more equally by means of a brush; tliat any de- fective parts of it may be again covered, and that ihe heat may not be too suddenly applied to it. When the mercury is evaporated, which is known by the surface becoming entirely of a dull yellow-colour, the metal must then undergo other operations, by which the fine gold- colour is given to it. First, the gilded piece of metal is rubbed with a scratch- brush (which is a brush composed o!' brass wire) till its surface is made smooth; then it is covered over with a composition called gilding wax, and is again exposed to the fire till the wax is burnt off. This wax is composed of bee's-wax, frequently mixed with some ofthe following substances: red ochre, verdigris, copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax; but, according to Dr. Lewis, the sahne substances are sufficient, without any wax. By this operation the colour of the gilding is height- ened; and the effect seems to be produced by a perfect dissipation of some mercury remaining after the former operations. The gilt surface is then covered over with a saline composition, consisting e>f nitre, alum, or vitriolic salt, ground together, ami mixed up into a paste with water or urine. The piece of metal thus covered is exposed to a certain degree of heat, and then quenched in water. By this method its colour is further improved, and brought nearer to that of gold. This effect seems to be made to adhere perfectly well. In this manner silver- leaf is fixed and burnished upon brass, in the making of Induced by the acid of the nitre, (which is disengaged what is called French plate; and sometimes also gold- >> the s^P1""'^ acid ofthe alum during the exposure to heat) acting upon any particles of copper which may happen to lie upon the gilded surface. Lastly. Some artists think that they give an additional lustre to their gilt work, by dipping it in a liquor pre- pared by boiling some yellow materials, as sulphur, or pi ment, or turmeric. The only advantage of this ope- ration is, that part of the yellow matter remains in some of tbe hollows of the carved work, in which the gilding leaf is burnished upon copper and iron. Gilding by amalgamation. A better method is, by previously forming the gold into paste, or amalgam, with mercury. In order to obtain an amalgam of gold and mercury, the gold is first to be reduced into thin plates or grains, which are heated red-hot, and thrown into mercury pre- viously heated, till it begins to smoke. Upon stirring GILDING. is apt to be more imperfect, and to which it gives a rich and solid appearance. It may here be noticed, that the use of the aquafortis or nitric acid, mentioned in the beginning ofthe process, is nor, as is g'-nerally supposed, conined merely to cleansing the surface of the me-tal to be g'lt from rust or tarnish; but it also greatly facilitates the application of the amalg un to the surface of that metal, probably in the following manner: It first dissolves part of the mer- cury of the amalgam; and when the solution is applied to the copper, this latter metal, having a stronger disposi- tion to unite with the nitrous acid than the mercury has, precipitates the mercury upon its surface, in the same manner as a polished piece of iron precipitates upon its surface copper from a solution of blue vitriol. When the metal to be gilt is thus covered with a thin coat of pre- cipitated mercury, it readily receives the amalgam. On the subject of gilding by amalgamation, Dr. Lewis has the following remarks: "There are two principal inconveniences in this business; one, that the workmen are exposed to the fumes of the mercury, and gener- ally, sooner or later, have their health greatly impaired by "thein; the other, the loss ofthe mercury; for though part of it is said to be detained iu the cavities made in the chimneys for that purpose, yet the greatest part of it is lost. From some trials I have made, it appeared that both these inconveniences, particularly the first and most considerable one, might be in a good measure avoid- ed, by means of a furnace of due construction." If the communication of a furnace with its chimney, instead of being over the fire, is made under the grate, the ash-pit door, or other apertures beneath the grate, closed, and the mouth of the furnace left open, the cur- rent of air, which otherwise would have entered beneath, enters now at the top, and passing down through the grate to the chimney, carries with it completely both the vapour of the fuel, and the fumes of such matters as are placed upon it. The back part of the furnace should be raised a little higher above the fire than the fore 'part, and an iron plate laid over it, that the air may enter on- ly at the front, where the workman stands, who will be thus effectually secured from the f lines, and from being incommoded by the heat, and at the same time have full liberty of introducing, inspecting, and removing, the work. If such a furnace is made of strong forged (not mill- ed) iron plate, it will be s iffiriently d irablc. The upper end of the chimney may reach above a foot and a half higher than the level of the fire; over this is to be placed a larger tube, leaving an interval,of an inch, or more, all round between it netimes a solution of blue vitriol is applied, with a camel's-hair pencil, to the parts ofthe steel intended to be gilt. By a chemical action, exactly similar to what we have described as taking place when a solution of nitrate of mercury is employed, a thin coat- ing of copper is precipitated on the metal. Copper hav- ing an a'iiuity for mercury, a kind of union may by this means be effected between the amalgam and the iron or steel, as the case may be. In whichever of these methods the amalgam is brought into union with the steel,the sur- face is injured by the action ofthe acid employed, and still a heat sufficient to volatilize the mercury must be afterwards used. Gilding of iron by heat. When the surface is polished bright, it m.ist be heated till it becomes blue. Gold leaf is then applied to its surface, and burnished down. It is then heated again, and another layer of gold burnished on it. Iu this manner three or four coats are given, accordingto the strength ofthe gilding intended. This is a more laborious process than the two last, but it is not attended with so much risk. Jin improved process for gilding iron or steel. This process, which is less known aiming artists than it de- serves to be, may prove useful to those who have occa- sion to gild iron or steel. The first part of the process consists in pouring over a solutiem of gold in nitro-muri- atic acid (aqua regia) about twice as much ether, which must be done with caution, and iu a large vessel. These liquids must then be shaken together; as soon as the mix- ture is at rest, the ether will be seen to separate itself from the nitre-muriatic acid, and to float on the surface. The nitro-iuuriatic arid becomes more transparent, and the other darker than they were before; the reason of which is, that the ether has taken the gold from the a id. The whole mixture is then to be poured into a glass funnel, the lower aperture of which is small; but this aperture must not be opened till the fluids have complete- ly separated themselves from each other. It is then to be opened; by which means the liqnid which has taken the lowest place by its greater gravity, viz. the nitro- muriatic arid, will run off: after which, the aperture is to be shut, and the funnel will then be found to contain nothing but ether mixed with the gold, which is to he put into well-closed hot-les, and preserved for use. In order to gild irein or steel, the metal must be first well polished with the finest emery, or rather with tbe finest crocus martis or colrofhar of vitriol, and common brandy, tho auriferous ether is then to be applied with a small brush; the ether soon evaporat s. aud the gold remains on the surface of the metal. The mrtal mey then be put into the fire, and afterwards polish d. By means of this auri- ferous ether, all kinds of figures mav be delioeated on iron, by employing a pen, or line brush. It is in this G I M G L A manner, we believe, that the Solilinger sabre-blades are gilded. Instead of ether, the essential oils maybe used, such as oil of turpentine, or oil of lavender, which will also take gold from its solution. Gilding of silver. Dissolve gold in the nitro-muriatic acid, and dip some linen rags in the solution; then burn them, and carefully preserve the ashes, which will be very black, and heavier than common. When any thing is to be gilded, it must be previously well burnished; a piece of cork is then to be dipped, first into a solution of salt in water, and afterwards into the black powder; and the piece, after being rubbed with it, must be bur- nished. The powder is frequently used for gilding deli- cate articles of silver. Gilding of brass and copper. Fine instruments of brass, in order that their surface may be kept longer clean, may be gilded in the following manner. Provide a saturated solution of gold, and having eva- porated it to the consistence of oil, suffer it to shoot into crystals. These crystals must then be dissolved in pure water, and the articles to be gilded being immersed in it, are then to be washed in pure water, and afterwards bur- nished. This process may be repeated several times, till the articles have been well gilt. A solution of gold crys- tals is preferred to a mere solution of gold, because in the latter there is always a portion of free acid, which will not fail to exercise more or less action on the surface ofthe brass or copper, and injure its polish. Grecian gilding. Dissolve some mercury in muriatic acid (spirit of salt), which will give a muriate of mercu- ry. Mix equal parts of this and sal ammoniac, and dis- solve them in aquafortis. Put some gold into this, and it will dissolve. When this is applied to silver, it becomes black; but by heating, it assumes the appearance of gilding. To make shell-gold. Grind up gold-leaf with honey in a mortar; then wash away the honey with water, and mix the gold powder with gum water. This may be ap- plied to any article with a camel's-hair pencil, in the same way as any other colour. GILT-HEAD. See Spabvs. GIMBALS, a contrivance by means of which baro- meters, vessels of oil, mariner's compasses, kc. may be suspended so as to arrange their upper parts horizon- tally. The nature of this contrivance will be at once understood by showing its application to a mariner's compass. It consists of a hoop or ring supported upon two pins diametrically opposite each other, and issuing from the external surface ofthe ring in such a direction that both lie in the same diametrical line. When the hoop is suspended on these pins, it is at liberty to turn freely about the diameter, of which they constitute the prolongation. The notches or holes of support are dis- posed horizontally. The compass-box itself is placed -in a similar ring with two projecting pivots; and these pi- vots are inserted in holes made in the former ring at equal distances from each of its pivots. If therefore the whole is left at liberty, the compass-box may vibrate upon the diametrical line of the outer ring, as well as opon a line formed by its own pivots, at right angles to that diametrical line. The consequence of this arrange- ment is, that the centre of gravity of the compass-box will dispose itself immediately beneath the intersection of both lines on which it is at liberty to move: that is, if the weight of the box and its component parts are pro- perly disposed, the compass will assume a position in which the surface shall be horizontal. GIN. Sec Distillation. Gin, in mechanics, a machine for driving piles, fitted with a windlass and winches at each end, where eight or nine men heave, and round which a rope is reeved, that goes over the wheel at the top: one end of this rope is seized to an iron monkey, that hooks to a beetle of different weights, according to the piles they are to drive, being from eight to thirteen hundred weight; and when hove up to a cross-piece near the wheel it unhooks the monkey, and lets the beetle fall on the upper end of the pile, and forces the same into the ground; then the monkey's own weight overhauls the windlass, in order for its being hooked again to the beetle. GINANN1A, a genus of the class and order ennean- dria monogynia. The calyx is double, both one leaved; petals three fringed and spreading; germ pedicclled, with a membranaceous wing at top. Legume. There is one species, a shrub of Guiana. GINKGO, or maidenhair-tree, of the dioecia class (order and character unknown), a large tree of Japan, with leaves resembling the adiantum, whence its popular name. GINORA, a genus of the dodecandria monogynia class and order. The calyx is six-clefted; petals six; capsules one-seeded, four-celled, four-valved, coloured, many seeds. There is one species, an elegant shrub of Cuba, bearing handsome large red flowers. GINGER. See Amomxjm. GINSENG. See Panax. GIRDERS, in architecture, some of the largest pieces of timber in a floor. By the building act, no girder is to lie less than 10 inches into the wall, and the ends to be laid in loam. GIRDING-GIRT, in the sea language. A ship is girt, or has a girding-girt, when her cable is so tight or strained, upon the turning of the tide, that she cannot get over it, but lies across the tide. GIRONNE', or Gironny, in heraldry, a coat of arms divided into girons or triangular figures, meeting in the centre ofthe shield, and alternately colour and metal. GISEKIA, a genus.of the class and order pentandria pentagynia. The calyx is five-leaved; corolla none; capsules five, approximating, roundish, one-seed. There is one species, an annual ofthe East Indies. GLABRASIA, a genus of the class and order polya* delphia polyandria. The calyx is five-deft; ncctariuin composed of bristles; stamina 30, always in sixes; peri- anthium a drupe. There is one species, a large tree of the East Indies. GLACIES MARLE. See Mica. GLACIS, in fortification, that mass of earth which serves as a parapet to the covered way, sloping easily towards the champaign or field. See Fortification. GLADIATORS, in antiquity, persons who fought generally in the arena at Rome, for the entertainment of the people. The gladiators were usually slaves, and fought out of necessity, though sometimes freemen made profession of G L A G L A it, like our prize fighters, for a livelihood. The Romans borrowed this cruel diversion from the Asiatics. They were all first sworn that they would fight till death; and if they failed they were put to death either by fire, swords, clubs, whips, kc It wis usual with the people or emp'Tor to grant them life when they showed no signs of fear. Augustus decreed that it should always be granted thein. After the engagement, several marks of favour were conferred on the victor, particularly a branch of palm- tree; and often a sum of money, perhaps gathered up among the spectators; but the most common rewards were the pileus and the rudis; the former being given only to such gladiators as were slaves, for a token of obtaining their freedom, but the rudis seems to have been bestowed both on slaves and freemen, with this difference, that it procured the former no more than a discharge from any further performance in public: the rudis, when given to such persons as, being free, had hired themselves out for these shows, restored them to a full enjoyment of their liberty. From slaves and freedinen, the wanton sport spread to persons of rank, as we find in Nero's time. And Domi- tian exhibited combats of women in the night-time. We also read that dwarfs encountered with one another. Constaiitine the Great first prohibited these combats in the East; but the practice was not entirely abolished in the West before Theodoric king of the Ostrogoths, in the year 500. The dying Glaoiator, is a most valuable monument of ancient sculpture, which is now preserved in the pa- lace of Chighi. This man, when he had received the mortal stroke, is particularly careful ut procumbat hon- estc, that he might fall honourably. He is seated in a reclining posture on the ground, and has just strength sufficient to support himself on his right arm; and in his expiring moments it is plainly seen that be does not abandon himself to grief and dejection, but is solicitous to maintain that firmness of aspect which the gladiators valued themselves on preserving in this seasem of dis- tress, and that attitude which they had .'learnt of the masters of defence. He fears not death, nor seems to betray any tokens of fear by his countenance, nor to shed ene tear. We see, in this instance, notwithstand- ing Irs remaining strength, that he has but a moment to live; and we view him with attention, that we may see him expire and fall. Thus the ancients knew how to animate marble, and to give it almost every expression of life. GLADIOLUS, cornflag, a genus of the monogynia order, in the triandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the sixth order, ensatse. The co- rolla is sexpartite and ringent, the stamina ascending and bending upwards. There are thirty species, of which the most generally known is the communis or common gladiolus. This has a round, compressed, tu- berous root, long sword-shaped leaves, an erect flower- stalk, two or three feet high, the top adorned with se- veral pretty hrge flowers of a red or white colour, having each six petals. They appear in May and June, and are succeeded by plenty of seed in August. The plants are very hardy, and will thrive in any soil or situation. They are propagated by offsets from the roots. The gladiolus cordinalis is a bulb of the Cape, exquisitely beautiful. GLAMA. See Camelus. GLAND. See Anatomy. GLANDERS. See Farriery. GLAREOLA, in ornithology, a genus of birds ofthe order of gralla;. The generic character is: bill strong, short, straight, hooked at tbe tip; nostrils at the base of the bill linear, oblique; gape of the mouth large; feet four-toed; toes long, slender, connected at the base/by a membrane; tail forked, consisting of 1-2 feathers. There are three species. The austriaca inhabits the heaths of Europe near the banks of rivers, is about nine inches long, feeds on worms and aquatic insects, is very restless and clamorous. See Plate LXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 214. The scncgallensis is found near the Senegal, and in se- veral parts of Siberia: and the naevia is to be met with only in Germany. GLASS, a transparent, brittle, factitious body, pro- duced by the action of tire upon a fixed salt and sand, or stone, that readily melts. The fixed alkalies have a strong affinity for several of the earths, particularly for silica and alumina, which they dissolve in considerable quantity, when assisted by heat. When a strong heat is applied to a mixture of fixed alkali and silica, it melts, and forms a transparent mass well known by the name of glass. The method of making this useful compound was known at an early period. According to Pliny, the dis- covery was owing to an accident. Some merchants, with a ship-load of soda from Egypt, had cast anchor at the mouth of the river Belus in Phoenicia, and were dress- ing their dinner on the sand. They made use of large lumps of soda to support their kettles, and lighted fires under them. The heat melted the soda and the siliceous sand together, and the result was glass. lor some time after this accidental discovery, the ma- nufacture of glass was confined te> the river Belus. This manufacture seems to have been carried to a consider- able degree of perfection among the ancients. They mention drinking-glasse-, glass prisms, aud coloured glasses of various kinds. But perfeclly transparent glass was considered as very valuable; fe»r Nero gave 50,000/. for two glass cups with handles; a proof that their processes must have been far less perfect than ours. It was usual for them to melt the materials of their glass into a black mass called ammonitrum, of which statues were sometimes made. This ammonitrum was again melted and purified by refiners. Glass panes seem to have been first used in windows in the third cent.irv; but they did not come into common use till long after. The materials employed in the manufactory of glass may be reduced under three classes, namely, alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides. The fixed alkalies may be employed indifferently: but soda is preferred iu this country. The soda of commerce is usually mixed with common salt, and coinbin d with carbonic acid. It is proper to purify it from both e»f these foreign bodies before using it. This, however, is seldom done. The earths are sTca, lime, and sometimes a little alu- mina. Silica constitutes the basis of gl.i s. It is em- ployed in the state of fine sand or Hints; and sometimes GLASS. for making very fine glass, rock crystal is employed. When sand is used, it ought if pe>ssible to be perfectly white; for when it is coloured with metallic oxides, the transparency of the- glass is injured. Such sand can only be employed for very coarse glasses. It is necessary to free the- sand from all the loose earthy particles with which it may be mixed, which is done by washing it well with water. liime renders glass less brittle, and enables it to with- stand better the action of the atmosphere. It ought in no case to exceed the twentieth part of the silica employ- ed, otherwise it corrodes the glass pots. This indeed mar he prevented by throwing a little (lay into the melted glass; but iu that case a green glass only is ob- tained. The metallic oxides employed are the red oxide of lead or litharge, and the white oxide of arsenic. The red oxide of lead, when added in sufficient quantity, en- ters into fusion with silica, and forms a glass without the addition of any other ingredient. Five parts of mi- nium and two of silica form a glass of an orange-colour and full of stria?, its specific gravity is 5. The red ox- ide of lead renders glass less brittle and more fusible; but when added beyond a certain proportion, it injures the transparency and the whiteness of glass. The white oxide of arsenic answers the same pur- poses with that of lead; but on account of its poisonous qualities it is seldom used. It is customary to add a lit- tle nitre to the white oxide of arsenic, to prevent, the heat from reviving it, and rendering it volatile. When added beyond a certain proportion, it renders glass opaque and milky like the dial-plate of a watch. When any com- bustible body is present, it is usual in some manufactures to add a little white oxide of arsenic. This supplying oxygen, the combustible is burnt, ai d flies off; while the revived arsenic is at the same time volatilized. After mixing the alkali and sand together, it is usual to expose them for some time to a moderate heat. This serves several purposes. It drives off all combustible bodies which may happen to be mixed with the sand; it produces a commencement of combustion which makes the glass afterwards less liable to corrode the clay pots in which it is melted; and the- alkali, by this incipient combination, is not so apt to be vol-.iilized, which might be the case if the materials were exposed at once to a violent heat. The mixture, after being thus heated, is called the frit. Through the domes in which the frit is heated, it is usual to see very thin bubbles of glass pass- ing: a proof that some of the materials are volatilized during this first part of the process. The frit, while still hot, is introduced into large pots made of a mixture of pure clay, and exposed to a heat sufiicient to melt it completely. The fusion must be con- tinued till the effervescence occasioned by the separation of the carbonic acid from the soda has subsided, and the opaque scum, known by the name of glass-gall, which collects on the surface of the glass, must be removed. This scum is occasioned by the common salt and other foreign bodies which are always mixed with the soda of commerce. When the fusion has been continued the proper time, the furnace is allowed to cool a little. In that state the glass is exceedingly ductile, and readily assumes any shape that the workmen pleases. If the glass vessels, after being formed, were cooled rapidly, they would contract unequally, and become in consequence so brittle as to fall to pieces whenever they were handled. To prevent this inconvenience, the^y are put into a large red-hot furnace, which is allowed to cool very slowly to the temperature of the air. This process is called annealing. The properties that distinguish good glass are well known. It is perfectly transparent; its hardness is very consitlerable; its specific gravity varies from 2.3 to 4, according to the proportion of metallic oxide which it contains. When cold it is brittle; but at a red heat it is one ofthe most ductile bodies known, and may be drawn out into threads so fine as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. (See Dictility.) It is almost perfectly elastic, and of course is one of the-most sonorous of bo- dies. There are but few chemical agents which have any action on it. Fluoric acid dissolves it with great rapi- dity, and so do the fixed alkalies when assisted by heat. Dr. Priestley has shown also, that the long-continued action of hot water is capable of decomposing it; a dis- covery which explains sufficiently the siliceous earth ob- tained by Boyle and Margraff, when they subjected water to tedious distillations in glass vessels. There are different kinds of glass manufactured for different purposes: Ihe principal of these are flint glass, crown glass, and bottle glass. Flint glass is formed of soda, pounded flints, and ox- ide of lead. It is the densest, most transparent, and most beautiful glass, and is often called crystal. Crown glass contains no lead. It is composed of soda and fine sand. This kind is used for the panes of windows. Bolt'e glass is the coarsest of all. It is composed of kelp, or the refuse of soap-boilers, and common sand. Its green colour is owing to the presence of iron. Of these species the most fusible is flint glass, and the least fusible bottle glass. According to the experiments of Saussure, flint glass melts at the temperature of-19° Wedge wood, crown glass at 30°, and bottle glass at 47°. Glass is often tinged of various colours by mixing with it while in fusion some one or other ofthe metallic oxides; and on this process, well conducted, depends the formation of pastes or factitious gems. Blue glass is formed by means of oxide of cobalt. Green, by the oxide of iron or of copper. Violet, by oxide of manganese. Red, by a mixture of the oxides of copper andiron. Purple, by the purple oxide of gold. White, by the oxide of arsenic and zinc. Yellow, by the oxide of silver and by combustible bo- dies. Opticians, who employ glass for optical instrumenfe often complain ofthe many defects under which it la- bours. The chief of these are the following: Streaks. These are waved lines, often visible in glass which interrupt distinct vision. They are probably ow- ing sometimes to want of complete fusion, which prevents the different materials from combining sufficiently; M in some cases also they may be produced by the work- men lifting up, at two different times, the glass which is to go to the formation of one vessel or instrument. Tears. These are white specks or knots, occasioned ty GLASS. the vitrified clay ofthe furnaces, or by the presence of some foreign salt. Bubbles. These are air bubbles which have not been allowed to escape. They indicate want of complete fu- sion, either from too little alkali, or the application of too little heat. Cords. These are asperities on the surface of the glass, in consequence of too little heat. Blowing of glass vessels. The furnace for this (fig. 5. Plate Manufacture of Glass) has several mouths, accord- ing to the number of workmen. Each mouth consists of three holes, ABl): D is a hole through which the work- man takes bis metal from the melting-pot; A is the hole at which he afterwards heats his metal; and B is a small hole at which he heats the ends of his blowing-pipe and iron rods aa, which are supported by an iron bar across the niouih of the furnace. The furnace is built ,of fire- bricks, and has three domed chambers, one above ano- ther, within it; the fire is made upon a large grate in the middle of the lower one, to which the air is admitted by an arch under ground; the flame goes through an open- ing in the dome of tbis chamber, and strikes against the top of tbe next chamber, and is thereby reverberated upon the pots, which stand upon the floor, just within the hole D; the smoke goes through the floor and roof of the next chamber, which is used as an annealing oven. This furnace is inclosed within a large building, like an inverted funnel, with a chimney at the top. The principal implements used by the glass-blower are, a blowing-pipe, fig. 1, which is an iron pipe about two feet long, with rope-yarn wrapped round it at A, where the workman takes hold of it; two or three iron rods, fig. 2, of the same length; a pair of blunt shears, fig. 3; and several different sized ladles, shovels, pokers, kc He has also two stools, figs. 6 and 7, to be hereaf- ter described. For explaining the operation, we shall describe the method of making a goblet. The workman dips the end D of his blowing-pipe, fig. 1, which is hot, through the hole D, fig. 5, into the melting-pot, which contains the glass in a state of fusion; and by turning it about, a small quantity of the glass, which is called metal, sticks to the iron: this he repeats three or four times (between each dip rolling it on an iron plate, fixed on the stool, fig. 7, to bring it into form) till he has got metal enough: he then blows at the end B of the pipe, which expands the metal into ahollow globular form; and then by swing- ing it round his head, it lengthens out in the shape of a bladder. The workman then sits down on the stool, fig. ci. between the two bars 11 and I, across which he lays the blowing-iron, and rolls it along under his left hand, following it at the same time with the shears, fig. 3, in his right hand, the Wades nn of which embrace it, and by gently putting them in the proper place, he brings the glass into the form shown in fig. 10; meanwhile, the boy who attends him brings a lump of metal from the furnace on the end of one of the iron rods fig. 2, which he sticks on the bottom, or part«, fig. 10, and by twisting the rod round, he separates the metal from the rod, and leaves it on the glass vessel; the workman then rolls the rod and vessel as before, and with his shears, as shown in fig. 9, brings the lumps of glass into the form of a stem and foot, as there described. The boy then holds the VOL. II. 37 tool, fig. 4, against the bottom ofthe foot b, while it is turning, to flatten it. The boy next takes another iron rod, fig. 2, and gets a very small piece of metal on its end: this he applies to the centre of the bottom of the foot, so as to connect it to the rod; when the workman, by touching it at the neck d with a wet iron, crac ks the glass, so that a slight blow upon the rod with the hand will separate it at d, from the blowing-pipe M. Tho glass has by this time become too cold to work without heating again, which is done before the fire A, fig. 5; the workman then returns to the stool, fig. 6, and again rolls the rod round with his left hand as before, and with the point of one of the blades n of the shears opens the end d, fig. 8, of the glass; after which he inserts both points, and finally works it into the form of fig. 13. It is now separated from the rod N, and is carried on a shovel like a baker's peel by the boy to the annealing furnace, where it remains in a low red-heat for many hours, by wiiich its former extreme brittleness is re- moved. Window-glass is made in a similar manner, except that the liquid mass at the end of the tube is formed into a cylindrical shape, which being cut longitudinally by scissars or shears, is gradually bent back until it be- comes a flat plate. Large plate-glass for looking-glasses, &c. is made by suffering the mass in a state of complete fusion to flow upon a table, with iron ledges to confine the melted mat- ter, and as it cools a metallic roller is passed over it, to reduce it to an uniform thickness. Good glass ware is often ornamented by the glass- cutter before it is offered for sale (see fig. 12); this is generally performed by a machine, fig. 14, wherein A A is a large wheel to be turned by a man at the wrinch B. The band of this wheel passes round a pulley a on the axle of a wheel or cutter C, and thereby turns it w ith a great velocity: beneath the cutter a cistern D is placed, and above it a small cask E to contain water, the cock b of which is so placed and adjusted as to drop very slowly on the circumference of the cutter. The glass- grinder sits down on the stool F, and after dressing the edge of the cutter with emery paste, he applies succes- sively the parts of the glass which are to be cut, as shown in fig. 11, and dexterously moves the glass, as the parts intended to be cut are sufficiently ground away: after this another similar cutter is applied instead of C, or the same is dressed with finer emery paste, or mixture of tripoli and other polishing powders, in order to polish the parts which have been cut; such parts as are intended to have a white appearance are left rough. The cutters c are formed of hard wood or soft metal, and the workman is provided with several, of different sizes and thicknesses, particularly at the edge, according to the device which is to be cut on the glass. It is by the fine edge of these cutters that letters, flowers, kc are cut on glasses by dexterous workmen. Glass, painting on. A few years since, Mr. Farrant obtained a patent for painting, spangling, gilding, and silvering glass, which was performed on the back of the crystal or glass, so as when finished to appear on the front; the colours prepared in oil or varnish as in other works. The parts of ornament which are gold must be first shadowed on the glass, and when dryUic gold leaf GLASS. must be. laid on. Silver ornament is to be done in the same manner. For the spangling, leave the parts to be spangled to the last; then shadow them, and when dry varnish the parts with copal varnish, and strew the spangles on while it is wet; when they are dry, varnish them two or three times. The ancient manner of painting iu glass was very sim- ple, and consequently very easy: it consisted in the mere arrangement of pieces of glass of different colours in some sort of symmetry, and constituted what is now called mosaic work. In process of time they came to attempt more regular designs, and also to represent figures heightened with all their shades: yet they proceeded no farther than the contours of the figures in black with water colours, and batching the draperies after the same manner on glasses of the colour of the object they designed to paint. For the carnation, they used glass of a bright-reel colour, and upon this theyr drew the principal lineaments of the face, kc. with black. But in time, the taste for this sort of painting, im- proving considerably, and the art being found applicable to the adorning of churches, kc. they found out means of incorporating the colours in the glass itself, by heating them inthe fire to a proper degree, having first laid on the colours. The colours used in painting or staining of glass arc very different from those used in painting either in water or oil colours. For black, take scales of iron one ounce, scales of cop- per one ounce, jet half an ounce; reduce them to powder, and mix them. For blue, take powder of blue one pound, sal nitre half a pound; mix them, and grind thein well together. For carnation, take red chalk eight ounces, iron scales and litharge of silver of each two ounces, gum ara- ble half an ounce; dissolve in water; grind all together for half an hour as stiff as you can; then put it in a glass and stir it well, and let it stand to settle 14 days. For green, take red lead one pound, scales of copper one pound, and flint five pounds; divide them into three parts, and add to them as much nitre; put them into a crucible and melt them with a strong fire; and when it is cold, powder it, and grind it to a porphyry. For gedd colour, take silver an ounce, antimony half an ounce; melt them in a crucible; then pound the mass to powder, and grind it on a copper plate; add to it yellow ochre, or brick- dust calcined again, 15 ounces, and grind them well to- gether with water. For purple, take minium one pound, brown stone one pound, white flint five pounds; divide them into three parts, and add to them as much nitre as one of these parts; calcine, melt, and grind it as you did the green. For red, take jet four ounces, litharge of silver two ounces, red chalk one ounce; powder them fine and mix them. For white, take jet two parts, white flint, ground on a glass very fine, one part, mix them. For yellow, take Spanish brown ten parts, leaf silver one part, antimony half apart; put all into a crucible, and calcine them well. In the windows of ancient churches. &.c. there are to be seen the most beautiful and vivid colours imaginable, which far exceed any of those used by the moderns, not so much because the secret of making those colours is entirely lost, as that the moderns will not go to the charge cf them, nor be at the necessary pains. Those beautiful 2 works which were made in the glass-houses were of two kinds. In some, the colour was diffused through the whole substance of the glass. In others, which were the more common, the colour was only on one side, scarcely pene- trating within the substance above one third of a line- though this was more or less according to the nature of the colour, the yellow being always found to enter the deepest. These last, though not so strong and beautiful as the former, were of more advantag-to the workmen, since on the same glass, though already coloured, they could she;\v other kind of colours where there was occa- sion to embroider draperies, cnricti them with foliage, or represent other ornaments of gold, silver, &c. In order to this, they made use of emery, grinding or wearing down the surface e/f the glass, till they were got through the colour to the clear glass. This clone, thev applied the proper colours on the other side of the glass. By this means, the new colours were hindered from run- ning and mixing with the former, when they exposed the glasses to the fire, as will appear hereafter. When, indeed, the ornaments were to appear white the glass was only bared of its colour with emery, with- out tinging the place with any colour at all; and this'was the manner by which they wrought their lights and heigh- ten ings on all kinds of colour. The first thing to be done in order to paint or stain glass in the modern way, is to design and even colour the whole subject on paper. They then choose such pieces of glass as are clear, even, anil smooth, and proper to receive the several parts, and proceed to distribute the design itself, or papers it is drawn on, into pieces suitable to those ofthe glass; always taking care thatthe glasses may join in the contours of the figures and the folds of the draperies; that the carnations and other finer parts may not be impaired by the lead with which the pieces are to be joined together. The distribution being made, they mark all the glasses as well as papers, that they may be known again; which done, applving every part ofthe design upon the glass intended for it, they copy or transfer the design upon this glass with the black colour diluted in gum water, by tracing and following all the lines and strokes as they appear tlirough the glass with the point of a pencil. When these strokes are well dried, which will happen in about two days, the work being only in black and white, they give a slight wash over' with urine, gumara- bic, and a little black, and repeat it several times, accord- ing as the shades are desired to be heightened, with this precaution never to apply a new wash' till the former is sufficiently dried. This done, the lights and risings are given bv rubbing off the colour in the places with a wooden point, or the handle ofthe pencil. As to the other colours above-mentioned, they are used with gum-water, much as in painting iu miniature, taking care to apply them lightly for fear of effacing the out- lines of the design; or even, for the greater security, to apply them on the other side; especially yellow, which is very pernicious to the other colours, by blending with them. And here too, as in pieces of biack and White, particular regard must always be had not to lay colour GLA G L A ou colour, or lay on a new lay till such lime as the former are well dried. It may be added, that the yellow is the only colour that penetrates through the glass, and incorporates with it by the fire; the rest, and particularly the blue, which Is very difficult to use, remaining on the surface, or at least entering very little. When the painting eif all the pieces is finished, they are carried to the furnace or oven, to anneal or bake the colours. The furnace here used is small, built of brick, from 18 to 30 inches square; at six inches from the bottom is an aperture to put in tbe fuel, and maintain the fire. Over this aperture is a grate, made of three square bars of iron, which traverse the furnace, and divide it into two parts. Two inches above this partition is another little aperture, through which they take out pieces to examine how the coctiou goes forward. On the grate is placed a square earthen pan, six or seven inches deep, and five or six in- ches less every way than the perimeter of the furnace. On the one side is a little aperture, through which to make trials, placed directly opposite to that of the furnaces destined for the same end. In this pan are the pieces of glass to be placed in the following manner: First, the bot- tom of the pan is covered with three strata or layers, of quick lime pulverized; those strata being separated by two others of old broken glass, the design of which is to secure the painted glass from the too intense heat ofthe fire. This done, the glasses are laid horizontally on the last or uppermost layer of lime. The first row of glass they cover over with a layer of the same powder, an inch deep; and over this they lay another range of glasses, aud thus alternately till the pan is quite full, taking care that the whole heap always end with a layer of the lime-powder. The pan being thus prepared, they cover up the furnace' with tiles, on a square table of earthenware, closely luted all round, only leaving five little apertures, one at each corner, and another in the middle, to serve as chimneys. Things thus disposed, there remains no- thing but to give the fire to the work. The fire for the first two hours must be very moderate, and must be in- creased iu proportion as the coction advances, for the space e»f ten or twelve hours, in Which time it is usually completed. At last the fire, which at first was charcoal, is to be of dry wood, so that the flame covers tiie whole pan, and even issues out at the chimneys. During the last hours, they make essays, from time to time, by taking out pieces laid for the purpose through the little aperture ofthe furnace and pan, to see whether the yellow is perfect, and the other colours in good order. When the annealing is thought sufficient, they proceed with great haste to extinguish the fire, which otherwise would soon burn the colours, and break the glasses. By several statutes, regulations are made for making, importing, and exporting glass, which is to be under the management of the officers of the customs and excise. See Complete Abridgement ofthe Excise Laws. GLAUBEIt's salt, a cathartic or purging salt. See Son*, sulpfiat of. OLAUCOPIS, in ornithology, a genus of birds ofthe order picse. Bill incurvate, arched, the lower mandible shorter, and carunculate beneath at the base, nostrils de- pressed, half-covered with a membrane; tongue slit, and fringed at the ;ip; ice; walkers. It inhabits Sew Zea- land. GLAUX, milkwort, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 17th order, calycantheimc. The calyx is monophyllous; there is no coroila; the capsula is unilocular, quinquevalved, and pentaspennous. There is one species. GLAZIER, an artificer who works in g'as>. The principal part of a glazier's business consists in fitting panes of glass to the sashes and window-frames of houses, pictures, kc and in cleaning the same when required. Glazier's vice, is an instrument for drawing lead: see Plate LXVI. .Miscel. fig. 103. PG, QH, arctwoaxles running in the frame KL, ML; C, D, two wheels of iron case-hardened, 11 inch broad, and of the thickness of a pane of glass; these wheels are fixed to the axles, and run very near one another, their distance not exceeding one-tenth of an inch: across their edges several nicks are cut, the better to draw the lead through. E, F, are two pinions, each of twelve leaves, turning one another and going upon the ends of the axles, which are square, being kept fast there by the nuts P, Q, which are screwed fast with a key. A, B, are two cheeks of iron, case-hardened, and fixed on each side to the case with screws; these are cut with an opening near the two wheels, and set so near to the wheels as to leave a space equal to the thickness oi the lead; so that between the wheels and the cheeks there is left a hole ofthe form represented at N, which is the shape of the lead when cut through. The frame KLML is held together by cross bars passing tlirough the sides, and screwed on; and a cover is put over the machine to exclude the dust. The whole is screwed down fast to a bench by screw-nails LL. When the vice is used, the lead to be drawn is first cast iu moulds, into pieces afoot long, with a gutter on each side. One of these pieces is taken, and an end of it sharpened with a knife; then being put into the hole between the wheels, by turning the handle I the lead is drawn througli the vice, and re- ceives the form designed. GLAZING, the crusting over earthen-ware by a vit- reous substance, the basis of which is commonly lead. The usual composition for glazing ware is formed of white sand 40 pounds, of red-lead 20 pounds, of pearl- ashes 20 pounds, and of common salt 12 pounds. Powder the sand by grinding it, and then add it to the other in- gredients, and grind them together; after which calcine them for seiine time with a moderate heat, and when the mixture is cold, reduce it to powder, and when wanted for use temper it with water. The proportion of these ingredients may be occasionally varied. The ware, after being turned on the wheel and dried in the open air, is covered over with the above e (imposition by means ol a brush; and when set in the furnace, the violent heat soon reduces it to a perfect glass, covering the whole internal and external surface of the vessel. We may observe, however, that lead, being poisonous, ought to be exclud- ed from the composition of glazings, and other fluxes substituted in its stead. A transparent glazing may be prepared without lead by calcining 40 pounds of white sand, 25 pounds of pearl-ashes, and 15 pounds of com- mon salt, and proceeding as before: and a more perfect transparent glazing may be made of sand 40 pounds, of GLAZING. wood-ashes perfectly burned 50 pounds, of pearl-ashes 10 pounds, and of common salt 12 pounds. The follow- ing receipts are taken for the most part from Kunckel, who says that they are the true glazings used at Delft and other Dutch manufactories. Black is made of eight parts of red-lead, iron-filings three, copper-ashes three, and zaffer two measures. This when melted will make a brown-black, and if wanted blacker, add more zaffer to it. Blue is thus prepared: Take lead-ashes or red-lead one pound; clear sand or powdered flints two pounds, common salttwo pounds, white calcined tartar one pound, Venice or other glass half a pound, zaffer half a pound; mix them and melt them for several times, quenching them al- ways in cold water. If you would have it fine and good, it will be- proper to put the mixture into a glass furnace for a day or two. Another blue glazing may be formed of one pound of tartar, a quarter of a pound of red-lead, half an ounce of zaffer, and a quarter of a pound of powdered flints, which are to be fused and managed as in the last receipt. Or, take two pounds of calcined lead and tin, add five pounds of common salt, five pounds of powdered flints, and of zaffer, tartar, and Venetian glass, each one pound. Calcine and fuse the mixture as before. Or a- gain, take of red-lead one part, of sand three parts, and of zaffer one part. For a violet-blue glazing, take four ounces of tartar, two ounces of red-lead, five ounces of powdered flints, and half a dram of manganese. Brown is made of red-lead and flints, of each 14 parts, and of manganese two parts fused, or of red-lead 12 parts, and manganese one part fused. A brown glazing, to be laid on a white ground, may be made of manganese two parts, and of red-lead and white glass, of each one part, twice fused. Flesh-coloured is made of 12 parts of lead-ashes, and one of white glass. Gold-coloured. Take of litharge three parts, of sand or calcined flint one part; pound and mix these very well together, then run them into a yellow glass with a strong fire. Pound this glass, and grind it into a subtile pow- der, which moisten with a well-saturated solution of sil- ver; make it into a paste, which put into a crucible, and cover it with a cover. Give at first a gentle degree of fire; then increase it, and continue it till you have a glass, which will be green. Pound this glass again, and grind it to a fine powder; moisten this powder with some beer, so that by means of a hair-pencil you may apply it upon the vessels or any piece of earthenware. The vessels that are painted or covered over with this glazing must be first well heated, then put under a muffle; and as soon as the glass runs, you must smoke them by holding them over burning vegetables, and take out the vessels. Kunckel gives several preparations for a gold-coloured yellow glazing. This may be produced by fusing a mix- ture of three parts of red-lead, two parts of antimony, and one part of saffron of Mars; by again melting the powdered mass, and repeating the operation four times, or by fusing four or five times a composition of reel-lead and antimony, of each an ounce, and of scales of iron half an ounce; or by calcining and fusing together eight parts of red-lead, six parts of flint, one part of yellow ochre, one part of antimony, and one part of white glass. A trans- parent gold-coloured glazing may be obtained by twice fusing red-lead and white flints, of each 12 parts, and of filings of iron one part. Green may -be prepared of eight parts of litharge or red-lead, eight parts of Venice glass, four parts of brass- dust or filings of copper; or of ten parts of litharge, twelve of flint or pebble, and one of ses ustum or copper ashes. A fine green glazing may be produced by fiisingone part ofthe Bohemian granite, one of filings of copper, one of red-lead, and one of Venetian glass; or by fusing one part of white glass, the same quantity of red-lead, and also of filings of copper; powdering the mass, and adding one part of Bohemian granite to two parts of this powder. A fine green may be obtained by mixing and grinding to- gether any of the yellow glazings with equal quantities ofthe blue glazings; and all the shades and tints of green will be had by varying the proportion e>f the one to the other, and by the choice of the kind of yellow and blue. Sea-green is made of five pounds of lead-ashes, one pound of tin-ashes, three pounds of flint, three quarters of a pound of salt, half a pound of tartar, and half a pound of copper-dust. Iron-colour is prepared of 15 parts of lead ashes or red-lead, 14 of white sand or flints, and five of calcined copper. This mixture is to be calcined and fused. Liver-colour is prepared of 12 parts of litharge, eight of salt, six of pebble or flint, and one of manganese. Purple brown consists of lead-ashes 15 parts, clean sand or powdered flints 18 parts, manganese one part, and white glass 15 measures, to which some add one mea- sure of zaffer. Red is made of antimony three pounds, litharge or red- lead three, and rust of iron one; grind them to a fine powder. Or, take two pounds of antimony, three of red- lead, and one of calcined saffron of Mars, and proceed as before. White. The white glazing for common ware is made of 40 pounds of clear sand, 75 pounds of litharge or lead- ashes, 26 of pot-ashes, and 10 pounds of salt; these are three times melted in a cake, quenching it each time in clear cold water. Or it may be made of 50 pounds of clean sand, 70 of lead-ashes, 30 of wood-ashes, and 12 of salt. For a fine white, take two pounds of lead and one of tin; calcine them to ashes: of this take two parts; calcined flint, white sand, or broken white glass, one part; and salt, one part; mix them well together, and melt them into a cake for use. The trouble of calcining the tin and lead may be prevented by procuring them in a proper state. A very fine white glazing may be obtained by calcining two parts of lead and one part of tin, and taking one part of this mass, and of flints and common salt of each one part, and fusing the mixture. A white glazing may be also prepared by mixing 100 pounds of masticot, 60 of red-lead, 20 of calcined tin or putty, and 10 of common salt, and calcining and powdering the mixture several times. Yellow is prepared of red-lead three pounds, calcined antimony and tin of each two pounds; or, according to some, of equal quantities of the three ingredients. These must he melted into a cake, then ground fine, and this operation repeated several times; or it may be made of 15 parts of lead-ore, three parts of litharge ofsilver,and 15 parts of sand. A fine yellow glazing may be procured by mixing five parts of red-lead, two parts of powdered G L E brick, one part of sand, one part of the white glazings, and two parts of antimony, calcining the mixture and then fusing it. Or, take four parts of white glass, one part of antimony, three parts of red-lead, and one part of iron-scales, and fuse the mixture; en- fuse- 16 parts of flints, one part of iron-filings, and 24 parts of litharge. A light-yellow glazing may be produced with ten parts of red-lead, three parts of antimony, and three of glass, and two parts of calcined tin (sec gold colour above). A citron yellow is made of six parts of red-lead, seven parts of fine red brickdust, and two parts of antimony. This mixture must be calcined day and night for the space of four days, in the ash-hole of a glass-house furnace, and at last urged to fusion. See Stone Ware. GLEANING. It has been said, that by the common law and custom of England the poor are allowed to enter and glean upon another's ground after the harvest, with- out being guilty of trespass; and this humane provision seems borrowed from the Mosaical law. 3 Black. 212. But it is now positively settled, by a solemn judgment ofthe court of common pleas, that a right to glean in the harvest-field cannot be claimed by any person at common law; neither have the poor of a parish, legally settled, such a right. HI. Black. Rep. 51—63. GLEBE. Glebe land is a portion of land, meadow, or pasture, belonging to, or pareel of, the parsonage or vi- carage, over and above the tithes. Godolph. Rep. 409. Glebe lands, in the hands ofthe parson, shall not pay tithes to the vicar, nor being in the hands e>f the vie ar, shall they pay tithe to the parson. Deggs, Pars. Couns. c.2. By stat. 28 H. VIII. c. 11, every successor on a month's warning, after induction, shall have the man- sion-house and the glebe belonging thereto, not sown at the time ofthe predecessor's death. He that is instituted may enter into the glebe land before induction, and plead right against all strangers. When a parson or vicar has caused any of his glebe lands to be manured and sown, at his own charge, with corn or grain, he may by will devise all the profits and corn growing upon the said glebe; and in case he dies without disposing thereof, his executors shall have the same. GLECIIOMA, ground-ivy. a genus of the gymnos- permia order, in the didy namia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 42d order, verti- cillatse. Each pair ofthe anther® come together in the form of a cross: the calyx is quinquefid. There is one species, the hedcracea, or common ground-ivy, which is so well known that it requires no description. Many virtues were formerly attributed to this plant, which it is now found not to be possessed of. Some however it has. The leaves are thrown into the vat with ale, to cla- rify it and give it a flavour. Ale thus prepared is often drunk as an antiscorbutic. The expressed juice, mixed with a little wine, and applied morning and evening, is said to destroy specks up >n horses' eyes. The plants that grow near it do not flourish. It is said to be hurtful to horses if they eat much of it. Sheep eat it; horses are not fond of it: cows, goats, and swine, refuse it. GLEDITSIA, triplt-thorned acacia, or honey-locust, a G L L genus of the ditecia order, in the polygamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 33d order, lomentacese. The hermaphrodite calyx is quadri- fiel the corolla letrapetalotis. the stamina six, one pistil and legumen. The- male calyx is triphy llous; the corolla tripetalous. with six stamina. The female calyx is pen- taphy llous; thje corolla pentapetalous, one pistil and le- gumen. There is one species. The triacanthos, a native of Virginia and Pennsylvania, is of an upright growth, and its trunk is guarded by thorns of three or four inches in length in a remarkable manner. These thorns have also others coming out of their sides at nearly right an- gles: their colour is red. The branches are smooth, and of a white colour. These are likewise armed with red thorns, that are proportionably smaller: they are of se- veral directions, and at the ends of the branches often stand single. The young shoots of the preceding summer are perfectly smooth, of a reddish green, and retain their leaves often until the middle of November. Although there is a peculiar oddity in the nature and position of the spines, yet the leaves constitute the greatest beauty of these trees: they are doubly pinnated, and of a de- lightful shining green. The pinnated leaves that form the duplication do not always stand opposite by pairs on the middle rib; the pinna; of which they are composed are small and numerous, unless than 10 or 11 pair be- long to each of them; and as no less than four or five pair of small leaves are arranged along the middle rib, the whole compound leaf consists often of more than 200 pinna; of this tine green colour. They sit close, and spread open in fine weather; though during bad weather they will droop, and their upper surfaces nearly join, as if in a sleeping state. The flowers are produced from the sides of the young branches in July: they are a greenish catkin, and make little show; though many are succeeded by pods that have a wonderful effect; for these are exceedingly large, more than a foot, sometimes a foot and a half in length, and two inches in breadth, and of a nut-brown colour when ripe. s> that the effect, when hanging on the sides ofthe branches, may easily be ima- gined. The s-.-cd should he sown in a well-sheltered warm border of light sanely earth. If no border is to be found that is naturally so, it may be improved by apply- ing drift sand, and making it line. The seeds should be sown about half an inch deep, and tliey will f.-rthe most part come up the first spring. If the summer sh-mld prove dry, they must be constantly watered; and if shade could be afforded them in the heat of the day. they would make stronger plants by the autumn. A careful attention to this article is peculiarly requisite; fe>r, as the ends of the branches are often killed, if the young plant has not made some progress, it will be liable to be wholly de- stroyed by the winter's frest. without protection: and this renders the sowing the seeds in a warm border under a hedge in a well-sheltered place necessary; for there these shrubs will endure the winters even When seed- lings, and so will require no farther trouble; nay, though the tops should be nipped, they will shoot out again lower, and will soon overcome it. It will be proper to let them remain two years in the seed-bed before they are planted out in the nursery. The spring is the best time for the work. These trees are late in the spring before G L O G L 0 they exhibit their leaves, but keep shooting long in the autumn. GLIM S, a genus of the pentagynia order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking i nd' r the 22d order, caryophylkei. The calyx is pnt;iphyll"i!s; there is no corolla; the nectarium is composed of bifid bristles; the capsule is quiuquaugular, quinquelocular, quinquevalvcd, and polyspermous. There are three species, herbs of Arabia and the south of Eu- rope. GLIRES, the name given by Linna?us to the fourth order of tiie mammalia, the character of which is, fore- teeth cutting, two in each jaw; no tusks; feet with claws formed for running and bounding; food, bark, roots, ve- getables, kc. which they gnaw. The order includes ten genera, viz. the hystrix. cavia, castor, mus, arctomys, sciurus, myoxes, dipus, lepus, and hyrax. GLSSTER, in surgery, the same with clyster. GLOB I'A, a genus of the monogynia order, in the monandria class of plants. The corolla is equal and tri- fid, the calyx trifid above, the capsule trilocular, with many seeds. There are four species, herbs of the East Indies. GLOBE, in geometry, a round or spherical body, more usually called a sphere. See Sphere. Globe is more particularly used for an artificial sphere of metal, plaister, paper, or other matter, on whose convex surface is drawn a map or representation either of the earth or heavens, with the several circles conceived thereon. Globes are of two kinds, terrestrial and celestial; each of very considerable use, the one in astronomy, and the other in geography, for performing many of the opera- tions in an easy obvious manner, so as to be conceived without any knowledge of the mathematical grounds of those arts. The fundamental parts, common to both globes, are an axis, representing that of the world, and a spherical shell or cover; which makes the body of the globe, on the external surface of which the representa- tion is drawn. The globes commonly used are composed of plaister and paper in the following manner. A wooden axis is provided, somewhat less than the intended diameter of the globe, and into the extremes two iron wires arc driven for poles: this axis is to be the beam or basis of the whole structure. On the axis are applied two spherical or rather hemispherical caps, formed on a kind of wooden mould or block. These caps consist of pasteboard or papcr,l aid one lay after another on the mould, to the thickness of a crown-piece; alter which, having stood to dry and embody, making an incision along the middle, the two caps thus parted are slipped off the mould. They remain now to be applied on the poles of the axis, as before they were on those ofthe mould; and to fix them in their new place, the two edges arc sewed together with packthread, &c. The rudiments of the globe thus laid, they proceed to strengthen and make it smooth and regular. In order to this, the two poles arc hasped in a metalline semicircle of the size intended; and a kind of plaister made of whiting, water, and glue, heated, melted, and incorporated to- gether, is daubed all over the paper surface. In propor- tion as the plaster is applied, the ball is turned round in the semicircle, the edge of which pares off whatever is superfluous, and beyond the due dimension* leaving the rest adhering in places that are short e>f it. After such application of plaister, the ball stands to dry; which done it is put again in the semicircle, and fresh matter applied: thus they continue alternately to apply tho composition and dry it, till the ball every where accu- rately touches the semicircle; in which state it is perfectly smooth^ regular, and complete." The ball thus finished, it remains to paste the map or description on it. In order to this, the map is projected in several gores or gussets, all which join accurately on the spherical surface, and cover the whole ball. To di- rect the application of these gores, lines are drawn by a semicircle on the surface of the ball, dividing it into a nam her of equal parts corresponding to those of the gores, and sub-dividing those again answerably to the lines and divisions ofthe gores. The papers thus pasted on, there remains nothing but to colour and illuminate the globe, and to varnish it, tiie better to resist dust, moisture, the west part of the horizon, and the index will show the time of its setting for the given day. 9. To find the length of any given day or night. This is easily known by taking the number of hours between the rising and setting of the sun for the length of the day; and the residue to 24, for the length ofthe night. 10. To find tiie hour of the day, having the sun's alti- tude given. Bring the sun's place to the meridian, and set the hour-hand to xii; then turn the globe iu such a manner, that the sun's place may move along by the quadrant of altitude (lixed in the zenith) till it touches the de\grec ofthe given altitude, where stop it, and the index will shiw on the horary circle the hour required. 11. To find the place ofthe moon, or any planet, for any given day. Take White's Ephemeris, Nautical Alman- ac, and against the given day of the month you will find the degree and minute of the sign which the moon or planet possesses at noon, under the title of geocentric motions. The degree thus found being marked in the ecliptic on the globe by a small notch or otherwise, you may then proce «ri to find the declination, right ascension, latitude, longitude, altitude, azimuth, rising, southing, setting, kc. in the same manner as has been shown for the sun. 12. To explain the pheenomena of tiie harvest moon. In order to this we need only consider, that when the sun is in the beginning of Aries, the full moon on that day must be in the beginning of Libra: and since, w hen the sun sets or moon rises on that day, those equinoctial points will be in the horizon, and the ecliptic will then be least of all inclined thereto, the part or arch which the moon describes in one day, viz. 13°, will take up about an Imur and a quarter ascending above the horizon; and, therefore, so long will he the time after sunset, tie- next night, before the moon will rise. But at the opposite time ofthe year, when the sun is inthe autumnal and the full moon in the vernal, equinox, the ecliptic will, when the sun is setting, have the greatest inclination to the hori- zon; and, therefore, 13° will in this case soon ascend, viz in about a quarter of an hour; and so long after sun- set will the moon rise the next day after the full: whence at this time of the year, there is much more mooilight than iu the spring; aud henee this autumnal full moon came to be called the harvest moon, the hunt -r'sor shep- herd's moon; all which may be clearly shown on tiie globe. GLOBE. 13. To represent the face of the si arry firmamentfor any given hour of the night. Rectify the globe, and turn it about till tie index points to the given hour; then will all the upper hemisphere of ihe globe represent the visible half ofthe heavens, and all the stars on the globe will be in such situations as to correspond to those in the hea- vens, which may therefore be easily found, as will be shown in the. 16th problem. 14. To jind the hour when any known star will rise, or come upon the meridian. Rectify the globe, and set the imlex to xii; then turn the globe till the star comes to the horizon or meridian, and the index will show the hour required. 15. To find at what time of the year any given star will be on the meridian at xii at night. Bring the star to the meridian, and observe what degree of the ecliptic is on the north meridian under the horizon; then find in the calendar on the horizon the day of the year against that degree, and it will be the day required. 16. To find any particular star. First fin*'its altitude in the heavens by a quadrant, and the point of the com- pass it hears on; then, the globe being rectified, and the index turned to the given hour, if the quadrant of altitude is fixed on the zenith, and laid towards the point of the compass on which the star was observed, the star requir- ed will be found at the same degree of altitude on the said quadrant, as it was by observation in the heavens. PROBLEMS ON THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. 1. To find the latitude of any place. Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and observe what degree it is under, for that is the latitude required. 2. To rectify the globe for any given place. Raise the pole so many degress above the horizon as are equal to the latitude of the place; then, finding the sun's place, bring it to the meridian, and proceed as directed in pro- blem 1. on the celestial globe. 3. To find the longitude of a given piice. Bring the place to the brazen meridian, and observe the degree of the equator under the same, for that expresses the longi- tude required. 4. To find any place by the latitude and longitude given. Bring tbe given degree of longitude to the meridian, and under the given degree -of latitude you will see the place ^required. Ik 5. To find all those places which have the same latitude or Wvgitude with those of any given place. Bring the given jmce to the meridian; then all the»sc places which lie littler the meridian have the same longitude: again, turn thek globe round on its axis; then all those places which pass under the same degree of the meridian with any given place have the same latitude with it, 6. To find all those places where it is noon at any given hour of the day in any place. Bring the given place to the meridian, set the index to the given hour; then turn the globe till the said index points to the upper xii, and observe what places lie under the brass meridian; for to them it is noon at that time. 7. When it is noon at any one place, to find what hour it is at any other given place. Bring the first given place to the meridian, and set the index to the upper xii; then turn the globe till tbe other given place comes to the meridian, and the index will point to the hour required. 8. For any green hour ofthe day in the place where you are, to find the hour of the day in cny other place. Bring the place where you arc m» the meridian, set the Index to the given hour, then turn the globe about; and when the other place comes to the meridian, the index will show the hour ofthe day there as required. 9. To find the distance between any two places in English miles. Bring one place to the meridian, over which fix the quadrant of altitude; and then laying it over the other place, count the number of degrees thereon con- tained between them; which number multiply by 69^ (the number of miles in one degree), and the product is the number of English miles required. 10. To find how any one place bears from another. Bring one place to the brass meridian, and lay the quad- rant of altitude over the other, and it will show on the horizon the point of the compass on which the latter bears from the former. 11. To find those places to which the sun is vertical in the torrid zone for any given day. Find the sun's place in the ecliptic for the given time, and bring it to the meridian, and observe what degree thereof it cuts; then turn the gh.be about, and all those places which pass under that degree of the meridian, are those required. 12. To find what day of the year the sun will be vertical to any given place in the torrid zone. Bring the given place to the meridian, and mark the degree over it; then turn the globe round, and observe the two points of the ecliptic which pass under that degree of the meridian: lastly, see on the wooden horizon on what days of the year the sun in those points of the ecliptic; for those arc the days required. 13. To find those places in the north frigid zone where the sun begins to shine constantly without setting, on any given day between the 21 st of March and the ZlstofJnnc. Find the sin's place in the elliptic for the given day, bring it to the brazen meridian, and observe the degrees of declination; then all those places which are the same number of degrees distant from the pole are the places required to be found. 14. To find on what day the sun begins to shine con- stantly without setting, on any given place inthe north fri- gid zone, and how long. Rectify the globe to the latitude ofthe place, and turning it about, observe what point of the ecliptic between Aris and Cancer, and also between Cancer and Libra, coincides with the north point of the horizon; then find, by the calendar on the horizon, what days the sun will enter those degrees ofthe ecliptic, and they will satisfy the problem. 15. To find the place over which the sun is vertical on any given day and hour. Find the sun's place, and bring it to the meridian, and mark the degree of declination for the given hour; then find those places which have the sun in the meridian at that moment; and among them that which passes under the degree of declination is the place desired. 16. To find, for any given day and hour, those places wherein the sun is then rising and setting, or in the meri- dian; also those places which are enlightened, and those which are not. Bind the place to which the sun is verti- cal at the given time, and bring the same to the meridi- an, and elevate the pole to the latitude of the place; then all those places which are in the western semicircle of G L O G L O the horizon have the sun rising, and those in the eastern semicircle sec it setting; and to those under the meridian it i> noon. Lastly, all places above the horizon arc en- lightened, and all below are in darkness or night. 17. The day and Iwur of a solar or lunar eclipse being given, to find all those places in which the sume will be visible. Find the place to which the sun is vertical at the given instant, and elevate the globe to the latitude ofthe place; then in most of those places above the hori- zon will the sun be visible during his eclipse; and all those places below the horizon w ill see the moon pass through the shadow of the earth in her eclipse. 18. The length of a degree being given, to find the num- ber of miles in a great circle of the earth, and thence the diameter of the earth. Admit that one degree contains 69| English statute miles; then multiply 360 (the num- ber of degrees in a great circle) by 69-£, and the product will be 25020, the miles which measure the circumfer- ence of the earth. If this number be divided by 3.1416, the quotient will be 7963T^ miles for the diameter of the earth. 19. The diameter of the earth being known, to find.the surface in square miles, and its solidity in cubic miles. Admit the diameter to be 7964 miles, then multiply the square of the diameter by 3.1416, and the product will be 199250205 very near, which are the square miles in the surface of the earth. Again, multiply the cube of the diameter by 0.5236, and the product 264466789170 will be the number of cubic miles in the whole globe of the earth. 20. To express the velocity of the diurnal motion of the earth. Since a place,on the equator describes a circle of 25020 miles in 24 hours, it is evident, that the velocity with which it moves is at the rate of 1042^ in. one hour, or 17^7 miles per minute. The velocity in any parallel of latitude decreases in the proportion of the co-sine of the latitude to the radius. Thus for the latitude of Lon- don, 51° 30', say, As radius 10.000000 To the co-sine of lat. 51° 30' 9.794149 So is the velocity in the equator, 17^' 1.232046 To the velocity of the city of London, 10TV 1.0321.95 That is the city of London moves about the axis of the earth at the rate of 10T8^ miles every minute of time. GLOBULAR chart, a name given to the represen- tation of the surface, or of some part of the surface, of the terrestrial globe upon a plane, wherein the parallels of latitude are circles nearly concentric, the meridian curves bending towards the poles, and the rhomb-lines arc also curves. GLOBULAR sailing. See Sailing. GLO B ULAttl A, globular blue daisy, a genus ofthe mo- nogynia order, in the tetrandria class of piants, and inthe natural method ranking under the 48th order, aggregate. The common calyx is imbricated, the proper one tubulated inferior, the upper lip ofthe florets bipartite, the under one tripartite, the receptacle paleaceous. There are eight species, but one only is commonly to be met with in our gardens, viz. the vulgaris, or common blue daisy. It has bread thick radical leaves, three-parted at the ends, up- right stalks from about six to ten or twelve inches high, with spear-shaped leaves, and the top crowned by a glo- bular head of fine blue flowers, composed of many florets VOL. II. 38 in one cup. It flowers in June, and makes a good appear- ance, but thrives best in a moist shady situation. It is propagated" by parting the roots in September. GLOR10SA, superb lily, a genus of the hexandria monogynia class of plants, the flower of which consists of six oblongo-Ianceolated, undulated, and very Ion;, petals, reflex nearly to the base: the fruit is an oval pe Hue id capsule, containing three cells, and numerous globose seeds, disposed in a double series. There are two species, herbaceous plants of Guinea. GLOSSOMA, a genus of the tetrandria monogynia class and order. The calyx is turbinate, four-toothed, superior; corolla four-petalled; antheras almost united with membranaceous scales at the end; stigmas four; drupe. There is one species, a shrub of Guiana. GLOSSOPETALUM, a genus of the pentandria pen- tagynia class and order. The calyx is five toothed; pe- tals five, with a strap at the tip of each berry. There are two species, trees of Guiana. GLOSSOPETRA, in natural history, a genus of ex- traneous fossils, so called from their having been suppos- ed the tongues of serpents turned to stone, though they are really the teeth of sharks, and are found in the mouths of those fishes, wherever taken. The several sizes of teeth of the same species and the several differ- ent species of sharks, furnish us with a vast variety of these fossile teeth. Their usual colours arc black, blueish, whitish, yellowish, or brown. In sh-apc they are com- monly somewhat approaching to triangular; some arc simple, and others have a smaller point on each side the larger one; many of them are quite straight, but they are frequently met with crooked, and bent in all the dif- ferent directions, sonic inwards, some outwards, and some sideways: they are also of various sizes, the larger ones being four or five inches long, and the smaller less than a quarter of an inch. They are found with us in the strata of blue clay, and are very plentiful in the clay pits of Richmond, and some other places; but they are no where so common as in the island of Malta. GLOTTIS. See Anatomy. GLOVE, a covering for the hand and wrist. Gloves, with respect to commerce, are distinguished into leathern, silk, thread, cotton, worsted, kc. Leathern gloves are made of chamois, kid, Iamb, doe, elk, buff, kc. To throw the glove, was a practice or ceremony very usual among our forefathers, being the challenge whereby another was defied to.single combat. It is still retained at the co- ronation of our kings, when the king's champion casts his glove in Westminster-hall. Favyn supposes the custom to have arisen from the Eastern nations, who," in all their sales and deliveries of lands, goods, «\c. used to give the purchaser their glove by way of livery or in- vestiture. To this effect he quotes Ruth iv. 7. where the Chaldce paraphrase calls glove what the common version renders by shoe. He adds, that the rabbins in- terpret by glove that passage in the cviiith Psalm, In Idumean extendam calceamentum meum, »• Over Edom will I cast my shoe." Accordingly, among us, he who took up the glove declared thereby his acceptance of the challenge; and as a part of the ceremony, continues Favyn, took the glove off his own right hand and cast it upon the ground, to be taken up by the challenger. This had the force of a mutual engagement on each side, (1LU G L U to meet at the time and place which should be appointed by the king, parliament, or judges. The same author asserts, that the custom which once obtained of blessing gloves in the coronation of the kings of France, was a remain ofthe Eastern practice of giving possession with the glove, 1. xvi. p. 1017, kc Anciently it was prohibit- ed the judges to wear gloves on the bench; and at pre- sent, in the stables of some princes, it is said to be unfafe going in without pulling off the gloves. GLOW-WORM. See Cicindela. GLOXINIA, a genus of thedidynamia angiospermia class and order. The calyx is superior, five-leaved; co- rolla bell-shaped, with the border oblique; filaments with the rudiment of a fifth inserted into the receptacle. There is one species, a herb of South America. GLUCINA, a new earth, discovered in 1798, in the mountains of Siberia. According to the experiments of Vauquelin and Klaproth, we learn that l. To obtain glucina pure, the beryl or emerald redu- ced to powder, is to be fused with thrice its weight of potass. The mass is to be diluted with water, dissolved in muriatic acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness. The residuum is to be mixed with a great quantity of water, and tbe whole thrown on a filtre. The silica, which constitutes more than half the weight of the stone, remains behind; but the glucina and the other earths, being combined with muriatic acid, remain in solution. Precipitate them by means of carbonat of potass. Wash the precipitate, and then dissolve it in sulphuric acid. Add to the solution sulphat of potass; evaporate it to the proper consistence, and set it by to crystallize. Alum crystals gradually form. When as many of these as possible have been obtained, pour in the liquid carbonat of ammonia to excess, then filtre, and boil the liquid for some time. A white powder gradually appears, which is glucina. 2. Glucina, thus obtained, is a soft light white powder, without either taste or smell, which has the property of adhering strongly to the tongue. It has no action on vegetable colours. It is altogether infusible by heat; nei- ther does it harden or contract in its dimensions, as is the case with alumina. Its specific gravity is 2.967. It is insoluble in water, but forms with a small quanti- ty of that liquid a paste which has a certain degree of ductility. 3. It does not combine with oxygen nor any of the simple combustibles; but sulphurated hydrogen dissolves it, and forms with it a hydrosulphurat, similar to other hydrosulphurats in its properties. 4. Azote has no action on it; but muriatic acid dis- solves it, and forms with it a sweet-tasted salt, called muriat of glucina. 5. Glucina is soluble in the liquid fixed alkalies, in which it agrees with alumina. It is insoluble in ammonia, but soluble in carbonat of ammonia, in which respect it agrees with yttria; but it is about five times more soluble in carbonat of ammonia than that earth. It combines with all the acids, and forms with them sweet-tasted salts, as is the case also with yttria. GLUE, among artificers, a tenacious viscid matter, which serves as a cement to bind or connect things toge- ther. See Gelatine. GLUTA, a genus of tbe class and order pentandria monogynia. The calyx is bell-shaped, deciduous; petals five; filaments inserted into the tip of the column; geim sitting in an oblong column. There is one species, a tree of Java. GLUTEUS. See Anatomy. GLUTEN. If wheat flour is kneaded into paste with a little water, it forms a tenacious, elastic, soft, ductile mass. This is to be washed cautiously, by kneading it under a small jet of water till the water no longer carries off anything, but runs off colourless; what remains be- hind is called gluten. It was discovered by Beccaria, an Italian philosopher, to whom we are indebted for the first analysis of wheat flour. 1. Gluten, when thus obtained, is of a grey colour, exceedingly tenacious, ductile, and elastic, and may be extended to twenty times its original length. When very thin, it is of a whitish colour, and has a good deal of re- semblance to animal tendon or membrane. In this state it adheres very tenaciously to other bodies, and has often been used to cement together broken pieces of porcelain. Its smell is peculiar. It has scarcely any taste, and does not lose its tenacity in the mouth. When exposed to Uie air, it assumes a brown colour, and becomes in a man- ner covered with a coat of oil. When exposed to the air, it gradually dries; and when completely dry, it is pretty hard, brittle, slightly trans- parent, of a dark-brown colour, and has some resem- blance to glue. It breaks like a piece of glass, and the edges of the fracture resemble in smoothness those of broken glass; that is, it breaks with a vitreous fracture. It is insoluble in water, though it imbibes and retains a certain quantity of it with great obstinacy. To this water it owes its elasticity and tenacity. When boiled in water it loses both these properties. When kept moist, it very soon begins to decompose, and to undergo a species of fermentation. It swells, and emits air-bubbles, which Proust has ascertained to con- sist of hydrogen and carbonic acid gases. It emits also a very offensive odour, similar to what is emitted by pu- trefying animal bodies. Cadet kept gluten for a week in a damp room. Its surface became covered with byssi, the fermentation just mentioned had commenced, anil the odour was distinctly acid. In 24 days, on removing the upper crust, the gluten was found converted into a kind of paste, of a greyish white colour, not unlike bird-lime. In that state he gave it the name of fermented gluten. If the gluten is still left to itself, it gradually acquires the smell and taste of cheese. This curious fact was first as- certained by Rouelle junior, to whom we are indebted for the most important dissertation on gluten which has yet appeared. In that state it is full of holes, and contains the very same juices which distinguish some kinds of cheese. Proust ascertained that it contains ammonia and viucgar; bodies which Vauquelin detected in cheese: and ammonia robs both equally of their smell and flavour. When moist gluten is suddenly dried, it swells ama- zingly. Dry gluten, when exposed to heat, cracks, swells, melts, blackens, exhales a fetid odour, and burns pre- cisely like feathers or horn. When distilled, there comes over water impregnated with ammonia and an empyren- matie oil; the charcoal which remains is with difficulty reduced to ashes. 2. Gluten is insoluble in water; it is equally insoluble GLUTEN. in alcohol and in ether. But when the fermented gluten of Cadet is triturated with a little alcohol into a muci- lage, and then mixed with a sufficient quantity of that liquid, a portion of it is dissolved. Tbis solution consti- tutes an excellent varnish, possessed of considerable elas- ticity. It may be spread over paper or wood; and when dry resists'other bodies as well as most varnishes. In this state too it may be employed to cement china; and triturated with paints, especially vegetable colours, it forms a very good ground. When this solution is mixed with a sufficient quantity of lime, it forms a very good lute; and bits of linen dipt in it adhere very strongly to other bodies. All the acids dissolve it, even when very much diluted; alkalies precipitate it again, but it is deprived of its elas- ticity, and brought nearer to the state of extractive mat- ter. Concentrated sulphuric acid renders it violet-colour- ed, and at last black; inflammable air escapes, and char- coal, water, and a portion of ammonia, are formed. When nitric acid is poured on it, and heat applied, there is a.quantity of azotic gas emitted, as Berthollet disco- vered; and by continuing the heat, some little oxalic acid is formed, and likewise malic acid, while a number of yellow-coloured oily flakes make their appearance in the solution. Acetic acid acts but imperfectly, but it dis- solves the fermented gluten of Cadet; and the solution may be substituted for the solution in alcohol as a var- nish; but it does not answer to mix it with colours. Alkalies dissolve gluten when they arc assisted by heat The solution is never perfectly transparent. Acids precipitate the gluten from alkalies, but it is destitute of its elasticity. Alkalies, when much concentrated, form with it a kind of soap, converting it into oil and ammo- nia, which last is dissipated during the trituration. The action of the metallic oxides and their salts upon gluten has not been tried. It has a strong affinity for the colouring matter of ve- getables, and likewise for resinous bodies. 3. The properties of this substance clearly point out a resemblance between it and animal matter; and the phe- nomena of its fermentation and destructive distillation bIiow us that oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and azote, are constituents of it. Proust has observed, that the vapour which it emits, while fermenting, blackens silver and lead, and of course contains sulphur. 4. Like all other vegetable principles, gluten is sus- ceptible of various shades of properties, which consti- tute so many species. In wheat flour, it occurs inthe greatest abundance, and from it we can extract it with the greatest ease. But the sagacity and industry of Rouellc and Proust have detected its presence in many- other vegetable substances. Rouelle found it in the leaves of all the vegetable substances which he examined. The exactness of this opinion was called in question by Four- croy, who treated tbe experiments of Rouelle with con- tempt; but it has been lately examined and confirmed by very decisive experiments of Proust. When the juice of cabbage-leaves, cresses, scurvy- grass, and other similar plants, is extracted by pressure, and passed through a cloth, it still continues far from transparent. Its muddiness is owing to a fine soft silky green powder suspended in it, which subsides to the bot- tom so slowly as to take at least a week before it is de- posited. This green powder has been distinguished by the name of the green fecula of plants. Rouelle first ex- amined it with attention, and ascertained its properties; and the subject has been carried still farther by Proust. The slowness with which it subsides shows that its spe- cific gravity does not differ much from that of water. When once it has fallen, it is insoluble. This substance consists chiefly of three principles: 1. A green matter to which it owes its colour, separated by digestion in alco- hol, and which possesses the properties of a resin. 2. A substance which consists chiefly of woody fibres, and which is left behind when the fecula is digested in potass. 3. A species of gluten, which constitutes the greatest part of it, and to which it owes its characteristic properties. When the juice of the plants is exposed to a heat of about 130°, the green fecula undergoes a kind of coagu- lation, concreting into large flakes, which subside very quickly. At this temperature, albumen is not altered by heat. This is the method commonly taken to clarify these juices. We see from it, that the fecula was united to the water by a very small force, which the addition of heat weakened sufficiently to enable the gluten to cohere. This coagulation by heat takes place how diluted soever the juices are with water, which is by no means the case with albumen. It is thrown down also by the addition of a little alcohol, by all acids, by ammonia, by sulphura- ted hydrogen gas, or by throwing into the liquid crys- tals of carbonat of potass, magnesia, common salt, mu- riat of potass, nitre, sal ammoniac, &c. When separated from water, it soon dries, and be- comes elastic, and has somewhat of the appearance of horn; and in that state is scarcely softened by hot water. When treated like gluten, it gradually acquires the cheesy taste and smell. When kept under water, it very soon begins to putrefy, and exhales a gas which blackens sil- ver and solutions of lead. This speedy putrefaction in stagnant water takes place when flax and hemp are steeped. These substances contain green fecula in their rind, and the putrefaction occasions the separation ofthe whole, which could not otherwise be accomplished. The water which has been allowed to remain for a whole year over green fecula, contains sulphurated hydrogen, carbo- nat of ammonia, and gluten seemingly held in solution by the ammonia. The stench of putrefaction still continues even after the water has been boiled. 5. The number of plants containing gluten is very considerable. Proust found it in acorns, chesnuts, horsc- chesnuts, rue, barley, rye, peas, and beans; and in ap- ples and quinces. He found it also in the leaves of cab- bage, sedunis, cress, hemlock, borage, saffron, kc; in the berries ofthe elder, the grape, kc; in the petals of the rose, kc. It occurs also in several roots. Proust could find none in the potatoe. 6. Gluten must be considered as one ofthe most use- ful of the vegetable principles. It constitutes an essential ingredient in wheat, and is the substance which renders flour of wheat so fit for forming bread. It seems also to constitute the essential part of yeast. Its uses as a var- nish, a ground for paint, kc pointed out by Cadet, like- wise deserve attention. The gluten of wheat is said, in many cases at least, to constitute the base of the sub- stance called bird-lime; though that substance is suppo- sed to be a preparation obtained from the bark of tho G L Y G N A elm, &c. and in that case is. according to Proust, a kind of turpentine or resin, soluble in alcohol, and not in the least resembling gluten. GLYCOMAN verse, in ancient poetry, consists of three feet, whereof the first is a spondee, the second a choriambus, and the last a pyrrhichius; or the first may be a spondee, and the other two dactyls. Thus, Mens re- J gnnm bona pos- \ sidet- or, Mens re- | gnum bona | poi-idet. GLYCINE, knobbed-rootcd liquorice-vetch, a genus of the decaudria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 32d order, pa- pilionacse. The calyx is bilabiate; the carina ofthe co- rolla turning back the vexillum with its point. There are 25 species, one of which is commonly cultivated in our gardens, the frutescens, or Carolina kidney-bean tree. This has shrubby climbing stalks, twining round any support, 15 or 20 feet high, adorned with pinnated leaves of three pair of follicles terminated by an odd one, and from the axillas clusters of large blueish purple flow- ers, succeeded by long pods like those of the climbing kidney-bean. It flowers in June and July. It is easily propagated, cither by seeds or by layers. The glycino coccinea is an elegant little plant, lately introduced into our stoves, and easily propagated by seed. GLYCIRRHIZA, liquorice, a genus ofthe decandria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natu- ral method ranking under the 32d order, papilionacse. The calyx is bilabiate; the upper lip tripartite, and the under one entire; the legumen ovate and compressed. There are four species. The glabra, or common liquor- ice, has a long, tliick, creeping root, striking several feet deep into the ground; upright, firm, herbaceous stalks annuallyr, three or four feet high, with winged leaves of four or five pair of oval lobes, terminated by an odd one; and from the axillas erect spikes of pale-blue flowers, which appear in July, succeeded by short smooth pods. The root of this is the useful part, which is replete, with a sweet, balsamic, pectoral juice, much u-ed in all compo- sitions for coughs and disorders of the stomach. The cchinata, or prickly-podded liquorice, is nearly like the common sort, only the seed-pods are prickly. Both these species are very hardy perennials; but the first is the sort commonly cultivated for use, its roots being fuller of juice and sweeter than the other. The roots are perennial; hut the stalks rise in spring and decay in autumn. Their propagation is effected by cuttings of the small roots issuing from the sides of the main ones near the surface of the earth, dividing them into lengths of six or eight inches, each having one or more good buds or eyes; and the proper season for procuring the sets for planting is any time in open weather from October till March, though from the middle of February till the middle of March is rather the most successful season for planting. An open situation is the most suitable for a plantation of these plants. Particular regard should also be had to the soil; it ought to be of alight loose composition, and three or four feet deep if possible; for the roots ofthe liquor- ice will arrive at that depth and more, and the longer the roots the more valuable they are for sale by weight. In three years after planting, the roots of the liquorice will be fit to take up; and the proper season for this is anytime from the beginning of November till February; f :• it should neither be taken up before the stalks are fully decayed, nor deferred till late in the spring, other- wise the roots will be apt to shrivel, and diminish in weight. In taking them up, the small side-roots are trim- med off: and the best divided into lengths for fresh sets, and the main roots are tied in bundles ready for sale. Liquorice is almost the only sweet that quenches thirst; whence it was called by the Greeks adipson. Galen takes notice, that it was employed in this intention in hydro- pic cases, to prevent the necessity of drinking. Mr. Ful- ler, in his Medicina Gymnastica, recommends this root as a very useful pectoral; an assertion warranted by ex- perience. An extract is directed to be made from it in the shops; yet this preparation is chiefly brought from abroad, though the foreign extract is not the best. GMELINA, a genus of the angiospermia order, in the didynamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, personatae. The calyx ia nearly quadridentated; the corolla campanulated or bell- shaped; there are two bipartite and two simple antberse; the fruit is a plum with a bilocular kernel. There is one species, a tree of Malabar. GNAPHALIUM, cudweed, goldy locks, eternalfiower, kc. a genus of the polygamia supcrflua order, in the syn- genesia class of plants, and in the natural method rank- ing under the 49th order, compositse. The receptacle is naked; the pappus feathered; the calyx imbricated, with the marginal scales roundish, parched, and coloured. There are 66 species; the most remarkable of which arc: 1. The margaritaceum, or pearly white eternal flower, has creeping, very spreading roots, crowned with broad spear-shaped, white, hoary leaves; herbaceous, thick, woolly stalks, a foot and a half high, branching outward, with long, acute pointed, white, woolly leaves, and ter- minated by a corymbose cluster of yellowish flowers, which appear in June and July, and are very ornamen- tal. 2. The plantaginium has large woolly radical leaves, decumbent running roots, and herbaceous simple stalks, rising six or eight inches, terminated by a co.rymbus of white flowers, which appear in June, July, &c. 3. The stechas has ashrubby stalk, dividing into slender branches chree feet long, terminated by corymbose clusters of yellow flowers, appearing in May and June. 4. The c rientale has three varieties, with yellow, gold-coloured, and white silvery flowers. They have shrubby stalks, rising two or three feet high. 5. The odoratissimum, or sweet-srented eternal flower, has shrubby winged stalks, branching ir- regularly a yard high, with corymbose clusters of bright yellow flowers, changing to a dark yellow. 6. The ar- boreum, or tree gnaphalium, has a woody stem, branch- ing four or five feet high, narrow sessile leaves, with re- volute borders, smooth on their upper side, and roundish bunches of pale yellow flowers. The first three sorts are hardy, and will thrive in r.ny soil or situation. The first two increase exceedingly by their roots; and the third is easily propagated by slips. The fourth, fifth, and sixth sorts are somewhat tender, and therefore should be kepi in pots, to be sheltered iu a green-house or garden-frame in winter. Others may be planted in the full ground, in a dpy and warm situation, especially the oriental kind G N 0 GOB and varieties, and likewise the sweet-scented kind; for these two species will struggle tolerably through an or- dinary winter, and make a pretty appearance during the summer months. All these are propagated by slips or cuttings of their shoots. The flowers of all these species are remarkable for retaining their beauty for years, if carefully gathered in a dry day, soon after they are blown. GNAT. See Cclen. GNEISS, in mineralogy, is composed essentially of felspar, quartz, and mica, forming plates which are laid on each other, and separated by thin layers of mica. It differs from granite in being shistosc. Gneiss rocks are usually stratified. Like granite, \t sometimes contains shorl and garnet. The beds of gneiss sometimes alter- nate with layers of granular limestone, shistose, horn- blende, and porphyry. It is rich in ores, almost every metal having been found in gneiss rocks, either in veins, or beds. GNETUM, a genus ofthe monadelphia order, in the monoecia class of plants. The amentum of the male is a single scale; there is no corolla, and but one filament with a pair of antherse. The calyx ofthe female is of the same form; there is no corolla; the style with the stigma is trifid; the fruit a monospermous plum. There is one species, a herb of the East Indies. GNU) I A, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the oc- tandria class of plants. The calyx is funnel-shaped and quadrifid, with four petals inserted into it; there is one seed somewhat resembling a berry. There are 11 spe- cies, shrubs of the Cape. GNOMON, in dialling, the style, pin, or cock of a dial, which by its shadow shows the hour of the day. The gnomon of every dial represents the axis of the world. See Dial and Dialling. Gnomon, iu geometry. If in a parallelogram A B C D (plate LXiV. Miscel. fig. 103.) the diameter A C be drawn; also two lines E F, II I, parallel to the sides of the parallelogram, and cutting the diameter in one and the same point G, so that the parallelogram is, by these parallels, divided into four parallelograms, then arc the two parallelograms DG, BG, through which the diame- ter does not pass, called complements; those through which the diameter passes, EH, FI,are called the paral- lelograms about the diameter; and a gnomon consists of the two complements, and either of the parallelograms about the diameter, viz. GD + HE-f-EI, or GD fFI-f GB. Gnomon, in astronomy, a style erected perpendicular to the horizon, in order to find the .altitude of the sun. Thus, in the right-angled triangle ABC, fig. 104. are given AB the length of the style, BC the length of its shadow, and the right angle ABC. Hence, making CB the radius, we have this analogy for finding the angle ACB, the sun's altitude, viz. KC : AB :: radius : tangent of the angle C. By means of a gnomon, the sun's meri- dian altitude, and consequently the latitude of the place, may be found more exactly than with the smaller quad: ranis. See Qiaihust. By the same instrument the height of any object GH may be found; for as DF (fig. 105) the distance of the observer's eye from the gnomon, is to DE, the height of the style, so is FH, the distance of the observer's eye from the object, to GH its height. The following example will serve to illustrate the above proposition. Pliny says, that at Rome, at the time of the equinoxes, the shadow is to the gnomon as 8 to 9; there- 9 fore as 8 : 9:: 1 or radius : — = 1*125 a tangent, to which 8 answers the angle 48° 22', which is the height of the equator at Rome, and its complement 41° 38' is therefore the height of the pole, or the latitude of the place. Riccioli remarks the following defects in the observa- tions ofthe sun's height, made with the gnomon by the ancients, and some of the moderns, viz. that they neglect- ed the sun's parallax, which makes his apparent altitude less, by the quantity of the parallax, than it would be if the gnomon were placed at the centre of the earth: 2d, they neglected also the refraction, by which the apparent height of the sun is a little increased: and Sdly, they made the calculations from the length ofthe shadow, as if it were terminated by a ray coining from the centre of the sun's disc; whereas the shadow is really terminated by a ray coming from the upper edge of the sun?s disc; so that, instead ofthe height of the sun's centre, their calculations gave the height ofthe upper edge of his disc: and, therefore, to the altitude of the sun found by the gno- mon, the sun's parallax must be. added, and from the sum must be subtracted the sun's scmidiameter, and re- fraction, which is different at different altitudes; which being done, the correct height of the equator at Rome will be 48° 4' 12", the complement of which, or 44° 55' 46", is the latitude. The preceding problem may be resolved more accurate- ly by means of a ray of light let in through a small hole, than by a shadow, thus: make a circular perforation in a brass plate EF (fig. 106.) to transmit enough of the sun's rays to exhibit his image on the floor, or a stage; fix the plate parallel to the horizon in a high place, proper for observation, the height of which above the floor let be ac- curately measured with a plummet. Let the floor, or stage, be perfectly plane and horizontal, and coloured over with some white substance, to show the sun more distinctly. Upon this horizontal plane draw a meridian line passing through the foot or the centre of the gnomon, AG, i. e. the point upon which the plummet falls from the centre ofthe hole; and upon this line, note the extreme points I and K of the sun's image or diameter, and from each end subtract the image of half the diameter of the aperture, viz. Kfl and LI; then will IIL be the image of the sun's diameter, which, when bisected in B, gives the point on which the rays fall from the centre of the sun. Now having given the line AB, and the altitude of the gnomon AG. besides the right angle A, the angle B, or the apparent altitude of the sun's centre, is easily found, thus: as AB : AG :: radius: tang, angle B. GNOSTICS, in church-history, christians so called, it being a name which almost all the ancient heretics af- fected to take to express that new knowledge and extra- ordinary light to which they made pretensions: the word gnostic signifv ing a learned or enlightened person. GOAT. See Capua. GnvT-srCKKK. See Caprimplgus. GOBI IS, Goby, in ichthyology, a genus of fishes G 0 L G O L belonging to the order of thoracici. The generic charac- ter is, head small; eyes approximated; gill-membrane four rayed; ventral fins united into the form of a funnel. There are eight species, of which the following are the principal. 1. Gobius niger. Common goby. This species grows to the length of six indies; the body is soft, slippery,and of a slender form; the head rather large; the cheeks in- flated; the teeth small, and disposed in two rows; from the head to the first dorsal fin is a small furrowr; the first dorsal fin consists of six rays, the second, according to Linnseus, of fourteen; the pectoral of sixteen or seven- teen, closely set together, and the middlemost the longest; the others on each side gradually shorter; the ventral fins coalesce, and form drsortof funnel, by which these fish are said to affix themselves immoveably to the rocks, for which reason they are called by the name of rock-fish; the tail is rounded at the end; the general colour of the fish is dusky or blackish; but this, on close inspection, is owing to numerous small dusky or blackish specks, accompanied by brown or olive-coloured bars and clouds disposed on a whitish ground; the dorsal and anal fins are of. a pale blue; the rays marked with minute black spots. This fish is a native of the Mediterranean and northern seas, and sometimes enters the mouths of the larger rivers, particularly in the beginning of summer, at which season it deposits its spawn on stones near the shores. It is in the number of edible fish, but is in no particular estimation. 2. Gobius lanccolatus. Lance-tailed goby. This spe- cies is distinguished by the peculiar form of its tail, which is large in proportion to the animal, and sharp- pointed at the tip; the body is of a lengthened shape, and nearly of an equal diameter throughout; the head is ob- long, and truncated in front; the jaws of equal length, and armed with sharp teeth; the gill-covers consist of two small 1 aminre, and the opening of the gills is large; the vent is situated much nearer the head than the tail; the body is covered with scales, of which those toward the tail are much larger than those on the upper parts. This is a West Indian species: it is found in the rivers of Martinique and some other islands. 3. Gobius cseruleus. Blue goby. Described by Cepede from Coinmerson. A highly beautiful, though very small, species; colour fine blue, rather paler beneath; tail red, with a black border; length about a decimetre; mouth obtuse; teeth in the lower jaw sharp, and rather longer than those of the upper; eyes rather more distant than in others of the genus; body covered with small rough scales; first dorsal fin triangular, with the rays terminat- ing in lengthened filaments; second dorsal terminated by a ray of twice the length of the rest; vent placed nearly in the middle ofthe body; tail rounded. Inhabits the seas about the eastern coast of Africa, where it is used by the negroes as a bait far other fish. From the brilliancy of its colours it appears, when swimming in a calm sea, during a bright sunshine, like a small tube of sapphire, tipped with carbuncle. 4. Gobius jozo. Blue-finned goby. This species grows to the length of four or six inches, and is principally dis- tinguished by the blue colour of its fins, and the streaks or the first dorsal fin; the jaws are of equal length, and armed with small sharp teeth; the lateral line runs in a straight direction along the middle of the body. It is a native of the Mediterranean and the Baltic, and com- monly frequents the muddy shores, living on sea-insects, kc It deposits its spawn on the soft mud; and though very prolific, is not observed to be very numerous, owing to tbe small fry becoming the prey of other fishes; as a food it is held in little or no esteem. GODFATHERS and Godmothers, persons who at the baptism of infants lay themselves under an indispen- sable obligation to instruct them, and watch over their conduct. This custom is of great antiquity in the chris- tian church, and was probably instituted to prevent chil- dren being brought up in idolatry, in case their parents died before they arrived at years of discretion. The number of godfathers and godmothers is reduced to two in the church of Rome, and three in the church of En- gland; but formerly they had as many as they pleased. GOLD. See Aurum, and Chemistry. Gold-wire, a cylindrical ingot of silver, superficially gilt, or covered with gold at the fire, and afterwards drawn successively through a great number of little round holes, of a wire drawing-iron, each less than the other, till it is sometimes no bigger than a hair of the head. See Wiredrawing. It may be obeved, that before the wire is reduced to this excessive fineness, it is drawn through above 140 differ- ent holes, and that each time they draw it, it is rubbed afresh over with new wax, both to facilitate its passage, and to prevent the silver appearing through it. GoLD-wiRKj^atted, is the former wire flatted between two rollers of polished steel, to fit it to be spun on a stick) or to be used flat, as it is without spinning, in certain stuffs, laces, embroideries, &c. Gold-thread, or spun-gold, is a flatted gold, wrap- ped or laid over a thread of silk, by twisting it with a wheel and iron bobbins. Manner of forming gold-wire and gold-thread, both round and flat. First,an ingot of silver, of 24 pounds, is forged into a cylinder, of about an inch in diameter; then it is drawn through eight or ten holes, of a large coarse wiredrawing-iron, both to finish the roundness, and to reduce it to about three-fourths of its former diameter. This done, they file it very carefully all over to take off any filth remaining from the forge; they then cut it in the middle: and thus make two equal ingots thereof, each about 26 inches long, which they draw through several new holes, to take off any inequalities the file may have left, and to render it as smooth and equable as possible. The ingot thus far prepared, they heat it in a charcoal fire; then taking some gold-leaves, each about four inch- es square, and weighing twelve grains, they join four, eight, twelve, or sixteen of these, as the wire is intended to be more or less gilt; and when they are so joined as only to form a single leaf, they rub the ingots reeking- hot with a burnisher. These leaves being thus prepared, they apply over the whole surface of the ingot, to the num- ber of six, over each other, burnishing or rubbing them well down with the blood-stone, to close and smooth them. When gilt, the ingots are laid anew in a coal fire; and when raised to a certain degree of heat, they go over them a second time with the blood-stone, both to solder the gold more perfectly, and to finish the polishing. The gilding finished, it remains to draw the ingot into wire. G 0 L G 0 M In order to do this, they pass it through 20 holes of a moderate drawing-iron, by which it is brought to the thickness of the tag of a lace: from this time the ingot loses its name, and commences gold-wire. Twenty holes more of a lesser iron leave it small enough for the least iron, the finest holes of which last, scarcely exceeding the hair of the head, finish the work. To dispose the wire to be spun on silk, they pass it between two rollers of a little mill; these rollers are of nie ely polished steel, and about three inches in diameter. They are set very close to each other, and turned by means of a handle fastened to one of them, which gives motion to the other. The gold-wire in passing between the tw . is rendered quite flat, but without losing any thing of its gilding, and is rendered so exceeuingly thin and flexible, that it is easily spun on silk thread, by means of a hand-wheel, and so wound on a spool or bobbin. Gold-&mf ing. They first melt a quantity of pure gold, and form it into an ingot: this they reduce, by forging, into a plate of about the thickness of a sheet of paper; which done, they cut the plate into little pieces about an inch square, and lay them in the first or smallest mould to begin to stretch them; after they have been hammered here awhile with the smallest hammer, they cut each of them into four, and put them into the second mould, to be extended further. Upon taking them hence, they cut them again into four, and put thein into the third mould, out of which they are taken, divided into four as before, and laid in the last or finishing mould, where they are beaten to the degree of thinness required. The leaves thus finished, they take them out of the mould, and dispose them into little paper books, prepared with a little red bole, for the gold to stick to: each book ordinarily contains 25 gold leaves. There are two sizes of these books; 25 leaves of the smallest only weigh five or six grains, and the same number of the largest nine or ten grains. It must be observed, that gold is beaten more or less, according to the kind or quality ofthe work it is intend- ed for; that for the gold wire-drawers to gild their ingots with is left much thicker than that for gilding the frames of pictures, kc. Sec Gilding. Gold, burnished, that smoothed or polished with a burnisher. Gold, mosaic, that applied in pannels, on proper ground, distributed into squares, lozenges, and other compartments, parts whereof is shadowed to heighten or raise the rest. See Mosaic. Gold, shell, that used by the illuminers, and with which we write gold letters. It is made of the parings of leaf-gold, and even of the leaves themselves, reduced into an impalpable powder, by grinding on a marble with honey. After leaving it to infuse some time in aquafortis, they put it iu shells, where it sticks. To use it, they di- lute it with gum-water, or soap-water. Gold, pure, that purged by fire of all its impurities, and all alloy. The moderns frequently call it gold of 24 caracts, hut in reality there is no such thing as gold so very pure, and there is always wanting at least a quar- ter of a caract. Gold of 22 caracts has e>ne part of silver, and another of copper; that of 23 caracts has half a part (that is, half a twenty-fourth) of each. See Caract. Gold, in heraldry, is one of the metals, more usually called by the French name or. GOLDEN number, in chronology, a number show- ing what year of the moon's cycle any given year is. See Cycle. From what has been said under Cycle of the moon, it appears that the golden number will not show the true change of the moon for more than 312 years, without be- ing varied. It is to be observed, that the golden number is not so well adapted to the Gregorian as to the Julian calendar; the epact being more certain in the new style, to find which the golden number is of use. See Epact, and Cycle. Golden rule, in arithmetic, is also called the rule of three, and the rule of proportion. See Arithmetic. GOLDFINCH. See Bringilla. GOLDSMITH, or, as some choose to express ft, sil- versmith, an artist who makes vessels, utensils, and or- naments, in gold and silver. The goldsmith's work is either performed in the mould, or beaten out with the hammer, or other engine. All works that have raised figures are cast in a mould, and afterwards polished and finished: plates or dishes of sil- ver or gold are beaten out from thin flat plates; and tank- ards, and other vessels of that kind, are formed of plates soldered together, and their mouldings are beaten, not cast. The business of the goldsmith formerly required much more labour than it does at present; for they were obliged to hammer the metal from the ingot to the thin- ness they wanted: but the flatting-mills now in use re- duce metals to the thinness that is required, at a very small expense. The goldsmith is to make his own moulds, and for that reason ought to be a good designer, and have a taste in sculpture; be also ought to know enough of metallurgy to be able to assay mixed metals, and to mix the alloy. See Assaying. The goldsmiths in London employ several hands un- der them for the various articles of their trade; such arc the jeweller, the snuff-box and toy-maker, the silver tur- ner, the gilder, the burnisher, the chaser, the refiner, and the gold-beater. See Jeweller, kc Goldsmiths are superior tradesmen; their wares must be assayed by the wardens of the company of this name in London, and marked: and gold is to be of a certain touch. No goldsmith may take above one shilling the ounce of gold, besides what he has for the fashioning, more than the buyer may be allowed for it at the king's exchange; and here any false metal shall be seized and forfeited to the king. The cities of York, Exeter, Bris- tol, kc are places appointed for the assaying wrought plate of goldsmiths; also a duty is granted on silver plate of sixpence an ounce, &c. Plate made by goldsmiths shall be of a particular fineness, on pain of forseiting IQl. and if any parcel of plate sent to the assayers is discovered to be of a coarser alloy than the respective standards, it may be broken, and defaced; and the fees for assay ing are particularly limited. GOMPHIA, a genus of the decandria monogynia class and order. The calyx is five leaved; the corolla five-pctalled; berries two; (l to 5) in a large receptacle. Seed solitary. There are three species, trees of the East and West Indies. GOMPI1RJENA, globe amaranth, a genus of the di- G 0 N GOO gynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 54th order, misce 11a- ne«. The calyx is coloured; theexterior one triphyllous, or diphyllous, with two carinated convenient leaflets; the nectarium cylindrical, with ten teeth; the capsule monos- permous. There arc nine species, but only one of them is commonly cultivated in our gardens, viz. the globosa, or globe amarauth. It has an upright stalk branching all round, two or three feet high, with oval, lanceolate, and opposite leaves; and every branch and side-shoot termi- nated by a close globular head of flowers, composed of numerous very small starry florets, closely covered with dry scaly calices placed imbricatim, persistent, and beautifully coloured purple, white, red, or striped and variegated. The florets themselves are so small, and closely covered with the scaly calices, that they scarcely appeav. The numerous closely placed scaly coverings being of a dry firm consistence, coloured and glittering, collected into a compact round head, about the size of an ordinary cherry, make a fine appearance. They are an- nual plants, natives of India, and require artificial heat to raise and forward them to a proper growth, so that they may flower in perfection, and produce ripe seed. They flower from June to November; and if the flowers are gathered when at full growth, and placed out of the sun, they will retain their beftuty several months. GONARCHA, in antiquity, a dial delineated on seve- ral surfaces, or planes, some horizontal, others erect, oblique, &c. GONATOCARPUS, a genus ofthe tetrandria mono- gpnia class and order. The corolla is four cleft, drupe cight,cornercd, onecsceded. There is one species, an an- nual of Nogasaki. GONDOLA, a flat boat, very long and narrow, chief- ly used at Venice to row on the canals. The word is Italian, gondola. Du Cange derives it from the vulgar Greek xoi/»tia««-, « a bark," or " little ship;" Lancelot de- duces it from y6i\, a term in Athenseus for a sort of vase. The middle-sized gondolas are upwards of thirty feet long and four broad; they always terminate at each end in a very sharp point, which is raised perpendicularly to the full height of a man. The address of the Venetian gondoleers, in passing along their narrow canals, is very remarkable: there are usually two to each gondola, and they row by pushing before them. The fore man rests his oar on the left side of the gondola: the hind man is placed on the stern, that he may see the head over the tilt or covering of the gondola, and rest his oar, which is very long, on the right side of the gondola. Gondola is also the name of a passage-boat of six or eight oars, used in other parts of the coast of Italy. * Gondola-shell, in natural history. See Dolium. GONHORRHOiA. See Surgery. GONIOMETRY, a method of measuring angles, so called by M. de Lagny, who gave several papers, on this method, in the memoirs of the Royal Academy. M. de Lagny's method of goniometry consists in measuring the angle with a pair of compasses, and that without any scale whatever, except an undivided semicircle. Thus, having any angle drawn upon paper, to be measured, produce one of the sides of tbe angle backwards behind the angular point; then with a pair of fine compasses describe a pretty large semicircle from the angular point as a centre, cutting the sides of the proposed angle, which will intercept a part of the semicircle. Take then this intercepted part very exactly between the points of the compasses, and turn them successively over upon the arc of the semicircle, to find how often it is contained in it, after which there is commonly some remainder: then take this remainder in the compasses, and in like man- ner find how often it is contained in the last of the inte- gral parts of the first arc, with again some remainder: find in like manner how often this last remainder is contain- ed in the former; and so on continually, till the remain- der become too small to be taken and applied as a mea- sure. By this means he abtains a scries of quotients, or fractional parts, one of another, which being properly reduced into one fraction, give the ratio of the first arc to the semicircle, or of the proposed angle to two right angles, or 180 degrees, and consequently that angle itself in degrees and minutes. Thus suppose the angle BAC (PI.LXIV. Mis.fig. 107.) be proposed to'bc measured. Produce BA towards/; and from the centre A describe the semicircle a b cf, in which a & is the measure of the proposed angle. Take ab in the compasses, and apply it four times on the semicircle, as at b, c, d, and e; then take the remainder fe, and apply it back upon ed, which is but once, viz. at g; again take the remainder gd, and apply it five times on ge, as at h, i, k, I, and m; lastly, take the remainder m e, and it is contained just two times in hi I. Hence the scries of quo- tients is 4, 1, 5, 2; consequently the fourth or last arc em is £ the third ml or gd, and therefore the 3d arc gd is ~, or T2T of the 2d arc ef; and therefore, again this 2d arc ef is —-^-, or !-£ of the 1st arc ab; and conscquent- ly this 1st arc ab is-777 , or || of the whole semicircle qf. But |4 of 180° are 37\ degrees, or 37° 8' 34/'f, which therefore is the measure of the angle sought. When the operation is nicely performed, this angle may be within two or three minutes of the truth; though M. de Lagny pretends to measure much nearer than that. GON1UM, a genus of Vermes, of the order infusoria. Worm very simple, flat, angular, invisible to the naked eye. There arc five species. The pectoral, quadrangu- lar, pellucid, with 16 spherical molucles, found in pure water; molecules oval, nearly equal in size, set in a quad- rangular membrane, like diamonds in a ring, the lower ones a little larger than the rest. Sec Adams on the Mi- croscope. GOOD hehaviour: surety for the good behaviour is the bailor pledge for any person that lie shall do or per- form such a thing, as surety for the peace is the acknow- ledging a recognizance or bond to the king, taken by a competent judge of record, for keeping the king's peace. Dalt. c. 116. A binding to the good behaviour is not by way of punishment; hut it is to show, that when a man has bro- ken the good behaviour, he is not to be trusted. 12 Mod. 566. Justices of peace may chastise rioters, barrators, and other offenders, and also imprison and punish them ac- G 0 R GOB cording to law, and by discretion and good advisement; and also bind persons of evil fame to the good behaviour, &c. 34 Ed. ill. c. 1. This statute being penned in such general words, seems in a great measure to have left it to the discretion of justices of the peace, to determine what persons should be bound to their good behaviour; and consequently seems to empower them, not only to bind over those who seem to be notoriously troublesome, and likely to break the peace, as eves-droppers, &c. but also those who are publicly scandalous, or contemners of justice, &c. as haunters of bawdy-houses, or keepers of lewd women in their own houses; common drunkards, or those who sleep in the day and go abroad in the night, or such as keep suspicious company, or such as are generally suspected as robbers; or such as speak contemptuous words of superior magistrates, as justices of peace, mayors, &c. being in the actual execution of their of- fice, or of inferior officers of justice, as constables, &c. being in the actual execution of their office; but it seems that rash, quarrelsome, or unmannerly words, spoken by one private person to another, unless they directly tend to a breach of the peace, are not sufficient cause to bind a man to his good behaviour. 1 Haw. 153. GOODENIA, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class and order. The corolla is five-cleft; anthers linear; stigma cup-shaped, ciliated; caps, two-celled, two valved. Seeds many, imbricated. There are nine species, shrubs of South Wales. GOOSE. See Anas. GOOSEBERRY, grossularia. See Ribes. GOOSE-EMBER. See Margus. GOOSE-NECK, in a ship, a piece of iron fixed on the end ofthe tiller; to which the laniard of the whip- staff, or the wheel-rope comes, for steering the ship. Goose-wing, in the sea-language. When a ship sails before, or with, a quarter-wind on a fresh gale, to make the more haste, they launch out a boom, and sail on the lee-side; and a sail so fitted, is called a goose-wing. GORDIUS, the hair-worm, a genus of insects belong- ing to the class of vermes intestina. There are several species: 1. The aquaticus, or water hair-worm, is 10 or 12 inches in length, and of about the thickness of a horse-hair; its skin is smooth, and somewhat glossy, without furrows; its colour pale-yellowish white all over, except the head and tail, which are black and glossy. The body is rounded, and very slender in proportion to its length; the mouth is small, and placed horizontally; the jaws are both of the same length, and obtuse at their extremities. This species is common in our fresh waters, more especially in clay, through which it passes as a fish docs through the water, and is the author of many springs. It is a variety of this worm that in Guinea, and in some other of the hot countries, gets into the flesh of the na- tives, and occasions great mischief; with us, though fre- quent enough in water where people bathe, it never attempts this. 2. The argillaceous, or clay hair-worm, is only a variation of the preceding one in colour, being yel- lowish at the extremities. It chiefly inhabits the clay; Lin- naeus calls that its proper element, from its being gene- rally dug out of it. 3. The medinensis, or muscular hair- worm, is all over of a pale yellow ish colour. It is a native tif both Indies; frequent in the morning dew, whence it vol. II. 39 enters the naked feet ofthe slaves, and occasions a dis- ease much known in those countries, and to which chil- dren arc very liable; it creates the most troublesome itchings, and too often excites a fever and inflammation. It particularly attacks the muscles of the arms and iegs, whence it may be drawn out by means of a piece of silk or thread tied round the head; but the greatest caution is necessary in this simple operation, lest the animal, by being strained too much, should break; for if any part remains under the skin, it quickly grows with redoubled vigour, and becomes a cruel, and sometimes fatal enemy to the poor slaves in particular. Baths with infusions of hitter plants, and all vermifuges, destroy it. 4. The marinus, or sea hair-worm, is filiform, twisted spirally and lying fiat, about half an inch in length; of a whitish colour, smooth, and scarcely diminishing at the head. It is as great a tormentor of herrings, bleaks, and various other fish, as the gordius medinensis is of man. The fish, when infested with these animals, rise to the surface, and tumble about as if in great agony. GORDOMA, a genus of the polyandria order, in the monadelphia class of plants. The calyx is simple; the style five-cornered, with the stigma quinquefid; tho capsule quinquelocular; the seeds two-fold, with a leafy wing. There are three species. The lasianthus is a tall and very straight tree, with a regular pyramidal head. Its leaves are shaped like those ofthe common bay, but serrated. It begins to blossom in May, and continues bringing forth its flowers the greatest part of the sum- mer. The flowers arc fixed to footstalks, four or five inches long; are monopetalous, divided into five seg- ments, encompassing a tuft of stamina headed with yel- low apices; these flowers, in November, arc succeeded by a conic capsula, having a divided calyx. The capsula, when ripe, opens and divides into five sections, disclosing many small half-winged seeds. This tree retains its leaves all the year, and grows only in wet places, and usually in water. The wood is somewhat soft; yet Mr. Catesby mentions his having seen some beautiful table s made of it. It grows in Carolina, but not in any of the more northern colonies. GORGONIA, in natural history, a genus of zoophy- tes, which formerly were called ceratophytons, and are known in English by the names of sea-fans, sea-feathers, and sea-whips. Linnseus and Dr. Pallas consider them as of a mixed nature in their growth, between animals and vegetables: but Mr. Ellis shows them to be true ani- mals of the polype kind, grow ing up in a branched form resembling a shrub, and in no part vegetable. They dif- fer from the fresh-water polype in many ofthe qualities, and particularly in producing from their own substance a hard and solid support, serving many of the purposes of the bone in other animals. This is formed by a con- creting juice, thrown out from a peculiar set of longitu- dinal parallel tubes, running along the internal surface ofthe fleshy part: in the coats of these tubes are a num- ber of small orifices, through which the osseous liquor exudes, and concreting, forms the layers of that hard part of the annular circles, which some, judging from the consistence rather than the texture, have erroneously denominated wood. The surface of the gorgonia is com- posed of a kind of scales, so well adapted to each other, as to serve for defence rom external injuries; and the G 0 S G 0 S flesh, or, as some have called it, the bark or cortex, con- sists of proper mus l?s and tendons for extending the opening of their cells; for sending forth from thence their polype sirkers in search of food, and for drawing them in sudd-Mily, and contracting the sphincter muscles of these starry cells, in order to secure these tender parts from danger; and also of proper secretory ducts, to fur- nish and el -posit the osseous matter that forms the stem and branches as well as the base of the bone. Mr. Ellis affirms, that there are ovaries in these animals, and thinks it very probable that many of them are viviparous. See Corallines, and Zoophytes. GORE, in heraldry, one ofthe abatements, which, ac- cording to Guillim, denotes a coward. It is a figure con- sisting of two arch lines drawn one from the sinister chief, and the other from the sinister base, both meeting in an acute angle in the middle ofthe less point. Gorr, in law, signifies a narrow slip of ground. GOREING, in the sea-language, sloping. A sail is cut gore ing, when it is cut sloping by degrees, and is broader at the clew than at the caring, as all topsails and top-gallant sails are. GORGE, in fortification, the entrance ofthe platform of any work. Sec Fortification. In all the outworks, the gorge is the interval betwixt the wings on the side ofthe great ditch, as the gorge of a ravelin, half-moon, &c. These, it is to be observed, are all destitute of parapets; because if there were any, the besiegers, having taken possession ofthe work, might use it to defend themselves from the shot of the place; which is the reason that they are only fortified with palisadoes, to prevent a surprise. The gorge of a bastion is nothing but tbe prolongation of the curtins from their angle with the flanks, to the centre of the bastion where they meet. When the bastion is flat, the gorge is a right line, which terminates the distance between the two ranks. GORGED, in heraldry, the bearing of a crown, cor- onet, or the like, about the neck of a lion, a swan, &c. and in that case it is said, the lion or cygnet is gorged with a ducal coronet, &c. GORTERIA, a genus of the class and order synge- nesia polygamia frustranea class and order. The calyx is intricate; corolla of the ray ligulate; down, woolly; receptacle, naked. There are 13 species, mostly shrubby plants of the Cape. GOSHAWK. SeeFALCo. GOSSAMER, is the name of a fine filmy substance, like cobweb, which is seen to float in the air in clear days in autumn, and is more observable in the stubble- fields, and upon furze and other low bushes. This is probably formed by the flying-spider, which, in traver- sing the air for food, shoots out these threads from its anus, which are borne down by the dew, kc GOSSYPIUM. or cotton: a genus of the polyandria order, in the monadelphia class of plants, and iu the natural method ranking under the 37th order, coluinni ferae. The calyx is double, the exterior one trifid; the capsule quadrilocular; the seeds wrapt iu cotton-wool. There are six species, all of them natives of warm cli- mates. 1. The herbaceum, or common herbaceous cotton, 2 has an herbaceous smooth stalk two feet high, branch. ing upwards; five-Iobed smooth leaves; and yellow flow. ers from the ends of the branches,.succeeded by roundish capsules full of seed and cotton. 2. The hirsutum, or hairy American cotton, has hairy stalks branching la. terally two or three feet high; palmated, three and fivc- lobed hairy lea.ves; and yellow flowers, succeeded by large oval pods furnished with seeds and cotton, s. The barbadense. or Barbadoes shrubby cotton, has a shrubby stalk branching four or five feet high, three-lobed smooth leaves; glandulous underneath; and yellow flowers suc- ceeded by oval pods; containing seeds and cotton. 4. The arboreum, or tree cotton, has an upright woody perennial stalk, branching six or eight feet high; palma- ted, four or five-lobed smooth leaves, and yellow flowers, succeeded by large pods filled with seeds and cotton. The first three species are annual, but the fourth is pe- rennial both in root and stalk. In warm countries these plants are cultivated in great quantities in the fields for the sake of the cotton they produce; but the first species is most generally cultivated. The pods are sometimes as large as middling-sized apples, closely fil- led with the cotton surrounding the seed. They are pro- pagated by seeds. The American islands produce cotton shrubs of vari- ous sizes, which rise and grow up without any culture, especially in low and marshy grounds. Their produce is of a pale red, some paler than others, but so short that it cannot be spun. None of this is taken to Europe, though it might be usefully employed in making hats. The iittle that is picked up serves to make mattrasses and piii >ws. The cotton shrub that supplies our manufactures re- quires a dry and stony soil, and thrives best in grounds that have already been tilled. Not but the plant ap- pears more flourishing in fresh lands than in those which are. exhausted; but while it produces more wood, it bears less fruit. A western exposure is fittest for it. The culture of it begins in March and April, and con- tinues during the first spring-rains. Holes are made at seven or eight feet distance from each other, and a few seeds thrown in. When they are grown to the height of five or six inches, all the stems are pulled up, except two or three of the strongest. These are cropped twice before the end of August. This precaution is the more necessary, as the wood bears no fruit till after the se- cond pruning; and if the shrub was suffered to grow more than four feet high, the crop would not be the greater, nor the fruit so easily gathered. The same me- thod is pursued for three years; for so long the shrub may continue, if it cannot conveniently be renewed of- tener with the prospect of an advantage that will com- pensate the trouble. This useful plant will not thrive if great attention is not paid to pluck up the weeds that grow about it. Frequent rains will promote its growth, but they must not be incessant. Dry weather is parti- cularly necessary in the months of March and April, which is the time of gathering the cotton, to prevent it from being discoloured and spotted. When it is all ga- thered in, the seeds must be picked out from the wool with which they are naturally mixed. This is done by means of a cotton-mill, which is an engine composed of two rods of hard wood, about 18 feet long, 18 lines i» G R A G R A circumference and fluted two lines deep. They arc con- fined at both ends, so as to leave no more distance be- tween them than is necessary for the seed to slip through. At one end is a kind of little millstone, which, being put in motion with the foe>t, turns the rods in contrary di- rections. They separate the cotton, and throw out the seed contained in it. GOUANIA, a genus of the monoecia order, in the polygamia class of plants. The calyx of the herma- phrodite is quinquefid; there is no corolla; there are five antherse covered with an elastic calyptra or hood; the style trifid; the fruit, inferior to the receptacle of the flower, divisible into three seeds. The male is like the hermaphrodite, but wanting stigma and germen. There is one species, a shrubby plant of St. Domingo. GOUGE, an instrument or tool used by divers arti- ficers; being a sort of round hollow chisel, for cutting holes, channels, grooves, &c. either in wood or stone. GOURD. See Cucurbita. GOUT. See Medicine. GRACE, act of, an act of parliament for a general and free pardon, and for setting at liberty insolvent debtors. Grace, days of, in commerce. See Bills of Ex- change. GRACULA, the grakle, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order of picae. The bill is convex, cultra- ted, and bare at tbe point; the tongue is not cloven, but is fleshy and sharp; it has three toes before and one be- hind. 1. The religiosa, lesser grakle, or Indian stare, is about the size of a blackbird; the hill an inch and a half long, and of an orange colour. The general colour of tbe plumage is black, glossed with violet, purple, and green, in-different reflections of light; on the quills is a bar of white; the feathers and legs are an orange-yellow, and the claws of a pale brown. This species, which is found in several parts of the East Indies, in the Isle of Hainan, and almost every isle beyond the Ganges, is remarkable for whistling, singing, and talking well, much better than any of the parrot genus, and in par- ticular very distinct. Its food is of the vegetable kind. Those kept in this climate are observed to be very fond of cherries and grapes; if cherries are offered to one, and it does not immediately get them, it cries and whines like a young child, till it has obtained its desire. It is a very tame and familiar bird. 2. The barita, or boat-tailed grakle, is about the size of a cuckow. The bill is sharp, black, and an inch and a half in length; the general colour ofthe plumage is black, with a ghiss of purple, especially on the upper parts; the legs and claws are black, the latter hooked. There is a singularity in the folding up of the tail feathers, which, instead of forming a plain surface at top, sink into a hollow like a deep gutter. It always carries its tail expanded when on the ground, folding it up in the above singular manner only when perched or flying. It inhabits Jamaica; and it feeds on maize, on beetles and other insects, as well as on the fruit of the banana. It is likewise common in North America, keeping company with the flocks e>f the maize-thieves, and red-winged oriole. These breed in the swamps, and migrate in September, after which none are see-n. 3. The quiscula, purple, jackdaw, or Barba- does blackbird, is about the size of a blackbird: the male bird is black, but most beautifully and richly glossed with purple; especially on the head and neck. The female is wholly of a brown colour, deepest on the wings and tail. This species inhabits Carolina, Mexico, and other parts of North America, also Jamaica. These birds for the most part feed on maize, whence the name of maize- thieves has been given them; but this is not their only food, for they are known also to feed on many other things. In spring, soon after the maize-seed is put into the ground, they scratch it up again; and as soon as the leaf comes out, they take it up with their bills, root and all; but when it is ripe they do still more damage, for at that time they come in troops of thousands, and are so bold, that if disturbed iu one part ofthe field they only go to another. In New Jersey and Pennsylvania three pence per dozen was once given for the dead bodies, and by means of the premium they were nearly extirpated in 1750; when the persecution of them was abated on ac- count of the increase of worms which had taken place in the meadows, and which in the preceding year had left so little hay iu New England as to occasiein an impor- tation from other parts. The grakles were therefore again tolerated, as it was observed that they fed on these worms till the maize was ripe. These birds build in trees. They are said to pass the winter in swamps which are quite overgrown with wood, thence only appearing in mild weather; and after the maize is got in, arc con- tent to feed on other things, as the aquatic tare-grass, and if pressed by hunger, buck-wheat and oats, kc: they are said alsei to destroy that pernicious insect the bru- chus pisi. Their note is pretty and agreeable, but their flesh is not good to eat. 4. The cristatella, or Chinese starling, is a little bigger than a blackbird. The bill is yellow or orange, and the general colour ofthe plumage blackish with a tinge of blue; the legs are of a dull yel- low. These birds, which are said to talk and whistle very well, are common iu China, where they are very much esteemed, and the figures of thein are seen fre- quently in Chinese paintings. Their food is rice, in- sects, worms, and such-like. They are seldom taken to England alive, requiring the greatest care iu the pas- sage. There are eight other species of gracula. GRADUATION, in mathematics, the act of dividing any thing into degrees, or equal parts. GRAFTING, or grafifing, in gardening, is the inser- tion of a scion into a stock or stem raised for the pur- pose, and is necessary to the ensuring of good fruit; i. e. to have the same (or at least with little difference) pro- duced on the new tree, as that ofthe old one whence the graft was taken: itis sometimes performed on the branches of trees, and may be on the roots, a piece being raised out of tbe ground for the purpose. If the seeds of fruit were left to grow up to trees with- out grafting, they would produce a different kind from that they came from; by chance a better, but most com- monly a worse. The varieties of fruit we have, were ob- viously obtained from seedling stocks, without grafting. Grafting is like planting upon a plant, for though there is a union of the parts, there is n fact little other communication than a root has w ith the ground. The scion, or bud, draws nourishment from the stock, but no other than is properly adapted to its own peculiar vessels, and which it alters so as to become exclusively its own. GRAFTING. The art of grafting is a very curious discovery, and though it requires some ingenuity to perform it, a few trials may make it familiar, and it will prove an agreeable source of amusement and satisfaction. By being able to graft, young trees may be always at hand for replacing old, or unsuccessful ones; and the pleasure of obliging a friend from our stock in this way, is peculiarly gratify- ing. Skill in this ingenious art is clearly best obtained by seeing the work performed; and at first trial, to have an adept at the elbow, would be a great advantage. There are few gardeners (even by profession), however, that practise this work, owing to the great number of nur- serymen ready to supply trees. But though they raise fine trees, much disappointment has often happened in dealing with them (particularly.in the sort); which might be avoided, by a man's being able to raise good trees for himself. Directions precisely descriptive of the busi- ness of grafting, are therefore here attempted, and if once understood, trials should be made without minding the discouragement of a few failures; for practice will make perfect. Proper stocks being ready, and scions or buds procur- ed, there will be wanting a good sharp narrow-bladed penknife, and a sharp smooth-edged pruning-knife, with some well-wrought loam or clay, and some good new bass, or strong yarn. The clay should be made up as mortar, mixed with short hair, or fine chopt hay, with a little cow-dung, and prepared a day or two beforehand; or if longer the better, being beaten up afresh with a little water every day. The first thing to be done is, to cut off the head of tbe stock at the proper height, and in a fair part ofthe bark, making a smooth flat top; if tbe stock is too strong for the knife, and a saw is used, it must be smoothed with the knife after. The most proper size for stocks, is from half an inch to an inch diameter: a little more or less, however, may do. When a stock is too little, the scion is apt to overgrow it, and when too big, the scion does not so well, or so soon, cover the stock, as might be wished; yet stocks of any size can be used by one mode of graft- ing or other. Dwarf trees are to be grafted within six inches of the ground, and standards as high as the stock will well bear, considering whether they are to be half or full standards; the former at about three or four feet, the latter at five or six. But trees designed for standards, may be grafted or inoculated at a lower height, the graft being trained to the desired length, by keeping it to a single stem. The scions should be healthy and strong (not however of a soft, sappy, luxuriant growth), and taken from the outsides of fruitful trees, where the juices ofthe wood have been properly digested by sun and air; they should be taken (if it may be) from trees just in their prime, or at full bearing, and not before. Let them be cut two or three weeks sooner than wanted, and if kept longer they may not hurt, for they had better be cut a little too soon than too late, at full length, without any side shoots. Let the scions of pears, plums, and cherries, be cut from the middle to the end of January, and at farthest not beyond the middle of February; the season must, however, somewhat givern. Keep them all over in dry- mould, close under a south wall, or some shelter, cover- ing them with straw in wet or severe weather. Some pre- serve them in a cool room, where they will do without mould, but it would be better to set them upon end in a gar- den-pot, half their length with mould or sand, nearly dry. Scions cut early are prevented from getting too for- ward in bud: for if the buds begin to start, and look white, they seldom take. By having them as long as they may be kept before used, the sap of the stock gets in forward- ness; for it must first begin to stir, and so be ready to push itself quickly into the scion (now somewhat exhausted), to form an union with it. The middle of scions is fittest for the purpose; but do not cut off the tops till they are brought out to graft, for they keep best in length. If scions are to be transported to any distance, let their ends be stuck two or three inches in clay, and so matted round in a bundle; or, if wrapped round with a fine hay-rope, and smeared over with cow-dung, clay, or a strong earth, they will not soon wither. Some gardeners say, scions should be only of the last year's growth, and others, that the wood of the year before is best; but it is so far a matter of indifference that they will take much older, though perhaps, not so cer- tainly. As a medium, if a little of the former year's wood is cut with a scion of the last, and this older wood used for the part grafted, it will be found to answer, in cover- ing the stock sooner: though it must be acknowledged, that all new wood is the common practice of those who raise trees for sale; which circumstance is ordinarily, a pre- sumptive proof of right. If wood, however, of a year's growth is not strong enough, then* at least, some of the old wood ought to be cut with it; and the bigger the stock is, the more this practice commends itself, as the barks will be somewhat more equal in thickness. Proceeding to graft, take off a little of the lower end of the scion first, and then cut it in length, so as to have three or four eyes to appear above the claying; two eyes will be sufficient for a standard, but four are better for a dwarf that is to be trained. In cutting scions into lengths, let the top eye be just in front or just behind, but rather the former. Use not (except upon necessity) the upper part of a scion, as the wood is too raw for the purpose, and will be shrivelled; yet strong scions (properly insert- ed) seldom miss through drought; indeed they will take sooner than if quite fresh cut and full of sap. The time for grafting is usually from mid-February to mid-March; but in a forward season sooner, and in a back- ward one sometimes later. Cleft-grafting has been the most common method of progation, and though it is not the neatest, yet it is a cer- tain and easy way to young practitioners. The stocks for this mode of grafting should be strong, about three quar- ters of an inch diameter, or more; but it may be used with very young stocks, having scions of like thickness. Cut off the head as before directed, so as to have (on the sunny side) a smooth part in the stock, where the scion is to be placed, and cutting a part of the stock off slopewise, opposite to this place, leave the top or the crown ofthe stock, about half an inch wide. Then cleave the stock with a strong knife, or thin sharp chisel, about two inches deep, as near the middle as possible, so as not to divide the pith, and if any rough- ness appears in the slit, smooth it off with a penknife; GRAFTING. but something of the wedge kind must be put into the slit to keep it open to receive the scion, leaving proper room to put it in. Cut the scion on each side to the form of a wedge at bottom, an inch or more long, making that side which is to be placed inwards in the stock, thinner by about one-third. Put the scion in, so that its bark and that of the stock may be level; and consequently that the two barks may unite and run into each other; for on this one principle depends the whole art of grafting. If the bark of the stock is thick, let the bark of the scion sink in a trifle, as the current of sap that unites them, runs betwixt the bark and wood. The scion being placed, take the wedge out that kept the stock open; yet if the stock is so strong as to pinch the scion too hard, ease it by a little bit of dry wood to be left in the cleft; so, however, as not to loosen the graft, which must be held firmly: or if the stock, is very strong, the wedge of the scion may he nearly of equal thickness, inside and out, which cases the barked part. The graft must be nicely whipped round with wet bass pulled tight, and the whole clayed over to an inch above and half an inch below, smoothing it off taper, with a trowel or knife dipped in water. And as this is done with a view to keep out wet, sun, and air, if the clay falls off or cracks, it must be immediately repaired, till the season comes to take off the bandage, which is about Midsummer, or rather sooner; yet at this time some clay should be still kept on the top, to secure the cleft from wet, and so continued till the cleft is grown up. If it is desired to put in two scions, to form a tree for the wall, or espallier, there should be two clefts parallel to one another, one on each side the pith. Some put in two scions, merely in case one should miss; but it is not advisable. It need hardly be observed, that in this case the crown must be left whole. Whip-grafting has the advantage of cleft-grafting in neatness, and not requiring the stocks to be so old by a year or two, as very small ones will do in this way; for the stock is directly covered by the scion, and it takes with certainty if properly performed. Scions suitable to proper stocks cannot however always be had. Stock and scion are to be both of a size; or nearly so is better, the stock having the advantage in bigness; for thus it is not so likely to be overgrown, as it happens when the scion is of a more free nature. When the stock is overgrown by tbe scion, it will give it some opportunity to thicken, by slitting the bark through downwards, in two or three places. This circumstance is not, however, material in dwarf trees. Having cut the head of the stock off, and the scion to its proper length, slope the lower end of the scion about an inch and a ball', and to a point; then cut the stock to answer it (the cut of the stock, however, may be a trifle wider and longer) bark against bark, and tie them to- gether exactly to their place, and clay it. But for the greater certainty of keeping a scion to the part, cut it so as to leave a small shoulder at the top of the slope, and the stock so as to leave a narrow bit of its crown to an- swer it, and to hold it. There- is a sort of whip-grafting that has been deno- minated slii ing, or packing, which differs only from that just desc rihed, in this: that the stock is of any size; and this is performed by cutting the scion to a face, as before, and then taking oft* a slice from ihe (beheaded) stock, choosing a gibbous part of it so as exactly to correspond with the cut surface ofthe scion, taking care to fit them so that the scion may stand erect (or nearly) when clap- ped to. Shouldering is commonly practised also in this way. Grafting in the bark, or crown-grafting, is perhaps as good a way as any, both for ease of operation and cer- tainty of success; but it will hardly suit any other fruit than apples or pears, as other scions will be past use (most likely) before the bark of thestocks will peel, as the time for this, business is towards the end of March, or beginning of April. The head being cut off, make a straight slit down and through the bark from the top, at the place destined for the graft, which should be rather southerly or westei !y. This score down the bark should be nearly as long as the slope cut of the scion, which may be one and a half or two inches. Loosen the bark a little at the top of the score, and then with some smooth instrument of dry hard wood, ivory, bone, or silver, rather than iron or steel, open the bark sufficiently to receive the scion, by pushing the instrument down a trifle below the bottom of the slit. This instrument should be thin, tapered and rounded towards the point, to suit the shape of the scion's face; one side of it flat, and the other a little convex, the flat side being applied to the wood of the stock; let it be rather narrower than the scion, that it may not loosen the bark too wide. Cut a bit of the bark of the scion smooth off at the bot- tom that it may not turn up in pushing down. It will be proper to cut the scion with a small shoulder, to rest upon the stock. And because when the scion is in, it will bear the bark up hollow from the stock, score the bark on each side the scion, so that it may fall close to the stock, and to the edges of the scion. Bind and clay neatly. In this way of grafting there is a sort of agreement between the scion and stock necessary; the scion not being too big, or the stock too small, te> prevent a proper bedding. If more than one scion is not put in, the stock on the op- posite side to the scion should be sloped up about two inches in length, to half its thickness. This way of grafting is used most properly with strong stocks; and sen letimes is applied to large branches, and even trunks of old trees, to change the sorts or renew the wood. In proportion to the largeness of which, from two to five or six scions are put in, and sometimes of different sorts; and if the stock is large, the more the better, as it heals over the sooner, and as they insure the life of the stock, by receiving and carrying off the sap; in which re- spect a single branch of the head of an old stock may be left on, for the sap to pass off by when it begins to stir. Sidc-grafling is done in the bark, much like inocula- tion, a scion being inserted instead of a bud; but remem- ber, there must be a fluent sap first, f. c. the b:.rk must part readily from the wood, before this mode of grafting is attempted. The head of the stock is not to be ci.t oft; only thinned a little if it is large, and the side shoots taken away. The bark ofthe stock, where the insertion ofthe scion is to be. must be cut through in the form of the letter T, as wide and as long as is suilirient to re- ceive the scion, cut as before, with a slope face of at least an inch long, taking advantage, (if it may be) of a part GRAFTING. of the stock that is a little gibbous. Let the bark of the stock be neatly raised to receive it, hut yet no more than necessary; a little bit of the bark may be sliced off the part that is over the cross cut, to receive the scion the better. Approach-grafting, or inarching, is performed in April or May, when the stock we would graft, and the tree we would propagate, grow so near together, as to be conve- niently in contact, and the nearer the graft and the stock are of a size the better. This mode of propagation is esteemed the surest of all; and in truth, some things cannot he so well propagated any other way. It is a me- thod that is, or can be, seldom used for common fruit- trees: but if any one wishes to try the experiment, the stock or stocks must be planted at least a year before, first making the soil good, as it may need it, being so near another tree, for it of course must be close. Plants in pots or tubs being easily brought together, are frequently propagated this w7ay; so that inarching is used much in green-houses and hot-houses for various things, as oranges, lemons, pomegranates, jasmines, and vines sometimes; oranges and lemons thus treated in May will be united by August. The method of inarching is, bend the best-situated young branch of the tree or shrub to be propagated, to the stock to be grafted, and having determined on the part at which most conveniently to fix the shoot, cut the bark of that part of the shoot off, w ith nearly half the wood (not to touch the pith) to the length of about three inches for a strong branch, or less for a weaker. Then cut exactly so much of the bark and branch of the stock off, as will receive the cut part of the branch or shoot, so as to bring bark and bark in contact in every part; and if the contrivance of lipping is used, it will secure them better together. Bind and clay, and if in open ground, fix a stake to tie the work so that the wind may have no power over it; a tie also to a neat stick may be proper for those inarched in pols, &c. Budding, or inoculation, though here last mentioned, is the most considerable mode of propagation. Apricots, peaches, and nectarines, are always propagated this way, and plums and cherries may be. Pears are sometimes budded, and apples have been, but the success is uncer- tain. Not only fruit, but forest, and ornamental trees and shrubs are inoculated. The branches also of trees as well as stems are sometimes budded, which is best done on two-years wood, though it may be on both young- er and older. Inoculation begins as soon as good shoots with good eyes, of the present year can be had, so that the season may be reckoned from mid-June to mid-August; but about old Midsummer, or rather after, is the usual and best time for the work; it should be done in a morning or evening (the latter rather best), except the day is cloudy, when any part of it will do. Apricots being first ready, the budding season begins with them. The stocks to be used are those of the plum (raised from stones or suckers) when half an inch thick, a little under or over, and the operation is to take place from four to eight inches from the ground. Peaches and nectarines are propagated on the same »ort of stocks; but if the plum stock is first budded with an apricot (very low), and when of proper size budded with a peach, and especially a nectarine, the advantage is reckoned that it takes best so, and comes to a better bearing, producing an improved fruit, and particularly the red Roman nectarine. Apricots may be expected to be less luxuriant by double-budding, in which case the first bud should be of the Brussels sort. Plums and cherries may be inoculated on sucker stocks of any kind; yet, if a tree is required, (as for standards), stocks raised from stones are best; i. e. plums on plums, and cherries on cherries, though they will take upon each other. Pears, if for standards, should be inoculated on pear stocks, and on those raised from seed, rather than suckers; hut if for dwarfs, quince stocks may be best used, to keep the trees from grow ing off too fast, and so getting soon too big for their allotted space; white-thorn stocks are sometimes used with the same view, but the fruit gets stony. Stocks for budding dwarfs should be three years old; but for standards four or more. Though the longer inoculation is deferred, the riper the shoots will be for furnishing buds; yet there is this advantage in beginning as early as may be, that if the budding appears not to have taken, the work may be done again before the season is out. Or, to ensure success, two buds may be inserted in the same stock (but not in a direction under one another), and if both fail this year, the stocks may do again the next, as the heads in graft- ing by inoculation are not to be cut off till the spring following, because the inserted buds do not push off till then. Let the scions to procure buds for inoculation, be taken only from the outside branches of healthy and fruitful trees. If early budding is attempted, it will be proper to cut off some spare shoot (not fit for the purpose) to try first whether the bark will yet readily part from the wood. The season being right, and the scions at hand, have a sharp narrow-bladed knife, and neat tough wet bass. Keep the buds, as much as may be, from sun and wind: they must not be taken from the upper part of the scions, as the bark and buds there are too raw. If scions or buds are brought from any distance, they should be con- veyed in damp moss or grass, and never kept above a day and night, but the sooner they are used the better. Before the buds are prepared, get the stock ready to receive them, by taking off lateral shoots, leaving an un- cut single stem. At the part fixed on for the inoculation (which should be smooth, and rather on the north side) cut the bark through to the wood in form thus, T, the cross and the down slit being of the length necessary to take inthe bud, which may be cut with from one to two inches of bark; putting the point of a knife (or some in- strument rather not of iron or steel) into the top of the down cut of the stock, raise the bark all the way to the bottom, so that it will just receive the bud easily. There are knives made on purpose for budding, with flat ivory hafts. To procure proper buds, put your knife in (suppose) about three-fourths of an inch above the eye, and with a slope downwards cut the scion half through, then do it at the same distance below the eye, and sloping it up- wards cut up the middle of the wood, till the knife meets the upper incision, so the eye, or bud, will be directly in the middle. G R A G R A The next step is, to separate the wood from the bark, which is to be done thus: with your nail, or the point of a knife, loosen the bark at the top, and strip it from the wood; or rather with a swan or large goose quill, made in the form of an apple-scoop (having a regular smooth edge) push it de>wn between the bark and wood, press- ing it against the wood. Examine the inside of the bark, and if there is a ca- vity just behind the eye or bud, it is good for nothing, and another must be procured; for the cavity shows, that the root of the bud is with the wood, instead of being with the bark. The leaf that grows by the eye is to be cut down to near its footstalk, so as to leave only a little bit of it to hold the bud by, while inserting it in the stock. See that the bark of the stock is loosened a proper length and breadth, and if, when the bud is put in, it should prove a little too long, cut the spare part off; so that the top of the bud being squared, falls in straight with the cross cut of the stock. Thus fixed, bind it mo- derately tight in its place with the wet bass, beginning at the bottom, and passing by the bud, go on till the top, or rather above it. Care must be taken that the bud is not hurt, and it is to be left only just starting out between the bass. If the buds have taken, it will be seen in about three weeks or a month, by their appearing fresh and plump. As often as any shoots appear before the budding, cut them off, and also some of the shoots above, if there are many of them: for it is not proper that an inoculated stock should have a large head. In a month loosen the bandage, by taking it off, and putting it on gently again for another month. In March, cut the head of the stock off with a keen knife, close behind the budding, in a sloping direction; some leave three or four inches of the stock above the bud till the following spring, and it will serve to tie the new shoot to, in order to keep it to a proper erect direc- tion. Suffer no shoots from the stock, but rub the buds off as soon as they appear. It may be of use to shade inoculated buds a few days by a leaf, or a bit of paper. GRAIN, a small weight, the twentieth part of a scru- ple in apothecaries' weight, and the twenty-fourth of a pennyweight troy. A grain weight of gold bullion is worth about two-pence, and that of silver about half a farthing. Grain also denotes the component particles of stones and metals, the veins of wood, kc. Hence cross- grained, or against the grain, is contrary to the fibres of wood, kc GRAIXIX'G-board, among curriers, an instrument called also a pummel, used to give a grain to their lea- ther. GRAMMAR, the art of speaking and writing any language with propriety. Ir. is usually divided into four parts, orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. GRALLjE, in ornithology, is an order of birds,inthe Linncan system, which have a beak a little cylindric, rather blunt, and bare of feathers at the base. The tongue is entire and fleshy, pointed at the end, and beset with bristles. The legs are without feathers, above the knees. This order includes 20 genera, viz. the phseni- copterus, platalea, palamedca, myctcria, tantalus, ardea, corrira, recurvirostra, scolopax, tringa, fulica, parra, vaginalis, psophia, cancroma, rallus, scopus, glareola, hsematopns, and charadrius. GRANADIER, a soldier armed with a sword, afire- lock, a bayonet, and a pouch full of hand-granadoes. They wear high caps, are generally the tallest and briskest fellows, and are always the first upon all at- tacks. Every battalion of foot has generally a company of grenadiers belonging to it, or else four or five grena- diers belong to each company of the battalion; which, on occasion, are drawn out, and form a company of themselves. These always take the right of the battal- ion. GRAN ADO, a hollow ball or shell, of iron or other metal, about two inches and a half in diameter; which being filled with fine powder, is set on fire by means of a small fusee fastened to the touch-hole, made of the same composition as that of a bomb; as soon as the fire enters the shell, it bursts into many pieces, much to the damage of all that stand near. GRANARY. See Husbandry. GRANATITE, a stone found in Galicia in Spain, Brittany in France, and at St. Gothard. It is always crystallised in a very peculiar form; two six-sided prisms intersect each other, either at right angles or obliquely. Hence the name cross-stone, by which it was known in France and Spain. Mr. Hairy has proved, in a very in- genious manner, that the primitive form ofthe granatite is a rectangular prism, whose bases are rhombs, with angles of i29T2^ and 50-^; and that the height of the prism is to the greater diagonal of a rhomb as 1 to 6; and that its integrant molecules are triangular prisms, similar to what would be obtained by cutting the primi- tive crystal in two, by a plane passing vertically through the shorter diagonal of the rhomboidal base. From this structure he has demonstrated the law of the forma- tion of the cruciform varieties. The colour of grana- tite is greyish or reddish brown. Specific gravity 3.2861. Usually opaque. Glassy or greasy. Infusible before the blowpipe. Two specimens, analysed by Vauquelin, gave the following constituents: From Brittany, 44.00 alumina 33.00 silica 13.00 oxide of iron 3.84 lime 1.00 oxide of manganese. 94.84 From St. Gothard, 47.06 alumina 30.59 silica 15.30 oxide of iron 3.00 lime 95.95 GRAND days, are those days in the several terms, which are solemnly kept in the inns of the court of chan- cery, viz. Candlemas-day, Ascension-day, St. John the Baptist, and all Saint's-day. Grand Jury, is the jury which find bills of indict- ment before justices of peace and gaol-dclivcry, or of G R A G R A oyer and-terminer, kc. against any offenders that may be tried for the fact. See Jury. GRANITE, a genus of stones of the order of petrse, belonging to the class of saxa. The principal consti- tuent parts of this stone are feltspar or rhombic quartz, mica, and quartz. These ingredients constitute the hardest sort of granite, and that most anciently known. That into which schoerl enters is more subject to decom- position. They never have any particular texture or regular form, but consist of enormous shapeless masses extremely hard. In the finer granites the quartz is transparent; in others generally white or grey, violet, or brown. The feltspar is generally the most copious ingredient, and of a white, yellow, red, black, or brown colour. The mica is also grey, brown, yellow, green, red, violet, or black; and commonly the least copious. The schoerl is generally black, and abounds in the gra- nites that contain it. Hence the colour of the granites depends principally on that of the spar or schoerl. The red granites consist commonly of white quartz, red felt- spar, and grey mica; the grey ones of white quartz grey or violet feltspar, and black mica. The black granites commonly contain schoerl instead of feltspar; and the green usually contain green quartz. On exposing granite to the flame of a blowpipe, the component ingredients separate from one another. Mr. Gerhard having melted some in a crucible, found the feltspar run into a transparent glass; below it the mica lay in form of a black slag, the quartz remaining unal- tered. It melted somewhat better when all the three were powdered and mixed together; though even then the quartz was still discernible by a magnifying-glass. Hence we may explain the reason why grains of a white colour are sometimes found in volcanic lavas. The mix- ture of mica prevents the silex or quartz from splitting or cracking; and hence its infusibility and use in furnace- building. Granites are seldom slated or laminated. In those which are of a close texture, the quartz and schoerl pre- dominate. They take a good polish; for which reason the Egyptians formerly, and Italians still work them into larger pieces of ornamental architecture, for which they are extremely fit, as not being liable to decay in the air. Farber, in his letters from Italy, mentions a kind of stone named granitone, composed of feltspar and mica: a substance of this kind, which moulders in the air, is found in Finland; which is said to contain nitre, and sometimes common salt. In that country it is called ra- pakiri. Wallerius describes 18 species of granites, be- sides many others akin to this genus. Those particularly in use are, 1. The hard white granite, with black spots,common- ly called moor-stone. This is a very valuable kind, con- sisting of a beautiful congeries of very variously con- structed and differently coloured particles, not diffused among or running into one another, but each pure and distinct, though firmly adhering to which ever of the others it comes in contact with, and forming a very firm mass. It is much used in London for the steps of public buildings, and other occasions where great strength and hardness are required. 2. The hard red granite variegated with black and white, arc common in Egypt and Arabia. 3. The pale-whitish granite, variegated with black and yellow. This is sometimes found in strata, but more frequently in loose nodules, and is used for paving the streets. Some of these kinds of stones are found in almost every country, and in many places they are found of immense size. The largest mass of this kind in the known world, lying as an unconnected stone, is found near the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, and of which we have the following description in the Philosoph. Trans- act, vol. 68, given by Mr. Anderson, in a letter to sir John Pringle: <T bodies, and on such bodies as are removed at a distance from thein, but to penetrate into their substances, an! into that of all other bodies, even to their centres, to affect their internal parts with the same force as the external, to be obstructed in its action by no intervening body or obstacle, and to admit of no kind of variation in the same matter, but from its different distances only from that to which it gravitates. This action of gravity on bodies arises from its action on their parts, aud is the aggregate of these actions; so the gravitations of bodies must arise from the gravity of all their particles towards each other. The weight of a body towards the earth arises from the gravity of the parts of that body: the gravity of a mountain towards the earth arises from the gravitation of all the parts of the mountain towards it; the gravitation of the northern hemisphere towards the southern arises from the gravita- tion of all its parts towards it; and if we suppose the earth divided into two unequal segments, the gravitation ofthe greater towards the lesser arises from the gravita- tion of all the parts of the greater towards the lesser. In the same manner the gravity of the whole earth, one par- ticle being excepted, toward that particle, must arise from the quantity of gravitation of all the other particles of the earth towards that particle; every particle, there- fore, of the earth gravitates towards every other parti- cle: and for the same reason every particle in the solar system gravitates towards every other particle in it. GRAVITY, in physiology, the natural tendency of bodies towards a centre. Gravity may be distinguished into particular and ge- neral. Particular Grvvity, is that which respects the earth, or by which bodies descend, or tend towards the centre of the earth; the phenomena or properties of which are as follow: 1. All circumterrestrial bodies tend towards a point, which is eitlier accurately or very nearly the centre of magnitude ofthe terraqueous globe. Not that it is meant that there is really any virtue or charm in the point called the centre, by which it attracts bodies; but because this is the result of the gravitation of bodies towards all the parts of which the earth consists. 2. This point or centre is fixed within the earth, or at least has been so considered as far as any authentic his- tory reaches. For a consequence of its shifting, though ever so little, would be the overflowing of the Ie»w lands on that side of the globe towards which it shoirfd ap- proach. Dr. Halley suggests, that it would well account for the universal deluge, to have the centre of gravitation removed for a time towards the middle of the then inha- bited world; for the change of its place but the 2000t!i part of the radius of the earth, or about two miles, would be sufficient to lay the tops of the highest hills under water. 3. In all places equidistant frem the centre of the earth, the force of gravity is nearly equal. Indeed all parts of the earth's surface are not at equal distances from the centre, because tbe equatorial parts are higher than the polar parts by about 17 miles; as has been pro- GRAVITY. ved by tbe necessity of making the pendulum shorter in those places, before it will swing seconds. In the New Petersburgb Transactions, vol. 6 and 7, M. Krafft gives a formula for the proportion of gravity in different lati- tudes on the earth's surface, which is this: y = (1 4- 0.0052848 sine 2a) g; where g denotes the gravity at the equator, and y the gravity under any other latitude a. 4. Gravity equally affects all bodies, without regard eitlier to their bulk, figure, or matter: so that, abstract- ing from the resistance of the medium, the most compact and loose, the greatest and smallest bodies, would all de- scend through an equal space in the same time; as ap- pears from the quick descent of very light bodies in an exhausted receiver. The space which bodies do actually fall in vacuo, is 16^ feet in the first second of time, in the latitude of London; and for other times, either great- er or less than that, the spaces descended from rest are directly proportional to the squares of the times, while the falling body is not far from the earth's surface. 5. This power is the greatest at the earth's surface, whence it decreases both upwards and downwards, but not both ways in the same proportion; for upwards the force of gravity is, as we have seen, less, or decreases, as the square of the distance from the centre, above the surface, the force would be only one-fourth of what it is at the surface; but below the surface the power decreases in such a manner, that its intensity is in the direct ratio of the distance from the centre; so that at the distance of half a semi diameter from the centre, the force would be but half what it is at the surface; at one-third of a Bemidiameter the force would be one-third, and so on. 6. As all bodies gravitate towards the earth, so does the earth equally gravitate towards all bodies; as well as all bodies towards particular parts of the earth, as hills, &c. which has been proved by the attraction a hill has upon a plumb-line, insensibly drawing it aside. Hence the gravitating force of entire bodies consists of that of all their parts: for by adding or taking away any part of the matter of a body, its gravity is increased or de- creased in the proportion of the quantity of such propor- tion to the whole mass. Hence also the gravitating pow- ers of bodies, at the same distance from the centre, are proportional to the quantities of matter in the bodies. General or universal Gravity, is that by which all the planets tend to one another, and indeed by which all the bodies and particles of matter in the universe tend to- wards one another. Tbe existence »f the same principle of gravitation in tbe superior regions of the heavens, as on the earth, is one of the great discoveries of Newton, who made the proof of it as easy as that on the earth. At first it would seem that this was only conjecture with him: he observed that all bodies near the earth, and in its atmosphere, had the property of tending directly towards it; he soon con- jectured that it probably extended much higher than any distance to which we could reach, or make experiments; and so on, frem one distance to another, till he at length §aw no reason why it might not extend as far as to the moon, by means of which she might be retained in her orbit as a stone in a sling is retained by the hand; and if so, be next inferred, why might not a similar princi- ple exist in tbe other great bodies ip the universe, the sun and all the other planets, both primary and secondary, which might all be retained in their orbits, and perform their revolutions, by means of the same universal princi- ple of gravitation. These conjectures he soon realized and verified by mathematical proofs. Kepler had found out, by con- templating the motions of the planets about the suh, that the area described by a line connecting the sun and pla- net, as this revolved in its orbit, was alw ays proportion- al to the time of its description; or that it described equal areas in equal times, in whatever part of its orbit the planet might be, moving always so much the quicker as its distance from the sun was less. And it is also found that the satellites, or secondary planets, respect the same law in revolving about their primaries. But it was soon proved by Newton, that all bodies moving in any curve line described on a plane, and which, by radii drawn to any certain point, describe areas about the point propor- tional to the times, are impelled or acted on by some power tending towards that point. Consequently the power by which all these planets revolve, and are retain- ed in their orbits, is directed to the centre about which they move, viz. the primary planets to the sun, and the satellites to their several primaries. Again, Newton demonstrated, that if several bodies re- volve with an equable motion in several circles about the same centre, and that if the squares of their periodical times are in the same proportion as the cubes of their distances from the common centre, then the centripetal forces of the revolving bodies, by which they tend to their central body, will be in the reciprocal or inverse ratio of the squares of the distances. Or if bodies revolve in orbits approaching to circles, and the apses of those orbits are at rest, then also the centripetal forces of the revolving bodies w ill be reciprocally proportional to the squares of the distances. But it had been agreed on by the astrono- mers, and particularly Kepler, that both these cases ob- tain in all the planets. And therefore he inferred, thatthe centripetal forces of all the planets are reciprocally pro- portional to the squares ofthe distances from the centres of their orbits. Upon the whole it appears, that the planets are retain- ed in their orbits by some power which is continually acting upon them: that this power is directed towards the centre of their orbits: that the intensity or efficacy of this power increases upon an approach towards the cen- tre, and diminishes on receding from the same, and that in the reciprocal duplicate ratio of the distances: and that, by comparing this centripetal force of the planets with the force of gravity on the earth, they are found to be perfectly alike, as may easily be shown in various in- stances. For example, in the case of the moon. The rectilinear spaces described in any given time by a falling body, urged by any powers, reckoning from the begin- ning of its descent, are proportional to those powers. Consequently the centripetal force ofthe moon revolving in her orbit, will be to the force of gravity on the surface of the earth, as the space which the moon would describe in falling during any small time, by her centripetal force towards the earth, if she had no circular motion at all, to the space of a body near the earth would describe in.fall- ing by its gravity towards the same. Now by an easy calculation of those two spaces, it ap- GRAVITY. pears that the former force is to the latter, as the square of the semidiameter of the carth is to the square of that ofthe moon's orbit. The moon's centripetal force there- fore is equal to the force of gravity; and consequently these forces are not different, but they arc one and the same: for if they were different, bodies acted on by the two powers conjointly would fall towards the earth with a velocity double to that arising from the sole power of gravity. It is evident therefore thatthe moon's centripetal force, by which she is retained in her orbit, and prevented from running off in tangents, is the very power of gravity of the earth extended thither. See Newton's Princip. lib. 1, prop. 45, and lib. 3, prop. 3; where the numeral calcula- tion may be seen in full length. Tbe moon therefore gravitates towards the earth, and reciprocally the earth towards the moon. And this is also farther confirmed by the phenomena of the tides. The like reasoning may also be applied to the planets. For as the revolutions of the primary planets round the sun, and those of the satellites of Jupiter and Saturn round their primaries, are phenomena of the same kind with the revolution ofthe moon about the earth; and as the centripetal powers of the primary are directed to- wards the centre ofthe sun, and those of the satellites towards the centres of the primaries; and, lastly, as all these powers are reciprocally as the squares of the dis- tances from the centres, it may safely be concluded that the power and cause are the same in all. As the moon, therefore, gravitates towards the earth, and the earth towards the moon; so do all the secondaries to their primaries, and these to their secondaries; and so also do the primaries to the sun, and the sun to the prima- ries. Newton's Princip. lib. 3, prop. 4, 5, 6; Greg. Astron. lib. 1, sect. 7, prop. 46 and 47. The laws of universal gravity are the same as those of bodies gravitating towards the earth, before laid down. Cause of gravity. Various theories have been advanced by the philosophers of different ages to account for this grand principle of gravitation. The ancients, who were only acquainted with particular gravity, or the tendency of sublunar bodies towards the carth, aimed no farther than to establish a system that might answer the more obvious phenomena of it. Some hints, however, are found concerning the gravitation of celestial bodies in the ac- count given ofthe doctrine of Thales and his successors; and it would seem that Pythagoras was still better ac- quainted with it, and which it is supposed he had in view in whathe taught concerning the harmony of the spheres. Aristotle and the peripatetics content themselves with referring gravity or weight to a native inclination in heavy bodies to be in their proper place or sphere, the centre of the earth. And Copernicus ascribes it to an in- nate principle in all parts of matter, by which, when se- parated from their wholes, they endeavour to return to them again the nearest way. Kepler, in his preface to the Commentaries concerning the planet Mars, speaks of gravity as of a power that was mutual between bodies; and says that the carth and moon tend tiwards each other, and would meet in a point so many times nearer to the earth than to the moon, as the earth is greater than the moon, if the motions did not hinder it. He adds that the tides arise from the gravity ofthe waters towards the moon. To him we also owe the important discovery of the analogy between the distances of the several planets from the sun, and the periods in which they complete then* revolutions, viz. that the squares of their periodic times are always in the same proportion as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. However, Kepler, Gasscndi, Gilbert, and others, ascribe gravity to a certain magnetic attraction of the earth; conceiving the earth to be one great magnet cem- tinually emitting effluvia, which take hold of all bodies, and draw them towards the earth. But this is inconsist- ent with the several phenomena. Des Cartes and his followers, Rohault, kc. attribute gravity to an external impulse or trusion of some subtle matter. By the rotation of the earth, say they, all the parts and appendages of it necessarily endeavour to recede from the centre of rotation; but whence they cannot all actually recede, as there is no vacuum or space to receive them. But this hypothesis, founded on the supposition of a plenum, is overthrown by what has been since proved of the existence of a vacuum. Dr. Hallcy, despairing of any satisfactory theory, chooses to have immediate recourse to the agency of the Deity. So Dr. Clarke, from a view of several properties of gravity, concludes that it is no adventitious effect of any motion, or subtile matter,but an original and general law impressed by God on all matter, and preserved in it by some efficient power penetrating the very solid and intimate substance of it; being found always proportional, not to the surfaces of bodies or corpuscles, but to their solid quantity and contents. It should therefore be no more inquired why bodies gravitate, than how they came to be first put in motion. Gravesandc, in his lutroduct. ad Philos. Newton, con- tends, that the cause of gravity is utterly unknown; and that we are to consider it no otherwise than as a law of nature originally and immediately impressed by the Crea- tor, without any dependancc on any second law or cause atall. Of this bethinks the three following considerations sufficient proof. 1. That gravity requires the presence of the gravitating or attracting body: so that the satellites of Jupiter, for example, gravitate towards Jupiter, where- ver he may be. 2. Tlmt the distance bring supposed the same, the velocity with which bodies are moved by the force of gravity, depends on the quantity of matter inthe attracting body; and the velocity is not' changed, what- ever the mass of the gravitating body may be. 3. That if gravity depends on any known law of motion, it must be some impulse from an extraneous body; so that as gra- vity is continual, a continual stroke must also be requir- ed. Now if there is any such matter continually striking on bodies, it must be fluid and sc.btile enough to pene- trate the substance of all bodies: but how shall a body subtile enough to penetrate the substance of the hard- est bodies, and so rare as not sensibly to hinder the •motion of bodies, be able to impel vast masses to- wards each other with such force? How does this force increase the ratio of the mass of the body, towards which the other body is moved? Whence is it that all bodies move with the same velocity, the distance anil body gravitated to being the same? Can a fluid which only acts on the surface eitlier of the bodies them- selves, or their internal particles, communicate such a GRAVITY. quantity of motion to bodies, which in all bodies shall ex- actly follow the proportion of the quantity of matter in them? Mr. Cotes goes yet farther. Giving a view of Newton's philosophy, he asserts that gravity is to be ranked among the primary qualities of all bodies; and deemed equally essential to matter as extension, mobility, or im- penetrability. Prefat. ad Newt. Princip. But Newton himself disclaims this notion; and to show that he does not take gravity to be essential to bodies, he declares his opinion of the cause; choosing to propose it by way of query, not being yet sufficiently satisfied about its ex- periments. Thus, after having shown that there is a me- dium in nature vastly more subtle than air, by whose vibrations sound is propagated, by which light commu- nicates heat to bodies, and by the different densities of which the refraction and reflection of light are perform- ed; he proceeds to inquire: « Is not this medium much rarer within the dense bodies ofthe sun, stars, planets, and comets, than in the empty celestial spaces between them? And in passing from them to greater distances, doth it not grow denser and denser perpetually, and thereby cause the gravity of those great bodies towards one another, and of their parts towards the bodies; every body endeavouring to recede from the denser parts ofthe medium towards the rarer? " For if this medium be supposed rarer within the Sun's body than at its surface, and rarer there than at the hun- dredth part of an inch from his body, and rarer there than at the fiftieth partof an inch from his body, and rarer there than at the orb of Saturn; I see no reason why the increase of density should stop any where, and not rather he continued through all distances from the Sun at Saturn, and beyond. " And though this increase of density may at great dstances be exceeding si »w; yet if the elastic force at this medium be exceeding great, it may suffice to impel bodies from the denser parts of the medium towards the rarer with all that power which we call gravity. " And that the elastic force of this medium is exceed- ing great, may be gathered from the swiftness of its vibrations. Sounds move about 1140 English feet in a second of time, and in seven or eight minutes of time they move about 100 English miles: light moves from the Sun to us in about seven or eight minutes of time: which dis- tance is about 70,000,000 English miles, supposing the horizontal parallax of the Sun to be about twelve seconds; and the vibrations, or pulses of this medium, that they may cause the alternate fits of easy transmission, and easy reflection, must be swifter than light, and by conse- quence above 7000000 times swifter than sounds; and therefore the elastic force of this medium, in proportion to its density, must be above 7 000000 x 7000000 (that is, above 49,000,000,000,000) times greater than the elastic force of the air is iu proportion to its density: for the velocities of the pulses of elastic mediums are in a sub- duplicate ratio of the elasticities and the rarities ofthe mediums taken together. " As magnetism is stronger in small load-stones than in great ones, in proportion to their bulk; and gravity is stronger on the surface of small planets than those of great ones, in proportion to their bulk; and small bodies are agitated much more by electric attraction than great ones: so the smallness of the rays of light may contribute very much to the power of the agent by which they are refracted; and if any one should suppose that aether (like our air) may contain particles which endeavour to recede from one another (for I do not know what this aether is), and that its particles are exceedingly smaller than those of air, or even than those of light; the exceeding smallness of such particles may contribute to the greatness of the force by which they recede from one another, and there- by make that medium exceedingly more rare and elastic than air, and of consequence exceedingly less able to resist the motions of projectiles, and exceedingly more able to press upon gross bodies by endeavouring to expand itself." Optics, p. 325, &c. Gravity, in mechanics, denotes the tendency of bodic8 towards the centre of the earth. That part of mechanic8 which considers the equilibrium, or motion of bodies aris* ing from gravity or weight, is particularly called statics' Gravity in this view is distinguished into absolute and relative. Absolute Gravity is that with which a body descends freely and perpendicularly through an unresisting me- dium. See Mechanics. Relative Gravity is that with which a body descends on an inclined plane, or through a resisting medium, or as opposed by some other resistance. See Mechanics. Gravity, in hydrostatics. The laws of bodies gravi- tating in fluids make the business of hydrostatics. Gravity is here divided into absolute and specific. Absolute, or true Gravity, is the whole force with which the body tends downwards. Specific Gravity, is the relative, comparative, or ap- parent gravity in any body, in respect of that of an equal bulk or magnitude of another body; denoting that gravity or weight which is peculiar to each species or kind of body, and by which it is distinguished from all other kinds. In this sense a body is said to be specifically heavier than another, when under the same bulk it contains a greater weight than that other; and reciprocally the latter is said to be specifically lighter than the former. Thus, if there are two equal spheres, each one foot in diameter; the one of lead, and the other of wood: since the leaden one is found heavier than the wooden one, it is said to be specifically, or in specie, heavier; and the wooden one specifically lighter. This kind of gravity is by some called relative; in op- position to absolute gravity, which increases in propor- tion to the quantity or mass of the body. Laws of the specific gravity of bodies. I. If two bodies are equal in bulk, their specific gravi- ties are to each other as their weights, or as their densi- ties. II. If two bodies are ofthe same specific gravity or density, their absolute weights will be as their magni- tudes or bulks. III. In bodies of the same weight, the specific gravi- ties are reciprocally as their bulks. IV. The specific gravities of all bodies are in a ratio compounded of the direct ratio of their weights and re- GRAVITY. ciprocal ratio of their magnitudes. And hence again the specific gravities are as the densities, i V. The absolute gravities or weights of bodies are in the compound ratio of their specific gravities and magni- tudes or bulks. VI. The magnitudes of bodies are directly as their weights, and reciprocally as their specific gravities. VII. A body specifically heavier than a fluid, loses as much.of its weight when immersed in it, as is equal to the weight of a quantity of the fluid ofthe same bulk or mag- nitude. Hence, since the specific gravities are as the absolute gravities under the same bulk; the .specific gravity of the fluid, will be to that of the body im merged, as the part of the weight lost by the solid, is to the whole weight. And hence tbe specific gravities of fluids are as the weights lost by the same solid immerged in them. VIII. To find the specific gravity of a fluid or of a solid. On one arm of a balance suspend a globe of lead by a fine thread, and to the other fasten an equal weight, which may just balance it in the open air. Immcrge the globe into the fluid, and observe what weight balances it "then, and consequently what weight is lost, which is propor- tional to the specific gravity as above. And thus the pro- portion ofthe specific gravity of one fluid to another is de- termined by immersing the globe successively in all the fluids, and observing the weights lost it each,Which will be the proportions of the specific gravities of the fluids sought. This same operation determines also the specific gra- vity of tbe solid immerged, whether it is a globe, or of any other shape or bulk,supposing thatof the fluid known. For tbe specific gravity of the fluid is to that of the solid, as the weight lost is to the whole weight. Hence also may be found the specific gravity of a body that is lighter than tbe fluid, as follows: IX. To find the specific gravity of a solid that is lighter than the fluid, as water, in which it is put. Annex to the lighter body another that is much heavier than the fluid, so that the compound mass may sink in the fluid. Weigh the heavier body and the compound mass separately, both in water and out of it; then find how much each loses in water, by subtracting its weight in water from its weight in air; and subtract the less of these remainders from the greater. Then, As this last remainder, Is to the weight of the light body in air, So is the specific gravity ofthe fluid, To the specific gravity of that body. X. The specific gravities of bodies of equal weight, are reciprocally proportional to the quantities of weight lost inthe same fluid. And hence is found the ratio of the specific-gravities of solids, by weighing in the same fluids, masses of them that weigh equally in air, and noting the weights lost by each. The specific gravities of many kinds of bodies, both solid and fluid, have been determined by various authors. It will be sufficient here to give those of some of the most usual bodies that have been determined with the greater certainty. The numbers in this table express the number of avoirdupoise ounces in a cubic foot of each body, that of common water being just 1000 ounces, or 62£lb. A TABLE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF DIFFERENT BODIES, ARRANGED ALPHABETICAL1Y. Metals. Autimony, crude - 4064 glass of - - - 4946 molten - 6702 Arsenic, glass of, natural - - 3594 molten .... 5763 native orpiment - - 5452 Bismuth, molten ... 9823 native - , . 9020 ore of, in plumes - - 4371 Brass, cast, not hammered - - 8396 ditto, wiredrawn - • 8544 cast, common ... 7824 Cobalt, molten - - - - 7812 blue glass of "2441 Copper, not hammered ... 7788 the same wiredrawn - - 8878 ore of soft copper, or natural verdigr. 3572 Gold, pure, of 24 caracts, melted, but not hammered 19258 the same hammered - - 19362 Parisian standard, 22 car. not hammered 17486 the same hammered - - 17589 guineaofGco.il. - - 17150 guinea of Geo. III. - - 17629 Spanish gold coin - - 17655 Holland ducats ... 19352 trinket standard, 20 car. not hammered 15709 the same hammered • - 15775 Iron, cast - 7207 bar, either hardened or not - 7788 Steel, neither tempered nor hardened - 7833 hardened, but not tempered - 7840 tempered and hardened - - 7818 ditto not hardened - - 7816 Iron, ore prismatic ... 7355 ditto specular - - - 5218 ditto lenticular ... 5012 Lead, molten .... 11352 ore of, cubic - - . 7 587 ditto horned ... 6072 ore of black lead - 6745 ditto white lead ... 4059 ditto ditto vitreous - . 6558 ditto red lead ... 6027 ditto saturnite ... 5925 Manganese, striated ... 4756 Molybdena .... 4738 Mercury, solid, or congealed - - 15632 fluent - . . 13568 natural calx of - - . 9230 precipitate per se 10871 precipitate, red - . 8399 brown cinnabar - . 10218 red cinnabar - 6902 Nickel, molten - 7807 ore of, called kupfernickel of Saxe 6648 kupfernickel of Bohemia - 6607 Platina, crude, in grains . . 15602 purified, not hammered - 19500 purified, hammered - - 20337 GRAVITY. Platinr , ditto wiredrawn ditto rolled 21042 22069 Silver, virgin, 12 deniers, fine, not ham. H)744 ditto hammered - - 10511 Paris standard - - 10175 shilling of Geo. II. - 10000 shilling of Geo. III. - 10534 French coin - - 10408 Tin, pure Cornish, melted, not hardened 7291 the same hardened - 7299 of Malacca, not hardened 7296 the same hardened - 7307 ore of, red . 6935 ore of, black . 6901 ore of, white . 6008 Tungsten . 6066 Uranium - 6440 Wolfram - 7119 Zinc, molten - 7191 Precious stones. Beryl, or aqua-marine, oriental 3549 ditto occidental - 2723 Chrysolite, of the jeweller! i 2782 of Brazil - 2692 Chrystal, pure rock of Madagascar 2653 of Brazil - 2653 European - 2655 rose-coloured - 2670 yellow - 2654 violet, or amethyst 2654 white amethyst - 2651 Carthaginian - 2657 black - 2654 Diamond, white oriental . 3521 rose-coloured oriental 3531 orange ditto - 3550 green ditto - 3524 blue ditto . 3525 Brazillian - 3444 yellow - 3519 Emerald of Peru - 2775 Garnet of Bohemia - 4189 of Syria - 4000 dodecaedral • 4063 volcanic, 24 faces . 2468 Girasol - 4000 Hyacinth, common - 3687 Jargon of Ceylon - 4416 Quartz, crystallised - 2655 in the mass - 2647 brown crystallised 2647 fragile - 2649 milky - 2652 fat, or greasy - 2646 Ruby, oriental - 4283 spinell . 3760 ball as . 3646 Brazilian . 3531 Sapphire, oriental . 3994 ditto white . 3991 of Puys - 4077 Brazilian - 3131 Spar, white sparkling - 2595 Spar, red ditto green ditto blue sparkling green and white ditto transparent ditto adamantine Topaz, oriental pistachio ditto Brazilian of Saxe white ditto vermilion Silicious stones* Agate, oriental onyx cloudy r speckled veined stained Calcedony, common transparent veined reddish blueish onyx Cornelian, pale speckled veined onyx stalactite simple Flint, white black veined Egyptian Jade, white green olive Jasper, clear green brownish green red brown yellow violet cloudy veined onyx red and yellow bloody Opal Pearl, virgin oriental Pebble, onyx of Rennes English veined stained Frasium - Sardonyx, pure pale speckled veined onyx blackish 2438 2704 2693 3105 2564 3873 4011 4061 3536 3564 3554 4230 2590 2638 2625 2607 2667 26S2 2616 2664 2606 2665 2587 2615 2630 2612 2623 2623 2598 2613 2594 2582 2612 2565 2950 2966 2983 2539 2681 2661 2691 2710 2711 2735 2696 2816 2750 2628 2114 2684 2664 2654 2609 2612 258T 2581 260S 2606 2622 2595 2595 2628 GRAVITY. *V0L Schorl, black prism, hexacdral 3364 octaedral . 3226 tourmalin of Ceylon . 3054 antique basaltes - 2021 Brazilian emerald - 3156 cruciform - 328G Stone, paving - 2416 cutler's . 2111 grind - 2143 mill . 2500 Various stones, earths, 95 Brocatelle - 2650 L- II. 41 Marble, Castilian - _ «, 2700 Valencian . _ 2710 white Grenadan . » 2705 Sicnnien . „ 2678 Roman violet . _ 2755 African . . 2708 violet Italian - - 2858 Norwegian - - 2728 Siberian - - 2718 green Egyptian - - 2668 Swisserland - - 2714 French - - 2649 Obsidian stone - - 2348 Peat, bard - - 1329 Phosphorus - - 1714 Porcelaine, Seves - - 2146 Limoges - - 2341 China - - 2385 Porphyry, red - - 2765 green - - 2676 red, from Dauphiny - 2793 red, from Cord one - 2754 green, from ditto - 2728 Pyrites, coppery - - 4954 feruginous cubic - 3900 ditto round - - 4101 ditto of St. Domingo - 3440 Serpentine, opaque, green Italian 2430 ditto, veined black and olive 2594 ditto, red and black 2627 semitranspar. grained 2586 ditto fibrous - - 3000 ditto, from D auphiny 2669 Slate, common - - 2672 new - - 2854 black stone . - 2186 fresh polished - - 2766 SatlaGtite, transparent - - 2324 opakc - - 2478 Stone, pumice - - 915 prismatic basaltes - - 2722 touch - - 2415 Siberian blue . - 2945 oriental ditto - - 2771 common - - 2520 Bristol - - 2510 Burford - - 2049 Portland - - 2496 rag - - 2470 rotten - . 1981 hard paving - - 2460 mill - - 2500 clicard, from Brachet - 2357 ditto, from Ouchain - 2274 Notre Dame - - 237 8 St. Maur - - . 20.34 St. Cloud - - - 2201 Sulphur, native - - 2033 molten - - 1991 Talc, of Muscovy - - 2792 blaric crayon . - 2089 ditto German - - 224 6 yellow - 2655 GRAVITY. Talc, black - . 2900 Urine, human - - 1011 white . -. 2704 Water, rain - - 1000 Liquors, oils ,#c. distilled - - 1000 Acid, sulphuric - • 1841 sea (average) - - 1026 ditto, highly concentrated 21^5 of Dead Sea - - 1240 nitric . - 1271 Wine, Burgundy - - - 992 ditto, highly concentrated - 1580 Bordeaux - - - 994 muriatic _ - 1194 Madeira - - 1038 red acetous - - 1025 Port - - 997 white acetous . ; 14 Canary - - 103S distilled ditto _ _ 1(40 Resins, gums, and animal substc mccs, #c. fluoric _ . 1500 Aloes, socotrine - - 1380 acetic _ . 1063 hepatic - - 1359 phosphoric - . - 1558 Assafcetida - - 1328 formic . - 994 Bees' wax, yellow - - 965 Alcohol, commercial , - 837 white - - 969 highly rectified - - 829 Bone of an ox - - 1656 Alcohol, mixed with water, Butter - - 942 15-16ths alcohol _ . 853 Calculus humanus - - 1700 14-l6ths ditto _ _ 867 ditto - - 1240 13-16ths ditto _ . 882 ditto - - 1434 12-16ths ditto . . 895 Camphor - - 989 H-I6ths ditto . . 908 Copal, opake - - 1140 10-16ths ditto . . 920 Madagascar - - 1060 9-l6ths ditto . . 932 Chinese - - 1063 8-l6thsditto _ „ 943 Crassamentum, human blood - 1126 7-16ths ditto . . 952 Dragon's blood - - 1205 6-16ths ditto . . 960 Elemi - - 1018 5-16ths ditto . . 967 Fat, beef - - ■923 4-16ths ditto . . 973 hog's - - 9S7 3-16ths ditto . . 979 mutton - - 924 2-16ths ditto _ . 985 veal - •- 934 1-16th ditto . K 997 Galbanum - - 1212 Ammoniac, liquid . 897 Gamboge - - 1222 Beer, pale . . 1024 Gum, ammoniac - - 1207 brown . . 1038 Arabic - - 1452 Cyder . . 1018 euphorbia - - 1124 Ether, sulphuric - . . 739 seraphic - - 1201 nitric - - 909 tragacanth - - 1316 muriatic . . 738 bdellium - - 1372 acetic . . 860 scammony of Smyi en a - 1274 Milk, woman's . . 1020 ditto of Aleppo - - 1235 cow's - . 1032 Gunpowder, shaken - - 932 ass's . - 1036 in a loose heap - 836 ewe's , . 1041 solid - - 1745 goat's - . 1035 Honey - - 1450 mare's . . 1034 Indigo - - 769 cow's clarified . . 1019 Ivory - - 1826 Oil, essential, of turpentine - 870 Juice of liquorice - - 1723 ditto, of lavender . 894 of acacia - - 1515 ditto, of cloves . . 1036 Labdanum - . 1186 ditto, of cinnamon . . 1044 Lard . - 948 of olives . . 915 Mastic - - 1074 of sweet almonds . - 917 Myrrh . . 1360 of filberts . - 916 Opium . . 1336 linseed . - 940 Scammony. See Gum. of walnuts . . 923 Serum of human blood . - 1030 of whale . - 923 Spermaceti - - 943 of hempseed - . - 926 Storax . . 1110 of poppies - - 924 Tallow j. - 942 rapeseed - - 919 Terra Japonica - - 1398 Spirit of wine. See Alcohol. - Tragacanth. See Gum. Turpentine, liquid - - - 9*91 Wax. See Bees'-wax. G R A G R E Wax, shoemaker's -Woods. - 897 Alder - . 800 Apple-tree - - 793 Ash, the trunk . - 845 Bay-tree . - 822 Beech . - 852 Box, French . - 912 Dutch . . 1388 Brazilian red - 1031 Campeachy wood - - 913 Cedar, wild - - 596 Palestine - - 613 Indian - - 1315 American - - 561 Citron - - 726 Coco-wood - - 1040 Cherry-tree - - 715 Cork - - 240 Cypress, Spanish - -> 644 Ebony, American - - 1331 Indian - -. 1209 Elder-tree - - 695 Elm, trunk of - - 671 Filbert-tree . - 600 Fir, male - - 550 female - . 498 Hazel - . 600 Jasmin, Spanish - - 770 Juniper-tree - - 556 Lemon-tree - - 703 Lignum vitse - - 1333 Linden-tree - - 604 Logwood. See Campeachy. Mastich-trec ♦ - 849 Mahogany - - 1063 Maple - - 750 Medlar - - 944 Mulberry, Spanish - 897 Oak, heart of, 60 . years old - 1170 Olive-tree - - 927 Orange-tree - - 705 Pear-tree - - 661 Po in eg ran ate- tree - - 1354 Poplar - - 383 white, Spanish - 529 Plum-tree - - 785 Quince-tree - - 705 Sassafras - - 482 Vine - - 1327 Walnut - - 671 Willow - - 585 Yew, Dutch - 788 Spanish - 807 Weight and specific gravities t )f different gases. Fahrenheit's therm. 55° Barom. 30 inch. Spec. grav. Wt. cub . foot. Atmospheric air 1.2 525 0 grs. Ilvdrogenous gas 0.1 43. 75 Oxygenous gas 1.435 627. 812 Azotic gas 1.182 517. 125 Nitrous gas 1.4544 636. 333 Ammonia . gas .7311 319.832 Sulphur, acid gas 2.7611 1207 978 In this table the weights and specific gravities of the principal gases are given, as they correspond to a state of the barometer and thermometer which may be chosen for a medium. The specific gravity of any one gas to that of another will not conform to exactly the same ratio under different degrees of heat and other pressures of the atmosphere, because the various expansions by no means follow the same law. These numbers being the weight of a cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches, of each of the bodies, in avoirdupois ounces, by proportion the quantity in any other weight, or the weight of any other quantity, may be readily known. For example. Required the content of an irregular block of millstone which weighs 1 cwt. or 112 lb. or 1792 ounces. Here, as 2500 :1792 : :1728 :1228| cubic inches the content. Ex. 2. To find the weight of a block of granite, whose length is 63 feet, and breadth and thickness each 12 feet; being the dimensions of one of the stones of granite in the walls of Balbec. Here 63 x 12 x 12 = 9072 feet is the content of the stone; therefore as 1 : 9072 :: 3500 oz. 31752000 oz. or 885 tons 18 cwt. 3 qrs. the weight of the stone. XI. A body descends in a fluid specifically lighter, or ascends in a fluid specifically heavier, with a force equal to the difference between its weight and that of an equal bulk ofthe fluid. XII. A body sinks in a fluid specifically heavier, so far as that the weight of the body is equal to the weight of a quantity ofthe fluid ofthe same bulk as the part im- mersed. Ilence, as the specific gravity of the fluid, is to that of the body, so is the whole magnitude of the body, to the magnitude of tbe part immersed. XIII. The specific gravities of equal solids are as their parts immerged in the same fluid. The several theorems here delivered are both demon- strable from the principles of mechanics, and are also equally comformable to experiment, which answers ex- actly to the calculation. See Hydrostatics. Gravity, in music. Gravity is that modification of any sound by which it becomes deep or low in respect of some other sound: the gravity of sounds depends on tbe thickness and distension of the chords, or the length and diameter of the pipes, and in general on the mass, extent, and tension, of the sonorous bodies. The larger and more lax are the bodies, the slower will be the vibrations, and the graver the sounds. GRAUSTEI \, in mineralogy, is a rock composed of small grains of felspar and hornblende, which graduate into each other, and form a mass almost homogenous of an ash-grey colour. It contains olivine and augite. GREAT-circle sailing, the manner of conducting a ship in, or rather pretty near, the arch of a great circle, that passes through the zenith of the two place, viz. whence she cauie, and to which she is bound. GUrCEN -CLOTH, a board, or court of justice, held in tliecomptiiig-house of the king's household, composed of tli ■ lord-stewan', and officers under him, who sit daily. To this court are committed the charge and oversight of tin king's household in matters of justice and goveru- men:, with a power to correct all offenders, and to main- tain the peace ofthe verge, or jurisdiciton ofthe court- G R E G R I royal; which is every way about two hundred yards from the last gate of the palace where his majesty resides. It takes its name from a green cloth spread over the board where they sit. Without a warrant first obtained from this court, none of the king's servants can be arrested for debt. Green-finch, in ornithology. See Fringilla. Green-house, or conservatory, a house in a garden contrived for sheltering and preserving the most tender and curious exotic plants, which, in our climate, will not hear to be exposed to the open air during the winter season. These are generally large and beautiful struc- tures, equally ornamental and useful. GREENLAND Company. A joint stock of 40,000J. was by statute to be raised by subscribers, who were in- corporated for 14 years from the 1st of October, 1693, and the company to use the trade of catching whales, kc. into and from Greenland and the Greenland seas. They make bye-laws for the government of the persons employed in their ships, &c. Stat. 4 and 5 W. III. cap. 17. This company was farther encouraged by parliament in 1696; but partly by unskilful management, and partly by real losses, it was under the necessity of entirely breaking i:p, before the expiration of the term assigned to it, ending in 1707. But any person who will adven- ture to Greenland for whale-fishing shall have all the privileges granted to the Greenland company by I Anne, cap. 16, and thus the trade was again laid open. Any subjects may import whale-fins, oil, &c. of fish caught in the Greenland seas, without paying any customs, &c. Stat. 10 Geo. I. cap. 16. And ships employed in the Greenland fishery are to be of a given burden, provided with boats, so many men, fishing-lines, harping-irons, kc. and be licensed to proceed; and on their return shall be paid 20s. per ton bounty for whale-fins, &c. imported. 6 Geo. II. cap. 33. The bounty was afterwards increas- ed, but lias been lately diminished; and since this dimi- nution the trade has increased. See Bal-ena, and Fish- ery. GREGORIAN Calendar. See Calendar, and Epact. Gregorian Epoch, the epocha or time whence the Gregorian calendar or computation took place. Gregorian Year, the Julian year e orrected or mo- delled, in such a iranner as that three secular years, which in the Julian account are bissextile, are here common years, aud only every fourth seculiar year is made a bissextile year. The Julian computation is more than the solar year by eleven minutes, which in 131 years amounts to a whole day. By this calculation the vernal equinox was anticipated 10 days from the time of the general council of Nice, held in the year 325 of the christian sera, to the time ef pope Gregory XIII. who therefore caused 10 days to be taken out ofthe month of October, in 15Ss2, to make the equinox f;«15 on the 21st of Miurh, as it did at the time of that council; and to prevent the like vari- ation for the future, lie ordered that three days .mould be£ abated in every 400 yea- s, by reducing the leap year at the close of each century f.\r three successive centuries to common yeai-s, and retaining the leap-year at the close of each fourth century only. This was at that time esteemed as exactly conformable to the true solar year, but it is found not to be strictly just, because that in 400 years it gets one hour and twenty minutes; and consequently in 7200 years, a whole day. The greatest part of Europe have long used the Gre- gorian style; but Great Britain retained the Julian till the year 1752, when by act of parliament this style was adjusted to the Gregorian; since which time Sweden, Denmark, and other European states, who computed time by the Julian account, have followed this example. GREWIA, a genus of the polyandria order, in the gynandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 37th order, columniferse. The calyx is pentaphyllous; there are five petals, each with a nec- tariferous scale at the base; the berry is quadrilocular. The species are 13. The most remarkable are: 1. The occidentalis, with oval crenated leaves, has long been preserved in many curious gardens both in England and Holland. It is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and grows to the height of 10 or 12 feet. The stem and branches greatly resemble those of the small-leafed elm, the bark being smooth, and of the same colour w ith that when young. The leaves arc also very like those of the elm, and fall off in autumn. The flowers are produced singly along the young branches from the wings of the leaves, and are of a bright purple colour. 2. The africana, with oval spear-shaped serrated leaves, is a native of Senegal in Africa, whence its sccda were brought by Mr. Adanson. In England it rises with a shrubby stalk five or six feet high, sending out many lateral branches, with a brown hairy bark, and garnished with spcarshaped serrated leaves; but the plants have not flowered in Britain. The first sort, though a native of a warm climate, w ill bear the open air in this country; only requiring to be sheltered in a green-houso during the winter time. It may be propagated by cuttings or layers planted in pots filled with soft loamy earth. The second sort is ten- der, and must be kept constantly in a warm bark-stove. In summer they require a large share ofthe free air to be admitted to them, and should have water three or four times a week in warm weather; but in the winter they must be sparingly watered. The negroes of Senegal consider a decoction of the bark of this last species as a never-failing remedy against venereal complaints. GREWT, among miners, signifies earth of a different colour from the rest, found on the banks of rivers as they are searching for mines. GREYHOUND. See Cams. GRIAS, a genus of the monogynia order, in the poly- andria class of plants, and in the natural method rank- ing with those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is tetrapeJJous; the calyx quadrifid; the stigma sessile and cruciform: the fruit'is a plum with an eight- furrowi J kernel. There is but otic species, the cauliflora, or anchovy pear, a native of Jamaica. The leaves are nearly oval, and about three feet long. It has a straight stem, iipmi the upper part of which come forth the flowers. The fruit is large, and contains a stone with eight fur- row-s. These fruits are eaten by the inhabitants. GRIELLM, a genus of the pentagynia order, inthe decandria class of plants. The calyx is quinquefid; thera arc five petals; the filaments persisting; and there are five G R O ' G R 0 monospcrmous seed-cases. There is one species, aberbof the Cape. GRIFFON, in heraldry, an imaginary animal, feign- ed by the ancients to be half eagle and half lion; by this form they intemled to give an idea of strength and swift- ness joined together, With an extraordinary vigilance in guarding the things entrusted to its care. GRINDING, trituratio, the reducing hard substances to fine powders, either by the mortar, or by way of levi- gation, upon a marble. See Millwork. GRIPE, in the sea language, is a piece of timber stayed against the lower piece of the stern, from the foremast end of the keel, joining with the knee of the head: its use is to defend the lower part of the stern from any injury; but it is often made the larger, to make the ship keep a good wind. GR1SLEA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the octanelria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order, calycanthcms. The calyx is quadrifid; and there are four petals, one from each incisure of it. The filaments are very long, ascending or turning upwards; the capsule is globose, superior, unilo- cular, and polyspermous. There are two species; one a tree of South America, the other a shrub of the East Indies. GRIST, in country-affairs, denotes corn ground, or ready for grinding. See Flour-mill. GRIT, a genus of argillaceous earths. Its texture is more or less porous, equable, and rough to the touch. It does not give fire with steel, nor effervesce with acids. When fresh broken and breathed upon, it exhales an earthy smell. Mr. Kirwan mentions two kinds; one from llollington, near Uttoxeter, of a yellowish or whitish grey, and about the spec ific gravity of 2288. Another, from Knepersley in Staffordshire, is of the specific gravity of 856 8, and so infusible as to be used for fire-stones. According to Fabroni the grit-stone is of greater or less hardness, umslly of a grey, and sometimes of a yellowish colour, composed of a siliceous and micaceous sand, but rarely of a sparry kind; with greater or smaller parti- cles closely compacted by an argillaceous cement. It gives some sparks with steel, is indissoluble for the most part in acids, and vitrifiable in a strong fire. It is used for millstones and whetstones, and sometimes for filter- ing-stones and for building. GROGRAM, a kind of stuff, made of silk and mohair. GRONOVIA, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 34th order, cucurbitacse. There arc five petals and stamina inserted into a campanulated ca- lyx: the berry is 'dry. monospcrmous, and inferior. There is one species, an annual of La Vera Cruz. GROOM, a name particularly applied to several su- perior officers belonging to the king's household, as groom of the chamber, groom of the stole. GROOVE, among miners, is the shaft or pit sunk into tbe earth, sometimes in the vein, and sometimes not. (ihoove, among joiners, the channel made by their plough in the edge of a moulding style, or rail, to put their pannels in, in wai.i-scotting. GROSS, iu law-books, signifies absolute or indepen- dent on another: thus, an advowson in gross, is one distinct and separate from the manor. GR0S9 also denotes the quantity of twelve dozen, of things sold by tale. Gross-hear, in ornithology. See Loxia.] Gross-weight, the whole weight of merchandizes, with their dust and dross; as also the bagorchest where- in they are contained. An allowance is usually made out of the gross weight for tare and tret. See Tare. GROTESQUE, in sculpture and painting, something whimsical, extravagant, and monstrous; consisting either of things that are merely imaginary, and have no existence in nature, or of things so distorted, as to raise surprize and ridicule. Grotesque work is the same with what is sometimes called antique. The name is said to have taken its rise from the figures of this kind much used in adorn- ing the grottos which in ancient times were the tombs of eminent persons or families; such as that of Ovid, whose grotto was discovered near Rome about 100 years ago. GROTTO, or Grotta, a large deep cavern or den in a mountain or rock. The word is Italian, grotta; formed, according to Menage, kc. from the Latin crypta. Du Cange observes, that grotta was used in the same sense in the corrupt Latin. The ancient anchorites retired into dens and grottos, to apply themselves the more attentive- ly to meditation. Okey-hole, Elden-hound, Peak's-hole, and Pool's-hole, are famous among the natural caverns or grottos of our country. The entrance to Okey-hole, on the south side of Mendip-hills, is in the fall of those hills, which is beset all about with rocks, and has near it a precipitate descent of near twelve fathoms deep, at the bottom of which there continually issues from the rocks a considerable current of water. The naked rocks above the entrance show themselves about 30 fathoms high, and the whole ascent ofthe hill above is about a mile, and is very steep. As you pass into this vault, you go at first upon a level; but advancing farther, the way is found to be rocky and uneven, sometimes ascending, and some- times descending. The root of this cavern, in the highest part, is about eight fathoms from the ground, but in many particular places it is so low that a man must stoop to get along. The breadth i« not less various than the height, for in some places it is five or six fathoms wide, and in others not more than one or two. It extends itself in length about two hundred yards. People talk much of certain stones in it, resembling men and women, and other things; but there is little matter of curiosity iu these, being only shapeless lumps of common spar. At the farthest part of the cavern there is a good stream of water large enough to drive a mill, which passes all along one side of the cavern, and at length slides down about six or eight fathoms among the rocks, and then passing through the clefts of them, discharges itself into the valley. The river within the cavern is well stored with eels, and has some fronts in it; and these cannot have come from without, there being so great a fall near the entrance. In dry summers a great number of frogs arc seen all along this cavern, even to the farthest part of it; and on the roof of it, al certain places, hang vast numbers of bats, as they do iu almost all cave ins, the en- trance of which is either level, or but slightly ascending or decending; and even in the more perpendicular ones they are sometimes found, provided they are not too nar- row, and are sufficiently high. The cattle that feed in the pastures through which this river runs have been GROTTO. known to die suddenly sometimes after a flood; this is probably owing to the waters having been impregnated, either naturally or accidentally, with lead ore. Elden-hole is a huge profound perpendicular chasm, three miles from Buxton, ranked among the natural won- ders of the Peak. Its depth is unknown, and is pretend- ed to be unfathomable. Cotton tells us he sounded 884 yards, yet the plummet still drew. But he might easily be deceived, unless his plummet was very heavy; the weight of a rope of that length might well make the land- ing of the plummet scarcely perceivable. Peak's-hole, and Pool's-hole, are two remarkable hori- zontal cavities under mountains; the one near Castleton, tbe other just by Buxton. They seem to have owed their origin to the springs which have their current through them; when the water had forced its way through the horizontal fissures of the strata, and had carried the loose earth away with it, the loose stones must fall down of course: and where the strata had few or no fissures, they remained entire; and so formed these very irregular arches, which are now so much wondered at. The wa- ter which passes through Pool's-hole is impregnated with particles of limestone, and has incrusted the whole ca- vern in such a manner that it appears as one solid rock. In grottos are frequently found crystals of the rock, stalactites, and other natural conglaciations, and those often of au amazing beauty. M. Homberg conjectures, from several circumstances, that the marble pillars in the grotto of Antiparos vegetate or grow. That author looks on this grotto as a garden, in which the pieces of marble are the plants; and endeavours to show, that they could only be produced by some vegetable principle. At Folignoin Italy is another grotto, consisting of pil- lars and orders of architecture of marble, with their or- naments, kc. scarcely inferior to those of art; but they all grow downwards: so that if this too is a garden, the plants are turned upside down. Grotto del Cani, is a little cavern near Pozzuoli, four leagues from Naples, the steams whereof are of a me- phitical or noxious quality; whence also it is called bocca venencsa, the poisonous mouth. " Two miles from Na- ples (says Dr. Mead), just by the Lago de Agnano, is a celebrated Moseta, commonly called la Grotta del Cani, and equally destructive to all within the reach of its va- pours. It is a small grotto about eight feet high, twelve long, and six broad; from the ground arises a thin, sub- tile, warm fume, visible enough to a discerning eye, which does not spring up in little parcels here and there, but in one continued stream, covering the whole surface of the bottom of the cave; having this remarkable differ- ence from common vapours, that it does not, like smoke, disperse itself into the air, but quickly after its rise falls back again, and returns to the earth; the colour of the sides of the grotto being the measure of its ascent: for so far it is of a darkish green, but higher only common carth. And as I myself found no inconvenience by stand- ing in it, so no animal, if its head is above this mark, is the least injured. But when, as the manner is, a dog, or any other creature, is forcibly kept below it; or, by reason of its smallness, cannot hold its head above it, it presently loses all motion, falls down as dead, or in a swoon; the limbs convulsed and trembling, till at last no more signs of life appear than a very weak and almost insensible beat- ing of the heart and arteries; which, if the animal is left a little longer, quickly cerses too, and then the case is irrevocable; but if it is snatched out and laid in the open air, it soon comes to life again, and sooner, if thrown into the adjacent lake." The steam or moefite of the grotto del cani is now well known to be carbonic acid gas. See Chemistry. Grotta del Serpi, is a subterraneous cavern near the village of Sassa, eight miles from the city of Braccano in Italy, described by Kircher thus: "The grotta del serpi is big enough to hold two persons. It is perforated with several fistular apertures, somewhat in the manner of a sieve; out of which, at the beginning of the spring season, issues a numerous brood of young snakes of di- vers colours, but all free from any particular poisonous quality. In this cave they expose their lepers, paraly- tics, arthritics, and elephantiac patients, quite naked; where, the warmth of the subterraneous steams resolv- ing them into a sweat, and the serpents clinging various- ly all around, licking and sucking them, they become so thoroughly freed of all their vicious humours, that upon repeating the operation for some time, they become per- fectly restored." This cave Kircher visited himself; and found it warm, and every way agreeable to the descrip- tion given of it. He saw the holes, and heard a mur- muring hissing noise in them. Though he missed see- ing the serpents, it not being the season of their creeping out, yet he saw a great number of their exuviae or sloughs, and an elm growing hard by laden with them. The dis- covery of the virtues of this cave was by the cure of a leper going from Rome to some baths near this place. Losing his way, and being benighted, he happened upon this cave. Finding it very warm, he pulled off his clothes; and being weary and sleepy, had the good for- tune not to feel the serpents about him till they had wrought his cure. Grotto, Milky, Crypta Lactea, a mile distant from the ancient village of Bethlehem, is said to have been thus denominated on occasion of the Blessed Virgin, who let fall some drops of milk in giving suck to Jesus in this grotto. And hence it has been commonly supposed, that the earth of this cavern has the virtue of restoring milk to women that are grown dry, and even of curing fevers. Accordingly, they are always digging in it, and the earth is sold at a good rate to such as have folly enough to give credit to the fable. An altar has been built on the place, and a church just by it. Grotto is also used for a little artificial edifice made in a garden, in imitation of a natural grotto. The out- sides of these grottos are usually adorned with rustic architecture, and their inside with shell-work, fossils, kc finished likewise with jets-d'eau or fountains, &c. A cement for artificial grottos may be made thus: Take two parts of white rosin, melt it clear, and add to it four parts of becs'-wax; when melted together, add two or three parts of the powder of the stone you design to cement, or so much as will give the cement the colour of tbe stone. With this cement, the stone, shells, kc. after be- ing well dried before the fire, may be cemented. Artifi- cial red coral branches, for the embellishment of grottos, maybe made inthe following manner: Take clear rosin, dissolve it in a brass-pan, to every ounce of which add two drams of the finest vermilion; when you have stirred G R Y G R Y them well together, and have chosen your twigs and branches, peeled and dried, take a pencil and paint the branches all over whilst the composition is warm; after- wards shape them in imitation of natural coral. This done, hold the branches over a gentle coal-fire, till all is smooth and even as if polished. In tbe same manner white coral may be prepared with white lead, and black coral with lamp-black. A grotto may be built with little expense, of glass, cinders, pebbles, pieces of large flint, shells, moss, stones, counterfeit coral, pieces of chalk, &c. all bound or cemented together with the above-described cement. GROUND, in painting, the surface upon which the fig- ures and other objects are represented. See Painting. Ground-tackle, a ship's anchors, cables, and in ge neral whatever is found necessary to make her ride safe at anchor. Ground-ivy, in botany. See Glechoma. GRouND-Pine. See Teucrium. GROUNDAGE, a custom or tribute paid for the ground on which a ship stands in port. GROUNDSEL, in botany, kc See Senecio. GROUP, in painting and sculpture, is an assemblage of two or more figures of men, beasts, fruits, destroy their eggs or little worms with sticks or briars; but in the summer, when they have marched out of their spring-quarters, and have invaded the corn-fields, kc. it is almost impossible to extirpate them without thoroughly thrashing the whole piece of land that harbours them with sticks or flails, and thus crushing the locust with the produce of the land. Finally, when the corn is ripe or nearly so, there is no other method of getting rid of them, or even of diminishing their numbers, than to surround the ground with a multitude of people, who might fright them away with bells, brass vessels, and all other sorts of noise. But even this me- thod will not succeed till the sun is pretty high. " It will likewise be of use, where a large troop of them has pitched, to dig a long trench, of an ell width and depth, and place several persons along its edges, provided with brooms, while another numerous set of people form a semicircle that takes in both ends of the trench, and encompasses the locusts; and by making the noise above-mentioned, drive them into the trench, out of which if they attempt to escape, those on tin edges are to sweep tbem back, and then crush them with their brooms and stake?, and bury them by throwing in the carth again. But when they have begun to fly, there should be horsemen upon the watch in the fields, who, upon any appearance of the swarm taking wing, should immediately alarm the neighbourhood by a certain sig- nal, that they might come and fright them from their lands by all sorts of noise; and if, tired with flying, they happen to pitch on a waste piece of land, it will be very easy to kill them with sticks and brooms in the evening or early in the morning, while they are wet with the dew; or any time of the day in rainy weather, for then they are not able to fly." We have before observed, that the locusts which fell in several parts of England, and in particular in the neighbourhood ofthe metropolis, in the year 1748, were evidently some straggling detachments from the vast flights which in that year visited many ofthe inland parts ofthe European continent. The ravages of locusts in various parts of the world, at different periods, are recorded by numerous authors. In the year 593 ofthe Christian era, after a great drought, these animals appeared in such vast legions as to cause a famine in many countries. In 677 Syria and Mesopo- tamia were overrun by them. In 852, immense swarms took their flight from the Eastern regions into the West, flying with such a sound that they might have been mis- taken for birds: they destroyed all vegetables, not sparing even the bark of trees and the thatch of houses; and de- voured the corn so rapidly, as to destroy, on computa- tion, a hundred and forty acres in a day: their daily marches or distances of flight were computed at twenty miles; and these were regulated by leaders or kings, who flew first, and settled on the spot which was to be visited at the same hour the next day by the whole legion: these marches were always undertaken at sunrise. These locusts were at length driven by the force of winds into the Bclgic ocean, and being thrown back by the tide and left on the shores, caused a dreadful pestilence by their smell. In 1271, all the corn-fie-ldsof Milan were destroy- ed; and inthe year 1339 all those ofLombardy. In 1541, incredible hosts afflicted Poland, Wallachia, and all the adjoining territories, darkening the sun with their num- bers, and ravaging all the fruits ofthe earth. 2. One of the largest species of locust yet known is the gryllus cristatus of Linnaeus, which is five or six times the size of the gryllus migratorius, and, together with some others of the larger kind, is made use of in some parts of the world as an article of food: they are eaten both fresh and salted, in which last state they are publicly sold in the markets of some parts ofthe Levant. The quantity of edible substance which they afford is but small, espe- cially in the male insects; but the females, on account of the ovaries, afford a more nutritious sustenance. The gryllus cristatus is a highly beautiful animal; being of a bright red, with the body annulated with black; and the legs varied with yellow: the upper wings tesselated with alternate variegations of dark and pale green; the lower with transverse undulated streaks: the length ofthe ani- mal from head to tail is about four inches, and the ex- panse of wings from tip to tip, when fully extended, hard- ly less than seven inches and a half. 3. Greatly allied to the preceding is thegryllus dux; it is of the same size and general appearance, but has the body G R Y G U A green; the upper wings brown, with the front edge green; and tbe lower wings red, with numerous black spots dispos- ed in such a manner as to form transverse streaks. It is a native of South America and the West Indian islands. 4. The gryllus viridissimus of Linnaeus is one of the largest European species, and is often seen during the decline of summer in our own country. It is wholly of a pale grass-green, with a slight blueish cast on the head and under part of the thorax, which is marked above by a longitudinal reddish-brown line: the length ofthe insect, from the mouth to the tips of the wings, is about two inches and a half: the female is distinguished by a long sword-shaped process at the end of the body, being the instrument with which she pierces the ground in order to deposit her eggs: it consist of a pair of valves, through the whole length of which the eggs are protruded: they are of an oblong form, and a pile brown colour. 5. The gryllus verrucivorus is also found in some parts of England, and is of an equal size with the viridissimus, but of a reddish-brown colour, with darker variegations: this animal, according to Linnaeus, is frequently applied by the people of Sweden to warts on the hands, which it is suffered to bite off, and is said thus to prevent their return. 6. But of all the British insects of this genus the gryl- lus gryllotalpa or mole-cricket is by far the most curious; and in its colour and manners differs greatly from the rest. It is of an uncouth, and even formidable aspect, measuring more than two inches in length; and is of a broad and slightly flattened shape, of a dusky brown co- lour, with a ferruginous cast on the under parts, and is readily distinguished by the extraordinary structure of its fore-legs, which are excessively strong, and furnish- ed with very broad feet, divided into several sharp, claw- shaped, segments, with which it is enabled to burrow underground in the manner of a mole; the lower wings, which when expanded are very large, are, in their usual state, so complicated under the very short and small up- per wings or sheaths, that their ends alone appear, reach- ing, iu a sharpened form, along the middle ofthe back; the abdomen is terminated by a pair of sharp-pointed, lengthened, hairy processes, nearly equalling the length of the antennae in front, and contributing to give this ani- mal an appearance in some degree similar to that of a blatta. The mole-cricket emerges from its subterraneous re- treats only by night, when it creeps about the surface, and occasionally employs its wings in flight. It prepares for its eggs an oval nest, measuring about two inches in its longest diameter: this nest is situated a hand's breadth below the surface of the ground: it is accurately smoothed within, and is furnished with an obliquely curved pas- sage leading to the surface. The eggs are about two hun- dred and fifty or three hundred iu number, nearly round, of a deep brownish yellow colour, and of the size of com- mon shot: on the approach of winter, or any great change of weather, these insects are said to remove the nest, by sinking it deeper, so as to secure it from the power of freist; and when the spring commences, again raising it iu proportion to the warmth of the season, till at length it is brought so near the surface as te> receive the full in- fluence ofthe air and sunshine; but should unfavourable weather again take place, they again sink the precious vol. n. 41 deposit, and thus preserve it from danger. The eggs arc usually deposited in the months of June and July, and the young are hatched in August. Ac their first exclusion they are about the size of ants, for which, on a cursory view, they might be mistaken; but on a close inspection are easily known by their broad feet, kc. In about the space of a month they are grown to the length of more than a quarter of an inch; in two months upwards of three quarters; and in three months to the length of more than an inch. Of this length they are usually seen during the close of autumn, after which they retire deep beneath the surface; not appearing again till the ensuing spring. During ther growth they cast their skin three or four times. The mole-cricket lives entirely on vegetables, devour- ing the young roots of grasses, corn, and various escu- lent plants, and commits great devastation in gardens. It is found in most parts of Europe, and in the northern parts of Asia and America. 7. The tettigonia or grasshopper, well known in our meadows, belongs to this genus. 8. The acheta or cricket, of which there are two va- rieties, the hearth and the field cricket. 9. The griseus is found in Italy. (See Plate LXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 215.) 10. The stridulus inhabits most parts of Europe. (See Plate LXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 216.) GRYPHITES, iu natural history, in English crow's- stone, an oblong fossil shell, very narrow at the head, and bccominggradually wider to the extremity, where it, ends in a circular limb; the head or beak of this is very hooked or bent inward. They are frequently found in their gravel or clay-pits, in many counties. There are three or four distinct species of them; some are extremelv rounded and convex on the- back, others less so: and the plates of which they are composed, are in some smaller and thinner, in others thicker and larger, in specimens of the same bigness. GLAIACLM, lignum vita; or pockwood; a genus of the monogynia order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 14th order, gruinales. The calyx is quinquefid and unequal; the petals five, and inserted into the calyx; the capsule is an- gulated, and trilocular or quinquelocular. The species are 4: 1. The officinale, or common lignum vitie used in medicine, is a native ofthe West India islands and the warmer parts of America. (See IM. LXVII. Nat. Iiist. fig. 217.) There it becomes a large tree, having a hard, br {_ tie, brownish bark, not very"thick. The wood is \\ \^ solid, ponderous, very resinous, of a blackish yello S'^; lour in the middle, and of a hot aromatic taste ^vhc smaller branches have an ash-coloured bark, a; * ,s divided by pairs of a bright green colour. T' id ica^^ are produced in clusters at the end ofthe br AC ft°NVClJl are composed of oval concave petals of a fine' Anche*. «w 2. The sanctum, with many pairs of obt ,blue colour- many small lobes placed along the mid-ri use lobes, am darker green colour than those of the -b by paii -^ ot a The flowers are produced in loose bin . foregoing sort. end of the branches, and are of a fin jelic* towards the petals fringed em the edges. This sp .e blue colour, with of the West India islands, where it cries is also a nam c mini vitae. 3. The afrum, with mat is called bastard lig- jyblunt-noiutedloavcs, G U A G U A is a native ofthe Cape of Good Hope. The plants retain their leaves all the year, but have never yet flowered in this country. 4. The dubiura, a native of the South Seas. The first species can only he propagated by seeds, which must be procured from the. countries where it na- turally grows. They must be sown fresh in pots, and plunged into a good hotbed, where they will come up in six or eight weeks. While young, they may be kept in a hotbed of tan-bark under a frame during the summer; but in autumn they must be removed into the bark stove, where they should constantly remain. The second sort may be propagated the same way; but the third is to be propagated by layers, and will live all the winter in a good greenhouse. The wood of the first species is of very considerable use both in medicine and in the mechanical arts. It is so compact and heavy as to sink in water. The outer part is often of a pale-yellowish colour; but the heart is blacker, or rather of a deep brown. Sometimes it is mar- bled with different colours. It is so hard as to break the tools which are employed in felling it, and is therefore seldom used as fire-wood, but is of great use to the sugar- planters for making wheels and cogs to sugar-mills. It is also frequently wrought into bowls, mortars, and other utensils. It is brought over hither in large pieces of four or five hundred weight each; and from its hardness and beauty is in great demand for various articles of turnery ware. The wood, gum,, hark, fruit, and even the flowers of this tree, have been found to possess medicinal virtues; but it is only the 3 first, and more particularly the wood and resin, which are now in general use in Europe. The wood has little or no smell, except when heated, or while rasping, and then a slight aromatic one is perceived. When chewed, it impresses a mild acrimony, biting the palate and fauces. Its pungency resides in its resinous matter, which it gives out in some degree to water by boiling, but spirit extracts it wholly. The resin is obtained by wounding the bark in diffe- rent parts of the body of the tree, or by what has been called jagging. It exudes copiously from these wounds, though gradually; and when a quantity is found accumu- lated upon the several wounded trees, hardened by ex- posure to the sun, it is gathered and packed in small kegs for exportation. The resin is of a friable texture, of a deep greenish colour, and sometimes of a reddish hue; it has a pungent acrid taste, but little or no smell unless heated. The tree also yields a spontaneous exudation from the bark, which is called the native gum, and is brought to us in small irregular pieces, of a bright semi- pellucid appearance, and differs from the former in being much purer. Guaiacum was first introduced into Europe as a re- medy for the venereal disease, and appears to have been used in Spain so early as 1508. The great success attend- ing its administration before the proper use of mercury was known, brought it into such repute, that it is said to have been sold for seven old crowns a pound. It did not, however, continue to maintain its reputation; but was found generally to fail where the disease was inveterate, and was at length superseded by mercury, to which it now only serves occasionally as an adjuvant. The gene- ral virtues of guaiacum, are those of a warm stimulating medicine, strengthening the stomach and other viscera, and remarkably promoting the urinary and cuticular dis- charges: hence in cutaneous eruptions, it is deemed emi- nently useful; as well as in the rheumatism when given in a sufficient close. The resin is the most active, and the efficacy of the wood, kc. depends upon the quantity of this contained in them. The resin is given from a few grains to a scruple or half a dram, which last dose proves for the most part considerably purgative. Dissolved in spirit of wine, and afterwrards combined with water, by means of mucilage or the yolk of egg, or in form of the simple or volatile tincture, it is much employed in gout and chronic rheumatism. These last have been given to the extent of half an ounce twice a day, and are sometimes usefully combined with tincture of opium. See Resins. GUARDIAN, one appointed by the wisdom and policy ofthe lawr, to take care of a person and his affairs, who by reason of his imbecility and want of understanding is incapable of acting for his own interest; and it seems by our law, that his office originally was to instruct the ward in the arts of war, as well as those of husbandry and til- lage, that when he came of age he might be the better able to perform those services to his lord, whereby he held his own land. 2 Bac. Abr. 672. There are several kinds of guardians, as, guardian by nature, guardian by the common law, guardian by sta- tute, guardian by custom, guardian in chivalry, guardian in soccage, and guardian by appointment of the lord chancellor. Guardian by nature, is the father or mother; and here it should be observed, that by the common law every father has a right of guardianship of the body of his son and heir, until he attains the age of twenty-one years. Co. Lit. 84. This guardianship extends no further than the cus- tody of the infant's person. 1 Inst. 84. It yields as to the custody of the person, to guardian- ship in soccage, where the title to both guardianships concur in the same individuals. 1 Inst. 88 b. But guardianship in soccage ending at 14, it seems that after that age, the father or other ancestor, having a like title to both guardianships, becomes guardians by nature till the infant's age of 21. Carth. 384. Lastly, the father may disappoint the mother, and other ancestors, of the guardianship by nature, by appointing a testamentary guardian under the statutes 4 and 5 P. et M. and 12 Car. II. Guardian by nature, has only the care of the person and education of the infant, and has nothing to do with his lands merely in virtue of his office; for such guardian may be though the infant have no lands at all, which a guardian in soccage cannot. Co. Lit. 88. Guardian by the common law. If a tenant in soccage dies, his heir being under 14, whether he is his issue or cousin, male or female, the next of blood to the heir, to whom the inheritance cannot descend, shall be guardian of his body and land till his age of fourteen; and although the nature of soccage tenure is in some measure changed from what it originally was, yet it is still called soccage tenure, and the guardian in soccage is still only where lands of that kind, as most of the lands in England now are, descend to the heir within age; and though the heir after 14 may choose his own guardian, who shall con- G U A Gl'D tinuc till he is 21, yet as well the guardian before 14, as he whom the infant shall think fit to choose after 14, are both of the same nature, and have the same office and employment assigned to them by the law, without any intervention or direction of the infant himself: for they were therefore appointed, because the infant in regard of his minority, was supposed incapable of managing him- self and his estate, and consequently derive their autho- rity not from the infant, but from the law: and that is the reason they transact all affairs in their own name, and not in the name of the infant, as they would be obliged to do if their authority was derived from him. Co. Lit. 87. Hence the law has invested them, not with a bare au- thority only, but also with an interest till the guardian- ship ceases; and to prevent their abuse of this authority and interest, the law has made them accountable to the infant, either when he comes to the age of 14 years, or at any time after, as he thinks fit; and therefore are not to have any thing to their own use, as the guardian in chi- valry had. Co. Lit. 90. a. Guardian by statute. By the common law, no person could appoint a guardian, because the law had appointed one, whether the father was tenant by knight service, or in soccage. 3 Co. 37. The first statute that gave the father a power of ap- pointing, was the 4 and 5 P and M. c. 8. which provides under severe penalties, such as fine and imprisonment for years, that no one sl*all take away any maid or woman child unmarried, being within the age of sixteen years, out of or from the possession, custody, or governance, and against the will, of the father of such maid or woman child, or of such person or persons to whom the father of such maid or woman child, by his last will and testament, or by any other act in his life-time, has or shall appoint, assign, bequeath, give, or grant the order, keeping, con- dition and government, of such maid or woman child. 1 Sid. 362. In the construction of this statute, the following opinion has been holden. That a testamentary guardian, or one formed according to this statute, comes in loco parentis, and is the same in office and interest with a guardian in soccage, and differs only as to the modus habendi, or in a few particular circumstances; as first that it may be held for a longer time, viz. till the heir attains the age of 21, whereas before it was but 14; secondly, it may be by other persons held, for before it was the next of kindred not inheritable could have it; and now who the father names shall have it. Vaugh. 178. Guardian by custom. By the custom of the city of London, the custody and guardianship of orphans under age, unmarried, belongs to the city. 2 Bar. Abr. 675. By the custom of Kent, where any tenant died, his licit* being within age, the lord of the manor might and did commit the guardianship to the next relation within the court of justice in whose jurisdiction the land was; but the lore! was bound on all occasions to call him to account, and if he did not see that the accounts were fair, the hud himself was bound to answer it. This province the lend chancellor has taken from inferior courts, only in Kent, where these customs are continued. Guardian in chivalry. By the common law, if tenant by knight-service had died, his heir male buing under the age of twenty-one years, the lord shall have the land holden of him, till such heir had arrived at that age, be- cause till then he was not intended to be able to do such service; and such lord had likewise the. custody of the body of the infant, to bring him up, and inure him to martial discipline, and was therefore called guardian iu chivalry. Co. Lit. 74. This priviledge of wardship is now abolished. Guardian in soccage. Guardians in soccage are also called guardians by the common law. Wardship is inci- dent to tenure in soccage, but of a nature very different from that which was formerly incident to knight-service; for if the inheritance descends to an infant under 14, the wardship of him does not, nor ever did, belong to the lord of the fee; because in this tenure, no military or other personal service being required, there was no occasion for the lord to take the profits in order to provide a pro- per substitute for his infant tenant. Co. Lit. 84. Guardian by appointment of the lord chancellor. It is not easy to state how this jurisdiction was acquired; it is certainly of no very ancient date, though indisputable: for it is clearly agreed, that the king, as pater patriae, is universal guardian of all infants, ideots, and lunatics, who cannot take of themselves; and as this care cannot be exercised otherwise than by appointing them proper curators or committees, it seems also agreed, that the king may, as he has done, delegate the authority to his chancellor; and that therefore at this day, the court of chancery is the only proper court, that has jurisdiction in appointing and removing guardians, and in preventing thein and others from abusing their persons or estates. 2 Inst. 14. And as the court of chancery is now vested with this authority, hence in every day's practice, we find that court determining, as to the right of guardian- ship, who is the next of kin, and who the most proper guardian; as also orders are made by that court on pe- tition or motion, for the provision of infants during any dispute therein; as likewise guardians removed or com- pelled to give security; they and others punished for abuses committed on infants, eke. Guardian of the spiritualities, the person to whom the spiritual jurisdiction of any diocese is committed, during the time the see is vacant. A guardian of the spiritualities may likewise be eitlier such in law, as the archbishop is of any diocese within his province; or by delegation, as he whom the archbishoj) or vicar-general for the time appoints. Any such guardian has power to hold courts, grant licences, dispensations, probates of wills, kc GUAPERVA. See Cii.etodon. GUAREA, a genus of the class and order octandria monogynia. The cal. is four-cleft; pet. femr; nect. cylin- dric, bearing the anthers at its mouth; caps, four-valved, four-celled; seeds solitary. There is one species; a rice ofthe West Indies. Gi IXiEON, in ichthyology. See Cypuims. Gi oca.-Ns, in a ship, are the eves drove into the stern-post, into which the pintles of the rudder go, to hang it. In vol. XI. of the Transactions ofthe Society for the Encouragement of Arts, c\c. we have the following ac- count of a gudgeon on an improved constriction for the upright shafts of mills. » This gudgeon is formed of G U I G U M hard steel, and works on a hard steel bed; is circular, three inches in diameter, and three-fourths of an inch thick: from its upper side a rib projects, which being fixed in the bottom of an upright shaft, the gudgeon works horizontally on a square bed: and that now inthe possession of the society has worked in a mill whose wheel and shaft weighed nearly six tons; and though it had continued to work seven years, had lost very little of its surface. It ran in a square box of cast iron, having oil therein: and a notch along the whole of the face of the gudgeon admits the oil to insinuate itself between the gudgeon and the bed." GUETTARDA, a genus ofthe heptandria order, in the moncecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 38th order, tricoccae. The male calyx is cylindrical; the corolla cleft into seven parts, and funnel-shaped. The female calyx cylindrical; the corolla cleft into seven parts; one pistil, and the fruit a dry plum. There are four species, trees of the East and West Indies. GUILANDINA, the nickar tree; a genus of the mo- nogynia order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 33d order, lomen- taceae. The calyx is nionophyllous and salver-shaped; the petals inserted into the neck of the calyx, nearly equal. The seed-vessel a legumcn. The species are six; the most remarkable are, 1. The bonduc, or yellow nickar. 2. The bonducella, or grey nickar. These are climbing plants, natives ofthe West Indies, where they rise to the height of 12 or 14 feet: the flowers come out at the wings of the stalks, and are composed of five con- cave yellow petals. They are succeeded by pods about three inches long and two broad, closely armed with slender spines, opening with two valves, each inclosing two hard seeds about the size of children's marbles, of a yellowish colour. 3. The moringa, or morunga nickar, is a native ofthe island of Ceylon, and some places on the Malabar coast. It rises to the height of 25 or 30 feet, having flowers produced in loose bunches from the sides of the branches, and composed of an unequal num- ber of petals. These plants, being natives of warm climates, re- quire to be kept through the winter in a stove. They are propagated by seeds; but those of the first sort are so hard, that unless they are soaked two or three days in water before they are put into the ground, or placed under the pots in the tan-bed to soften their cov- ers, they will remain for years without vegetating. The roots ofthe third sort are scraped when young, and used by the inhabitants of Ceylon and Malabar, as those of horse-radish are in Europe. The wood dyes a beautiful blue colour. It is the lignum nephriticum of the dispen- satories, and is brought over in large, compact, pon- derous pieces, without knots, of a whitish or pale-yellow colour on the outside, and dark-coloured or reddish within: the bark is usually rejected. This wood imparts to water or rectified spirit a deep tincture; appearing, when placed between the eye and the light of a golden- colour, in other situations blue: pieces of another wood are sometimes mixed with it, which give only a yellow colour to water. The nephritic wood has scarcely any smell, and very little taste. It stands recommended in uifliculty of urine, and all nephritic complaints, and is said to have this peculiar advantage; that it docs not, like the warmer diuretics, heat or irritate the urinary passages. Practitioners, however, have not found these praises warranted by experience. GUILD (from the Saxon guildan « to pay"), signifies a fraternity or company, because every one was a gil- dare, that is, to pay something towards the charge and support of the company. As to the original of these guilds or companies, it was a law among the Saxons, that every freeman of fourteen years of age should find sureties to keep the peace, or be committed: upon which certain neighbours, consisting of ten families, entered into an association, and became bound for each other, either to produce him who committed an offence, or to make satisfaction to the injured party: that they might the better do this, they raised a sum of money among themselves, which they put into a common stock; and when one of their pledges had committed an offence, and was fled, then the other nine made satisfaction out of this stock, by payment of money according to the offence. Because this association consisted often families, it was called a decennary: and hence proceeded later kinds of fraternities. But as to the precise time when these guilds had their origin in England, there is nothing of certainty to be found; since they were in use long before any for- mal licence was granted to them for such meetings. It seems to have been about the close ofthe eleventh centu- ry, says Anderson in bis History of Commerce, vol. i. p. 70, that merchant-guilds, or fraternities, which were afterwards styled corporations, came first into general use in many parts of Europe. Mr. Madox, in his Firma Burgi, chap. i. § 9. thinks they were hardly known to our Saxon progenitors, and that they might be probably brought into England by the Normans, although they do not seem to have been very numerous in those days. The French and Normans might probably borrow them from the free cities of Italy, where trade and manufac- tures were much earlier propagated, and where possibly such communities were first in use. These guilds are now companies joined together, with laws and orders made by themselves, by the licence ofthe prince. Guild, in the royal boroughs of Scotland, is still used for a company of merchants, who are freemen of the borough. (See Borough.) Every royal borough has a dean of guild, who is the next'magistrate below the baliff. He judges of controversies among men concerning trade; disputes between inhabitants touching buildings, lights, water-courses, and other nuisances; calls courts, at which his brethren of the guild are bound to attend; manages the common stock of the guild; and amerces and collects fines. GUINEA-pig. See Cavia. Guinea-worm. See Draclnculus. GUITAR, or Guitarka, a musical instrument of the string-kind, with five double rows of strings, of which those that are bass, are in the middle, unless it be for the burden, an octave lower than the fourth. ^-LA> or Gola. See Architecture. GULES, in heraldry, signifies the colour red, which is expressed in engraving by perpendicular lines falling from the top ofthe escutcheon to the bottom. GUM. A thick, transparent, tasteless fluid, which sometimes exudes from certain species of trees. It is GUM. very adhesive, and gradually hardens without losing its transparency; but easily softens again when mois- tened with water. The gum most commonly used is that which exudes frem different species of mimosa, particu- larly the nilotica. It is known by the name of gum arable. Gum likewise exudes abundantly from the prunus avium, or common wild cherry-tree of this country. Gum is usually obtained in small pieces like tears, moderately hard, and somewhat brittle while cold, so that it can be reduced by pounding to a fine powder. When pure it is colourless, but it has usually a yellowish tinge, and it is not destitute of lustre. It has no smell. Its taste is insipid. Its specific gravity varies from 1.31 to 1.48. 1. Gum undergoes no change from being exposed to the atmosphere; but the light ofthe sun makes it assume a white colour. Water dissolves it in large quantities. The solution which is known by the name of mucilage, is thick and adhesive: it is often used as a paste, and to give stiffness and lustre to linen. When spread out thin it soon dries, and has the appearance of a varnish; but it readily attracts moisture, and becomes glutinous. Water washes it away entirely. When mucilage is eva- porated the gum is obtained unaltered. This mucilagi- nous solution may be kept for years without undergoing putrefaction. Scarcely any vegetable substance is less liable to decomposition. At last, however, the odour of acetic acid becomes perceptible in it. When gum is exposed to heat it softens and swells, but does not melt; it emits air-bubbles, blackens, and at last, when nearly reduced to charcoal, emits a low blue flame. This flame appears sooner if a flaming substance is held just above the gum. After the gum is consumed, there remains a small quantity of white ashes, composed chiefly of the carbonats of lime and potass. 2. It does not apjiear that gum is acted upon by oxy- gen gas. A solution of gum and water, when exposed to the air, soon becomes mouldy on the surface, but under- goes no farther change for a long time. The action of the simple combustibles on gum has scarcely been exa- mined. Azotic gas seems to have no action on it what- ever. Gum docs not act upon metals; but it has the property of combining with several of the metallic oxides, and forming compounds: at least, some ofthe salts occasion precipitates when dropt into solutions of gum. The most curious effect is that produced by the oxymuriat of iron. When this salt, concentrated, is dropt into a very strong mucilage, the whole becomes a brown semitransparent jelly, which is not readily dissolved by water. When dried, the jelly becomes lighter-coloured, and assumes nearly the appearance of gum. Its taste is that of gum mixed with iron. Liquid potass first converts gum into a substance not unlike curd, and then dissolves it. The solution is of a light amber-colour, and transparent. When long kept, the gum again falls into the state of curd. Alcohol throws down the gum in white Hikes still seduble in water; but it retains the potass obstinately, and is much more friable than before. Lime-water and ammonia likewise diss dve gum, and it mav be afterwards sepa- rated little altered. Charcoal powder, when mixed with a solution of gum in water, gives it a black colour, which cannot be re- moved by filtration, unless a very great proportion of the powder is added. In that casc'thc water passes clear; but the whole of the gum is retained by the charcoal. Mr. Lowitz found that not less than 30 lbs. of charcoal powder must be mixed with water containing an ounce of gum dissolved in it, before the water is entirely de- prived ofthe gum. The vegetable acids dissolve gum without alteration; the strong acids decompose it. Sulphuric acid converts it into water, acetous acid, aud charcoal. The same effect is said by Fourcroy to be produced by muriatic acid. But this is not accurate unless some heat is ap- plied. When gum is dissolved in strong muriatic acid, a brown solution is obtained; which becomes perfectly transparent when diluted with water, while at the same time some charry matter falls. If the solution is now saturated with ammonia, evaporated to dryness, and the residue digested in alcohol, the alcohol assumes a deep- brown colour, and dissolves the whole except a very little sal ammoniac. The gum now bears some resem- blance to sugar in its properties; at least when heated it melts, and gives out a very strong smell of caromel. Oxymuriatic acid converts gum into citric acid, ac- cording to the experiments of Vauquelin. He passed a current of oxymuriatic arid gas through a diluted solu- tion of gum in water. In a few clays almost the whole of the gum was acielified; and he detected citric acid by the formation of citrat of lime, soluble in water, and decom- posable by oxalic acid. If nitric acid is slightly heated upon gum till it has dissolved it, and till a little nitrous gas is exhaled, the solution on cooling deposits saclactic acid. Malic acid is formed at the same time; and if the heat is continued, the gum is at last changed into oxalic acid. Thus no less than three acids are developed by the action of nitric acid on gum. We are indebted to Mr. Cruikshank for the most precise experiments on the quantity of oxalic acid obtainable from gum by nitric acid. By digesting 480 grains of it with six ounces of nitric acid, he obtained 210 grains of oxalic acid, and six grains ofoxalat of lime. Gum is insoluble in alcohol. When alcohol is poured into mucilage, the gum immediately precipitates; because the affinity between water and alcohol is greater than that between water and gum. The gum in this case is in the state of soft opaque white flakes. Neither is gum so- luble in ether. It is not soluble in oils; but when tritu- rated with a little oil it renders the oil miscible with water. Tbe action of the hydrosulphurets, sulphurcts, phos- phurets, and of most of the salts on gum, has not been examined with any attention. Gum and sugar readily unite together by dissolving both in water. By gentle evaporation a perfectly trans- parent solid substance is obtained, which does not crys- tallize. When treated with alcohol it becomes white, opaque, and soft. The greater part of the sugar is dis- solved, and tin- gum remains united to a small portion. It has a sweetish taste, and very much resembles in appearance the substance of which the nests of wa^ps are formed. 3. When gum is distilled in a retort, the products aro GUM. water impregnated with a considerable quantity of pyro- mucous acid, or acetic acid combined with oil, a little empyreumatic oil, carbonic acid gas, and carbureted hydrogen gas. When the pyromucous acid obtained by the process is saturated with lime, a quantity of ammo- niais disengaged with which that acid has been combined. The charcoal which remained in the retort leaves behind it, after incineration, a little lime and phosphat of lime. Mr. Cruikshank, to whom we are indebted for these facts, gradually heated 480 grains of gum arabic to red- ness in a coated glass retort. The products were, Pyromucous acid mixed with some oil 210 gr. Charcoal ------ 96 Lime and a little phosphat of lime - 10 Carbureted hydrogen and carbonic acid gas 164 Total 480. The pyromucous acid liquid contained less acid than what was obiained from an equal weight of sugar, in the proportion of 118 to 150. The gases consisted of 93 ounce measures of carbonic acid, and 180 of carbureted hydrogen, composed of 5 parts charcoal to 1 of hydro- gen. When the pyromucous acid was saturated with lime, ammonia was disengaged. From these experiments it follows, that gum contains oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, azote, and lime. The lime may be detected by dropping nitric acid into a solution of gum; needleform crystals of sulphat of lime are slowly deposited. If we compare the products obtained by the distillation of sugar with those obtained from gum, wre can scarcely doubt that the latter contains the greater proportion of carbon. As it yields less pyromucous acid, it is not improbable that it also contains less oxygen. Sugar is a triple compound; but gum contains five con- stituents. 4. The species of gum at present known amount to four; though it is likely that a more rigid examination of the vegetable kingdom will discover a greater number. These are gum arabic, gum tragacanth, cherry-tree gum, and the mucilage which is contained in the roots and leaves of many plants. Gum arabic exudes from the mimosa nilotica, and other species of mimosa. It is the species described in the preceding part of this article. 5. Gum tragacanth is the produce of the astragalus tragacantha, a thorny shrub which grows in Candiaand other islands of the Levant. The gum is said to exude about the end of June from the stem and larger branches, and soon dries in the sun. It is in the state of whitish verniform pieces, not nearly so transparent as gum arabic. It is much stronger than gum arabic, not so ea- sily dissolved in water, and is said to go farther. When Mr. Cruikshank distilled 480 grains of it in a glass retort, he obtained the following products: Pyromucous acid - . - - 245 gr. Charcoal......93 Lime with some phosphat - - - 12 Carbonic acid gas and carbureted hydrogen gas 130 480 When the pyromucous acid was saturated with lime, a considerable greater proportion of ammonia was dis- engaged than from the pyromucous acid of gum arabic. The gases were 78 ounce-measures of carbonic acid, and 91 of carbureted hydrogen. Hence we see that gum tragacanth contains more azote and lime, and perhaps more oxygen and less carbon, than gum arabic. 6. The prunus avium, the common cherry and plum trees, and the almond and apricot, likewise yield a gum which exudes in great abundance from natural or artifi- cial openings in the stem. It is of a reddish-brown colour, in large masses, and much softer and more easily mel- ted than gum arabic. But no precise set of experiments has been made to ascertain how far its properties coin- cide with those of the last two species. 7. Mucilage is contained in the roots and leaves of a vast number of plants. Almost all the bulbous roots and fleshy leaves yield it. For example, the roots of the hyacinthus nondescriptus, and the althea officinalis; the leaves of the althaera, of the malva sylvestris of many of the fuci, and of the greater number of the lichens/the seeds of flax, quinces, fenugrcc, &c. The bulbs of the hyacinth contain so much mucilage, that when dried they may be employed as a substitute for gum arabic. This was first made known to the pub- lic by Mr. Willis. A mucilage may be extracted from most of the stringy lichens by water, which likewise an- swers all the purposes of a solution of gum. This was first discovered by lord Dundonald. The mucilaginous quality of most of the fuci is apparently much greater, though the mucilage obtained from them does not answer so well. How far the mucilage extracted by water from these plants agrees with gum in its properties, has not been examined with much precision, if we except the mucilage of the hyacinth. From the experiments of Leroux, it ap- pears that the mucilage of that plant is in every respect the same with gum. The bulbs are to be pounded, mixed with five times their weight of water, and subjected to the press. The residue is to be diluted afresh, and again pressed. The liquid thus obtained is to be allowed to re- pose for some days till it clarifies somewhat, and then evaporated to dryness. The gum remains. 8. It has been remarked by Mr. Barrow, and proba- bly also by others, that all the plants which yield gum have an astringent bark. This rule, however, does not hold with respect to mucilage. Almost all the trees known to yield gum have been enumerated in the preceding part of this article. To attempt a list of all the plants contain- ing mucilage, would, in the present state of our know- ledge, be superfluous, even if it was possible. It exists most abundantly in young plants, and gradually disap- pears as they arrive at perfection. It forms a great pro- portion of the leaves and roots of many eatable plants. 9. Gum is a nutritive food, though seldom employed for that purpose, except when in the state of mucilage. It is used frequently as a paste, and to give stiffness or lustre to linen. The calico-printers use it in great quan- tities to give their colours such a degree of consistency as prevents them from running upon the cloth. It forms an ingredient in ink for a similar reason. In medicine it forms the base of many mixtures. Gum-resins. This class of vegetable substances has been long distinguished by physicians and apothecaries. It contains many active substances much employed in medicine; and they certainly possess a sufficient nuni- GUM. ber of peculiar properties to entitle them to be ranked apart. Unfortunately these substances have not yet at- tracted much of the attention of chemists. Their proper- ties and constituents of course are but imperfectly ascer- tained. They may, however, be distinguished by the following characters. They are usually opaque, or at least their transparen- cy is inferior to that of the resins. They are always solid, and most commonly very brittle, and have some- times a fatty appearance. When heated they do not melt as the resins do, neither are they so combustible. Heat, however, commonly soft- ens them, and causes them to swell. They burn with a flame. They have almost always a strong smell, which in several instances is alliaceous. Their taste also is often acrid, and always much stronger than that of the resins. They are partially soluble in water; but the solu- tion is always opaque, and usually milky. Alcohol dissolves only a portion of them. The solution is transparent; but when diluted with water it becomes milky; yet no precipitate falls, nor is any thing obtained by filtring the solution. Vinegar and wine likewise dis- solves them partially; and the solution, like the aqueous, is opaque or milky. The action of alkalies on them has been examined only by Mr. Hatchett. All of them tried by that celebrated chemist dissolved readily in alkaline solutions when as- sisted by beat. We may therefore consider them as solu- ble in alkalies like resins. Mr. Hatchett also found them acted on by nitric acid, and dissolved by it just as the resinous bodies. The specific gravity is usually greater than that of the resins. Their other properties still continue unknown. They all either exude spontaneously from plants, or are obtained by incisions. At first they seem to be in a liquid Btate; but they gradually harden when exposed to the air and weather. They have been usually considered by chemists as composed of gum and resin; but their properties are not consistent with that supposition. They all contain a vo- latile oil, or a substance intermediate between an oil and resin. To this substance we are to ascribe the milky so- lution which they form with water. The other constitu- ent, in most cases, bears a much closer resemblance to extractive than to gum; perhaps, then, we shall not en- very far, if we consider the guin-resins as composed of a gum or an extractive substance, and a body intermediate between oil and resin; to which last they owe their most peculiar properties. The gum-resins which have been hitherto applied to any useful purpose are chiefly the following: 1. Galbanum. It is obtained from the bubon gal ban um, a perennial plant, and a native of Africa. When this plant is cut across a little above the root, a milky juice flows out, which soon hardens and constitutes galba- num. It is brought from the Levant in small pieces composed of tears, agglutinated together of a yellow ish or white colour. Its taste is acrid and bitter, and its smell peculiar. Water, vinegar, and wine, dissolve most of it, but the solution is milky. Alcohol acts but feebly; when distilled it yieids volatile oil in considerable quan- tity. Its specific gravity is 1.2. 2. Ammoniac. This substance is brought from the East Indies. Nothing certain is known concerning the plant which yields it; though from analogy it has been suspected to be a species of ferula. It is in small pieces and has a yellowish-white colour. Its smell is somewhat like that of galbanum, but more pleasant; its taste is a nauseous sweet mixed with bitter. It does not melt. Wa- ter dissolves a portion of it; the solution is milky, but gradually lets fall a resinous portion. One- half is soluble in alcohol. It seems then to contain resin completely formed: specific gravity is 1.2. Mr. Hatchett found it soluble in alkalies. 3. Olibanum, is obtained from the juniperus lycia, and is chiefly collected in Arabia. It is the frankincense ofthe ancients; it is in transparent brittle masses about the size of a chesnut. Its colour is yellow. It has little taste; and when burnt diffuses an agreeable odour. Alcohol dissolves it; and with water it forms a milky liquid. When distil- led it yields a little volatile oil. Its specific gravity is 1.173. 4. Sugapanum. The plant which yields this gum-resin is not well known: but it is suspected to be the ferula persica. The substance itself is brought to Europe from Alexandria. It is commonly in tears agglutinated toge- ther: colour yellow: taste hot and bitter; smell alliaceous; softens between the fingers, but does not melt when heat- ed: sparingly soluble in water, but almost completely soluble in alcohol. When distilled it yields a volatile oil. 5. Asafottida. This substance is obtained from the fe- rula asafcetida, a perennial plant which is a native of Persia. When the plant is about four years old, its roots are dug up and cleaned. Their extremity being then cut off, a milky juice exudes, which is collected. Then ano- ther portion is cut off, and more juice exudes. This is continued till the roots are exhausted. The juice thus collected soon hardens, and constitutes asafcetida. It is brought here in small grains of different colours, whit- ish, reddish, violet, brown: pretty hard, but brittle: its taste is acrid and bitter; its smell strongly alliaceous and foetid. It is imperfectly soluble both in alcohol and water; but, like the other gum-resins, has been but carelessly an- alysed. Its specific gravity is 1.327. 6. Scammony. This substance is obtained from the convolvulus scammonia, a climbing plant which grows in Persia. The roots when cut yield a milky juice; this when collected and allowed to harden constitutes scam- mony. Colour, dark grey; smell, peculiar and nauseous; taste, bitter and acrid: with water it forms a greenish coloured opaque liquid. Alcohol dissolves the-greatest part of it; it is usually mixed with the expressed juic • of the root, and frequently also with other impurities, whie h alter its appearance. In medicine it operates as a strong cathartic. Its spee-ific gravity is 1.235. 7. Opoponax. This substance is obtained from the pastinaca opoponax, a plant which is a native of the countries round the Levant. The gum resin, like most others, is obtained by wounding tiie roots of the plant. The milky juice when dried in the sun constitutes the opo- ponax. It is in lumps of a reddish yellow colour, and white within; smell peculiar; taste bitter and acrid; with water it forms a milky solution. Its specific gravity is 1.622. 8. Gamboge, or gumgutt. This substance is obtained from the stalagmitis cambogioides, a tree which grows G U N GUN wild in the East Indies. In Siain it is obtained in drops by wounding the shoots; in Ceylon it exudes from wounds of the bark. It is brought to Europe in large cakes. Its colour is yellow; it is opaque, brittle, and breaks vitre- ous; it has no smell, and very little taste; with water it forms a yellow turbid liquid. Alcohol dissolves it almost completely: and when mixed with water it becomes turbid, unless the solution contains ammonia; in that case acids throw down an insoluble yellow precipitate. It operates, when taken internally, as a most violent cathartic; its specific gravity is 1.221. It appears that it was taken to Europe by the Dutch about the middle ofthe 17th century. 9. Myrrh. The plant from which this substance is ob- tained is unknown; if we believe Bruce, it belongs to the genus of Mimosa. It grows in Abyssinia and Arabia: it is in the form of tears; colour reddish-yellow; when pure som ewhat transparent, but it is often opaque: odour peculiar: taste bitter and aromatic: does not melt when heated, and burns with difficulty. With water it forms a yellow opaque solution: the solution in alcohol becomes opaque when mixed with water, but no precipitate ap- pears: by distillation it yields oil: its specific gravity is 1.360; it is employed in medicine: Mr. Hatchett found it soluble in alkalies. 10. Euphorbium. This substance is obtained from the euphorbia officinalis. The milky juice which exudes from that plant, when dried in the sun, constitutes euphorbium: it is brought from Africa in small yellow tears; it has no smell, and is mostly soluble in alcohol: its specific gravity is 1.124. It is considered as poisonous. 11. Little is known concerning the substances called bdellium and caranna, reckoned among the gum-resins. The specific gravity of the first is 1.571, of the second 1.124. Bdellium was celebrated by the ancient physi- cians: it comes from Arabia. The substance extracted from ivy, and known by the name of gummi hederae, is consi- dered as a gum-resin. Its specific gravity is 1.294. 12. From the experiments made upon ipecacuanha, the root of the ccphelis ipecacuanha, especially by Dr. Irvine, we learn that it also contains a gum-resin. The same remark applies to several other vegetable substan- ces employed in medicine. It deserves attention, that the gum-resins, when sub- jected to destructive distillation, yield all of them a por- tion of ammonia; a proof that they all contain azote. In this respect they agree with gum and extractives. Gum-elastic. See Caoutchouc. GUINEA, a gold coin struck in England. The value or rate of the guinea has varied. It was at first equal to 20 shillings; but by the scarcity of gold it was after- wards advanced to 21s. 6d.; though it is now sunk to 21s. The pound weight troy of gold is cut into 44 parts and a half, and each part makes a guinea, which is therefore equal to /gib. or || oz. or 5 dwts. 9|| gr. This coin took its name, guinea, from the circumstance of the gold of which it was at first struck being brought from that part of Africa called Guinea, for which reason also it bore the impression of an elephant. GUN, a fire-arm, or weapon of offence, which forcibly discharges a ball or other matter through a cylindrical tube, by means of inflamed gunpowder. The word gun now includes most of the species of fire arms; mortars and pistols being almost the only kind excepted from this denomination. They arc divided into great and small guns; the former including all that are usually called cannon, ordnance, or artillery; and the latter including muskets, firelocks, carabines, musquo- toons, blunderbusses, fowling-pieces, &c. The first hint of the invention of guns is in the works of Roger Bacon, who flourished in the 13th century. In a treatise written by him about the year 1280, he pro- poses to apply the violent explosive force of gunpowder for the destruction of armies. And though it is certainly known that the composition of gunpowder is described by Bacon in the same work, yet the invention has usual- ly, though improperly, been ascribed to Bartholdus Schwartz, a German monk, who it is said discovered it only in the year 1320; and the invention is related in the following manner: Schwartz having, for some purpose, pounded nitre, sulphur, and charcoal together, in a mor- tar, which he afterwards covered imperfectly with a stone, a spark of fire accidentally fell into the mortar, which setting the mixture on fire, the explosion blew the stone to a considerable distance. Hence it is probable tl.at Schwartz might be taught the simplest method of apply- ing it in war; for it rather seems that Bacon conceived the manner of using it to be by the violent effort of the flame unconfincd, and which is indeed capable of produc- ing astonishing effects. And the figure and name of mor- tars given to a species of old artillery, and their employ- ment, in throwing large stone bullets at an elevation, very much favour this conjecture. When, or by whom, guns were first made, is uncer- tain. It is known, however, thatthe Venetians used can- non at the siege of Claudia Jessa, now called Chioggia, in 1366, which were brought thither by two Germans, with some powder and leaden balls; as likewise in their wars with the Genoese in 1379. But before that, king Edward the Third made use of cannon at the battle of Cressy, in 1346, and at the seige of Calais, in 1347. Cannon were employed by the Turks at the siege of Constantinople, then in possession of the Christians, in 1594, and in that of 1452, which threw7 a weight of 100lb.; but they commonly burst at the first, second, or third firing. Louis the XUth had one cast at Tours, of the same size, which threw a ball from the Bastille to Charenton: one of these extraordinary cannon was taken at the siege of Dieu, in 1546, by don John de Castro, and is now in the castle of St. Julien de Borra, 10 miles from Lisbon; the length of it is 20 feet 7 inches, its dia- meter at the middle 6 feet 3 inches, and it threw a ball of 1001b. weight. It has neither dolphins, rings, nor but- ton; is of an unusual kind of metal; and it has a large Indostan inscription upon it, which says it was cast in 1400. Cannon take their names from the weight of the pro- per ball. Thus, a piece that discharges a cast-iron hall of 24 pounds, is called a 24-pounder; one that carries a ball of 12 pounds, is called a 12-pounder; and so ofthe rest, divided into the following sorts, viz. Ship-guns, consisting of 42, 36, 32, 24, 18, 12,9, 6, and 3 pounders. Garrison-guns, of 42, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, and 6 pound- ers. Battering-guns, of 24, 18, and 12 poune'ers. Field-pieces, of 12, 9, 6, 3, 2, 1£, 1, and j. pounders. G U N G U N Mortars, it is thought, have been at least as ancient as cannon. They were employed in the wars of Italy, to throw balls of red-hot iron, stones, eScc. long before the invention ol shrtls. Mr. Mriwt, an English engineer, first taught the French the art of throwing shells, whicli they practised at the siege of Motte in 1634. The method of throwing red-hot balls out of mortars was first certainly put in practice at the siege of Stralsund in 1675 by the elector of Brandenburgh; though some say in 1653, at the siege of Bremen. Another species of ordnance has been long in use, by the name of howitzer, which is a kind of medium as to its length, between the cannon and mortar, and is a very useful piece, for discharging either shells or large balls, which is done eitlier at point blank, or at a small eleva- tion. A new species of ordnance has lately been introduced by the Carron company, and thence called a carronade, which is only a very short howitzer, and which possess- es the advantage of being very light and easy to work. The species of guns before-mentioned, are now made chiefly of cast-iron; except the howitzer, which is of brass, as well as some cannon and mortars. Mu-kets were first used at the siege of Rhege, in the year 1521. The Spaniards were the first who armed part of their foot with these weapons. At first they were very heavy, and could not be used without a rest. They had matchlocks, and did execution at a great dis- tance. On their march the soldiers carried only the rests and ammunition, having boys to bear their muskets after tlu-in. They were very slow in loading, not only from the unwieldincss of their pieces, and because they carried the ball and powder separate, but from the time it took to prepare and adjust the match; so that their fire was not near so brisk as ours is now. Afterwards a lighter matchlock musket come in use; and they carried their simminiition in bandeliers, to which were hung several Utile cases of wood covered with leather, each contain- ing a charge of powder. The muskets with rests were used as late as the beginning ofthe civil wars iu the time of Charles the First. The lighter kind succeeded them, and continued till the beginning of the present century, when they also were disused, and the troops throughout Europe- armed with firelocks. These are usually made of hammered iron. GUN DELIA, a genus of the class and order syn- genesia polygamia segregata. There is scarcely any ealyx; what there is, is 5-flowered; cor. tubular, male and hermaphrodite; recept. chaffy; down none. There is one species, a herb of the Levant, having the habit of a thistle. GUNNER A, agenusof the class and order gynandria, diandria. The character is, anient, with 1-flowered scales; calyx and corolla none: germen, 2-toothed; styles 2; seed one. There is one species, a herb ofthe Cape. GUNNERV, the art of charging, directing, and ex- ploding fire-arms, as cannon, mortars,'muskets, kc. to the best advantage. Gunnery is sometimes considered as apart ofthe mili- tary art, and sometimes as a part of pyrotechny. To the art of gunnery too belongs the knowledge of the force ami effect of gunpowder, the dimensions of the pieces, vol. n. 4 3 and the proportions of the powder and ball they carry, with the methods of managing, charging, pointing, spunging, kc. The first application of gunpowder to military affairs, it seems, was made soon after the year 1300, for which the proposal of friar Bacon, about the year 12S0, for ap- plying its enormous explosion to the destruction of armies, might give the first hint; and Schwartz, to whom tho invention of gunpowder has been erroneously ascribed, on account of the accident above-mentioned under the article Gun, might have been the first who actually ap- plied it in this way. The first species of artillery, however, which were charged with gunpowder and stone bullets of a prodigious size, were of very clumsy and inconvenient structure and weight. Thus, when Mahomet the 2d besieged Con- stantinople, in 1453, he battered the walls with stones of this kind, and with pieces ofthe calibre of 1200 pounds; which could not be fired more than four times a day. For the last 200 years, the formation of cannon has been very little improved: the battering cannon now ap- proved, are those that were formerly called demi-cannon, carrying a ball of 24 pounds weight; this weight having been found fully sufiicient. The method also of making a breach, by first cutting off the whole wall as low as pos- sible before its upper part is attempted to be beaten clown, seems to be a considerable modern improvement in the practical part of gunner); but the most considerable im- provement in the practice, is the method of firing with small quantities of powder, and elevating the piece but a little, so that the bullet may just go clear of the parapet ofthe enemy, and drop into their works, called ricochet firing: for by this means the ball, coming to Ihe ground at a small angle, and with a small velocity, does not bury itself, but bounds or rolls along a great way, destroying all before it. The Italians were the first people that made any at- tempts to ascertain the theory of projectiles, which they did about the beginning ofthe 16th century. It was then determined, that the greatest range of a shot was when discharged at an elevation of 45 degrees; and that no part of the path described by a ball is a right line, See Pro- jectiles. Mr. Robins informs us, in the preface to his New Prin- ciples c.f Gunnery, that he had met with no more than four authors who had treated experimentally on this sub- ject. Ti.e first of these is Collado, in 1642, who has given the ranges of a falconet, carrying a three-pound shot, to every point of the gunner's quadrant, each point being the 12th part, or 7 degrees and a half. Bet from his numbers it is manifest thatthe piece was not charged with its usual allotment of powder. It is extraordinary that before Mr. Robins, there were but four authors who had treated experimentally on gun- nery, and those to little ptr.-pnse: hut the treatise of Mr. Robins is still regarded as the i'onml.ition of tin1 science. The first thing considered by him. and whicli is indeed the foundation ofalloMier particulars relating to gun- nery, is the explosive force of gunpowder. The inte-ns'.tv of this force Mr. R< h'ns ascertained in di Ill-rent wa\-. One of thes-- is by firing the powder in the air. thus: \ small quantity ofthe powder is placed iu the upper pact of a glass tube, and the lower part of the tube i* iniiner-. GINNERY. ed in water, t!ic water bring made to ris? so near the top, that only a small portion of air is left, in that part where the powder is placed; in this situation the commu- nication between the upper part of the tube and the exter- nal air being closed, the, powder is fired by means of a burning-glass, or otherwise; the water descends upon the explosion, and stands lower in the tube than before, by a space proportioned to the quantity of powder fired. Another was by firing the powder in vacuo, viz. in an exhausted receiver, by dropping the grains of powder upon a hot iron excluded in the receiver. For the result of these experiments, see Guxpowdkr. Having determined the force of the gunpowder, or in- tensity ofthe agent by which the projectile is to be urged, Mr. Robins next determined the effects il will produce, or the velocity with which it will impel a shot of a given weight from a piece of ordnance of given dimensions; which is a problem strictly limited, and perfectly soluble by mathematical rules, and is in general this: Given the first force, and the law of its variation, to determine the velocity with which it will impel a given body in passing througli a given space, which is the length of the bore of the gun. In the solution of this problem, Mr. Robins assumes these two postulates, viz. 1. That the action of the pow- der on the bullet ceases as soon as the bullet is out of the piece; and 2d. That all the powder ofthe charge is fired and converted into elastic fluid before the bullet is sensi- bly moved from its [dace: assumptions which for good reasons are found to be in many cases very near tho truth. It is to be noted also, that the law by which the force of the elastic fluid varies, is this; viz. that its intensity is directly as its density, or reciprocally proportional to the space it occupies, being so much the stronger as the space is less; a principle well known, and common to all elastic fluids. Upon these principles then Mr. Robins resolves this problem, by means of the 39th proposition of New- ton's Principia, in a direct way, and the result is equiva- lent to this theorem, where the quantities are expressed by algebraic symbols; viz. the velocity of the ball v = 27130 y] l2Lx lcrgTZ! cd a or = 100 N----- x log. ; whence w a v is the velocity of the ball, a the length of the charge of powder, b the whole length of the bore, c the specific gravity of the ball, or. weight of a cu- bic foot of the same matter in ounces, d the diameter of the bore, w the weight of the ball in ounces. For example. Suppose a = 2-f- inc., 6 =45 inc., c = 11345 oz. for a ball of lead, and d = § inc.; then v = 27130 \!-L- X log. i!£ = 1674 feet per second, the ve- 2209 '7 locity of the ball. Or, if the weight of tlje bullet be w ^ 1 9_ 07 -2Jn7 ---------____________________~i 0 2 0 Then .r = 100 Sl lili-Li^ x log. ^ = l674 kct, as ~b X »)'~ « before, "Having in this proposition." says Mr. Robin*. "shown how the velocity, which any builet acquires from the fore e of powder, may be computed upon the princi- ples of the th-ory laid down in the preceding propositions; we shalj next she,\v, that the actual velocities, with whicli bullets of different magnitudes are impelled from different pieces, with different quantities of powder, are really the same with the velocities assigned by these computations; and consequently, that this theory ofthe force of powder, here delivered, does unquestionably ascertain the true action and modification of this enormous power. " But in order to compare the velocities communicated t> bullets by the explosion, with the velocities resulting from the theory by computation, it is necessary that the actual ve-loe ities with which bullets move, should be capa- ble of being discovered, whicli yet is impossible to be done by any methods hitherto made public. The only means hitherto practised by others for that purpose, have been cither by observing the time of the flight of the shot through a given space: or by measuring the range of the shot at a given elevation, and thence computing, on the parabolic hypothesis, what velocity would produce this range. The first method labours under this insurmount- able difficulty, thatthe velocities of these bodies are often so swift, and consequently the time observed is so short, that an imperceptible error in that time may occasion an error in the velocity thus found, of 2, 3, 4, 5, or 600 feet in a second. The other method is so fallacious, from the resistance ofthe air (to which inequality the first is also liable), that the velocities thus assigned may not be per- haps the tenth part ofthe actual velocities sought. " To remedy then these inconveniences, I have invent- ed a new method of finding the real velocities of bullets of all kinds; and this to such a degree of exactness (which may be augmented too at pleasure), that in a bullet moving with a velocity of 1700 feet in 1", the errorin the estimation of it need never amount to its 500th part: and this without any extraordinary nicety in the construction of the machine." Mr. Robins then gives an account of the machine by which he measures the velocities of the balls, which ma- chine is simply this; viz. a pendulous block of wood sus- pended freely by a horizontal axis, against which block are to be fired the balls whose velocities are to be deter- mined. " This instrument thus fitted, if the weight of the pen- dulum is known, and likewise the respective distances of its centre of gravity, and of its centre of oscillation, from its axis of suspension, it will thence be known what mo- tion will be communicated to this pendulum by the per- cussion of a body of a known weight moving with a know degree of celerity, and striking it in a given point; that is, if the pendulum is supposed at rest before the percus- sion, it will be known what vibration it ought to make in consequence of such a determined blow; and, on the contrary, if the pendulum, being at rest, is struck by a body of a known weight, and the vibration which the pendulum makes after the blow is known, the velocity of the striking body may thence be determined. " Hence then, if a bullet of a known weight strikes the pendulum, and the vibration which the pendulum make's in consequence of the stroke is ascertained, the velocity with whicli the ball moved is thence to be known." GUN G U N Mr. Robins then explains his method of computing ve- locities from experiments with this machine; which me- thod is rather troublesome and perplexed, as well as the rules of Euler and Antoni, who followed him in this busi- ness: but a much simpler rule is given in Dr. Hutton's Tracts, ved. i. p. 119, where the experiments are explain- ed at full length, and this rule is expressed by either of p +b the two following formulas: v — 5.6727c;* x---->/° = 6\4.5Scg x ■—---, the velocity; where v denotes the ve- locity of the ball when it strikes the pendulum, p the weight of the pendulum, 6 the weight of the ball, c the chord of the arc described by the vibration to the radius r, g the distance befow the axis of motion to the centre of gravity, o the distance to the centre of oscillation, i the distance to the point of impact, and n the number of os- cillations the pendulum will perforin in one minute, when made to oscillate in small arcs. The latter of these two theorems is much the easiest, both because it is free of radicals, and because the value of the radical ^/ o, in the former, is to be first computed from the number a1, or number of oscillations the pendulum is observed to make. Soon after the first publication of Robins's New Prin- ciples of Gunnery, in 1742, the learned in several other nations, treading in his steps, repeated and farther ex- tended the same subject, sometimes varying and enlar- ging the machinery; particular Euler in Germany, D'Antoni in Italy, and Messrs. D'Arcy and Le Roy in France: but most of these, like Mr. Robins, with small fire-arms, such as muskets and fusils. But in the year 1775, in conjunction with several able officers of the Royal Artillery, and other ingenious gen- tlemen, Dr. Hutton undertook a course of experiments with the ballistic pendulum, in which the machinery was extended to cannon-shot of 1, 2, and 3 pounds weight. \n account of these was published in the Philos. Trans. tor 1778, "and for which," savs the Dr., ''the Royal Seiciety honoured me with the prize of the gold medal. These were the only experiments that I know of which had been made with cannon-balls for this purpose, al- though the conclusions to be deduced from such, are ofthe greatest importance to those parts of natural philosophy which are dependant on the effects of fired gunpowdei; nor do I know of any other practical method of ascertain- ing the initial velocities within any tolerable degree of the truth. The knowledge of this velocity is of the utmost consequence in gunnery; by means of it, together with the law of the resistance of the medium, every thing is determinable relative to that business; for, besides its being an excellent method of trying the strength of diffe- rent sorts of powder, it gives us the law relative to the different quantities of powder, to the different weights of shot, aud to the different lengths and sizes of guns. Re- sides these, there does not seem to be any thing wanting to answer any inquiry that can be made concerning the ilight and ranges of shot, except the effects arising from the resistance- ofthe medium. In these experiments the weights of the pendulums employed were from 300 to near 600 pounds." In that paper, is described the method of constructing the machinery, oi finding the centres of gravity and oscillation ofthe pendulum, and of making the experiments, which are all set down in the form ot a journal, with all the minute and concomitant circum- stances; as also the investigation of the new and easy rule, set down* just above, for computing the velocity of the ball from the experiments. The charges of powder were varied from 2 to 8 ounces, and the shot from 1 tu near 3 pound*. And from the whole were clearly deduc- ed these principal inferences: viz. " 1. First, That gunpowder fires almost instantaneous- ly. 2. That the velocities communicated to balls or shot, of the same weight, by different quantities of powder, are nearly in the subduplicate ratio of those quantities; a small variation, in defect, taking place when the quanti- ties of powder became great. 3d. And when shot of diffe- rent weights are employed, with the same quantity of powder, the velocities communicated to them arc nearly in the reciprocal subduplicate ratio of their weights. 4. So that, universally, shot which are of different weights, and impelled by the firing of different quantities of pow- der, acquire velocities which arc directly as the square roots of the quantities of powder, and inversely as the square roots of the weights of the shot, nearly. 5. It would therefore be a great improvement in artillery, to make use of shot of a long form, or of heavier matter; for thus the momentum of a shot, when fired with the same weight of powder, would be increased in the ratio ot the square root of the weight of the shot. 6. It would also be an improvement to diminish the windage; lor by so do- ing, one-third or more ofthe quantity of powder might he saved. 7. >\ hen the improvements mentioned in the last two articles arc considered as both taking place, it is eri- dent that about half the quantity of powder might be sav- ed, which is a very considerable object. Rut important as this saving may be, it seems to be still exceeded by that ofthe article of the guns; for thus a small gun may be made to have the effect and execution of another two or three times its size in the present mode, by discharging a shot of two or three times the weight of its natural ball or round shot. And thus a small ship might discharge shot as heavy as those of the greatest now made use of. " Finally, as the above experiments exhibit the re- gulations with regard to the weights of powder and balls, Avhen fired from the same piece of ordnance, kc; so by making similar experiments with a gun, varied in its length, by cutting off from it a certain part before each course of experiments, the effects and general rules for the different lengths of guns may be certainly determin- ed by them. In short, the principles on which these ex- periments were made, are so fruitful in consequences, that, in conjunction with the effects resulting from the resistance of the medium, they seem to be sufficient for answering all the inquiries of the speculative philoso- pher, as we'll as those ofthe practical artillerist." GUNPOWDER, a composition of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, mixed together, and usually granulated. It appears that Roger Racon knew ed'gunpowder. Ho tells us, iu his Treatise De Sccrctis Operibus Art is et Nature-, et de Nullitate Magia;, cap. 6, which is sup- posed by some to have been published at Oxford in 12IC, *• that from saltpetre and other ingredients, we , i••■ ;c le to make a fire that shall burn at what distance we please." And Dr. Plott, in his History of Oxfordshire, p. -^6, ; GUNPOWDER. assures, us that these •• other ingredients were explained in a MS. copy of the same treatise, in the hands of Dr. G. Langbain, and seen by Dr. Wallis, to be sulphur and Wood-coal." . As to the preparation of gunpowder, th»re are various compositions of it, with respect to the proportions of the tiiree ingredients, to be met with in pyrotcchnical writ- ings; hut the process of making it up is much the same in all. For some time after the invention of artillery, gun- powder was of a much weaker composition than that now is use. But when guns of modern structure were in- troduced, gunpowder of the same comjiosition as the present came also into use. In the time of Tartaglia the caunon-powder was made of 4 parts of nitre, one of sul- phur, and one of charcoal: and the musket-powder of 48 parts of nitre, 7 parts of sulphur, and 8 parts of charcoal; or of 18 parts of nitre, 2 parts of sulphur, and 3 parts of charcoal; the modern composition is, 76 parts nitre 15 charcoal 9 sulphur 100 These ingredients pre first reduced to a fine powder separately, then mixed intimately, and formed into a thick paste with water. After this has dried a little, it is placed upon a kind of sieve full of small holes, through which it is forced. By that process it is divided into grains, the size of which depends upon the size of the 1 oSes through which they have been squeezed. The pow- der, when dry, is put into barrels, which arc made to turn round on their axes. By this motion the grains of uunpowdcr rub against each other, their asperities are worn off, and their surfaces arc made smooth. The pow- der is then said to be glazed. Gunpowder, as is well known, explodes violently when a red heat is applied to it. This combustion takes place even in a vacuum; a vast quantity of gas is emitted, the sudden production of which is the cause of all the violent effects which this substance produces. Their combustion is evidently owing to the decomposition ofthe nitre by the charcoal and sulphur. The products are carbonic acid gas, azotic gas, sulphurous acid gas, and probably sul- phureted hydrogen. Mr. Cruikshank has ascertained ifiat no perceptible quantity of water is formed. What remains alter the combustion is potass combined with a small portion of carbonic acid, sulphat of potass, a very small proportion of sulphuret of potass, and unconsumed charcoal. This mixture soon attracts moisture, and the sulphuret which it contains enables it to act strongly on metallic bodies. To make gunpowder duly, regard is to be had to the purity or goodness of the ingredients, as well as the pro- portions of them; for the strength ofthe powder depends much on that circumstance, and also on the due working or mixing of them together. To purify the nitre, by taking away the fixt or com- mon salt, and earthy part. Dissolve it in a quantity of hot water over the fire;"then filtrate it through a flannel ba°*, into an open vessel, and set it aside to cool, and to crystallize. These crystals may in like manner be dis- solved and crystallized again; and so on, till they become quite pure and white. Then put the crystals into a dry kettle over a moderate fire, which gradually increase till it begins to smoke, evaporate, lose its humidity, and grow very white: it must be kept continually stirring with a ladle, lest it should return to its former figure, by which its greasiness would be taken awav; after that, so much water is to be poured into ihe kettle as will cover the nitre; and when it is dissolved, and reduced to the con- sistency of a thick liquor, it must be continually stirred with a ladle till all the moisture is again evaporated, and it is reduced to a dry and white meal. The like regard is to be had to the sulphur: choosing that whicli is in large lumps, clear and perfectly yellow'; not very hard, nor compact, but porous; nor yet too much shining; and if, when set on fire, it freely burns all away, it is a sign of its goodness; so likewise, if it is press- ed between the two iron plates that are hot enough to make it run, and in the running appear yellow, and that which remains of a reddish colour, it is then fit for the purpose. But in case it is foul, it may be purified in this manner; melt the sulphur in a large iron ladle or pot, over a very gentle coal-fire, well kindled, but not flam- ing: then scum off all that rises on the top, and swims upon the sulphur; take it presently after from the fire, and strain it through a double linen cloth, letting it pass leisurely; so will it be pure, the gross matter remaining behind in the cloth. For the charcoal, the third ingredient, such should be chosen as is large, clear, and free from knots, well burnt, and cleaving. The charcoal of light woods is mostly pre- ferred, as of willow, and that of the branches or twigs of a mode rate thickness, as of an inch or two in diameter. Dogwood is now much esteemed for this purpose. And a method of charring the wood in a large iron cylinder has lately been recommended, and indeed proved, as yielding better charcoal than formerly. The charcoal not only concurs with the sulphur in sup- plying the inflammable matter, which causes the detona- tion of the nitre, but also greatly adds to the explosive power of it by the quantity of carbonic acid gas, expell- ed during its combustion. These three ingredients, in their purest state, being procured, long experience has shown that they are then to be mixed together in the proportion before-mentioned, to have the best effect. But it is not the due proportion of the materials only, which is necessary to the making of good powder; another circumstance, not less essential, is the mixing them well together; if this is not effectually done, some parts of the composition will have too much nitre in them, and others too little; and in either case there will be a defect of strength in the powder. After the materials have been reduced to fine dust, they are mixed together, and moistened with water, or vine- gar, or urine, or spirit of wine, kc. and then beaten to- gether with wooden pestles for 24 hours, either by hand, or by mills, and afterwards pressed into a hard, firm, solid cake. When dry, it is grained or corned, which is done by breaking the cake of powder into small pieces, and so running it through a sieve; by which means the grains may have any size given them, according to the nature ofthe sieve employed, either finer or coarser; and thus also the dust is separated from the grains, and again GUNPOWDER. mixed with oiher manufacturing powder, or worked up into cakes again. Powder is smoothed, or glazed, as it is called, for small arms, by the following operation: a hollow cylinder or cask is mounted on an axis, turned by a wheel; this cask is half-filled with powder, and turned for six hours; and thus by the mutual friction of the grains of powder it is smoothed, or glazed. The fine mealy part, thus separat- ed or worn off from the rest, is again granulated. The nature, effects, which they add an equal weight of what is really good; then with a shovel they mingle it well to- gether, dry it in the sun, and barrel it up, keeping it in a dry and proper place. Others again, if it is very bad, restore it by moisten- ing it with vinegar, water, urine, or brandy; then they beat it fine, sift it, and to every pound of powder add an ounce, or an ounce and a half, or two ounces (according as it is decayed), of melted nitre; and afterwards these ingredients arc to be moistened and well mixed, so that no particular substance may be discerned: whicli maybe known by cutting the mass, and then they granulate it as usual. In case the powder is quite spoiled, the only thing to be done is to extract the salt-petre with water, in the usual way, by boiling, filtrating, evaporating, and crys- tallizing; and then, with fresh sulphur and charcoal, to make it up afresh. Gunpowher and combustibles, lares concerning. No person shall make gunpowder but in the regular manu- factories established at the time of making the stat. 12 Geo. III. c. 61. or licensed by the sessions, pursuant to certain provisions, under forfeiture ofthe gunpowder, and 2.s. per lb. nor are pestle-mills to be used under a simi- lar penalty. Only 40 lbs. of powder to be made at one time under one pair of stoncs^e-xcept Battle-powder, made at Battle and elsewhere in Sussex. Not more than 40 cwt. to be dried at one time in one stove; and the quantity only required for immediate use to be kept in or near the place of making, except in brick or stone magazines, 50 yards at least from the mill. Not more than 25 barrels to be carried in any land carriage, nor more than 200 barrels by water, unless going by sea or coastwise, each barrel not to contain more than lOOlbs. No dealer to keep more than 200lbs. of powder, nor any person not a dealer, more than 50lbs. in the cities of London and Westminister, or within three miles thereof, or within any other city, borough, or market-town, or one mile thereof, or within two miles of the king's palaces or magazines, or half a mileof any parish-church, on pain of forfeiture; and 2s. per lb. except in licensed mills, or to the amount of 300 lbs. for the use of collie- ries, within 200 yards of them. Gux-smithery, the business of a gun-smith or the art of making fire-arms of the smaller sort, as muskets, fowling-pieces, pistols, kc The principal part of these instruments is the barrel, which ought to have the fed- lowing properties: 1. Lightness, that it may incommode the person who carries it as little as possible. 2. Sufficient strength, and other properties requisite to prevent its bursting by a discharge. 3. It ought to be convructed in such a manner as not to recoil with violence. And, 4. it ought to be of sufficient length to carry the shot to as great a distance as the force of the powder employed is capable of doing. The manufacture of fire-arms is now carried to such a degree of perfection by different European nations, that it may perhaps be justly doubted whether any farther im- provement in the requisites just mentioned can be made. For the materials the softest iron that can be procured is to be employed. The best in this country arc formed of stubs, as they are called, or old horse-shoe nails; which are procured by gun smiths frem farriers, and from poor people who subsist by picking them up on the great roads [calling to London. These are sold at about ten shillings per cwt. and 2S pounds are requisite to form a single musket-barrel. The method of manufacturing them from this material is as follows: A hoop of about an inch broad, and six or seven inches diameter, is placed in a perpen- dicular situation, and the stubs, previously well cleaned, piled up in it with their heads outermost on each side, till the hoop is quite filled and wedged tight with them. The whole then resembles a rough circular cake of iron; which being heated to a white heat, and then strongly hammered, coalesces into one solid lump. The hoop U now removed, and the heatings and hammerings repeat- ed till the iron is rendered very tough and close in the grain; when it is dr twn out into pieces of about 24 inches in length, half an inch or more in breadth, and half an inch in thickness. It is, however, not easy to conceirc how old stubs can be procured sufficient to supply iron for the number of barrels which go under this denomina- tion. Nor do we, upon any principles of science, sec any farther advantage to be derived from this manufac- ture, than that nail-iron is generally the best of iron, and well hammered. Four of the pieces, prepared as has been described, are required for one barrel; but in tbe ordinary way a single bar of the best soft iron is employed. The work- men begin with hammering out this into the form of a flat ruler, having its length and breadth proportioned to the dimensions of the intended barrel. By repeated heating and hammering this plate is turned round a tem- pered iron-rod called a mandril, the diameter of which is considerably smaller than the intended bore of the barrel. One ofthe edges of the plate being laid over the other about half an inch, the whole is heated and welded by two or three inches at a time, hammering it briskly, but with moderate strokes, upon an anvil which has a number of semicircular furrows in it, adapted to the barrels of different sizes. Every time the barrel is withdrawn from the fire, the workman strikes it gently against the anvil once, or twice in an horizontal direc- tion. By this operation the particles of the metal are more perfectly consolidated, and every appearance of a seam in the barrel is obliterated. The mandril being then again introduced into the cavity of the barrel, the latter is very strongly hammered upon it in one of the semicircular hollows of the anvil, by small portions ata time; the heatings and hammerings being repeated until the whole barrel has undergone ihe operation, and its parts rendered as perfectly continuous as if they had been formed out of a solid piece. To effect this com- pletely, three welding heats are necessary when the very best iron is made use of, and a greater number for the coarser kinds. The French workmen imagine that by giving the barrel, while iu the fire, slight horizontal strokes with the hammer, so as to communicate a vibra- tory motion to the iron, those particles arc thrown off which arc in a state of fusion, and cannot easily be con- GUX-SMITIIERY. verted into malleable iron: hut considering the great num- ber of operations alreaih described which the metal has ijnd i gone, we can scarcely suppose this to be of much consequence. The next operation in firming the barrels is the bor- ing e>f them, which is done in the follow ing manner: Two beams of oak, earii about six inches in diameter, and six or seven feet long, are placed horizontally, and parallel to one another; having each of their extremities mortised upon a strong upright piece about three feet high, and firmly fixed. A space of three or fair inches is left be- tween the horizontal pieces, in which a piece of wood is made to slide by having at either end a tenon let into a groove which runs on the inside of each beam through- out its whole length. Through this sliding piece a strong pin or bolt of iron is driven or screwed in a perpendicu- lar direction, having at its upper end a round hole large enough to admit the breech of the barrel, which is se- cured in it by means of a piece of iron that serves as a wedge, and a vertical screw passing through the upper part of the hole. A chain is fastened to a staple- in one side of the sliding piece which runs between the two ho- rizontal beams; and passing over a pulley at one end of the machine, has a weight hooked on to it. An upright piece of timber is fixed above this pulley, and between the ends of the beams, having its upper end perforated by the axis of an iron crank furnished with a square socket; the other axis being supported by the wall, or by a strong post, and loaded Aith a heavy wheel of e ast iron to give it force. The axes of this crank are in a line with the hole in the bolt already mentioned. The borer being then fixed into the socket of the crank, has its other end,previously well oiled, introduced into the bar- rel, whose breech part is made fast in the hole of the bolt: the chain is then carried over the puR-v, and the weight himkcd on; the crank being then tunnel w ltli the hand, the barrel advances as the borer cuts its way, till it has passed through the whole length. The boring hit consists of an iron-rod somewhat longer than the barrel, one end of which fits the socket of the crank; the other is adapted to a cylindrical piece of tempered steel, about an inch and a half in length, having its surface cut after the manner of a perpetual screw, with five or six threads, the obliquity of which is very small. The breadth of the furrows is the same with that of the threads, and their depth sufficient to let the metal cut by the threads pass through them easily. Thus the bit gets a strong hold of the metal; and the threads, being sharp at the edges, scoop out an! remove all the inequalities and roughness from the inside of the barrel, and render the cavity smooth and equal throughout. A number of bits, each a little larger than the former, are afterwards succes- sively passed through the barrel in the same way, until the bore has acquired the magnitude intended. By this operation the barrel is very much heated, especially the first time the borer is passed through it,by which means it is apt to warp. To prevent this in some measure, the barrel is covered with a cloth kept constantly wetted, which not only preserves the barrel from an excess of heat, but likewise preserves the temp r of the bit from being destroyed. The borer itself most also be w ith- drawn tVom tioic to lime; both to clean it from the shav- ings of the metal aud to oil it, or repair any damage s it may have snsiaimd. Every time a fresh bit has becvi passed through the barrel, the latter mest be carefully examinee!, to see if it has warped; and likewise if there are any spots, by the workmen called blacks, on its in- side. When warped, it must be straightened on the an- vil, for which a few slight strokes on the convex parts will be sufficient; and this is termed setting-up the barrel. When black spots are perceived, the corresponding part on the outside must be marked, and driven in by gentle strokes with the hammer, when they will be completely removed by passing the borer another time through the piece. The equality of the bore is of the utmost consequence to the perfection of a barrel; insomuch that the greatest possible accuracy in every other respect will not make amends for any deficiency in this. The method used by gunsmiths to ascertain this is by a cylindrical plug of tempered steel highly polished, about an inch in length, and fitting the bore exactly. This is screwed upon the end of an iron-rod, and introduced into the cavity of the barrel, where it is moved backwards and forwards; and the places where it passes with difficulty being marked, the hiring bit is repeatedly passed until it muxes with equri ease through every part. Any person who wishes to know the merit of his piece in this respect, may do it with tolerable accuracy by means of a plug of lead cast on a rod of iron; or even by a musket-ball filed exactly to the bore, and pushed through the barrel by a ramrod; taking care, however, not to use much force lest the ball be flattened, and its passage thus rendered difficult. The first tool employed in forming the breech-screw is a plug of tempered steel, somewhat conical, with the threads of a male screw upon its surface, and by the workmen termed a screw-tap. This being introduced into the barrel, and worked from left to right and back again, until it has marked out the first four threads of the screw, another less conical tap is introduced: and when this has carried the impression of the screw as far as it is intended to go, a third one, nearly cylindrical, is made as to pierce a board near an inch thick at the d*stance of 40 or 45 paces. Small barrels are said to be more liable to this clustering than large ones; and M. de Marolles informs us, that this is especially the case when the barrels are new, and likewise when they are fresh-washed; though he acknowledges that it did not always happen with the barrels he employed even after they'were washed. It is probable, therefore, that the closeness of the shot depends on some circumstance re- lative to the wadding rather than to the mechanism of the barrel. Gun-shot wounds are attended with much worse con- sequences than wounds made by sharp instruments; for the parts are more shattered and torn, especially when the shot falls upon the joints, bones, or any considerable part. See Surgery. GUNTER'S Chain, the chain in common use for measuring land, according to the true or statute measure; so called from Mr. Gunter, its reputed inventor. The length of the chain is 66 feet, or 22 yards, or four pedes of five yards and a half each; and it is divided into 100 links, of 7.92 inches each. This chain is the most convenient of any thing for measuring land, because the contents thence computed are so easily turned into acres. The reason of which is, that an acre of land is just equal to 10 square chains, or 10 chains in length and one in breadth, or equal to 100,000 square links. Hence the dimensions being taken in chains, and multiplied together, it gives the content in square chains; which therefore being divided by 10, or a figure cut off for decimals, brings the content to acres: alter which the decimals are reduced to roods and perches, by multiplying by 4 and 40. But the better way is to set the dimensions down in links as integers, considering each chain as 100 links; then, having mul- tiplied the eliiuensieins together, producing square links, divide these by 100,000, that is, cut off five places for GUI* G U S decimals, the rest are acres, and the decimals are re- duced to ro -ds and perches as before. Ex. Suppose, in measuring a rectangular piece of ground, its length be 795 links, and its breadth 480 links, 63600 3180 Ac. 3.81600 4 Ro. 3.264 40 Per. 10.560 So the content is 3 acres 3 roods 10 perches. Gunter's line, a logarithmic line, usually gradu- ated upon scales, sectors, kc. It is also called the line of lines, and line of numbers; being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which therefore serves to solve problems instrumentally in the same manner as logarithms do arithmetically. It is usu- ally divided into a hundred parts, every tenth of which is numbered, beginning with 1, and ending with 10; so that if the first great division, marked 1, stand for one- tenth of any integer, the next division, marked 2, will stand for two-tenths; 3, three-tenths, and so on; and the intermediate divisions will, in like manner, represent 100 parts of some integer. If each of the great divi- sions represent 10 integers, then will the lesser divisions stand for integers; and if the great divisions be supposed each 100, the subdivisions will be each 10. use of gunter's line. 1. To find the product of two numbers. From 1 ex- tend the compasses to the multiplier; and the same ex- tent, applied the same way from the multiplicand, will reach to the product. Thus if the product of 4 and 8 be required, extend the compasses from 1 to 4 and that extent laid from 8 the same way, will reach to 32, their product. 2. To divide one number by another. The extent from the divisor to unity will reach from the dividend to the -quotient: thus to divide 36 by 4, extend the compasses from 4 to 1, and the same extent will reach from 36 to 9, the quotient sought. 3. To three given numbers, to find a fourth proportional. Suppose the numbers 6, 8, 9; extend the compasses from 6 to 8, and this extent, laid from 9 the same way, will reach to 12, the fourth proportional required. 4. To find a mean proportional between any two given numbers. Suppose 8 and 32: extend the compasses from 8 in the left-hand part of the line, to 32 in the right; then bisecting this distance, its half will reach from 8 forward, or from 32 backward, to 16, the mean propor- tional sought. 5. To extract the square root of any number. Suppose 25: bisect the distance between 1 on the scale and the point representing 25; then the half of this distance, set off from 1, will give the point representing the root 5. In the same manner the cube root, or that of any higher power, may be found by dividing the distance on the line, between 1 and the given number, into as many equal parts as the index of the power expresses; then one of those parts, set from 1, will find the point representing the root required. Gunter's quadrant, one made of wood, brass, &c. containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere, on the plane of the equinoctial; the eye being sup- posed placed in one of the poles. Besides the use of this quadrant in finding heights and distances, it serves also to find the hour of the day, the sun's azimuth, and other problems of the globe. -Gunter's Scale, usually called by seamen the Gunter is a large plane scale, having various lines upon it, of great use in working the cases or questions in navigation. This scale is usually two feet long, and about an inch and a half broad, with various lines upon it, both natural and logarithmic, relating to trigonometry, navigation, &c. On one side are the natural lines, and on the other the artificial or logarithmic ones. The former side is first divided into inches and tenths, and numbered from 1 to 24 inches, running the whole length near one edge. One-half the length of this side consists of two plane dia- gonal scales, for taking off dimensions to three places of figures. On the other half or foot of this side are contain- ed various lines relating to trigonometry, iu the natural numbers, and marked thus, viz. Rumb, the rumb or points ofthe compass; Chord, the line of chords; Sine, the line of sines; Tang, the tangents; S. T. the semitangents; and at the other end of tbis half are, Lcag. leagues, or equal parts; Rumb. another line of rumbs; M. L. miles of longitude; Chor. another line «f chords. Also in the middle of this foot are L. and P. two other lines of equal parts. And all these lines on this side of the scale serve for drawing or laying down the figures to the cases in trigonometry and navigation. On the other side ofthe scale are the following artifi- cial or logarithmic lines, which serve for working or re- solving those cases, viz. S. R. the sine rumbs; T. R. the tangent rumbs; Numb, line of numbers; Sine, sines; V. S. the versed sines; Tang, the tangents; Meri. meridional parts; E. P. equal parts. GUN-WALK, or Gunnel, is the uppermost wale of a ship, or that piece of timber whicli reaches on either side from the quarter-deck to the forecastle, being the uppermost bend which finishes the upper works of the hull, m that part in which are put the stanchions which support the waste-trees. GUSSET, in heraldry, is formed by aline drawn from the dexter or sinister chief points, and falling down per- pendicularly to the extreme base. The gusset is an abate- ment of honour, denoting an effeminate person. GUSTAYIA, a genus of the polyandria order, in tho GYM GYM monadelphia class of plants. There is no calyx; the pe- tals very numerous; the berry multilocular; the seeds ap- pendaged. There is one species, a tree of Surinam. GLTTvE. Sec Architecture. GUTTA-sekcxa, adiseaseiu which the patient, with- out any apparent fault in the eye, is entirely deprived of sight. See Surgery. GUTTY, in heraldry, a term used when any thing is charged or sprinkled with drops. In blazoning, the colour of the drops is to be named, as gutty of sable, of gules, kc. GUY, in a ship, is any rope used for keeping off things from bearing or falling against the ship's sides when they are hoisting in. That rope which at one end is made fast to the foremast, and seized to a single block at the pendant of the garnet, is called the guy of the garnet. GUZES, in heraldry, roundles of a sanguine or murry colour. These, from their bloody hue, are by some sup- posed to represent wounds. GYMNANTHES, a genus of the class and order moncecia monadelphia. The male has an anient naked; perianthium and corolla none; stamina pedicles, three- parted or three-forked, anther bearing. The female has an ament or germ pedicelled; corolla none; style trifid: capsule tricoccous, three-celled. There are two species, shrubs of the West Indies. GYMNETRUS, a genus* of fishes, of the order of thoracici. The generic character is, body extremely long, compressed; teeth numerous, subulate; gill membrane, four or five-rayed; anal fin wanting. The most remarka- ble species are: 1. Gymnetrus Ascanii, or ascanian gymnctrus. This extraordinary fish is a native of the northern seas, and seems to have been first described by professor Ascanius, in his work entitled Icones rcruin Natularium, kc The length of the specimen was ten feet, and the diameter, which was equal throughout the whole length, about six inches: the head short, the mouth small, and the eyes ra- ther large: on the upper part of the head, before the com- mencement of the dorsal fin, were situated 7 or 8 upright naked rays or processes, of moderate length: the dorsal fin, which was rather shallow, commenced at a small dis- tance beyond these, and running along the whole length of the back, formed by its continuation the tail-fin: the ventral fins, if they can be said to deserve the name, consisted of a pair of extremely long single rays or pro- cesses terminated by a small ovate expanded tip or finny extremity: the gill-covers appeared to consist of five or six radiated laminae: the colour of the w hole body was bright silver, with a blueish cast diffused over the upper part of the back: the lateral line was strongly marked, and ran from the gill-covers to the tail, and the sides of the body were marked by several longitudinal double rows of slightly extant, very small dusky specks; the forehead was white; the fins pale brown. This fish is said to be generally seen either preceding or accompanying the shoals of herrings in the northern seas, for which reason it is popularly known by the title of king of the herrings. 2. Hlochian gymnetrus. This which is a native ofthe Indian seas, and which appears also to be occasionally seen iu those of Europe, is described by Dr. Bloch from a drawing communicated by J. Hawkins, Esq. In its general appearance it is much allied to the preceding kind, but appears to be furnished with two pair of ventral processes, which are of considerable length, and termi- nate in large, dilated, finny extremities, of an oval form: the back-fin is continued as far as the tail. The colour of this species is silvery, with a blueish cast on the upper parts, and several transverse, alternate, brownish shades continued along tbe body, accompanied by large, distant, round spots, of a similar colour: the fins and processes deep crimson: the pectoral fins pretty large in proportion. It appears from a print published in the year 1798, that a specimen of this fish was thrown on the coast of Cornwall in the month of February in the same year. Its length was eight feet six inches, its breadth in the widest part ten inches and a half, and its thickness emly two inches and three quarters; the tail in this specimen was wanting; the colours the same as the specimen figure by Dr. Bloch. GYMNOSOPHISTS, a sect of philosophers who clothed themselves no farther than modesty required. There were some of these sages in Africa; but the most celebrated clan of them was in India. The African gym- nososophists dwelt upon a mountain in Ethiopia, near the Nile, without the accommodation of either house or cell. They did not form themselves into societies like those of India, but each had his private retirement, where he studied and performed his devotions by himself. If any person had killed another by chance, he applied to these sages for absolution, and submitted to whatever penances they enjoined. They observed an extraordinary frugality, and lived only upon the fruits of the earth. Lucan ascribes to these gymnosophists several new dis- coveries in astronomy. The Indian gymnosophists dwelt in the woods, where they lived upon the wild products ofthe earth, and never drank wine, nor married. Some of them practised physic, and travelled from one place to another: these were par- ticularly famous for their remedies against barrenness. Some of them, likewise, pretended to practise magic, and to foretell future events. GYMNOSPERMI A, in botany, from yuup, naked, and ainff*tt, seed; the first order in Linnseus's class of clidy- namia. It comprehends those plants of that class which have naked seeds. The seeds are constantly four in num- ber, except in one genus, viz. phryma, which is monos- permous. GTMNOTUS, gymnote, a genus of fishes belonging to the apodes. The generic character is, head with late- ral opercula; tentacula two on the upper lip; eyes cover- ed by the common skin; gill-membrane five-rayed; body compressed, without dorsal fin (in most species), but carinated by a fin beneath. The most remarkable species, are: 1. The gymnotus electricus, a native ofthe warmer re- gions of Africa and America, where it inhabits the larger rivers, and is particularly found in those of Surinam. In Africa it is said chiefly to occur in the branches ofthe river Senegal. It is a fish of a disagreeable appearance; bear- ing a general resemblance to a large eel, though somewhat thicker in proportion, and of a much darker colour, be- ing commonly of an uniform blackish-brown. It is usu- ally seen of the length of three or four feet, but is said to arrive at afar larger size, specimens occasionally oc- GYM G Y R curring of 6, 7, or even ten feet in length. It was first made known to the philosophers of Europe about the year 1671, vvlien its wonderful properties were announc- ed to the French academy by Mons. Richer, one of the gentlemen sent out by the academy to conduct some mathematical observations in Cayenne. This account however seems to have been received with a degree of cautious scepticism by the major part of European naturalists; and it was not till towards the middle of the last century that a full and general conviction appears to have taken place; the observations of Mons. Condamine, Mr. Ingram, Mr. Gravesend, and others, then conspir- ing to prove that the power of this animal consists in a spe- cies of real electricity, being conducted by similar conduct- ing substances, and intercepted by others of an opposite nature. Thus, on touching the fish with the fingers, the same sensation is perceived as on touching a charged phial; being sometimes felt as far as the elbows; and if touched by both hands, an electric shock is conveyed through the breast in the usual manner. Fermin, in particular, who, during his residence in Surinam, had frequent opportu- nities of examining the animal, demonstrated by expe- riment that 14 slaves, holding each other by the hands, received the shock at the same instant; the first touching the fish with a stick, and the last dipping his hand into the water in which it was kept. The experiments of Dr. Bancroft were equally satisfactory (see Electricity). It is by this extraordinary faculty that the gymnotus supports its existence: the smaller fishes and other ani- mals which happened to approach it, being instantly stu- pificd, and thus falling an easy prey to the electrical ty- rant. So powerful is the shock which this fish, in its native waters, is capable of exerting, that it is said to de- prive almost entirely of sense and motion those who are exposed to its approach, and is therefore much dreaded by those who bathe in the rivers which it inhabits. See PI. LXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 218. It has been affirmed that the gymnotus electricus, even for some time after its death, cannot be touched without feeling its electric shock. This is by no means incredible, when we consider the effect ofthe galvanic pile, so well known to modern philosophers. 2. Gymnotus carapo. The head of the carapo is of a compressed form, and the upper jaw projects beyond the lower: the tongue is short, tliick, broad, and furnished like the jaws with a great many small sharp-pointed teeth: the eyes are very small, and the front ofthe head is marked, as in the preceding species, by a number of small round pores: the body gradually decreases towards the tail, which is extremely slender, and terminates in a point. The colour of the whole animal is brown, marked by a few irregular spots or patches of a deeper cast: tbe scales are small, and the lateral line straight. This fish is a native of the American seas, and is said to be most fre- quent on the coast of Surinam. It is supposed to live chiefly on small lilies, sea insects, kc. Whether it pos- sesses any electric power, like ihe former species, may be doubted; yet the structure of the lower part of the body seems to imply somewhat of a similar contrivance of nature. The usual length of the carapo is from 1 to 2 fee;; but it is sometimes found of the length of three feet, and of the weight of more than ten pounds. It is consi- deied as an esculent fish by the South Americans. S. Gymnotus rostratus, or rostrated gymnote. In its general aspect this species is much allied to the corapo, but is readily distinguished by the peculiar form of the head, which terminates in a narrow, slightly compressed, tubular snout, the jaws appearing in a manner connate: the colour of the body is pale reddish-brown, variegated with differently sized spots of a darker colour, and which are much smaller, as well as more numerous, on the fin than on the other parts: the pectoral fins are round, and rather small for the size of the animal: the eyes are very small: the scales, if any, are so small as to be not distinct- ly visible on a general view. This species is a native of Surinam, and seems to have been first described and figu- red by Seba. 4. Gymnotus acus, or needle gymnote. This species is described by Brunnich, in his history of the fish of Marseilles. It is whitish, with reddish and brown spots, which cause a kind of clouded variegation on the back, while a blueish tinge prevails towards the under parts: on the back is a kind of projection, which may be rather considered as a rudiment of a fin than a perfect one: the w hole animal is of a long, compressed, and attenuated form, and the mouth is destitute of tentacula. This is the only European species of gymnote yet discovered, and is a native of the Mediterranean sea. Biside these there are 11 other species. GYNANDRIA, from yv,j, a woman, and «y»p, a man, the name of the 20th class in Linnseus's sexual system, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, in which the stamina are placed upon the style, or, to speak more properly, upon a pillar-shaped receptacle resembling a style, which rises in the middle of the flower, and bears both the stamina and pointal; that is, both the supposed organs of generation, (see Botany). The flowers of this class,says Linnseus, have a monstrous appearance; arising, as he imagines, from the singular and unusual situation ofthe parts of fructification. GYNOPOGON, a genus of the pentandria monogy- nia class and order. The calyx is half five-cleft; corolla five-parted; stigma globular, twolohed; berry pedicelled, sub-globular; seed cartilaginous. There are three spe- cies, herbs of the South Seas, of no note. GYPSUM. See Lime, sulphat of. What formerly was called gypsum, or selenite, is now known to be a sulphat of lime. It is also distinguished by the name of plaister stone, &c. GYR1NUS, or glimmcrchaffer, a genus of insects of the coleoptera order. The generic character is, anten- nse clavated, stiff, shorter than the head: eyes (apparent- ly) four, two above and two below. The genus gyrinus is furnished with extremely short, stiff an ten use, appearing to consist of an undivided piece or joint; but, if accurately inspected by means of a mag- nifier, they will be found to be composed of very numer- ous close set joints: the eyes are so placed as to appear double on each side the head, viz. one above, and the other below the base of the antenna?. The most remarkable European species is the gyrinus natator, a small insect, about a quarter of an inch in length, of an oval shape, with somewhat sharpened ex- tremities, and of a black or gvey-black colour, with so lucid a surface as to shine like a piece of looking-glass in the full sunshine. It is an inhabitant of the waters, and H A B H A B is chiefly found in rivulets, being generally seen in great multitudes, and in very brisk motion. It is difficult to patch, diving with astonishing celerity when disturbed? the hinder legs being very broad, finely webbed with minute hairs, and most curiously formed for exercising the office of fins or oars. The larva is of a Iiighly singu- lar aspect, having a very lengthened body, furnished, ex- clusive of six legs on the foreparts, with a great many lateral appendages or processes down the body; those towards the extremity considerably exceeding the rest. In its motions it is extremely agile, swimming in a kind of serpentine manner, and preying on the smaller and weaker water-insects, minute worms, &c; the head is armed with a pair of forceps, pierced on each side the tip with a small foramen, through which it sucks the juices ofthe animals on which it preys; the colour of this larva is a very pale or whitish brown, with a high degree of transparency, which renders it a very curious object for the microscope: its length, when full-grown, is about three quarters of an inch. When the time of its changes arrives, it forms for itself a small oval cell or case on a leaf of sedge, or other convenient water-plant, and after casting its skin, becomes a chrysalis: this change usually takes place in the month of August, and the complete insect emerges in that of September. When these animals are congregated together in great multitudes on the surface ofthe water, which frequently happens in hot weather, they have been observed to dif- fuse a strong or disagreeable smell to a considerable dis- tance. Like other water-beetles they fly only by night. They deposit their eggs, which are very small, white, and of a somewhat cylindric form, on the stems of water-plants; they hatch in the space of about eight days, and imme- diately begin to swim about with much briskness inquest of prey. There are only 2 species. GYRFALCON. See Falco. GYPSIES. See Egyptians. GYPSOPHILA, a genus ofthe digytaia order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural method rank- ing under the 22d order, caryophillei. The calyx is mono- phyHous, campaiwlatcd, and angulated; the petals are five in number, ovate, and sessile; the capsule globose and unilocular. There are 12 species, herbs of Europe. H. II the eighth letter in our alphabet; used as a numeral, 9 denotes 200; and with a clash over it, 77, 200,000. As an abbreviation, II was used by the ancients to de- note homo, lucres, hora, kc. Thus H. B. stood for litres bonorum; and II. S. corruptly for L. L. S. a sesterce; and H. A. for ITadrianiis. IIARDALA, a ceremony ofthe Jews, observed on the sabbath in the evening; intended to signify that the sab- bath is over, and if from that moment divided from the day of labour which follows. For this reason the cere- mony is called hahdala, which signifies distinction. HABEAS CORPUS. This writ formed part of the ancient common law, but was much more restrained in its operation and effects; for the judges arrogated to themselves the power of granting or denying it; and the gaolers did not pay a proper attention to it, often put- ting the sufferer to the expense of an alias and pluries habeas corpus before they obeyed. These inconvenien- ces produced the famous statute 31 Car. II. c. 2. This great bulwark of English liberty, which may fairly be put upon a level with the celebrated Magna Charta, was occasioned by the unjust oppression of an insignificant individual in the reign of Charles the Second. The statute enacts, 1st. That the lord chancellor, or any of the judges in vacation, on complaint or written request of any person committed for any crime (except felony, or treason, or as accessary, or suspected of being accessary before the fact, to any petty treason, or felony, or charged in execu- tion by legal process), upon seringa copy of the warrant, or affidavit that copy is denied, shall award a habeas corpus for such prisoner, returnable immediately before himself, or any other of the judges (unless the party has suffered two terms to elapse before applying to the court for his liberation), and shall discharge the party, if bailable, on his giving proper security to appear. 2dly. That the writ shall be indorsed, as granted in pursuance to this act, and signed by the person awarding 3dly. Thatthe writ shall be returned, and the prisoner brought up in a limited time, according to the distance, never exceeding 20 days. 4thly. That officers and keepers not making due re- turns, or not delivering to the party or his agent, within six hours after demand, a copy ofthe warrant of com- mitment, or shifting the custody of a prisoner without proper authority (as mentioned in the act), shall forfeit 1001. for the first offence, and 200/. for the second, to the sufferer, and be disabled from holding such office. 5thly. That any one detaining a person once delivered by habeas corpus for the same offence, shall forfeit 500/. 6thly. That every person committed for treason or felony shall, if he desires it, the first week of the next term, or the first day of the next session of oyer and ter- miner, be indicted in that term or session, or else ad- mitted to bail, unless tbe witnesses for the crown cannot be produced at that time, and if ac quitted, or not indict- ed, and tried in the second te-rm or session, shall be dis- charged; but no person after the commencement of as- sizes for the county where he is detained, shall be re- moved by habeas corpus till they are ended. 7thly. That a prisoner can obtain bis habeas corpus out ofthe chancery and exchequer, as well as out of the king's bench and common pleas; and if the chancellor and judges shall refuse the same on sight of the warrant or oath that it is denied, shall forfeit severally 500/. to the party grieved. 8thly. That this writ of habeas corpus shall run into H A B H M M the counties palatine, and all other privileged places, and the islands of Guernsey and Jersey. . .r—-*""'"" 9thly. Thai no inhabitants of England (unless at their desire, or having committed some capital offence in the place to which they are sent;, shall be sent prisoners to Ireland, Scotland, Guernsey, and Jersey, or any places beyond the seas, within or without his majesty's domi- nions, on pain that the person committing, and his advi- sers and abettors, shall forfeit to the injured party a sum not less than 500/. to be recovered with treble costs, shall be disabled from holding any office, shall incur the penal- ties of praemunire, and be incapable ofthe king's pardon. The writs in use under this act are various. Many kinds are used for removing prisoners from one court to another. Such are the habeas corpus ad respondendum, when a man has cause of action against one who is con- fined by process of an inferior court, in order to remove the prisoner, and charge him with this new action in the court above. Ad satisfaciendum is when judgment has, in an action, been given against a prisoner, and the plain- tiff brings him up to a superior court to charge him with process of execution. Also the writs ad prosequendum, testificandum, deliberandum, which issue when it is neces- sary to remove a prisoner, in order to prosecute, or bear testimony, or to be tried in the proper jurisdiction, where- in the fact was committed. And, lastly, he common w-rit ad faciendum et recipiendum, which issues out of any of the courts above, when a person is sued in some inferior jurisdiction, and desires to remove the action into the superior court, commanding the inferior judges to pro- duce the body of the defendant, with the day and cause of his detainer, to do and receive what the king's court shall determine. This writ is grantablc of common right, without moving the court, and supersedes all inferior pro- ceedings. But to prevent the surreptitious discharge of prisoners, the statute 1 and 2 P. and M. c. 13, enacts, that no habeas corpus shall issue to remove any prisoner out of goal, unless signed by some judge of the court out of which it is awarded. And by a statute ofthe present reign it is enacted, that no cause under the value of 10/. shall be removed into a superior court, unless the defen- dant, on removing the same, gives security for payment of debt and costs. But the writ which forms so great a part of the liberty of the subject in all manner of illegal confinement, is the habeas corpus ad subjiciendum, commanding the per- son detaining a prisoner to produce him, with the day and cause of his detension, to submit to whatever the judge or court awarding such writ shall determine. This is a high prerogative writ, and therefore, by the common law, issuing out of the court of king's bench, not only in term time, but vacation, by a fiat from any ofthe judges, and running into all the king's domin- ions. And a man has now the benefit of the common law writ, either in the king's bench or common pleas, as he chooses; and in both those courts it is necessary to apply for it by motion, as it does not issue of course, without showing some reason for the granting it. But if good grounds be shown that the party is imprisoned without just cause, it becomes a writ of common right, and must not be denied, even though a man is detained by the highest authority. This celebrated act bas been subject to temporary sus- pensions, by authority of parliament, in times of riot or rebellion; and the late minister subjected himself to consi- derable unpopularity by that measure during the last war, HABENDUM, in a deed, is to determine what estate or interest is granted by the deed, the certainty thereof, for what time, and to what use. It sometimes qualifies the estate, so that the general implication thereof, whicli, by construction of law, passes in the premises, may by the habendum be controlled: in which case the habendum may lessen or enlarge the estate, but not totally contra- dict or be repugnant to it. As if a grant is to one and the heirs of his body, to leave to him and his heirs lor ever, here he has an estate tail by the grant, and by the ha- bendum he has a fee simple expectant thereon. But if it had been in the premises to him and his heirs, to have for life, the habendum would be utterly void; for an estate of inheritance is vested in him before the haben- dum comes, and shall not afterwards be taken away, or divested by it. 2 Black. 298. The habendum cannot pass any thing that is not expressly mentioned, or contained by implication in the premises of the deed; because the premises being part of the deed by which the thing is granted, and con- sequently that makes the gift; it follows that the haben- dum, which only limits the certainty and extent of the estate in the thing given, cannot increase or multiply the gift, because it would be absurd to say that the grantee shall hold a thing which was never given him. 2 Roll. Abr. 65. See Deed. HABERDASHER, in commerce, a seller of hats, or of small wares. The master and wardens of the company of haber- dashers in London, calling to their assistance one ofthe company of cappers, and another of the hat-makers, and mayors, &c. of towns, may search the wares of all hat- ters that work hats with foreign wool, and have not been apprentices to the trade, or who dye them with anything hut copperas and galls, or woad and madder; in which case they are liable to penalties, by stat. 8 Eliz. c. 7, and 5 Geo. II. c. 22. HABERE facias seisinam, a writ of execution di- rected to the sheriff, commanding him to give to the plaintiff possession of a freehold: if it is a chattel inte- rest, and not a freehold, then the writ is entitled ha- bere facias possessionem. 3 Black. 412. In the execution of these writs, the sheriff, if needful, may take with him the power of the county, and may justify breaking open doors, if the possession is not qui- etly delivered; but if it is peaceably delivered up, the yielding of a twig, a turf, or the ring of a door, in the name of seisin, is sufficient. Id. Habere facias visum, a writ that lies in divers cases in real actions, as in dower, formedon, kc where view is required to be taken of the lands or tenements in ques- tion. HABERGEON, a small coat of mail, or only sleeves and gorget of mail, formed of little iron rings or meshes linked into each other. HADDOCK. See Gadus. HjEMANTHUS, the blood flower, a genus of the mo- nogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the ninth order, spa- thacese. The inyolucrum is hexaphyllous and multiflo- H A M H A I rousj the corolla sexpartite, superior; the bcrfy trilocu- lar. There are eight species, of which the principal are: 1. The coccineus, with plain tongue-shaped leaves, rises about a foot high, with a stalk supporting a cluster of bright-red tubulous flowers. It has a large bulbous root, from which in the autumn come out two broad flat leaves of a fleshy consistence, shaped like a tongue, which turn backward on each side, and spread on the ground, so that they have a strange appearance all the winter. In the spring these decay; so that from May to the beginning of August they are destitute of leaves. The flowers are produced in the autumn just before the leaves come out. 2. The carinatus, with keel-shaped leaves, has a taller stalk and paler flowers than the former; its leaves are not flat, but hollowed like the keel of a boat. 3. The puniceus, with large spear-shaped waved leaves, grows about a foot high, and has flowers of a yellowish- red colour. These are succeeded by berries, which are of a beautiful red colour when ripe. All these plants are natives of the Cape of Good Hope. HAEMATITES, or blood stone, a hard mineral substance, red, black, or purple, but the powder of which is always red. It is found in masses sometimes spherical, semi spherical, pyramidal, or cellular, that is, like a honeycomb. It contains a large quantity Of iron. Forty pounds of that metal have been extracted from a quintal of stone; but the iron is of such a bad quality, that this ore is not commonly smelted. The great hardness of haematites renders it fit for burnish- ing and polishing metals. The specific gravity from 47 to 50. Sec Plate LXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 220. IEEMATOPUS, the sea-pye, in ornithology, agenus belonging to the order of grallse. The beak is com- pressed, with an equal wedge-shaped point: the nostrils are linear; and the feet have three toes without nails. There is but one species, viz. the ostralegus, or oyster- catcher, a native of Europe and America. See Plate LXVII. N. H. fig. 219. It feeds upon shell-fish near the sea-shore, particularly oysters and limpets. On observ- ing an oyster which gapes wide enough for the insertion of its bill, it thrusts it in, and takes out the inhabitant: it will also force the limpets from their adhesion to the rocks with sufficient case. Occasionally it feeds on ma- rine insects and worms. With us these birds are often seen in considerable flocks in winter: iu the summer they are met with only in pairs, though chiefly in the neigh- bourhood of the sea or salt rivers. HaEMATOXYLUM, logwood, or Campeachy wood, a genus of the monogynia order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 33d order, lomcntaceee. The calyx is quinquepartite; the petals five; the capsule lanceolated, unilocular, and bivalved; the valves navicular, or keeled like a boat. Of this genus there is only one species, viz. the campeachi- aiv.nn, which grows naturally in the bay of Campeachy at Honduras, and other parts of the Spanish West In- dies, where it rises from 16 to 24 feet high. The stems are generally crooked, and very deformed, and seldom thicker than a man's thigh. The branches, which come out on each side, arc crooked, irregular, and armed with strong thorns, and winged leaves, composed of three pair of obscure lobes indented at the top The flowers come in a racemus from the wings of the leaves, stand- ing erect, and are of a pale-yellowish colour, with a pur- ple empalement. They are succeeded oy flat oblong pods, each containing two or three kidney-seeds. Logwood is used in great quantities for dyeing pur- ple, but especially black colours. All the colours, how- ever, which can be prepared from it, are of a fading na- ture, and cannot by any art be made equally durable with those prepared from some other materials. Of all the colours prepared from logwood, the black is the most durable. Doctor Lewis recommends it as an ingredient in making ink. " In dyeing cloth (says he), vitriol and galls, in whatever proportions they are used, produce only browns of different shades: I have often been sur- prised that with these capital materials ofthe black dye I never oould obtain any true blackness in white cloth, and attributed the failure to some unheeded mismanage- ment in the process, till I found it to be a known fact among the dyers. Logwood is the material which adds blackness to the vitriol and gall brown; and this black dye, though not ofthe most durable kind, is the most common. On blue cloth a good black may be dyed by vitriol and galls alone; but even here an addition of log- wood contributes not a little to improve the colour." Mr. Delaval, however, in his Essay on Colours, informs us, that with an infusion of galls and iron-filings, he not only made an exceeding black and durable ink, but also linen cloth of a very deep black. HaEMOPTOSIS, in medicine, a spitting of blood. See Medicine. HAEMORRHAGE, in medicine, a flux of blood from any part of the bod v. See Medic i.ve. HAEMORRHOIDS, or Piles. See Medicine. HaERUCA, in entomology, a genus of the order of vermes intestina. The body is round, tiie fore part two- necked, and surrounded with a single row of prickles. The II. minis is grey-white and wrinkled: it inhabits the in- testines of the mouse, and is distinguished from the echin or hynchus, in wanting the retractile proboscis. HAIL, in natural hivtory, a meteor generally defined frozen rain, but differing from it in that the hailstones are not formed of single pieces of ice, but of many little spherules agglutinated together. Neither are these sphe- rules all of the same consistence; some of them being hard and solid like perfect ice; others soft, and mostly like snow hardened by a severe frost. Sometimes the hailstone has a kind of core of this soft matter; but more frequently the core is solid and hard, while the outside is formed of a softer matter. Hailstones assume various figures, being sometimes round, at other times pyramidal, crenated, angular, thin, and flat, and some- times stellated, with six radii like the small crystals of snow. See Meteorology. Natural historians furnish us with various accounts of surprising showers of hail, in which the hailstones were of extraordinary magnitude. Mezcray, speaking ofthe war of Louis XII. in Italy, in the vear 1510, relates, that there was for some time a horrible darkne>s, thick- er than that of night; after which the clouds broke into thunder and lightning, and there fell a shower of hail- stones, or rather (as he calls them) pebble-stones, which destroyed all the fish, birds, and h.ass, of the coniitrv. It was attended with a -strong smell of sulphur; and the H A I HAL stones were of a blueish colour, some of them weighing a hundred pounds. Hist, de France, torn. ii. p. 339. At Lisle, in Flanders, iu 1686, fell hail-stones of a verv large size; some of which contained in the middle a dark-brown matter, which, thrown on the fire, gave a very great report. Phil. Trans. No. 203. Dr. Halley and others also relate, that in Cheshire, Lancashire, &c. April 29, 1697, a thick black cloud com- ing from Carnarvonshire, disposed the vapours to con- geal in such a manner, that for about the breadth of two miles, which was the limit of the cloud, in its progress, for the space of 60 miles, it did inconceivable damage; not only killing all sorts of fowls and other small ani- mals, but splitting trees, knocking down horses and men, and even ploughing up the earth: so that the hailstones buried themselves under ground an inch or an inch and a half deep. The hailstones, many of which weighed five ounces, and some half a pound, and being five or six inches about, were of various figures; some round, others half-round; some smooth, others embossed and cremated: the icy substance of them was very transparent and hard, but there was a snowy kernel in the middle of them. In Hertfordshire, May 4, the same year, after a severe storm of thunder and lightning, a shower of hail suc- ceeded the former: some persons were killed by it, and their bodies were beaten all black and blue; vast oaks were split, and fields of rye cut down as with a scythe. The stones measured from 10 to 13 or 14 inches about. Their figures were various, some oval, others picked, and some flat. Philosopb. Trans. No. 229. Methods have lately been proposed, in England and France, to draw off the lightning, and dissipate hail- storm. Monthly Magazine, July 1806. HAIR. See Physiology. Hair and feathers cover different parts of animals, and are obviously intended by nature to protect them from the cold. For this their softness and pliability, and the slowness with which they conduct heat, render them pe- culiarly proper. 1. Hair is usually distinguished into various kinds, according to its size and appearances. The strongest and stiffestof all is called bristle: of this kind is the hair on the back of hogs. When remarkably fine, soft, and pliable, it is called wool; and the finest of all is known by the name of down. But all these varieties resemble one another very closely in their composition. Hair appears to be a kind of tube covered with a cuti- cle. Its surface is not smooth, but either covered with scales, or consisting of imbricated cones. Hence the roughness of its feel, and the disposition which it has to entangle itself, which has given origin to the process of felting and fulling. It is constantly increasing in length, being protruded from the roots, and seems at first to be soft or nearly gelatinous. From the experiments which have been made on hair by Achard and Hatchett, it fol- lows that it contains gelatine, to which it owes its supple- ness and toughness. This substance may be separated by boiling the hair in water. When thus treated it be- comes much more brittle than before. Indeed if the pro- cess is continued long enough, the hair crumbles to pieces between the fingers. The portion ins .-{able in water pos- sesses the properties of coagulated albumen. Mr. Hatchett has concluded, from his experiments, that the hair which loses its curl in moist weather, and which is the softest and most flexible, is that which yields its gelatine most easily; whereas strong and elastic hair yields it with the greatest difficulty, and in the smallest proportion. This conclusion has been confirmed by a very considerable hair-merchant in London, who assured him that the first kind of hair was much more injured by boiling than the second. The rapidity with which hair burns, and the fusion which it undergoes in that case, shows us, however, that hair does not altogether correspond with coajulated al- bumen in its nature, but approaches towards the oils. When distilled, 1152 parts of hair yielded Bertholett the following products: 90 carbonat of ammonia 179 water smelling of burnt hair 288 oil 2T1 gases 324 coal 1152. The oil was of a brown colour, solid unless exposed to a heat equal to 73°, very soluble in alcohol, burnt with great brilliancy, and with scintillations like hair. The char- coal was difficult to incinerate, and was attracted by the magnet; of course it contained iron. From the experi- ments of Fourcroy and Vauquelin, we learn that horse- hair, when burnt, leaves a residuum of 0.12, which is mostly phosphat of lime. The alkalies dissolve hair at a boiling-heat, and form with it an animal soap; but lime appears to have but lit- tle action on it. When muriatic acid is poured into the solution of hair in potass, a quantity of sulphureted hy- drogen gas is disengaged, and a black substance, doubt- less charcoal, precipitates. Hence it follows that it con- tains sulphur. Accordingly, if a bit of silver is put into the solution, it instantly assumes a black colour. Sulphuric acid dissolves hair by the assistance of heat, some charcoal is deposited, and carbonic acid gas sepa- rates. Nitric acid tinges it yellow, and dissolves it when assisted by heat; while a fat matter separates, and oxalic acid is formed. Bertholett obtained from wool more than half its weight of oxalic acid. Muriatic acid dissolves it readily; but the solution does not become black, and has much the appearance of a solution of glue in the same acid. Oxymuriatic acid whitens hair, and destroys it* strength. When the hair is plunged into the arid in the state of gas, it is very soon converted into a pulp. 2. Feathers seem to possess very nearly the same pro- perties with hair. Mr. Hatchett lias ascertained that the quill is composed chiefly of coagulated albumen. Though feathers were boiled for a long time in water, Mr. Hatchett could obtain no traces of gelatine. Hair's breadth, a measure of length, being the 48th part of an inch. HALCYON. SeeALCEDo. HALE. See Haul. HALE SI A, a genus of the monogynia order, in the dodecandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 18th order, bicorncs. The calyx is quadridentated, superior; the corolla quadrifid; the nut quadrangular and dispermous. There are two species, herbaceous plants of North America. HAN H A R HALF-MOON, in fortification, an outwork composed of two faces, forming a saliant angle, whose gorge is in form of a crescent, or half-moon; whence the name. See Fortification. Half-seal, that used in the court of chancery for sealing commissions to delegates, upon any appeal, in ecclesiastic al or marine causes. HALIOTT5, the ear-shell, a genus of insects belonging to the order of vermes testacea. This is an animal ofthe snail kind, with an open shell resembling an ear. There are nineteen species, distinguished by the figure of their shells. HALLERIA, a genus of the angiospermia order, in the didynamia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, personatae. The calyx is trifid; the corolla quadrifid; the filaments longer than tbe corolla; the berry inferior and bilocular (the fruit not yet fully described). There is one species, a shrub of the Cape. HALO, in physiology, a meteor in the form of a lumin- ous ring or circle, of various colours, appearing round the bodies of the sun, moon, or stars. See Optics. HAMELLIA, a genus ofthe monogynia order, inthe pentandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is quinquefid; the berry quinquelocular, inferior, polyspermous. There are four species, trees of the West Indies. HAMMER, a well-known tool used by mechanics, consisting of an iron head, fixed crosswise upon a handle of wood. There are several sorts of hammers used by black- smiths; as, 1. The hand-hammer, which is of such weight that it may be wielded or governed with one hand at the anvil. 2. The up-hand sledge, used with both hands, and seldom lifted above the head. 3. The about-sledge, which is the largest hammer of all, and held by both hands at the farthest end ofthe handle, and being swung at arm's- length over the head, is made to fall upon the work with as heavy a blow as possible. There is also another ham- mer used by smiths, called a rivetting-hammer, whicli is the smallest of all, and is seldom used at the forge, unless upon small work. HAMSOKEN, is used in Scotland for the crime of iiim that violently, and contrary to the king's peace, assaults a man in his own house, which is punishable equally with ravishing a woman. HANAPERo^ce, in the court of chancery, is that out of which issue all original writs that pass under the great seal, and all commissions of charitable uses, sew- ers, bankrupts, ideocy, lunacy, and such-like. These writs, relating to the business ofthe subject, and the re- turns to them, were originally kept in a hamper, iu hana- perio; the other writs, relating to matters wherein the crow n is immediately or mediately concerned, were pre- served in a little sack or bag, in parvabaga; and thence has arisen the distinction ofthe hanapcr office and petty- bag office: both of which belong to the common law court in chancery. 3 Black. 48. HANCES, in a ship, are falls or descents of the fife rails, which are placed from the stern down to the gang- ways. HAND. Sec Anatomy. Hand-barrow, a wheelbarrow which is of great use in ▼OL. II. 45 fortification, for carrying earth from one place to ano- ther, and in a siege, for carrying bombs or cannon-balls along the trenches. Hand-breadtii, a measure of three inches. Hand-cuffs, an instrument formed of two circular pieces of iron, each fixed on a hinge at tbe ends of a very short iron bar, which being locked over the wrists of a malefactor, prevents his using his hands Hand-grenades. See Grenades. HARBINGER, an officer of the king's household, having four yeomen under him, who ride a days journey before the court, when it travels, to provide lodgings. HARDENING, the giving a greater degree of hard- ness to bodies than they had before. See the article Hardness. There are several ways for hardening iron and steel, as by hammering them, quenching them, when hot, in cold water, case-hardening, kc. See Iron. HARDNESS, in bodies, a property directly opposite to fluidity; by which they resist the impression of any other substance, sometimes in an extreme degree. As fluidity has been found to consist in the motion of the particles of a body upon one another in consequence of a certain action of the universal fluid or elementary fire among them; we must conclude that hardness consists in the absence of this action, or a deficiency of what i» called latent heat. This is confirmed by observing that there is an intermediate state betwixt hardness and flu- idity, in which bodies will yield to a certain force, though they still make a considerable resistance. This is prin- cipally observed in the metals, and is the foundation of their ductility. It appears, indeed, that this last property, as well as fluidity, is entirely dependant on a certain quantity of caloric absorbed, or otherwise acting within the substance itself; for all the metals are rendered hard by hammering, and soft by being put again into the fire and kept there for some time. The former operation ren- ders them hot as well as hard; probably, as Dr. Black observes, because the particles of metal are thus forced nearer one another, and those of fire squeezed out from among thein. By keeping them for some time in the fire, that element insinuates itself again among the parti- cles, and arranges them in the same manner as before, so that the ductility returns. By a second hammer- ing this property is again destroyed, returning on a re- petition of the heating, or annealing as it is called; and so on, as often as we please. Hardness appears to diminish the eohesion of bodies in some degree, though their fragility does not by any means keep pace with their hardness. Thus, glass is very hard and very brittle; but flint, though still harder than glass, is much less brittle. Among the metals, however, these two properties seem to be more connected, though even here the connection is by no means complete. Steel, the hardest of all the metals, is indeed the most brittle; but lead, the softest, is not the most ductile. Neither is hardness connected with the specific gravity of bodies; for a diamond, the hardest substance in nature, is little more than half the weight of the lightest metal. As little is it connected with the coldness, electrical properties, or any other quality with which we are acquainted: so that though the principle above laid down may be accepted as a general foundation for our inquiries, a great mini- H A R H A R her of particulars remain yet to be discovered before we can offer any satisfactory explanation. AH bodies become harder by cold; but this is not the only means of their doing so, for some become hard by heat as well as cold. Mr. Quist and others have constructed tables of the hardness of different substances. The method pursued in constructing these tables was by observing the order in which they were able to cut or make any impression upon one another. The following table, extracted from M. Magellen's edition of Cronstedt's Mineralogy was taken from Dr. Quist Bergman, and Mr. Kirvan. The first column sliows the hardness, and the second the specific gravity. H. S.G. Diamond from Ormus 20 3,7 Pink diamond 19 3,4 Blueish diamond 19 3,3 Yellowish diamond 19 3,3 Cubic diamond 18 3,2 Ruby - 17 4,2 Pale ruby from Brazil 16 3,5 Ruby spinell ... 13 3,4 Deep-blue sapphire 16 3,8 Ditto paler - 17 3,8 Topaz - 15 4,2 Whitish ditto - 14 3,5 Bohemian ditto 11 2,8 Emerald - 12 2,8 Garnet - 12 4,4 Agate - 12 2,6 Onyx - 12 2,6 Sardonyx - 12 2,6 Occid. amethyst 11 2,7 Crystal - 11 2,6 Carnelian r . . 11 2,7 Green jasper - 11 2,7 Reddish-yellow ditto 9 2,6 Schoerl - 10 3,6 Tourmaline 10 3,0 Quartz - 10 2,7 Opal ... - 10 2,6 Chrysolite ... 10 3,7 Zeolite .... 8 2,1 Fluor .... 7 3,5 Calcareous spar 6 2,7 Gypsum 5 2,3 Chalk .... 3 2,7 HARE. Sec Lepus. HARIOT. SeellERioT. HARMATTAN. The harmattan is a very singular wind, which blows periodically from the interior parts of Africa towards the Atlantic Ocean. The season in which it prevails is during the months of December, January, and February; it comes on indiscriminately at any hour ofthe day, at any time ofthe tide, or at any period of the moon, and continues sometimes only a day vor two, sometimes five or six days, and it has been known to last fifteen and sixteen days. There are gen- erally three or four returns of it every season. It blows with a moderate force, but not quite so strong as the sea-breeze. A fog or haze is one of the peculiarities which always accompany the harmattan. The English, French, and Portuguese, forts at Whydah, are not quite a quarter of a mile asunder, yet are frequently quite invisible to each other; the sun, concealed the greatest part of the day, appears only about a few hours at noon, and then of a mild red, exciting no painful sensation on the eye. Tha particles which constitute this fog are deposited on the leaves of trees, on the skins of the negroes, &c. and make them appear whitish. Extreme dryness makes another extraordinary pro- perty of this wind; no dew falls during its continuance; vegetables are withered, and the grass becomes dry like hay. The natives take this opportunity to clear the land, by setting fire to tbe trees and plants while in that dry and exhausted state. The dryness is so extreme, that the covers of books, even closely shut up in a trunk, are bent as if exposed to the fire. Household furniture is much damaged; the pannels of wainscots split, and fineered work flies to pieces. The joints of a well-laid floor of seasoned wood open sufficiently to admit the breadth of a finger between them; but becomes as close as before on the ceasing of the harmattan. The human body does not escape the parching effects of this wind; the eyes, nostrils, lips, and palate, are rendered dry and uneasy; the lips and nose become sore, and though the air is cool, there is a troublesome sensation of pricking heat on the skin. If the harmattan continues four or five days, the scarf-skin peels off, first from the hands and face, and afterwards from the rest of the body. Though this wind is so fatal to vegetable life, and occasions these troublesome effects to the human species, it is nevertheless highly conducive to health; it stopg the progress of epidemics, and relieves the patients la- bouring under fluxes and intermittent fevers. Infection is not easy at that .time to be communicated, even by inoculation. It is also remarkable for the cure of ulcers and cutaneous diseases. Econ. of Nat. b. 5. HARMONICA. This word, when originally appro- priated by Dr. Franklin to that peculiar form or mode of musical glasses, which he himself, after a number of happy experiments, had constituted, was written Anno- nica. It is derived from the Greek word «#»«««. The ra- dical word is *f>«/y, to suit or fit one thing to another. Re- lations or aptitudes of sound, in particular, were under- stood by it; and in this view, Dr. Franklin could not have selected a name more expressive of its nature and genius for the instrument which we are now to describe; as, perhaps, no musical tone can possibly be finer, nor con- sequently susceptible of juster concords, than those which it produces. " Mr. Puckridge, a gentleman from Ireland, was," says Dr. Franklin, •« the first who thought of playing tunes formed of these tones. He collected a number of glasses of different sizes; fixed them near each other on a table; and tuned them, by putting into them water, more or less as each note required. The tones were brought out by pressing his fingers round their brims. He was unfortunately burnt here, with his instrument, in a fire which consumed the bouse that he lived in. Mr. E. Dele- val, a most ingenious member of the royal society, made one in imitation of it, with a better choice and form of glasses, which was the first I saw or heard. Being charmed with the sweetness of its tones, and the music HARMONICA. he produced from it, I wished to see the glasses disposed in a more convenient form, and brought together in a narrower compass, so as to admit of a greater number of tones, and all w ithin reach of hand to a person sitting before the instrument; which I accomplished, after va- rious intermediate trials, and less commodious forms, both of glasses and construction, in the following manner: " The glasses are blown as nearly as possible in the form of hemispheres, having each an open neck or socket in the middle. The thickness of the glass near the brim is about the tenth of an inch, or hardly so much, but thick- er as it comes nearer the neck; which in the largest glasses is about an inch deep, and an inch and a half wide within; these dimensions lessening as the glasses themselves diminish in size, except that the neck of the smallest ought to be shorter than half an inch. The largest glass is nine inches diameter, and the smallest three inches. Between these there are 23 different sizes, differing from each other a quarter of an inch in diameter. To make a single instrument there should be at least six glasses blown of each size; and out of this number one may probably pick 37 glasses (which are sufficient for three octaves with all the semitones) that will be each either the note one wants, or a little sharper than that note, and all fitting so well into each other as to taper pretty regularly from the highest to the smallest. It is true that there are not 37 sizes; but it often happens that two ofthe same size differ a note or half a note in tone, by reason of a difference in thickness, and these may be placed one in the other without sensibly hurting the re- gularity of the taper form. « The glasses being chosen, and every one marked with a diamond the note you intend it for, they are to be tuned by diminishing the thickness of those that are too sharp. This is done by grinding them round from the neck towards the brim, the breadth of one or two inches as may be required; often trying the glass by a well- tuned harpsichord, comparing the note drawn from the glass by your finger with the note you want, as sounded by that string of the harpsichord. When you come near the matter, be careful to wipe the glass clean and dry before each trial, because the tone is something flatter when the glass is wet than it will be when dry; and grinding a very little between each trial, you will there- by tune to great exactness. The more care is necessary in this, because if you go below your required tone, there is no sharpening it again but by grinding somewhat off the brim, which will afterwards require polishing, and thus im Tease the trouble. "The glasses being thus tuned, you are to be provi- ded with a case for thein, and a spindle on which they are to be fixed. My case is about tiiree feet long, eleven inclirs every way wide within at the biggest end, and five inches at the smallest enel; for it tapers all the way, to adapt it better to the conical figure of the set of glasses. This case opens in the middle of its height, and the upper part turns up by hinges fixed behind. The spindle is of hard iron, lies horizontally from end to end of the box within, exactly in the middle, and is made to turn on brass gudgeons at each end. It is renin,I, an inch dia- meter at the thickest end, and tapering to a quarter of an inch at the smallest. A sq.iare shank comes from its thickest end tlirough the box, on which shank a wheel is fixed by a screw. This wheel scrTes as a fly to make the motion equable, when the spindle, with the glasses, is turned by the foot like a spinning-wheel. My wheel is of mahogany, 18 inches diameter, and pretty thick, so as to conceal near its circumference about 25lb. of lead. An ivory pin is fixed in the face of this wheel, about four inches from the axis. Over the neck of this pin is put the loop of the string that comes up from the moveable step to give it motion. The case stands on a neat frame with four legs. " To fix the glasses on the spindle, a cork is first to he fitted in each neck pretty tight, and projecting a little without the neck, that the neck of one may not touch the inside of another when put together, for that would make a jarring. These corks are to be perforated with holes of different diameters, so as to suit that part ofthe spindle on which they are to be fixed. When a glass is put on, by holding it stiffly between both hands, while another turns the spindle, it may be gradually brought to its place. But care must be taken that the hole be not too small, lest in forcing it up, the neck should split; nor too large, lest the glass, not being firmly fixed, should turn or move on the spindle, so as to touch or jar against its neighbouring glass. The glasses thus are placed one in another; the largest on the biggest end of the spindle, which is to the left hand: the neck of this glass is towards the wheel; and the next goes into it in the same position, only about an inch of its brim appearing beyond the brim of the first; thus proceeding, every glass when fixed shows about an inch of its brim (or three quarters of an inch, or half an inch, as they grow smaller) beyond the brim of the glass that contains it; and it is from these ex- posed parts of each glass that the tone is drawn, by laying a finger on one of them as the spindle and glasses turn round. " My largest glass is G a little below the reach of a common voice, and my highest G, including three com- plete octaves. To-distinguish the glasses more readily by the eye, I have painted the apparent parts of the glasses within side, every semistone white, and the other notes of the octave with the seven prismatic colours; viz. C, red; D, orange; E, yellow; F, green; G, blue.; A, indigo; B, purple; and C, red again; so that the glasses of the same colour (the white excepted) are always oc- taves to each other. "This instrument is played upon by sitting before the middle ofthe setof glasses, as before the keys of a harp- sichord, turning them with the foot, and wetting them now and then with a spungc and clean water. The fin- gers should be first a little soaked in water, and quite free from all greasiness; a little fine chalk upon them is sometimes useful, to make them catch the glasses and bring out the tone more readily. Both hands are used, by which means different parts arc played together. Ob- serve, that the tones are-best drawn out when the glasses turn from the ends ofthe fingers, not when they turn 1*0 them. "The advantages of this instrument are, that its tones are incomparably sweet beyond those of anv other; that they may be swelled and softened at pleasure by stronger or weaker pressures of the finger, and continued to any length; and that the instrument being once well tuned, never again wants tuning.'' H A R H A R " Analogous to these sounds," says a writer in the Annual Register, " are those produced by bells: in those last, besides the tones produced by their elliptical vibra- tions, there arc a set of tones which may be brought by gently rubbing their edges, and in which the whole in- strument does not appear to vibrate in all its part* as before. " Take, for instance, a bell finely polished at the edges; or. what will perhaps be more convenient, a drinking- glass: let the edges be as free from any thing oily as pos- sible; then, by moistening the finger in water (I have found alum-water to be best), and rubbing it circularly round the edge of the glass, you will at length bring out the tone referred to. " This note is possessed of infinite sweetness: it has all the excellences of the tone of a bell, without its de- fects. It is loud, has a sufficient body, is capable of being swelled and continued at pleasure; and besides, has na- turally that vibratory softening which musicians endea- vour to imitate by mixing with the note to be played a quarter-tone from below. "To vary these tones, nothing more is required than to procure several bells or glasses of different tones, tun- ed as nearly as possible, which may be done by thinning the edges of either: or, for immediate satisfaction, the glasses may be tuned by pouring in water; the more water is poured in, the graver the tone will be. " Let us suppose then a double octave of those glasses, thus tuned, to be procured. Any common tune may be executed by the fingers rubbing upon each glass succes- sively; and this 1 have frequently done without the least difficulty, only choosing those tunes which are slow and easy. Here then are numbers of delicate tones, with which musicians have been till very lately unacquainted; and the only defect is, that they cannot be made to follow each other with that celerity and ease which is requisite for melody. In order to remedy this, I took a large drinking-glass, and by means of a wheel and gut, as in the electrical machine, made it to turn upon its axis with a moderately quick but equable motion; then moistening the finger as before, nothing more was required than merely to touch the glass at tbe edge, without any other motion, in e)rder to bring out the tone. " Instead of one glass only turning in this manner, if the w hole number of glasses were so fixed as to keep con- tinually turning by means of a wheel, it follows, that upon every touch ofthe finger a note would be express- ed; and thus, by touching several glasses at once, a har- mony of notes might be produced, as iu a harpsichord. " As I write rather to excite than satisfy the curious, I shall not pretend to direct the various ways this num- ber of glasses may be contrived to turn; it may be suffi- cient to say, that if the glasses are placed in the segment of a circle, and then a strap, as in a cutler's wheel, is supposed to go round them all, the whole number will by this means be made to turn by a wheel. "Instead of the finger, I have applied moistened lea- ther to the e(]'^e of the glass, in order to bring out the tone: but, for want of a proper elasticity, this did not suc- ceed. 1 tried cork, and this answered every purpose of the finger; but made the tone much louder than the fin- ger could do. Instead, therefore, ofthe finger, if a num- ber of corks were so contrived as to fall with a proper degree of pressure on the edge of the gl ass, by means of keys like the jacks of an organ, it is evident, that in such a case a new and tolerably perfect instrument would be produced: not so loud indeed as some, but infinitely more melodious than any." HARMONICAL Arithmetic, that part of arithme- tic which considers musical intervals, expressed by num- bers, in order to our finding their mutual relations, com- positions, and resolutions. Harmonical Proportion. See Proportion. Harmonical Series, a series of many numbers in continual harmonical proportion. Thus if there are four or more numbers, of which every three immediate terms are harmonical, the whole will make an harmonical series: such is 30: 20: 15: 12: 10. Or, if every four terms imme- diately next each other are harmonica!, it is also a con- tinual harmonical series, but of another species, as 3, 4, 6, 9, 18, 36, &c. HARMONY, in music (from the Greek), the agree- ment or consonance of two or more united sounds. Har- mony is cither natural or artificial. Natural harmony, properly so called, consist ofthe harmonic triad, orcora- mon chord. Artificial harmony is a mixture of concords and discords, bearing relation to the harmonic triad of the fundamental note. The word harmony being origi- nally a proper name, it is not easy to determine the exact sense in which it was used by the Greeks; but from the treatises they have left us on the subject, we have great reason to conclude that they limited its signification to that agreeable succession of sounds which we call air, or melody. The moderns, however, do not dignify a mere succession of single sounds with the appellation of har- mony: for the formation of harmony they require an union of melodies, a succession of combined sounds com- posed of consonant intervals, and moving according to the stated laws of modulation. But as the laws of har- mony were not established into a code but by very slow degrees, its principles for a long time consisted of no other than almost arbitrary rules, founded, indeed, on the approbation of the ear, but unsanctioned by that science which accounts for effects rationally, and deduces its conclusions from minute, profound, and satisfactory investigation. At length, however, writers arose, to whose patience, talents, and learning, the present age is indebted for a complete system of harmony and modula- tion, and to whose labours we only have to resort, to be informed on every point requisite both to its theory and practice. Harmony, Figured. Figured harmony is that in which, for the purpose of melody, one or more of the parts of a composition move during the continuance of a chord, through certain notes which do not form any of the constituent parts of that chord. These intermojiiatc notes not being reckoned in the harmony, considerable judgment and skill are necessary so to dispose them that while the ear is gratified with their succession, it may not be offended at their dissonance with respect tp the har- monic notes. Sec Sounds. HARP, a stringed instrument, consisting of a triangu- lar frame, and the chords of which are distended in pa- rallel directions from the upper part to one of its sides. Its scale extends through the common compass, and the strings are tuned by semitonic intervals. It stands erect, H A R II A T and when u«eed, is placed at the feet of the performer, who produces its tones by the action ofthe thumb and fingers of both hands on the strings. That the harp is among tho most ancient of musical instruments, the fre- quent mention of it in scripture, and the splendid account transmitted to us of the Theban harp, both as to the beauty of its decorations and extent of scale, are sufficient evidences. The Irish and Welsh practised the harp long before the gammut of Guido was invented, and it is, in- deed, their national instrument. In England also it was early introduced to general use, and the most ancient poems were sung to it on Sundays and all public festivals. HARITNG-1RON, or Harpoon, a large spear or javelin, made of forged iron, and five or six feet long; it is fastened to a line, and used in the whale-fishery. HARPINGS, in a ship, properly denote her breadth at the bow. Some also give the same name to the ends of the bends that are fastened into the stern. HARPOON-Gun, a sort of fire-arm for discharging harpoons at whales, and thereby killing them more ex- peditiously than when harpoons are thrown by the hand. See Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, kc 1786, 1789, &c. HARPSICHORD, a stringed instrument, consisting of a case formed of mahogany or walnut-tree wood, and containing the belly or sounding-board, over which the wires arc distended, supported by bridges. In the front the keys are disposed, the long ones of which are the naturals, and the short ones the sharps and flats. These keys being pressed by the fingers, their inclosed extremi- ties raise little upright oblong slips of wood called jacks, furnished with crow-quill plectrums, which strike the wires. The great advantage of the harpsichord beyond most other stringed instruments, consists in its capacity of sounding many notes at once, and forming those com- binations, and performing those evolutions of harmony, which a single instrument cannot command. This instru- ment, called by the Italians clave cymbala. by the French clavecin, and iu Latin grave cymbalum, is an improve- ment upon the clarichord, which was borrowed from the harp, and has for more than a century been in the highest esteem, and in the most general use, both public and pri- vate, throughout Europe; but since the invention of that fine instrument the grand piano-forte, its practice has considerably dec lined. HARQUEBL'SS, a piece of fire-arms, of the length of a musquct, usually cocked with a wheel. It carried a ball that weighed one ounce seven eighths. HARRIER. Sec Canis. HARROW. Sec Hushandry. HART. Sec Cervus. HARTOGIA, a genus of the pentandria order, in the moncecia class of plants; and is the natural method rank- ing under the 48th order, aggregate. The male calyx is pentaphyllous, the petals five; the female calyx triphyl- lous, with five petals, and five barren and five castrated stamina. There are three capsules; and the seeds are arillated, or inclossed in a deciduous case. There is one species, a tree of the Cape. HARTSHORN, in chemistry. See Ammonia. Hart's Horns, in pharmacy, the wlmlc horns of the common male deer, as separated from the head, without farther preparation. Sec Horns. IIASSELQUISTA, a genus of the class and order pentan iria digynia. The cal. is radiated, in the disk male. Seeds inthe circumference double, in the disk soli- tary. There are two species, herbs of Egypt. HAT, a covering for the head, worn by the men in most parts of Europe and America. Those most in esteem are made ofthe pure hair of the castor or braver: for they are also made of the hairs or wool of diver other animals, and that by much the same process. Hats arc made either of wool, or hair of various ani- mals, particularly ofthe castor, hare, rabbit, camel, kc. The process is much the same in all; for which reason we shall content ourselves with instancing that of the beaver. The skin of this animal is covered with two kinds of hair; the one long, stiff, glossy, and rather thin-set; this is what renders the skin or fur of so much value: the other is short, thick, and soft, which alone is used in hats. T.o tear off one of these kinds of hair, and cut the other, the hatters, or rather the women employed for that purpose, make use of two knives, a large one like a shoe- maker's knife for the long hair, and a smaller, not unlike a vine-knife, wherewith they shave or scrape off the shorter hair. When the hair is off, they mix the stuff; to one-third of dry castor putting two-thirds of old coat, t. e. of hair which has been worn some time by the savages, and card the whole with cards, like those used in the woollen-ma- nufactory, only finer; this done, they weigh it, and take more or less according to the size or thickness of the hat intended. The stuff is now laid on the hurdle, which is a square table, parallel to the horizon, having longitudinal chinks cut through it; on this hurdle, with an instrument called a bow, much like that of a violin, but larger, whose string is worked with a Tttle bow-stick, and thus made to play on the furs, they fly and mix together, the dust and filth at the same time passing through the chinks. This they reckon one of the most difficult opera- tions in the whole, on account of the justness required in the hand to make the stuff fall precisely together, and that it may be every where of the same thickness. In lion of a bow, some hatters make use of a sieve or scarce of hair, through which they pass the stuff. After this manner they form gores, or two capades, of an oval form, ending in an acute angle at top; and with what stuff remains, they supply and strengthen them in places where they happen to be slenderer than ordinary; though it is to be remembered, that they designedly make them thicker in the brim, near the crown, than toward the circumference, or in the crown itself. The capades thus furnished, they go on to harden them into closer and more consistent flakes by pressing down a hardening skin or leather thereon; this done, thev are carried to the bason, which is a sort of bench with an iron plate fitted in it, and a little fire underneath; upon which laying one of thehardened capades, sprinkled over with water, and a sort of mould being applied, the heat of the fire, with the water and pressing, embody the matter into a slight hairy sort of stuff or felt; "after which, turning up the edges all round the mould, thev lay it by, and thus proceed to the other: this finish". ed, the next two are joined together, so as to meet in an angle at the top, and only form one conical cap, after the manner of a manican hippocratis, or jelly-bag. HAT. The hat thus basoned, they remove it to a large kind of receiver or trough, resembling a mill-hopper, going sloping or narrowing down from the edge or rim to the bottom, which is a copper kettle filled with water and grounds, kept hot for that purpose. On the descent or sloping side, called the plank, the basoned hat, being first dipped in the'kcttle, is laid; and here they proceed to work it, by relling and unrolling it again and again, one part after another, first with the hand, and then with a little wooden roller, taking care to dip it from time to time, till at length, by thus fulling and thickening it four or five hours, it is reduced to the extent or dimensions of the hat intended. The hat thus wrought, they proceed to give it the pro- per form, which is done by laying the conical cap on a Wooden block, of the intended size of the crown of the hat, and then tying it round with a packthread: after which, with a piece of iron or copper bent for that pur- pose, and called a stamper, they gradually beat or drive it down all round, till it has reached the bottom of the block, and thus is the crown formed; what remains at bottom below the string being the brim. The hat being set to dry, they proceed to singe it, by holding it over a flare of straw or the like; then it is pounced, or rubbed over with pumice, to take off the coarser knap; then rubbed over afresh with seal-skin to lay the knap a little finer; and lastly, carded with a fine card to raise the fine cotton, with which the hat is afterwards to appear. Things thus far advanced, the hat is thus sent, upon its block, and tied about with a packthread as before, to be dyed. The dye being completed, the hat is returned to the hatter, who proceeds to dry it, by hanging it in the top or roof of the stnvc or oven, at the bottom of which is a charcoal fire; when dry, it is to be stiffened, which is done with melted glue or gum Senegal, applied thereon by first smearing it, and beating it over with a brush, and then rubbing it with the hand. The next thing is to steam it on the steaming-bason, which is a little hearth or fire-place. When steamed sufficiently, and dried, they put it again on the block, and brush and iron it on a table or bench for the purpose, called the stall-board; this they perform with a sort of irons like those commonly used in ironing linen, and heated like them, which being rubbed over and over each part of the hat, with the assistance of the brush, smooths and gives it a gloss,which is the last operation; nothing now remains but to clip the edges even with scissars, and sew a lining to the crown. For dyeing of hats, see Dyeing. A pate-nt was granted in January, 1782, to Mr. Ro- bert Goldiug, of London, hat-dyer, for his method of dyeing, staining, and colouring, heaver hats green, or any other colour. The inventor directs the nap of the hat to be raised by means of a card, on tiie side intend- ed to be dyed, and then boiled in alum argol. A thin paste should be made of flour, or clay, which is spread over every part that is not to be dyed, and then closed; or the hat may be previously pasted, and instead e>f be- ing boiled, it should only be simmered in the same liquor. As soon as the paste is spread, plates of copper or other metal, shaped like a common funnel, are fixed over the paste, to prevent the dye from penetrating through. In this state the hat is immersed in the dye, till the colour is sufficiently fixed, when it is taken out, opened, and cleansed from the paste: but if any colouring particles have penetrated through the felt, they may be removed by rubbing them with a small quantity of spirit of salt, aquafortis, kc. The compounds employed in dyeing, are fustic, turmeric, ebony, saffron, alum, argol, indigo, and vitriol, with urine, or pearlash, at the option of the dyer; all which is used together, or separately, accord- ing to the colour required. Mr. Dunnage, in 1794, obtained a patent for water- proof hats, in imitation of beaver. The articles he em- ploys are similar to those commonly used for the making of hats, with which he mixes Bergam, Piedmont, oror- ganzine silk. These are dressed and worked in a pe- culiar manner; though we understand that hats thus prepared become heavy and oppressive to the wearer, while they acquire an ugly colour. The same manufac- turer procured another patent in November, 1798, for a method of ventilating the crowns of hats. This inven- tion consists in separating the top from the sides of the crown, so that the tip, or top crown, may be either raised or let down at pleasure, in order to admit the external air, or to exclude it from circulating in the crown of the hat. The whole contrivance is effected by means of springs, sliders, sockets, grooves, loops, and cases, which are connected with the top and side-crown: thus the admission or exclusion of atmospheric air in front, behind, or on either side, may be regulated accordingly. See Repertory, vol. iv. and x. Another patent was granted for the same thing to Messrs. Walker and Alphey, in the year 1801. Hats are also made for women's wear, of chips, straw, or cane, by platting, and sewing the plats together; be- ginning with the centre of the crown, and working round till the whole is finished. Hats for the same purpose arc also woven, and made of horse hair, silk, &c. There are few manufactures in which so little ca- pital is wanted, or the knowledge of the art so soon acquired, as in that of straw-platting. One guinea is quite sufficient for the purchase of the machines and ma- terials for employing one hundred persons for several months. The straw is cut at the joints; and the outer covering being removed, it is sorted of equal sizes, and made up into bundles of eight or ten inches in length, and a foot in circumference. They are then to be dipped in water, and shaken a little so as not to retain too much moisture; and then the bundles are to be placed on their edges, in a box which is sufficiently close to prevent the evapora- tion of smoke. In the middle of the box is an earthen dish containing brimstone broke in small pieces: this is set on fire, and the box covered over and kept in the open air several hours. It will be the business of one person to split and se- lect the straws for fifty others who are braiders. The splitting is done by a small machine made principally of wood. The straws, when split, are termed splints, of which each worker has a certain quantity: on one end is wrapped a linen cloth, and they arc held under the arm, and drawn out as wanted. Platters should be taught to use their second fingers and thumbs, instead of the fore-fingers, which are often required to assist in turning the splints, and very much HAT HAW facilitate the platting; and they should be cautioned against wetting the splints too much. Each platter should have a small linen work-bag, and a piece of pasteboard to roll the plat round. After five yards have been worked up, it should be wound about a piece of board half a yard wide, fastened at the top with yarn, and kept there se- veral days to form it in a proper shape. Four of these parcels, or a score, is the measurement by which the plat is sold. HATCHEL, Hackle, or Hitchel, a tool with which flax and hemp are combed into fine hail's. It consists of long iron pins, or teeth, regularly set in a piece of board. There are several sorts of hatchels, each finer than the other, with which flax and hemp are prepared for spinning. HATCHES, in a ship, a kind of trap-doors between the main-mast and fore-mast, through which all goods of bulk are let down into the hold. Hatches also denote flood-gates set in a river, &c. to stop the current of the water; particularly certain dams or mounds made of rubbish, clay, or earth, to pre- vent the water that issues from the stream-works and tin-washes in Cornwal, from running into the fresh ri- vers. HATCHING, the maturating fecundated eggs, whe- ther by the incubation and warmth of the parent bird, or by artificial heat, so as to produce young chickens alive. The art of hatching chickens by means of ovens has long been practised in Egypt; but it is there only known to the inhabitants of a single village named Benne, and to those who live at a small distance from it. Towards the beginning of autumn they scatter themselves all ovct the country, where each person among them is ready to undertake the management of an oven, each of which is of a different size, but in general they are capable of containing from forty to fourscore thousand eggs. The number of these ovens placed up and down the country is about three hundred and eighty-six, and they usually keep them working for about six months: as therefore each brood takes up in an oven, as under a hen, only twenty-one days, it is easy in every one of them to hatch eight different broods of chickens. Every Bermean is under the obligation of delivering to the person who in- trusts him with an oven, only two-thirds of as many chickens as there have been eggs put under his care; and he is a gainer by this bargain, as more than two- thirds of the eggs usually produce chickens. In order to make a calculation of the number of chickens yearly bo hatched in Egypt, it has been supposed that only two- thirds of the eggs are hatched, and that each brood con- sists of at least thirty thousand chickens; and thus it would appear that the ovens of Egypt give life yearly to at least ninety-two millions six hundred and forty thousand of these animals. This useful and advantageous method of hatching eggs has been employed in France, by the ingenious Mr. Reau- mur, who, by a number of experiments, reduced the art to certain principles. He found by experience that the heat necessary for this purpose is nearly the same with that marked 32 on his thermometer, or that marked 96 on Fahrenheit's. This degree of heat is nearly that of tbe skin of the hen, and what is remarkable, of the skin of all other domestic fowls, and probably of all other kinds of birds. The degree of heat whicli brings about the developement ofthe cygnet, the gosling, and the tur- key-pout, is the same as that which fits for hatching the canary-songster, and, in all probability, the smallest humming-bird: the difference is only in the time during which this heat ought to be communicated to the eggs of different birds: it will bring the canarv-bird to perfec- tion in eleven or twelve days, while the turkey-pout will require twenty-seven or twenty-eight. Mr. Reaumur invented a sort of low boxes, without bottoms, and lined with furs. These, which he calls artificial parents, not only shelter the chickens from the injuries ofthe air, but afford a kindly warmth, so that they presently take the benefit of their shelter as readily as they would have done under the wings of a hen. Af- ter hatching, it will be necessary to keep the chickens for some time in a room artfully heated, and furnished with these boxes; but afterwards they may be safely ex- posed to the air in the court-yard, in which it may not be amiss to place one of these artificial parents to shelter them if there would be occasion for it. As to the manner of feeding the young brood, they are generally a whole day after being hatched before they take any food at all; and then a few crumbs of bread may be given them for a day or two, after which they will begin to pick up insects and grass for themselves. But to save the trouble of attending them, capons may be taught to watch them in the same manner as hens do. Mr. Reaumur assures us that he has seen above two hundred chickens at once, all led about and defended only by three or four such capons. Nay, cocks may be taught to perform the same office, which they, as well as the capons, will continue to do all their live-s after. Hatching, or Haching, in designing, &c. the making of lines with a pen, pencil, or graver, or the like; and the intersecting or going across those lines with others drawn a contrary way, is called counter-hatching. The depths and shadows of draughts are usually formed by hatching. HATTOCK, a shock of corn containing twelve sheaves: others make it only three sheaves laid together. HAUL, or Hale, an expression peculiar to seamen, implying to pull a single rope, without the assistance of blocks or other such mechanical powers. To haul the wind, is to direct the ship's course nearer to that point of the compass from which the wind arises. HAUTBOY, a musical instrument of the wind-kind, shaped much like the flute, only that it spreads and widens towards the bottom, and is sounded tlirough a reed. The treble is two feet long; the tenor goes a fifth lower, wmen blown open: it has only eight holes; but the bass, which is five feet long, has eleven. HAWK. SeeFALCo. HAWKERS and Pedlars, are surii dealers or itine- rary petty chapmen as travel to different fairs or towns with goods or wares, and are placed under the control of commissioners, by whom they are licensed for that purpose pursuant to stat. 8 and 9 \V. III. c. 25. and 29 Geo. III. c. 26. Traders in linen and woollen manufac- tories s.nding their goods to markets and fairs, and sell- ing them by wholesale; manufacturers selling their own manufactures, and makers and sellers of English hone- II A Z H E A lace going from house to house, kc. are excepted out of the acts, and not to be taken as hawkers. HAWKING. See Falconry. HAWSER, in the sea-language, a large rope, or a kind of small cable, serving for various uses aboard a ship, as to fasten the main and fore shrouds, to warp a ship as she lies at anchor, and wind her up by a capstern, &c. The hawser of a man of war may serve for a cable to the sheet-anchor of a small ship. HAWSES, in a ship, are two large holes under the bow, through which the cables run when she lies at an- chor. Thus the Hawse-pieces are the large pieces of timber in which these holes are made. Hawse-bags, are bags of canvas made tapering, and stuffed full of oakum; which are generally allowed small ships, to prevent the sea from washing in at these holes: and hawse-plugs are plugs to stop the hawses, to prevent the water from wash- ing into the manger. There are also some terms in the sea-language that have an immediate relation to the hawses. Thus a bold hawse, is when the holes are high above the water. Fresh the hawse, or veer out more cable, is used when part of the cable that lies in the hawse is fretted or chafed, and it is ordered that more cable may be veered out, so that another part of it may rest in the hawses. Fresh the hawse, that is, lay new pieces upon the cable in the hawses, to preserve it from fretting. Burning in the hawse, is when the cables endure a violent stress. Clear- ing the hawses, is disentangling two cables that come through different hawses. To ride hawse-full, is when in stress of weather the ship falls with her head deep in the sea, so that the water runs in at the hawses. HAY, any kind of grass, cut and dried, for the food of cattle. See Hushandry. HAZARD: a game on dice, without tables, is very properly so called, since it speedily makes a man, or undoes him. It is played with only two dice; and as many may play it as can stand round the largest round table. Two things are chiefly to be observed, viz. main and chance; the latter belonging to the caster, and the former, or main, to the other gamesters. There can be no main thrown above nine, nor under five; so that five, six, seven, eight, and nine, are the only mains flung at hazard. Chances and nicks are from four to ten: thus four is a chance to nine, five to eight, six to seven, seven to six, eight to five; and nine and ten a chance to five, six, seven, and eight: in short, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten are chances to any main, if any of these nick it not. Now nicks are either when the chance is the same with the main, as five and five, or the like; or six and twelve, seven and eleven, eight and twelve. Here observe, that twelve is out to nine, seven, and five; eleven is out to nine, eight, six, and five; and ames-ace and deuce-ace are out to all mains whatever. But to illustrate this game by a few examples: Sup- pose the main to be seven, and the caster throws five, which is his chance; he then throws again, and if five turn up, he wins all the money set him; but if seven is thrown, he must pay as much money as there is on the board: again, if seven is the main, and the caster throws eleven, or a nick, he sweeps away all the money on the table; but if be throws a chance, as in the first case, he must throw again: lastly, if seven is the main, and the caster throws ames-ace, deuce-ace, or twelve, he is out; but if he throws from four to ten, he has a chance; though they are accounted the worst chances on the dice, as se- ven is reputed the best and easiest main to be flung. Four and five are had throws (the former of which being called by the tribe of nickers little dick-fisher), as having only two chances, viz. trey-ace and two deuces, or trey-deuce and quartre-ace: whereas seven has three chances, viz. cinque-deuce, sice-ace, and quartre-trey. Nine and ten are in the like condition with four and five, having only two chances. Six and eight have indeed the same num- ber of chances with seven, viz. three; but experienced gamesters nevertheless prefer the seven, by reason ofthe difficulty to throw the doublets, two quarters, or two treys. It is also the opinion of most, that at the first throw the caster has the worst of it. On the whole, hazard is certainly one of the most bewitching and ruinous games played on the dice. Happy, therefore, the man who either never heard of it, or who has resolution enough to leave it off in time. HAZEL. See Corylus. HEAD. See Anatomy. Head. See Architecture. Head, in heraldry. The heads of men, beasts, or birds, are very frequent in armoury; and borne either full- faced, looking forward, or side-faced in profile, when only one half of the face appears, which differences ought to be mentioned in blazoning, to avoid mistakes; as a head, or heads fronting; or a head, or heads side- faced, or in profile: thus, vert, a chevron gules, between three turks'-heads couped side-faced proper, is borne by the name of Smith. And again, or, a cross gules, be- tween four blackmoors' heads, couped at the shoulders proper, is borne by the name Juxon. As the head is the principal part of the body, so it is of course the noblest bearing. Among medalists, the different heads on ancient coins, are distinguished by the different dresses. See Medal. In the imperial medals, where the head is quite bare, it is usually a sign the person was not an emperor, but one ofthe children of an emperor, the presumptive heir of the empire. The heads which are covered, are either covered with a diadem, or a crown, or a simple cork, or a veil, with some other foreign covering, whereof the di- adem is the most ancient. The heads of deities are dis- tinguished by some special symbol. Head-ache. See Medicine. H E ADBORRO W, or Headeorougii, the chief of the frankpledge, and he that had the principal government of them within his own pledge. And as he was called hcadborrow, so was he called hurrowhead, bursholder, thirdborrow, tithiugham, chief-pledge, or borrow-elder, according to the diversity of terms in several places. The same officer is now occasionally called a constable. The headborough was the chief of the ten pledges: the other nine were called hardboroughs, or inferior pledges. Head-lines, in a ship, those ropes of all sails which are next to the yards, and by which the sails are made fast to the yards. Head-sea, is when a great wave or billow of the sea comes right ahead of the ship, as she is in her course. Head-sails, in a ship, those which belong to the fore- HEA II E D mast and boltsprit: for it is by these that the head of the ship is governed, and made to fall off and keep out of the wind; and these in quarter-winds are the chief draw- ing sails. Head of a ship, or other vessel, is the prow, or that part which goes foremost. Dragon's Head, in astronomy, &c. is the ascending node ofthe moon, or other planet. See Node. HEARING, the sense whereby we perceive sounds. See Anatomy, Physiology, and Sounds. HEARSAY, is generally not to be admitted as evi- dence; for no evidence is to be allowed but what is upon oath; for if the first speech was without oath, another oath that there was such speech, makes it no more than a bare speaking, and so of no value in a court of justice; and besides, the adverse party has no opportunity of a cross-examination; and if the witness is living, what he lias been heard to say is not the best evidence that the nature of the thing will admit. Hut in some cases hear- say evidence is allowed to be admissible: as to prove who was a man's grandfather, when he married, what children he had, and the like; of which it is not reasonable to presume that there is better evidence. So in questions of prescription, it is allowed to give hearsay evidence, in order to prove gt-neral reputation; as where the issue was of a right to a way over the plaintiff's close, the de- fendant was admitted to give evidence of a conversation between persons not interested, then dead, wherein the right to the way was agreed. Theory of Evid. III. See Evidence. HEARSE. See Hind. HEART. See Anatomy. HEAT, in physiology. Sec Caloric. Heat, Animal. See Respiration. Heat, in geography, the diversity of the heat of cli- mates and seasons arising chiefly from the different angles under which the sun's rays strike upon the sur- face of the earth. Dr. Halley gives a mathematical computation ofthe effect of the sun under the different seasons and climates. Let it, however, be considered, that the different degrees of heat and cold in different places depend in a very great measure upon the acci- dents of situation, with regard to mountains and valleys, and the soil. The first greatly helps to chill the air by the winds which come over them, and which blow in eddies through the levels beyond; and mountains, some- times turning a concave side to the sun, have the effects of a burning mirror upon the subject plain; and the like effect is sometimes had from the convex parts of clouds, either by refraction, or reflection. As to soils, a stony, sandy, or chalky earth, it is known, reflects most of the sun's rays into the air again, and retains but few, by which means a considerable accession of heat is derived to the air; as, on the contrary, black loose soils absorb most ofthe rays, and return few into the air, so that the ground is much the hotter. The following table of the heat of different climates is computed for every tenth degree of latitude, to the equinoctial and tropical sun; by which an estimate may be made of the intermediate degrees. vol. ii. 46 Lat. Sun in _____ Sun in ___ Sun in 0 20000 183-11 "7834T 10 19693 20290 15854 20 18797 21737 13166 SO 17321 22651 10124 40 15521 23048 6944 50 12855 22991 3798 60 10000 22773 1075 70 6840 23543 000 80 3473 24673 000 90 0000 25055 000 Hence are dcducible the following corollaries. 1. That tbe equinoctial heat, when the sun becomes vertical, is as twice the square of the radius, which may be propo- sed as a standard to compare with in all other cases. 2. That under the equinoctial, the heat is as the sine of the sun's declination. 3. That in the frigid zones, where the sun sets not, the heat is as the circumference of a cir- cle into the sine of the altitude at 6; and consequently that in the same latitude these aggregates of warmth are as the sine of the sun's declination; and at the same de- clination of the sun, they are as the sines of the latitudes into the signs of the declination. 4. That the equinoctial day's heat is every where as the cosine of the latitude. 5. In all places where the sun sets, the difference be- tween the summer and winter heats, when the declina- tions are contrary, is equal to a circle into the sine of the altitude at 6 in the summer parallel; and consequently these differences are as the sine of the latitude into or multiplied by the sines of declination. 6. From the foregoing table, it appears that the tropical sun under the equinoctial, has of all others the least force. Under the pole, it is greater than any other day's heat whatever; bring to that of the equinoctial as 5 to 4. HEATH. See Erica. HEBENSTREHA, a genus of the angiospermia order, in the didvnamia class of plants; and in the natu- ral method ranking under the 48th order, aggregate. The calyx is emarginated, and divided below; the corolla unilabiate; the lip rising upwards, and quadrifid; t)ie capsule dispermous; the stamina inserted into the margin of the limb of the corolla. There are six species, herbs ofthe Cape. HECATOMBJEON, in ancient chronology, the first month of the Athenian year, consisting of thirty davs, and answering to the latter part of our June and beginning of July. HECTIC, or Hectic Fever. See Medicine. HEDERA, Ivy, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the natural me- thod giving name to the 46th order, hederaea?. There arc five oblong petals; the berry is pentaspermous, girt by the cal) x There are six species; the most remark- able are: l. The helix, or common ivy, which grows naturally in many parts of ilntain; and", where it meets with anv support, will rise- to a great height, sending out roovs on every side, which strike into the joints o walls or the bark of trees. If there is no support, they trail on the ground, and take roe t all their length, so that they closely cover the surface, and are difficult to eradicate. While these stalks are fixed to any support, H E D H E O or trail upon the ground, they are slender and flexible; but when they have reached to the top of their support, they shorten and become woody, forming themselves into large bushy heads; and their leaves are larger, more of an oval shape, and not divided into lobes like the lower leaves, so that it has a quite different appearance. There are two varieties of this species; one with silver-striped leaves, the other with yellow ish leaves on the tops of the branches; and these are sometimes admitted into gardens. 2. The quinquefolia, or Virginia creeper, is a native of all the northern parts of America. It was first brought to Europe from Canada; and has been long cultivated in the British gardens, chiefly to plant against walls or buildings to cover them: which these plants will do in a short time; for they will shoot almost twenty feet in one year, and will mount up to the top ofthe highest build- ings; but as the leaves fall off in autumn, the plants make but an indifferent appearance in winter, and therefore are proper only for such situations as will not admit of better plants; for this will thrive in the midst of cities, and is not injured by the smoke or the closeness of the air. The roots of the ivy are used by leather-cutters to whet their knives upon. Apricots and peaches covered with ivy during the month of February, have been ob- served to bear fruit plentifully. The leaves have a nau- seous taste; Haller says, they are given to children in Germany, as a specific for the atrophy. The common people of England apply them to issues; and an ointment nia.ie from them is in great esteem among the Highlan- ders of Scotland as a ready cure for burns. The berries have a little acidity. In warm climates, a resinous juice exudes from the stalks, which is said to be a powerful resolvent, and an excellent ingredient in plasters and ointments. Horse and sheep eat the plant; goats and cows refuse it. HEDGE-Breakers, by 43 Eliz. c. 7. shall pay such damages as a justice of the peace shall think fit; and on nonpayment shall be whipped. And by 15 Car. II. c. 6. the constable may apprehend a person suspected, and by warrant of a justice, may search his houses and other places; and if any hedge-wood shall be found, and he shall not give a good account how he came by the same, be shall be adjudged the stealer thereof. HEDGES. See Husbandry. HEDWiGEN, a genus of the octandria monogynia class and order. The cal. is four-toothed; the cor. four- cleft; style none; caps, tricoccous; seed a nut. There is one species, a tree of St. Domingo. HEDYCARYA, a genus of the icosandria order, in the dicecia class of plants. The calyx of the male is cleft in eight or ten parts; there is no corolla, nor are there any filaments; the antherse are in the bottom of the calvx, four-furrowed, and bearded at top. The calyx and corolla of the female are as in the male; the germs peclicellated; the nuts pedicellated and monospermous. There is one sjiccies, a tree of Guiana. HEDYCREA, a genus of the class and order pentan- dria monogynia. The cal. is one-leafed, hemispherical, five-toothed: cor. none: drupe oval, one-celled: nect. ovate, covered with fibres, one-celled; shell hard. There is one species, a tree of Guiana. HEDYOSMUM, a genus ofthe class and order mo- noecia polyandria. The male is an ament with anther'; no cor. perianth, or filaments. The female has cal. three-toothed; cor. none; style one, three-cornered; berry three-cornered, one-seeded. There arc two species, shrubs of Jamaica. HEDYOTIS, a genus of the monogynia order, in the tetrandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 47th order, stellatse. The corolla is monopetalous and funnel-shaped; the capsule is bilocular, polyspermous, inferior. There are eight species, herbs of Ceylon, kc. HEDYPNOIS, a genus ofthe class and order synge- nesia polygamia sequalis. The cal. is calycled, with short scales; seeds crowned with the calycle; recept. naked, hollow-dotted. HEDYSARUM, a genus of the decandria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 32d order, papilionacese. The carina of the corolla is transversely obtuse; the seed-vessel a legumen with monospcrmous joints. There are 90 species of this plant, of which the most remarkable are: 1. The gyrans, or sensitive hedysaruin, a native of the East In- dies, where it is called burrum chundalli. It arrives at the height of four feet, and in autumn produces bunches ot yellow flowers. The root is annual or biennial. Itisa trifolious plant, and the lateral leaves are smaller than those at the end, and all day long they are in constant motion without any external impulse. They move up and down, and circularly. This last motion is performed by the twisting of the footstalks; and while the one leaf is rising, its associate is generally descending. The motion downwards is quicker and more irregular than the mo- tion upwards, which is steady and uniform. These motions are observable for the space of 24 hours in the leaves of a branch which is lopped off from the shrub, if it is kept in water. If from any obstacle the motion is retarded, upon the removal of that obstacle it is resumed w ith a greater degree of velocity. 2. The coronarium, or common biennial French honeysuckle, has large deeply-striking biennial roots; upright, hollow, smooth, very branchy stalks, three or four feet high, witb pinna- ted leaves; and from between the leaves proceed long spikes of beautiful red flowers, succeeded by jointed seed-pods. The first species, being a native of hot cli- mates, requires the common culture of tender exotics; the second is easily raised from seed in any of the com- mon borders, and is very ornamental. KEEL. See Anatomy. Heel, in the sea-language. If a ship leans on one side, whether she is aground or afloat, then it is said she heels astarboard, or apoi t; or that she heels offwards, or to the shore; that is, inclines more to one side than to another. HEGIRA, in chronology, a celebrated epocha among the Mahometans. The event which gave rise to this epocha was the flight of Mahomet from Mecca, with his new proselytes, to avoid the persecution of the Korais- chites; who, being then most powerful in the city, could not bear that Mahomet should abolish idolatry, and es- tablish his new religion. This flight happened in the fourteenth year after Mahomet had commenced prophet:, he retired to Medina, which he made the place of hie' residence. HEIGHT. HE^HT, in geometry, is a perpendicular let fall from the vertex, or top, of any right-lined figure, upon the base or side subtending it. It is likewise the perpen- dicular height of any object above the horizon; and is found several ways; by two staffs, a plain mirror with the quadrant, theodolite, or some graduated instrument, kc The measuring of heights or distances is of two kinds: when the place or object is accessible, as when you can approach to its bottom; or inaccessible, when it cannot be approached. Prob. I. To measure an accessible heisht AB, by means of two staffs. See plate LXX1I. Miscel. fig. ill. Let there be placed perpendicularly in the ground, a longer staff DE, likewise a shorter one FG, so that the ob- server may see A, the top of the height to be measured, over the ends D, F, ofthe two staffs; let FH and DC, paral- lel to the horizon, meet DE and AB in H and C; then the triangles FHD, DCA, shall be equiangular, for the angles at C and H are right ones: likewise the angle A is equal to FDH; wherefore the remaining angles are also equal. Therefore, as FH, the distance of the two staffs, is to HD, the excess of the longer staff above the shorter; so is DC, the distance of the longer staff from the tower, to CA, the excess of the height of the tower above the longer staff; and thence CA will be found by the rule of three. To which if the length DE be added, you will have the whole height ofthe tower BA. Scholium. Another method may be occasionally con- trived for measuring an accessible height; as by the given length of the shadow BD (fig. 112), 1 find out the height AB: for let there be erected a staff CE, perpen- dicularly, producing the shadow EF; then it will be as EF, the shadow of the staff, is to EC, the staff itself; so is BD, the shadow of the tower, to BA, the height. Though the plane on which the shadow of the tower falls, be not parallel to the horizon, yet if the staff be erected in the same plane, the rule will be the same. Prob. II. To measure an accessible height by means of a plain mirror. Let AB (fig. 113) be the height to be measured; let the mirror be placed at C, in the horizontal plane BD, at a known distance BC; let the observer go back to D, till he see the image ofthe summit in the mirror, at a certain point of it, which he must diligently mark; and let DE be the height of the observer's eye. The triangles ABC and EDC, are equiangular; for the angles at D and B are right angles; and ACB, ECD, are equal, being the angles of incidence and reflection of the ray AC; wherefore the remaining angles at A and E, are also equal. Therefore it will be, as CD is to DE, so is CB to B A. The observer will be more exact, if, at the point D, a staff be placed in the ground perpendicularly, over the top of which the observer may see a point of the glass exacth in a line betwixt him and the tower. In place «)f a mirror may he used the surface of water, which naturally becomes parallel to the horizon. Prob. III. To measure an accessible height by the geome- trical quadrant, theodolite, r right the helm; that is, keep it even with the middle of the ship: port the helm, put it over to the left side of the ship: starboard the helm, put it on the right side of the ship. See Ship-building. HELMET, an ancient defensive armour worn by horsemen both in war and in tournaments. It covered both the head and face, only Icaring an aperture in the front secured by bars, which was called the visor. It is still used in heraldry by way of crest over the shield or coat of arms, in order to express the different degrees of nobility by the different manner in which it is bone. Thus a helmet in profile is given to gentlemen and esquires: to a knight, the helmet standing forward and the beaver a little open; the helmet in profile and open, with bars, belongs to all noblemen under the de- gree- of a duke; and the helmet forward and open, with many bars, is assigned to kings, princes, and dukes. There is generally but one helmet upon a shield; but sometimes there are two, and even three: if there are two, they ought to face each other; and if three, the middlemost should stand directly forward, and the other two on the sides facing towards it. IIELMINTHOLITIILS, in natural history, a name given by Linnseus to petrified bodies resembling worms. Of these he reckons four genera. 1. Petrified litho- phyta, found in the mountains of Sweden. 2. Petrified shells. 3. Petrified zoophytes. 4. Petrified reptiles. See Lithopiiyta, kc HELONIAS, a genus of the trigynia order, in the hexandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 10th order, coronarise. The corolla is hexapetalous; there is no calyx; and the capsule is trilocular. There are two species; herbs of America. II ELY ELI A, a genus olthc class and order crypto- gam ia fungi. There are two species, natives of this country. IIELXINE. See Poltgonim. HEMATOIT S, in ornithology, a genus of the grallse order. The generic character is: the bill compressed, the lip an equal wedge; nostrils linear; tongue a third vol. II. 47 part as long as the bill; feet formed for running, three- toed, cleft. The II. ostrolegus, or oyster-catcher, inhabits almost every sea-shore, is sixteen and a half inches long, feeds on marine worms and insects, but chiefly on oysters and limpets, which it extracts from the shell with great dex- terity. Eggs, four or five; colour, olive-yellow, with irregular purplish spots. This is the only species. See Plate LXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 219. HEMEROBIUS, in zoology, a genus of insects of the neuroptera order, the characters of which are these: the mouth is furnished with two teeth; the palpi are four; the wings are deflected but not plaited; and the antennse are bristly and longer than the breast. There are 15 species, principally distinguished by their colours. This insect takes the name of hemerobius from the shortness of its life, which, however, continues several days. In the state of larva it is a great devourer of plant-lice, for which it has had bestowed upon it the appellation of lion of the plant-lice. The hemerobii, even after their transformation, preserve their carnivo- rous inclination. Not satisfied with making war upon the plant-lice, who tamely let themselves be devoured, they do not spare each other. The eggs of this insect are borne upon small pedicles, which are nothing but a gum spun out by the hemerobius by raising up the hin- der part of its abdomen, and by that means the egg re- mains fastened to tiie upper part of the thread. Those eggs are deposited upon leaves, and set in the form of bunches. They have been taken for parasitic plants. The larva, when hatched, finds there its food in the midst of plant-lice, in 15 or 16 days it has attained to its full growth. With its spinning-wheel at its tail, it makes itself a small, round, white, silky cod, of a close texture. In summer, at the end of three weeks, the he- merobius issues forth with its wings; but when the cod has not been spun till autumn, the chrysalis remains in it the whole winter, and does not undergo its final me- tamorphosis till the ensuing spring. The flight of this insect is heavy: some species ha\e an excrcmentitious smell. One goes bv the name of the water-heinerobius, because it lives mostly at the water-side. See Plate LXVII. *«at. Hist. fig. 224. HEMEROCALLIS, day-lily, or lily-asphodel, a genus of the monogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 10th order, coronarise. The corolla is campannlated, with the tube cylindrical; the stamina declining downward. There are five species, of which two are common, viz. 1. The flava, or yellow day-lily, with strong fibrous roots, sending up large hollow keel-shaped leaves, two feet long, upright, leafless firm stalks, two feet high, di- viding at top into several foot-stalks, each terminated by one large liliaceous yellow flower, of an agreeable odour. Of this there is a variety called the hemerocallis minor, or small yellow day-lily. 2. The fulva, reddish, or copper-coloured day-lily, has roots composed of strong fleshy fibres, and" largo oblong tubes; radical, keel-shaped, holh-w, pointed leaves, a yard long, reflected at top, with leafless stalks, three or four feet high, and large copper-coloured liliaceous flowers. These have large stamina, charged with a kind of brown-coloured farina, which, on being touched 11 E M HEP or .-moiled lei, i.-, discharged in great plenty all over the hands and face. Both these species are hardy, and will thrive any where. They may be easily propagated by parting their roots in autumn, or almost any time after flowering, or before they begin to flower. 3. The japonica is a greenhouse plant, producing beautiful white flowers. HEMERODROM1, in Grecian antiquity, centincls and guards appointed for the security and preservation of cities and other places. They w ent out of the city every morning as soon as the gates were opened, and kept patrolling all day about the place: sometimes also making excursions further into the country, to see that there were no enemies lying in wait to surprise them. Hemerodromi were also a sort of couriers among the ancients, who only travelled one day, and then de- livered their packets or despatches to a fresh man, who run his day, and so on to the end of the journey. HEMICYCLE. See Architecture. HEM1MERIS, a genus ofthe angiospermia order, in the didynamia class of plants. The capsule is bilocular, with one of the cells more gibbous than the other; the corolla is wheel-shaped, with one division greater, and inverse heart-shaped; the interstice of the divisions nectar- bearing. There are three species, herbaceous plants of the Cape. HEMINA, in Roman antiquity, a liquid measure which, according to Arbuthnot, was equal to half a wine- pint English measure; its contents being 2.818 solid inches. HEMIONTCTS, a genus of the natural order of filices, belonging to. the cryptogamia class of plants. The fructifications are in lines, decussating or crossing each either. There are eight species, natives of the West Indies. HEMIPLEGIA. See Medicine. HEM1PTERA,derived from ^^s, half, wing, ^\ef»v, in the Linnsean system, the second order of .insects, com- prehending twelve genera, viz. the blatta, mantis, gryl- lus, fulgora, cicada, notonecta, ncpa, cimex, aphis, chermes, coccus, and thrips, and a great number of spe- cies. HEMISPHERE, in geometry, the half of a globe or sphere, when it is supposed to be cut through its centre in the plane of one of its great circles. Thus the equator divides the terrestrial globe into the northern and sou- thern hemisphere: in the same manner the meridian divides the globe into the eastern and western hemis- phere; and the horizon into two hemispheres, distinguish- ed by the epithets upper and lower. The centre of gravity of an hemisphere is five-eights of the radius distant from the vertex. Hemisphere is also used to denote a projection of half the terrestrial globe, or half the celestial sphere, on a plane, and frequently called planisphere. HEMISTICH, in poetry, denotes half a verse, or a verse not completed. Of this there are frequent examples in Virgil's ^Eneid; but whether they were left unfinished by design or not, is disputed among the learned: such are Ferro accincta vocat, JEn. II. v. 614. And, Italiam non sponte sequor, JEn. IV. v. 361. In reading common English verses, a short pause is required at the end of each hemistich, or half verse. HEMLOCK. See Cicuta. HEMP and Flax. No hemp or flax is to be watered in any river, running water, stream, brook, or pond, where beasts are used to be watered, but only iu their several ponds for that purpose, on pain of 20s. 33 Hen, VIII. c. 17. Any persons may, in any place, corporate town, privi- leged or unprivileged, set up manufactories of hemp or flax; and persons coming from abroad, using the trade of hemp or ilax-dressing, and of making thread, weaving cloth made of hemp or flax, or making tapestry hang- ings, twine or nets for fishery, cordage, kc after three years, shall have the privilege of natural-born subjects. 15 Car. II. c. 15. HEN. See Phasianus. HENDECAGON, in geometry, a figure that has ele- ven sides, and as many angles. In fortification, hende- cagon denotes a place defended by eleven bastions. HENOTICON, in church history, a decree or edict of the emperor Zeno, made at Constantinople, in the year 482, by which he pretended to reconcile all parties under one faith. HEPAR, a name formerly given to the combination of sulphur and alkali. It is now called sulphuret of potass. HEPATIC gas, the old name for the gas separated from sulphuret of alkali. It is now called sulphurated hydrogen gas. HEPATIC A. See Anemone. HEPATITIS. See Medicine. HEPTAGON, in geometry, a figure of seven sides and seven angles. When those sides and angles are all equal, the heptagon is said to be regular, otherwise it is irregular. In a regular heptagon, the angle C, Plate LXXII. Mis- cel. fig. 122, at the centre is = 51°-£, the angle DAB ofthe polygon is = 128°*, and its half CAB = 64°|. Also the area is == the square of the side AB2 X 3.6339124, or = AB2 x It, where t is the tangent of the angle CAB of 64° -| to the radius 1; or t is the root of the equation; tli — 26t10 +.143*8 — 245P + 143f4 — 26i2 + 1 = 0; or t = 1 + x 1 + v/1 — y2 y \'------=----------± =----- where the Talue l — x y i—vi—^ of x and y are the roots of the equations x* — | x* + * x* — Tv = o, t = 11 + \ f — *\ = o. Heptagon, in Fortification, a place fortified or strengthened with seven bastions for its defence. . HEPTAGONAL Numbers, are a kind of polygonal numbers in which the difference of the terms of the cor- responding arithmetical progression is 5. Thus, Arithmetical, 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, &c. Heptagonals, 1, 7, 18, 34, 55, 38, &c. where tho heptagonals are formed by adding continually the terms of the arithmetical, above them, whose com- mon difference is 5. One property, among many others, of these heptago- nal numbers is, that if any one of them be multiplied by 40, and to the product add 9, the sum will be a square number. HER HER Thus 1x404-9= 49 = 72; and 7 X 40 + 9 = 289 = 172; and 18 X 40 + 9 = 729 = 272; and 34 x 40 + 9 = 1369 = 372; kc. Where it is remarkable that the series of squares so formed is 12, 172, 272, 372, &c, the common difference of whose roots is 10, the double of the common difference of the arithmetical scries from which the heptagonals are formed. See Polygovals. HEPTAMERIS, in music, the seventh part of a me- ris, being, according to M. Sauveur, the forty-third part of the octave. HEPTANDRIA, from %itn», scptem, and *vsf, a man, the seventh class in Linnseus's sexual method, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, which have seven stamina or male organs. The orders are four, derived from the number of styles or female organs. Sec Botany. HEPTANGULAR figure, in geometry, is one that has seven angles, and therefore also seven sides. HERACLEUM, a genus of the pentandria digynia class of plants, the general flower of which is difforin and radiated; the single -lowers of the disc consist each of i\v^ equal petals, but those of the radius consist of five unequal petals. The fruit is elliptic, compressed, and striated on each side in the middle, and contains two oval compressed seeds. To this genus belongs the sphoiidy- lium or cow's parsnep of authors. There are six species. HERACLID^E, or return ofthe Heraclidr into Pe- loponnesus, in chronology, a famous epocha, that consti- tutes tiie beginning of prophane history; all the time preceding that period bring accounted fabulous. This return happened in the year of the world 2862, an hun- dred years after they were expelled, and eighty after the destruction of Troy. HERALD, is an officer at arms, whose business is to denounce war, proclaim peace, or be otherwise employ- ed by the king in martial messages or other business. Heralds are the judges and examiners of gentlemen's coats of arms, and preservers of genealogies; and they marshal all solemnities at the coronation of princes, and funerals of great persons. HERALDRY, the science which teaches how to bla- zon, or explain in proper terms, all that belongs to coats of arms; and how to marshal, or dispose regularly, di- vers arms on a field. Arms, or coats of arms, are hereditary marks of hon- our, made up of fixed aud determined colours and figures, granted by sovereign princes,'as a reward for military valour, en- some signal public service performed. These are intended to denote the descent and alliance of the bearer, or to distinguish states, cities, societies, kc civil, ecclesiastical, and military. Men in all ages have made use of figures of living creatures, or symbolical signs, to denote the bravery and courage either of their chief or nation, to render them- selves the more terrible to their enemies, and even to distinguish themselves or families, as names do individu- als. Thus the Egyptians bore an ox, the Athenians an owl, the Goths a bear, the Romans an eagle, the Franks a lion, and the Saxons a horse: the last is still borne in the arms of his present Britannic majesty. As to heredi- tary arms of families, William Camden, sir Henry Spel- man, aud other judicious heralds, agree, that they began no sooner than towards the latter end of the eleventh century. With tournaments first came up coats of arms; which were a sort of livery, made up of several lists, fillets, or narrow pieces of stuff of many oiftours, from whe nee came the fess, the bend, the pale, kc 'which were the original charges of family-arms: for they who never had been to tournaments had not such marks of distinction. They who enlisted themselves in the croisados took up also several new figures hitherto unknown in armorial ensigns; such as alcrions, bezants, escalop-shells, mart- lets, e\c. but more particularly crosses, of different co- lours for distinction's sake. From this it may be con- cluded, that heraldry, like most human inventions, was insensibly introduced and established: and that, after having been rude and unsettled for many ages, it was at last methodized, perfected, and fixed, by the croisades and tournaments. These marks of honour are called arms, from their being principally and first worn by military men at war and tournaments, who had them engraved, embossed, or depicted on shields, targets, banners, or other martial instruments. They are also called coat of arms, from the custom of the ancients embroidering them on the coats they wore over their arms, as heralds do to this day. Arms are distinguished by different names, to denote the causes of their bearing; such as arms of dominion; of pretciisi-m; of concession; of community; of patronage; of family; of alliance; of succession. Arms of dominion, or sovereignty, are those which emperors, kings, and sovereign states do constantly bear; being annexed to the territories, kingdoms, and provin- ces, they possess. Thus the three lions are the arms of England, the harp those of Ireland, kc Arms of pretension are tlmse of such kingdoms, pro- vinces, or territories, to which a prince or lord has some claim, and which he adds to his own, although the said kingdom, or territories may be possessed by a foreign prince'or lord. Thus the kings of England have quar- tered the arms of France with their own ever since Ed- ward III. laid claim to the kingdom of France, which happened in the year 1330, on account of his being son to Isabella, sister to Charles the Ilandsome, who died without issue. Arms of concession, or augmentation of honour, are cither entire arms, or else one or more figures, given by- princes as a reward for some extraordinary service. We read in history that Robert Bruce, king oi' Scotland, al- lowed the earl of Wintoun's ancestor to bear, in his coat- armour, a crown supported by a sword, to show that he, and the clan Seaton, of which he was the head, supported his tottering crown. Arms of community are those of bishoprics, cities, universities, academies, societies, companies, and other bodies corporate. Arms of patronage are such as governors of provinces, lords of manors, patrons of benefices, kc. add to their family-arms, as a token of their superiority, rights, and jurisdiction. These arms have introduced into heraldry, castles, gates, wheels, ploughs, rakes, harrows, kc Arms of family, or paternal amis, are those th.il belong to one particular family, that distinguish it from others, HERALDRY. and which no person is suffered to assume without com- mitting a crime, which sovereigns have a right to re- strain and punish. Arms of alliance, are those which families or private persons take up ans?join to their own, to denote the al- liances they have contracted by marriage. This sort of arms is eitlier impaled, or borne in an escutcheon of pre- tence, by those who have married heiresses. Arms of succession are such as are taken up by them who inherit certain estates, manors, kc. either by will, entail, or donation, and which they eitlier impale, or quarter with their own arms; which multiplies the titles of some families out of necessity, and not through osten- tation, as many imagine. These are the eight classes under which the different sorts of arms arc generally ranged; but there is a sort which blazoners call assumptive arms, being such as are taken by the caprice or fancy of upstarts, though of ever so mean extraction, who, being advanced to a de- gree of fortune, assume them without a legal title. The essential and integral parts of arms are these: 1. The escutcheon. 2. The tinctures. 3. The charges. 4. The ornaments. Of the shield or escutcheon.—The shield or escutcheon is the field or ground whereon arc represented the figures that make up a coat of arms: for these marks of distinction were put on bucklers or shields before they were placed on banners, standards, flags, and coat- armour; and wherever they may be fixed, they are still on a plane or superfices whose form resembles a shield. Shields, in heraldry called escutcheons or scutcheons, from the Latin word scutum, have been, and still are, of different forms, according to different times and nations. Amongst ancient shields, some were almost like a horse- shoe, such as is represented by a few of the figures of escutcheons; others triangular, somewhat flat or rounded at the bottom. The English, French, Germans, and other nations, have their escutcheons formed different ways, according to the carver's or painter's fancy: of these various examples are contained in the plates of heraldry. But the shield of maids, widows, and of such as are born ladies, and are married to private gentlemen, is ofthe form of a lozenge (See Plate LXVI.) Annorists distinguish several parts or points in escut- cheons, in order to determine exactly the position of the bearings they are charged with; they are here denoted by the first nine letters of the alphabet, ranged in the following manner (See Plate LXV.) The knowledge of these points is of great importance, and ought to be well observed, for they are frequently occupied with several things of different kinds. It is ne- cessary to observe, that the dexter side of the escutcheon is opposite to the left hand, and the sinister side to the right hand ofthe person that look on it. Distinction of houses. These distinctions inform us how the bearer of each is descended from the same family; they also denote the subordinate degrees in each house from the original ancestors, viz. First house. For the heir or first son the label; se- cond son the crescent; third son the mullet; fourth son the martlet; fifth son the annulet; sixth son the ileur- de-lis. Second house. The crescent, with the label on it, for the first son of the second son. The crescent on the crescent for the second son of the second son of the first house, kc See the Plate. By the tinctures or colours is meant that variety of hue of arms common both to shields and their charges: the colours generally used are red, blue, sable, vert, purpure. Note, yellow and white, termed or and argent, are metals; these colours are represented in engravings by dots and lines, as in the Plate. Or is expressed by dots. Argent is plain. Gules, by perpendicular lines. Azure, by horizontal lines. Sable, by perpendicular and horizontal lines crossing each other. Vert, by diagonal lines from the dexter chief to the sinister base point. Purpure, by diagonal lines from the sinister chief to the dexter base point. Furs.—There are different kinds, and represent the hairy skins of certain animals, prepared for the linings of robes of state; and anciently shields were covered with furred skins: they are used in coats of arms, viz. Ermine, is black spots on a white field. Ermines, is a field black with white spots. Erminois, is a field gold with black spots. Vair, is white and blue, represented by figures of small escutcheons arranged in a line, so that the base argent is opposite to the base azure. Potent-counter-potent, is a field covered with figures like crutch heads. See Plate. Charges, are whatsoever bearings or figures are borne in the field e»f a coat of arms. Rampant, signifies the lion standing erect on one of the hind legs. Rampant-gardant, is a lion standing on his hind leg, loedving full-faced. Rampant-regardant, standing upon his hind leg, look- ing bae k towards his tail. Passant: this term is to express the lion in a walking position. Sejant, for the lion sitting, as the example. Saliant, is when the lion is leaping or springing for- ward, as the example. Couchant, is a lion lying at rest, with tbe head erect. Passant-gardant, for a beast, when walking, with its head looking full-faced. Couped, cut oft'smooth and even, as the example. Erased, signifying torn or plucked off, as the example. Demy, is the half of any charge, as the example, a demy lion. Dormant, for sleeping with its head resting on its fore paws. Partition lines, by which is understood a shield divided or cut through by a line or lines, either horizontal, per- pendicular, diagonal, or transverse: the engraved ex- amples are the crooked lines of partition, viz. engrailed, invecked, wavy, nebule, imbattled, raguly indented, dan- cette, dove tail. See Plate LXV. Roundels are round figures, much used in arms: the English heralds vary their names according to their co- lour, thus: HERALDRY. Or, "j fBezant. Argent, Plate. Guhs, Tortcaux. Azure, £ris termed a«^ Hurt. Sable, Pcllett. Vert, | Pomey. Purpure, J l^Golpe. Crescent, or half-moon, having its horns turned up- wards. Increscent, differs from the crescent, by having its horns turned to the dexter side. Decrescent, is the reverse of the increscent, having its horns turned to the sinister side. Rose, is represented, in heraldry, full-blown, with fine green barbs, and seeded in the middle. Annulet, or ring, and by some authors supposed to be rings of mail. Chess-rook. This piece is used in the game of chess. Star, in heraldry, is termed an estoilc, having six wav- ed points. Trefoil, or three-leaved grass. Quartrefoil,or four-leaved grass. Cinquefoil, or five-leaved grass. Mascle, is in shape like the lozenge, hut is always per- forated, as the example. Fountain, an heraldic term for a roundle harry wavy of six argents and azure. Billet, a small parallelogram, supposed to be letters made up in the form ofthe example. Rustre, is a lozenge pierced round in the middle. Gutte, in heraldry, signifies drops of any thing liquid, and, according to their colour, are termed as follow: if Or, Gutte d'or. Agent, Gutte d'eau. Vert, Gutte de olive. Gules, Gutte de sang. Azure, Gutte de larnies. Sable, Gutte poix. Fess, an ordinary composed of two horizontal lines drawn across the centre of the shield. Chevron, an ordinary, in form like two rafters of a house, or a pair of compasses extended. Bend, an ordinary, drawn diagonally from the dexter cbief to the sinister base, and takes up one-third of the field. Pale, an ordinary, which is placed perpendicular in the centre of the shield. Chief, an ordinary, which always occupies the upper part of the shield, and contains in depth the third of the field. Cross, an ordinary, composed of four lines, four per- pendicular, and two transverse. Saltirc, an ordinary, in form like the cross of St. An- drew. Bend-sinister, which is placed diagonally from the sinis- ter chief to the dexter base of the shield. Quarter, an ordinary, formed of two lines, one per- pendicular, the other horizontal, taking up one-fourth of the field, as the example. Canton, an ordinary in form like the quarter, but the size, is only the third part of the chief. Pile, an ordinary, like the foot ofthe pile that is driven into the ground to make the foundation of a building iu swampy ground. Flanches, are composed of two circular lines, and are always borne double, as the example.. Flory, a cross, the ends terminating in fleurs-de-lis. Moline, a cross, which turns round both ways at the extremities, like a hook. Pattee, a cross, small in the centre, and widening to the ends, which are very broad. Croslet, a cross, crossed again at the extremities at a small distance from each of the ends. Lozenge, a four-cornered figure, like a pane of glass in old casements, supposed to be a physical composition given for colds, and was invented to distinguish eminent physicians. Mullet, consists of five points, and pierced in the centre, and is supposed to represeut a spur rowel. Mill-rind, a cross in form like the mill-ink whicli car- ries the millstone, and is perforated in the centre. Water-boujet, anciently used as a vessel by soldiers for carrying water in long marches. Helmets, were formerly worn as a defensive weapon to cover the bearer's head: a helmet is now placed over a coat of arms as its chief ornament, and a mark of gen- tility. The First is a side-faced helmet of steel, with the vizor shut, for an esquire. Second is a full-faced helmet of steel, with the vizor open, for knights or baronets. Third is a side-faced helmet of steel, the bars and or- naments gold, for the nobility. Fourth is a full-faced helmet, with bars all gold, for the sovereign and princes ofthe blood royal. Close, signifies the wings of a bird arc down, and close to the body. Rising. This term is for a bird when in a position as if preparing to fly. Displayed, signifies the wings of an eagle to be ex- panded, as the example. Volant, a term for any bird represented flying. Tripping, a term for a stag, antelope, or hind, when walking. Courant, for a stag, or horse, or greyhound, running. At gaze, is a term for a stag or hind; when looking full-faced, is termed at gaze. Lodged, signifies the stag to be at rest on the ground. Inverted, is for two wings conjoined, and the points of the wings downwards. Erect, is for two wings conjoined, and the pointserect, or upwards. Hauriant. This term is for a fish when erect, pale- ways, as putting its head above water. Naiant, for a fish, when borne horizontally across the shield, as swimming. Cockatrice, a chimerical figure used in heraldry; its beak, wings, legs, comb, wattles, and spurs, partake of the fowl; audits body and tail of the snake. Wvvern. This, like the former, is chimerical, and dif- fers from the cockatrice in its head, having no comb, wattles, or spurs. Dragon. This is an heraldic figure, as drawn by her- alds. See the example. Tiger. This, like the former, is of heraldic crca- HERALDRY. tion; being so different from tho tiger of nature, it is termed the heraldic tiger. Cheeky, is a shield or bearing, covered with small squares of different colours alternately. Gyronny, is a Shield divided into six or eight triangu- lar parts of different colours, and the points all meeting in the centre ofthe shield. Paly, is a shield divfded into four, six, or more equal parts, by perpendicular lines, consisting of two colours. Barry, is a shield divided into four, six, or more equal parts, by horizontal lines of two colours. Bachelor.—The arms of a bachelor, whilst he remains such, he may quarter his paternal coat with other coats, if they belong to him, but he in ay not impale it till he is married. Married man.—A married man is to conjoin the coat armours of himself and wife in one escutcheon paleways; the man's on the dexter side of the shield, and the wo- man's on the sinister side. An heiress.—When an heiress is married, her arms are not to be impaled with her husband's, but arc to be borne on arvescutcheon of pretence, placed in the centre of the shield. Note, the escutcheon of pretence displays his pretension to her estate; and if the husband has is- sue by her, the heir of those two inheritors shall bear the hereditary coats of father and mother quarterly. Quarterly.—Is an arms divided into four parts by a per- pendicular and horizontal line crossing each other, in the centre of the shield, into four equal parts, termed quarters. Maid.—The arms of a maid are to be placed in a lo- zenge; and if her father bore any difference in his coat the same is to be continued; for by the mark of cadency of her father's will be denoted what branch she is from. Widow.—The arms of a widow arc to be impaled with the arms of her late husband; her husband on the dexter side, and her's on the sinister side, upon a lozenge, as the example. Knight of the garter and his lady.—When a knight of the garter is married, his wife's arms must be placed in a distinct shield, because his arms are surrounded with the ensign of that order: for though the husband may give his equal share ofthe shield and hereditary honour, yet he cannot share his temporary order of knighthood with her. Commoner and his lady—The arms of a commoner married to a lady of quality: he is not to impale her arms with his own; they are to be set aside of one another in separate shields', as the lady still retains her title and rank. Sec the example. Of the external ornaments of escutcheons.—The orna- ments that accompany or surround escutcheons denote the birth, dignity or office, of the person to whom the coat of arms appertained; and obtains both among the laity and clergy. The chief of which are as follow: Crowns.—The first crowns were only diadems, bands, or fillets; afterwards they were composed of branches of divers trees, and then flowers were added to them. Among the Greeks, the crowns given to those who car- ried the prize at the Isthmian games, were of pine; at the Olympic, of laurel; and at the Nemean, of smallage. The jRomans had various crowns to reward martial exploits and extraordinary services done to the republic. Exam- ples of some of these crowns arc frequently met with i modern achievements. Modern crowns are only used as an ornament, which emperors, kings, and independent princes set on their heads, in great solemnities, to denote their sovereign authority. These are described in heraldry as follow: The imperial crown is made of a circle of gold, adorn- ed with precious stones and pearls, heightened with fleurs-de-lis, bordered and seeded with pearls, raised in the form of a cap voided at the top, like a crescent. From the middle of this cap rises an arched fillet enriched with pearls, and surmounted of a mound, whereon is a cross of pearls. See Plate LXVI. The crown of the kings of Great Britain is a circle of gold, bordered with ermine, enriched with pearls and precious stones, and heightened up with four crosses pat- tee, and four large fleurs-de-lis alternately; from these rise four arched diadems adorned with pearls which close under a mound, surmounted of across like those at bottom. The crowns of Spain and Portugal are a ducal coronet, heightened up with eight arched diadems that support a mound, ensigned with a plain cross. Those of Denmark and Sweden are both of the same form; and consist of eight arched diadems, rising from a marquis's coronet, which conjoin at the top under a mound ensigned with a cross botone. The crowns of most other kings in Europe are circles of gold, adorned with precious stones, and heightened up with large trefoils ami closed by four, six, or eight diadems supporting a mound, surmounted of a cross. I The great Turk bears over his arms a turban, enrich- ed with pearls and diamonds, under two coronet^, the first of which is made of pyramidical points heightened up with large pearls, and the uppermost is surmounted with crescents. The pope appropriates to himself a tiara or long cap\ of golden cloth: from which hang two pendants embroider- ed and fringed at the ends, semee of crosses of gold. This cap is inclosed by three marquis's coronets; and has on its top a mound of gold, whereon is a cross of the same, which cross is sometimes represented by engra- vers and painters pomettecl, recrossed, flowery, or plain. It is a difficult matter to ascertain the time when these haughty prelates assumed the three forementioned coro- nets. See Plate LXVI. Coronets—The coronet of the prince of Wales, or eldest son of the king of Great Britain, was anciently a circle of gedd set round with four crosses-pattee, and as many fleurs-de-lis alternately; but since the restoration it has been closed with one arch only, adorned with pearls, and surmounted of a mound and cross, and bor- dered with ermine like the king's. But beside the coro- net his royal highness has another distinguishing mark of honour, peculiar to himself, viz. a plume of three ostrich feathers, with an ancient coronet of a prince of Wales. Under it, in a scroll, is this motto, Ich dien, which in the German or old Saxon language signifies " I serve." The device was at first taken by Edward prince of Wales, commonly called the black prince, alter the fa- mous battle of Cressy, in 1346, where having with his own hand killed John, king of Bohemia, he took from his bead such a plume, and put it on his own. See Plate LXV. HERALDRY. The Coronet of all the immediate sons and brothers of the kings of Great Britain is a circle of gold, bordered with ermine, heightened up with four fleurs-de-lis, and as many cresses pattce alternate. The particular and distinguishing form of such coronets as are appropriated to princes of the blood royal, is described and settled in a grant of Charles II. the 13th of his reign. See Plate LXV. The coronet of the princesses of Great Britain is a cir- cle of gedd, bordered with ermine, and heightened up with crosscs-pattee, fleurs-de-lis, and strawberry leaves alternate; whereas a prince's coronet has only fleurs-de- lis and crosses. A duke's coronet is a circle of gold bordered with er- mine, enriched with precious stones and pearls, and set round with eight large strawberry or parsley leaves. See Plate LXV. A marquis's coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with ermine, set round with four strawberry leaves, and as many pearls on pyramidical points of equal height, al- ternately. See Plate LXV. An earl's coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with ermine, heightened up with eight pyramidical points or rays, on the tops of which are as many large pearls, that are placed alternately with as many strawberry leaves, but the pearls much higher than the leaves. See Plate I. A viscount's coronet differs from the preceding ones as being only a circle of gold bordered with ermine, w ith large pearls set close together on the rim, without any limited number, which is his prerogative above the ba- ron, who is limited. See Plate LXV. A baron's coronet, which it appears was granted by king Charles II., is formed with six pearls set at equal dis- tances on a gold circle, bordered with ermine, four of which only are seen on engravings,paintings, \ hen a principal figure posses- ses the centre of the field, its position is not to be express- ed, or (which amounts to the same thing) when a bear- ing is named, without specifying the point where it is placed, then it is understood to possess the middle of the shield. 7. The number of the points of mullets or stars must be specified when more than five; and also if a mul- let or any other charge be pierced, it must be mentioned as such, to distinguish it from what is plain. 8. When a ray of the sun, or other single figure, is borne in any other part of the escutcheon than the centre, the point it issues from must be named. 9. The natural colour of trees, plants, fruits, birds, kc. is no otherwise to be ex- pressed in blazoning but by the word proper; but if dis- coloured, that is, if they differ from their natural colour, jt must be particularized. 10. When three figures are in a field, and their position is not mentioned in the bla- zoning, they are always understood to be placed two above, and one below. 11. When there are many figures of the same species borne in a coat of arms, their num- ber must be observed as they stand, and must be dis- tinctly expressed. By marshalling coats of arms is to be understood the art of disposing divers of them in one escutcheon, and of distributing their contingent ornaments in proper places. Various causes may occasion arms to be thus conjoin, d, whicli are comprised under two heads, viz. manifest and obscure. \Y hat is meant by manifest causes in the mar- shalling of coats of arms, are such as betoken marria- ges, or a sovereign's gift, granted either through the special favour of the prim e, or for some eminent servi- ces. Concerning marriages it is to be observed, 1. when the coats of arms of a married couple, descend- ed of distinct families, are to be put together in one es- cutcheon, the field of their respective arms is conjoined paleways, and blazoned parted per bale, baron and fem- me, two coats; first, kc. in which case the baron's arms are always to be placed on the dexter side, and the fem- me's arms on the sinister side. 2. If a widower marry again, his late and present wife's arms arc, " to be placed on the sinister side, in the escutcheon with his own, and parted per pale. The first wife's coat shall stand on the chief, and the second on the base; or he may set them both iu pale with his own, the first wife's coat next to himself, and his second outermost. If he should marry a third wife, then the two first matches shall stand on the chief, and the third shall have the whole base. And if he take a fourth wife, she must participate one-half of the base with the third wife, and so will they seem to be so many coats quartered." But it must be observed that these forms of impairing are meant of hereditary coats, whereby the husband stands in expectation of having the hereditary possession of his wife united to his patrimony. Note. If a man marry a widow, he marshals her maiden arms only. 3. In the arms of femmes joined to the paternal coat oftlic baron, the proper differences by which they were borne by the fathers of such women must be inserted. 4. If a coat of arms that has a bordure be impaled with another, as by marriage, then the bordure must be wholly omitted in the side of the arms next the centre. 5. The person that marries an heiress, instead of im- parting his arms with those of his wife, is to bear thein in an escutcheon placed in the centre of his shield, which, en account of its showing forth his pretension to her es- tate, is called an excutcheon of pretence, and is blazon- ed surtout,that is, over-all. But the children are to bear the hereditary coat of arms of their father and mother quarterly, which denotes a fixed inheritance, and so transmit them to posterity. The first, and fourth quar- ters generally contain the father's arms, and the second and third the mother's; except tbe heirs should derive not only their estate, but also their title and dignity, from their mother. 6. If a maiden or dowager lady of quality marry a rom- moncr, or a nobleman inferior to her in rank, their coats of arms may be set beside one another, in two separate escutcheons, upon one mantle or drapery, and the lady's arms ornamented ac cording to her title. See Plate LXVI. 7. Archbishops and bishops impale their arms different- ly from the fore-mentioned coats, in giving the place of HER HER honour, that is, the dexter side, to the arms of their dig- nity, as it is expressed in rlate LXV. which represents tho coat of arms of a supposed archbishop of Canterbury and bishop of an English see. With respect ti» such armorial ensigns as the sove- reign thinks fit to augment a coat of arms with, they maj be marshalled in various ways, as may be seen in the arms of his grace the duke of Rutland, and many others. So far the causes for marshalling divers arms in one shield, &c. are manifest. As to such as are called ob- scure, that is, when coats of arms are marshalled in such a manner that no probable reason can be given why they are so conjoined, the explanation of them must be left to the heralds. Ofthe orders of knighthood, tfc.—The baronet's mark of distinction, or tbe arms of the province of Ulster in Ireland, granted and made hereditary in the male line by king James I. who erected this dignity on the 22d of May, 1611, in the 9th year of his reign, in order to pro- pagate a plantation in the foremcntioned province. This mark is argent, a sinister hand couped at the wrist and erected gules; which may be borne eitlier in a canton, or in an escutcheon, as will best suit the figures of the arms. The ancient and respectable badge of the most noble or- der of the garter, was instituted by king Edward III. 1349, in the 27th year of his reign. This honourable aug- mentation is a deep blue garter, surrounding the arms of such knights," and inscribed with this motto, *• Honi soit qui mal y pense." See plate LXVI. The arms of those who are knights ofthe orders e>f the Bath, of the Thistle, or of St. Patrick, are marshalled in the same manner, with this difference only, that the colour and motto accord with the order to whicli it be- longs. Thus the motto, " Quis separabit 1783," on the light blue ribbon of the order, surrounds the escutcheon of a knight eif St. Patrick. " Nemo me inipunc lacessit," on a green ribband, distinguishes a knight of the Thistle; and "Triajunctain uno," on red, a knight ofthe Hath. It is to be observed that none of the orders of knighthood are hereditary. The honours of a baronet of Ulster, and of a baronet of Nova Scotia (created by patent in 1602), descend to the heirs male. With regard to the emblazoning of the wife's arms in the case of the husband being noble; or where, on ihe other hand, the wife is noble in her own right, and the husband a commoner, these will be found exemplified in Plate LXVI. For representations of the badges of the several orders of knighthood, see Plate LXVI. See Arms, Blazoning, Preckoency, and the several terms of heraldry in al- phabet e al order. HERBAL, is sometimes used for what is more usual- ly called hortus siccus. Sec H>rtus Siccus. HERCULES, in astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemisphere, said to contain from 28 to 95 stars. HEREDITAMENTS, all such things immoveable, whether corporeal or incorporeal, as a man may leave to his heirs, by way of inheritance: or not being other- wise devised, do naturally descend to him who is next heir of blood, and fall not within the compass of an ex- ecutor or administrator, as chatties do. It is a word of large extent, and much used in conveyances; for by the vox. n. 48 grant of hereditaments, isles, seignories, manors, houses, and lands of all sorts, charters, rents, service*, advow- sons, commons, and whatever may be inherited, will pass. Co. Lit. 6. Hereditaments are of two kinds, corporeal and incor- poreal. Corporeal hereditaments consist wholly of sub- stantial and permanent objects, all which may be com- prehended under the general denomination of land only: for land comprehends in its legal signification any ground, soil, or earth whatsoever, as arable, meadows, pastures, woods, moors, waters, marshes, furzes, and heath. 1 Inst. 4. Incorporeal hereditaments are not the objects of sen- satiem, neither can they be seen or handled, arc creatures of the mind, and exist only in contemplation: they are principally often sorts, viz. advowsons, tithes, commons, ways, offices, dignities, franchises, core lies or presents, and rents. Black. HERESEY, among protcstants. is said to be a false opinion, repugnant to some peiint of doctrine clearly re- vealed in scripture, and either absolutely essential to the christian faith, or at least of most high importance. 1 Haw. 3. All old statutes that give a power to arrest or imprison persons for heresey, or introduced any forfeiture on that account, are repealed; yet by the common law an obsti- nate heretic being exe eimmuiiicated is still liable to be imprisoned by force ofthe writ, dc excommunicato capi- endo, till he makes satisfaction to the church. 1 Haw. 5. And if any person having been educated in, or having made profession ofthe christian religion within this realm, shall be convicted in any of the courts at Westminster, or at the assizes, of denying any of the persons in the Holy Trinity to be God, or maintaining that there arc more gods than one, or of denying the; truth of the chris- tian religion, or the divine authority of the holy scrip- tures, he shall, for the first offence, be adjudged incapa- ble of any office; and for the second shall be disabled to sue any action, or to be guardian, executor, or admin- istrator, or take by any legacy or deed of gift, or to bear any office civil or military, or benefice ecclesiasti- cal, for ever, and shall also suffer imprisonment for three years, without bail or mainprise, from the time of such conviction. HE RIOT, signifies a tribute given to the lord for his better preparation towards war. And by the laws of Canute it appears, that at the death ofthe great men of his nation so many horses and arms were to be paid for as they were in the their respective lifetimes obliged to keep for the king's service. A heriot was first paid, in arms and horses; it is now by custom sometimes the best live beast whirii the tenant dies possessed e)f; sometimes the best inanimate good, un- der which a jewel or piece of plate may be included. 2 Black. 422. As to the several kinds of heriots, some are due by custom, some by tenure, and by reservation on deeds ex- ecuted within time of meinorv: those dm- by custom arc the most frequent, and arose by the contract or agree- ment ofthe lord and tenant, in consideration of some be- nefit or advantage accruiiiv; to the tenant', and for which an heriot, as the best beast, best piece of household far- II E R HER niture, kc became due, and belonged to the lord either on the death or alienation of the tenant, and which the lord may seize, either within the manor or without, at his election. Dyer, 199, b. It has been solemnly adjudged that for an heriot ser- vice, or for an heriot reserved by way of tenure, the lord may either seize or distrain; feir when the tenant agrees that the lord shall on his death have the best beast, &c. Ihe lord has his election which beast he will take, and by seizing thereof reduces that to his possession, wherein he had a preperty at the death of the tenant, without the concurring act of any other person; and it is not like the Case where the tenant receives 20s. or a robe, for there the lessee has his election which he will pay, and being to do the first act, the lord cannot seize, but must distrain. Plowd. 96. If the tenure be by rent and heriot service, viz. to have the best beast after the death of the tenant, and the lord distrain for the heriot, he cannot in his avowry show which was the best beast that he was entitled to, nor of what value it was; for the tenant might have esloined the cattle, and thereby it might have been impossible for the lord to know which was the best beast; and the tenant at his peril is to render the best beast, or sufficient recom- pense. Cro. Car. 260. Upon the whole, the custom of the manor is the law of it in all such like cases. HERISSON, in fortification, a beam armed with a great number of iron spikes, with their points outwards, and supported by a pivot, on which it turns. These serve as a barrier to block up any passage, and are frequently placed before the gates, and more especially the wicket- doors of a town or fortress, to "secure those passages which must of necessity be often opened and shut. See Fortification. HEIUTIERA, a genus of the moneecia monadelphia class and order. The calyx is five-toothed; corolla none. Male, anthers 10, without filaments. Female, germ five; drupes with one globular seed. There is one species, a tree of the East Indies. HERMjEA, in antiquity, ancient Greek festivals, in honour ofthe god Hermes, or Mercury. HERMANNTA, a genus of the pentandria order, in the monadelphia class of plants, and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 37th order, columniferae. The capsule is quinquelocular; the petals at the base are semi- tubulated and oblique. There are 21 species, the most re- markable arc, 1. The lavendulifolia, which has a shrubby stalk and slender branches, very bushy, about a foot and a half high, small, spear-shaped, obtuse, and hairy leaves, with clusters of smail yellow flowers along the sides of the branches, continuing from June to autumn. 2. The althseifolia has a.shrubby stalk, and soft woolly branches, growing two feet high, with numerous yellow flowers in loose spikes growing at the end of the branch- es, and making their appearance in July. 3. The grossularifolia has a shrubby stalk and spread- ing branches, growing three or four feet high, with bright yellow flowers coining out in great numbers at the ends of all the shoots and branches in April or May. 4. The alnifolia has a riirubbv stalk, and branches gorwing irregularly four or five feet high, with pale yel- 2 low flowers in short spikes from the sides and ends of the branches, appearing in April or May. 5. The hyssopifolia has a shrubby" upright stalk, branching out laterally six or seven feet highi with pale yellow flowers in clusters from the sides of the branches, appearing in May and June. All these plants are natives of Africa, and therefore must be kept in a greenhouse during the winter in this country. They are propagated by cuttings of their young shoots, which may be planted in pots of rich earth any time from April to July. HERMAS, a genus of the moneecia order, in the poly- gamia class of plants. The umbel in the hermaphrodite is terminal; there is an universal involucruin, and partial ones. The rays of the small umbels are lobed; the central one flower-bearing; there are five petals, and as many barren stamina; the seeds are two-fold, and suborbicular. In the male the lateral umbels have universal and par- tial involucra; the small umbels are many-flowered; there are five petals, and five fertile stamina. There are five species, herbs of the Cape. HERMETICAL seal, among chemists, a method of stopping glass-vessels, used in chemical operations, so closely, thatthe most subtile spirit cannot escape through them. It is commonly done by heating the reck of the vessel in a flame, till ready to melt, and then twisting it close together w ith a pair of pincers. Or, vessels may be hermetically sealed, by stopping them with a glass plug, well luted; or by covering the vessel with another ovum philosophic urn. HERNANDIA, jack-in-a-box-tree, a genus of the triandria order, belonging to the moneecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or- der, tricoccse. The male calyx is tripartite; the corolla tripetalous; the female calyx is truncated, quite entire; the corolla hexapetalous; the plum hollow, and open at the mouth or upper part, with a loose kernel. The spe- cies are, 1. The sonora, or common jack in-a-box, a native of both the Indies. It grows 20 or 30 feet high, with broad peltated leaves, and monoecious flowers, succeeded by a large swoollen hollow fruit formed of the calyx; having a hole or opening at the end, and a hard nut withiii. The wind blowing into the cavity of this fruit makes a very whistling and rattling noise, whence comes the name. 2. The ov igera grows many feet high, with large oval leaves not peltated; and monoecious flowers, succeeded by a swoollen fruit open at the end, and a nut within. It is said the sonora in Java affords a sure antidote against poison, if you cither put its small roots on the wounds, or eat them; as was discovered to Ruinphus by a captive woman in the war between the people of Macassar and the Dutch, in the year 1667. The soldiers of the former always carry this root about them, as a remedy against wounds with poisoned arrows. Both these plants'being tender exotics, must be planted in pots of rich earth, and always kept in a hot-house; in which, notwithstand- ing all the care that can be taken, thev seldom flower, and never grow beyond the height of'common shrubs, though in the places where they are natives they arrive at the height of trees. They are propagated by seeds procured from the West Indies. HERNIA. See Medicine and Surgery. H E S HEX HERNTARIA, rupture-wort, a genus of the digynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natu- ral method ranking under the eleventh order, hoioracese. The calyx is quinquepartite; there is no corolla; there are five barren stamina, and a monospcrmous capsule. There are four species, of which the only remarkable one is the glabra, or smooth rupture-wort, a native of many parts of England. It is a low trailing plant, with leaves like the smaller chickweed; the flowers come out in clusters from the side of the stalks at the joints, and arc of a yellowish green colour. This plant is a little saltish and astringent. The juice is useful to take away specks in the eye. Cows, sheep, and horses, cat the plant; goats and swine refuse it. HERON, in ornithology. See Ardea. HERRING, in ichthyology. See Ciupea and Fish- ery. HERRINGS. It is unlawful to buy or sell herrings at sea before the fishermen come into the haven, and the cable of the ship be drawn to the land. 31 Ed. HI. c. 2. No herring shall be sold in any vessel but where tbe barrel contains 32 gallons, and half barrel and firkin accordingly; and they must be well packed, of onetime's packing and salting, and be as good in the middle as at the ends; on pain of forfeiting 3s. 4d. a barrel. Vessels with herrings are to be marked with the quan- tity and place where packed; and packers are to be ap- pointed and sworn in all fishing ports, and under the penalty of 1001. HERSE, in fortification, is a lattice or portcullice, made in the form of a harrow, and stuck full of iron spikes. Sec Fortification. HESPERIS, dame's violet, or queen's gillifiower, a genus of the siliquosa order, in the tetradynamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 39th order, siliquosse. The petals are turned obliquely; there is a glandule within the shorter stamina; thesiliqua almost upright; the stigma forked at the base, connivent, or closing at the top. There are seven species, the most remarkable are, 1. The' matronalis, or common sweet-scented garden rocket, having fibrous roots, crowned with a tuft of long, spear-shaped, rough, leaves; upright, single, hairy stalks, two feet high, terminated by large and long spikes of sweet-scented flowers of different colours aud properties in the varieties, of which there is a great number. All the varieties of this species are so remark- able for imparting a fragrant odour, that the ladies were fond of having them in their apartments. Hence they derived the name of dame's violet; and bearing some resemblance- to a stock-gilliflower were sometimes called queen's gillifiower, but are now most commonly called rocket. 2. The inodora, or scentless rocket, has upright stalks two feet high, all the branches terminated by large spikes of scentless flowers, with obtuse petals, of different colours and properties in the varieties. 3. The tristis, or dull-flowered night-smelling rocket, has upright, bristly stalks, two feet high, spear-shaped pointed leaves, and spikes of pale purple flowers, of great fragrance in the evening. All the species s re hrrdy, rspcci; l!y the fii*t .'nd se- cond, whicli prosper in any'of the open borders, and any common garden soil; but the third, being rather impa- tient of a severe frost, and of much moisture in winter, should have a dry warm situation, and a few may be placed in pots, to be sheltered in case of inclement wea- ther. They may be propagated either by seeds, by off- sets, or by cuttings off the stalks. HESSIAN Flv. See Tenthredo. HETEROGENEOUS Numbers, mixed numbers, consisting of integers and fractions. Heterogeneous Quantities, are those which are of such different kinds, as that one of them taken any number of times, never equals or exceeds the other. Heterogeneous Sunns, are such as have different radical signs, as V aa, V 00> 3\S 9> V l8» &c- St>c SURD. If the indices ofthe powers of the heterogeneous surds be divided by their greatest common divisor, and the. quotients be set under the dividends; and those indices be multiplied crosswise by each others quotients; and before the products be set the common radical sign y/, with its proper index; and if the powers of the given roots be involved alternately, according to the index of each others quotient, and the common radical sign be prefixed before those products, then will those two surds be reduced to others, having but one common radical sign. As to reduce 2v/ aa and *ybb . 0 2)v/aa (2 *ybb } ,.". , , JW ^ v 4ybb 4v/ aaaa HETEROSCII. See Geography. HETEROUS1ANS, a sect of Arians, who did not be- lieve that the Son of God was of a substance like to that of the Father. HEUCHERA, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia class of plants, the corolla whereof consists of five petals; the fruit is an ovato-accuminatcel capsule; semibifid, terminating in two refex points, and contain- ing two cells. There are two species. HEXACHORD, in ancient music, a concord called by the moderns a sixth. HEXAEDRON, or Hexahedron, one of the five regular or Platonic bodies: being indeed the same as the cube; and is so called from its having six faces—The square ofthe side or edge of a hexahedron, is one-third of the square of the diameter of the circumscribing sphere; and hence the diameter of a sphere is to tbe side of its inscribed hexahedron, as v/ 3 to 1. In general, if A, B, and C, be put to denote respec- tively the linear side, the surface and the solidity of a Hexahedron, or cube, also, the radius of the inscribed sphere, and R the radius of the circumscribed one; then we have these general equations or relations: 1. A = 2r = |Ry/3 = v!1* = V C. 2. B = 24y> = 8R2 = 6A* = 63r2 C*. 3. C = 8r» =-|RV5=A3 = *B\ *B. 4. R = rs/3 = ±Av/3 = \/\B - \^/3 x VC. 5. r = |Rv3 = |A = |v IB = JVC. H I B H I E HEXAGON, in geometry, a figure of six sides and angles; and if tbese sides and angles be equal, it is called a regular hexagon. The side of every regular hexagon, inscribed in a circle, is equal in length to the radius of that circle. Hence, it is easy, by laying off the radius six times upon the circumference, to inscribe an hexagon in a circle. To describe a regular hexagon on a given right line AB, (plate LXXII. Miscel. fig. 123,) draw an equilate- ral triangle ACB, and the vertex C will be the centre of a circle which will circumscribe the hexagon required ABDEFG. As l is to 1 672, so is the square of the side of any re- gular hexagon to the area thereof, nearly. Or the side of a hexadon being s, its area will be = 2.5980762s* = fs2 x tang. C0« = |s2v/3. Hexagon, in fortification, is a place defended by six bastions. HEXAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of verse, consisting of six feel; the first four of which may be in- differently, either spondees or dactyls; the fifth is gene- rally a dactyl and the sixth always a spondee. Such is the following verse of Horace: 1 g_ 3 4 5 6 Avt pro \ desse vo | hint, ant \ delec | tura po | etce. HEXANDRIA, in botany, a class of plants, the sixth in order, comprehending all those plants which have her- maphrodite flowers, a; ei .six stamina in each. HI HI SCUS, Syrian mallow, a genus of the polyan- dria order, in the monadelphia class of plants, and in the natural .method ranking under the 37th order, columni- ferre. The calyx is double, the exterior one polyphyl- lotss, the capsule quinquelocular and polyspermous. Of this genus there are 45 species; the most remarkable of which are, 1. The Syriacus, commonly called althaea frutex. 2. The rosa sinensis, with an arborescent stem, and egg-pointed as wed leaves. It is a native of the East Indies, whence it has obtained the name of China rose; but the seeds having been carried by the French to their West India settlements, it has thence obtained the name of Martinico rose. Of this there are the double and sin- gle flowering kinds; the seeds of the first frequently pro- duce plants that have only single flowers, but the latter seldom vary to the double kind. 3. The mutabilis, or changeable rose, has a soft spon- gy stem, which by age becomes ligneous and pithy. It rises to the height of 12 or 14 feet, with heart-shaped leaves. The flowers are produced from the wings ofthe leaves; the single are composed of five petals, which spread open, and are at first white, but afterwards change to a bluish rose-colour, and as they decay turn purple. In the West Indies all these alterations happen on the same day, and the Hewers themselves are of no longer dura- tion; but in Britain the changes are not so sudden. 4. The abelmoschus, or musk-seeded hibiscus, is a na- tive of the West Indies, where the French cultivate great quantities of it. The stalks and leaves of this sort are very hairy. The flowers are large, of a sulphur colour, with purple bottoms; and are succeeded by pyramidal five-corned capsules, which open in five cells, filled with large kidney shaped seeds of a very musky odour. 5. The tiiiaceus, or maho-tree, is a native of both the Indies. It rises with a woody, pithy stem, to the height of ten feet, with heart-shaped leaves ending in acute points. The flowers are produced in loose spikes at the end of the branches, and are of a whitish-yellow colour. 6. The trionum, Venice mallow, or flower of an hour, is a native of some parts of Italy, and has long been cul- tivated in the gardens of this country under the name of bladder ketmia. 7. The esculentus, or eatable hibiscus, rises to five or six feet; has broad five-parted leaves, and large yellow flowers. The pod or okra is from two to six inches long, and one inch diameter. When ripe it opens longitudinally in five different places, and discharges a number of heart- shaped seeds. «• These (Dr. Wright informs us) are gathered green, cut into pieces, dried, and sent home as presents, or are boiled in broths or soups for food. It is the chief ingredient in the celebrated pepper-pot of the West Indies, which is no other than a rich olla: the other articles are. either flesh meat, or dried fish and capsicum. This dish is very palatable and nourishing. As a medi- cine, okra is employed in all cases where emollients and lubricants are indicated." HICK.UP, or hiccough. See Medicine. HIDE or land, was such a quantity of land as might be ploughed w ith one plough within the compass of a year, or so much as would maintain a family; some call it 60, some 80, and some 100 acres. HIERAC1TES, in church history, christian heretics in the third century, so called from their leader Hierax, a philosopher of Egypt; who taught thatMelchisedic was the Holy Ghost, denied the resurrection, and condemned marriage, kc. HIERACIUM, hawkweed, a genus of the polygamia aequalis order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, composite. The receptacle is naked, the calyx is imbricated and ovate; the pappus simple and sessile. There are 55 spe- cies, of which the most remarkable are, 1. The aurantiacum, commonly called grim the collier, with an upright, single, hairy, and almost leafless stalk, a foot high, terminated by reddish orange-coloured flow- ers in a corymbus. These flowers have dark oval asb- coloured calyces; whence the name of grim the collier. 2. The pilosella, or mouse-ear, has blossoms red on the outside, and pale-yellow within; the cups set tliick with blac k hairs. The flowers open at eight in the morn- ing, and close about two in the afternoon. 3. The umbellatum grows to the height of three feet, wiUi an erect and firm stalk, terminated with an umbel of yelhiw flowers. HIEROGLYPHICS, in antiquity, mystical charac- ters, or symbols, in use among the Egyptians, and that as well in their writings as inscriptions; being the figures of various animals, the parts of human bodies, and me- chanical instruments. The meaning of a few of these hieroglyphics has been preserved by ancient writers. Thus we are told they represented the supreme Deity by a serpent with the bead of a hawk. The hawk itself was the hieroglyphic of Osris; the river-horse, of Typhon; the dog, of Mercu- ry; the cat. of the moon, or Diana; the beetle, of a cou- rageous warrior; a new-born child, of the rising sun; and the like. II I G H I G HIEROGRAMMATISTS, holy registers, were an order of priests among the ancient Egyptians, who pre- sideel over learning and religion. HIGH, in music, an epithet given to any tone or note considerably acute in respect of some other. A word ar- bitrarily used, and of various meanings, as applied to bass, tenor, or treble voices, or instruments. HIGHWAY, a public passage for the king's people, whence it is called the king's highway. It seems that anciently there were but four highways in England, which were free and common to all the king's subjects, and through which they might pass without any toll, un- less there were a particular consideration for it; all others which wc have at this day are supposed to have been made through the grounds of private persons, on writs of ad quod dammum, &c. which being an injury to the owner of the soil, it is said they may prescribe for toll, without any special consideration. 3 Bac. Abr. 54. There are three kinds of ways, a foot-way, a pack and prime way, which is both a horse and foot-way, and a cart-way, which contains the other two. 1 Inst. 56. But notwithstanding these distinctions, it seems that any of the said ways, which is common to all the king's subjects, whether it leads directly to a market-town, or only from town to town, may properly be called an high- way; and that any such cart-way may be called the king's highway; that a river common to all men may al- so be called an highway; and that nuisances in any ofthe said ways arc punishable by indictment; otherwise they would not be punished at all: for they arc not actionable, unless they cause a special damage to some particular person; because if such action would lie a multiplicity of suits would ensue. 2 Durnf. and East. But it seems that a way to a parish-church, or to the common field of a town, or to a village which terminates there, may be called a private way, because it belongs not to all the king's subjects, but only to the particular inhabitants of such parish, house, or village, each of which, as it seems, may have an action for a nuisance therein. 1 Haw. 201. If passengers have used time out of mind, where the roads are bad, to go by outlets on the land adjoining to an highway in the open field, such outlets are parcel of the highway; and therefore if they are sown with corn, and the track foundrous, the king's subjects may go upon the corn. 1 Roll. Ab. 300. If a way which a man has becomes impassable or very bad, by the owner of the land tearing it up with his carts, by which means it is filled with water; yet he who has the way cannot dig the ground to let out the water, for he has no interest in the soil. But he may bring his action against the owner of the land for spoiling the way. Godb. 52. When a private way is spoiled by those who have a right to pass thereon, and not through the default ofthe owner of the land, it seems that they who have the use and benefit ofthe way ought, to repair it, and not the owner ofthe soil, unless he is bound thereto by custom or special government. 2 Burn. 483. Repairing highways. It seems agreed that by the common law the general charge of repairing all high- ways lies on the occupiers of the lands in the parish wherein they arc. But it is said that the tenants of the lands adjoining are bound to scour their ditches. 1 Roll. Abr. 39. Particular persons may be burdened with the general charge of repairing an highway, in two c;ises: in respect of an inclosure, or by prescription. As where the owner of lands not inclosed, next adjoining to the highway, incloses his lands on both sides thereof; in which case ho is bound to make a perfect goeid way, and shall not be excused for making it as good as it was at the time of the inclosure, if it was then any way defective; because before the inclosure, when the way was bad, the people for their better passage, went over the fields adjoining, out of the common track, a liberty which the inclosure has deprived them of. And particular persons may be bound to repair an highway by prescription; and it is said that a corpora- tion aggregate may be compelled to do it by force of a general prescription, that it ought and has used to do it, without showing that it used to do so in respect of the tenure of certain lands, or for other consideration; be- cause such a corporation, in judgment of law, never dies, and therefore if it was ever bound to such duty, it must continue to be always so: neither is it any plea that such a corporation has always done it out of charity; for what it has always done, it shall be presumed to have been always bound to do. But it is said that such a general prescription is not sufiicient to charge a private person, because no man is bound to do a thing which his ances- tors have done, unless it is for some, special reason; as having lands descended to him holden by such services, kc. 1 Haw. 202. 203. It seems certain in all cases whether a private person is bound to repair an highway by inclosure or prescrip- tion, that the parish cannot take the advantage of it on the general issue, but must plead it specially; and that, therefore, if to an indictment against the parish for not repairing an highway, they plead not guilty, this shall be intended only that the ways are in repair, but does not go to the right of reparation. 1 Mod. 112. At common law, it is said that all the county ought to make good the reparations of an highway, where no par- ticular persons are bound to do it, because the whole county have their ease and passage by the said way. Co. Rep. 13. By the ancient common law villages are to repair their highways, and may be punished for their decay; and if any docs injury, or straightens the highway, he is pu- nishable in the king's bench, or before the justices of peace in the court leet, kc. Cromp. Jurisd. 76. Destroying any public turnpike-gate, or the rails, or fences thereto belonging, subjects the offender to hard labour for three months, and to be publicly whipped. 1 Geo. II. c. 19. On conviction at the assizes, the offender may he trans- ported fen* seven years. And on a second offence, or on demolishing any turnpike-house, he shall be guilty of felony, and transported for seven years. But in both these cases the prosecution must be within six months; and on the convict's returning from transportation he shall suffer death. 5 G. II. c. 33. Every justice of the peace by the statute, upon his own view, c>r on oath made to him by the surveyor, may make presentment of roads being out of repair; and there II I p II I p upon like processes shall be issued as upon indictment. HIGHWAYMEN, are robbers on the highway; for the apprehending and taking of whom a reward of 40/. is given by the statute of 4 and 5 Will, and Mar. HILLIA,a genus of the monogynia order, inthe hex- andria class of plants, and in the natural method rank- ing with those of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is hexaphyllous; the corolla cleft in six parts, and very long; the berry inferior, bilocular, and polyspermous. There are two species, shrubs of Jamaica. HIP, or Haw, in the materia medica, is reputed at- tenuant and diuretic. There is a very pleasant conserve of hips kept in the shops, HIPPIA, a genus of the polygamia necessaria order, in the syngenesia class of plants. The receptacle is naked; there is no pappus; the seeds are naked, with very broad margins; the calyx is hemispheric, and sub-imbricated; the radius consists of 10 corollulse, obscure, and rather c left into three. There are three species, shrubs of the East Indies and the Cape. HIPPOBOSCA, a genus of insects ofthe order diptera. The generic character is, mouth furnished with a bivalve, cylindric, obtuse, nutant snout; body depressed; feet fur- nished with several davs. This is not an extensive genus; the European hippoboscse, so far as our present entomological information reaches, scarcely affording more than five or six distinct species. Of these the most familiar is the hippobosca equina (see Plate LXVI. Nat. llist. fig. 225), or horse-fly, so troublesome to those animals, as well as to cattle, during the decline of sum- mer, by its irritating motion (which is performed in va- rious directions with equal facility), and by the pungent pain which its proboscis excites while in the act of suc- tion. In size it varies indifferent districts, and seems to be largest in the southern climates. It usually, however, measures something more than a quarter of an inch in length, and is of a flattened form, w ith a rounded abdo- men, and moderately broad obtuse wings: its colour is a blackish chesnut, with the thorax speckled with white, and the abdomen marked with obscure variegations of a deeper cast: the skin is of a remarkably strong, or co- riaceous nature, since the insect may be pressed strongly between the fingers without being apparently injured. The female of this insect deposits a single egg at distant intervals, and so very large is the egg, as at least to equal, if not in some degree to surpass, the size ofthe abdomen itself of the parent insect. In reality, however, this seeming egg may be rather considered as a pupa, since it undergoes no farther alteration of form. It con- tinues perfectly inert, and gradually becomes of a brown, and at length of a polished, black colour; and thus com- mences a genuine or confirmed pupa, which, if opened after a certain period, exhibits the fly in its unadvanced state, and of a white colour. It often lies during the whole winter iu this state, the fly emerging iu the suc- ceeding summer. 2. Hippobosca avicularia much resembles the preced- ing species; but is considerably smaller, and of a dull- green colour: it is often observed on the bodies of various birds, which it infests in a very troublesome degree. 3. Hippobosca hirundinis is equal in size to the H. avicularia, and is of a livid-greenish colour, with the abdomen deeply emarginated behind, so as to represent the usual figure of an inverted heart: the wings are of a sharpened or lanceolate form; and the feet, instead of being terminated by two claws only, as in the generality of insects, have six sharp curved divisions. This species is very often observed on the bodies of swallows, swifts, and martins; and may almost always be found in their nests. Its motion, like that of the two preceding kinds, is brisk, but irregular, moving in all directions with equal facility. The egg or pupa of this species is at least as large in proportion to the parent as that ofthe horse-fly: it gradually changes to a jet-black colour, and the com- plete fly is usually produced from it in the space of a month. 4. Hippobosca ovina is commonly known by the name of the sheep-tick, and is very frequently found imbedded in the wool of those animals. It is of a reddish-brown co- lour, and differs from the rest of the genus in being en- tirely destitute of wings. Its pupa is also a reddish-brown colour, exactly oval, and of a shining surface. All the hippobosca? are remarkably tenacious of life, and the II. ovina in particular, which may often be observed in wool that has long been packed into fleeces. H1PPOCRAMPUS. See Syngnetiius. HIPPOCRATIA, a genus ofthe monogynia order,in the triandria class of plants, and in the natural metli o ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is quinquepartite; the petals five, the capsules three in number, and the latter of an obcordatc shape. There are two species, scandent plants of the West Indies. H1PPOCREPIS, common horse-shoe-vetch, a genus of the decandria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 32d order, papilionacese. The legumen is compressed and crooked, with many incisions on the interior suture. There are five species, two natives of the warm parts of Europe, and one of Britain. They are all low herbaceous trail- ing plants, with yellow flowers. They arc propagated by seeds; but having no great beauty are seldom kept in gardens. H1PPOMANE, the manchineel-tree, a genus of the monadelphia order, in the moneecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 38th order, tricoccae. The male has an amentum and bifid perian- thium, without any corolla; the female perianthium is trifid; there is no corolla; the stigma is tripartite; and the plum or capsule tricoccous. See Plate. The spe- cies are, 1. Tiie mancinella, with oval sawed leaves, is a native of all the West Indie islands. It has a smooth brownish bark. The flowers come out in short spikes at the end of the branches, but make no great appearance, and arc succeeded by fruit of the same shape and size with a golden pippin. The tree grows to the size of a large oak. 2. The biglandulosa, with oblong bay feaves, is a na- tive of South America; and grows to as large a size as the first, from which it differs mostly in the shape of its leaves. 3. The spinosa, with holly leaves, is a native of Campeachy, and seldom rises above 20 feet high; the leaves greatly resemble those of the common holly, and H I P H I I* are set with sharp prickles at the end of each indenture. They are of a lucid green, and continue all the year. These plants being natives of very warm climates cannot be preserved in this country without a stove; nor can they by any means be made to rise above five or six feet high even with that assistance. They are pro- pagated by seeds; but must have very little moisture, or they will certainly be killed by it. These trees have a very poisonous quality, abounding with an acrid milky juice of a highly caustic nature. Strangers are often tempted to cat the fruit of the first species; the consequences of which are, an inflammation ofthe mouth and throat, pains in the stomach, &c. which are very dangerous, unless remedies are specdly applied. The wood is much esteemed for making cabinets, book- cases, Ace. being very durable, taking a fine polish, and not being liable to become worm-eaten: but as the trees aboun I with a milky caustic juice already mentioned, fires are made round their trunks to burn out this juice, otherwise those who fell these trees would be in danger of losing their sight by the juice flying in their oyes. This juice raises blisters on the skin wherever it fails, turns linen black, and makes it fall out in holes. It is also dangerous to work the wood after it is sawn out; for if any ofthe sawdust happens to get into the eyes of the workmen it causes inflammation; to prevent which they generally cover their faces with fine lawn during the time of working the wood. It is with the juice of this tree that the Indians used to poison their arrows. HIPPOPHAE, sea-buckthorn, a genus of the tetrandria order, in the dicecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 16th order, calyciflorse. The male calyx is bipartite; there is no corolla; the female calyx is blind; there is no corolla; there is one style, and a monospermous berry. The species are, 1. The rhamnoides, with a shrubby stein, branching irregularly eight or ten feet high, having a dark-brown back. 2. The canadensis has a shrubby brown stem, branch- ing eight or ten feet high, with oval leaves, and male and female flowers on different plants. Both these species are very hardy, and may be propagated in abundance by suckers from the roots, by la>ers, and by cuttings of their young shoots. They are retained in gardens on account of their two-coloured leaves in summer; and in winter on account of the appearance of the young shoots, which are covered with turgid, irregular, scaly-buds. Goats, sheep, and horses, eat the first species; cows re- fuse it. HIPPOPOTAMUS, a genus of quadrupeds of the order of belline. The generic character is, the front teeth of the upper jaw are four, and placed in pairs; those of the lower jaw are prominent, and the interme- diate ernes are protruded forward; the canine teeth are single, and obliquely truncated; the teats are only two, and placed near the groin. It is a native ofthe warmer regions of the globe, and is chiefly found in the middle parts of Africa, inhabiting large rivers, and especially such as run through countries overshadowed by large forests; walking about at the bottom, and raising itself at intervals to the surface, for the purpose of respiration. By night it quits its watery residence, to graze in the neighbouring plains, devouring great quantities of her- bage, and with its vast teeth destroying the more tender kinds of trees and other vegetables. It is sometimes seen even in the sea, at some distance from the mouths of rivers, but this is supposed to be merely for the purpose of exercise; for it will not even drink salt water, and does not prey on fish, or indeed live on any kind of ani- mal food. The general size of the hippopotamus seems to be nearly equal to that of the rhinoceros, and it is sometimes even superior. Its form is highly uncouth; the body being extremely large, fat, and round; the legs very short and tliick; the head very large; the mouth extremely wide, and the teeth of vast strength and size, more particularly the tusks or canine teeth of the lower jaw, which are of a curved form: they sometimes mea- sure more than two feet in length, and weigh upwards of six pounds each. The whole animal is covered with short hair, which is much more thinly set on the under parts than on tbe upper. The hippopotamus when just emerged from the water appears of a palish-brown, or mouse colour, with a blueish or slate coloured cast, on the upper parts; and the belly is flesh coloured, the skin appearing through the hair. When perfectly dry the colour is an obscure brown, without any of the blueish cast. The skin is most excessively tough and strong, except on the belly, where it is considerably softer. Its voice is a peculiar kind of interrupted roar, between that of a bull and the braying of an elephant. When on land it moves in a somewhat slow and awkward manner; but if pursued, can run with considerable speed, and directly plunging into the water sinks to the bottom, and pursues its progress beneath. It is observed to be extremely cautious of making its appearance by day, especially in such places as are much frequented by mankind, scarcely lifting its nose above the surface while breathing; but it is fearless in rivers which run through unfrequented re- gions, where it is occasionally seen to rush out of the water with sudden impetuosity, trampling down every thing in its way; and at such time is, of course, highly dangerous. It is, however, naturally of a harmless dis- pe»sitie>n; not attacking other animals; but merely com- mitting havoc in plantations of maize, rice, sugar-canes, kc. and destroying the roots of trees, by loosening them with its vast teeth. It is capable, notwithstanding its great bulk, of swimming very swiftly. Sometimes hip- popotami are seen going in herds, or companies, to the distance of some miles from the bank of a river in quest of food. If wounded in the water they become furious, and are said to attack the boats or canoes whence the injury proceeded, and either overturn or sink them, by biting out large pieces from the bottom. The hippopo- tamus sleeps in the small reedy islets which are found here and there in the rivers it frequents. Iu such spots it also brings forth its young; having only one at a birth, which it nurses with great care for a considerable time. The yemng is capable of being tamed, and we are assured by Belon that he saw one so gentle as to show no incli- nation to escape, or to do any kind of mischief w hen let out of the stable in which it was kept. These animals are said to be most successfully taken by preparing pitfals for them, of large size, near the rivers. They are also occasionally shot, or killed with harpoons. Their flesh is reckoned good by the Africans, and the fat is said to be a fine kind of lard. But it is HI R H I K chiefly on account of the teeth, and more particularly of the tusks, that this animal is killed; Their hardness being superior to that of ivory, at the same time that they are not so subject to become yeliow, for which reason they are much used by the dentists. The skin, from its great thickness and strength, when dried, is used by the Afri- can nations for bucklers or shields, and is said to be proof against the stroke of a bullet; and indeed the living animal, if shot at any where but on the head or the belly, is scarcely vulnerable, the tough skin causing a bullet to glance from its surface. The largest female hippopotamus killed by colonel Gordon was about 11 feet long, and the largest male, which always exceeds the female size, about 11 feet 8 inches. Mr. Bruce, however, speaks of hippopotami in the lake Tzana of more than twenty feet long. The hippopotamus has only a single stomach, and does not ruminate: the stomach, however, has certain cells and divisions, analogous, in some degree, to those of the camel. M. Sonnini thinks it not improbable that there may in reality exist two species of hippopotamus; one of which confines itself entirely to rivers and fresh waters, and the other to the sea. See Plate LXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 226. H1PPURIS, mare'stail, a genus of the monogynia order, in the monaudria class of plants, and in the natu- ral method ranking under the 15th order, inundatie. There is no calyx, nor any petals; the stigma is simple; and there is one seed. There are three species, one a native of Britain, and which grows in ditches and stagnant waters. The flower of this plant is found at the base of each leaf, and is as simple as can be conceived; there being neither empalement nor blossom; and only one chive, one pointal, and one seed. It is a wry weak as- tringent. Goats eat it; cows, sheep, horses, and swine, refuse it. H1RJEA, a genus of the trigynia order, in the decan- dria class of plants. The calyx is pcntaphyllous; the petals roundish and unguiculated; there are three bila- biated seeds. There is one species, a tree of New Spain. H1RCUS, a goat, in astronomy, a star of the first magnitude, the same with capella. See Capella and As"- tronomy. HIRTELLA, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. There are five petals; the filaments are very long, persisting, and spiral; the berry is monospcrmous; the style lateral. There are three species, trees ofthe West Indies. H1RUDO, the leech, a genus of insects belonging to the order of vermes intestina. The body moves either forward or backward. There are 17 species, principally distinguished by their colour. The most remarkable are the following: 1. The medicinalis, or medicinal leech, the form of which is well known, grows to the length of two or three inches. The body is of a blackish-brown colour, marked on the back with six yellow spots, and edged with a yel- low line on each side; but beith the speits and the lines grow faint, and almost disappear, at some seasons. The bead is smaller than the tail, which fixes itself very firmly to any thing the creature pleases. It is viviparous, and produces but one young at a time, which is in the month of July. It is an inhabitant of clear running waters, and is well known for its use in bice.ing. 2. The sanguisuga, or horse-leech, is larger than the former. Its skin is smooth and glossy; the body is de. pressed, the bac k is dusk}; and the belly is of a yellowish. green, having a yellow lateral margin. It inhabits stag- nant waters. 3. The geometra, or geometrical leech, grows to an inch and a half in length; and has a smooth and glossy skin of a dusky-brown ccdour, but in some seasons greenish spotted with white. When in motion its back is elevated into a kind of ridge; and it then appears as if mea- suring the space it passed over, like a compass, whence its name. Its tail is remarkably broad; and it holds as firmly by it as by the head. It is common on stones in shallow running waters; and is often found on trout and other fish after the spawning season. 4. The muricata, or muricated leech, has a taper bodv, rounded at the greater extremity, and furnished with two small tentacula, or horns, strongly annulatcd and rugged upon the rings, the tail dilated. .It inhabits the Atlantic ocean, and is by the fishermen called the sea- leech. It adheres to fish, and generally leaves a black mark on the spot. The mouth of the leech is armed with a sharp instru- ment that makes three wounds at once, and may be com- pared to the body of the pump, and the tongue or fleshy nipple to the sucker; by the working of this piece of \w- chanism the blood is made tg rise up to the conduit which conveys it to the animal's stomach, which is a membrana- ceous skin divided into 24 cells. The blood which is sucked out is there preserved for several months, almost without coagulating, and proves a store of provision to the animal. The nutritious parts, pure and already di- gested by animals, have no call to be disengaged from the heterogeneous substances: nor indeed is there an anus discoverable inthe leech: mere transpiration seems to be all that it performs, the matter fixing on the sur- face of its body, and afterwards coming off in small threads. Of this an experiment may be tried by putting a leech into oil, where it keeps alive for several days; upon being taken out and put into water, there appears to loosen from its body a kind of slough shaped like the creature's body. The organ of respiration, though un- ascertained, seems to be situated in the mouth; for if, like an insect, it drew its breath through vent-holes, it would not subsist in oil, as by it they would be stop- ped up. It is only the first species that is used in medicine, br- ing applied to the skin in order to draw off blood. With this view they are employed to phlebotomise young chil- dren. If the leech does not fasten, a drop of sugared milk is put on the spot it is wished te» fix on, or a little blood is draw n by means of a slight puncture, alter which it immediately settles. The leech when fixed .should be watched, lest it should find its way into the anus when used for the hemorrhoids, or penetrate into the cc-opha- gus if employed to draw the gums, as it would make great havoc in the stomach or intestines. In such a case, the best and quickest remedy is to swallow some salt; which is the method practised to make it loose its hold when it sucks longer than was intended. Salt of tartar, volatile alkali, pepper, and acids, make it also leave the H I R II I R part on which it was applied. Cows and horses have been known to receive them, in drinking, into the throat. The usual remedy is to force down some salt, which makes them fall off. The disc barge occasioned by the puncture of a leech is usually of more service than the process itself. When too abundant it is easily stopped with brandy, vinegar, or other styptics, or with a com- press of dry linen rag bound strongly on the bleeding orifice. At Ceylon, travellers who walk bare-legged are mo- lested by the great numbers of leeches concealed under the grass. All leeches vary in their colours at some sea- sons, but they are generally of a dusky greenish-brown or yellow, and often variegated. They are said to be very restless before a change of weather, if confined in glasses. UIItUNDO, in ornithology, a genus of birds of the order of passeres. There are 37 species, chiefly distin- guished by their colour. The most remarkable are, 1. The rustica, common or chimney-swallow, is dis- tinguished from all the other species by the superior for- kiness of its tail, and by the red spot on the forehead and under the chin. The crown of the head, the whole upper part of the body, and the coverts of the wings, are black, glossed with a rich purplish blue, most resplendent in the male: the breast and belly white, and in the male tinged with red. The food of this swallow is the same with the others of its kind, vie. insects. For the taking of these, in their swiftest flight, nature has admirably contrived their several parts: their mouths are very wide to take in flies, &c. iu their quickest motions; their wings are long, and adapted for distant and continued flight; and their tails are forked, to enable them to turn the readier in pursuit of their prey. This species is the first comer of all the British hirundines; and appears in gene- ral on or about the 13th of April, though now and then a straggler is seen much earlier. This hirundo, though called the chimney-swallow, by no means builds altoge- ther in chimneys, but often within barns and out-houses against the rafters; and so she did in Virgil's time. In Sweden she builds in barns, and is called ladu swala, the barn-swalhnv. Besides, in the warmer, parts of Europe there are no chimneys to houses except they are English built: in these countries she constructs her. nest in porches, and gateways, and galleries, and open halls. Here and there a bird may effect some odd and peculiar place; but in general with us this species breeds in chimneys, and loves to haunt those stacks where there is a constant fire, no doubt for the sake of warmth. Not that it can subsist in the immediate shaft where there is a fire, but prefers one adjoining to that of the kitchen, and disregards the perpetual smoke of that funnel. Her nest consists, like that of the house-martin, of a crust or shell composed of dirt or mud, mixed with short pieces of straw to render it tough and permanent; with this difference, the shell of the martin is nearly hemis- pheric, that of the swallow is open at the top, and like half a deep dish: this nest is lined with fine grasses, and feathers which are often collected as they float in the air. The bird lays from four to six white eggs, dotted with red specks; and brings out her first brood about the last week in June, or the first week in July. The progressive method by which the young are introduced into life is very vol. ii. 49 curious: first, they emerge from the shaft with difficulty enough, and often fall down into the rooms belowj'for a day or two they are fed on the chimney to]), and then arc con- ducted to the dead leafless bough of some tree, where, sitting in a row, they are attended with great assiduity, and may be then called pcrchers. In a day or two more they become flyers, but are still unable to take their own food; there- fore they play about near the place where the dams arc hawking for flies; and when a mouthful is collected, at a certain signal given, the dam and the nestling advance, rising towards each other, and meeting at an angle; the youngoneall the while uttering such a little quick note of gratitude and complacency, that a person must have paid very little regard to the wonders of nature that has not often remarked this feat. The dam betakes herself immediately to the business of a second brood as soon as she is disengaged from her first; which she at once asso- ciates with the first broods of house-martins, and with them congregates, clustering on sunny roofs, towers, and trees. This hirundo brings out her second brood towards the middle and end of August. Each species of hirundo drinks as it flics along, sip- ping the surface ofthe water; but the swallow alone, in general, washes on the wing, by dropping into a pool for many times together: in very hot weather house-martins and bank-martins dip and wash a little. The swallow is a delicate songster, and in soft sunny weather sings both perching and flying; on trees in a kind of concert, and on chimney-tops. Horsemen on wide downs are often closely attended by a little party of swallows for miles together, which plays be-fore and behind them, sweeping around, and collecting all the sculking insects that are roused by the trampling of the horses' feet: when the wind blows hard, without this expedient, they are forced to settle to pick up their lurking prey. This species fe-t-ds much on little coleoptera, as well as on gnats and flies; and often settles on dug-ground, or pats, for gravel to grind and digest its food. Mr. White informs us, that before they depart, for some weeks, to a bird, they forsake houses and chimneys, aud roost in trees; and usually withdraw about the beginning of Oc- tober; though some few stragglers may be seen at times till the first week in November. Mr. Pennant says, that for a few days previous to their departure, they assemble in vast flocks on house-tops, churches, and trees, whenc ; they take their flight. They are supposed to take up their winter-quarters in Senegal and parts adjacent, and seem t > possess in turn the whole of the old continent, being known from Norway to the Cape of Good Hope on tac one hand, and from Kamts hatka to India and Ja- pan on the other. They are also found in all parts of North America, migrating north and south. 2. The esculent a, or edible swallow, according to Buf- fon, is less than the wren, and only two inches and a quarter iu length. The bill is black; the upper parts of the body are brown, the under whitish; the tail is forked, and each feather of it is tipped with white; the k-gs are brown. See Plate LXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 2 28. The most curious part of the natural history of this bird consists in the nest, which is composed of such ma- terials as render it not only edible, but one of the great- est dainties of the Asiatic epicures. Tbese nests arc found in vast numbers in certain ca- II E R HER vrrns in various isles in Soolo Archipelago, situated between longitude 117 and L20, latitude 5 and 7; parti- cularly in three small isles, or rather locks; in the caverns e>f which the nests are found fixed to the sides in astonishing numbers. Of these nests, it is said the Dutch alone export from Batavia 1000 pickles, upwards of 13001b. English weight, every ) ear, which arc brought from the isles of Cochin China, and those lying to the east of them. 3. The urbiea, or martin, is inferior in size to tho chimney swallow, and its tail much less forked. The head and upper part of the body, except the rump, are black, glossed with blue; the breast, belly, and rump, are white; the feet arc covered with a short white down. This is the second of the swallow- kind that appears in Britain. They begin to appear about the 16th of April. About the middle of May, if the weather is fine, the martin begins to think in earnest of providing a man- sion for its family. As this bird often builds against a perpendicular wall without any projecting ledge under, it requires its utmost efforts to get the first foundation firmly fixed, so that it may safely carry the superstruc- ture. That this work may not, while it is soft and green, pull itself down by its own weight, the provident architect has prudence and forbearance enough not to advance her work too fast; but by building only in the morning, and by dedicating the rest ofthe day to food and amusement, gives it sufficient time to dry and harden. By this me- thod in about 10 or 12 days is formed an hemispheric nest, with a small aperture tow aids the top, strong, com- pact, and warm, and perfectly fitted for all the purposes for which it was intended. But then nothing is more com- mon than for the house-sparrow, as soon as the shell is finished, to seize on it as its own, to eject the owner, and to line it after its own manner. At first, when the young are hatched, and are in a' naked and helpless condition, the parent birds, with tender assiduity, carry out what comes away from their young. Was it not for this affec- tionate cleanliness the nestlings would soon he burnt up and t'estroyed in so deep and hollow a nest by their own caustic excrement. As soon as the young arc able to shift for themselves, the dams immediately turn their thoughts to the business of a second brood: while the first flight, shaken off and rejected by their nurses, congre- gate in great floe ks, and arc the birds that are seen clus- tering and hovering on sunny mornings and evenings on round towers and steeples, and on the roofs of churches and houses. As the summer declines the congregating flocks increase in numbers daily, by the constant acces- sion of the second broods, till at last they swarm in myriads round the villages on the Thames, darkening the face of the sky as they frequent the ails of that river, where they roost. They retire in vast docks together about the beginning of October. Unless these birds are very short-lived indeed, or unless they do not return to the district where they are bred, they must undergo v&st devastations somehow, and somewhere; for the birds that return yearly bear no manner of proportion to the birds that retire. 4. The riparia, sand-martin, or shore-bird, is 4| inches in length, with the whole upper parts of the body tA' a mouse colour, the throat and under parts white, the hill and legs blackish. It is common about the banks of 2 rivers and sand-pits, where it tcrcbrates a round and regular hole in the sand or earth, which is serpentine, horizontal, and about two feet deep. At the inner end of this burrow the bird deposits her rude nest, consisting of fine grasses and feathers, usually goose-feathers, very inartificially laid together. 5.,The apus, or swift, is a large species, being near eight inches long, with an extent of wing near 18 inches, though the weight of the bird is only one ounce. Their feet arc so small, that the action of walking and rising from the ground is extremely difficult; but nature has made it full amends, by furnishing it with ample means for an easy and continual flight. It is more on the wing than any other swallow; its flight is more rapid, and that attended with a shrill scream. It rests by clinging against some wall, or other apt body; whence Klein styles this species hirundo inuraria. It breeds under the eaves of houses, in steeples, and other lofty buildings; and makes its nest of grasses and feathers. The feet of this species are of a particular structure, all the toes standing forward: the least consists of only one heme; the others of an equal number, viz. two each, in which they differ from those of all other birds: a construction, how- ever, nicely adapted to the purposes in which their feet are employed. See Plate LXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 227. The swift is a summer inhabitant of Great Britain. It comes the latest, and departs the soonest, of any of the tribe; not always staying to the middle of August, and often not arriving before the beginning of May. 6. The melba, or white bellied swift, is in length eight inches and a half, and weighs two ounces five drams. 7. The cayennensis, or white coloured swallow, is about the size of the martin: the head and bill are black; the chin and throat white, passing from the last in a narrow^ collar round the nerk: between the bill and eye is a streak of white, which forks off into two, one passing a little above, and the other a little way beneath the eye: the rest of the plumage is black, with a gloss of violet; but the greater coverts, nearest the body, are brown edged with white. This bird makes its nest in the houses of Cayenne. It is of a large size, in shape of a truncated cone; five inches one way by three the other, and nine inches in length. It is composed of the down of dog's- bane, well woven together; the cavity divided obliquely about the middle, lengthways, by a partition, which spreads itself over that part of the nest where the eggs lie, which is pretty near the base: a small parcel of the same sedt down, forming a kind of plug, is placed over the top, serving to keep the young brood from the im- pression of the air, from which we may suppose them to be very tender. By the my raids of insects which every single brood of swallows destroys in the course of a summer, they defend us in a great measure from the personal and domestic annovance of flies and gnats; and, what is of infinitely more^ consequence, they keep down the numbers of our minute enemies, who, either iu the grub or winged state, would otherwise render the labours of the husbandman fruitless. Since then swallows are guardians of our corn, they should every where be protected by the same popu- lar veneration whicli in Egypt defends the ibis, and the stork in Hoiland. We more frequently hear of unproduc- tive harvests on the Continent and it is well known II I s II I s that swallows are caught and sold as food in the markers of Spain, France, and Italy. In England they are not driven to such resources to furnish their tables. But what apology can be made for those, and many there are, whose education and rank should have taught them more innocent amusements, who wantonly murder swallows, under the idle pretence of improving their skill in shooting game? Setting asiele the cruelty of starving whole nests of young by killing the dam; those who follow this barbarous diversion would do well to reflect, that by every swallow they kill, they assist blasts, mildews, and vermin, in causing a scarcity of bread. Every lord of a manor should restrain his game- keeper from this execrable practice; nor should he per- mit any person to sport on his lands who does not refrain from it. HISPA, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to the coleoptera order, the characters of which are these: the antennae are fusiform, growing gradually larger from each extremity towards the middle, and are situated be- tween the eyes; the thorax and elytra are covered with protuberances or spines. The larva of this insect seems to be yet wholly unknown. There are but two species of the perfect animal met with in Europe; one of which, the atra, is found in Kritain, and is all over of a deep unpo- lished black, and has the upper part of its body entirely covered with long and strong spines, which render it bristly like the shell of a chesnut. There is even a spine at the case of the antennse; the thorax has a row set transversely, which are forked; and the elytra are fur- nished with a very great number that are single. Its being thus covered with spines makes it resemble a hedge-hog in miniature. It is rather hard to catch, let- ting itself fall down to the ground as soon as approached. It bears its antennae upright before it. See Plate LXX1V. Nat. Hist. fig. £29. HISTER, a genus of insects ofthe coleoptera order. . The generic character is, antennae headed by a some- what solid tip, lowest joint compressed and de^curved; head retractile; mouth forcipated; wing-sheaths shorter than the body; fore-legs toothed. The most common European species of this genus is the bister unicolor of Linnaeus. It is entirely of a glossy coal-black colour, and of a slightly flattened shape, vary- ing considerably in size, but usually measuring about the third of an inch in length, and is often seen in gar- dens, sandy fields, &c. Its larva seems to be unknown. Hister quadrimaculatus, has much the appearance of a small beetle; its shape is strongly convex, and its colour black, with two dull-red bars on each wing-shell, viz. one at the base, and the other, smaller, at the tip. It is found about dunghills, kc HISTORY, civil. History, in its simplest definition, implies the mere narration of events and facts: but when placed in its true dignity, it is something more than this, it is philosophy " teaching by examples'." The study of it is more or less the employment of all persons of reading and education; and the composition of it was the earliest use that was made of letters, since the first poems were historical: it is calculated for the use of all ranks and all professions in life, and places the reader of its events as a spectator out of all hazards, who may reap wisdom from the danger of others, and foretel, to a certain ex- tent, the future by the past. The general uses of history are exhibited by Dr. Priestley under three heads: 1. He says, history serves to amuse the imagination, and interest the passions in •eneral. 2. It improves the understanding: and, 3. Ir. tends to strengthen the sentiments of virtue. In the first of these views we find history has agreat advantageover every work of fiction: for we consider it as the voice of truth. The second has been aptly illustrated by Boling- broke, who observes that " He who studies history as he would philosophy, will distinguish and collect certain general principles and rules of life and conduct, which always must be true, because they are conformable to the invariable nature of things; and by doing so he will soon form to himself a general system of ethics and poli- tics on the surest foundations, on the trial of these prin- ciples and rules in all ages, and on the confirmation of them by universal experience." And the third is still more evident, from the very light in which characters and events are seen in it. Fame is found just to the dead, however partial to the living. The sources of history form another topic of inquiry. The earliest of these was undoubtedly tradition; the next, perhaps, poetical narrations; which, though often mixed with the absurdities of fable, contain facts and characters of ancient life that illustrate the manners of the early ages. Coins, medals, and inscriptions, the works of artists of all kinds, and sometimes even rude heaps, are other monuments, whose collateral aids are equally necessary with the astronomical mediums employed by Newton, in the correction of chronology. I later times, as political society increased, the archives and laws of states perpe- tuated information in a more certain and extended form. The correct knowledge of events was easily obtained. Private experience could be joined to the information contained in public annals; and fair topics were pre- sented to the pen of every man who proposed to himself the task of an historian. In regard to what is necessary or useful to be known previous to the study of history, it is proper to observe that it must be taken in very different degrees of extent, according to the views with which history is read; and these depend very much upon the age and situation of the person who applies to it. But whoever proposes to stuely history scientifically, must come to the reading of it furnished with the first principles of certain sciences. If not the knowledge, at least a general idea ofthe prin- ciples of human nature, will be an excellent guide to us in judging ofthe consistency of human characters, and of what is within and what is without the reach of hu- man powers. Philosophical knowledge, in general, will be found of the most extensive use to all persons who would examine with accuracy the achievements of an- cient nations in peace or war, or who would thoroughly weigh the accounts cf any thing in which the powers of nature are employed. But those sciences whicli are of the most constant anil general use are geography and chronology. A knowledge of the situation and relative magnitude of the several countries of the earth, assists and affords clear and distinct ideas of events; and a general compreheniioi of the current of time enables us distinctly to trace their dependence on each other. HISTORY. Beside these, however, there are other helps. Obvious advantages will attend the use of a good compendium of general history, previous to the study of any particular portion. The earliest epitome was the Chronicon Cari- onis, printed at Wittenberg, 1532; but the most celebra- ted arc, Turselinc's, Bossuet's, and Baron Holberg's; the last of these was translated into English by Mr. Gre- gory Sharpe. Of chronological tables the best and most completely useful are Blair's: and of the charts of history, Dr. Priestly's These show at once the reference which the history of one country bears to that of another. The misapplication to which history is liable, evinces the necessity of prosecuting the study of it according to a regular plan. To those who can reach its sources these directions may be serviceable: principally obtained from Dr. Priestley. The sacred history may properly be said to stand alone: it is not only the most certain, but exhibits the continuation ofthe true religion uninterrupted from the creation of the world, and therefore ought to form the ground-work of our study. The oldest history extant, next to the historical books of the Old Testament, is that of Herodotus, who flour- ished about four hundred and fifty years before the chris- tian era, a little after the invasion of Greece by Xerxes. His history comprises probably every thing he had an opportunity of learning concerning the history of theLy- dians, Ionians, Lycians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Macedonians: computing from the earliest of his accounts to tbe latest, his history may be reckoned to commence about seven hundred and thirteen years before Christ, and to reach to about four hundred and seventy- nine before Christ; a period of about two hundred and thirty-four years. Next to Hereidotus, Thucydidcs is to be read, whose history reaches to the 21st year of the Peloponnesian war, the history of which is completed in the first and second books of Nenophon's History of Greece. After this, the student may proceed to the expedition of Cyrus, and the return of the Greeks: and then go back to the rcmaining-books of Xenophon's history. The fifteenth and sixteenth books of Diodorus Siculus contain the his- tories of Greece and Persia from the battle of Mantinaea to the beginning of the reign of Alexander the Great, in the year 336 before Christ. For the history of Alexan- der, Arrian, Quintus Curtius, and the tenth and eleventh books of Justin must be referred to. The eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth books of Diodorus Siculus con- tain the history of Greece from the year 323 before Christ, to the year 301: the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth books of Justin will complete the pcrieid; and those which fedlow to the twenty-ninth inclusive, carry on the history to about the year 195 A. C. Lastly, in the regular order of hi.story read the thirteenth book of Justin, and all that fedlow to the two last, which com- pletes the History of Greece till it mixes with that of the Romans. The lives of illustrious men by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos, form an excellent supplement to the regular his- torians. Ofthe above works, which contain not only the His- teiry of Greece, but that of all the nations of the world known to the historians, Justin, Quintus Curtius, and Cornelius Nepos, only, are in Latin; the rest are in Greek. The following course of Roman History comprehends all that is to be learnt now of the subsequent Ancient History of all other nations. The writer who treats of the early part of the Roman history, in the fullest and most satisfactory manner is Dionysius of Halicarnas- sus, a rhetorician as well as an historian: the remains of his work whicli originally brought the History of Rome to the beginning of the first Punic war, end at this time with the year 341 before Christ, the time when the consuls resumed the chief authority in the republic after the dissolution of the. decernvirate: so that to complete the period we must go to the three first books of Livy, whose history to the tenth book inclusive, brings that of Rome to the year 451, of the building of the city or 292 before Christ. To supply the chasm between the tenth and twentieth books of Livy, read Polybius, the seventeenth, eighteenth, twen- ty-second, and twenty-third books of Justin, and Ap- pian's Punic and Illyrian wars, and afterwards the re- mainder of Livy from the twenty-first book to the end, which brings the history to 166 years before Christ. Sallust's History of the war of Jugurtha and the Ca- talinarim conspiracy, are the next books to be pro- ceeded to: they are all which remains to us of his works. The commentaries of Caesar, and Cicero's Epistles to Atticus, are the next works to be consulted, followed by the remains of Dio Cassius, and the Compendium of Vellcrius Paterculus. Suctonius's Lives of the Ca- sars, and the works of Tacitus, close the list of Ro- man historians of the greatest eminence. Those who are called the writers of the brazen or iron age de- serve a slighter mention. The principal of these are, Xipbilin, Hcrodian, The Historiac Augustae Scriptures, Zozimus, Ammianus Marcellinus, Paulus, Deaconus, and Procopius; the last four, however, may be omit- ted; and Nicetas Acominatus and Nicephorus Gre- gorys, followed by Joannes Cantacuzenus, substituted in their room. Laonicus Chalcondiles brings up the con- clusion of the Eastern Empire, in the year 1453, when Constantinople was taken by Mahomet II. To enumerate all the modern compilations of ancient history which may be serviceable to those who cannot make their searches in the original authors would he endless. That of Rollin must not be passed over. The most complete body of history, however, ancient and modern, is the Universal: which has references to the original writers for almost every paragraph of informa- tion. Gillies and Mitford have written Histories of Greece, and Hooke is by far the most preferable among the compilers ofthe Roman hi.story. Having been thus particular on the subject of ancient history, we shall go on to "the enumeration of those sources from which the last materials are derived for English history; and then proceeding to the other coun- tries of modern Europe, make a slight mention of the best historians of each. The earliest accounts of Britain are to be found among the Romans; and principally in the works of Julius Cae- sar, Dio Cassius, and Tacitus. Livy and Fabias Rusti- cus were others who wrote expressly on its history; but their works have perished in the general wreck of ancient literature. HISTORY. The most ancient of our native historians, now extant, says bishop Nicholson, is Gildas, a monk of Bangor, who lived about tlve middle of the sixth century; a sor- rowful spectator of the miseries and almost utter ruin of his countrymen, hy a people under whose banners they hoped for peace. The title of his work was, " De Ex- cidis Britannise." The next historian of note was Ncn- nius, who is often confounded with Gildas: his work, which has gone by different names, was printed by Gale under that of " Historia Britonum." If we except a supplement to these writers, in the laws of Hoel Dha, we have nothing more of early British history. Geof- frey of Monmouth's work, which was written at a sub- sequent period, is nothing more than a romance. For the history of tho Saxon times we have better ma- terials, the oldest of which, perhaps, that are now pre- served, are in the Saxon Chronicle, printed from several manuscripts by bishop Gibson. Next to this Bede's Ec- clesiastical History may be placed, and the Life of Alfred by Aser of St. David's. Only two Danish historians, says bishop Nicholson, are necessary to the English antiquary's library; Saxo Grammaticus and Sweno Agonis. The first English historian after the Norman Con- quest, was Ingulpb, abbot of Crozland, whose history extends from the year 626 to 1089. That portion of Ma- rianas Scotus's history which relates to Britain never has been printed. Florence of Worcester's, who died 1119, is more full, Eadmer's work, published by Mr. Selden, contains the history of the two Williams and Henry the First, from 1066 to 1122, and is a work of very good autho- rity. William of Malmsbury was the next historian, whose book « De Gestis Rebus Anglorum," is one of the most faithful of our numerous annals: it begins with the first arrival ofthe Saxons, and is continued to the death of Stephen. The other historians of the twelfth century were, Simeon Dunelmensis, Henry of Huntingdon, and William of Neuburg. Gcrvasc of Canterbury's history, of which a fragment only is left, is the earliest ofthe thirteenth century: his chief contemporary was Hoveden, who seems to have been chaplain to king Henry the Second. Ralph de Dice- to, Walter of Coventry, and Matthew Paris, were others. There were likewise a few meaner historians, whose names it is not neci-ssary to repeat. The principal writers ofthe fourteenth century were, Wikc.H, Trivet, John Rrompton, lligdeu, John of Tin- mouth, Matthew of Wes'minster, and Knighton: the last but one ed' whom is often called Florilegus. The first and principal writer of the fifteenth century was Froissart. whose work has been so carefully trans- lated bv Mr. Johnes. It affords the best history of the English Nation during the reigns e»f Kdward the Third and Richard the Second. Thomas de Walsingham is the next writer of credit, succeeded by John Harding, Cax- ton, and Rouse. Fabian's Chronicle is the first work of consequence in the sixteenth century, and is said to have given great offence to Wolscy. Polydore Virgil's historv is not be- lieved to have been so faithful; though greater merit is attributed to the works of Hall and Holliushcad. The industrious Stowc was the first writer among the historians of the seventeenth century: the next of emi- nence was Daniel Speed, sir Richard Baker, Sandford, Brady, Ecliard and Tyrrel, are others, whose names only it is quite sufficient to enumerate. In the last century, bishop Burnet, Carte, Rennet, Tindal, Hume, Smollet, Macaulay, and Henry, arc his- torians too well known to need either comment or com- mendation here. In regard to the writers of particular histories of the kings with whom they were cotemporary, it may be suf- ficient to enumerate the following: William the Conquer- or's life was written by W illiam of Poictiers; king Ste- phen's memoirs, by Richard Prior of Hexham, printed among the deccm-scriptores; Richard the First's Expe- dition into the Holy Land, was celebrated by Joseph of Exeter, or lscanus; the Life of Edward the Second by sit Thomas de la More: Henry the Fifth's by some one un- der the name of Titus Livius: and that of Edward the Fifth, with a part of the History of Richard the Third, by sir Thomas More; Henry the Eighth's Reign, by lord Herbert of Chcrbury; and Elizabeth's by Camden. Those of a later period, perhaps, are hardly entitled to so much credit for impartiality. The historians of other particular countries may be mentioned in a briefer manner; enumerating such only as a reader may refer to when inquiring into facts. In regard to France, after mentioning the Chroniques dc St. Denis, the Aunalcs Francorum, with tbe works of Monstrelet, Mezeray, Daniel and Gamier, and Re- nault's Abridgement, we need only mention two of the most comprehensive bodie\s of French history, « Duches- ne's Historise Francorum Scriptures;" and " Bouquet's Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la France," in thirteen volumes folio. For the general history of Italy, Guicciardini's work is undoubtedly the best, not only for its accuracy but its style; though Brusemi's and Ca- priata's works are much esteemed for their veracity. To those who make a deep search, the « Re-rum Italiarum Scriptures," by Muratori, will be useful. For the separate states of Italy Giannoni's Hi.story of Naples,Machiavel's HistoriaFlorentiua, and the** Histo- ria Veneziani." For Switzerland, the ••Helvetic Con- federal'} " by Mr. Plauta, may be referred to: for Holland, Le Clerc's •• Provinces Unies," 1728. Among the writers of German history, the'•Gernisni Scriptures," of Pis- teirius, Urstilius, Freher, and Reuber, may be mention- ed: the writers on ancient Germany by Shard; the Scrip- tores Rerum Brunsvicensium; and Mascou's history of the Germans. The most valuable history of Spain is Mariana's, first published in 1592; the best edition of which, conti- nued to a late period, was published at Valencia 1783. Besides this. C irita's •• Annates de. Arragon" may be consult-d with the •• Anuales de Cattaluna." The earliest materials for Portuguese historv are to be foind among the Scriptores Rerum llispauiaruui. The first historian whom Sleuscl mentions is Laimund dc Or- tega: bit one of the most valuable aud industrious was Bernard de Brito. who piblished the two first parts of the »»Mmarchia Lusitana," in 1597 and 1609; which was continued as far as an e-igth part, in 1729. Others are, Meneze's Historia de Portugal, printed at Lisbon H I S HOE in two volumes, folio, 1679 and 1698; La Cledc's His- toire de Portugal, Par. 1737; and the elaborate history of Gebauer, in German, Leipsig, 1759. On Sweden, Cru- sius's " Annales Suevicse," 1596, and Puffendorf «« dc Rebus Suevicis," 1686, will be found works of conside- rable consequence. On Norway, Forfseus's « Historia Rerum Norvegicarum." On Denmark, Cragius's "An- nales Danicae;" Mallet's" Histoire deDannemarc," and Langebek's "Scriptores Rerum Danicarum:" and on Russia, "Rerum Muscovitarum Scriptores," 1600, folio, and Levesque's " Histoire de Russie," 1800. Those who would gain a more particular knowledge of the charac- ters which the principal of these historians bear, may consult the works of Wheare and Rawlinson on History. There are, however, some particular histories, which are so excellently written, that no person of a liberal eclu- eation should neglect becoming acquainted with them. Under this character we may comprehend all the works of Tacitus, which now remain to us: in his writings every phrase is a maxim; the narrative goes on with rapidity; while all his characters are drawn with a more profound knowledge of human nature than those of any historian who went before him; his very brevity is pregnant. Thu- anus's history of his own times is a work almost equal to any production ofthe classic ages. Guicciardini's His- tory of Italy: Davila's of the Civil Wrars of France; Bentivoglio's of those of the Netherlands; and Gianno- ni's History of Naples, deserve a similar character, as well as the elegant history of England by Hume. No ■writer whatever, says Dr. Priestley, can excel Vertot in the happy art of making history entertaining. There are also periods of history more particularly deserving of a close attention. Among these the con- nection of sacred and profane history in the succession of the four great monarchies, stands foremost. Another period is that which comprises the history of the Grecian commonwealths, iu which the peculiar evils and advan- tages of a popular government are exhibited with clear- ness. The rise and declension of the Roman empire is another object for extensive contemplation, as well as the foundation of the present European governments, and the restoration of learning. We have now only to add a few words on the particu- lar duty of the historian; the model for whom is preserv- ed among the works of Cicero. It is the first law of his- tory, he says, that the writer should neither dare to ad- vance what is false, nor to suppress what is true; that he should relate the facts with strict impartiality, free from ill-will or favour; that his narrative should distinguish the order of time, and when necessary, give the descrip- tion of places; that he should unfold the statesman's motives, and in his account of the transactions and the events, interpose his own judgment; and should not only relate w hat was done, but how it was done; and what share, chance, or rashness, or prudence, had in the issue; that he should give the characters of the leading men their weight and influence, their passions, their princi- ples, and their conduct through life. In addition to these, Tacitus gives another rule: « Prsecipuum munus anna- lium reor, ne virtutcs sileantur, utque pravis die tis fac- tisque ex pesteritate et infamia nietus sit:" that it is in- cumbent on the writer to rejudge the actions of men, to tJie end that the good and worthy may meet with the reward due to eminent virtue, and that pernicious citi- zens may be deterred by the condemnation that waits on evil deeds at the tribunal of posterity. In this consists flic chief part ofthe historian's duty. Let it be remembered that in this country, it is an in- dispensable duty of every man of liberal birth, to be ac- quainted in a certain degree with the science of politics. History is the school of politics: it unfolds to us the springs of human affairs; the causes ofthe rise, grandeur, revo- lutions, and fall of empires. It points out the reciprocal influence of government and of national manners: it dis- sipates prejudices, nourishes the love of our country, and directs to the best means of improvement. It illustrates equally the blessings of political union and the miseries of faction. As to the events that stand recorded in history, savs lord Bolingbroke, we see them all, we see thein as they followed one another, or as they produced one another, causes or effects, immediate or remote. We arc cast back, as it were, into former ages; we live with the men who lived before us, and we inhabit countries that we never saw. Place is enlarged, and time prolonged in this man- ner; so that the man who applies himself early to the study of history may acquire in a few years, and before he sets his foot abroad in the world, not only a more ex- tended knowledge of mankind, but.the experience of more centuries than any of the patriarchs saw. The events we are witnesses of in the course of the longest life, appear to us very often original, unprepared, simple, and unrclative; they appear such very often, are called accidents, and looked upon as the effects of chance: ex- perience can carry us no farther, for experience can go a very little way back in discovering causes; and effects are not the objects of experience till they happen. Hence many errors in judgment, and by consequence in conduct, ne- cessarily arise; aud here too lies the difference we are speaking of between history and experience: the advan- tage on the side of the former is double. In ancient his- tory the examples are complete, which are incomplete in the course of experience; experience is doubly defective; we are born too late to see the beginning, and we die too early to see the end of many things. History supplies both these defects. Modern history sliows the causes when ex- perience presents the effects alone; and ancient history enables us to guess at the effects when experience pre- sents the causes alone. HITCH, in the sea language, is to catch hold of any thing with a hook or rope, and by this means to hold it fast: thus when a boat is to be hoisted in, the sailors say, hitch the tackles into the ring-bolts of the boat; and when they are about to weigh anchor, hitch the fish-hook to the fluke of the anchor. HIVE, in country affairs, a convenient receptacle for bees. See Apis. HOARSENESS. See MEniciNE. HODMAN, an appellation given to a young student admitted into Christ's College, Oxford, from Wcstmi. - ster-school. HOE, a husbandman's tool somewhat like a cooper's adze, to cut up weeds in gardens, fields, kc. This in- strument is of great use, and ought to be much more em- ployed than it is in hacking and clearing the several cor- n o l H 0 L ners and patches of land in spare times of tho year, which would be no small advantage to it. HOEING, in the new husbandry, is the breaking or dividing the soil by tillage while the corn or other plants are growing thereon. It differs from common tillage (which is alwavs performed before the corn or plants are sown or planted) in.the time of performing it; and it is much more beneficial to the crops than any other tillage. This sort of tillage is performed various wa)s, and by means of different instruments. HOG. See Sus. Hog, on . board of a ship, is a sort of flat scrubbing broom, formed by inclosing a number of short twiggs of birch or such wood between two pieces of plank fastened together, and cutting off the ends of the twigs. It is used to scrape the filth from a ship's bottom under water, par- ticularly in the act of boot-topping. For this purpose they fit to this broom a long stall" with two ropes; one of which is used to thrust the hog under the ship's bottom, and the other to guide and pull it up again close to the planks. 110(51 SHE AD, in commerce, a measure of capacity, containing sixty-three gallons. HOLCUS, Indian millet or corn; a genus ofthe mo- neecia order, in the polygamia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 4th order, gramina. The calyx of the hermaphrodite is an uniflorousor biflo- rous glume; the corolla is a glume with an awn; there are three stamina, two styles, and one seed. The male calyx is a bivalvcd glume; there is no corolla, but three stamina. Of this genus there are fifteen species, two of which are natives of Britain. The most remarkable of these is the lanatus, or creeping soft-grass of Hudson. The- most remarkable of the foreign species is the sorghum, or Guinea-corn. The stalk.-* are large, compact, and full eight feet high. In Senegal the fie-lds are entirely cover- ed with it. The negroes, who call it guiarnot, cover the ears when ripe with its own leaves to shelter it from the sparrows, which are very mischievous in that country. The grain made into bread, or otherwise used, is es- teemed wry wholesome. With this the slaves in the West Indies are generally fed, each being allowed from a pint to a quart every day. The juice of the stalks is so agreeably luscious, that, if prepared as the sugar- canes, thev would afford an excellent sugar. HOLOCENTRUS. Holocentrus, a'genus of the or- der thoracici; the generic character is, habit of the genus pcrca; gill-covers scaly, serrated, and aculeated; scales in most, species, hard and rough. There are 35 species, the principal of which are: I. Holocentrus sogo, a highly beautiful species: gene- ral length about a foot; habit somewhat resembling that of a carp, but of a squarer form, growing suddenly slender near the tail; eyes very large and gold-coloured; tail very much fm-ked. Native of the Mediterranean, Indian, and American seas, and considered as an excel- lent fish for the table. 2. Holocentrus schraetzer: length about ten inches; shape somewhat lengthened; bead destitute of scales, for which reason this species is by Dr. Bloch arranged un- der a distinct genus by the name of gymnocephalus: scales rather small than large; tail slightly divided; low- est ofthe longitudinal lines composed of a row of spots; dorsal tin spotted with black; native of the Danube anil its tributary streams; in considerable esteem as an ar- ticle of food. 3. Holocentrus decussatus, decussated holocentrus: length about twelve inches; back dusky brown; sides marked by two longitudinal brown stripes from the gills to the tail, and by seven transverse ones, each continued to some little distance into the dorsal tin, which is white or pale; scales middle-sized; eyes blue; tail brown, and slightly lunated. 4. Holocentrus calcarifer, spur-gilled holocentrus; length about a foot; habit that of a carp, but rather more lengthened in proportion; body marked by dusky lines along each row of scales; anterior gill-covers furnished with four strong sharp spines, so placed as to bear some resemblance to the rowel of a spur; posterior gill-covers armed w ith a single spine: fins and tail marked across the rays by brown spotted streaks; native of Japan. 5. Holocentrus surinamensis, Surinam holocentrus: length twelve inches; habit of a carp; general colour brown, with several large, roundish, obscurely-yellow patches on each side; head and gill-covers red; mouth small; dorsal fin scaly at the base of the back-part; tail crossed near the base by a brown bar: native of Surinam, where it is highly esteemed for the table, being consi- dered as one of the best fishes which the country produces. 6. Holocentrus afer, African holocentrus; length twelve inches; outline of the body, exclusive ofthe fins, somewhat resembling that of a sole; thickness consider- able; scales very small, but those on the posterior gill- covers considerably larger than the rest; dorsal fin co- vered with small scales, and furnished on the fore-part with extremely tliick or strong spines; back part and anal fin rounded, and reaching to within a little distance of the tail, whicli is remarkably small for the size of the fish, and of a round shape; pectoral fins, whitish; ventral, pale red; native of the coast of Guinea, feeding on marine insects, kc and in considerable estimation as a food. HOLLY. See Ilex. UOLOSTEUM, a genus ofthe trigynia order, in the HOLLAND, in commerce, a fine and close kind of li- nen, so called from its being first manufactured in Holland.. triandria class of plants, and in the natural mrthod rank- ing under thc22d order, caryophyllei. The calyx is pen- taphv llous; the petals five; the capsule, unilocular, and nearly cylindrical, opening at top. There are five spe- cies. HOLOTHURIA, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order of vermes mollusca. The body, detached, naked, gibbous, terminated by the anus. Many tentacula at the other extremity surrounding the mouth. There arc nine species, all inhabitants of the ocean. The fol- lowing descriptions of three species are given by Mr. Barb ut. 1. The tremula. or quivering holothuria, "commonly measures eight inches iu length when dead; but alive i4 extends itself to mote than a loot, or contracts its body into a ball. Its figure is cylindric, the diameter of which is every way equal to an inch and a few lines. The belly is of a pale brown, and set all over with cylindric tenta- cula, in such numbers that the head of a pin could scarce- ly find room between. By the help of these teutacula, hom H O M the holothuria fixes its body at the bottom of the sea, so as not to be easily foiced away by tempests, whicli would otherwise happen the more frequently, as this zoopbite dwells near the shores where the water scarcely rises to a fathom's height. 2. The physalis, or bladder-shaped holothuria. The body of this species is oval, approaching to triangular, of a glossy transparency; the back sharp-edged, of a dark green colour, whence run out a number of sinews; anteriorilv the body is of a reddish hue. The trunk spi- ral, reddish towards the thicker end. Many tentaculaof unequal length under that thicker end; the shorter ones are taper and thicker, the middle ones capillary, the point clav-colour, and in shape like a ball; the rest, which are longer, are filiform, of which the middlemost is thicker and twice as long. Brown, in his Jamaica, cailsit a dia- phanous bladder with numerous tentacula representing a man's belly; above it is furnished with a comb full of cells; under the other extremity hang a number of branchy tentacula. It inhabits the seas. 3. The pentactcs, or five rowed holothuria, has the mouth encompassed with tentacula, the hody bearing ten- tacula five different wa\s. The animal is of a red co- lour, nearly oval, or somewhat cylindrical, assuming various shapes. The mouth is set round with ten rays, bristly at the points; the body is longitudinally dotted with warts. It inhabits the sea of Norway. HOLY-GHOST, order of the, the principal military order in the old government of France, instituted by Henry III. in 1569. HOLLO W-sq,uare, inthe military art, a body of foot drawn up, with an empty space in the middle for colours, drums, and baggage. Hollow tower, according to Harris, is a rounding made of the remainder of two brisures, to join the curtin to tbe orillon, w here the small shot are played, that they may not be so much exposed to the view of the enemy. HOMAGE. In the original grants of lands and tene- ments byway of fee, the lord did not only tie his tenants to certain services, but also took a submission, with pro- mise- and oath to be true and loyal to him as their lord and benefactor. This submission was and is called ho- mage. Homage Ancestuel, is where a man's ancestors, time out of mind, held their land of their lord and his an- cestors, by homage; and if such lord has received homage, he is bound to acquit the tenant against all other lords above him of all service; and if the tenant has done ho- mage to his lord, and is impleaded, and vouches the lord to warranty, the lord is bound to warrant him; and if the tenant loses, he shall recover in value against the lord so much of the lands as he had at the time of the voucher, or any time after. Homage Jcry, a jury in a court baron, consisting of tenants that do homage to the lord of the fee, and there by the feudists are called pares curiae; they inquire and niake presentments of defaults and deaths of tenants, ad- mittances, and surrenders in the lord's court, kc. HOMAL1UM, a genus of the class and order polyan- dria triiivnia. The calyx is six or seven-parted: corol- la, six or seven-pctailed: stamina, 21 in three bodies: pericarpium, one-celled, many-seeded. There are two species, a tree of Jamaica and a shrub of Guiana* HOMICIDE, properly so called, is the killing of a man by a man. Of this there are several species, as ho- micide by self-defence, homicide by misadventure, justi- fiable homicide, manslaughter, chance-medley, and mur- der. Homicide by self-defence. Homicide se defendendo, or in a man's own defence, seems to be, where one has no other possible means of preserving his life from one who combats with him on a sudden quarrel, and kills the person by whom he is reduced to such inevitable neces- sity. 1 Haw. 75. And not only he who on an assault retreats to a wall, or some such strait, beyond which he can go no farther before he kills the other, is judged by the law to act upon unavoidable necessity; but also he, who being assaulted in such a manner and in such a place, that he cannot syo back without manifestly endangering his life, kills the other without retreating at all. Id. And though a person who retreats from an assault to the wall should give the other wounds in his retreat, yet if he gives him no mortal wound till he gets thither, and then kills him, he is guilty of homicide se defendendo on- ly. Id. But if the mortal wound was given first, then it is man- slaughter. Hale's PI. 42. Homicide by misadventure, is where a man in doing a lawful act without any intent of hurt, unfortunately chances to kill another, as w here a labourer being at work with an hatchet, the head thereof flies off, and kills one who stands by. l Haw. 73. It seems clear, that neither homicide by misadventure, nor homicide se defendendo are felonious, because they are not accompanied with a felonious intent, which is ne- cessary in every felony. 1 Haw. 29. Justifiable homicide. To make homicide justifiable, it must be owing to some unavoidable necessity, to which a person who kills another must be reduced, without any manner of fault in himself. And there must be no malice coloured under pretence of necessity; for wherever a persons who kills another, acts in truth upon malice, and takes occasion upon the appearance of necessity to execute his own private re- venge, he is guilty of murder. 1 Haw. 69. But if a woman kills him who assaults to ravish her, it is no felony; or if a man comes to burn my house, and I go out thereof and kill him, it is no felony. Id. 39. If any evil-disposed person shall attempt feloniously to rob or murder any person in any dwelling-house, or highway, or feloniously attempt to break any dwelling- house in the night time, and shall happen to be slain in such felonious attempt, the slayer shall be discharged,and shall forfeit no lands, nor goods. 24 H. VIII. c. 5. Justifiable homicide of a public nature, is such as is oc- casioned by the due execution or advancement of public justice, with regard to which it must be observed. 1. That the judgment, by virtue whereof any person is put to death, must be given by one who has legal juris- diction in the cause; for otherwise both judge and officer may be guilty of felony. 2. The execution must be pursuant to, and warranted by the judgment, otherwise it is without authority; and consequently, if a sheriff shaU behead a man, when it is HOM HO N 11V1 part of the sentence to cut off the head, he is guilty of felony. 1 Haw. 7t). Manslaughter. Homicide against the life of another, is either with or without malice; that which is without malice is called manslaughter, or sometimes chance medley, by which is understood such killing as happens either on a sudden quarrel, or iu the commission of an un- lawful act, without any deliberate intention of doing any mischief at all. 3 Inst. 56. Hence it follows, that there can be no accessaries to this offence before the fart, because it must be done with- out premeditation; but there may be accessaries after the fact. Id. The only difference between murder and manslaughter* is. that murder is upon malice aforethought, and man- slaughter upon a sudden occasion, as if two meet toge- ther, and striving for the wall the cine kills the other, this is manslaughter and fclohy. And so it is if they had, on that sudden occasion, gone into the field and fought, and the one had killed the other, this had been butmanslaugh* tcr and no murder, because all that followed was but a Continuance of the first sudden occasion, and the blood was never cooled till the blow was given. 3 Inst. 5$. Chance or chaunce^medley. Authors of the first au- thority disagree about the application of this word; by some it is applied to homicide by misadventure, by others to manslaughter. The original meaning of the word seems to favour the former opinion, as it signifies a sud- den or casual meddling or contention; but homicide by misadventure supposes no previous meddling or falling out. Murder is the highest crime against the law of nature that a man is capable of committing. Murder is when a man of sound memory, and at the age of discretion, unlawfully kills another person under the king's peace with malice aforethought, either express- ed by the party, or implied by the law, so as the party wounded or hurt die ofthe wound or hurt within a year and a day. 3 Inst. 47. And the whole day on which the hurt was done, shall be reckoned the first, t Haw, 79. By malice expressed, is meant a deliberate intention of doing any bodily harm to another, whereunto by law a person is not authorized. And the evidences of such malice must arise from ex- ternal circumstances discovering that inward intention; as lying in wait, menacings antecedent, former grudges, deliberate coinpassings and the like, which are various, according to the variety of circumstances. I II. H. 451. Malice implied, is where a person voluntarily kills another, without any provocation; for in this case the law presumes it to be malicious, and that he is a public enemy of mankind. 1 H. H» 455. In general any formed design of doing mischief may be called malice; and therefore not such killing only as proceeds fiom premeditated hatred or revenge against the person killed, but also in many other cases, such as is accompanied with circumstances which show the heart to be perversely wicked, is judged to be of malice pre- pense, or aforethought, and consequently murder. 2 Haw, 80. If a man kills another, it shall be intended prima facie that he did it maliciously, unless he makes the contrary Vol. ii. 50 appear* by showing that he djd it on a sudden provocation or the like. I Haw. 82. When the law makes use of the term malice afore- thought as descriptive of the crime of murder, it must not be understood in that narrow restrained sense, to which the modern use of the word malice is apt to lead one, a principle of malevolence to particulars; for the law by the term malice, in this instance, means, that the fact has been attended with such circumstances as are the or- dinary symptoms of a wicked heart, regardless of social duty, and fatally bent upon mischief. Fost. 256. The law so far abhors all duelling in cold blood, that not only the principal who actually kills the other, but also his seconds arc guilty of murder, whether they fought or not; and it is holden that the seconds of the person killed are also equally guilty, in respect to that countenance which they give to their principals in the execution of their purpose, by accompanying them there- in, and being ready to bear a part with them. 1 Haw. 82. Also it seems agreed, that no breach of a man's word or promise, no tresspass either to land or goods, no af- front by bare words or gestures* however false or mali- cious it may be, and aggravated with the most provoking circumstances, will excuse him from being guilty of mur- der who is so far transported thereby, as immediately to attack the person who offends, in such a manner as mani- festly endangers his life, without giving him time to put himself upon his guard, if he kills him in pursuance of such assault, whether the person slain did at all fight in his defence or not. Id. HOMINE replegiasdo, in law, is an ancient writ that lies for bailing a person out of prison, where any one is confined without commandment of the king or his judges: or for any cause that is rcpleviable. This writ is directed to the sheriff, commanding him to replevy the prisoner. In case a person takes away secretly, or keeps in his custody any person against his will, on oath made thereof, and a petition to the lord chancellor, he will grant a writ of replegiari facias, upon which the sheriff returns an elongatus* and then there issuers a capias in wither- nam, to take the party so offending. HOMOGENEOUS Surds, those whicli have the same radical character, or signs, as 2ya and 2x/b. HOMOLOGOUS, in geometry, an appellation given to the corresponding sides and angles of similar figures, as being proportional to each other. Homologous things, in logic, those which agree in name, but are of different natures. HONEY, a saccharine substance prepared by the bees (see Apis). It has a white or yellowish colour, a soft and grained consistence, a saccharine and aromatic smell. By distillation it affords an acid phlegm and an oil, and its coal is light and spongy like that ofthe mucilage of plants. Nitric acid extracts from it oxalic acid precisely as it does from sugar; it is very soluble in water, with which it forms a syrup, and like sugar passes to the vinous fermentation. Mr. Cavezzali lias proved lately that honey is composed of sugar* mucilage, and an acid. The sugar may be separated by melting the honey, adding carbonat of lime in powder as long as any effervesexnee appears, and scumming the solution while hot. The li- quid thus treated gradually deposits crystals of sugar When allowed to remain in a glass vessel. Tbere are HON HOB three distinctions of honey, according to its purity, flu- idity, and the manner in which it has been procured from the honey-combs. The first and finest kind is virgin- honey, or the first produce of a swarm, obtained from the combs without pressing; these being only set to drain, in order to its running out. The second kind is that known by the name of white-honey, being thicker than the for- mer, and often indeed almost solid; it is procured by pressing the combs, but without the assistance of heat. The third and worst kind is the common yellow honey, obtained from the combs first heated over the fire, and then pressed. Honey-comb, a waxen structure, full of cells, framed by the bees, to deposit their honey and eggs in. The construction of the honey-comb seems one ofthe most surprising of the works of insects, and the materials of which it is composed, which, though evidently collect- ed from the flowers of plants, yet do not, that we knovy of, exist in them in that state, has given great cause of speculation to the curious. The regular structure of the comb is also equally wonderful. When the several cells in it are examined, it should seem that the nicest rules of geometry had been consulted for its composition, and all the advantages that could be wished, or desired, in a thing of that kind, are evidently found in it. Each cell con- sists of six plane sides, whicli are all trapeziums, but equal to each other; the bottom of the cell is contrived with three rhombuses, H K D I, D E F I, and F G II I, (plate LXXII. Miscel. fig. 124) so disposed as to consti- tute a solid angle at I, under the three equal angles D I H, D I F, and H I F, each of which is double the maximum angle of 54° 44' = DIK = DKI. Hence it comes to pass, that a less quantity of surface is sufficient to contain a given quantity of honey, than if the bottom bad been flat, in the proportion of 4658 to 5550, as has been found by calculation; that is, nearly a fifth of the whole, so far as the figure in the end of the cells extends, in each; which fifth part of wax and labour saved, amounts to a vast deal in the whole comb. The sides of the cells are all much thinner than the finest paper, and yet they are so strength- ened by their disposition, that they are able to resist all the motions of the bee within them, as they are frequently obliged to be. The effect of their thrusting their bodies into the cells would be the bursting of those cells at the top, was not this well-guarded against. But to prevent this, the creatures extend a cord, or roll of wax, round the verge of every cell, in such a manner that it is scarcely possible they should split in that particular part. This cord or roll is at least three times as thick as the sides of the cell, and is even much thicker and stronger at the angles of the cells, than elsewhere, so thatthe aperture of each cell is not regularly hexagonal, though its inner cavity is perfectly so. See fig. 125. The several combs are all placed parallel to one another (fig. 126) and there is such a space left between them, that the bees can easily pass; and often they place a part of the comb in a contrary direction to the rest, so that while the others are placed horizontally, these stand per- pendicularly. The celerity wjth which a swarm of bees received into a hive, where they find themselves lodged to their minds, bring their works ofthe combs to perfection is amazing. There are vast numbers at work all at once; and that they may not incommode one another, they: do not work upon the first comb till it is finished, but when the foun- dation of that is laid, they go to work upoqr another, so that there are often the beginnings of three or four stories made at once, and so many parties allotted to thccarrying on the work of each. In a very few days a new swarm will have completed several combs of the depth of four or five inches each. Honey-stone. See Melite. HONOUR, is used for aseignory or lordship, on which inferior lordships and manors depend; for as a manor consists of several lands, tenements, services, and cus- toms, so an honour contains several manors, knights- fees, &c. Honour-courts, are courts held within the honours or seignories. Honour, maids of, are six young ladies in the house- hold of the queen, and princess royal; the salary of those of a queen are 300/veach, and those of the princess dowa- ger of Wales, 2007. Honour-point, in heraldry, is that next above the centre of the escutcheon, dividing the upper part into two equal portions. HOOF, the horny substance that covers the feet of di- vers animals, as oxen, horse, sheep, &c. See Horn. HOOPING-COUGH. See Medicine. HOP. Sec Humulus. HOPEA, a genus of the polyandria order, inthe poly- adelphia class of plants. The calyx is quinquefid, supe- rior; the corolla pentapetalous; the stamina are many, and coalited into five pencils; there is one style; the fruit is a plum, with a trilocular kernel. There is only one species, the tinctoria, a native of Carolina. HORARY, or Hour-circle. See Use ofthe Globe. Horary circle, or lines. Sec Dialling. Horary motion ofthe earth, the arch it describes in the space of an hour, which is nearly 15 degrees, though not accurately so, as the earth moves with different velo- cities, according to its greater or lesser distance from the sun. HORDEUM, barley; a genus of the triandria-trigy- nia class of plants, tiie corolla whereof consist of two valves; the inferior valve is angular, of an ovato-accu- minated figure, bellied, and longer than the cup, and terminates in a very long arista; the anterior valve is lanceolated, plane and smaller; the corolla serves as a pe- ricarpium, surrounding the seed, and not letting it out; the seed is oblong, ventricose, pointed at each end, and marked with a longitudinal furrow. See Husbanory. HORIA, in entomology, a genus of the coleoptera or- der. Antennaj, moniliform; feelers four, thicker towards the tip; lip linear, rounded at the end. There are two species; the testacea, and the dermestoides. HORIZON. See Astonomy and Geography. HORIZONTAL dial. See Dialling. Horizontal line. See Perspective. Horizontal plane, that which is parallel to the hori- zon ofthe place, or nothing inclined thereto. The busi- ness of levelling is to find whether two points are in the horizontal plane, or how much the deviation is. Horizontal range of a piece of ordnance, is the dis- tance at which it falls on e>r strikes the horizon, or on a horizontal plane, whatever is the angle of elevation or U 0 R II 0 R direction of the piece. When the piece is pointed paral- lel to the horizon, the range is then called the point-blank, or point-blanc range. Tiie greatest horizontal range, in the parabolic theory, or in a vacuum, is that made with the piece elevated to 45 degrees, and is equal to double the height from whicli a heavy body must freely fall to acquire the velocity with which the shot is discharged. Thus, a shot being discharg- ed with the velocity of v feet per second; because gravity generates the velocity 2g or 32 | feet in the first second of time, by falling 16-^ or g feet, and because the spaces descended arc as the squares of the velocities, therefore "V2 as 4g2: v* : : g —> the space a body must descend to acquire the velocity v of the shot or the space due to the x2 v2 velority r; consequently the double of this, or — =—• 2g 32-g- is the greatest horizontal range with the velocity v, or at an elevation of 45 degrees; which is nearly half the square of a quarter of the velocity. In other elevations, the horizontal range is as the sine of double the angle of elevation; so that, any other eleva- X)2 v2 tion being e, it will be, as radius 1 : sin. 2e : : — : —- 32£ 32$ X sin. 2e, the range; at the elevation c, with the veloci- ty v. But in a resisting medium, like the atmosphere, the actual ranges fall far short of the above theorems, inso- much that with the great velocities the actual or real ranges may be less than the tenth part of the potential ranges; so that some balls, which actually range but a mile ortwp, would in vacuo range 20 or 30 miles. And hence also it happens that the elevation of the piece, to shoot farthest in the resisting medium, is always below 45°, and gradually the more below it as the velocity is greater; so that the greater velocities with which balls are discharged from cannon with gunpowder, require an elevation of the gun equal to but about 30°, or even less. And the less the size of the halls is too, tho less must this angle of elevation be to shoot the farthest with a given velocity. See Projectile and Gunnery. HORN, cornu, in physiology, a hard substance grow- ing on the heads of animals, particularly the cloven- footed quadrupeds; and serving them both as weapons of offence and defence. Horns are not very hard, as they may be easily cut with a knife or rasped with a file; but they arc so tough as not to be capable of being pounded in a mortar. When in thin plates, they have a degree of transparency, and have been sometimes substituted for glass in win- dows. When heated sufficiently, they become very soft and flexible, so that their shape may be altered conside- rably. Hence they may be gradually squeezed into a mould, and wrought into various forms, as is well known. The quantity of earthy matter which they contain is ex- ceedingly small. Mr. Hatchett burnt 500 grains of ox- horn. The residuum was only 1.5 grain, and not the half of this was phosphat of lime. Seventy-eight grains of the horn of the chamois left only 0.5 of residue, of whi'•!. less than the half was phosphat of lime. They consist chiefly of a membranous substance, which posses- ses the properties of coagulated albumen; and probably they contain also a little gelatine. Hence we see the rea- son of the products that are obtained when these sub- stances are subjected to distillation. The horns ofthe hart and buck must, however, be ex- cepted. From the experiments of Scheele and Roullc, together with those of Hatchett, we know that these sub- stances possess exactly the properties of bone, and are composed of the same constituents, excepting only that the proportion of cartilage is greater. They are inter- mediate, then, between bone and horn. The nails, whicli cover the extremities ofthe fingers, are attached to the epidermis, and come off along with it. Mr. Hatchett has ascertained that they are .composed chiefly of a membranous substance, which possesses the power of coagulated albumen. They seem to contain also a little phosphat of lime. Water softens, but does not dissolve them. But they are. readily dissolved and decomposed by concentrated acids and alkalies. Hence it appears that nails agree with horns in their nature and composition. Under the head of nails must be com- prehended the talons and claws of the inferior animals, and likewise their hoofs, which differ in no respect from horn. The substance called tortoise-shell is very different from shells in its composition, and approaches much nearer to the nature of nail: for that reason vve have placed it here. When long macerated in nitric acid, it softens, and appears to be composed of membranes laid over each other, and possessing the properties of coagu- lated albumen. When burnt, 500 grains of it yield three of earthy matter, consisting of phosphat of lime and so- da, with a little iron. The scales of animals are of two kinds: some, as those of serpents and other amphibious animals, have a striking resemblance to horn; while those of fish bear a greater resemblance to mother-of-pearl. The composition of these two kinds of shells is very different. The scales of fish, as has been observed by Lewen- hoeck, are composed of different membranous lamina;. When immersed for four or five hours in nitric acid, they become transparent, and perfectly membranaceous. The acid, when saturated with ammonia, gives a copious precipitate of phosphate of lime. Hence they are com- posed of alternate layers of membrane and phosphat of lime. To this structure they owe their brilliancy. Mr. Hatchett found the spicula of the shark's skin to be simi- lar in its composition, but the skin itself yielded no phos- phat of lime. The horny scales of serpents, on the other hand, are composed alone of a horny membrane, and are destitute of phosphat of lime. They yield, when boiled, but slight traces of gelatine: the horn-like crust which cover cer- tain insects and other animals appear from Mr. Hatch- ett's experiments to be nearly similar in their composition and nature. The casting of the horns of deer is a singular phaeno- menon, the true reason of which seems to be a stoppage of the circulation; so that being deprived of the nourish- ing juice, they fall off much in the same manner as the leaves of trees in autumn. About ten days after the horns are cast, the new ones begin to appear: these at II o u HOR first are soft and hairy, but they afterwards grow hard, and the creature rubs off the hair. Horns make a considerable article in the arts and ma- nufactures. Bullocks' horns, softened by the fire, serve to make lantliorns, combs, knives, ink-horns, tobacco- boxes, kc Dyeing of horns. Black is performed by steeping brass in aqua-fortis till it is turned green: with this the horn is to be washed once or twice, and then put into a warmed decoction of logwood and water. Green is begun by boil- ing it, kc in alum-water, then with verdigris, ammo- niac, and white-wine vinegar, keeping it hot therein till sufficiently green. Red is begun by boiling it in alum- water, and finished by decoction in a liquor compound- ed of quicklime steeped in rain-water, strained, and to every pint an ounce of Brazil wood added. In this de- coction the bone, &c. is to be boiled till sufficiently red. Dr. Lewis informs us, that horns receive a deep black stain from solution of silver. It ought to be diluted to such a degree as not sensibly to corrode the subject, and applied two or three times, if necessary, at considerable intervals, the matter being exposed as much as possible to the sun, to hasten the appearance and deepening of the colour. Dyeing or staining horn to imitate tortoise-shell. The horn to be dyed must be first pressed into proper plates, scales, or other flat form, and the following mixture pre- pared: Take of quick-lime two parts, and of litharge one part: temper them together to the consistence of a soft- paste with soap ley. Put this paste over all the parts of the horn, except such as are proper to be left transpa- rent, in order to give it a near resemblance of the tor- toise-shell. The horn must remain in this manner cover- ed with the paste till it is thoroughly dry; when, the paste being brushed off, the horn will be found partly opaque and partly transparent, in the manner of tortoise- shell, and when put over a foil of the kind of latten call- ed assidue, will be scarcely distinguishable from it. It requires some degree of fancy and judgment to dispose of the paste in such a manner as to form a variety of trans- parent parts, of different magnitudes and figures, to look like, the effect of nature: and it will be an improvement to add semitransparent parts, which may be done by mix- ing whiting with some of the paste to weaken its opera- tion in particular places, by which spots of a reddish brown will be produced, which if properly interspersed, especially on the edges of the dark parts, will greatly increase both the beauty ofthe work and its similitude to real tortoise-shell. Horn is also a musical intrument of the wind kind, chiefly used in hunting, to animate the hunters and the dogs, and to call the latter together. The French horn is bent into a circle, and goes two or three times round, growing gradually largar and wider towards the end, which in some horns is nine or ten inches over. Horns of insects, the slender oblong bodies projected from the heads of those animals, and otherwise called antennse or feelers. See Entomology. HORNBLENDE. This mineral enters into the com- position of many mountains. It is also amorphous, but frequently also crystallized. The primitive form of its crystals is a rhoniboidal prism, the faces of which are inclined at angles of 124° 34^ and 55° 26', and whose bases are angles of 122° 56' and 57° 4'. The most common variety is a six-sided prism, terminated by trihedral or tetrahcdral summits. " Hornblende, common. Its texture is very conspi- cuously foliated,; fracture conchoidal; fragments often rhomboidal; opaque; tough; specific gravity 2.922 to 3.41; colour black, blackish-green, olive-green, or leek- green; streak greenish. It neither becomes electric by friction nor heat. Before the blow-pipe it melts into a black glass. A specimen of black hornblende, analysed by Mr. Hermann, was compossed of 37 silica 27 alumina 25 iron 5 line 3 magnesia 97 Hornblende, basaltic. This stone is found commonly in basaltic rocks; hence the name basaltine, which was imposed by Mr. Kirwan. It is crystallized either in rhomboidal prisms, or six or eight-sided prisms, termi- nated by three-sided pyramids. Its texture is foliated; its fracture uneven; specific gravity 3.333; colour black, dark-green, or yellowish-green; streak white; transmits a reddish-yellow light. Before the blow-pipe it melts into a greyish-coloured enamel, with a tint of yellow. A specimen, seemingly of this stone, analysed by Bergman, contained 58 silica 27 alumina 9 iron 4 lime- 1 magnesia 99 Hornblende, shistose. Colour greenish-black or deep green; forms strata; structure shistose; texture radiaUd or fibrous; opaque; brittle; streak greenish grey; mode- rately heavy; gives an argillaceous smell when breathed upon. This mineral is often confounded with slate. In Sweden it is employed for covering houses. HURNERS, those artificers whose business it is to prepare various utensils of the horns of Cattle. The hor- ners were a very ancient and considerably fraternity in the city of London some hundred years ago. In the reign of Edward II. they complained to parliament, that by foreigners buying up the horns in England, they were in danger of being ruined, and this business lost to the na- tion. For this reason was made the statute 6 Edw. IV. by which the sale of horns to foreigners (except such as the said homers refused) was prohibited; and the war- dens had power granted them to search all the markets in London and 24 miles round, and to inspect Stour- bridge and Ely fairs, to prevent such practices, and to purchase horns at stated prices. But on plausible pre- tences this law was repealed in the reign of James I. and thereupon the old evil revived. Tbe homers again ap- plied to parliament, and king Edward's statute was re- newed (excepting as to the inspection ofthe fairs), and still remains in force. The importation of unwrought horns into that country is also prohibited. The present company of homers were incoporated January 12, 1638. II 0 R H 0 R Horn-fish, a species of esox, otherwise called gar- fish. See Esox. Horn-work, in fortification, an out-work composed of two demi-bastions, joined by a curtin. See Fortifi- cation. HORNET, in zoology, a species of vespa with a black thorax, and double black spots on the segments of the body. See Vespa. HORNSTONE, in mineralogy. Tbis stone is usually amorphous, occurring sometimes in mass, and sometimes in round balls. Fracture splintery, and sometimes con- choidal; specific gravity 2.7; colour grejish-blue, but sometimes grey, red,blue, green, and brown, of different shades. According to Kirvvan, it is composed of 72 silica 22 alumina 6 carbonat of lime 100 HORSE. See Equus. Horse-dealers. Every person exercising the trade or business of a horse-dealer, must take out a licence from the stamp-office, for which he .shall pay annually, if within London, Westminister, the bills of mortality, the parish of Pancras, or the borough of Southwark, 20/.; elsewhere, 10/. The commissioners are to grant licences to horse-dea- lers for not exceeding one year; a»d every license shall cease on September 29, then in the year for which the same shall be issued, and commence from the date; and every licence taken out for any year subsequent to the year in which the same shall be issued, shall commence from September 29, then next ensuing, and continue till September 29 following; and afresh licence is to be taken out ten days at least before the expiration of the year. One licence is sufficient for partners, and the licence is confined to the place mentioned thercrein. But no licences to be granted to horse-dealers, unless they declare they seek their living by buying and selling horses, and add the name of the place where the said business is carried on. 29 Geo. III. c. 49. Horse-dealers so licenced, shall cause the words licenc- ed to deal in horses to be painted or written in large and legible characters either on a sign hung out or on some visible place in the front of their house, gate-way, or stables; and if they shall sell any horse without fixing such token, they shall forfeit 10/. to be recovered by ac- tion, half to the king, and half to the informer. 36 Geo. III. c. 17. Horse-dealers who shall, after January 1, 1796, carry on the said business without having obtained a licence under this act, shall be liable to be assessed the duties on riding-horses, and shall deliver lists thereof as other persons. Horse-shoe, in fortification, is a small work, some- times of a round and sometimes of an «>val figure, in- closed with a parapet, sometimes raised in the moat or ditch, or in low grounds, and sometimes to cover a gate, or to serve as a lodgment for soldiers. See Fortifica- tion. Horse-shoes. See Farriery. Horse, in a ship, is a rope made fast to each yard arm, and on which the men stand to furl the sails. It is also a wooden frame with a rowel fixed in it, made use of by the riggers to woold ships-masts, HORSES. It shall be lawful for any person, native or foreigner, at any time to ship, lade, and transport by way of merchandize, horses into any parts beyond the seas in amity with his majesty, paying for each horse, mare, or gelding, 5s. and no more. No person convicted for feloniously stealing a horse, gelding, or mare, shall have the privilege of clergy. 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. And not only all accessaries before such felony done, but also all accessaries after such felony, shall be deprived and put from all benefit of their clergy, as the principal, by statute heretofore made, is or ought to be. If a horse be stolen out of the stable, or other curti- lage of a dwelling-house, in the night time, it falls under the denomination of burglary; if in the day-time, it falls under the denomination of larceny from the house; and in eitlier case there is a reward of 40/. for convicting an offender, and the prosecutor is entitled to a certificate which will exempt him from all parish and ward offices in the parish and ward where tbe burglary or larceny is committed, and which may be once assigned over, and will give the same exemption to the assignee as to the original proprietor. Burn's Just. 621. If an unsound horse is sold at the price of a sound horse, though not absolutely warranted to be sound, the seller sins against the law of morality and the law ofthe land; but if he acknowledges him not to be sound, and sells, him greatly under the value of a sound horse, as if he disposes.of him for 25/. when he would have been worth 50/. if sound, such sale may be considered as fair and legal. If a horse which is warranted sound at the time of sale is proved to have been at that time unsound, it is not necessary that he should be returned to the seller. No lapse of time elapsed after the sale will alter the. na- ture of a contract originally false. Neither is notice ne- cessary to be given; though the not giving notice will be a strong presumption against the buyer, that the horse at the time of sale had not the defect complained of, and will make the proof on his part much more difficult. The bargain is complete; and if it is fraudulenton the part of the seller, he will be liable to the buyer in damages, without either a return or notice. If on account of a horse warranted sound, the buyer shall sell him again at a loss, an action might perhaps be maintained against the original seller, to recover the dif- ference ofthe price, l Hen. Black. 17. Slaughtering fiorses. Great abuses having arisen, and many horses having been stolen, from the facility and safety of disposing of them to those who keep slaughter- houses for horses, some regulations and restrictions seem- ed abolutely necessary. It was no uncommon thing for horses of great value to be sold for the purpose of making food for dogs; the thief rather choosing to receive 20s. for a stolen horse, without fear or danger of detection, than venture to dispose of him publicly, though he might possibly have found a pure-baser who Would have given as many pounds for him. Tnese considerations induced the legislature to pass the act of 26 Geo. 111. c. 71, for regulating these slaughter-houses. Killing or maiming horses. Where any person shall in H 0 R II 0 T the night-time maliciously, unlawfully, and willingly kill or destroy any horses, sheep, or other cattle, of any per- son, every such offence shall be acljudged felony, and the offender shall suffer as in the case of felony. 22 and 23 Car. II. c. 7. Offenders may be transported for seven years, either at the assizes or at the sessions, by three justices of the peace, one to be ofthe quorum. By the 9th Geo. I. c. 22. commonly called the black- act, it is enacted, that if any person shall unlawfully and maliciously kill, maim, or wound any cattle, every per- son so offending, being thereof lawfully convicted in any county of England, shall be adjudged guilty of felo- ny, and shall suffer death, as in cases of felony, without benefit of clergy. But not to work corruption of blood, loss of dower, nor forfeiture of lands or goods. Prosecution upon this statute shall or may be com menced within three years from the time of the offence committed, but not after. If an horse or other goods are delivered to an inn- keeper or his servants, he is bound to keep them safely, and restore them when his guest leaves the house. 2 Black. 451. If an horse is delivered to an agisting farmer, for the purpose of depasturing in his meadows, he is answerable for the loss of the horse, if it is occasioned by the ordi- nary neglect of himself or his servants. Jones on Bailm. 91. If a man rides to an inn, where his horse has eaten, the host may detain the horse till he is satisfied for the eating, and without making any demand. 14 Via. Abr. 437. But an horse committed to an inn-keeper can only be detained for his own meat, and not for that of his guest or any other horse; for the chattels in such case are only in the custody of the law for the debt which arises from the thing itself, and not for any other debt due from the same party. 2 Rol. Abr. 85. By the custom of London aud Exeter, if a man com- mits an horse to an inn-keeper, if he eats out his price, the inn-keeper may take him as his own, upon the reasonable appraisement of four of his neighbours; which was it seems a custom arising from the abundance of traffic wilh strangers, that could not be known so as to be charg- ed with an action. But it has been holden, though an inn-keeper in London may, after long keeping, have the horse appraised and sell him, yet, when he has in such case had him appraised, he cannot justify the taking him to himself at the price he was apprised at. Vin. Abr. 233. HORTUS siccus, a dry garden, an appellation given to a collection of specimens of plants, carefully dried and preserved. The value of such a collection is very evident, since a thousand minutiae may be preserved in the well- dried specimens of plants, which the most accurate en- graver would have omitted. Among the different methods adopted by botanists for obtaining a hortus siccus, the following appear to be the most practicable: 1. Lay the plants flat between papers; then place them between two smooth plates of iron screwed together at the corners: in tbis state they are to be committed to a baker's oven for two hours. After being taken out, they must be rubbed over with a mixture, consisting of equal parts of brandy and vinegar, then pasted down on paper with a solution of.gum-tragacanth in water, after whicli they are to be laid in a book, where they will adhere, and retain ther original freshness. The following method is however more simple. 2. Flatten the plant by passing a common smoothing- iron over the papers between which it is placed, and dry it slowly in a sand-heat. For this purpose the cold sand ought to be spread evenly, the smoothciied plant laid gently on it, and sand sifted over so as to form a thick bed; the fire is then to be kindled, and the whole process carefully watched, till the plant is gradually and perfect- ly dried. Thus the colpur of the tenderest herb, may be preserved, .and the most delicate flowers retain all their pristine beauty. 3. Another and far more complete method was sug- gested by the ingenious Mr. Whatcly. He directs those who intend to follow his plan, previously to procure—l. A strong oak-box of the same size and shape as those employed for packing up tin plates; 2. a quantity of fine sifted sand, sufficient to fill the box; 3, a considerable number of pieces of pliant paper, from one to four inches square; anil 4. some small flat leaden weights, and a few small bound books. The plant is first to be cleared from the soil as well as the decayed leaves, and then laid on the inside of one of the leaves of a sheet of common cap-paper. The upper leaves and flowers are next to be covered, when expand- ed, by pieces of the prepared paper, and one or two of the leaden weights placed on them. The remainder of the plant is now to be treated in a similar manner. The weights ought next to be gently removed, and the other leaf of the sheet of paper folded over the opposite one so as to contain the loose pieces of paper and plants between them. A book or two is now to be applied to the outside of the paper till the intended number of plants is thus prepared; when a bc>x is to be filled with sand to the depth of an inch, one of the plants put in, and covered with sand sufficient to prevent the form of the plani from varying. The other plants may then be placed in succes- sion, and likewise covered with a layer of sand, one inch thick between each; after which the whole is to be gently pressed down in a greater or less degree, according to the tenderness or firmness ofthe plants. The box is next to be carefully placed before a fire, one side being occasionally a little raised, as may be most convenient; the sides being alternately presented to the fire two or tiiree times in the day, or the whole may be put into an oven gently heated. In the course of two or three days the plants will be perfectly dry, when the sand ought to be taken out and put into another box: the plants should likewise be removed to a sheet of writing paper. HOSPITALERS, an order of religious knights, now know n by the title of knights of Malta. HOT-BEDS, in gardening, beds made with fresh horse-dung, or tanner's bark, and covered with glasses to defend them from cold winds. According to the quantity and quality ofthe materals put together for hot beds, the heat will be proportioned as to strength and duration; and by a judicious use in making, and the management afterwards, many advan- tages may be obtained from them. The great point is, to suit the degree of heat to the nature of the different HOT HOT plants to be cultivated, that they may have neither more nor less than is necessary to promote a regular vegeta- tion. Two errors are common in the use of hot-beds, sowing or placing in the same bed things of a very different na- ture, as to the climate they grow best in, and forcing with too much heat even the tenderest. Though it may imt answer our often too hasty views,'the heat of a bed had better be slack than otherwise. A strong hot-bed that ought at least to be made a fortnight before it is used, is sometimes furnished by impatience in a few days, and various ill consequences follow, which naturally frustrate expectation. The place where hot-beds are worked should be open to the full sun, catching it as early as possible in the morning, and having it as long as can be in the evening; and if not naturally sheltered, it should be screened from the north and nort-east winds by a bordered fence or rather one of reeds, as from a solid fence the wind re- verberates; but straw or flake-hurdles set endwise may do. A screen of some sort (and a close-dipt hedge is as good as any) not only protects the inclosure from the harsher winds, and confines the warm air, but keeps a rather unsightly work from view, and straws from blow- ing about, the litter, of which is so disagreeable. Working of the dung is necessary previous to the ma- king of a hot-bed, i. e. it should be thrown together on an heaj), in a conical form; and when it has taken a thorough heat, and has been smoking or sweating for two or three days, it should be turned over,, moving the outside in, or mixing the colder parts with the hot. When it has taken heat again for two or three days, give it a second turn as before, and having lain the same time, it will be in proper order for making a good last- ing bed with a steady heat. If in haste, it may be made into a bed after the first heating; but it will be better for shifting again, or even a third time. When dung is ready before wanted, keep turning it over, lest it should be too much spent. It will be proper to begin to work fresh dung a week or ten days before it is to be used; but if the dung is not fresh, it is only necessary to throw it together for once heating. The size of a hot-bed, as to length and breadth, is of course to be according to the frame; and the height of it according to the season and the degree of heat requi- site to the nature of the plant to be cultivated. In a dry soil, a bed may be sunk in the ground from six inches to a foot, to make it more convenient to get at and man- age. But beds made.forward in the season should rather be on the surface, for the sake of being able to add stronger linings, kc. In case of an insufficient quantity of good horse-dung, that of cows, oxen, or pigs, if it is strawy, and not too wet, may be mixed with it, in the proportion of one- fourth or more, especially in an advanced part of the season, or to cultivate things that arc only forcing, and do not naturally require heat. When the season is pretty much advanced, hot-beds may be made of grass mowings (as from an orchard) and weeds, which is a common practice in the cyder countries. These heats, however, are often too violent, and last not long; yet they may be lined with the same materials if done in time; otherwise if a green hot-bed gets greatly cool, it will not be recovered. A grass bed may be used as soon as warm, but let it not be over- weighted by putting on heavy frames, or more mould than necessary. It should rather be worked with hand- glasses or oiled paper covers. Hot-beds are sometimes made of the refuse bark of a tanner's yard, and also of oak-leaves; but these must have walled pits for them of a large size, and are seldom used but in hot-houses. A bark-bed properly made, and managed by forking up at two or three month's end, eScc. will hold a fair, moderate, and steady heat four, five, or six months. To decrease the heat of a bed, several holes may be made in it, by thrusting an iron bar, or a thick smooth sharp-pointed stake, up to the middle, which holes are to be close stopt again with dung or hay when the heat is sufficiently abated. The uses to which hot-beds may be applied are vari- ous, but chiefly for the cultivation of cucumbers and me- lons. At the spring ofthe >ear, hot-beds are commonly made use of for forcing crops of several vegetables, as radishes, carrots, cauliflowers, lettuces, potatoes, tur- neps, kidney-beans, purslane, tarragon, small sallading, kc Fruits of several sorts, strawberries, raspberries, &c. are sometimes brought forward by dung heat; as also .various shrubs and flowers, by means of forcing-frames. Tender annuals, as balsams and other flowers that necessarily require heat to bring them up, and the less tender, and some even of the hardy sorts, are also cul- tivated on hot-beds, or by other assistance from dung, to produce an earlier blow than could otherwise be bad. Hot-house, in salt-making, the place where they dry the salt, when taken out of the boiling-pan. It is situated near the furnace, which, by means of funnels or tubes, conveys the heat into it. Hot-house, in gardening, an erection intended for the culture ofthe tender exotics of tropical climates. It is usually built lower than a greenhouse, with double flues, and a pit inthe middle for tanner's bark, in which, as in a kind of hot-bed, the pots containing the plants arc to be plunged. A hot-house should be kept at a regular heat, seldom less than 70°; and when the weather becomes about 10° below that extremity, the fires may be left off. The tan should be renewed twice a year, in spring and autumn; and care must be taken not to plunge the plants in it till the heat is risen to a proper degree. The ingenious Dr. Anderson, so well known for his labours in agriculture, has lately constructed a hot-house to be kept warm by air chiefly warmed by the beat of the sun. It is entirely of glass, and the upper part is a close chamber to contain the heated air, which is let into the house by a valve. In the winter the e hamber is heated by a lamp, and the warm air is admitted in the same manner as that which is warmed by the sun. The house is also moveable; but for further details we must refer to the doctor's Agricultural Recreations. HOTCH-roT, inlaw, is used for mixing of lands given in marriage with other lands in fee whicli fall by descent; as where a man possessed of thirty acres ed* land has is- sue only tvyo daughters, and after his having given with one of them ten acres in marriage, he dies possessed of the other twenty. Here she that is thus married, in or- der to gain her share of the rest of the land, must put H 0 U HOC her part given in marriage in hotch-pot; that is, she must refu-e to take the sole profits of her lands,, and cause it to be mingled with the other, so that an equal divisiem may he made of the whole between her and her shier; by which means, instead of only her ten acres, she has fifteen. HO VENT A, a genus of the class and order pentandria monogynia. The petals arc five, convoluted; stigma tri- fiel; capsule three-celled, three-valved. There is' one species, a shrub of Japan. HOVEIliNG. Ships of 50 tons, laden with custom- able or prohibited goods, hovering on the coasts of this kingdom, within the limits of any port (and not proceed- ing from foreign parts), may be entered by officers of the customs, who are to tak*1 an account of the lading, and to demand and take a security from the master, by his bond to his majesty, in such sum of money as shall be treble the value of such foreign goods then on board; that such ship shall proceed (as soon as wind and wea- ther and the condition of the ship will permit) on her voyage to foreign parts, and shall land the goods in some foreign port; the master refusing to enter into such bond on demand, or who having given bond, shall not proceed on such voyage (unless otherwise suffered to make a longer stay by the collector or other principal officer of such port where the vessel shall be, not ex- ceeding 20 days); in either ofthe said cases, all the fo- reign goods may be taken out by the customhouse-offi- cers, by direction ofthe collector, and properly secured; and if they are customable, the duties shall be paid; and if prohibited, they shall be forfeited. The officers of the customs may prosecute the same, as also the ship, if liable to condemnation. 3 Geo. III. c. 21. Commanders of men of war, and customhouse-officers, may compel ships of 50 tons, or under, hovering within two leagues of shore, to come into port. 6 Geo. I. c. 21. If any ship or vess.el shall be found at anchor, or ho- vering within eight leagues of the coast (except between the North Foreland aud Bcachy Head), unless by dis- tress of weather, having on hoard foreign spirits, in any vessel or cask which shall not contain 60 gallons at least, or any wine in casks (provided such vessel shall have wine on board), shall not exceed 60 tons burthen, or six pounds wright of tea, or 20 pounds weight of coffee, or any goods whatever liable to forfeiture upon importa- tion, that such goods, with the ship and furniture, shall be forfeited: spirits for the use of seamen, not exceeding two gallons per man, excepted. 42 Geo. III. c. 82. HOUND. See Canis. HOUR, hora, in chronology, an aliquot part of a na- tural day, usually a 24th, sometimes a 12th. See As- tronomy, Geography, &c. There are different hours used by chronologers, astro- nomers, dialists, &c. Sometimes hours are divided into equal and unequal. Equal hours are the 24th part of a day and night precisely, that is, the time wherein 15 de- grees of the equator mount above the horizon. These are also called equinoctial hours, because they are mea- sured on the equinoctial; and astronomical, because used by astronomers. They are also differently denominated according to the manner of accounting them in different countries. Astronomical hours are equal hours, reckon- ed from noon or mid-day, in a continued series of twenty. four. Babylonish boms are equal hours reckoned iu the same manner from sun-rise. The Italian hours arc also equal hours, reckoned in the same manner too, from sun-setting. European hours are also equal hours, rec- koned from midnight; 12 from thence to noon, and 12 more from noon to midnight. Jewish, or planetary, or ancient hours, are the twelfth part of the artificial* day and night, each being divided into 12 equal parts. Hciice, as it is only in the time of the equinoxes that the artifi- cial day is equal to the night, it is then only that the hours of the day are equal to those of the night. At other times they will be always either increasing or decreas- ing: and they will be the more or less unequal according to the obliquity of the sphere. HOUSE. Every man's house is as his castle, as well to defend him against injuries, as for his repose. Upon recovery in any real action or ejectment, the sheriff may break the house and deliver seisin, kc to the plaintiff, the writ being habere facias seisinam, or possessionem; and after judgment it is not the house of the defendant in right and judgment of the law. In all cases where the king is party, the sheriff, if no door is open, may break the party's house to take him, or to execute other process of the king, if he cannot otherwise enter; hut he ought first to signify the cause of his coming, and request the door to be opened: and this appears by the statute Westm. 1, 17, which is. only in affirmance of the common law; and without default in the owner, the law will not suffer an house to be broken. In all cases where the door is open, the sheriff may enter and make execution at the suit of any subject, ei- ther of body or goods; but otherwise where the door is shut, there he cannot break it to execute process at the suit of a subject. Though an house is a castle for the owner himself and his family, and his own goods, kc yet it is no protec- tion for a stranger flying thither, or the goods of such a one, to prevent lawful execution; and therefore in such case, after request to enter, and denial, the sheriff may break the house. 5 Rep. 91. If a person authorized to arrest another who is shel- tered in an house, is denied quietly to enter into it, in order to take him, it seems generally to be agreed, that he may justify the breaking open of the doors upon ara- pias from the king's bench or chancery, to compel a man to find sureties for the peace or good behaviour, or even upon a warrant from ajusticeof the peace for such person. So where one known to have committed treason, is pursued either with or without a warrant, by a consta- ble or private person. So where an affray is made in an house in the view or hearing of a constable; or where those who have made an affray in his presence fly to an house, and are imme- diately pursued by him, and he is not suffered to enter in order to suppress the affray in the first case, or to apprehend the affrayers in cither case. 2 Haw. 86, 87. A man ought so to use his house as not to damnify his neighbour: and a man may compel another to repair his house in several cases by the writ dc domo reparanda, 1 Salk. 360. * If a man builds his house so close to mine, that his roof overhangs my roof, and throws the water of hi* II 0 u HUE roof upon mine, this is a nuisance for which an action will lie. But depriving one of a mere matter of pleasure, as of a fine prospect, by building a wall or the like; this, as it abridges nothing really convenient or necessary, is no injury to the sufferer, and is therefore not an action- able nuisance. 3 lllack. 217. HOUSEHOLD, the whole of a family considered col- lectively, including the mistress, children, and servants: but the household of a sovereign prince includes only the officers and domestics belonging to his palace. The principal officers of his majesty's household are, the lord steward, lord chamberlain f the household, the groom ofthe stole, the masterof the great wardrobe, and the master of :he horse. The civil government of the king's bouse is under the care of the lord steward of the king's household, who, as he is the chief officer, all his commands are observed and eibeyed. His authority ex- tends over all the other <»flicers and servants, except those of his majesty's chapel, chamber, and stable; and he is the judge of all crimes cemimitted either within the court or the verge. Under him are the treasurer of the household, the comptroller, cofferer, the master of the hottsriiold, the clerks of the green cloth, and the officers and servants belonging to the accounting-house, the mar- shalsea, the verge, the king's kitchen, the household kitchen, the aratery, bakehouse, pantry, buttery, cellar, pastry, &c. Next to the lord steward is the lord cham- berlain of the household, who has under him the vice- chamberlain, the treasurer, and comptroller of the cham- ber, 12 of whom wait quarterly, and two of them lie every night in the privy chamber; the gentleman usher, the grooms of the great chamber, the pages of the pre- sence chamber; the mace-bearers, cup-bearers, carvers, musicians, kc The groom ofthe stole has under him the eleven other lords of the bed-chamber, who wait weekly in the bed- chamber, and by turns lie there anights on a pallat-bed; and also the grooms of the bed-chamber, the pages of the bed-chamber and back stairs, &c\ The master or keeper of the great wardrobe has under him a deputy, comptroller, clerk of the robes, brusher, kc. and a number of tradesmen and artificers, who are all sworn servants to the king. The master ofthe horse has under his command the equerries, pages, footmen, grooms, coachmen, farriers, saddlers, and all the other officers and tradesmen employ- ed in his majesty's stables. Next to the civil list of the king's court is the military, consisting eif the band .f gentlemen pensioners, the yeo- men ofthe guard, and the troops of the household; of which the two first guard the king above stairs. When the king dines in public, he is waited upon at table by his majesty's cup bearers, carvers, and gentle- men sewers, the musicians plaring all the time. The dinner is brought up by the yeomen of the guard, and the gentlemen sewers set the dishe s in order. The car- vers cut for the king, and the cup-bearers serve him the drink with one knee on the ground, alter he has first tasted it in the cover. HOUSTON I A, a genus of the monogynia order, in the tetrandria e Uss of pi nis, and in the natural method ranking under the 47th order, stcllutaj. The corolla is vol. n. 51 monopetalous and funnel-shaped; the capsule bilocular, dispermous, superior. There are two species, shrubs of America. HOUTTYNIA, a genus of the class and order p >ly- andria polygynia. The calyx is four-leaved; corolla r,; nc, stamina mixed with the pistils, seven about each g< in. There is one species, an herb ofthe East Indies, having the habit of a polygonum. ■ HUDSONTA, a genus of the monogynia order, inthe dodecandria class of plants. There is no corolla; the calyx is pentaphyllous and tubular; there are 15 stami- na; the capsule is unilocular, trivalvular, and trisper- moas. There is one species, a shrub of Virginia. HUE AND CRY, is the ancient common law pro- cess after felons, and such as have dangerously wounded any person, or assaulted any one with an intent to rob him; and it has received great countenance and autho- rity by several acts of parliament. In any of which cases, the party grieved, or any other, may resort to the constable of the viii; and, 1. give him such reasonable assurances thereof as the nature of the case will bear: 2. if he knows the name of him that did it, he must tell the constable the same: 3. if he knows it not, but can de- scribe him, he must describe him, his person, or his ha- bit, or his house or such circumstances as he knows, which may conduce to the discovery: 4. if the thing is done in the night, so that he knows none of these cir- cumstances, he must mention the number of persons, or the way they took: 5. if none of all these can be discovered, as where a robbery, or burglary, or other felony, is com- mitted in the night, yet they are to acquaint the consta- ble with the fact, and desire him to search his town for suspected persons, and to make hue and cry after such as may probably be suspected, as being persons vagrant in the same night; for many circumstances may happen to be useful for discovering a malefactor, which cannot at first be found out. For the levying of hue and cry, although it is a good course to have a justice's warrant, where time will per- mit, in order to prevent causele-s hue and cry; yet it is not necessary nor always convenient, for the felon may escape before the warrant is obtained. And upon hue and cry levied against any person; or where any hue and cry comes to a constable, whether the person is certain or uncertain, the constable may search suspected places within his vill, for the apprehending of a felon. And if the person against whom the hue and cry is raised, is not found in the constablewick, then the constable, and also every officer to whom the hue and cry shall after- wards come, ought to give notice to every t< wn round about hi in, and to one next town e nly; ; nd se> from one constable to another, until the offender is found, or till they come to the sea-side. And this was the law before the conquest. And in such cases it is needful to give notice in writ- ing to the pursuers of the thing stolen, and of the colour and marks thereof, as also to describe the person of the felon, his apparel, horse, or the like, and which way he is gone, if it may be: but if the person that did the fact is neither known nor describable by his pir.son. clothes, or the like, yet such a hue and cry is good, and must be pursued, though no person certain can be named or de- scribed. 2 H. H. 100.103. HUM II U M HUER, a name given to certain fountains in Iceland, of a most extraordinary nature, forming at times jets d'eaux of scalding water 94 feet high and 30 in diame- ter. They arise out of cylindrical tubes of unknown depths. Near the surface they expand into apertures of a funnel shape, and the mouths spread into a large extent of stalac tical matter, formed of successive scaly concentric undulations. The playing of these stupendous spouts is foretold by noises roaring like the cataract of of Niagara. The cylinder begins to fill: it rises gradu- ally to the surface, and as gradually increases its height, smoking amazingly, and flinging up great stones. After attaining its greatest height, it gradually sinks till it to- tally disappears. Boiling jets d'eaux and boiling springs are frequent in most parts of the island; and in many parts they are commonly applied to the culinary uses of the Hatives. The most capital is that which is called geyer or geyser, in a plain rising into small hills, and in the midst of an amphitheatre, bounded by the most magnificent and various-shaped icy mountains, among which the three-headed Hecla soars pre-eminent. These huers are not confined to the land; they rise in the very sea, and form scalding fountains amidst the waves. Their distance from the land is unknown; but the new volcanic isle, twelve miles off the point of Reickness, emitting fire and smoke, proves that the subterraneous fires anil waters extend to that space; for those awful effects arise from the united fury of these two elements. HUGONIA, a genus of the decandria order, in the monadelphia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is pentapetalous; the fruit is a plum with a striat- ed kernel. There is one species, a tree of the East Indies. HUGUENOTS, a name given by way of contempt to the protectants of France. The name bad its rise in the year 1560; but authors are not agreed as to its origin. The most plausible opinion, however, is that of Pasquier, who observes, that at Tours, the place where they were first thus denominated, the people had a notion that an apparition or hobgoblin, called king Hugon, strolled about the streets in the night-time; whence as those of the reformed religion met chiefly in the night to pray, &c. they called them Huguenots, that is, the disciples of king Hugon. HULL, in the sea language, is the main body of a ship, without either masts, yards, sails, or rigging. Thus to. strike a hull in a storm is to take in her sails, and to lash the helm on the lee-side of the ship; and to hull or lie a hull, is said of a ship whose sails are thus taken in, and helm lashed a-lee. HUMERUS. See Anatomy. Humerus, luxation of the. See Surgery. HUMMING-BIRD.* See Trochilus. HUMULUS, the hop, a genus ofthe pentandria order, in the dicecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 53d order, scabridse. Tiie male calyx is pentaphyllous; there is no corolla: the female calyx is monophyllous, patent obliquely, and entire; there is no corolla, but two styles, and one seed within the calyx, the latter consisting of one large leaf. There is onlv one species, viz. the lupulus, which is sometimes found wild in hedges near houses and gardens, but probably is not indigenous. The stalk is weak and climbing; it creeps up the support in a spiral, ascending always from the right hand to the left. Hops are said to have been first brought into England from the Netherlands in the year 1524. They are first mentioned in the English statute-book in the year 1552, viz. in the 5th and 6th Edw. VI. cap. 5.: and by an act of parliament of the first year of king James I. anno 1603, cap. 18. it appears that hops were then produ- ced in abundance in England. The hop bring a plant of great importance, we shall consider what re- lates to the culture and management of it under distinct heads. Of soil. As for the choice of soil, the hop-planters es- teem the richest and strongest ground the most proper; and if it is rocky within two or three feet of the surface, the hops will prosper well; but they will by no means thrive on a stiff clay or spongy wet land. The Kentish planters account new land best for hops; they plant their hop gardens with apple-trees at a large distance, and with cherry-trees between; and when the land has done its best for hops, which they reckon it will in about ten years, the trees may begin to bear. To plant hops. In the winter time provide your soil and manure for the hop-ground against the following spring. If the dung is rotten, mix it with two or three parts of common earth, and let it incorporate together till you have occasion to make use of it in making your hop-hills; but if it is new dung, then let it be mixed as before till the spring in the next year, for new dung is very injurious to hops. Hops require to be planted m a situation so open as that the air may freely pass round and between them, to dry up and dissipate the moisture, whereby they will not be so subject to fire-blasts, which often destroy the middles of large plantations, while the outrides remaii unhurt. The hills should be eight or nine feet asunder, that the air may freely pass between them. If the ground is in- tended to be ploughed with horses between the hills, it will be best to plant them in squares chequerwise; but if the ground is so small that it may be done with the breast-plough or spade, the holes should be ranged in a quincunx form. Which way soever you make use of, a stake should be stuck down at all the places where the hills are to be made. Persons ought to be very curious in the choice of the plants as to the kind of hop; for if the hop garden is planted with a mixture of several sorts of hops that ri- pen at several times, it will cause a great deal of trouble, and be a great detriment to the owner. The two best sorts are the white and the gvey bind; the latter is a large, square hop, more hardy, and is the more plentiful bearer, and ripens later than'the former. There is anoth- er sort of the white bind, which ripens a week or ten days before the common; but this is tenderer, and a less plentiful bearer; but it has this advantage, that it conies first to market. If there is a sort of hop you value, and would increase plants and sets from, the superfluous binds may be laid down when the hops are tied, cutting off the tops, and burying them in the hill; or when the hops are dressed, all the cuttings may be saved; for almost every part will grow, and become a good set the next spring. HUMULUS. As to the seasons of planting hop-, the Kentish plan- ters approve the months of October and March. The most usual time, however, of procuring them is in March, when the hops are cut and dressed. As to the manner of planting the sets, there should be five good sets planted in every hill, one in the middle, and the rest rounel about sloping. Let thein be pressed close with the hand, and covered with fine earth, and a stick should be placed on each side the hill to secure it. Dressing. As to the dressing of the hops, when the hop-ground is dug in Janilary or February, the earth about the hills, and very near them, ought to be taken away with a spade, that you may come the; more conve- niently at the stock to cut it. About the end of February, if the hops were planted the spring before, or if the ground is weak, they ought to be dressed in dry weather; but else, if the ground is strong and in perfection, the middle of March will be a good time; and the latter end of March, if it is apt to produce over-rank binds, or tbe beginning of April may be soon enough. Then having with an iron picker cleared away all the earth out of the hills,-so as to clear the stock to the principal roots, with a sharp knife you must cut off all the shoots which grew up with the binds the last year; and algo all the young suckers, that none be left to run in the alley, and weak- en the hill. It will be proper to cut one part of the stock lower than the other, and also to cut that part low that was left highest the preceding year. In dressing those hops that have been planted the year before, you ought to cut off both the dead tops and the young suckers which have sprung up from the sets, and also to cover the stocks with fine earth a finger's length in thick- ness. The poling. About the middle of April the hops are to be poled, when the shoots begin to sprout up; the poles must be set to the hills deep into the ground, with a square iron picker or crow7, that they may the better en- dure the winds; three poles are sufficient for one hill. These should be placed as near the hill as may be, with their bending tops turned outwards from tbe hill to pre- vent the binds from entangling; and a space between two poles ought to be left open to the south to admit the sun- beams. The tying. As to the tying of hops, the buds that do not clasp of themselves to the nearest pole when they are grown to three or four feet high, must be guided to it by the band, turning thein to the sun, whose course they will always follow. They must be bound with withered rushes, but not so close as to hinder them from climbing up the pole. This you must continue to do till all the poles are furnished with binds, of which two or three are enough for a pole; and all the sprouts and binds that you have no occasion for, are to be plucked up; but if the ground is young, then none of these useless binds should be plucked up, but should be wrapped up together in the middle ofthe hill. Gathering. About the beginning of July hops begin to blow, and will be ready to gather about Bartholomew- tide. Ajudgmcnt may be made of their ripeness by their strong scent, their hardness, and the brownish colour of their seed. When by thes<' tokens they appear to be ripe, they must be picked with all the expedition possible; for if at this time a storm of wind should come, it would do them great damage by breaking the branches, and bruis- ing and discolouring the hops; and it is very well known that hops, being picked green and bright, will sell for a third more than those which are discoloured and brown. The most convenient way of picking them is into a long square frame of wood, called a bin, with a cloth hanging on tenter-hooks within it, to receive the hops as they are picked. The hops must be picked very clean, t. e. free from leaves and stalks; and, as there shall be occasion, two or three times in a day the bin must be emptied into a bop- bag made of coarse linen cloth, and carried immediately to the oast or kiln in order to be dried; for if they should be long in the bin or bag, they will be apt to heat and be discoloured. If the weather is hot, there should no more poles be drawn than can be picked in an hour, and they should be gathered in fair weather, if it can be, and when the hops are dry; this will save some expense in firing, and preserve their colour better when they are dried. Drying. The best method of drying hops is with char- coal on an oast or kiln, covered with hair-cloth, of the same form and fashion that is used for drying malt. There is no need to give any particular directions for making these, since every carpenter or brick-layer in those countries where hops grow, or malt is made, knows how to build them. The kiln ought to be square, and may be of ten, twelve, fourteen, or sixteen feet over at the top, where the hops are laid, as your plantation requires, and your room will allow. There ought to be a due pro- portion between the height and breadth of the kiln and the begucls of the steddle where the fire is kept, viz. if the kiln is twelve feet square on the top, it ought to be nine feet high from the fire, and the steddle ought to be six feet and a half square, and so proportionable in other dimensions. The hops must be spread even upon the oast a foot thick or more, if the depth of the curb will allow it; but care is to be taken not to overload the oast if the hops are green or wet. The oast ought to be first warmed with a fire before the hops are laid on, and then an even steady fire must be kept under them; it must not be too fierce at first, lest it scorch the hops, nor must it be suffer- ed to sink or slacken, but rather be increased till the hops are nearly dried, lest the moisture or sweat which the fire has raised fall back or discolour them. When they have lain about nine hours they must be turned, and in two or three hours more they may be taken off the oast. It may be known when they are well dried by the brittleness ofthe stalks and the easy falling off the hop- leaves. Bagging. As soon as tbe hops are taken off the kiln, lay them in a room for three weeks or a month to cool, give, and toughen; for if they are bagged immediately they will powder, but if they lie a while (and the longer they lie the better, provided they are covered close with blankets to secure them from the air) they may be bag- ged with more safety, as not being liable to be broken to powder in treading; and this will make them bear tread- ing the better, and the harder they are trodden the bet- ter they will keep. Laws relating to hops. By 9 Anne, cap. 121, an ad- ditional duty of 3d. a pound is laid on all hops imported, over and above all other duties; and Uops landed before HUN H U R entry and payment of duty, or without warrant for land- ing, shall be forfeited and burnt; the ship also shall be for- feited, and the peison concerned iu importing or lancling shall forfeit 5/. a hundred weight, 7 Geo. II. cap. 19. By 9 Anne, cap. 12, there shall be paid a duty of \d. for every pound of hops grown in Great Britain, and made fit for use, within six months after they are cured and bagged; and hop-grounds are required to be entered on pain of 40s. an acre. Places of curing and keeping are also to be entered on pain of 50/. which may be visited by an officer at any time without obstruction, under the pe- nalty of 201. All hops shall, within six weeks after ga- thering, be brought to such places to be cured and bag- ged, on pain of 5s. a pound. The re-bagging of foreign hops in British bagging for sale or exportation, incurs a forfeiture of \0l. a hundred weight; and defrauding the king of bis duty by using twice or oftener the same bag, with the officer's mark upon it, is liable te> a penalty of 40/. The removal of hops before they have been bagged and weighed, incurs a penalty of 50/. Concealment of hops subjects to the forfeiture of 20/-. and the concealed hops; and any person who shall privately convey away any hops with intent to defraud the king and owner, shall forfeit 5s. a pound. And the duties are required to be paid within six months after curing, bagging, and weigh- ing, on pain of double duty, two-thirds to the king, and one-third to the informer. No common brewer shall use any bitter ingredient instead of hops, on pain of 20/. Hops which have paid the duty may be exported to Ire- land; but by 6 Geo. II. cap. 11, there shall be no draw- back; and by 7 Geo. 11. cap. 19. no foreign hops shall be landed iu Ireland. Notice of bagging and weighing shall be sent in writing to the officer, on pain of 50/. 6 Geo. cap. 21. And by 14 Geo. III. cap. 68. the officer shall, on pain of 5/. weigh the bags or pockets, and mark on them the true weight or tare, the planter's name and place of abode, and the date of the year in which such hops were grown; and the altering or forging, or oblitering such mark, incurs a forfeiture of 10/. The owners of hops shall keep at their eiasts, kc. just weights and scales, and permit the officer to use them, on pain of 20/. 6 Geo. cap. 21. And by 10 Geo. III. cap. 44. a penalty of 100/. is inflicted for false scales and weights; The owners are allowed to use casks instead of bags, under the same re- gulations, 6 Geo. II. cap. 21. If any person shall mix with hops any drug to alter the colour or scent, he shall forfeit 5/. a hundred weight. If any person shall unlaw- fully and malicious cut hop-binds growing on poles in any plantation he shall be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy. 6 Geo. II. cap. 37. By a late act, five percent. is added to the duties on hops. HUNDRED. Iu the time of king Alfred the kingdom was in gross, and then divided into counties and hun- dreds, and all persons came within one hundred or other. By,stat. 2 Ed. III. c. 12. it was enacted, that all hun- dreds and wapentakes granted by the king, shall be an- nexed to the king, and not severed. And by 14 Fd. III. c. 9. that all should be annexed, and the sheriff should have power to put in bailiffs, for which he will answer, and no more shall be granted for the future. Hundreds are not answerable to persons who are rob- bed travelling on a Sunday. 29 Car. II. c. 7. Hundreds are liable to penalty on exportation of wool. 7 and 8 W. 111. c. 28. Hundreds are liable- to damages sustained by pulling down buildings. 1 Geo. I. c. 5. Hundreds are liable for damages by killing cattle, cut- ting down trees, burning houses, &c. 9 Geo. I. c. 22, and 29 Geo. II. c. 56. Hundreds arc liable for damages incurred by destroy- ing turnpikes or works on navigable rivers. 8 Geo. H. c. 20. By cutting hop-binds, 10 Geo. II. c. 32. By destroy- ing corn to prevent exportation, 11 Geo. II. c. 22. By wounding officers of the customs, 19 Geo. II. c. 34; or by destroying wood, kc 29 Geo. II. c. 36. All monies recovered against the hundred to be levied by a rate. 22 Geo. II. c. 46. HUNGARY-water, a distilled water, so denominated from a queen of Hungary, for whose use it was first pre- pared. Quincy gives the following directions for making it: Take of fresh gathered flowers of rosemary two pounds, rectified spirits of wine two quarts; put them together, and distil them immediately in balneo. HURA, a genus of the .monadelphia order, in the mo- neecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 38th order, tricoccie. The amentum of the male is imbricated, the perianthium truncated: there is no corolla; the filaments are cylindrie al, peltated on top, and surrounded with numerous or double anthers. The female has neither calyx nor corolla; the style is funnel- shaped; the stigma e left in twelve parts; the capsule is twelve-celled, with a single seed in each cell. There is but one species, viz. the crepitans, a native of the West Indies. It rises with a soft ligneous stem to the height of 24 feet, dividing into many branches. After the fl-.wer, the germen swells, and becomes a round compressed lig- neous capsule, having 12 deep furrows, each being a dis- tinct cell, containing one large round compressed seed. When the pods arc ripe, they burst with violence, and throw out their seeds to a considerable distance. It is propagated by seeds raised on a hot-bed; and the plants must be constantly kept in a stove. The kernels are said to be purgative, and sometimes emetic. HURDLES, in fortification, twigs of willows or Osiers interwoven close together, sustained by long stakes, and usually laden w ith earth. See Fortification. HURRICANE, a furious storm owing to a contrari- ety of winds. See Winh. Hurricanes are frequent in the West Indies, where they make terrible ravages, by rooting up trees, destroy- ing houses and shipping, and "even whole plantations. These dreadful convulsions of nature, Dr. Perkins, of Boston, supposes to be caused by some occasional ob- struction in the usual and natural progress of the equatorial trade winds. The reason he assigns for this conjecture is, the more than usual calm wrich commonly precedes them. Iu the natural course of the trade winds, the air rises up in the line, and passes off towards the poles, and, in the more contracted degrees ofthe higher latitudes, takes the course of the west trade- winds, so that could their ascent be prevented through the whole circle of the zone, there would be no m »re west winds in those latitudes than in any other. Very HUS H U S violent rains and cold, however, tend to check the ascent of air out of this circle, rather causing it to descend. Great clouds of vapour generate cold and wet, while rain beats down the air; and as these prevent the rising of the air out of the line, so they hinder its usual pro- gress from the tropics on both sides; hence the calms which usually precede hurricanes. Calms, in these tro- pical regions, arc caused by the ascent ofthe air into the higher part of the atmosphere, instead of its remaining near the line: the accumulation of air above then be- comes heavier by the cold which it meets in those re- gions, and descends into the more rarefied region below. These heavy gales, therefore, will continue to descend till the upper regions are entirely exonerated. HUSBAND and wife, usually called baron and feme, are one person in law: that is, the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage, or at least is incorporated and consolidated into that ofthe husb.md, under whose wing, protection and cover she performs every thing. She is therefore called in our law French, a feme covert, that ;s, un-cr the protection and influence of her husband, her baron or lord; and her condition during her marriage is called her coverture. A man cannot grant lands to his wife during her co- verture, nor any estate or interest to her, nor enter into covenent with her. But he may by his deed covenant with others for her use, as for her jointure, or the like; and he may give to her by devise or will, because the devise or will does not take effect till after his death. 1 Inst. 112. All deeds executed by the wife, and acts done by her during her coverture, are void, except a fine, or the like matter of record, in which case she must be solely and secretly examined, that it may be known whether or no her act is voluntary. 1 Black. 444. A wife is so much favoured in respect of that power and authority which her husband has over her, that she shall not suffer any punishment for committing a bare theft in company with, or by coercion of her husband. But if she commits a theft of her own voluntary act, or by the bare command of her husband, or is guilty of treason, murder, or robbery, in compmy with or by co- ercion of her husband, she is punishable as much as if she was sole; because of the odiousness and dangerous consequences of these crimes. 1 Haw. 2. By marriage the husband has power over his wife's person; and ihe courts of law still permit an husband to restrain a wife of her liberty, in case of any gross mis- behaviour. But if he threatens to kill her, kc. she may make him find surety of the peace, by suing a writ of supplicavit out of chancery, or by preferring arti les of the peace against him in the court of king's bench, or she mav apply to the spiritual court for a divorce prop- ter ssevitatem. The husband by marriage obtains a freehold in right of his wife, if he lakes a woman to wife that is si iz d of a freehold; and he may make a lease thereof for 21 years, or three lives, if it is made according to the statute. 32 Hen. MIL c. 28. The husband also gains a chattel real, as a term for years, to dispose of if he pleases by grant or ha ,e 'in her life-time, or by surviving her: otherwise it romuins with the wife. And upon execution for the husband's debt, the sheriff may sell the term during the life of the wife. 1 Inst. 351. The husband also by the marriage has an absolute gift of all chattels personal in possession ofthe wife in her own right, whether he survives her or not. But if these chattels personal are choses in action, that is, things to be sued for by action, as debts by obligation, contract, or the like, the husband shall not have them, unless he and his wife recover them. 1 Inst. 351. By custom in London, a wife may carry on a sepa- rate trade; and as such, is liable to the statutes of bank- ruptcy with respect to the goods in such separate trade, with which the husband cannot intermeddle. Burr. 1776. If the wife is indebted before marriage, the husband is bound afterwards to pay the debt, living with the wife: for he has adopted her and her circumstances together. 1 Black. 143. But if the wife dies, the husband shall not be charged for the debt of his wife after her death, if the creditor of the wife does not get judgment during the coverture. 9 Co. 72. The husband is bound to provide his wife necessaries; and if she contracts for them, he is oblige.1 to pay for the same; but for any thing besides necessaries, he is not chargeable. And also if a wife elopes, and lives with another man, the husband is not chargeable even lor necessaries: at least if the person who furnishes them is sufficiently ap- prized of her elopement. 1 Black. 442. A man having issue by his wife born alive, shall be te- nant by the courtesy of all the lauds in fee simple, or fee tail general, of which she shall die seize!. Litt. 52. Ami o'ter her death he shall have all chattels real: as the term of the wife, or a lease for years of the wife, and all other chatels in possession; and also, all such as are of a mixed n ,,.;r<. (partly in possession and partly in ao tion), as riots iu arrear, incurred before the marriage or after: but things merely in action, as of a bond or ob- ligation to the wife, he can only claim them as adminis- trator to his wife, if he survives her. Wood. b. 1. c. 6. If the wife survives the husband, she shall have for her dower the third part of ail h:s freehold lands: so she shall have her term for years again, if he has not altered toe property during his lit': s , ds,) s':e shall have again all other chattels real and mi\ .1: and s.i things in actes, with pleasure we behold many respecta- ble agricultural societies established in different parts of the kingdom, greatly contributing to the advancement of the practice as well as theory of agriculture; among which we must particularly notice that of high national concernment, instituted a few years since, under the title of the *« Board of Agriculture." About the year 1790, sir John Sinclair, a gentleman of genuine patriotic philanthropy, conceived an idea that such a board, properly constituted, would be of vast im- portance to the agricultural interests of the kingdom. Having, with much attention to the subject, matured his plan, and communicated the same to some of his parlia- mentary friends, in May 1793, " An address from the honourable house of commons was presented to his ma- jesty, entreating that his majesty would be graciously pleased to take into his royal consideration the advan- tages which might be derived by the public from the es- tablishment of a board of agriculture and internal im- provement." After surmounting the difficulties naturally attending the formation of such an institution, the charter for the same was drawn up, and sanctioned by the authority of the great seal, in August of the same year, and the foun- der elected president. To this society we are indebted for 80 volumes of the most useful agricultural knowl- edge, which could be procured from literary men, resi- dent in, or intimately acquainted with the respective counties, under the title of a « General View ofthe Ag- riculture thereof, with observations on the means of In- ternal Improvement." The grand outlines of the plan of these views are, the geographical state of each county, the state of property, farm buildings, mode of occupa- tion, implements, fences, arable land, grass, orchards, plantations, draining and other improvements, live-stock, rural economy, means of improvement, &c. A work comprising so many important objects in the science of agriculture, cannot fail of producing national benefits, greater perhaps than have been derived from any other political institution of modern times. Besides the county reports of agricultural views, the board have published sundry volumes of communications on various topics of husbandry, which have been trans- mitted to them by writers fully conversant with the sub- HUSBANDRY. jects of their respective communications. By pursuing such plan for a few years, and publishing to the world such communications, under some systematic arrange- ment, we may expect that agriculture will become the best understood, and the most accessible of any art in the whole circle of human acquirement. Soils. A land considered as the basis of vegetation is called soil. The particles of the various solid, as well as less compact bodies, that are met with in nature, and which have been rubbed down and reduced by the suc- sessive operations of the atmosphere, and the agency of other natural causes, bring mixed and blended together iu different ways and proportions, constitute the earthy compounds, which, from their being capable of absorb- ing, and in some measure retaining, moisture, as well as giving stability, afford the means of support to various products of the vegetable kind, and form the bases of soils in general; while the materials proceeding from the decomposition and decay of numerous organized animal and vegetable substances, uniting with such compounds, compose the superficial layers of rich mould, from which plants chiefly draw or derive their nourishment and support. Soils being formed in this manner, it is evident they must vary much, both in the qualities and proportions of the ingredients of which they are composed. In one si- tuation or district one sort of material is abundant, aud consequently enters largely into the soil; in others it is deficient, while those of other kinds are plentiful, and constitute the principal parts ofthe soils where they are found. Some situations too abound much more with ani- mal and vegetable matters than others, which produce great diversity in regard to the soils. The harder and more firm substances of nature, being, on account of their structure, reduced more slowly, and with greater difficulty, into the state of earth, generally enter in much smaller proportions into the composition of soils, than those w liich are of a soft and pliable disposition, and which approach nearer to the quality of earth. Thus argillaceous, loamy, and vegetable matters are fo :nd to predominate very much in soils in their primitive state, and, according to their particular qualities and propor- tions, to constitute very material differences in their pro- perties. Calcareous and siliceous earthy matters are distributed over some districts in great abundance, while in others they enter into the composition of the soils in much smaller proportions, and thus contribute to vary their textures and qualities. One of the means of deciding in respect to soils, which, in many cases, when properly limited and exercised, by a person of sound judgment and duly experienced, is certainly not a bad one, though in some respee ts also de- fective, is that of determining from the nature of the plants that are naturally produced, and the degrees of their growth and luxuriance. Thus, where plants that are only accustomed to grow in good or peculiar sorts of soil, are met with in their natural and flourishing states in other places, the soils may be concluded to be e>f this or that kind, according to the circumstances in winch they are found. The growth of certain sorts of timber trees and hedges, may also iu various instances serve to direct the judgment, and likewise the appearances or co- lours ofthe mould in particular instances; the smell and the touch will also help to inform us of the quality of « soil: the best emits a fresh pleasant scent, when fresh dug up; and if due proportions of clay and sand are inti- mately blended, it will not much stick to the fingers in handling. But, however, that our readers may be in- formed of some of the leading principles which chemistry employs, in analising soils, wc give him the following, which may be depended on. 1. To ascertain the quantity of water in any soil, take a pound ofthe soil, spread it very thin before the fire, or in the sun-shine in a warm day, let it lie till it is tho- roughly dry; the evaporation of the water will be known by the weight lost. I. To know if there are any metallic or earthy salts, take a pound of soil, pour upon it a pound of boiling dis- tilled water, stir them thoroughly together, and let them stand for ten minutes, filter off the water through filter- ing paper, pour into what comes through a solution of the fixt vegetable alkali; if there is any earthy or metal- lic salt, a precipitation w ill take place. 3. To know if the salt contained has calcareous earths for one of its elements, take the filtrated solution, pour into it half an ounce of caustic volatile alkali, or continue to drop in this alkali till no further precipitation takes place; afterwards filtrate it, and pour to what filtrates through a little solution of fixt vegetable alkali; if there is any further precipitation, it shows that there is an ear- thy salt consisting of calcareous earth for one of its ele- ments; if a precipitation took place upon the application of the caustic volatile alkali, it shows ihat there certainly are earthy and metallic salts. 4. To know if the salt contained is metallic or alumi- nous, add to the filtrated solution an infusion of galls; if there is any metallic or aluminous salt, a precipitation will take place; if iron, a purplish black; if copper, or allum, a grey: copper may also be distinguished from iron by falling in a blue precipitate upon tbe application of an alkali, while iron forms a greenish, and allum a white one. 5. To know if magnesia is an element of the salts found, take the filtrated sedation, apply to it a solution of galls; if no precipitation takes place, apply caustic volatile alkali, which will precipitate the magnesia if it is an element ofthe salt contained. 6. To know if a neutral salt is contained, evaporate the filtrated solution with a boiling heat, till the whole water is nearly gone-off, and let it stand to cool: if there is any neutral salt, it will crystallize. 7. To know if there is anv mucilage, and what quan- tity, take 30 or 40 lbs. of the soil, boil it in 10 gallons of water for an hour, let the earth subside, pour off the clean solution, afterwards add lour or five gallons of wa- ter to the earth, stir thein thoroughly, let them *t.uid to subside, pour off the water clear, mix it with the former, and evaporate the whole to dnness, putting it into a water bath towards the end of the evaporation; what re- mains is the mucilage, making allowance for that part of the decoction which was not washed out frem the earth, and deducting the saline substances, which will e nstalize if there is a considerable quantity, but will be dc'stiou-d in the operation, if in small proportion, as thev gene- rally are. 8. To know if there is any calcareous earth in thesoil, HUSBANDRY. and what quantity, take 2\ oz. of the dry soil, apply to it \ oz. of muriatic acid, ami 4 oz. of water in a glass • vessel sufficiently large; let them stand together till no more eiicrvescence takes place; and if it was very consi- derable, pour in § oz. more of the acid, let this stand also till the effervescence ceases, if any arises upon pouring it in, continue to add more acid in the same manner, until what was poured in last produces little effervescence, which is often at the first, and generally at the second or third half ounce. After the effervescence has ceased, put the whole in a filter, let the solution filtrate through; pour half a pint of water upon what remains in the filter, let that filtrate also in the same vessel; add to the solu- tion thus filtrated l£oz. of caustic volatile alkali for every ounce of acid used; if any precipitation takes place there is magnesia, earth of allum, or the calx of a metal (generally iron or copper) contained in the soil; after adding the volatile alkali, the whole is to be thrown into a filter again; after the filtration has taken place, pour into the.Ijquor a solution of mild fixt vegetable alkali in water; if there is any calcareous earth in the soil, a pre- cipitation will take place; continue to add the solution of the alkali till no fresh precipitation ensues, throw the whole into a filter, let the liquor filtrate off, pour on by degrees a pint of water, let that filtrate off also, dry what remains in the filter, it is the calcareous earth. 9. To know the proportion of sand and clay, take what remains iu the filter after the first solution in the fore- going operation, and by the elutriation separate the sand from the clay, dry and weigh them; if there is any py- rites it xrill appear in the sand. In the above processes the principal things to be at- tended to arc, whether there are any metallic or alumi- nous salts, as these are absolute poisons, and therefore are to be decomposed by quick lime; whether there is such a proportion of neutral or earthy as to be hurtful, in which case the solution in process 2. will taste salt, a soil containing them in so large a proportion will hardly tver admit of culture for grain: whether there is calcare- ous earth, and in what proportion, as that ascertains the propriety of applying any manure containing it, and the quantity of that manure: what the proportion, of sand and clay is which ascertains the propriety of adding clay or sand: whether there are pyrites, as that shows why, and when a soil will belong in being brought into cultivation; pyrites are best destroyed by fallowing, and afterwards applving lime. The soils of this country have been described under numerous heads, and distinguished by a variety of vague local terms. They seem, however, to be capable of being considered and characterised, as far at least as is neces- sary for practical purposes, under the distinctions of Clayey, Gravelly. Loamy, Pe;ity or Mossy, and Calcareous, Vegetable Earthy soils. Sandy, Each of these divisions must of course comprehend several varieties, according to the nature and preponde- rance- of the different sorts of materials of which they are constituted or composed. By different combinations of these substances all the interm diate kin Is of soils are forme/.!; and upon a proper mU'orc of them, in certain pioportions, depends the success of the farmer's industry. Sand, clay, and water, are the grand component parts, whatever colour or texture the soil may happen to have. Clayey or argillaceous soils. Soils of this kind differ very materially, according to the nature and quantity of the clay that enters into their compositions, and the adul- teration which has been produced in it by the intermix- ture of differentearthy matters, as well as various mineral vegetable, and animal substances. For clays are, in gene. ral. far from being pure in the states in whieh they are found in the earth. They are in many instances united with large proportions of siliceous or sandy matter. On these accoun;s it is thatthe clayey soils of some districts are so abundantly fruitful ami productive, while those of others are insuperably sterile and refractory. These facts not only show that there is a prodigious variety in respect to inequalities of these substances, but that they must afford equal variety to the soils into which they enier, and therefore require to be more closely examined, and more nicely ascertained than they appear yet to have been, before all the varieties of soil usually classed under the denomination of clayey can be well ascertained and understood. But these substances do not differ only in their pro- perties and qualities, but likewise in their colours, and the closeness with which their particles are united. They are found in their natural states of various colours, such as red, white, blue, and yellow, and of different degrees of density, so as, in some instances, readily to admit of bring united with the different materials that are applied, in order to meliorate their conditions; in others they can scarcely be made to join with them by any means in the power of the agriculturalist. In soils of the first kind, the quantity of siliceous '»r sandy matter, in general, bears a much larger proportion to that of the argillaceous or clayey, than in those of the latter, and in many cases too the mixture of other substances is proportionalily larger. The nature of the clayey stratum, in respect to its thickness or thinness, as well as its contiguity, or re- mote ness from springs of water underneath it, is too commonly overlooked in considering these sorts of soils; but all these circumstances demand particular attention, and ought te» have considerable influence in directing the means of e ultivatiug and improving clayey soils. It is obvious, from what has been already advanced, that, notwithstanding the differences that take place fn.m the accidental mixture of different materials, in different degrees and proportions, all the descriptions of this scut of soils must possess more or less ofthe heavy and adhe- sive stiff qualities; and that according as these are more or less predominant, due respect being at the same time bed to the various other circumstances that have hern stated, the business of cultivation and improvement must be varied and applied. Loamy soils. Loam denotes any soil which is mode- rate ly cohesive, that is, less so than clay, and more so than loose « hulk. Soils, therefore, of this description ad- mit of considerable variety. The substances that are most commonly found to contribute to the formation of loamy soils, are clay, sand, gravel, and chalk: and as eitlier ingredient predominates, so is the soil denominat- ed, as clayey loam, sandy loam, kc Clayey loam is mo- dei ii: ly cohesive, in which the argillaceous ingredient predominates; so that its coherence is greater than that HUSBANDRY. of any other loam, but less than that of pure clay. Be- sides the argil silex enters largely into the composition. Sometimes an oxide or calx of iron in small proportion is found blended with the clay and sand. In proportion as the argillaceous or clayey principle diminishes, they recede from the nature of the clayey soils; consequently the nearer the quantity of that substance approaches to that ofthe others, the stronger and more heavy will the loamy soil be. The differences in the lightness and fria- bility of the soils of this class, in a great measure, depend on the relative proportions of the other ingredients" Where the calcareous ingredient greatly exceeds those ofthe sandy or gravelly kinds, they are neither so light or so pulverizable as where they are nearly equal, or where the sandy or gravelly matters considerably predo- minate over it. In situations where this sort of soil has been but little disturbed, and consequently little changed by the artifi- cial additions of either animal or vegetable substances, and those which it naturally contained not having ad- vanced to the stage of perfect solution and decay, it is generally found of a light brown or hazel colour; but where much culture has been employed for a length of time, and large applications of animal and vegetable matters frequently made, the natural and artificial mate- rials of these kinds having proceeded more nearly to the state of perfect resolution and destruction, it has an ap- pearance that approaches to black. From these various circumstances the properties of the soils are likewise considerably altered and affected, as well as their colours changed. From the soils of the loamy class being more friable and brittle, as well as more dry, than most ofthe clayey ones, they are capable of being tilled with much greater ease and facility, as well as much less strength of team, and at almost every season of the year. Anil", on account of their pioperty of receiving and transmitting moisture more freely, they are less apt to be indurated by too much dry, or chilled by too much wet weather. Besides, they are more influenced on exposure to the agency of the atmosphere and other external causes, and thereby more adapted for the promotion and support of vegeta- tion. Ami as they are found in most cases to be less dis- posed to the production of weeds, particularly those of the moVe injurious kinds, they can of course be kept clean with less labour, and without the expensive system of management which is requisite on many other kinds of soil. Chalky or calcareous soils. Soils of the calcareous kind, which are composed of clay, sand, and chalk, occupy very extensive tracts of land in different parts of the world, and aie marked with considerable diversity, as proceeding from the nature, properties, and proportions ofthe calcareous matter as it exists in them; the substan- ces that are mixed and combined with it; the depth and qualities of the earthy stratum which is placed upon it, and the disposition of the sub-soil or basis on wich this is formed and deposited. Cah areous matter is contained in many different stony substances, besides that of chalk, as marble, lime-stone, coral, and shells of different kinds: and in states of union with other materials, such as sand, the different simple earthy bodies, in different proportions, and in some VOL. II. 52 instances with iron and magnesia. Its capability or powers of imbibing and retaining moisture is consider- able, though not so great as that of clay. It burns to lime by proper degrees of heat, and absorbs carbonic- acid gas, or fixed air in different proportions from the atmosphere, and returns again to the state of chalk or mild calcareous matter. It is found of very different degrees of hardness and friability, as well as of different states of fineness or pulverization, in different soils ofthe class to which it belongs. It varies also greatly in its ef- fects in respect to vegetation; from the different matters that may happen to be combined with it in its primitive or original state. It has leing been known to the practi- cal agriculturist, that some sorts of lime may be employ- ed in large proportions, while others cannot be used, ex- cept in very small quantities, without doing very consi- derable injury to the soil with which they are incorpo- rated. Calcareous matter, whether it is in the state of car- bonat, or in the more active one of causticity, as quick- lime, seems ultimately to promote the resolution and de- struction of vegetable and animal substances; in the lat- ter state, however, it acts with much greater violence on these materials, destroying their organization, and dissi- pating their principles more quickly, as well as robbing them more completely of the carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, which is so essential, while in the former it operates with great mildness, and only aids the resolution of those sub- stances by gently promoting the process of putrefaction. The proportions of clayey, loamy, and gravelly in- gredients, which are conjoined with the calcareous mat- ters of these soils, are various in different districts; where the argillaceous and loamy materials are comparitively in large quantities, soils of the heavier chalky kinds are formed, and where the sandy or gravelly are predomi- nant, we have the lighter ones. There are also material differences proceeding from the earthy matter with whicli the calcareous ingredient is mixed in the state of soil. Where the quantity of this is small, and not reduced into any very perfect state of mould, thesoil, as it is evident, must be poor and thin; but where the depth of this super- ficial stratum is considerable, and the animal, vegetable, and other substances of which it is composed, is advanc- ed to a more complete stage of decomposition and decay, the soils are more rich and heavy. Some variety is like- wise caused by the state of the under-stratuin or sub-soil. If it is compact, and much intermixed with silecious or flinty matter, or have a mortary hardness, it is less favourable than where it is of a more open, brittle, or powdery texture. Whatever appearances of lightness there may be in chal- ky soils, they require considerable strength in the team, where the staple or earthy stratum of the lands will ad- mit of their being wrought to a tolerable depth; but where there is a thinner surface of earthy materials, less force of draught will be requisite. In the'latter cases, the Soil is, however, far more precarious and uncertain, as we 11 as much less productive in respect to the crops that are cultivated upon it, than in the former. As chalky soils are not so liable to be injured by water as others, the business of tillage is much less impeded from that cause; but a dry season sometimes renders them se> hard as to be totally incapable of being broken up, until they HUSBANDRY. have been moistened by the falling of a considerable qtianti'y of rain. Sandy or siliceous soils. Sands seem to have been gra- dually formed by the attrition and rubbing down of the various solid substances that are found in nature, espe- cially such as are ofthe siliceous, calcareous, and stony kinds, and are of different degrees of fineness as they ap- proach the size of gravel. They arc also met with of va- rious colours and appearances in different regions or tracts of country, such as white, dusky brown, yellow, and red. These differences, as well as those which respect their weight, tenacity, and other properties, depend on the nature and proportions in which many other materi- als enter into combination with thein. Where the proportions of clayey, loamy, or other earthy substances with which they are mixed, approach nearly to that of the sand, the heavier sorts of sandy soils are formed; but where these enter only in very small quantities, we have the light sandy soils; and where they are hardly met with at all, the soil is a loose blow- ing sand, most commonly of a white or brownish appear- ance. The portions of vegetable matters that are inter- mixed with different soils of the sandy kind are not less various than those ofthe clayey and loamy, from which considerable differences of quality are produced. These differences in their textures and compositions also intro- duce others which respect their powers of admitting and retaining heat and moisture. The openness and want of adherence in such soils, while they allow of the admission of heat and water more readily, permit them to be carried off with greater case and expedition, they are therefore less permanently benefitted by their influ- ence than the closer and more adhesive soils. The light, open, and poro us textu re of sandy soils renders them much more easily cultivated and kept in order than those of the strong and close kinds; consequently the farms where they prevail are generally large; and when properly prepared, they arc better adapted for the growth of many sorts of crops, such as those ofthe bul- bous and tap rooted sorts. They have also another ad- vantage, which is that of pushing forward the crops with more expedition. Whatever inconveniences attend them are mostly such as proceed from the want of a sufficient degree of cohesion among their constituent particles and soiidity of texture. On these accounts they often coun- teract the best and most judicious management. The roots of the crops are liable to become naked and exposed from storms and various othercauses; and if grain, to fall down and be lodged so early in the season as to render them of little value. Gravelly soils. In the state of gravels which contri- bute to the formation of this class of soils, there is a va- riation of size in the pieces or particles of which they are composed, from that of a very small pea to the largest tofkle. Where they become of still larger dimensions they are termed stones or rocks, according as they are in small portions or large masses; and the soils are then said to be stony or rocky, as the circumstances of the iifferent cases may happen to be. The beds of gravel, whether they are of the larger or smaller kinds, are mostly either of the siliceous or flinty kind, or of the calcareous or chalky; but the stones and rocks are of very different kinds. With these dissimilar 2 substances, some others in different states of reduction and pulverization are blended and united in various pio- portions, so as to constitute gravelly soils that differ con- siderably in their textures and other properties. The chief of these arc loams, and the mould or earthy matter formed by the destruction and decay of numerous animal and vegetable substances. The gravelly mixture is sometimes also found to ap- proach nearly to the surface, while at others it recedes considerably from it. In sonic instances springs rise im- mediately underneath; in others they are at a great depth The bottom, or sub-soil, is likewise various; in some cases it is stony and rocky, in others it is clayey, or a rocky gravel, and sometimes sand, &c. The open porous nature of gravelly soils disposes them to admit moisture very readily, as well as to part with it with equal facility; from the latter of which circum- stances they are subject to burn, as it is termed, in dry seasons, which is not the case in the heavier or more re- tentive sort of soils. Gravelly soils, from the lightness of their texture, and their not affording great resistance, except where the stones are large, or there are rocks, are not expensive or difficult in the means of cultivation. All the necessary business of this sort is capable of being carried forward with much ease and expedition, and the lands are in gene- ral soon brought into the proper states for the reception of crops. Peaty or mossy soils. These soils consist chiefly ofthe roots of decayed vegetables, mixed with earth,* mostly argillaceous, and sand, and a coaly substance derived also from decayed vegetables. They differ, like all the other kinds of soils, according to the nature of the in- gredients of which they are constituted or composed, and the proportions in which these are found to prevail in them. Where the vegetable or peaty material predomi- nates but little over the other substances with which it is mixed and incorporated, the lighter sorts of peaty, moory, or heathy soils, are formed; but where the other matters bear only a slight proportion to it, the deep and heavy, peaty or mossy, soils present themselves. In dif- ferent districts the peaty matter is found of different depths, and of various degrees of density or closeness of texture, probably proceeding from some original differ- ences in the vegetable substances from which it was formed, or the greater advances which it has made to the state of perfect decomposition or decay. The sub- soil in most of the deep mossy districts is of the clayey kind, more or less stiff and heavy, over which the peaty or mossy material is deposited, generally in a sort of stratified order; the first layer of which being commonly not more than ten or twelve inches in thickness, exhibits the appearance of a rich brown earth, in all probability from the incorporation of the loamy or clayey matters, with the peat or vegetable earth, laying immediately upon them, and constituting originally, perhaps, the sur- face of the ground. The layer that succeeds to this is mostly of a dark colour, and considerable thickness, ap- parently formed of a great variety of vegetable materials in the more perfect stages of resolution and decay, united together by time and other circumstances with more or less compactness and solidity. The uppermost stratum, or tbat which is placed upon this dense, peaty matter, is, HUSBANDRY. in general, of very pale colour, and very light spongy texture, arising possibly from the grasses, leaves, and other vegetable substances, of which it is formed, not having attained that state of decay which constitutes the darker sorts of peaty earth. But in the more superficial peaty soils, little or no- thing of this stratified appearance is met with. A coat of peaty carth, differing greatly in thickness according to the peculiarity of the situations, and other circumstan- ces, is formed by a great length of time from the destruc- tion and decay of successive crops of grasses, leaves and substances ofthe heathy or other kinds, and deposited upon, and intermixed with, the various harder materials ofthe soils which happened to be underneath them. By these means much variety is produced in the soils. Where the under-strata of earthy matter are tolerably good, and the crops of vegetables large and luxuriant, the better sorts of light peaty soils seem to be predominant; but where the quality ofthe under strata are indifferent, and the vegetable products scanty, as well as feeble in their growth, and principally of ^thc heathy tribe, the poor peaty and heathy, or moory soils, are met with. All peaty soils seem to be thus gradually formed by the deposition of vegetable matter, supplied by the disso- lution and decay of aquatic and other plants that grow in low moist situations, as well as substances of other kinds brought down by water, from the high grounds in their neighbourhood, in the states of solution and diffu- sion, and gradually deposited from it on its becoming in a state of stagnation, by means of obstruction and stop- pages proceeding from different causes. From the nature ofthe composition of these soils, it is obvious that they must be very retentive of water, espe- cally where they are of any great depth. Hence they seldom or ever become free from the excessive quantities of moisture, with whicli they arc loaded in the rainy sea- sons. Vegetable earth or soil. This kind of earthy material constitutes the superficial bed or stratum, in which plants for the most part vegetate in every sort of soil, and differs very much in different places, from the varia- tions that take place in its depth, and the greater or less progress that has been made in the several substances of which it is composed, to the stage of perfect decomposi- tion or decay. Some variety may likewise be caused by its being more intimately or more loosely mixed and blended with the other bodies that are found in soils. It seems probable too, that the earthy matter which is firmed from the destruction of some sorts of vegetable substances may be better suited for the purposes of vege- tation than that which proceeds from others. Vegetables, from their containing a considerable por- tion of mucilaginous matter in a state of mixture with their other substances, become, in some measure, capable of solution in water, though the external surfaces of living plants, on account of the resinous and animalized materi- als that enter into their composition, are protected from its operation. From the former circumstance, and that of earthy matters being contained in them, whie h had been taken up in the state of solution with their fresh juices while growing, it is evident that large quantities of vegetable mould must be continually formed and de- posited on lands by the natural decay of such substances. But the formation of vegetable mould or earth is far- ther effected by means of the putrefaction or dissolution of such vegetables as are cut down, or otherwise destroy- ed, on the surface of the ground, and the application of various kinds of dung and composts. Where there have been in great abundance for a long time, there is mostly a deep rich surface soil of this earth; but where few ve- getable products, and those of the less luxuriant kind, have been left to undergo the above process, or little as- sistence given by means of manures, the crust of surface mould is generally thin and poor. The resolution of ve- getable matters is greatly promoted by a proper degree of moisture and heat, as well as a suitable state of the air. From the preceding account of soils, we may perceive that those are the best which contain the greatest store of those principles which constitute the pabula of vegeta- tion. Such are calcareous soils, in which carbon must- exist in large quantities, from the natural attraction of lime for carbon, and where there will be a constant sup- ply by means of this attraction. Soils formed from the decomposition of animal and vegetable matters, are in their natures eminently favourable to vegetation; for they contain hydrogen and carbon combined, together with the remains of animals and vegetables, as yet only tending to decomposition, with various salts resulting from the decomposition of animal bodies, water, carth, and gaseous principles. Improvement of soils. From various causes, we per- ceive that some sorts of soil are less adapted to a vigo- rous production of vegetables than others. To improve the less fertile is a main branch of husbandry. Accord- ing to circumstances, various methods must be employed; such as commixing one kind with another; draining such as are too retentive of moisture; irrigating such as are by nature too dry; and refreshing those with manures whose fertility has been exhausted. Of commixing various soils. Chemical analysis has shown that substances of the calcareous kinds are the most beneficial in bettering the condition of clayey soils. Where the deficiency is in the want of calcareous matter, iiinc-stone, gravel, and calcareous marls are the most proper. If, however, these substances cannot be conve- niently procured, a mixture of the coarser sands with lime and dung may be employed; or even coal ashes, sea sand, or chalk in the state of coarse powder may be ad- vantageously used. Loamy soils stand not in need of so much commixture with other substances as clayey soils; the soil of ponds, ditches, or even a small proportion of clayey soil may however be applied to advantage, and especially dung. Chalky or calcareous soils ofthe heavier sorts may ho benefited by the application of sandy loams; the lighter sort, by clay, dung, and argillaceous marl. Sandy soils may be improved by applying calcareous marl, argillaceous and loamy ingredients, and by the use ofthe fold. Gravelly soils of the calcareous kind may be improved by clay, clayey loam, or chalk. Peaty soils, after being properly drained of their su- perfluous moisture, may be improved by the application of gravel, common sand, coarse earth, chalk, calcareous marl, dung, or sea sand. See Draining. HUSBANDRY. Irrigation or watering land. The systematic manner of watering meadow land, as now practised, is of modern invention, but of material importance to that farmer who possesses land of proper quality, and commands a stream of water suitable to the purpose; as he will be enabled to procure an earlier and fuller crop of grass than he could by other means. Water, independent of any substances it may hold in suspension, is of universal utility in vegetation; being composed of two chemical elements (hydrogen and oxy- gen) which are highly favourable to vegetation, and di- rectly and powerfully nutritive to plants. It enters, even undecomposed, as an aliment into the organization of vegetables. It is the only vehicle by which nourishment can be conveyed from solid bodies to plants. And what- ever gaseous food the roots of vegetables receive, it is presented to them by the intermediation of water. Al- though thus beneficial when administered in season and due proportion, yet an excessive affusion of water tends to the destruction of many of the better grasses, and to the nourishment of rushes, mosses, sed:'e, and other aquatic weeds. A gentle affusion of this fluid, dispersing itself in all directions, never stagnant, never running with great impetuosity of current, more copiously applied in the light and under the heat of the sun than in the dark, operates with the best efficacy, as a promoter of vegetation. The idea of watering meadows, so far as it relates to bringing the water upon the land, was undoubtedly taken from nature. It must have been always observed that winter floods produced fertility, provided the water did not remain too long on the land. The idea of taking the water off the land at will, and bringing it on again at will, is the effect of art; and the know ledge of the proper seasons to do this, is the effect of observation. Suitable soils for water meadows are such as are of a sandy or gravelly nature, especially in the nearest sub- soil. A bed of flints, or loose gravel, is the most desira- ble. It is also observable, that whatever may be the most abundant grasses in a meadow before irrigation, those kinds will alwavs predominate which best agree with the soil and the water, provided the supply of water is regular and constant every winter. There are two distinct methods of watering land, ac- cording as a less or greater quantity of water can be commanded. If the water is taken from a streamlet, near to the spring head, and the quantity small, only a small portion of land can be irrigated at a time, the water carriages and floating sluices are laid out, and cut in a form which (piovincially) is by some called catch- work, by others frame-work. But where a river or large stream can be commanded, the work assumes another appearance, and being of greater power than the forego- ing, is called flow ing-work. It is necessary, before entering upon works of this kind, to consider whether the stream of water to be em- ploy ed will admit of a temporary weir or clam to be made across it, so as to keep the water up to a proper level for covering the land, without flooding or injuring other ad- joining grounds; or if the water is in its natural state sufficiently hi eh without a weir or dam, or to be made so by taking it from the stream higher up more towards its source, and by the conductor keeping it up nearly to its level till it comes upon the meadow or other ground. Further, if the water can be drawn off the meadow or other ground as rapidly as it is brought on. This is to be done by the use of a spirit level, begin- ning from the highest part of the land that the stream can be commanded from, where the ground.-; on the different' sides are the property of the same person, and weirs, or other works, as has been just observed, can be carried across the streams for the purpose of forcing the water, either wholly or in a partial manner, into a different course. After it has been raised as high as possible iu this way, the level is to be formed from the surface of the water, carrying it on what is termed the dead level, allowing some small degree of depression for the flow of the current. After this has been done, the land on the different sides of the stream, below the lines set out by the level should be minutely examined and inspected, as the whole may be irrigated if the command of water is sufficient. The extent that can be properly performed must however de- pend much on the degree of fall or descent from the en- trance of the water and its out-fall, as well as on the decli- nation of the more elevated parts of the ground. The next circumstance of importance is that of deciding where to commence the business. This must depend on various points, which can only be settled by the judgment of the operator. If there is a full supply of water, the whole should be covered; but in the contrary case, the expense of cutting the mains or carriers on such levels in a sufficient manner should be considered; j.nd where one side of the stream is better adapted to the purpose than the other, that on such side should be the first exe- cuted. And if the land most adapted to the purpose of watering is at much distance from the place whence the water is first taken, and there is not a supply for the whole of the land below the line of level on one ofthe sides, the expense of forming the carrier should be put in comparison with the greater advantage of irrigating the most suitable grounds, in preference to others that are nearer, without possessing equal advantages. It mostly happens that the beneficial consequences of irrigating at command are such as to overbalance that of forming the mains or carriers. Besides, though the supply of water may be insufficient in such seasons as are very dry, as it may be abundant in the w inter time, the simply covering the land at that period may be more than adequate to the expense of the business, which is a circumstance that may render it more beneficial to lengthen the carriers, than by having them shorter to be confined to the watering of such lands as are less proper for the purpose. It is pro- bable also, that in particular cases the winter irrigation may extend through the whole of the level that has been set out. Where it can be done, it is best to begin with surii parts as are contiguous to, or approach the nearest the mains or carriers; and after having passed the water over them, to mark the lowest places, where it can be carried off to the best advantage; and from such parts it should then be seen to which other lands the water c an be con- ducted with the greatest facility and benefit. Where the natural shelving of the ground is considerable, less care is necessary; but where this is not much, it may often be requisite to convey the water in a slanting direction for a HUSBANDRY. considerable way, before lands sufficiently low for bring covered by it are met with; as in tins sort of business it is invariably necessary, in order to prevent the waste of water, to proceed with that which is first made use of to its final outlet into the river before the works on other divisions are commenced. When the piece of ground to be floated is so much upon the level that the descent cannot easily be determin- ed by the eye, it will be necessary to take an accurate level, and compare the highest part with the stream in- tended to be used, by whie h the degree of fall from the surface of the water to the highest point of the land will be ascertained; and in order to convey the water to this point, should it be distant fiom the stream, the sides ofthe ditch or canal should be sufficiently raised for the purpose not to keep the water in a dead level, but with such degree of descent as the two points will admit of. In the operation of cutting this canal or main feeder, it will be easy to preserve the proper degree of fall, having previously ascertained the length, for instance, in cutting 50 yards with a fall of five inches, it will be obvious that in every ten yards a descent of one inch should take place, this is necessary to keep the water in a con- stant lively motion. In some cases it may be necessary to have two main feeders, in order to affect a more equal distribution of the water; the depth and width of whicli feeders must be regulated by the supply requisite for the smaller gutters. Near to the mouth of the canal or feed- er it will be. proper to have a flood-hatch or clow, by which the water may be admitted or excluded at plea- sure. In forming the floating gutters, it is perhaps the best method to cut them at right angles, or nearly so. to the feeders: however, where the surface is uneven, iu order to preserve a regular descent, a different direction must be given to thein, the distance from each other being about ten yards, and the gutters becoming, as has been observed, gradually narrower as they recede from the main canal or feeder. The object in view being to throw the water as evenly over the surface as possible, these gutters should be so constructed that the water which has been introduced may overflow their little banks ra- ther than run rapidly along the bed. Obstructions may sometimes occur, such as low parts, or deep ditches, over which a pipe or spout may easily be made to con- tinue the progress of the water; and such as proceed from ridges, re.-.uls, or small eminences, by trunks or other contrivances made to convey the water underneath them. It has been observed, that there are two distinct meth- ods of watering lands, catchwork and flowing. The meth- ods of making such works may be thus described. From the spring at A, Plate LX1X. Husbandry, fig. 13,take the level towards C;toincluele as much of the meadow BCDE as possible. Cut the trench or main drain AC of a width anil depth sufficient to take all the water issuing from the spring, and convey it to the proposed meadow. Cut also the carriage gutter of a sufficient depth to take e>ff the waste water which may fall into it; and also float sluices, kc. laid out by a level, placing soils taken from the sluices on the lower side. V» as the meadow small, of a smooth surface, and regular declivity, the water might be let out of the main drain at different places, and so water the whole at once; but as these favourable circum- stances seldom occur, recourse must be had to the float- ing sluices above mentioned, which must be cut at pro- per distances, such as 10 or 12 yards, according to the declivity of the land; the catches or frames may be about 30 yards apart. If the meadow is large, it must be divided into catches or frames, by several carriage gutters, as in fig. 14, and a frame or two watered at a time, according to the body of water which can be commanded; and when the water is withdrawn thence, it may be conveyed to other frames. In meadows thus watered from springs or small streams, it is of material consequence that the works should be kept as dry as possible between the intervals of watering; and as such situations are not affected by floods, and generally have but little water, they must be rcwatered the more frequently; and as the top works of eae h frame will be in the way of getting more of the wa- ter than those lower down, care must be a;en to give the latter a longer time, so as to make them as equal as possible. Flowing meadows described. The other kind of water meadows, viz. those usually called •< flowing meadows," require much more labour, and system, in their forma- tion than the foregoing. The land applicable to this pur- pose being frequently a flat morass, tbe first object to be considered is, how the water is to be got oft" when once brought on; and in such situations this can seldom be clone without throwing up the land in high ridges, with deep drains between them, as a, b, c, d, fig. 15. plate LXIN. A main carriage AB being then taken out of the river at a higher level, so as to command the tops of these ridges, the water is "carried by small trenches or carriages along the top of each ridge, and by means of moveable stops of earth is thrown over on each side, and received in the drains below, from whence it is e ol- lectcel into a main drain CD, and carried on to water other meadows, or other parts of the same meadow be- low. One tier of these ridges being usually watered at once, is generally called •« a pitch of work," and it is usual to make the ridges 30 or 40 feet wiele; or, if wa- ter is abundant, perhaps 60 feet, and 9 or 10 pedes in length, or longer, according to the strength and plenty of the water. It is obvious, from this description, that as the water in this kind of meadow is not used again and again, iu one pitch, as in the catch meadows, that tfiis method is only applicable to large streams or to vallies subject to flood; an 1 as these ri iges most be formed by manual labour, the expense of this kind of meadow must neces- sarily exceed the more simple method first described; and the hatches that are necessary to manage and temper the water or rivers, must be much more expensive thaU those in small brooks. Management of water meadows. As soon as the after- grass is eaten off as bare as can be. the manager of the mead, (piovincially ••the drowiier") begins cleaning out the main drain, then the main carri.ige. and then pro- ceeds to ••right up the works," that is. to make good all the water carriages that the cattle have trodden down, and open all the drains they may have trodden in, so as to have one tier or pitch of work ready fji «• drowning" HUSBANDRY. and which is then put under water (if water be plenty enough) during the time the drowner is righting up the next pitch. In the flowing meadows this work is, or ought to be, done early enough in the autumn, to have the whole mead ready to catch, if possible, "the first floods after Michaelmas," the water being then "thick and good," being the first washing ofthe arable land on the sides of the chalk hills, as well as dirt from the roads, &c. The length of this autumn watering cannot always be determined, as it depends on situations and circumstan- ces; but if water can he commanded in plenty, the rule is to give it a good soaking at first; perhaps a fortnight or more, with a dry interval of a day or two, always taking the water off at the first appearance of white scum; after whicli, the works are made as dry as possible, to encourage the growth of grass, and to allow the land to pitch or sink close together. Whilst the grass grows freely, a fresh watering is not wanted, but as soon as it flags, watering for a few days is necessary. In the months of October, November, or December, some meadows will bear the water for three weeks, which in February or March will not bear it one week, and in April or May not three days. In all cases where the watering system is undertaken, exempt in the time of floods, it may be highly useful to disturb the mud and dirt in the bottom of the main car- riers, or drains, before watering; a practice frequently adopted on the continent. Lime has also been thrown into these cuts by some irrigating farmers, and raked with a heavy harrow, or other implement at the bottom, which is a process that will be found to add considerably to the manuring quality of the water. It is probable that many other substances might be employed in the same way, and be thus spread over the surface of grass lands in a minute state of division, with vast advantage in promoting vegetation. The great degree of verdure and luxuriance which almost immediately succeeds the occasional covering of grass lands with water, sufficiently demonstrate the power which it possesses in promoting vegetation. It is a means of fertility that has been employed for ages in more warm climates, with the most beneficial conse- quences in increasing the quantity of vegetable produce. But though it has been long in use in other countries, and e>f late more particularly attended to in this, the principle on which it produces its effects does not seem to be fully understood. In speaking of manure as the food of plants, we have already noticed some ofthe pro- perties of this fluid that may be useful in the vegetable economy when taken up by the fibrous roots of plants; and there arc still other ways in which it would seem to be advantageous in forwarding the growth of grass crops. Winter and spring are the two seasons when meadows are usually watered, as from the month of November till the beginning of March; the experience of the operator can alone regulate this proceeding as to the length of time they should remain under water. In some districts the water is allowed to flow over the fields for several weeks together, with only the interval of a day or two occa- sionally; in others, the practice is to flood them the alter- nate weeks. When frosts set in, floating is usually sus- pended; but it has been remarked, that in such cases the succeeding crop of grass has been abundant. As the spring advances, much less floating is found to be neces- sary. However, in all cases, when floating is performed to advantage, the meadows should be laid dry between every watering. Manures. An encreased population requires more abundant stores of food for man, and the beasts imme- diately under his command, than were before necessary: to this end, where the extension of land cannot be obtain- ed, recourse must be had to the enriching of that which is already in possession, whenever it becomes deteriora- ted by constant and heavy cropping, with such plants as exhaust the pabulum of vegetables; and also to improve such soils as are by nature less adapted than others te the production of advantageous crops. Besides the methods we have already spoken, of for the improving of lands, mankind have discovered various substances, which, when judiciously applied, possess the power of encreasing the fertility of soil in a wonderful degree. These substances are numerous, and alwavs near at hand. They arise from the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter, and from the agency of fossil and saline substances. From the changes that are constantly taking place among bodies in nature, and the new combinations which are formed in consequence of those changes, a great variety of matters are unfolded, elaborated, and prepared for the nourishment and support of vegetable life. Some of the substances which contribute in this way possess considerable fludity and volatility, such as water, and various gaseous materials, as oxygen, hydrogen, azote, and carbonic acid, in different states of combina- tion. While others are more gross and heavy, and re- quire to be applied and incorporated with soils, or spread out upon their surface, in order that they may produce their effects in promoting vegetation. It is principally to these, as being the means of sustaining different sorts of plants as crops, that the term manure has been given by practical writers on agriculture; though it is extreme- ly obvious that they must undergo different changes, and be resolved into their more elementary principles, before they can be taken up, and contribute to the in- crease and support of vegetables. In the various mate ri- als which the art and industry of mankind have rendered capable of being beneficially employed in this manner, there is great diversity; some are fi,:.nd to yield the matters which are necessary for the support of plants much more readily and more abundantly than others, as animal, vegetable, and all such substances as are rich in mucilage, saccharine matters, and calcareous earth, and readily afford carbon, phosphorus, and some aerial fluids; while others that are greatly deficient in all or many of these principles, or do not readily part with them, are found to be of much less utility, when employed in the way of manures. This is probably a principal reason why some sorts of manures or substances, when put upon grounds, are so greatly superior to others, used at the same time, and in the same manner and propor- tion. There are, however, many other ways in which sub- stances, when applied to soils, may render them more fertile and productive, and contribute to the aid of vege- HUSBANDRY. tation. Some, besides furnishing such matters as are suitable for the purpose of promoting the growth of plants, are known to add considerably to the quantity of vegetable and other matters contained in the soils on which they are placed, and thereby provide a more sui- table and convenient bed for the reception of the roots of plants; others contribute little in this way, but ope- rate chiefly upon such materials as are contained in them, breaking down their organization or texture, and thus setting at liberty different volatile and other ingredients, by which new compounds are formed, and brought to such states as are the most adapted to the support of vegetable life; others again act principally by producing certain changes and alterations in the constitution or texture of soils, such as rendering them more open and porous, or more stiff and compact, and by such means bringing thein into the most proper conditions for the bearing of different vegetable productions; and there are still others that contribute in all or several of these ways at the same time. Substances of the animal kind, when reduced by the process of putrefaction, or other means, into a soft, pulpy, or mucilaginous state, are found by experience to afford those matters which are suited to the nutrition and support of plants with great readiness, and in more abundance, than most other bodies that can be employed. By chemical analysis it has been seen that the compo- nent materials of these substances, so far as agriculture is concerned, are principally water, jelly, or mucilage, and saccharine oleaginous matters, with small portions of saline and calcareous earthy substances. Hence animal matters, though they agree in some circumstances with vegetable productions, each having, in common water, saccharine, and calcareous matters, are far more com- pounded; and in animal substances, some of these mate- rials are in large proportion, while in vegetables they only exist in a very small degree; and the jelly, which in some measure resembles the gum and mucilage of plants, differs likewise from them, in its having much less tendency to become dry, as well as in its property » M«.rtes, Pascal, Guglielmini, and Mariotte, for the best iulbrmaiK-Ji on this subject; and by their ex- periments (which are as curious as they arc decisive) we are instructed in what we may expect or fear from the power of fluids violently acted upon by the principle of gravity, and in what manner and upon what principles we may employ, for the use of man, the hydraulic machines. It has been observed in another place (See Gravita- tion), that the propensity which bodies have of ap- proaching towards the earth, or perhaps towards its centre, is the only cause of what we term weight or gra- vity, and that it is by the continual efforts which they make to obey that law, that they press upon every ob- stacle which impedes their progress. As fluids, like solid bodies, are impelled by their gravity, so in this case they press upon every objert which opposes their fall; but from their nature they press in a different manner from solid bodies, hence arise the peculiar phenomena concerning which we are now to inquire. Fluids are substances, the component parts of which are moveable among themselves, having scarcely any cohesion one with another, and moving independently of each other. Some philosophers have included in this de- finition what they term the grosser fluids, as, for ex- ample, a heap of corn, a heap of shot, of sand, &c as well as the rarer and more elastic fluids, as common air, and all other aeriform substances. The proper objects, however, of the hydrostatic science, are those lluids. which, in common language, are termed liquids, or those which always present to us a plane surface, level or pa- rallel to the horizon. All liquid substances are not equally so; hence it fol- lows, that the laws of hydrostatics apply with less exact- ness in proportion as those substances depart from perfect fluidity. Water and oil both flow when the ves- sels, which contain them, are either overturned or broken; but the effusion of oil is slower than that of water, be- cause the particles of oil have more cohesion among themselves. The most singular effects in hydrostatics principally depend, perhaps, upon the extreme minute- ness of the particles of fluids, but at least upon their great mobility. To preserve a lucid order in the consideration of this subject, it will be necessary to divide the objects of our inquiry into three branches. In the first place, therefore, we shall consider in what manner the principle of gravity acts on the particles of fluids, and the pheno- mena which it produces in the fluids themselves; as well as their action against the sides, the bottoms, and tops of the vessels in which they are contained. Secondly, in what manner fluids of different densities act upon each other; and thirdly, the action of fluids on bodies immersed in them. I. In pursuing the first object of this inquiry, it may be established as an axiom: 1. That the parts of the same fluid act with respect to their weight or pressure, independently of each other. This property arises from their having scarcely any cohesion among themselves. It is otherwise with solid bodies; their several parts adhering together they press in one common mass; hence the falling of solid bodies is productive of a different effect from that of liquids. We dread the falling of a pound of ice upon our heads, while we are much more indifferent concerning that of a pound of water. The latter, in its descent, is divided by the HYDROSTATICS. Resistance of the air, by which some, of its parts are re- f'arded more than others; and the swiftness of the whole mass is still more retarded, by this division than it other- wise would be; for by being thus divided it requires a larger surface, which abates its effect. On the contrary, a solid body falls upon a small space, which receives its whole force* Hence it follows, that angular bodies fall- ing upon any part of the human frame are more dange- rous than flat or plane ones of the same weight, and de- scending from the same height. It follows from this principle, that if an aperture is made at the bottom of a vessel full of any fluid, in order to prevent the flowing out of the liquor, it is only neces- sary to counteract the weight of that column of fluid which has the aperture for its base, and that to counter- act that weight it is the same whether the vessel is full of liquor, or whether it contains only a column, the base of which shall be equal to the aperture at the bottom. Let the cylindrical vessri of glass A B (Plate LXXI. Hodrostatics, fig. 9.) have a hole in the bottom at C, furnished with a cylindrical ferule of copper of an inch diameter D, which is to be stopped with a piston G, or the sucker of a pump well fitted to the ferule, and oiled, that it may yield to a moderate pressure. Let the piston be supported by a small rod G H, fastened at H to the silk whicli unites with the portion of the pulley, M, with which the extremity of the lever M N is furnished, and Which has for its center of motion the pointL. The other portion ofthe pulley N, which terminates the other extre- mity of the lever, is also furnished with lines of silk> Which support the small bason or scale I. Upon the cop- per ferule D then fit a cylindrical tube of glass F E, the interior diameter of which is equal to that ofthe ferule, and its height equal to that ofthe vessel A B* When the apparatus is disposed in this manner, fill the tube E F with water, and continue to put small weights into the scale I, until the piston begins to rise. Afterwards take away the glass tube E F, and place tbe piston G in the copper ferule D, and pour water into the large vessel A B, and it will appear that the same weights as before in the bason I, will raise up the piston when the larger vessel A B is entirely fulh Hence it follows that there is the same power to be counteracted, whether there rests upon the piston only a column of water of its own size, or whether the vessel A B is entirely full. Such a column, therefore, presses upon its base independently ofthe rest ofthe water contained in the vessel. To account for this, let us suppose all the Water in a vessel to be divided into several columns, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, (fig. 10.) each composed of an equal number of parts. If the bottom of the vessel, which serves for the base and support of all tbe columns, is opened in a, the column 3, being no longer supported, will descend through the aperture, sliding between the two columns 2 and 4, wliiclrarc supported by the parts of the bottom of the vessel 6 and 0, all the moveable parts of which become (if we may use the expression) small rollers, which re- tard the fall only in a very slight degree. This effect is the result of the small degree of cohesion between the parts of the fluid. If the columns 1 and 2 on the one part, and 4 and 5 on the other> were composed of parts adhering together, they would retard each other in their descent during their whole length, in the same manner as a wax candle would do; ami by the fall of tiie column 3, a void would be made between them. But as all the particles are extremely minute, moving easily upon each other, they descend when the summit of the column 3 begins to descend, having no longer any support from that side; and the superficies of the whole mass descends in the same manner, though only one of the columns caused the flow from its fall. When the parts have a de. gree of viscosity, as those of oily fluids, or w ..en the mass of the flowing liquor has much more of breadth than of height, the void which the descending column leaves above it is easily perceived, for then the surface, instead of being plane and even, is hollow in the middle, and assumes a funnel-like form, because the adjacent parts do not arrive with sufficient swiftness to replace those which descend through the aperture; besides the pressure of the air above, the aperture is stronger than its resistance below. From what has been now stated, it is easy to p?rceive how fluids differ from solids in the phenomena of gra- vitation. If the vessel A B (fig. 9.) being full of water, and the tube E F being removed, it was required to raise up the piston G; all that is necessary in this case is, to support the Weight of the Column of water directly above the piston, because this column can move independently ofthe remainder; but if the whole mass of water was converted into ice, then the mass ceasing to be a liquid, and all its parts adhering together, to raise up the pis- ton it would be necessary to support the weight of the whole mass. 2. Fluids press equally in all directions. In other words, they not only press from the top to the bottom like other bodies, but they also press, accord- ing to their weight, upon all bodies that oppose them iu a lateral direction, and even from the bottom to the top. Hence, if a cask is filled with liquid oil, the oil will run out if an aperture is made in the side, but when it is congealed it will not run out on account of its having become a solid body, for solid bodies press only from their vertex to their base, and not laterally. To understand properly this lateral pressure of flu-' ids, and also that which they exert from their base to- wards their vertex, it is necessary to consider them as a mass of small globules deposited in a vessel, and to remember that these minute globules are not arranged regularly as upon a cord, but that very frequently one column exercises its pressure between two others, and has a propensity to displace them, as may be seen in fig. 11. where the perpendicular pressure which is made op- posite to the point d, is directed by the lateral columns towards the sides, c, f, ofthe vessel, in such a manner, that if the vessel was open in those places the liquid would flow out, on account of the great mobility of its parts. It is by the same mode of reasoning, that the pressure of fluids, from their base towards their vertex, is accounted for. It is upon this principle that the water, elevated by the New River water-works, after having descended from a bason in a vertical pipe, and then after having flowed horizontally in a succession of pipes under the pave- ment, is raised up again, through another pipe, as high as the fountain at the Temple Garden. It is also upon this principle that a vessel may be filled cither at the HYDROSTATICS. mouth or at the bottom indifferently, provided that it is done through a pipe, the top of which is as high as the top of the vessel to be filled. Hence it follows, that when piers, aqueducts, reservoirs, or other hydraulic works for the retention of water are to be constructed, it becomes necessary to proportion their strength to the lateral pressure which they are likely to sustain, which becomes greater as the height of the water is more con- siderable. Nearly the same precautions are necessary to be taken with respect to what some philosophers call the grosser fluids, which also have a propensity to ex- pand, as well on account of the smallness of their parts as from the small degree of cohesion which exists be- tween them. Walls designed to support terraces ought to be sufficiently strong to resist the lateral pressure of the earth and rubbish which they are to sustain, since this pressure will be greater as the particles of earth, aud of the other materials of which the terraces are com- posed, are less bound together, and in proportion as the terraces are more elevated. 3. All the parts of the same fluid are in equilibrium with each other, whether they are contained in one ves- sel or many, provided they communicate w ith each other; and their surfaces also are always in a plane parallel to the horizon. This is a consequence of the principle which has been before established; for, since the particle k (fig. 11.) would be raised from the base towards the top, unless a column equal to the column i k, pressed upon it to re- tain it in its place; it follows that to be in equilibrium, the upper extremities of the two column's should be in the same horizontal plane, or in points equally distant from the centre of the earth; which points, however, cannot be found by a right line; for in the distance of a thousand fathoms there is about one foot difference in the perpendicular height. From this property of fluids it follows, that water conducted by pipes placed in the earth, will remount as high as the place wrhence it flow- ed, whatever the depth under ground through which it may have been conducted by the pipes. It is customary tp allow half an inch of inclination in the length of six feet, to counteract the resistance produced by friction; but it is clear from what has been said, that this is not absolutely necessary, for however long the passage might be, the water would still ascend as high as the place whence it came, but it would require a little longer time to accomplish the ascent. We are enabled, upon this principle, to account for the springs which are some- times found on the tops of mountains. Such waters flow from mountains still more elevat d (whether they are far or near), by subterraneous canals. It follows from this principle, that if there are many reservoirs which communicate together, it is necessary only to see one of them to know the height of the water in the others; for it must necessarily be of the same height there as in all the rest. From what has been observed, viz. that when all the parts ofthe same fluid are in equilibrium, their surfaces will also be in a plane parallel to the horizon, or, in other words, every part of the surface at an equal dis- tance from the centre of the. earth, it follows, that when the surface of water is very large, it becomes necessa- rily and sensibly convex, This is easily perceived at sea, where the masts of ships arc observed at a distance before any other part of the ship can be distinguished. It follows from the equal pressure of fluids iu all di- rections, that the horizontal bottom of a vessel sustains just the pressure of a column of the fluid, whose base is the area of the bottom of the vessel, and whose per- pendicular height is equal to the depth of the fluid. Thus in the vessel A B C fig. 12, the bottom B C docs not sustain a pressure equal to the whole quantity of fluid contained in the vessel, but only of a column whose base is C B, and height C E. Also in the vessel F G II, the bottom G H, fig. 13, sustains a pressure equal to what it would be if the vessel were as wide at the top as bottom. This leads us to notice what is called the hydrostatical paradox, which is thus expressed, «that a quantity of fluid, however small, may be made to counterpoise a Quantity however large." Thus if to the wide vessel A B, fig. 14, the tube C D is attached, communicating with A B, and then water be poured into either of them, it will stand at the same height in both, consequently there is an equilibrium between them. It may be thus illustrated: Let A B D G, fig. 15, re- present any cylindrical vessel, to the inside of which is fitted a cover C, which will slide up and down without suffering any water to pass between the edges. In the cover is inserted a small tube, C F, which is open at top, and communicates with the inside of the cylinder be- neath the cover at C. The cylinder is filled with water, and the cover put on. Then if the cover is loaded with a weight, as a pound, it will be depressed, and the water rise in the tube to E, and the weight will be sustained. If another weight be added, the water will rise to F, and tbe weight sustained, and so on, according to the weight added, and the length of the tube. Now the weight of the water in the tube is but a few grains, yet its lateral pressure serves to sustain as much as the weight of a column of water whose base is equal to that in the tube. Thus the column E C produces a pressure in the water contained in the cylinder, equal lo^what would have been produced by the column A a d D; and as this pressure is exerted equally every way, the cover will be pressed upwards with a force equal to the weight of A a d D; consequently if A a d D weigh a pound, EC will sustain a pound: and the like of any other heights and weights. One of the most useful machines to show that a small quantity of water is capable of great pressure, is the hydrostatic bellows. This machine (fig. 16.) consists of two tliick circular or oval boards, united to each other by leather, like a pair of common bellows, or a barber's puff. Into the lower board a pipe B, several feet high is fixed. Now, in showing experiments with Ibis simple machine, which the reader might easily make, let water be poured into the pipe at its top, which will run into the bellows, and separate the boards a little: then, to show how much a small quantity of water will be able to effect by pressure, let weights be laid upon the upper board. If we pour more water into the pipe, it will as before run into the bellows, and raise up the board with all the weights upon it. And though the water in the tube should weigh in all but a single pound, yet the pres- sure of this small force upon the water below in the bcl- HYDROSTATICS. lows, will support the weights, which are perhaps a hun- dred pounds; nor will they have weight enough to make them descend, and conquer the weight of the water, by forcing it out of the mouth ofthe pipe. Upon the principle of the upward pressure of fluids, a piece of lead may be made to swim in water, by im- mersing it to a proper depth, and keeping the water from getting above it. Let C D, fig. 17, be a glass tube open throughout, and G a flat piece of lead half an inch thick, fitted exactly to the lower end of the tube, but not to go within it. By means of the packthread L, the lead is held close to the bottom of the tube, and in this situation it is immersed in the water of the vessel K. to somewhat more than eleven times its own thickness, be- cause lead is more than eleven times heavier than water; then the thread L may be let go, but tbe lead will not fall, but be sustained by the upward pressure ofthe wa- ter below it. If some water be poured upon the lead, or if the tube be raised a little, the lead will fall by its own weight, which will then be too heavy for the pres- sure of the water round the tube, upon the column of water below it. It is clear, from the foregoing principles, that a tun filled with water, may be burst by pressing it with some pounds additional weight of the fluid, through a tube, which may be supposed from twenty-five to thirty feet in height; for from what has been said, it necessarily follows, that the small quantity of water which the tube contains, presses upon the bottom of the tun as much as if a column of water had been added as wide as the tun itself, and as long as the tube, which would evidently be an enormous weight. II. The effects of gravity on fluids of different densi- ties will, from what has preceded, not be very difficult to comprehend. It has been observed, that fluids are masses of small bodies moveable with great facility among themselves in- dependently of each other, pressing separately, and in proportion to their masses. It is proved also by chemical analysis, that even these minute particles aro composed of particles still smaller. Now whether it results from the interposition of caloric in greater or less quantities, which we know is the cause of all fluidity, and also of the difference that exists be- tween the incompressible and elastic fluids; or whether it may depend upon the shape or size of the particles, which, as in solid bodies, may increase or diminish the porosity, it is certain, that there is a considerable dif- ference with respect to density in different fluids. From this difference in point of density, a separation may be observed generally to take place, soon after mix- ing two heterogeneous fluids together, unless this effect is counteracted by some more powerful cause. It has been observed, that the particles, according to their weight, press independently of each other. Those there- fore which have the most density, having more power to gain possession of the lower part of the vessel w liich eon- tains them, oblige the others to yield and resign their sit- uation; and hence a separation is effected. When oil and water, for instance, hav been well shaken together, and afterwards the whole is left in a slate of lest, the water, having more densi than the oil, takes th Iwer p- sition, and the oil rises to the surface. If this effect dees not take place, it is owing to the intervention of one of the fol- lowing causes: First, a kind of elective attraction, which may exist between the particles of different fluids, as when water and wine are mixed together, the water, though heavier than the wine, does not separate itself. Secondly, the viscosity of one of the substances, as when the whites of eggs are beaten together, and by that means a considerable quantity of air mixes with them; the air, though much lighter, has not power to disengage itself from the matter in which it is enveloped, in order to ef- fect its escape. If two fluids of different densities are placed in a state of equipoise with each other, and have the same base, their perpendicular heights above the horizon will be in a re- ciprocal ratio to their densities or specific gravities. If, for example, mercury is put into an inverted siphon, and water is poured into one of the branches, in order to elevate the mercury in the other branch one inch above its level, it is necessary that the water should be about thirteen inches and an half high. The height of the water then will be thirteen times and a half that ofthe mercury; because the specific gravity of mercury is about thirteen times and a half.as great as that of water. This observation will also apply to the reciprocal ac- tion of air and water, or air and mercury upon each other. Many of the phenomena of hydrostatics and hydraulics are to be referred to the pressure of the atmosphere, for which we must refer to Pneumatics. It is, however, proper on the present occasion, to call the reader's attention to some of the properties of this fluid, and he will easily remember, that as a fluid, air is possessed of gravity, and consequently presses upon all bodies which oppose it; and it is necessary to add, that like water, it presses in all directions. If, therefore, a small hole is made with a gimblet, either in the side or bottom of a cask or vessel which is quite full of liquor, it will not run out, because the external air which pres- ses against the hole, sustains the liquor, which has not a sufficient height to overcome its pressure. Hence the ne- cessity of a vent peg, to enable liquor to be drawn out of a full cask. The elasticity of the small quantity of air which is introduced at the vent presses the fluid, and over- comes the pressure- of the air at the cock. There is an instrument in common use, called a Valencia, for extract- ing small quantities of liquor out of the bung-holes of casks. It is a tube with a small aperture at the bottom and the top. When full, if the hole at the top is stopped with the thumb or finger, so as to prevent the pressure of the air at the top, the liquor will not run out of the hole at the bottom, being kept in by the force of the external air. It is proper to observe, that all the effects which depend upon the pressure of air, take place in a room where the column of air is terminated by the ceiling, as well as without doors where the column of air has the whole height of the atmosphere; and the reason is, because the air in the room has a communication with that on the out- side, supposing it to be only by means of the key-hole. Tins a barometer placed in a hall, will have its mercury as high as if it was placed in an open field. The curious effects produced by siphons, all depend upon the pressure of the air. HYDROSTATICS. A siphon is a bent tube, ABC, (fig. 3) made of glass, metal, kc. One/branch of which A li. is shorter than the other B C. In order to make use of this instrument, place the extremity of the short branch in the vessel A, which may be supposed to contain any fluid matter, water for instance. If the air then is drawn out, ofthe siphon (fig. 4), by means of the long branch x, the liquor will begin to flow, and will not cease while the short branch A B remains immersed in the fluid. It is easy to see that the pressure of the air upon the surface of the fluid in the Vessel, is the cause of its discharge through the siphon. For suppose GF the confines ofthe atmosphere, ail the points of the surface A of the liquor will be equally pressed by the column of air A F; if, therefore, at some point of this surface, the pressure is suspended, the liquor must flow at that point, because it finds less resistance there than in any other part; this is therefore the obvious reason why the siphon becomes full immediately after the air is drawn out at the extremity C. If the two branches of the siphon were of equal lengths, as B A, B D, the flow through the bent tube would not take place; because the column of air D G which would resist in D, being of an equal height with that which presses at A, would also be iu equilibrium with it, in the same manner as the two columns of the fluid B A, B D. But since B C, one ofthe legs, is longer than the other, though the column of the air G C, which answers to it, is really longer than that which presses in A; yet it is not capable of preventing the passage of the fluid. To under- stand this more perfectly, let us consider the column of air G C to be divided into tw o parts, one of which G D, would form an equipoise with the column of air F A, and would be capable of stopping the flow from the tube if the branch B C ended in D. The portion of fluid which fills the part D C of the siphon, will find no other resistance in C than one column of air D C of the same length with it, which is evidently very inferior to it in weight. This portion of fluid then flows out, because it greatly exceeds in weight the column of air which is opposed to it. But while it continues to flow, nothing sustains that which is above it, which flows necessarily, while the pressure of the air at A furnishes a new supply of fluid to replace that which runs out. It is by these means, that the water in the siphon continues to flow without intermission; be- cause the resistance ofthe air in C is as much exceeded, as the length of the branch B C of the siphon exceeds that of the branch A B. In order to prove this, suppose there is added at C a tube to lengthen that branch, then it will plainly appear that in a given time more water will flow than would have been discharged without that augmentation to the branch B C. Since it is the pressure of the air which elevates the fluid in the short branch B A, it follows, that the height of this branch is limited to thirty-two feet when the fluid is water, because the pressure of the atmosphere cannot elevate water higher; but when the liquor is mercury, the height ofthe short branch should not exceed thirty inches, because the atmosphere cannot sustain mercury at a greater height. A siphon may be disguised in a cup, fig. 5, from which no liquor will flow, until it be raised ab'jve the bend of the siphon: bi.t when the efflux once begins, it will con- tinue to flow till the vessel be emptied. This lias been called Tantalus's cup, because it is usual to place a hollow figure over the inner tube of such a length, that when the fluid has got nearly up to the lips Of the figure, the si* phon may begin to act, and empty the cup. intermitting springs, which puzzled philosophers for- merly, are found to be natural siphons, which may be thus explained: Let A fig. 6, be part of a hill, within which there is a cavity B B, and from this cavity a vein, or channel running in the direction BCD. The rain that falls*upon the side of the hill will sink and strain through the small pores and crevices in the hill, and fill the cavity B B with water. When the water rises to the level of C, the vein BCD will be full, and the water will run through it as a siphon, and will empty the cavi- ty B B. It must then stop, and when the cavity is again filled, it will begin to run again. III. The action of fluids on solid bodies immersed in them, has been treated of in Specific Gravity, which see* To finis!) the subject of hydrostatics, however, we may add that it is evident that when a solid body is plunged into a fluid, it occupies a space ih that fluid exactly equal to its own magnitude. The quantity of fluid then so dis- placed, either equals in density, and consequently in weight, the solid which displaced it; or, on the contrary, one ofthe two must weigh more than the other. In the last case, which is most common, the quantity by which the heavier body surpasses the lighter, is called the spe- cific weight or gravity. If a body is heavier than the fluid in which it is im- mersed, it is evident that it will sink to the bottom by its specific gravity. If a body is lighter than the same bulk of the fluid into which it-is plunged, a part of it will swim. and the remaining part which is immersed displaces a quantity of fluid Which weighs exactly as much as thu whole of the solid body. The instrument used for finding the specific gravities of bodies, is called the hydrostatic balance (fig. 18.) See Specific Gravity. It differs very little from a common balance that is nicely made; only it has a hook at the bottom of one of the scales, on which different substances that are to be examined may be hung by horsehairs, or silk threads, so as to be immersed in a vessel of water, without wetting the scale. If a body thus suspended under the scale, at one end of the balance, be first counter-poised in air by weights in the opposite scale, and then immersed in water, the equilibri- um will be immediately destroyed; then, if as much weight be put into the scale from which the body hangs, as will restore the equilibrium, without altering the weights in the opposite scale; that weight which restores the equili- brium, will be equal to the weight of a quantity of water as large as the immersed body; and if the weight of the body in air be divided by what it loses in water, the quo- tient will show how much that body is heavier than its bulk of water. Thus, if a guinea suspended in air, be counterbalanced by 129 grains in the opposite scale of the balance, and then, upon its being immersed in water, it becomes so much lighter as to require 7| grains putiu- to the scale over it, to restore the equilibrium, it shows that a quantity of water of equal bulk with the guinea, weighs 7\ grains, or 7.25; by which divide 129 (the HYD H Y G weight of the guinea in air), and the quotient will be 17.793; which shows that the guinea is 17.793 times as heavy as its bulk of water. And thus, any piece of gold may be tried, by weighing it first in air, and then in water; and if upon dividing the weight in air by the loss in water, the quotient comes out to be 17.793, the gold is good; if the quotient be 18, or between 18 and 19, the gold is very fine; but if it be less than 17, the gold is too much alloy- ed with other metal. By this method, the specific gravities of all bodies that will sink in water, maybe found; first weighing the body in air, then in water, and dividing the weight in air by the loss in water. But as to those which arc lighter than water, as most sorts of wood are, the following method must be taken: A sort of pincers, or longs, must be provided, to retain the substance to be examined under water. First weigh the body in air; then having balanced the tongs in water, fix to it the body to be weighed, which being lighter than water, will raise the tongs, and cause the other scale to preponderate. Observe the loss of weight of the body in water, and proceed as before. Their are some things that cannot be weighed in this manner, as quicksilver, fragments of diamonds, kc which must be put into a glass bucket hanging to tbe HYDROSULPHURETS, in chemistry. Sulphureted or sulphurated hydrogen gas possesses the properties of an acid. It is absorbed by water, in considerable quan- tities, and the solution reddens vegetable blues; it com- bines also with alkalies and earths, and with several metallic oxides. The combinations which sulphureted hydrogen forms with bases have been called hydrosul- ph u rets. Sulphureted hydrogen combines with alkalies and earths, and forms with them compounds which may be distinguished by the following properties: 1. They are all soluble in water, and the solution is colourless. 2. When the solution is exposed to the air, it becomes green or greenish yellow, and deposits sulphur on the sides ofthe vessel in the state of a fine black crust. 3. After long exposure to the air, the solution becomes limpid and colourless; and on examination is found to contain only the sulphat of the base of the original hy- drosul plaint. 4. The solution of the bydrosulphurets precipitate all metallic solutions; iron and lead, black; antimony, orange; arsenic, yellow. The liydrosulphurets may be formed by dissolving or mixing the bases respectively with water, and causing sulphureted hydrogen gas to pass tlirough them till they refuse to absorb any more. The exe ess of the ;as is driven off by heating the solution. It is proper to cans? the sulphureted hydrogen gas to pass through a small vessel of water before it reaches the base with which it is to combine', in order to separate any impurities with which it might be mixed. By this method solutions of the different bydrosulphurets in water may be obtained. If ih.-.M' compounds be cleceun]H>scr covered with a lid; the calyptra smooth; the filament lateral, and rising out of a peric luetium, or tuft of leallets different from the other leaves of the plant. There are fifty species, many of them natives of Great Britain; none of them, however, have any remarkable property, except the proliferum and parietinum. The first is of a very singular structure, one shoot growing e»ut from the centre of another; the veil is yelleiw and shining; the lid with a kind of long bill; the leaves not shining; sonn-times of a yellowish, and som times of a deep.green. This moss covrs he surface r>f the earth in the thickest shades, through which the sun never shines, and where no other plant can grow. The second has shoots nearly Hat and winged, nndivieled for a considerable length, and the leaves shining; but the H Y R II Y S old shoots do not branch into new ones as in the pre- ceding species. It grows in woods and shady places; and, as well as the former, is used for filling up the chinks in wooden houses. HYPOCAUSTUM. among the Greeks and Romans, a subterraneous place, wherein was a furnace, to heat the baths. HYPOCHJERIS, hawk's-eye; a genus ofthe polyga- mia aequalis order, in the syngenesia class of plants; and iu the natural method ranking under the 49th order, composite. The receptacle is paleaceous; the calyx a little imbricated; the pappus glumy. There are five spe- cies; none of which have any remarkable property, ex- cept the maculata, or spotted hawk's-eye. It is a native of Britain, and grows on high grounds. The leaves are boiled and eaten like cabbage. Horses are fond of this plant when green, but not when dry. Cows, goats, and swine eat it; sheep are not fond of it. HYPOCHONDRIA. See Anatomy and Medicine. HYPOTHEC USE, in geometry, the longest side of a right-angled triangle; or it is that side which subtends the right angle. Euclid, lib. I. proposition xlvii. demonstrates, that, in every rectilinear right-angled triangle, the square of the hypothenuse is equal to the squares of both the oth- er sides. This celebrated problem was discovered by Pythago- ras, who is said to have sacrificed a hecatomb to the Mu- ses, in gratitude for the discovery. HYPOXIS, a genus of the monogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 10th order, coronarise. The corolla is divided into six parts, and persisting, superior; the cap- sule narrowing at the base; the calyx a bivalvcd glume. There are fourteen species, bulbs of America and the Cape. 11Y RAX. Hyrax, a genus of quadrupeds ofthe glires order. The generic character is, front teeth in the up- per jaw two, broad, somewhat distant; in the lower jaw four, broad, flat, twice crenated; grinders large, four on each side in both jaws; fore-feet with four toes; hind-feet with three toes; tail none; clavicles none. Tliis genus is distinguished from all the rest of the glires by the re- markable circumstance of having four teeth in the low- er jaw instead of two: these lower teeth are also of a dif- ferent structure from the upper, being broad, short, and crenated or denticulated at the top: the upper teeth in this genus are also less sharp or pointed than in the rest of the glires. In other particulars the genus hyrax seems most nearly allied to that of cavia. The most remarka- ble species are: 1. Hyrax Capensis is a native of mountainous situa- tions about the Cape of Good Hope; residing in the hol- lows of recks, and leaping with great agility about the pr minences of the irregular regions it frequents, though its general or walking pace is not remarkably quick. Its size is nearly that of a rabbit, and in colour it much resembles that animal, but is whitish beneath. It is said to be known at the Cape by the name of rock badger, but Mr. Allamand observes, that this is an improper name, since the structure of its feet evidently shows that it has no power of digging or burrowing. It is a diurnal animal, and by night retires into the cavities of recks, kc. This animal appears to be easily tamed, and in that state is observed to be remarkably cleanly, and of alive- ly and active disposition; leaping almost as readily and with as much security as a cat. 2. Hyrax Syriacus, or Syrian hyrax, seems to bave been first clearly described by Mr. Bruce, in the appen- dix to his celebrated Abyssinian Travels. It is found in Ethiopia, in the caverns ofthe rocks, or under the great stones in the Mountain of the Sun, behind the queen's palace at Koscam. It is also frequent in the deep caverns in the rock in many other parts of Abyssinia. It does not burrow or make holes, as the rat and rabbit. • In the place of holes, it seems to delight in less close, or more airy places, in the mouths of caves, or clefts in the rock. They do not stand upright upon their feet, but seem to steal along as in fear, their belly being near- ly close to the ground, advancing a few steps at a time, and then pausing. They have something very mild, fee- ble, and timid, in their deportment; are gentle and easi- ly tamed, though, when roughly handled at the first, they bite very severely. The hyrax is supposed to be the ani- mal erroneously called by our translators of the bible cuniculus, the rabit or coney. See Plate LXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 230. 3. Hyrax Hudsonius. Its colour is a cinereous brovvni with the ends of the hairs white. It is a native of Hudson's Bay. Its size is nearly that of a common marmot; the feet are tetradactylous; of a similar form to those of the cape hyrax, but have rounded claws on all the toes. HYSSOP US, hyssop, a genus of the gyinnospcrmia order, in the didynamia class of plants; the cor. has $hc lower lip with a small crenate segment; stam. straight, distant. There are three species; but only one of them, viz. the officinalis, or common hyssop, is cultivated for use. Besides possessing the general virtues of aromatics, they have been supposed useful in humoral asthmas, coughs, and other disorders of the lungs; and are said to promote expectoration. HYSTERICS. See Medicine. HYSTRIX. Porcupine, a genus of quadrupeds, ofthe order glires. The generic character is front-teeth two, both in the upper and under jaw, obliquely cut; grin- ders eight; body covered with spines intermixed with hairs; four toes on the fore-feet; five on the hind. 1. Common porcupine. From their obvious external characters alone, without reference to the form and dis- position of the teeth, the porcupine and the hedgehog might be placed together; but such is the dissimilarity of these organs, that the one must of necessity belong to the Linnsean order feise, and the other to that of glires. The singular appearance of the porcupine, so differ- ent from that ofthe generality of quadrupeds, mustin the earliest ages have attracted the attention even of the most incurious; the variegated spines or quills with which it is covered, naturally suggesting the idea of a fierce and formidable animal: it is, however, of a harmless na- ture, and the quills are merely defensive weapons, which, when disturbed or attacked, the animal erects, and thus endeavours to repel his adversary. The general length of the porcupine is about two feet from head to tail, and that ofthe tail about four inches. The upper parts of the animal are covered with long, hard, and sharp quills; those towards the middle and HYSTRIX, hind part of.the body being longer than the rest, and measuring from nine or ten to twelve or fifteen inches in length: they arc very sharp-pointed, and are variegated with several alternate black and white rings: the root, or point of attachment, is small: the head, belly, and legs, are covered with strong dusky bristles, intermixed with softer hairs: on the top of the head the hairs are very long, and curved backwards in the manner of a ruff or crest: the ears are short and rounded: the nose blunt; the up- per lip divided by a strongly-marked furrow; the two fore- teeth, both above and below, extremely large and strong: the fore feet have four toes; the hind feet five; all armed with strong crooked claws: the tail is covered with short and rather flatfish quills, which are often abrupt or trun- cated, rather than pointed at the extremities. This ani- mal is a native of Africa, India, and the Indian islands: it is also found in some ofthe warmer parts of Europe, and is said to be not very uncommon in Italy and Sicily; but is supposed to have been originally imported into those parts of Europe from other regions. The power of darting its quills with great violence, and to a considerable distance, so confidently ascribed to the porcupine, has been doubted; but it is surely not im- probable that the porcupine possessing, like other quad- rupeds, the power of corrugating or shaking the general ekin of its body, may sometimes by this motion cast off a few of its loose quills to some distance, and thus slightly wound any animal that may happen to stand in its way; and this may have given rise to the popular idea of its darting them at pleasure against its enemies. That it really does cast them off occasionally with some degree of violence there is no reason to doubt. The strongest and shortest of the quills arc most easilyr detached, and are those which the animals dart against the hunters, by shaking their skin as dogs do when they come out of the water. The porcupine feeds principally on roots, fruits, barks, and other vegetable substances: it inhabits holes or sub- terraneous retreats, which it is said to form into several compartments or divisions, leaving only a single hole or entrance. It sleeps much by day, and makes its excursions for food during the night. The female produces two young at a birth, and these, if taken early, are said to be easily tamed. The porcupine admits of considerable variety as to the length and proportion of the quills in different specimens and from different countries: the long crested bristles on the back of the head, in particular, are much more con- spicuous in some than in others. See Plate LXX1V. Nat. Hist. fig. 231. 2. Hystrix prehensilis, is an American species, and is found in many ofthe hotter parts of that continent; par- ticularly in Brazil, where it inhabits woods, and climbs trees; clinging occasionally to the'branches by its tail, in the manner of some ofthe opossums and monkies. It is said to feed not only on fruits of various kinds, but also on birds. It sleeps during the greater part of the day, concealing itself in the hollows of trees, or beneath their roots. Its voice, according to Marcgrave, resembles the grunting of a pig. Its general length is about a foot, and the tail about eighteen inches. The whole animal, except on the billy and insides ol'tla limbs, is covered with short, strong, and very sharp spines, qf which the longest mea- sure three inches, and are white, barred towards the points with black. The colour of the hair with which the under parts are covered is a dusky brown. The head is small; the nose extremely blunt: and the teeth very large and strong: the cars short, moderately large, and round- ed; the feet have four toes each, with strong claws, and a tubercle in place of a fifth toe; the tail is covered with spines for about a third part of its length; the remainder being nearly naked, and strongly prehensile. 3. Hystrix Mexicana. The Mexican porcupine, which is placed as a variety of the hystrix prehensilis in the Ginelinian edition of tbe Systema Naturae, seems to be justly considered by Mr. Pennant as a distinct species. It is as large, accordingto Hernandes, as a middle-sized dog, and is of a dusky brown colour, with very long bristles intermixed with the fur. This animal inhabits the hilly parts of Mexico, residing in woods, and feeding, like the former, on fruits, &c. It is said to be easily tamed. 4. Hystrix macroura. The iridescent porcupine is an animal of a very extraordinary appearance. It is of a very thick form, and is coated with short, stiff, needle- like bristles, or small spines, which, according to the dif- ferent directions ofthe light, exhibit changeable colours, appearing either of a gilded green, or of a reddish tinge. If we except the gilded, or cape mole, it seems to be al- most the only quadruped yet known with changeable- coloured hair. 5. Hystrix fasciculata is a native of Malacca. It dif- fers from the common porcupine in several particulars, and especially in the form and length of its tail, which is naked, scaly, about a third of the length of the body, and terminated by a tuft of long flat hairs, or rather small white lamina?, resembling strips of parchment. The body measures fifteen or sixteen inches, and is conse- quently less than that ofthe European porcupine. This species, like others of its genus (which nature seems to have provided with defensive weapons only), possesses a kind of instinctive fierceness: when approach- ed, it stamps with its feet, and appears to inflate itself, raisiyg and shaking its quills. It sleeps much by day, and is active only by night. It eats in a sitting posture, holding apples and other fruits between its paw s, peeling thein with its teeth. 6. Hystrix dorsata is a native ofthe northern parts of America, and is not uncommon in Canada. It is a short thick-bodied animal, approaching somewhat to the form of a beaver, and is remarkable for the length and fulness of its fur, which is soft, of a dusky brown colour, and in- termixed with longer and coarser hairs with whitish tips. Edwards compares the size to that of a fox, though the shape is widely different. The spines are nearly hid in the fur, and are only visible on a close inspection: they arc situated on the head and upper parts, as well as on the tail: the longest are those on the back, which measure about three inches, while those on the other parts are pro- portionally shorter: they are strong and sharp-pointed, and so formed as to appear, when examined with a mag- nifier, as if barbed at the tips with numerous, small, re- versed points or prickles, and are so slightlv attached to the skin as to be loosened with great ease: and the animal will sometimes purposely brush aerainst the legs of those who disturb it, leaving several of the spines'sticking in the skin. ° I C H I C H It is said to feed principally on the bark of the juniper killed by the American Indians, who consider it as a use- tree. It drinks by lapping, in the manner of a dog. It ful article of food: they also use tbe quills by way of resides in holes under the roots of trees, on which, like fringes, and for the purpose of ornamenting their boxes, some others of this genus, it often climbs, and is thus &c. I. T the ninth letter of the alphabet, used as a numeral, ■■■9 signifies no more than one, and siands for s; many Units as it is repeated times: thus, 1, one; II. two; III, three, kc. and when put before a higher numeral, it sub- tracts itself, as IV, four; IX. nine, kc but when set after it, so many are added to the higher numeral, as there are l's added; thus VI is 5 + 1, or six; VII, 5 -f 2, or seven; VIII, 5 + 3, or eight. The ancient Romans likewise used I3 for 500, CI3 for 1000, I33 for 5000, CCI33 for 10,000, I333 for 50,000, and CCCI333 for 100,000. Farther than this, as Pliny observes, they did not go in their notation; but when necessary, re- peated the last number, as CCCI333, CCCI333 for 200,000; CCCI333, CCCI333, CCCI333 for 300,000; and so on. IAMBIC, in ancient poetry, a sort of verse, .so called from its consisting, either wholly or in great part, of iambuses. IAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a simple foot consisting of a short and a long syllable. IBERIS, sciatica cresses, or candy-tuft, a genus of the siliquosa order, in the tetradynamia class of plaids, and in the natural method ranking under the 39th order, si- liquosa1. The corolla is regular; the two exterior petals larger than the interior ones; the silicula polyspermous, emarginnted. There are 14 species. The most remarka- ble are: 1. The umbellata, or common candy-tuft, a well- known annual. 2. The amara, or bitter candy -tuft. 3. sempervirens, commonly called tree candy-tuft. 4. The semperflorens, with white flowers in umbels at the cends of the branches, appearing at all times of the year. IBEX, in zoology. See Capra. IBIS. See Tantalus. ICE. See Water, and Cold. Ice-hocse, a building contrived to preserve ice for the use of a family in the summer season. It is generally sunk some feet in the ground in a very shady situation, and covered with thatch. ICELAND-AGATE, a precious stone met with inthe islands of Iceland and Ascension, employed by the jewel- lers as an agate, though too soft for the purpose. It is supposed to be a volcanic product; being solid, black, and of a glassy texture. When held between the eye and the light, it is semitransparent, and greenish, like the glass bottles which contain much iron. In the islands which produce it, such large pieces are met with that they cannot he equalled in any glass-house. ICHNEUMON./^, the name of a genus of flies ofthe hymenoptera order. The generic character is, mouth with jaws, without tongue; antennse with more than thirty joints; abdomen in most species footstalked; piercer ex- se rted, with a cylindric bivalve sheath. The animals of this genus provide for the support of their offspring in a manner highly extraordinary, depositing their eggs in the bodies of other living insects, and generally in those of caterpillars. These eggs in a few days hatch, and the young larvae, which resemble minute white maggots, nourish themselves with the juices ofthe unfortunate ani- mal, which however continues to move about and feed till near tbe time of its change to a crysalis, when the young brood of ichneumon-larvae creep out by perforating the skin in various places, and each spinning itself up in a small oval silken case, changes into a crysalis, the whole number forming a groupe on the shrivelled body of the caterpillar which had afforded them nourishment; and af- ter a certain period emerge in the state of complete ich- neumons. It was the want of an exact knowledge of the genus ichneumon that proved so considerable an embarrassment to the older entomologists, who having seen a brood of ichneumons proceed from the chrysalis of a butterfly, could not but cone hide that the production of insects was rather available and uncertain operation of nature than a regular continuation of the same" species. The obser- vations however of Swammerdam, Malphigi, Roesel,and others, have Seng since removed the difficulties which for- merly obscured the history of the insect tribe. See Plate LXXIY. Xat. Hist. figs. 232, 233. It is said there are no less then 4 15 spec ies of this insect. ICHNOGRAPI1Y, in perspective, the view of any thing cut off by a plane parallel to the horizon, just at the base of it. Among painters it signifies a description of images, or of ancient statues of marble and copper, of busts and semi-busts, of paintings in fresco, mosaic works, and ancient pieces of miniature. IcnxooRAPiiY. See Architecture. ICHTllYOCOLLA. See Accipenser, and Gela- TINA. ICI1TI1YOLITHUS, in natural history, the body or parts of a fish changed into a fossil substance. Four spe- cies are enumerated. The niger is found in a black slate in the island of Sbeppey, and various parts of AYales, Germany, K6«oXoyt«, the science of fishes, or IGV 1 L L that branch of zoology which treats of fishes. See Fish, and Comparitive Anatomy. ICONOCLASTS, in church history, an appellation given to those persons who in the eighth century opposed image-worship, and still given by the church of Rome to all christians who reject the use of images in religious matters. ICOSAHEDRON, in geometry, a regular solid, con- sisting of 20 triangular pyramids, whose vertices meet in the centre of a sphere, supposed to e ircumscribe it, and therefore have their height and bases equal; wherefore the solidity of one of those pyramids multiplied by 20, the number of bases, gives the solid content of the icosahe- dron. If fig. 127, Plate LXXII. Miscel. be nicely drawn on pasteboard, cut half through, and then folded up neatly together, it will represent an icosahedron. Sec tig. 128. To form an icosahedron, describe upon card paper 20 equilateral triangles; cut it out by the extreme edges, and cut all the other lines half-through; then fold up by these edges, and the solid will be formed. The linear edge of the icosahedron being A, then the surface will be §AV3~= 8.660 A2, and the solidity * A3 V LJ-^^J. = 2.1817 A3. ICO'SAN ORIA, from s,kc be given to a child at its birth, after which it will frequently sleep for ten hours; a symptom which, although often alarming to the obtru- sive ignorance of nurses, is to be regarded as a demon- stration of the proper nature of the food that has been given, and an indication of future health. To this plan it is sometimes necessary to have re- cousc, even when it is the intention of the mother to suckle her child, as women who have had many chil- dren frequently have no proper secretion of milk until after the second or third day from delivery. Before quitting this part of the subject it is proper to observe, that the custom of immediately pouring down purgatives, as if to prove to the little stranger that it has. arrived in a world of physic and of evils, is, although very generally adopted, highly injudicious. The bowels do not, in general, require to be thus artificially cleans- ed. With respect to the quantity and times of administer- ing food, mothers and nurses are accustomed to err. No- thing can be more improper than to suckle or feed an in- fant two or three times iu the course of an hour. A child judiciously regulated does not demand nourishment, even during the first months, more than once i« three or INFANCY. four hours; as it advances it requi res feeding even less frequently, and less sleep during the day. It has already been stated that, with the exceptions pointed out, the mother's breast ought, at least during the first two or three months, to be the sole repository and entire source of infantile nutriment. If the child is brought up by hand, cow's milk gently warmed is all the food that will be necessary for the first four or five months. After these times milk may be alternated, not by moist bread, biscuit, cakes, sugar, panadas, and gru- el, but by ground rice or flour well baked; the gravy of boiled meat, which last will generally be taken with avidity; small quantities of beef-tea, or veal-jelly, and other substances of the like nature; still avoiding, un- less during the actual existence of disease, and uTlder professional direction, every article in the long list of fermented, fermenting, spicy, and spirituous materi- als; the withholding of whicli, however it may offend and alarm the nurse, will be of incalculable benefit to the child. The time of weaning must be regulated entirely by circumstances. The process should not be abrupt, but gradual. It is very seldom advisable to refuse the breast entirely before the ninth or tenth month. We have particularly insisted on the necessity of ex- cluding those substances from the diet of infants which are disposed to ferment, or turn sour. A general ac- quaintance with the laws which regulate the existence and decomposition of such substances may be acquired with less labour than would be requisite to retain in the memory, without the aid of some connecting principle, all the individual articles which are prescribed or ad- mitted as part of the diet in childhood and youth; and in consequence of such pleasing and easy acquisition, we should find knowledge and humanity joining issue in the joyous task of averting the artificial evils which igno- rance and error have made to attach to the extremely susceptible, though not naturally unhealthy, state of the primary periods of existence. Whence does the perver- sity of nurses respecting the treatment of children arise? Solely from ignorance. Were they convinced that the plans which are adopted prove ultimately subversive of their intended object, they would readily consent to aban- don the in. " Obedience will always be more cheerful and steady after a reasonable explanation." « I have heard a variety of mothers (says Dr. Heddocs) complain that sugar, biscuit, and cakes, disagreed in the most evident maimer; aud yet that it was impossible, by any injunc- tions, to prevent the one from being made a part of the food, and the other (sugar) from being given to stop the hiccups, or produce a sensation that should suspend cry- ing for a moment. Now it is well known that perpetual- ly recurring complaints in the stomach and bowels arise from mere sourness; and the parties, by whose mistaken kindness,or by whose delicacy of ear they arc occasion- ed, are perfectly informed so far. It remains only to car- ry their knowledge a sup further. Respecting the juice of the sugar cane, it is a very striking particular, that the poorest sort will scarcely keep a quarter of an hour m tiie receiver without turning sour. This can only be to'.d. The acescent nature of bread, of sugar, and of the various compositions into which bread and sugar enter, may be i.h-j-xn. For this purpose it is only nectssary that a solution of sugar and water should be made into vine- gar. In like manner bread and sweet cake should be placed in a heat nearly equal to that ofthe human body, and the servant be put to taste the infusion when it be- comes acid. By an address suited to the object in view, there will surely be small difficulty in giving these sim- ple experiments all the effect that can be desired. " I shall very contentedly allow the childless wit to laugh at me for the whimsical idea of tutoring nurse- maids in chemistry. 1 have a balm at hand for any wound the shafts or ridicule may inflict. Considerate parents will avail themselves of so practicable an expe- dient, and many little sufferers will escape the conse- quences of an improper regimen. And these are proba- bly (the author might have said certainly) far more se- rious, even in respect to the future than the present. For it clearly results from a contemplation ofthe manner in which human feelings and ideas gain their connection, that frequent discomposure of the stomach in the morn- ing of life may be instrumental in overcasting its meridi- an and its close with a cloud of misery, sue it as neither skill nor fortune can disperse." [Beddoes' Hygeia]. For farther information on the subject of diet, consult the ar- ticle Materia Medica, section Dietetics. Sec. II.—Of temperature, including remarks on the cloth- ing, and likewise on the washing or bathing, of infants. The remarkable success with which the subject of ani- mal temperature has been recently investigated, and the application of facts, deduced from a dev elopement of its laws, to the living system, both in its healthy and disor- dered state, constitute perhaps the most material improve- ments in modern physiology and medical practice. Respecting the generation and adjustment of animal heat, is it not the business of this article to inquire (see Puvsiology, and Meoicine:) our present plan extends no further than the statement of a few practical rules on the subject of heat and cold, absolutely necessary to be attended to by all who undertake the guardianslfp of in- fancy and childhood: " for the management of tempera- ture is of high importance in the treatment of the infant. It runs through, and is connected with, every part of his general treatment. It is to be considered iu iiis dress, in his covering while asleep, in his bathing or washing, in his treatment iu the house as well as out of it, in his air and exercise. In short, with a competent knowledge of the management of temperature, amuse can scarcely go wrong in any part ofthe general treatment of an infant." [Herdman.] It must be obvious to every one thatthe infant at birth necessarily undergoes a sudden and material al- teration in the temperature of the medium by which, without clothing, it is surrounded. The effects which would resiilt otherwise from this remarkable change, with respect to external warmth, arc iu some measure obviated by the immediate conimeiicementof respiration. This, however, is not sufficient of itself to supply the defect of external heat. The e hange then must be artifi- cially rendered as gradual and imperceptible as possible; and the infant, during the first month, ought scarce! v to be exposed to any sensible degree of cedd, even for the shortest period. It has been with many niidwives a common practice to direct that the new-born child bo immediately washed with cold water, aud other irritating INFANCY. sub*■'anccs, in order to cleanse the surface of the body previously to its bring covered with clothing. All that is necessary, or even proper, is the use of warm water and sponge, without any further friction, after washing, than what is necessary completely to dry the skin; in- deed the propriety of washing, or in any way cleansing, the skin of an infant at birth, has lately been denied by an author whom we have already quoted; but wc think that the use of tepid water, applied with gentleness, and without any subsequent violence of friction, can in no case be objectionable, bnt ought always to be had re- course to. As soon as the process is completed* the infant is to be immediately clothed; and now let the habits of the common routine of nurses and of friends be as sedulously watched, and as earnestly opposed, as in relation to its di- et. If the customary mode of feeding infants has induced a long train of present and permanent evils, the manner of dressing, (and which, till of very late years, has been persisted in with all the cruel pertinacity of contuma- cious ignorance), has also been productive of incalcula- ble mischief. The evil is now diminished, but is not by any means destroyed. It has happened in this, as on every other occasion wherethe clamour of senseless con- ceits has been made to silence the simple and artless dic- tates of nature, that the most preposterous customs have obtained. «•' Physicians speculated about the infant's im- perfect structure at birth, about the imperfect structure of his bones, the shapeless forms of his head, and the in- juries he might sustain in birth; about injuries and* dis- tortions from hurtful motions and unnatural positions. They thought the infant's body unable to support itself, and that even its own motions might destroy it. Then in came the midwives for their share of the concern. The task was theirs to model the head, and to straighten the limbs; to improve upon nature; and to support their im- provements by the application of fillets, rollers, and swad- dling-bands. They vied with each other who should work the work nmst cunningly; for, strange to tell, dex- terity in working this work of cruelty was reckoned one of their most necessary and important qualifications." Dr. Herd man. In clothing, then, nothing further is requisite than to guard against the variations of external temperature, and to preserve a genial warmth for the maintenance of functions: the fillets, rollers, and bandages, of the nurse- ry are not useless merely, but beyond measure dangerous. They are to be entirely laid aside, as implements of torture and destruction. No pressure on any part is to be employed. A broad strip of flannel or cotton loosely fedded round the body is all that is requisite, even as a bandage for the navel. A thin single cap is the whole of the covering that the head requires or should receive. The body should be enveloped with a shirt of fine cotton, made loose and easy, over which should be a covering of flannel: and in a word, the dress is to be so constructed, that the rapid motion of the circulating fluids may be preserved without the small- est impediment. It may be necessary before quilting this subject, to state, that the writer's experience has con- vinced him of the propriety and importance ofthe above regulations in regard to dress and diet, even where re- lationship has ensured an attentive and unprejudiced scrutiny into particulars. But it is not as it regards clothing merely that the medium to which a young infant is exposed demands assi- duous attention; much care ought to be taken in pro- viding likewise « a fit habitation for the expected little visitor." The apartment devoted to the rearing of infants, during the first months especially, ought to be so con- structed and situated as to ensure a steady, equable, and mild temperature. Small confined nurseries, where it is possible, ought to be avoided. In such apartments it is difficult to guard against the extremes of eitlier heat or cold. An exposure to a stream or current of air, oc- casioned by an unsuspected breach in the window, di- rected on the body of a sleeping infant, has often been productive of serious injury. Dr. Beddoes directs that thc-air of the nursery be never suffered to fall below fifty degrees; and it is always to be carefully retained in the memory, that the deficiencies occasioned by ill-con- structed buildings can never be compensated by heaping fuel on the fire; by this custom indeed not only is the air rendered impure, but the temperature of the room is made still more irregular, and the danger of colds con- sequently increased. There is one caution which is especially necessary with respect to the management and economy of nurse- ries. All occasions and sources of damp should most as- siduously be guarded against. This caution is the more needful, because the danger from this source appears to be the least understood or suspected. It is not uncom- mon to observe that parents and nurses who would dread the opening of a sash-window, at the same time unwit- tingly expose themselves and their charge to a much greater degree of cold by permitting the suspension of wet clothes, in order to dry, about different parts of the apartment, and even by carelessness respecting the wash- ing of the floor. The process of drying is the process of producing cold, and that too of the most noxious kind; for cold, when combined with moisture, has been proved, in an excessive degree, inimical to the animal economy. Damp is equally insidious and detrimental. We are fully persuaded that from this cause originate many scrophulous and other infantile ailments; and that where the diseases have been fancifully attributed to dele- terious impregnations in the waters we drink, and various other sources. By every individual, but more especially by the parents and guardians of infany and youth, freedom from damp should be tie first and great requisite in the choice of apartments and houses. But to return to the infant's dress. The covering which we have recommended ought to be. continued for the first six or seven weeks of infancy; during this period, as we have already observed, nourishment, warmth, and re- pose, are almost its only requisites. After this time» however, or towards the close of the second month, the infant economy begins to change; vascular action comes now to be connected with voluntary muscular motion; the percipient faculty is gradually developed; and the whole organization appears to undergo a change. The body is now warmed in a greater degree and more regu- lar manner, by actions of its own production, and heat of its own formation. Exterior warmth is daily less ne- cessary; and that quantity and kind of clothing, which before were proper and genial, now become irksome and INFANCY. debilitating. If with this progress of growth the sum- mer months are at the same time about to appear, the covering of the child may, in a short time, be reduced even to a shirt and single external garment: the utility of this light clothing will be rendered evident by the feelings and expressions of the infant. It is almost un- necessary to observe, that general precepts are incapa- ble of undeviating and indiscriminate application. The changes of the weather, the season of the year, and the delicacy or robustness of the constitution, will interfere with every rule, and give exercise to the independant judgment of every parent. Providence, however, has so ordained it, that in this, as in every other respect, the dictates of nature, which are communicated by the desire and aversion of the infant, furnish the most faithful di- rectories with respect to its management; and these are conveyed with such distinctness and precision as to be generally intelligible. It is only by disobeying nature's laws that, in the treatment of infancy, we have wandered wide of the path of rectitude, and are under the necessity of retracing our steps. We now close the present section by a few additional remarks on the much-contested question of bathing. It has already been observed, that an infant, upon its first entrance into the world, should be immediately washed with tepid or warm water. Others recommend immer- sion rather than ablution. " For a newr-born infant (says Dr. Beddoes) I should prefer instant immersion in water at eighty degrees to washing." It is perhaps immaterial to which mode of cleansing we have recourse, unless the latter may be deemed objectionable on account ofthe un- necessary shock it may occasion to the tender frame. It is likewise to be observed, that conveniences for the for- mer are procured with more facility than the latter; and that it is not every nursery that can, without difficulty, be furnished with a " proper vessel for a warm bath." The question, however, now to be resolved is, in what mode, and at what temperature, bathing or washing should be continued through the period of childhood. This question, like others, is incapable of decision by an appeal to separate principles. By one writer, daily im- mersion in, or ablution with, cold water, for the first two or three years of life, is earnestly recommended; by another, it is condemned as an unnecessary piece of cru- elty, while tepid washing is directed to supply its place. Like the different decisions past on the cameleon's hue, these precepts, although opposite, may each be equally just. The weakly infant shall be washed " with cold wa- ter into irrecoverable debilitv," into convulsions and death; while to the robust and hardy child the same ele- ment at the same temperature shall be congenial, and'by its use he will be prepared for the variations of cold and heat, to which he will in the course of life be exposed. In a popular treatise on consumption, recently published by Dr. Reid, we meet with the following judicious regula- tions on the subject of bathing: " It may be proper to premise (says our author), that by the cold bath is un- derstood water at an inferior standard to eighty degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. Be'wccn this point and that of 90 degrees the bath may be termed temperate; and it is only beyond this last deg. e of heat that the epithet warm can with jvop-iety be applied. From ne- glecting accurately to observe these distinctions, which vol. II. 58 are of very material importance, a want of precision has often connected itself with directions for the employ- ment of both warm and cold bathing. " Immersion in cold water, during the period of infan- cy, has been very generally recommended, and too often had recourse to, in an indiscriminate manner, to preserve health, and ensure hardiness. The author has remarked several instances where sensible, and sometimes conside- rable, injury has arisen from neglecting to observe the precautions necessary to regulate the employment of this important agent in very early years. In infancy dan- ger to the lungs from cold bathing has been stated to exist in a very inferior degree; and by the practice of dipping children in cold water, susceptibility to the injurious impression of cold, in succeeding years, has been thought to be materially diminished. This prin- ciple, in the abstract, is undoubtcly correct; and, with the exceptions and precautions now to be mentioned, may be pursued with propriety and advantage. Two infante may be supposed of one family of reverse constitutions. In the one a general torpor, debility, and great suscep- tibility to the impression of cold, shall prevail: in the other comparative vigour, activity, and warmth. That degree of cold which would refresh and invigorate the one, would confirm, debility and augment torpor in the other. A bath which is not cold to the sensations must, in the first instance at least, be resorted to for the weaker infant; and in neither case should immersion in cold wa- ter be practised when the external warmth of the body is inferior in degree to its general standard; when after immersion tbe body appears to be chilled, or when re- turning heat is attended with febrile languor, instead of the grateful and genial warmth characteristic of the appropriate action of exciting powers. If the prac- tice of immersion is guided by a cautious observ ance of these particulars, it may be adopted with safety, and will he attended with success; but a total ne- glect of bathing would be greatly preferable to the se- vere and incautious manner in which infants are fre- quently exposed to these violent and rapid changes in the temperature." It ought to be added, that whether washing or immersion is employed, much care should be taken iu drying the skin, particularly in those parts in which it is loosely situated, as about the groin, and in the arm-pits. It may be necessary likewise to observe, that the breast ought on no account to be given to the child while being washed and dressed. A perseverance iu this respect will ultimately prove of essential advantage. The habits of the child are greatly under the command of the parent or nurse. At the expense of a few temporary tears per- manent comfort may be attained. Sect. III.—Air aud exercise. It has recently been conjectured that the air wc breathe contributes equally, and nearly in the same manner, to the nourishment of the body, with the aliment that is taken into the stomach: respecting the grounds of this opinion it would not be in place, in the present article, to institute any inquiry. (See Physiology; and Mate- ria Medica, section Dietetics). We have here only to impress the necessity of a constant and unremitting re- gard to ventilation, in order to ensure a healthful condi- tion iu the infantile economy. INFANCY. Both the truth and importance of this principle would seem too obvious even to require notice by a writer on regimen, had he not daily opportunities of witnessing the mischief arising from neglecting its application. The public mind, however, appears to be at length awakening from a long lethargy of prejudice and error. We at length begin to breath and to live. Even among the poorer and least informed classes of society, cleanliness and ventilation come to be acknowledged as the surest barriers against the invasion of disease. Although, how- ever, on this subject modern science has much to boast, much likewise remains to be accomplished; and even in the present day examples cannot be too frequently press- ed upon public observation of the injurious tendency, especially in the susceptible and delicate period of infan- cy, of neglected ventilation. « There is reason to sup- pose that, from the inattention of our ancestors to fresh air, multitudes must have perished in the very dawn of existence. In our times grown persons have been dan- gerously affected by such a deficiency of this necessary of life, as did not even produce immediate uneasiness. Infants have perished in great numbers by a sIgw suffoca- tion, terminating'in convulsions. As soon as the want of ventilation was observed the mortality has ceased." Beddoes. A fact, of which the following relation furnishes irrefragable evidence. In the lying in hospital at Dub- Jin 2,944 infants, out of 7,650, died in the year 1782, within the first fortnight from their birth: they almost all expired in convulsions; many foamed at the mouth, their thumbs were drawn into the palms of their hands, their jaws were locked, their faces swelled, and they present- ed, in a greater or inferior degree, every appearance of suffocation. This last circumstance at length induced an inquiry whether the rooms were not too close, and insuf- ficiently ventilated. The apartments of the hospital were rendered more airy; and the consequence ln\s been, that the proportion of deaths, according to the register ofthe succeeding years, is diminished from three to one. Such facts as these cannot be too often made to pass under review. By the parent anxious for the well-being of her offspring they ought constantly to be enforced upon the minds of servants and nurses, whose supineness in respect to proper ventilation is often only to be equalled by their mismanagement in other particulars. This indo- lence is often by servants carried to such an extent as very materially to injure their own health. «• In a large family (says Dr. Darwin) many female servants slept in one room, which they had contrived to render inaccessi- ble to every blast of air. I saw four who were thus seiz- ed with convulsions. They were removed into more airy apartments, but were some weeks before they all regained their health." Had infants unfortunately been confined in the same tainted atmosphere, convulsions in these would have been more readily induced, and might perhaps have proved fatal! A child then ought never, if it can be avoid- ed, to be permitted to sleep with many individuals in the same apartment. It should not be lulled to rest in its nurse's arms. When put to sleep in the couch or cradle the face must not be covered; at night the clothes should be entire- ly changed; after the first or second month it should be daily taken out in the open air, when the weather is not cold or damp: this is best done in the forenoon, immediately upon bring washed and dressed; care being taken that the infant is not carried too much in one position, and that it does not suffer from cold. Every impediment to the purity of the air within doors is to be as speedily as possible removed; and when the skin is preternaturally hot, or the little patient becomes restless and febrile, the fires of the nursery arc to be extinguished, the windows thrown open, or the apartments changed. To the full enjoyment of the atmosphere the free use of the limbs must likewise be added. On exercise scarcely any thing remains to be said. Freedom from all constraint is implied in the mode of dress above recommended. To those, how ever, who imagine that nature can be assisted by the contrivances of art, or that symmetry of form is to be insured by unnatural restriction, it may not be im- proper to observe, that deformities are only known in those countries where mechanical dexterity has been cal- led upon to prevent them. " The infants of the Caffres (says the author of Travels into the interior of Southern Africa), soon after birth, are suffered to crawl about per- fectly naked; and at six or seven months they are able to run. A cripple or deformed person is never seen. Iu Egypt, again, the haram is the cradle or school of in- fancy. The new-born feeble being is not there swaddled and iillited up in a swathe, the source of a thousand dis- eases. Laid naked on a mat, exposed in a vast chamber to the pure air, he breathes freely, and with his delicate limbs sprawls at pleasure. The new element in winch he is to live is not entered with pain and tears. Daily bathed beneath bis mother's eye he grows apace. Free to act he tries his coming powers; rolls, crawls, rises, and should he fall, cannot much hurt himself on the car- pet or mat that covers the floor." PART II. DISEASES OF INFANCY. Sec I.—Mesenteric atrophy (Tabes mesenterica, Atro- phia infantilis). This is, in a great measure, the origin and root ofthe major part of infantile diseases. An affection of the me- senteric glands in children is often connected with, is not unusually the occasion of, and is still more frequently mistaken for, worms; it is the medium thrc-'igh which rickets are produced; it is, in general, the more immedi- ate cause of diarrhoeas, and other bowel complaints; and in several instances has been the » forerunner, if not the cause, of hydrocephalus, or dropsy in the brain." Than this no complaint bears more evident characters. The physician who has been accustomed to the general aspect of infantile disorders, will most commonly com- mence his inquiries by an inspection of the abdomen. If he perceives a fulness and tenseness about the navel, and a general protuberance aud hardness about the belly, at- tended sometimes with a knotty irregularity, indicating glandular tumefaction; and if, combined with this .symp- tom, a tendency to atrophy, or, as it is called, falling away in flesh and strength, is observed; a greater or in- ferior degree of mesenteric consumption is present. Such then are the never-failing attendants ofthe disorder now under notice; they are its distinct and prominent fea- tures. A variety, however, of other adjunctive symp- toms, for the most part, display themselves, and constitute part of the malady. Sometimes an universal languor and INFANCY listlrssness will be connected with aversion to food; at others an inordinate appetite is present. The bowels are at times costive, but at others the contrary; the evacua- tions are discoloured, anel unhealthy in their appearance; they are, for the most part, slimy, or viscid in their con- sistence, but are discharged, both with respect to quan- tity and quality, with the utmost irregularity: the coun- tenance is pale, " except when the hectic flush prints its deceitful and ill-omened animation on the cheek:" the features are, for the most part, full and tumid: the eye is dull: the breathing is oppressed, and spasmodic: the pulse is invariably feeble, but is sometimes slow, and at others inordinately accelerated. In the advanced stages swellings of the feet and ancles are sometimes observed. The little sufferer generally moans piteously; and this, if the disorder has arrived to any considerable extent, is almost the only sign which is given of consciousness or feeling. Causes.—Mesenteric atrophy is most prevalent among the children of the poor, especially in large cities, and in dirty confined situations. " The noxious powers produ- cing it," in the language of Dr. Brown, (see Brunonian System,) *< are the same with those of every other asthenia. They are want of food, or diet of watery matter and bread; cold and moisture, the latter increas- ing the effects of the former; too little nursing (gesta- tionis justo minus); habitual vomiting and purging; irregularities in the times of sleep, meals, and every other part of infantile management; filth; impure air; an inat- tention to the instincts of nature in the treatment of chil- dren." Elementa Medicinse. To these causes Dr. Brown ought to have added the practice of giving children fer- mented or spirituous liquors, and those other artificial stimuli, to which we have referred in the former part of the present essay. This custom is extremely prevalent in the inferior classes of society; and hence, in part, the frequency of mesenteric atrophy among the offspring of the poor. Immediate cause of, and constitutions most obnoxious to, mesenteric consumptions.—The unusual bulk oftlic abdo- men, which is so characteristic of this disease, obviously depends upon a deranged state of the mesenteric glands. The tumefaction, however, docs not arise from the source to which it is vulgarly referred, " the presence of tough, ropy humours, causing an obstruction in the tumefied parts." The theory of mechanical obstruction is indeed totally founded in error. It is inconsistent with the laws of the animal economy. It is incompatible with living action; and, as we shall immediately have occasion to ob- serve, has been the cause of much and serious mischief, both in the domestic, and even the professional treatment, of this and other ailments. *'The idea of attenuating hu- mours, purifying blood, and clearing passages, rests upon a wrong principle." So far indeed from the glands of the mesentery being less permeable under disease than when in a state of health, the exact contrary is the fact; and not only is their area enlarged, but new vessels arc often at the same time formed; and hence the morbid increase of bulk. The attendant atrophy is easy of explanation. The deranged action of the glands iu question interferes with the due preparation of the chyle, the whole of which has to undergo a preparation in these organs. The chyle is the fluid from which the blood is formed: on the quan- tity and quality ofthe blood depend health, growth, and life; by its deficiency, or want of due proportion in ii-, component principles, debility, disease, and atrophy, arc produced. The attendant symptoms are not difficult to account for; the torpid and irregular state of the bowels is partly owing to the general inactivity in the lymphatics of the liver; hence the thinner portions of the bile remain un- absorbed, and this fluid is in consequence too diluted to afford a due excitation to the intestinal fibre. The sli- miness and viscidity of the faeces arise from the disor- dered state of the glands of the intestines; and the cede- matous swellings of the feet are evidences of a general inactivity, or deficient excitement, pervading the whole lymphatic system. The constitutions in which tabes mesenterica most readily makes its appearance, are those which are deno- minated scrophulous. The marks of scrophula we shall not here enumerate; it may be sufficient to observe, that in habits of this description the lymphatic and glandu- lar systems are especially prone to suffer from the ex- citing causes of disease. This indeed is more or less the case in every individual during growth, as, at this pe- riod of existence, the office which these vessels perform in the animal economy, is more important and compli- cated than in the succeeding stages of life. Treatment.—The most effectual remedies are necessa- rily the converse of those which occasioned the disease. These wc shall likew ise enumerate from the Elements of Dr. Brown: "nourishing exciting milk; three or four meals in the course of the day, composed chiefly of warm milk; pure animal, and by no means weak, soups, mixed with wheaten flour or bread; a due temperature, so that a genial warmth may be preserved, without producing irritation, or occasioning too copious sweat; avoiding every species of evacuation: good nursing; a proper re- gulation of the times of sleep, food, and every other cir- cumstance connected with the management of the sus- ceptible and tender condition of infancy; cleanliness; tepid bathing in moderately cold weather, and cold bath- ing in warm; pure air; being sent out of doors as much as possible, excepting when the weather is damp; and, finally, a judicious attention to desires and propensities; this ought to be carried to such an extent as to obviate, if possible, the most trifling local irritation, as by the scratching of a part that itches. The above arc necessarily adapted to the milder forms of the complaint. YVhen the disorder has arrived to a certain extent, medicinal is now required iu aid of do- mestic treatment: for although the mesenteric atrophy, unless it is a consequence of defective structure, may at all times be prevented, and in its earlier stages with fa- cility combated, without the aid of drugs; these, at length, come to be abseilutely indispensable. It ought, howerer, to be impressed on the public mind, that phar- macy, although it may correct the errors, can in no w i.v,o become a substitute for, or supply the deficiencies of, re- gimen. The objects of the medical practitioner, in the treat- ment of the disease in question, will be twofold. 1st. That of immediately and forcibly stimulating the lac- teals and mesenteric glands; and, 2dly, the prcserv ation INFANCY. of a due and equable excitement in order to obviate the recurrence of the disorder. [N. B. For the explanation of any terms that may not be familiar, the reader is referred to the articles An vtomy, Physiology, and Medicine.] The first of the above intentions is most speedily and effectually accomplished by mercurial purgatives: and of these calomel (submurias hydrargyri) is generally to be preferred. The benefit which has often resulted from preparations of mercury, particularly in the form of ca- lomel, has frequently been accounted for upon very er- roneous principles. It is customary to attribute every complaint of childhood, where the stomach and intes- tines show marks of derangement, to worms. With the signs of the actual existence of the animalculse, we have already remarked those of tabes mesenterica are, from their affinity, often confounded. Advertisements of in- fallible cures for worms, as indeed for every other ma- lady, are constantly before the public: tbese, for the most part, contain mercury, as the only agent of consequence in their composition; and from the operation of this me- dicine upon the diseased glands, provided, by accident, the quantity taken is proportioned to the age and consti- tution ofthe recipient, immediate, and temporary relief is perceptible. YVorms are supposed to be expelled the system, and the infallible medicine is indiscriminately, and often fatally, circulated among the public. A further error with respect to the agency of calomel in the mesenteric affections, is that of attributing its ef- fects solely to its purgative quality. This last error is not confined to the unprofessional. Ill-founded notions, as we have above hinted, are still too general in regard to obstructing humours; and the cure of this disorder, with all others which are conjectured to arise from ob- struction, is consequently imagined to be performed by evacuating medicines. YVe are disposed to believe that a recent publication, although inthe main extremely use- ful, has, by the unqualified recommendation of purga- tives, given too much encouragement to this mistaken principle. Dr. Hamilton, the author ofthe work to which we al- lude, has classed, under the title of marasmus, the as- thenic affections which are common to young persons, and of which the disorder now under consideration is one of the most general; and these affections he « is con- vinced have often been removed by the diligent exhibi- tion of purgative medicines." Now we are fully per- suaded, although actual, and even repeated, purgations are in many cases indispensable; that for the most part, especially in " incipient marasmus," such a qualifica- tion in the dose of cathartics is to be preferred as may ensure an excitation of the glandular, lacteal, and lym- phatic organs (the organs principally concerned in the production of the complaints in question), without copi- ously evacuating the contents of the bowels. For this persuasion we have the authority of experience. Fur- ther, it is to be remarked, even where large and repeat- ed evacuations, in these diseases of debility especially, have been followed by beneficial effects, that, even then, the evacuation itself has constituted but a share in the process of recovery. This principle may be evidenced in the example of either vomiting or purging. Let a case be supposed of mesenteric affection carried to such an extent, that the torpid condition of the lacteal glanda has extended itself to the hepatic and biliary organs; where even dropsical effusions have taken place, and contributed to the enlargement of the belly; and where this abdominal protuberance is contrasted, in a most dis- tressing degree, with the emaciation of the limbs. Un- der these circumstances (and the writer of the present article has witnessed them in the full extent described), if either a quantity of ipecacuana, emetic tar!ar, or any other emetic drug, is given sufficient to occasion vomit- ing, or such a dose of calomel as alone, or in combina- nation, may produce a copious alvine discharge: the im- mediate result will prove, that the principal part of the medicinal agency has been constituted by a sudden and powerful impulse communicated to the glandular and absorbent vessels. The liver shall commence a regular secretion of bile, the faces in consequence assume a pro- per colour and consistence, the skin shall lose suddenly its sallow sickly hue, the size of the abdomen be lessen- ed, and even the swellings of the ancles be diminished; all evincing, in the most unequivocal manner, an in- creased action in the absorbent system. By those who are aware of the importance of ac- quiring correct notions in respect to medicinal agency, the above remarks, although perhaps in some measure irregularly introduced, will not be deemed misplaced. They will, it is hoped, facilitate the conception, and serve to curtail the discussion, ofthe remaining disorders that are to be treated of in this article. YVe now recur to the more immediate subject of the present section. We have observed, that the first object of the physi- cian, in cases of deeply rooted mesenteric disorder,, is to produce an immediate and forcible excitement in the lacteal glands; the manner in which this object is to be attained may be gathered from the preceding remarks. Either calomel purgatives, or emetic substances, are to be employed, according to the circumstances of the case, or the inclination of the practitioner; and now the judi- cious regulations of diet and regimen prescribed by Brown, are to be assisted by medicines, in order to ac- complish the second purpose, that of preserving a due excitement to secure against the recurrence of the dis- ease. The physician will be careful to keep in view, thatthe absorbent system is principally concerned in this, as well as in the other asthenia of infants. It is to this part of the frame that remedies are especially to be di- rected. Among the various stimuli, those therefore are to be preferred, the influence of which appears in an especial manner to be directed to this part of the orga- nization. Chalybeates have this property in a remark- able degree; and accordingly one or other ofthe various preparations of steel has been judiciously and success- fully had recourse to in tabes mesenterica: these are to be conjoined with pure air, and due exercise, without which the most appropriate medicines will be in vain ad- ministered. The continued use of small doses of calo- mel, or other mercurial preparations, either in conjunc- tion with, and sometimes to the exclusion of, steel, will prove highly useful in restoring a due energy and ac- tion to the absorbents. These, like all other active me- dicinals, require much address and discrimination in INFANCY. their employment. It is from the presence of mercury, as above hinted, that both the utility and dangerous ten- dency of quack medicines are for the most part derived. In tbe practice of the writer of this article, extremely small, and very gradually augmented, doses of digitalis have appeared to restore, in a remarkable degree, the wonted vigour of the lacteal vessels. The free use of this very important and active medicine has long been admitted in dropsy, an affection generally attended with great debility. In tabes mesenterica we believe its em- ployment is novel; but we are, at the same time, per- suaded, from the result of several cases of this and other modifications of infantile asthenia, that foxglove might be made, under due regulation, a very successful agent in the treatment of these complaints. Under these cir- cumstances, on account of the comparative minuteness of the dose, the digitalis is best given in the form of tincture; a preparation which has not hitherto been re- ceived into the London Pharmacopeia. See Materia Medica, and Pharmacy. Sect. II.—Water in the head. (Hydrocephalus.) The discriminating characters of this disease demand assiduous attention from the medical practitioner. It cannot be doubted that a great number of children are constantly destroyed by water in the brain, where the nature of the malady has been entirely misunderstood, and the symptoms referred to other sources, most com- monly worms; while, on the other hand, hydrocephalus has been very frequently suspected, and the event has proved that the suspicion was destitute of any proper foundation. Hydrocephalus is generally divided by authors into the internal, or that in which the fluid is contained in the ventricles of the brain; and external, where the dis- ease is exterior to the substance of this organ, and the water is found in its investing membranes. The first species has likewise been denominated acute, the second chronic. This division, however, is calculated to mis- lead; not merely on account of the frequent connection between the two species (internal and external) of hy- drocephalus, but because the former, as well as the lat- ter, is oftentimes chronic, and by no means necessarily preceded by an inflammatory affection of the parts con- cerned in its production. The chronic internal, chronic external, and the acute, species of hydrocephalus, would constitute a classifica- tion of the disease, approaching nearer to accuracy than that which has been hitherto adopted; and we shall pro- ceed to give a brief description of each, requesting the reader to recollect that the different kinds are often mix- ed, and consequently exhibit characters in an almost endless variety. Chronic internal—This, although overlooked in the ordinary division, is perhaps the most usual form in which the affection presents itself; it arises from the same disposition in the habit, and is oftentimes combin- ed with the disease treated of in tbe preceding section. More commonly, however, it is in a manner vicarious of this last; and the same causes may, perhaps from ac- cidental circumstances, at one time occasion tabes me- senterica, which would at another have produced hydro- cephalus. Its symptoms are less decided than those of the other species. YVhen, however, in children of a sluggish habit, or scrophulous constitution, ar. unusual drowsiness or stupor is present, the child gradually loses his vivacity and spirits, is indisposed to make any ex- ertion of his limbs, is unusually fretful and peevish, complains or exhibits signs of an uneasiness in the head, is affected with convulsive fits without any apparent cause, has an unusually tardy pulse, and more especially if the pupil ofthe eye is not found to contract upon the application of light, there is reason to suspect the pre- sence of water in the brain, although there may be no symptoms of external disease, and no preternatural en- largement of the head, except what is usually met with in young persons of a torpid scrophulous habit; and the suspicion has been too often confirmed by dissection, even where a fatal termination has happened, without being preceded, during any period of the malady, by the symptoms immediately to be mentioned, character- istic of the acute species. This first kind of hydroce- phalus is succinctly described by Dr. Hcbcrdcn, in the following words: "Capitis dolorcs, manus ad caputcre- bro admotse, clamoressubiti, distensio nervorum, stupor, mentis perturbatio, motus venarum lentus, postremo cse- citas." He adds, « Justam hujus morbi suspicionem in- jiciunt hsec symptomata ctiamsi capitis moles non fuerit aucta." Chronic external.—The bead of an infant at, or soon after, the period of birth exhibits a preternatural size and form; the regular process of ossification does not take place; but the principal part of the external surface ofthe cranium continues soft and yielding, while not un- frequently, in the progress of the complaint, an undula- tion of a fluid may be perceived by applying the hand to the sutures of the skull. As the disease continues to ad- vance, the signs of its existence become shortly obvious to the most superficial observation: not only does the head increase to an enormous size, but the growth of other parts is in a proportionate ratio defective; the limbs do neit often acquire, a much greater bulk than at birth; at the ordinary period of teething no teeth present themselves; the percipient faculty is not gradually un- folded, as in other infants; and, indeed, although vitality is preserved, it appears to be a vitality almost entirely unconnected with feeling. In this state of torpid exist- ence life however is, in some instances, prolonged for four, six, or even a greater number of years. In the Commentaries of Van Svveiten, we have the relation of life being maintained under this malady for thirty years: this, however, is an anomaly; and indeed the hydroce- phalic patient seldom survives the second year. Acute hydrocephalus.—The acute, phrenitic, inflamma- tory, or, as it has been termed by some writers, apoplectic hydrocephalus, is not, like the other species entirely confined to any constitution. Although most frequent in children under twelve years, it is sometimes observed in adults. It has been divided by Dr. YVhytt, and others who have followed him, into three distinct stages: the first of which is invariably characterised by a purie of much celerity and comparative strength; in the second the pulsations become slower, and more feeble; in the third and last period their rapidity is increased even beyond that ofthe primary stage; but this increased ac- tion is now connected with extreme debiliry. These diffe- rent changes inthe circulation arc not, however, always INFANCY'. Io be traced even in the acute species of hydrocephalus, in that order which the observations of Dr. YYhytt would lead us to suppose. Obscure affections ofthe stomach, a general feeling of lassitude, with sometimes a kind of palsy of the limbs, or an affection of them, in some measure similar to that observed in St. Vitus" s dance, if the child has previous- ly been able to walk, sometimes present themselves as precursors of the first, or the inflammatory stage; at other times the feverish state, intolerance of light, violent pains in the head, and vomiting, are the first signs of disorder that are noticed. These symptoms are in some cases connected, according to the observations of Dr. Rush, with an impatience of sound; the pain of the head is often confined to one side; and in proportion to its in- tensity the nausea and vomiting becomes less urgent, while with the remission of the pain these affections of the stomach are disposed to recur. Respiration at this time is spasmodic and irregular; the bowels are gene- rally so costive as to require very drastic purgatives, in order to produce evacuations. This state ofthe complaint continues sometimes for several days, but is more usual- ly in a shorter period succeeded by the second, which commences by a sudden reduction of the pulse, and other symptoms of irritation. The pain of the head now becomes less urgent, torpor succeeds to watchfulness, the infant lifts his hands to his head, and frequently utters piercing screams (clamores subiti); a degree of strabismus takes place of the previously morbid sus- ceptibility of light; the little patient lies in an horizontal posture, with the head low, and shows an indisposition to be taken up; the bowels still continue torpid; the urine not unfrequently deposits a thick sediment; and after these symptoms have lasted from seven to fourteen clays, the complaint sometimes appears suddenly to decline. This semblance of returning health is, however, deceit- ful, and is but a prelude to the final period of the com- plaint: it is now that the pulse increases in frequency, and oftentimes so quick as not to be counted. Dr. YYhytt informs us that in some children he has been able to number 210 pulsations in the space of a minute; this ex- traordinary rapidity, however, does not last through the whole of the day; it comes on and declines with the ac- cessions and remissions of the hectic flush in the cheek. The eyes at length become insensible to the strongest light, convulsions come on, and life is terminated. The duration of this last period, like that of the others, is irregular. Sometimes the patient is carried off in less than a week from its commencement; at other times the child lingers in a hectic state for three, four, or six weeks; and Dr. Monro has informed us, that the last state has been known to be protracted even to the fourth month. Causes.—The two first species of the complaint are decidedly of a scrophulous nature. They generally come on without any evident exciting cause, aud, like other asthenic affections, in the early periods of life, originate from lymphatic debility, without previous excitement in the vessels of the brain to produce the effusion: the last species is perhaps always preceded by an inflammation iu the internal vessels ofthe brain. The immediate cause of this irritation is not, however, in every instance to be detected; it may arise in subjects predisposed, in com- mou w ith all other inflammations, from the sudden al- ternations of cold and heat. It has been observed to supervene upon the contagious eruptive affections, espe- cially when these have been unusually violent; and Dr. Bcddoes, in a letter to Dr. Darwin, inquires » whether it may not happen more frequently than has been sus- pected from external injury?" Zoonomia. Treatment.—Evacuations of every kind, viz. cathar. tics, sudorifics, emetics, general and local blood-letting, as well as the external application of cold, and of blis- ters to the scalp, with due attention to the erect position of the head, had all, in conjunction or separately, been tried in the acute species of hydrocephalus, but, Accord- ing to the general report of physicians, without effect. It is in what Dr. Whytt has called the first state of hy- drocephalus that the above treatment should be vigorous- ly put in practice, and it is only in this stage that wc can look with confidence for a successful issue from any treatment. When a collection of water has actually taken place within the ventricles of the brain, the disease has almost invariably ended in death. In consequence, therefore, of the ill success that had attended the common routine of treatment in hydroce- phalus, Dr. Dobson, of Liverpool, was induced to make trial of mercurials, with an intention of exciting the ab- sorbents of the brain, and in this manner removing the extravasated fluid. The event appeared to justify his theory; and we have several cases recorded by this phy- sician and by others, in which mercury, carried to the extent of salivation, accomplished a speedy and effectual cure. The following case is from Dr. Percival: " One of my own children, a girl, aged three years and three months, has lately been a severe sufferer under this alarming malady. As soon as the characteristic symp- toms of the disease clearly manifested themselves, 1 laid aside all other remedies, convinced by repeated observa- tion of their insufficiency, and trusted solely, though with much solicitude, to the internal and external use of mercury. In forty-eight hours, signs of amendment ap- peared, and her recovery was perfected in six days. During this space of time, thirteen grains of calomel were administered, and seven scruples of unguentum mercuriale fortius carefully rubbed into the legs." YVith the same design of exciting the absorbents, digi- talis has recently been employed. " In one child," says Dr. Darwin, " I tried the foxglove in tincture, but it was given with too timid a hand and too late in the dis- ease to determine its effects." In the work of Dr. Reid, to which we referred in a former part of this article, we meet with the following observations: «< The univer- sality of lymphatic absorbents is rather conceived than actually demonstrated. Dissection has hitherto not been able to detect these vessels in the brain; analogy, how- ever, favours the supposition of their existence. If that frequent and too fatal disease of young persons, water in the brain, admits of cure, the remedies which effect it, must necessarily operate by producing an absorption of the effused fluid. The author imagines he has witnessed the cure of hydrocephalus by means of foxglove. The symp- toms, however, of worms and other infantile affections, so oftem resemble those indicative of water in the ven- tricles of the brain, that it is scarcely possible to decide with absolute certainty on the interesting question of the INFANCY. inevitable fatality or remediable nature of hydrocepha- lus." If foxglove should be proved by future experience to succeed as a remedy for this alarming malady, its modus operandi must be referred to the extraordinary faculty which it possesses of repressing the arterial, while it sti- mulates the absorbent system. Both in the acute and chronic hydrocephalus, it appears to be deserving of a more extensive trial. To the earlier stages ofthe former we should, a priori, be disposed to conceive it more ap- plicable than even mercury. Sect. III.—Worms. (Vermes.) The marks by which the presence of worms is indi- cated arc confessedly at times, both in the infant and adult, obscure and equivocal. In the majority of cases, however, the phenomena which they present require only for their detection a careful and discerning scrutiny. In persons affected with worms, the countenance in general has a peculiar livid and dirty kind of appear- ance, very different from that which characterizes mere lymphatic debility, as in tabes mesenterica, and hydroce- phalus. The eyes become dull, the pupil dilated, but not averse to light, as in hydrocephalus, the upper lip swell- ed, the sides ofthe nostrils enlarged, and there is almost constantly a violent itching of their internal membrane. The breath is remarkably offensive, saliva is secreted in unusual abundance; during sleep there is most gene- rally some grinding ofthe teeth, and epileptic affections are by no means uncommon; the pulse is intermittent, the febrile irritation is not always of the hectic kind, the appetite is often voracious, lancinating pains arc com- plained of in the stomach and bowels, and tenesmus, at- tended with a distressing irritation about the anus, is, especially from some species of worms, exceedingly fre- quent. Cough is not uncommon. These last, however, are more frequent symptoms in the adult than in the child. See Medicine. Causes.—" The tumid belly, bloated countenance, and swelled upper lip," says Dr. Darwin, " are concomittant circumstances attending the general inactivity of the ab- sorbent system, which is therefore to be esteemed the remote cause of the generation of worms." Worms, how- ever, are often produced through the medium of intesti- nal viridities, indepcndantly of the absorbent vessels. The immediately exciting causes are some of those already mentioned as productive of mesenteric atrophy, more especially the reception into the stomach of indi- gestible substances. Dr. Darwin, indeed, supposes, that not merely the nidus of worms is thus formed from ali- ment incapable of assimilation, but that these auimalculse are actually received from without: for this opinion, however, there does not appear any foundation. Worms are actually engendered in the alimentary passage. Treatment.— Kinetics; mercurial purgatives, chaly- beates; vegetable bitters; avoiding indigestible aliment. For an account of the different kinds of worms, and specific anthelmintics, consult the articles Medicine aud Materia Mi.dica. Sect. IV.—Rickets. (Rachites. Atrophia infantilis.) This is likewise an affection of the lymphatic system. Every one knows the characters by which it is marked. An infant with a large head, protuberant forehead, swel- lings in the smaller jouii.*., depressed flattened ribs, ema- ciated limbs, and tumid abdomen, is decidedly rickety. These symptoms, in common with the other asthenia of infants, usually make their appearance before the second year. The first indication of a rickety tendency is a re- markable flaccidity ofthe muscular fibre; disinclination to exertion follows; and the irregularities above enume- rated shortly supervene, followed by hectic, cough, con- firmed atrophy, death, or permanently distorted limbs. Causes.—Debility, most commonly of an hereditary nature, constitutes the predisposition to rickets. Bad air, bad nursing, improper diet, uncleanliness, and damp, are its exciting causes. Hoffman describes the proximate cause to be a deficient supply of nervous influence to the spinal marrow, preventing the due nutrition of parts. Dr. Cullen supposes, a deficiency of bony matter in the fluids constitutes the disease. A more correct account, however, of the essentials of rickets, would make it to consist in deficient excitement or power in those vessels, by the action of which osseous matter is thrown out, and bone constituted. Treatment.—Indication 1st. To cleanse the first pas- sages from obstructions. Methodus medendi: emetics, ca- thartics, calomel. Indication 2d. To restore due energy to the secretory vessels of the bones. M. M. chaly beates, exercise, bath- ing. Sect. Yr.—Disorder in the bowels. (Diarrhoea infan- tilis.) Among the morhi infantilcs in the yearly catalogue of every medical practitioner, diarrhoea occupies a conspi- cuous situation. The griping, green and otherwise dis- coloured fa?ccs, pains in the abdomen, with drawing up of the knees towards the stomach, severe crying, fe- brile irritation, and a greater or less degree of actual convulsions, are perhaps the most common among tho diseases of infancy. Causes.—These affections, as wc have already observ- ed, arc almost invariably occasioned by improper diet. Dr. Darwin gives us the following relation: " A child of a week old, which had been taken from the breast of its dying mother, and had by some uncommon error been suffered to take no food but water-gruel, became sick and griped in 24 hours, was convulsed on the second day, and died on the third!" He adds, " That among the poor children of Derby who are thus fed hundreds are starved into scrophula, and eitlier perish or live in a state of wretched debility." Zoonomia. Treatment.—Calomel, with rhubard, is to be immedi- ately given, which is t«) be fed lowed by antacids, such as prepared chalk and magnesia. With these are to be con- nee ted, according to the violence of the disorder, aro- matics and stimulants, such as cinnamon, nutmeg, and opium. Sometimes it is necessary to give an emetic. In all cases indigestible food is to be avoided. Sect. YT.—Affections occasioned by teething. (Dentitio.) Pains in the head, convulsions, frequent and sudden starlings, more especially iu sleep, eruptions on the skin, disorders ofthe stomach and bowels, cough, and hectic fever, are not unfrequently occasioned by the process of toothing. Dr. Darwin conjectures, that "the pain of toothing often begins much earlier than is suspected;" I N F I N F and that the apparent cause of the disease is in reality its cure, as the convulsions, which are oftentimes the most violent and then by far the most alarming of the ab >ve symptoms, are commonly relieved when " the gum swells and becomes inflammed; at other times a diarrhoea supervenes, which is generally esteemed a favourable circumstance." In difficult dentition, the pains in the head, convul- sions, vomiting, and hectic, sometimes give rise to the suspicion of hydrocephalus: from this, however, the dis- ease in question may generally be distinguished with facility by the ease with which, in the last case, the bowels are evacuated; by the inflammatory redness of the gum, and by the pupil of the eye being dilated in an obscure, and contracted in a vivid light, the contrary of which takes place in hydrocephalus. Treatment.—Frequent doses of rhubarb, with magnesia, will often allay the intestinal irritation, and mitigate the teething cough. The gums are to be lanced in all cases where the redness and swelling are considerable. This practice can indeed never be objectionable. Antispas- modics for the convulsions are inefficacious while the cause remains. Sect. VII.—Croup. (Cynanche trachealis.) The characteristics, or pathognomic symptoms of this disease are, difficult respiration, loud and stridulous cough, with the emission of a sound of a peculiar nature, which has been compared to the crow of a young cock. These symptoms sometimes supervene, upon the com- mon precursors of violent inflammation; at other times the disease is formed without previous warning, and has been known to prove fatal in a very few hours from its apparent commencement. If life is not speedily terminat- ed in this manner, the disorder frequently runs on for the space of six days, and terminates for the most part by crisis, with the evacuation of much pale urine. Causes.—The croup is an inflammation ofthe upper part, as the peripeneuinony is of the lower part of the same organ, viz. the trachea or windpipe. It originates from the same sources as other inflammation. The cir- cumstancc of its frequent occurrence and fatal tendency in infants, appears to be owing to the extremely dispro- portionate smallness ofthe glottis at this period of life. The cause of death, when it happens suddenly, is a de- position of concreted mucus (consequent upon the in- flammation), which lines the trachea, and fills up the bronchial cavities. Independantly, however, of this cir- cumstance, sudden death may be occasioned by the great lots of power in the muscular fibres of the glottis, induc- ed by the previously high excitement, " infantes enim mi ram incitationis vicissitueinem, brevissimis temporum spatiis, experiuntur." Treatment.—This, to be effectual, must be speedy and decisive. Emetics; copious bleeding from the arm, and leeches applied near to the part affected; blisters; warm bath; antimonials. Recently, calomel in large doses has been tried, and with success. Might not digitalis prove useful in consequence of its extraordinary power in ra- pidly reduc ing arterial excitement? N. B. Croup, in some instances, assumes more of the asthenic than of the inflammatory nature; and in this case the disorder of the glottis is often protracted to a longer period. The treatment in this litter species re- quires to be stimulating. Calomel; opiates; blisters; vola- tile embrocations to tbe throat; nourishing diet. For those diseases of young persons which often re- quire local, in connection with general treatment, such as distortions of the spine, affections of the eyes, scro- phulous swellings of lymphatic glands, &c. consult the article Surgery. For eruptive and contagious diseases, see Medicine. INFANT. From the observations daily made on the actions of infants, as to their arriving at discretion, the laws and customs of every country have fixed upon par- ticular periods, on which they are presumed capable of acting with reason and discretion; in our law the full age of man or woman is 21 years. 3 Bac. Abr. 118. The ages of male and female are different for differ- ent purposes: a male at 12 years of age may take the oath of allegiance; at 14 is at discretion, and therefore may consent or disagree to marriage; may choose hia guardian, and if his discretion is actually proved, may make his testament of his personal estate; at 17 he may be a procurator or an executor; and at 21 is at his own disposal, and may alien his lands, goods, and chattels. A female at seven years of age may be betrothed or giv- en in marriage; at nine is entitled to dower; and at 12 is of years of maturity, and therefore may consent or disagree to marriage, and if proved to have sufficient discretion may bequeath her personal estate; at 14 is at y cars of legal discretion, and may choose a guardian; at 17 may be executrix; and at 21 may dispose of herself and her lands. 1 Black. 463. An infant is capable of inheriting, for the law pre- sumes him capable of property; also an infant may pur- chase, because it is intended for his benefit, and the free- hold is in him till he disagrees thereto, because an agree- ment is presumed, it being for his benefit, and because the freehold cannot be in the grantor contrary to his own act, nor can be in abeyance, for then a stranger would not know against whom to demand his right; and if at his full age the infant agrees to the purchase, he cannot afterwards avoid it; but if he dies during his minority his heirs may avoid it, for they shall not be bound by the contracts of a person who wanted capacity to contract. Co. Litt. 2. As to infants being witnesses, there seems to be no fixed time at which children are excluded from giving evidence'; but it will depend in a great measure on the sense and understanding of the children, as it shall ap- pear on examination in court. Bull. N. P. 293. And where they are admitted, concurrent testimony seems peculiarly desirable. 4 Bla. 214. An infant is n^t bound by his contract to deliver a thing; so if one deliver goods to an infant upon a eon- tract, kc knowing him to be an infant, he shall not be chargeable in trover and conversion,or any other action for them; for the infant is not capable of any contract but for necessaries, therefore such delivery is a gift to the infant; but if an infant, without any contract, wilful- ly takes away the goods of another, trover lies against him; also it is said, that if he takes the goods under pre- tence that he is of full age, trover lies, because it is a wilful and fraudulent trespass. 1 Sid. 129. Infants arc disabled to contract for any thing but neces- I N F INF saries for their person, suitable to their degree and quali- ty; and what is necessary must be left to the jury. Co. Litt. 172. An infant, knowing of a fraud, shall be as much bound as if of age. 13 Vin. Abr. 536. But it is held that this rule is confined to such acts only as are voidable; and that a warrant of attorney given by an infant being absolutely void, the court will not confirm it, though the infant appeared to have giv- en it, knowing it was not good, and for the purpose of collusion. As to acts of infants being void, or only voidable, there is a diversity between an actual delivery of the thing contracted for, and a bare agreement to deliver it; the first is voidable, but the last absolutely void. As necessaries for an infant's wife are necessaries for him, he is chargeable for them, unless provided before marriage; in which case he is not answerable, though she wore them afterward, l Str. 168. An infant is also liable for the nursing of his lawful child. Where goods are furnished to the son, he is hiinsrif liable if they are necessaries. If tradesmen deal with him, and he undertakes to pay them, they must resort to him for payment; but if they furnished the infant on the credit of his father, the father only is liable. 2 Esp. 471. With respect to education, &c. infants may be charged, where the credit was given bona fide to them. But where the infant is under the parent's power, and living in the house with them, he shall not be liable even for necessaries. 2 Black. Rep. 1325. If ataylor trusts a young man, under age, for clothes to an extravagant degree, he cannot recover; and he is bound to know whether he deals at the same time with any other tay lor. 1 Esp. Rep. 212. If one lends money to an infant to pay a debt for ne- cessaries, and he pays it, although he is not bound in bivv, it is said he is in equity; but if the infant misapplies the money it is at the peril of the lender. A promissory note given by an infant for board and lodging, and for teaching him a trade, is valid, and will support an action for the money. 1 T. R. 41. And debts contracted during infancy are good conside- rations to support a promise made to them when a per- son is of full age; but the promise must be express. A bond without a penalty for necessaries will bind an infant, but not a bond with a penalty. Esp. Rep. 1G4. Legacies to infants cannot be paid either to them or their parents. An infant cannot he a juror, neither can he be an at- torney, bailiff, factor, or receiver. Co. Lit. 172. By the custom of London an infant unmarried, and above the age of 14, if under 21, may bind himself ap- prentice to a freeman of London, by indenture with pro- per covenants, which covenants, by the custom of Lon- don, will be as binding as if of age. If an infant draws a bill of exchange, yet he shall not be liable on the custom of merchants; but he may plead infancy in the same manner as he may to any other con- tract. An infant cannot be sued but under the protection and joining the name of his guardian; but he may sue vol. II. 59 either by bis guardian, or his next friend, who is not bis guardian. Co. Lit. 135. An action on an account stated will not lie against an infant, though it should be for necessaries. Co. Lit. 172. INFINITE, or infinitely great line, in geome- try, denotes only an indefinite or indeterminate line, to which no certain bounds, or limits, are prescribed. INFINITESIMALS, among mathematicians,are de- fined to be infinitely small quantities. In the method of infinitesimals, the element, by which any quantity increases or decreases, is supposed to be* infinitely small, and is generally expressed by two or more terms, some of which are infinitely less than the rest, which being neglected as of no importance, the re- maining terms form what is called the difference ofthe proposed quantity. The terms that are neglected in this manner, as infinitely less than the other terms of the element, are the very same which arise in consequence of the acceleration, or retardation, of the generating mo- tion, during the infinitely small time in which the ele- ment is generated; so that the remaining terms express the elements that would have been produced in that time, if the generating motion had continued uniform: there- fore those differences are accurately in the same ratio to each other as the generating motions or fluxions. And hence, though iu this method infinitesimal parts of the elements are neglected, the conclusions are accurately true without even an infinitely small error, and agree precisely with those that are deduced by the method by fluxions. For example, (sec Plate LXXII. Miscel. Cig. 136), when DG, the increment of the base AD. of the triangle ADE, is supposed to become infinitely little, the trapezi- um DGHE (the simultaneous increment ofthe triangle) consists of two parts, the parallelogram EG. and the triangle EHI; the latter of which is infinitely less than the former, their ratio being that of one-half DG to AD: therefore, accordingto this method in fluxions, the part EIH is neglected, and the remaining part, viz. the pa- rallelogram EG, is the difference ofthe triangle ADE. Now it might be shown, that EG is precisely that part of the increment of the triangle ADE which is* generated by the motion with which the triangle flows, and that EIH is the part ofthe same increment which is generated in consequence of the acceleration of this motion, while the base, by flowing uniformly, acquires the augment DG, whether DG be supposed finite or infinitelv less. Example 2. The increment DELMHG (fig. 137) of the rectangle AF, consists of the parallelograms KG, EM, and lh; the last of which, lh, becomes infinitely less than EG, or EM, when DG and LM. the increments ofthe sides, are supposed infinitely small; because lh is supposed to be to EG as LM to AL. and to EM as DG to AD; therefore, lh being neglected, the sum ofthe pa- rallelograms EG and EM is tbe difference of the rectan- gle AE: and the sum of EG and EM is the space that would have been generated by the motion with which the rectangle AE fl.vvs continued iiniformlv. hut that \h is the part of the increment of the rectaiije which is generated in consequence of the acceleration of this mo- tion, iu the time that AD and AL. bv flawing uniformly, acquire the augments DG and LM." The sam" may be observed in propositions wherein the fluxions of quau- I N F I N F lilies are determined; and thus the manner of investi- gating the differences, or fluxions of quantities, in the method of infinitesimals, may be deduced from the prin- ciples of the method offluxiens. For instead of neglect- ing EIH because it is infinitely less than EG, (accord- ing to the usual manner of reasoning in that method), we may reject it; because we may thence conclude, that it is not produced in consequence of the generating mo- tion DG, but ofthe subsequent variations of this motion. And it appears why the conclusions in the method of in- finitesimals are not to be represented as if they were only near the truth, but are to be held as accurately true. In order to render the application of this method easy, some analogous principles are admitted, as that the in- finitely small elements of a curve are right lines, or that a curve is a polygon of an infinite number of sides, which being produced, give the tangents of the curve; and by their inclination to each other measure the curvature. This is as if we should suppose, when the base flows uni- formly, the ordinate flows with a motion which is uniform for every infinitely small part of time, and increases or decreases by infinitely small differences at the end of every such time. But however convenient this principle may be, it must be applied with caution and art on various occasions. It is usual therefore, in many cases, to resolve the element of the curve into two or more infinitely small right lines; and sometimes it is necessary, if we would avoid error, to resolve it into an infinite number of such right lines, which are infinitesimals ofthe second order. In general, it is a postulatum in this method, that wc may descend to the infinitesimals of any order whatever, as we find it neressary; by which means any error that might arise in the application of it may be discoverd and corrected by a proper use of this method itself. For an example of this, see Maclaurin's Fluxions. INFLAMMABILITY, that property of bodies which disposes them to kindle or catch fire. See Caloric, Chemistry, kc. INFLAMMATION. See Surgery and Medicne. INFLECTION, or point of inflection, in the higher geometry, is the point where a curve begins to bend a contrary way. See Flexure. To determine the point of inflection in curves, whose semi-ordinates CM, Cm (PI. LXXII. Misc. fig. 134) are drawn from the fixed point C; suppose CM to be infinite- ly near Cm, and make mH = Mm; let T711 touch the curve in M. Now the angle CmT, CM?n, arc equal; and so the angle CmH, while the semi-ordinates increase, does decrease, if the curve is concave towards the cen- tre C, and increases if the convexity turns towards it. Whence this angle, or, which is the same, its measure, will be a minimum or maximum, if the curve has a point of inflection or retrogression; and so may be found, if the arch TH, or fluxiem of it, be made equal to 0, or in- finity. And in order to find the arch TH, draw ?nL, so that the angle TmL be equal to mCL; then if CM = y, . . . tx mr = x, mY = t, we shall have y : x:: t: —. Again, y draw the arch HO to the radius CH; then the small right lines tur, OH, are parallel; and so the triangles OLH, mLr, are similar; but because HI is also perpendicu- lar to ml,, the triangles LHI, mLr, arc also similar: whence t: x :: y : 'Ji; that is, the quantities mT, mh, are t equal. But HL is the fluxion of Hr, which is the dis- tance of Cm =y; and IID is a negative quantity, be- cause while the ordinate CM increases, their difference rH decreases; whence xx + yy — yy = 0, which is a ge- neral equation for finding the point of inflection, or rc- trogradation. See Fluxions. INFORMATION, in law. An information may be de- fined an accusation or complaint exhibited against a per- son for some criminal offence, either immediately against the king, or against a private person, which, from its enor- mity or dangerous tendency, the public good requires should be restrained and punished. It differs principally from an indictment in this, that an indictment is an accu- sation found by the oath of 12 men, but an information is only the allegation of the officer who exhibits it. 3 Bac. Abr. 164. Informations are of two kinds: first, those which are partly at the suit ofthe king, and partly at the suit of a subject; and, secondly, such as are only in the name of the king: the former are usually brought upon penal sta- tutes, which inflict a penalty on conviction of the offend- er, one. part to the use of the king, and another to the use of the informer; and are called qui tarn, or popular actions, only carried on by a criminal instead of a civil process. Informations that are exhibited in the name of the king alone are also of two kinds: first, those which are truly and properly his own suits, and filled ex officio by his own immediate officer, the attorney-general; secondly, those in whie h, though the king is the nominal prosecu- tor, yet it is at the relation of some private person, or common informer; and they are filed by the master of the crown office, under the express direction of the court. The objects of the king's own prosecutions, filed ex of- ficio by the attorney-general, are properly such enor- mous misdemeanours as peculiarly tend to disturb or endanger the government. The objects of the other spe- cies of informations, filed by the master of the crown of- fice, upon the complaint or relation of a private subject, are any gross and notorious misdemeanors, riots, batte- ries, libels, or other immoralities, of an atrocious kind, not peculiarly tending to disturb the government, but which, on account of their magnitude or pernicious ex- ample, deserve the most public animadversion. And when an information is filed either thus, or by the attor- ney-general ex officio, it must be tried by a petty jury of the county where the offence arises; after which, if the defendant is found guilty, he must resort to the court of king's bench for his punishment. 4 Black. 308. If a common informer should willingly delay his suit, or discontinue, or he non suited, or shall have a"verdict or judgment against him, he shall pay costs to the defendant. 18 Eliz. c. 5. And in the court of king's bench, particularly if the defendant shall appear and plead to issue, and the prose- cutor shall not at his own costs, within a year after issue joined, procure the same to be tried; or if a verdict pass for the defendant, or the informer procure a noli prosequi to be entered; the said court of king's bench I N H I N J may award the defendant his costs, unless the judge shall certify that there was a reasonable cause for exhibiting such information; aud if the informer shall not, in three months after such costs taxed, and demand made, pay the same, the defendant shall have the benefit of the re- cognizance, to compel him thereunto. 4 and 5 YV. c. 18. 1NFRALAPSAKIANS, in church history, an appel- lation given to such prcdestinaiians as think the de- crees of God, in regard to the salvation and damnation of mankind, were formed in consequence of Adam's fall. INFUSION, a method of obtaining the virtues of plants, roots, kc. by steeping them in a hot or cold li- quid. INFUSORIA, in natural history, minute simple ani- malcules, seldom visible to the naked eye. When water is examined with the microscope, particularly that which has long been stagnant, and has vegetable matter grow- ing in it, or water in w hich vegetables have been infus- ed, thousands of minute animals have been discovered, which have been arranged together in this order. When wheat that is rickety is infused in water, small eel-shaped worms are discovered, which were the cause of the dis- ease. Wheat thus injured is very different from smutty wheat. Tbe grains are brown, shrivelled, and of irre- gular forms; each contains one or more of these worms, which lie dormant as long as the grain is dry; but as soon as it is moistened by being sown, or otherwise, the worms are revivified, feed on the flour, and lay their eggs. If such grain vegetates, the young as soon as they are batched, eat their way up the stem, and bury themselves in the young succulent ear. INGRESS, in astronomy, signifies the sun's entering the fust scruple of one of the four cardinal signs, espe- cially Aries. 1NGROSSER. Sec Forestalling. INHALER, in medicine, a machine for steaming the lungs with warm water, recommended by Mr. Mudge in the cure of the catarrhous cough. The body of the instrument resembles a porter-pot, holds about a pint, and the handle, which is fixed to the side of it, is hol- low. In the lower part ot the vessel, where it is sol- dered to the handle, is a hole, by means of which and three others on the upper part of the handle, the water, when it is poured into the inhaler,will rise to the same level in both. To the middle of the cover a flexible lea- thern tube, about six or seven inches long, is fixed, with a mouth-piece of wood or ivory. In the cover there is a valve fixed, which opens and shuts the communication between the upper and internal part ofthe inhaler and external air. This valve is extremely simple: being fnrmed only of a short tube descending inwards from the cover, and having beneath a small hole upon which a ball of cork plays. YVhen the mouth is applied to the end of the tube in the act of inspiration, the air rushes into the handle, and up througli the beuly of warm wa- ter, and the lungs become, consequently, filled with hot vapour. In exspiration, the mouth being still fixed to the tube, the breath, together with the steam on the sur- face of the water in the inhaler, is forced up tlirough the valve in the cover. INHERITANCE, is a perpetuity in lands or tene- ments to a man and his heirs; and the word inheritance is not only intended where a man has lands or tenements by descent, but also every fee-simple, or fee-tail, which a person has by purchase, may be said to be an inherit- ance, because his heirs may inherit it. Lit. s. 9. Inheritances arc corporeal or incorporeal. Corporeal inheritances relate to houses and lands, which may be touched or handled; and incorporeal hereditaments are rights issuing out of, annexed to, or exercised with, cor- poreal inheritances; as advowsous, tithes, annuities, of- fices, commons, franchises, privileges, and services. 1 Inst. 49. There are several rules of inheritances of lands, ac- cording to which estates are transmitted from ancestor to heir, viz. 1. That inheritances shall lineally descend to the issue of the person last actually seized, in infini- tum, but shall never lineally ascend. 2. The male issue shall be admitted before the female. 3. Where there are two or more males in equal degree the eldest only shall inherit; but the females all together. 4. The lineal de- scendants, in infinitum, of any person deceased shall re- present their ancestor; that is, shall stand in the same place as the person himself would have deme had he been living: thus the child, grandchild, or great-grandchild (either male or female), of the eldest son, succeeds be- fore the younger son, and so infinitum. 5. On failure of issue of the person last seized, the inheritance shall descend to the blood of the first purchaser. 6. The col- lateral heir of the person last seized must be his next collateral kinsman ofthe whole blood. 7. In collateral inheritances the male stocks shall be preferred to the fe- male, unless where lands are descended from a female: thus the relations on the father's side are admitted in infinitum before those on the mother's side are admitted at all; and the relations of the father's father before those of the father's mother, and so on. 2 Black, c. 14. INHIBITION, a writ to inhibitor forbid a judge from farther proceedings in the cause depending before him. F. N. B. 39. INJUNCTION. An injunction is a prohibitory writ, restraining a person from committing or doing a thing whicli appears to be against equity and conscience. 3 Bac. Abr. 172. An injunction is usually granted for the purpose of. preserving property in dispute pending a suit; as to re- strain the defendant from proceedings at the common law against the plaintiff, or from committing waste, or doing any injurious act. Mill". Treat. Chan. Plead. Injunctions issue out of the courts of cquiiy in several instances. The most usual injunction is to stay pro- ceedings at law; as, if one man brings an action at law against another, and a bill is brought to be relieved ei- ther against a penalty, or to stay proceedings at law, or some equitable circumstances, of which the party cannot have the benefit at law. In such case the plain- tiff in equity may move for an injunction either upon an attachment, or praying a dedimus, or praying a far- ther time to answer; for it being suggested in the bill that the suit is against conscience, if the defendant is in contempt for not answering, or prays time to answer, it is contrary to conscience to proceed at law in the mean time; and therefore an injunction is granted of course: but this injunction only stays execution touch- ing the matter in question; and there is alwavs aclause giving liberty to call for a plea to proceed to trial, awl INK I N K for want of it to obtain judgment; bi.t execution isstayed till answer. e>r farther order. 3 Bar. Abr. 173. Y\ hen a bill in chancery is filed in the office of the six clerks, if an injunction is prayed therein, it may be had, at various stages of the cause, according to the circumstances of the ease. If the hill is to stay execu- tion upon an oppressive judgment, and the defendant does not put in his answer within the time allowed by the rules of the court, an injunction will issue of course; and when the answer comes in, the injunction can only be continued upon a sufficient ground appearing from the answer itself. But if an injunction is wanted to stay waste, or other injuries of an equally unjust nature, then upon the filing of the bill, and a proper case sup- ported by affidavits, the court will grant an injunction immediately; to continue till the defendant has put in his answer, and till the court shall make some further order concerning it; and when the answer comes in whe- ther it shall then be dissolved, or continued till the hear- ing of the cause, is determined by the court upon argu- ment, drawn from considering the answer and affidavits together. 3 Bla. 443. The method of dissolving injunctions are various; when the answer comes in, and the party has cleared his contempt, by paying the costs of the attachment, if there is one, he obtains an order to dissolve nisi, and serves it on the plaintiff's clerk in court: this order takes notice of the defendant's having fully answered the bill, and thereby denied the full equity thereof, and being regularly served, the plaintiff must show cause at the day; or the defendant's counsel, where there is no probability of showing cause, may move to make the order absolute, unless cause, sitting the court. 3 Bac. Abr. 177. If the plaintiff who has an injunction die pending the suit, in strictness the whole proceedings are abated, and the injunction w ith them; but even in this case the party shall not take out execution without special leave of the court; he must move the court for the plaintiff to revive bis suit within a limited time, or the injunction to stand dissolved; and as this is never denied, so if the suit is not revived, the party takes out execution. There are some instances where a plaintiff may move to revive bis injunction; but as that rarely happens, so it is rarely granted, especially where the injunction has been be- fore dissolved; but where a bill is dismissed, the injunc- tion and every thing else are gone, and execution may be taken out the next day. 3 Bac. Abr. 178. INJURY, a wrong or damage to a man's person or goods. The law will suffer a private injury rather than a public evil; and the act of God or the law does injury to none. 4 Rep. 124. INK. There are two principal kinds of ink, writing and printing ink. Writing-ink. YYhen to an infusion of gall-nuts some solution of sulphate of iron (green copperas) is added, a very dark blue precipitate takes place. This precipi- tate is the gallic acid of the galls united to the iron of the green vitriol, forming gallat of iron, which is the basis of writing-ink. If galls and sulphate of iron only were used, the precipitate would fall down, leaving the water colourless; and in order to keep it suspended in the water, forming a permanently black, or rather a very dark blue fluid, gum arabic Is added, which, by ita viscid nature, prevents the precipitate from falling down. Y'arious receipts have been given for the composition of writing-ink, but very few have been founded upon a knowledge of its real nature. The receipt given by M. Ribancourt is as follows: Take eight ounces of Aleppo galls, in coarse powder; four ounces of logwood, in thin chips; four ounces of sulphate of iron (green copperas); three ounces of gum arabic in powder; one ounce of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol); and one ounce of sugar-candy. Boil the galls and logwood to- gether in twelve pounds of water for one hour, or till half the liquid has been evaporated. Strain the decoc- tion through a hair sieve, or linen cloth, and then add the other ingredients. Stir the mixture till the whole is dissolved, more especially the gum; after which leave it to subside for 24 hours. Then decant the ink, and pre- serve it in bottles of glass or stone ware, well corked. The following will also make agood ink: To one quart of soft water acid four ounces of galls, one ounce of cop- peras roughly bruised, and two ounces of gum arabic. Let the whole be kept near the fire a few days, and oc- casionally well shaken. Red writing-ink is made in the following manner: Take of the raspings of Brazil wood a quarter of a pound, and infuse them two or three days in vinegar. Boil the infusion for an hour over a gentle fire, and af- terwards filtre it while hot. Put it again over the fire, and dissolve in it, first, half an ounce of gum arabic; and afterwards of alum and white sugar, each half an ounce. Printing-ink is a black paint, composed of lamp- black and linseed or suet oil boiled, so as to acquire considerable consistence and tenacity. The art of pre- paring it is kept a secret; but the obtaining good lainp- blaek appears to be the chief difficulty in making it. The ink used by copper-plate printers differs from the last only in the oil not being so much boiled, and the black which is used being Frank ford black. Sympathetic, inks are such as do not appear after they are written with, but which may be made to appear at pleasure, by certain means to be used for that purpose. A variety of substances have been used for this purpose. YYe shall describe the best of them. 1. Dissolve some sugar of lead in water, and write with the solution. When dry, no writing will be visible. Y^ hen you want to make it appear, wet the paper with a solution of alkaline sulphuret (liver of sulphur), and the letters will immediately appear of a brown colour. Even exposing the writing to the vapours of these solu- tions will render it apparent. 2. Write with a solution of gold in aqua regia, and let the paper dry gently in the shade. Nothing will ap- pear; but draw a sponge over it wetted with a solution of tin in aqua regia, the writing will immediately appear of a purple colour. 3. YYrite with an infusion of galls, and when you wish the writing to appear, dip it into a solution of green vitriol; the letters will appear black. 4. YYrite with distilled sulphuric acid, and nothing will be visible. To render it so, hold it to the fire, and the letters will instantly ppear black. 5. Juice of lemons, or onions, a solution of sal ammo* I N N I N N niac, green vitriol, kc. will answer the same purpose, though not so easily, nor with so little heat. 6. Green sympathetic ink. Dissolve cobalt in nitro- muriatic acid, and write with the solution. The letters will be invisible till held to the fire, when they will ap- pear green, and will disappear completely again when removed into the cold. In this manner they may be made to appear and disappear at pleasure. A very pleasant experiment of this kind is to make a drawing representing a winter scene, in which the trees appear void of leaves, and to put the leaves on with this sympathetic ink; then, upon holding the drawing near to the fire, the leaves will begin to appear in all the verdure of spring, and wUl very much surprise those who are not in the secret. 7. Blue sympathetic ink. Dissolve cobalt in nitric acid; precipitate the cobalt by potass; dissolve this pre- cipitated oxide of cobalt in acetic acid, and add to the solution one-eighth of common salt. This will form a sympathetic ink, that, when cold, will be invisible, but will appear blue by heat. Ink, removing stains of. The stains of ink on cloth, paper, or wood, may be removed by almost all acids; but those acids are to be preferred which are least likely to injure the texture of the stained substance. The muria- tic acid, diluted with five or six times its weight of w ater, may be applied to the spot, and, after a minute or two, may be washed off, repeating the application as often as may be found necessary. But the vegetable acids arc attended with less risk, and are equally effectual. A solution of the oxalic, citric (acid of lemons), or tarta- reous acids, in water, may be applied to the most deli- cate fabrics without any danger of injuring them; and the same solutions will discharge writing, but not print- ing-ink. Hence they may be employed in cleaning books which have been defaced by writing on the margin, without impairing the text. Lemon-juice, and the juice of sorrel, will also remove ink-stains, but not so easily as the concrete acid of lemons, or citric acid. INNS AND LNxNKEEPES. Common inns were in- stituted for passengers; and the duty of inkeepers ex- tends chiefly to the entertaining and harbouring of tra- vellers, finding them victuals and lodging, and securing the geiods and effects of their guests; and therefore if one who keeps a common inn refuses either to receive a tra- veller as a guest into his house, or to find him victuals or lodging, upon his tendering a reasonable price for the same, he is not only liable to render damages for the injury in an action on the case, at the suit of the party grieved, but also may be indicted and fined at the suit of the king. Dyer, 158. In return for such responsibility the law allows him to retain the horse of his guest until paid for his keep; but he cannot retain such horse for the bill of the owner, although he may retain his goods for such bill; neither can he detain one horse for the food of another. 1 Bulst. 207, 217. An innkeeper, however, is not bound to receive the horse, unless the master lodge there also. 2 Brown, 254, Neither is a landlord bound to furnish provisions un- less paid beforehand. 9 Co. 87. If an innkeeper makes out unreasonable bills, he may be indicted for extortion; and if cither he or any of his ser- vants knowingly sell bad w ine or bad provisions, they will be responsible in an action of deceit. Any person may set up a new inn, unless it is incon- venient to the public, in respect of its situation, or to its increasing the number of inns, not only to the preju- dice of other ancient and well-governed inns: for the keeping of an inn is no franchise, but a lawful trade, open to every subject, and therefore there is no need of any licence from the king for that purpose. 2 Roll. Abr. 84. An innkeeper is distinguished from other trades in that he cannot be a bankrupt; for though he buys provisions to be spent in his house, yet he does not properly sell them, but utter them at such rates as he thinks reason- able; and the attendance of his servants, furniture of his house, kc are to be considered; and the statutes of bankruptcy only mention merchants that use to buy and sell in gross, or buy retail, and such as get their living by buying and selling; but the contracts with innkeepers are not for any commodities in specie, but they are con- tracts for house-room, trouble, attendance, lodging, and necessaries, and therefore cannot come within the design of such words, since there is no trade carried on by buy- ing and bartering commodities. 1 Jones, 437. Rut where an innkeeper is a chapman also, and buys and sells, he may, on that account, be a bankrupt, though not barely as an innkeeper, and tbis has been frequent- ly seen. 7 Vin. Abr. 57. Innkeepers are clearly chargeable for the goods of guests stolen or lost out of their inns, and this without any contract or agreement for that purpose; for the law makes them liable in respect of the reward, as also in respect of their being places appointed and allowed by law, for the benefit and security of traders and travellers. Dyer, 266. But if a person comes to an innkeeper, and desires to be entertained by him, which the inkeeper refuses, be- cause his house is already full: whereupon the party says he will shift among the rest of his guests, and there he is robbed, the host shall not he charged. Dyer, 158. If a man comes to a common inn to harbour, and de- sires that his horse may be put to grass, and the host put him to grass accordingly, and the horse is stolen, the host shall not be charged; because by law the host is not bound to answer for any thing out of his inn, but only for those that arc infra bospitium. 8 Co. 32 b. Innkeepers may detain the person of the guest who eats, or the horse whicli eats, till payment, and this he may do without any agreement for that purpose; for men that get their livelihood by entertainment of others, can- not annex such disobliging conditions, that they should retain the party's property in case of non-payment, nor make such disadvantageous and impudent a supposition, that they shall not he paid; and therefore the law annex- ed such a condition without the agreement of the parties. Roll. Abr. 85. By the custom of London and Exeter, if a man com- mits a horse to a hostler, and he eats out the price of his head, the hostler may take him as his own, upon the rea- sonable appraisement of four of his neighbours; but the innkeeper has no power to sell the horse, by the general custom ofthe whole kingdom. Moor. 876. 3 Bulst. 271* But it has been held, that though an innkeeper in I N Q I N S London may, after long keeping, have the horse apprais- ed, and sell him; yet when he has, in such case, had him appraised, he cannot justify the taking him to himself, at the price it was appraised at. 1 Y in. Abr. 233. Inns of court, are so called, because the students therein study the law, to enable them to practise in the courts at Westminster, or elsewhere; and also because they use all other gentle exercises, as may render them better qualified to serve the king in his court. Fortesq. C 49. 1NNOM1NATA OSSA. See Anatomy. INNUENDO, is a word used in declarations and law proceedings, to ascertain a person or thing which was named before; as to say he (innuendo the plaintiff) did so and so, when there was mention before of another person. Innuendo may serve for an explanation where there is precedent matter, but never for a new charge; it may apply what is already expressed, but cannot add or en- large the importance of it. 2 Salk. 513. INOCULATION. Sec Medicine. Inoculation, or Budding. See Grafting. INOL1TH US, in mineralogy, a stone consisting of car- bonate of lime, carbonic acid gas, and a little iron; en- tirely soluble in nitric acid with effervescence; fibrous, parasitic, soft, lightish, breaking into indeterminate frag- ments. There are several species: of the filamentosius there are three varieties; the satin spar, so called from its rich satiny lustre, is found in Russia, Poland, Ger- many, Saxony, and Bohemia, with the fibres straight and a little curved. It is found also about a mile from Alston in Cumberland, washed by the river Tyne, near the level of its bed; colour white, with sometimes a rosy tinge from a diluted oxide of iron, and transmits light from the edges, or in thinner pieces: fracture in the direction ofthe strife fibrous, straight or curved; specific gravity about 2.71, contains carbonic acid 47, carbonate of lime 50, water crystallization 2, and a small portion of iron. INORDINATE proportion, is where there are three magnitudes in one rank, and three others propor- tional to them in another, and you compare them in a different order. Thus suppose the numbers in one rank to be 2, 3, 9; and those ofthe other rank 8, 24, 36; which are compared in a different order, viz. 2:3 :: 24 : 36; and 3 : 9 : : 8 : 24. Then rejecting the mean terms of each rank, you conclude 2 : 9 : : 8 : 36. INQUEST, in law, signifies an inquiry made by a jury, in a civil or criminal cause, by examining wit- nesses. There is also an inquest of office, used for the satisfaction of the judges, and sometimes to make an in- quiry, whether a criminal is a lunatic or not; upon which inquest, if it is found that the criminal only feigns him- self to be a lunatic, and at the same time refuses to plead, be may be dealt with as one standing mute. Where a person is attainted of felony, and escapes, and after- wards, on being retaken, denies that he is the same man, inquest must be made into the identity ofthe person by a jury, before he can be executed. INQUISITION, in law, a manner of proceeding by way of search or examination used on the king's behalf, in cases of outlawry, treason, felony, self-murder, kc. to discover lands, goods, and the like, forfeited to the crown. Inquisition is also bad upon extents of lands, tenaments, kc. writs of elegit, and where judgment be- ing had by default, damages and costs are recovered. Inquisition, in the church of Rome, a tribunal in several Roman-catholic countries, erected by the popes for the examination and punishment of heretics. This court was founded in the 12th century by father Dominica and his followers, who were sent by pope In- nocent III. with orders to excite the catholic princes and people to extirpate heretics, to search into their number and quality, and to transmit a faithful account thereof to Rome. Hence they were called inquisitors; and this gave birth to the formidable tribunal of the inquisition, which was received in all Italy, and the dominions of Spain, except the kingdom of Naples, and the Lower- countries. See Act of Faith. INROLLMENT, in law, is the registering, recording, or entering in the rolls of the chancery, king's-bench, common-pleas, or exchequer, or by the clerk of the peace in the records of the quarter-sessions, of any lawful act; a statute of recognizance acknowledges a deed of bargain and sale of lands, and the like; but the inrolling a deed does not make it a record, though it thereby becomes a deed recorded; for there is a difference between a matter of record and a thing recorded to be kept in memory; a record being the entry in parchment of judicial matters controverted in a court of record, and whereof the court takes notice, whereas an inrollment of a deed is a private act ofthe parties concerned, of which the court takes no cognizance at the time of doing it, although the court permits it. 2 Lill. Abr. c. 9. By stat. 27 H. VIII. c. 16, no lands shall pass, where- by any estate of inheritance or freehold shall take effect, or any use thereof be made, by reason only of any bar- gain and sale thereof, except the bargain and sale is made by writing indented, sealed, and within six months inrolled within one of the king's courts of record at YYest- minster; or else within the county where the lands lie, before the clerk of the peace, and one or more justices. But by 5 Eliz. c. 26, in the counties palatine, they may be inrolled at the respective courts there, or at the assizes. Every deed before it is inrolled is to be acknowledged to be the deed of the party, before a master of chancery, or a judge of the court wherein it is inrolled, which is the officer's warrant for inrolling tbe same; and tbe in- rollment of a deed, if it is acknowledged by the grantor, will be a good proof of the deed itself upon* trial. 2 Lill. Abr. 69. But a deed may be inrolled without the examination of the party himself; for it is sufficient if oath is made of the execution. If two are parties, and the deed is acknow- ledged by one, the other is bound by it. And if a man lives abroad, and would pass lands in England, a nominal person may be joined with him in the deed, who may acknowledge it here, and it will be binding. 1 Salk. S89. INSANITY. See Medicine. INSCRIBED, in geometry. A figure is said to be in- scribed in another when all its angles touch the sides or planes of the other figure. INSECTS. See Entomology. INSOLATION, in chemistry, a term made use of to Ins I N S denote an exposure to the sun, to promote the chemical action of one substance upon another. IN STALLM ENT, the instating or establishing a per- son in some dignity. This word is chiefly used for the induction of a dean, prebendary, or other ecclesiastical dignitary, into the possession of his stall, or other proper seat in the cathedral to which he belongs. It is always used for the ceremony whereby the knights of the garter are placed in their rank in the chapel of St. George at Windsor, and on many other like occasions. It is some- times termed installation. INSTITUTES, in literary history, a book containing the elements ofthe Roman law, and constituting the last part ofthe civil law. The institutes are divided into four books, and contain an abridgment of the whole body of the civil law, being designed for the use of students. INSTITUTION, in general, signifies the establishing or founding something. In the canon and common law it signifies the investing a clerk with the spiritualities of a rectory, kc. which is done by the bishop, who uses the formula, " 1 institute you rector of such a church, with cure of souls, and receive your care and mine." This makes him a complete parson as to spi- rituality, but not as to temporality, which depends on induction. The term institutions is also used, in a litera- ry sense, for a book containing the elements of any art or science: such are institutions of medicine, institu- tions of rhetoric, kc INSTRUMENT, in law , some public act or authen- tic deed, by which any truth is made apparent, or any right or title established in a court of justice. See Deed. Instruments, in music, are either played on by means of wind, as the organ, kc; or by strings, as the violin, kc. INSTRUMENTS, astronomical. YVe shall, under the word Observatory, give an account of the se- veral instruments made use of in practical astronomy. Instruments, mathematical. A pocket case of ma- thematical instruments contains the following particulars, viz. 1. A pair of plain compasses. 2. A pair of drawing compasses, with its several parts. 3. A drawing-pen and pointer. 4. A protractor, in form of a semicircle, or some- times of a parallelogram. 5. A parallel ruler. 6. A plain scale. 7. A sector, besides the black-le.id pencil for draw- ing lines. The general uses of the above instruments are as follows: see PI. LXXIII. Mathematical Instruments. I. Of the plain compasses, Fig. 1. The use ofthe com- mon or plain compasses is, (1.) to draw a blank line A B, by the edge of a ruler, through any other given point or points C D, kc (2.) Take any extent or length be- tween the points of the compasses, and to set it off, or apply it successively upon any line, as from C to D, fig. 2. (.3.) To take any proposed line C D between the points, and, by applying it to the proper scale, to find its length. (4.) To set «)ff equal distances upon a given line, by making a dot with the point at each, through whicli to draw parallel lines. (5.) To draw any blank circle, intersecting arches, kc (6.) To lay off an angle of a given quantity upon an arch of a circle from the line of chords, <\c. (7.) To measure any arch or angle, upon the chords, kc (8.) To construct any proposed figure, in plotting or making plans, kc by setting off the quan- tity of the sides and angles from proper scales. In short, the use of the compasses occurs in every branch of prac- tical mathematics. II. Of the drawing-compasses. These compasses are chiefly designated for drawing circles, and circular arches; and it is often necessary they should be drawn with different materials; and therefore this pair of compasses has, in one of its legs a triangual socket, screw, to receive and fasten the following parts or points for that purpose, viz. (1.) A steel point, which be- ing fixed in the socket, makes the compasses then but a plain pair, and has all the same uses as just now describ- ed in draw ing blank circles, setting off lines, kc (2.) A port-crayon with a black-lead pencil, cut to a fine point, for drawing lines that may be easily rubbed out again, if not right. A piece of slate-pencil may also be used in this part for drawing on slate. (3.) The dotting- point, or dotting-pen, with a small rowel, or indented wheel at the end, moving very freely; and receiving ink from the brass pen over it, communicates the same in equal and regular dots upon the paper, where dotted lines are chosen. (4.) The steel pen or point, for draw- ing and describing black lines with ink; for this purpose the two parts or sides of the pen are opened or closed with an adjusting screw, that the line drawn may be as fine or as coarse as you please. In the port-crayon, dotter, and steel pen, there is a joint, by which you can set the lower part always per- pendicular to the paper, which is necessary for drawing a line well, in every extent or opening of the compasses. In some of the better sort of instruments, these points slide into the socket, and are kept tight by a spring on the inside that is not seen. The steel point is sometimes made with a joint, and furnished with a fine spring and screw; by which, when you have opened the compasses nearly to the extent re- quired, you can, by turning the screw, move the point to the true extent as it were, to a hair's breadth; which is the reason these are called hair-compasses. The common compasses, at large, are not altogether so well adapted for small drawing*; and therefore a small sort called bows, are contrived to answer all such purposes; they consist only of a steel point and drawing- pen, with a joint, and of a small length, so that very small circles may be nicely drawn with them, as they are to be conveniently moved and turned about in the hand, by a short stem or shaft. 111. Of the drawing pen and pencil. The drawing-pen is only the common steel pen at the end of a brass red, or shaft, of a convenient length, to be held in the hand for drawing all kinds of straight black lines by the edge of a rule. The shaft or handle has a screw in the middle part; and, when unscrewed, there is a fine steel round pin or point, by whicli you make as nice a mark or dot upon the paper as you please, for terminating your lines in curious draughts. The black-lead pencil, if good, is of frequent use for drawing straight lines, ami for supply ing the place ofthe drawing-pen, where lines of ink are not necessary; it is also often substituted for the common pen in writing, figuring, kc. Because in all cases, if what be drawn with it be not right, or does not please, it may be very easily rubbed out with a piece of crumb-bread, or Indi- an rubber, and the whole new-drawn. INSTRUMENTS. IV. Of the protractor. The protractor is a semicircle of brass, ADB, divided into 180 degrees, and numbered each way from end to end of the semicircle by 10°, 20°, SO0, &c. The central line is the external edge of the pro- tractor's diameter, or straight side, sloped down to the under side, and is generally called a fiducial edge; in the middle of which is a small line or fine notch in the very edge, for the centre of the protractor. The uses of the protractor are two: (1.) To measure any angle proposed. (2.) To lay down any angle required. For example: suppose it required to find what num- ber of degrees are contained in the angle ACB (fig. 4); you place the centre of the protractor upon the angular point C, and the fiducial edge exactly upon the line CA; then observe what number of degrees the line CB cuts upon the graduated limb ofthe protractor, and that will be the measure of the angle ACB as required. Secondly, suppose it required to protract or lay off from the line AC, an angle ACB, equal to 35 degrees. To do this, you place the centre of the protractor upon the given point C, and the straight edge upon AC very exactly; then make a line point or dot at 35 degrees on the limb at B, and the protractor being removed, you draw through B the straight line CB, and it will make the angle ACB required. Protractors in form of a parallelogram, or long square, as a E F b fig. 3, are usually made in ivory or brass; are more exact than the common semicircular ones, for an- gles to 40 or 50 degrees, because at and about each end, the divisions (being farther from the centre) are larger. V. Of the parallel ruler. The parallel ruler is so call- ed, because as it consists of two straight rules, connected together by two brass bars, yet so as to admit a very free motion to each: the one rule must always move pa- rallel-wise to the other, that is, one rule will be every where equidistant from the other, and by this means it becomes naturally fitted for drawing one or more lines parallel to, or equally distant from, any line proposed. The manner of doing which is thus: Let it be required to draw a straight line parallel to a given line AB, and at the distance AC, from it. (fig. 5.) First open the rulers to a greater distance than AC, and place the edge ofthe rulers exactly on the line AB; then holding the other rule (or side) firmly on the paper, you move the upper rule down from A to the point C, by which (holding it fast) you draw the line CD, which will be parallel to the given line AB as required. Many very useful problems in the mathematics are performed by this instrument, ot which the following are examples. Let it be required to find a fourth proportional to three right lines given, AB, BC, and AD (fig. 6). To do this, draw the lines AC, AE, making any angle at pleasure. Upon AC with the compasses set off the lines AB and BC; and upon AE setoff the line AD; join DB, and parallel to it draw EC, then will DE be the fourth proportional required. For AB : BC : : AD : DE. Again, suppose it required to divide any line, AB, as another line AC is divided (fig. 7). To do this, join the extremities of each line CB, and parallel to CB draw EI, EH, DG, through the given points DEF inthe line AC; and by these lines the line AB will be divided ex- actly similar to the line AC. The parallel ruler is seldom put into a case of instru- ments, but those of the larger and better sort; being generally sold by itself of various sizes, from 6 iuches to 2 feet in length. Ofthe plain scale. The lines generally drawn on the plain scale, are these following: Marked I. Lines of equal parts. 1 E. P. II. — Chords. 1 Cho. III. — Rhumbs. Ru. IV.----- — Sines. Sin. V.----- — Tangents. Tan. VI. — Secants. Sec. VII . S. T. Long. VIII. ---Longitude. IX.---- — Latitude. Lat. X. — Hours. Ho. XL ---Inclinations. In. Mer. Of the lines of equal parts. Lines of equal parts are of two sorts, viz. simply divided, and diagonally divided. 1. Simply divided. Draw three lines parallel to one another, at unequal distances (fig. 8), and of any conveni- ent length; divide this length into what number of equal parts is thought necessary, allowing some certain num- ber of these parts to an inch, such as 2, 2|, 3, 3\, 4, 4|, &c. which divisions distinguish by lines drawn across the three parallels. Divide the left-hand division into 10 equal parts, which distinguish by lines drawn across the lower parallels only; but for distinction's sake, let the fifth division be somewhat longer than the others: and it may not be inconvenient to divide the same left hand di- vision into 12 equal parts, which are laid down on the upper parallel line, having the third, sixth, and ninth divisions distinguished by longer strokes than the rest, whereof that at the sixth division make the longest. There are, for the most part, several of these simply divided scales put on rulers, one above the other, with numbers on the left hand, showing in each scale, how many equal parts an inch is divided into; such as 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, &c. and are severally used, as the plan to be expressed should be larger or smaller. The use of these lines of equal parts, is to lay down any line expressed by a number of two places or denom- inations, whether decimally or duodecimally'divided; as leagues, miles, chains, poles, yards, feet, inches, kc and their tenth parts, or twelfth parts; thus, if each ofthe di- visions be reckoned 1, as 1 league, mile, chain, kc. then each of the subdivisions will express -^ part thereof; and if each of the large divisions be called 10, then each small one will be 1; and if the large divisions be 100, then each small one will be 10, kc. Therefore to lay off a line 8T»T, 87, or 870 parts, let them be leagues, miles, chains, <\e. set one point of the compasses on the 8th of the large divisions, counting from the left hand towards the right, and open the com- passes, till the other point falls on the 7th of the small divisions, counting from the right hand toward the left, then are the compasses opened to express a line of 8 T^ 87, or 870 leagues, miles, chains, kc. and bears such pro- portion in the plan, as the line measured does to the tiling represented. But if a length of feet and inches was to be expressed, the same large divisions may represent the feet, but the INSTRUMENTS. inches must be taken from the upper part ofthe first di- vision, which (as before noted) is divided into twelve equal parts. Thus if a line of 7 feet 5 inches was to be laid down, set one point ofthe compass on the fifth division among the twelve, counting from the right hand towards the left, and extend the other to 7, among the large divisions: and that distance laid down in the plan, shall express a line of 7 feet 5 inches; and the like is to be understood of any other dimensions. 2. Diagonally divided. Draw eleven lines parallel to each other, and at equal distances; divide the upper of these lines into such a number of equal parts, as the scale to be expressed is intended to contain; and from each of these divisions draw perpendiculars through the eleven perallels (fig. 9): subdivide the first of these di- visions into 10 equal parts, both in the upper and lower lines; then each of these subdivisions may be also subdi- vided into ten equal parts, by drawing diagonal lines; viz. from the 10th below, to the ninth above; from the ninth below to the eighth above; from the eighth below to the seventh above, &c. till from the first below to the 10th above, so that by these means one of the primary divisions on the scale will be divided into 100 equal parts. There are generally two diagonal scales laid on the same plane or face of the ruler, one being commonly half the other (fig. 9.) The use of the diagonal scale is much the same with the simple scale; all the difference is, that a plan may be laid down more accurately by it; Because in this, a line may be taken of three denominations, whereas from the former, only two could be taken. Now from this construction it is plain, if each of the primary divisions represent 1, each of the first subdivi- sions will express T^ of 1; and each ofthe second subdi- visions (which are taken on the diagonal lines, counting from the top downwards) will express -j1^ of the former subdivisions or 100th of the primary divisions; and if each ofthe primary divisions express 10, then each ofthe first subdivisions will express 1, and each ofthe 2d, ^j and if each ofthe primary divisions represent 100, then each of the first subdivisions will be 10, and each of tbe 2d will be 1, kc. Therefore to lay down a line, whose length is express- ed by 347, 34T73 or 3TW, whether leagues, miles, chains, kc. On the diagonal line, joined to the 4th of the first sub- divisions, count 7 downwards, reckoning the distance of each parallel 1; there set one point of the compass, and extend the other, till it falls on the intersection of the third primary division with the same parallel in which the other foot rests, and the compasses will then be open- ed to express a line of 347, S4T7T, or 5-A/^, &c. Those who have frequent occasion to use scales, per- haps will find, that a ruler with the 20 following scales on it, viz. 10 on each face, will suit more purposes than any set of simply divided scales hitherto made public, on one ruler. One side.—The divisions to an inch. 10, 11, 12, 13k, 15, 16±, 18, 20, 22, 25. Other side.—The divisions to an inch. 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 85, 100. VOL. II. 60 The left-hand primary division, to be divided into 10 and 12 and 8 parts; for these subdivisions are of great use in drawing the parts of a fortress, and of a piece of cannon. It will here be convenient to show, how any plan ex- pressed by right lines and angles, may be delineated by the scales of equal parts, and the protractor. Suppose three adjacent things in any right-lined triangle being given, to form the plan thereof. Example. Let ABC (fig. 10.) be a triangular field, the side AB = 327 yards; AC = 208 yards; and the an- gle at A = 441 degrees. Construction. Draw a line AB at pleasure; then from the diagonal scale take 327 between the points of the compasses, and lay it from A to B; set the centre ofthe protractor to the point A, lay off 44\ degrees, and by tliat mark draw AC; take with the compasses from the same scale 208, lay it from A to C, and join C B; so shall the parts of the triangle A B C, in the plan, bear the same proportion to each other, as the real parts in the field do. The side C B may he measured on the same scale from which the sides A B, A C, were taken; and the angles at B and C may be measured by applying the protractor to them. If two angles and the side contained between them were given. Draw a line to express the side (as before); at the ends of that line, point off the angles, as observed in the field; lines drawn from tbe ends of the given line through those marks, shall form a triangle similar to that of the field. Five adjacent things, sides and angles, in a right-lined quadrilateral, being given, to lay down the plan thereof, fig. 11. Example. Given Z X — 70°; AB =215 links; Z B = 115°; BC = 596 links; Z C = 114". Construction. Draw A D at pleasure; from A draw A B, so as to make with A D an angle of 70°: make AB = 215 (taken from the scales); from B, draw B C, to make with A B an angle of 115°; make B C = 596; from C, draw C D, to make with C B an angle of 114°; and by the intersection of C D with A D, a quadrilate- ral will be formed similar to the figure iu which such measures could be taken as are expressed in the exam- pie. If three of the things were sides, the plan might be formed with equal ease. Following the same method, a figure of many more sides may be delineated; and in this manner, or some other like to it, surveyors make their plans or surveys. The remaining lines of the plain scale are thus con- structed. Describe a circumference with any convenient radius, and draw the diameters fig. 12 A B, I) E, at right an- gles to each other; continue Ii \ at pleasure towards F; through D, draw D G parallel to B F; and draw the chords B D, B E, A I), A E. Circumscribe the circle with the square H M N, whose sides H M, M N, shall be parallel to AB, E D. 1. To construct the line of chords. Divide the arc V D into 90 equal parts: mark the 10th divisions with the figures 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90; on D, as a INSTRUMENTS. centre, with the compasses, transfer the several divi- sions of the quadrantal arc, to the chord A D, which marked with the figures corresponding, will become a line of chords. Note. In the construction of this, and the following scales, only the primary divisions are drawn; the inter- mediate ones are omitted, that the figure may not appear too much crowded. 2. The line of rhumbs. Divide the arc B E into 8 equal parts, which mark with the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and divide each of those parts into quarters; on B, as a centre, transfer the divisions of the arc to the chord B E, which marked with the corresponding figures, will be a line of rhumbs. 3. The line of sines. Through each of the divisions ofthe arc A D, draw right lines parallel to the radius A C; and C D will be divided into a line of sines which are to be numbered from C to D for the right sines, and from D to C for the versed sines. The versed sines may be continued to 180 degrees by laying the divisions of the radius C D, from C to E. 4. The line of tangents. A ruler on C, and the seve- ral divisions ofthe arc A D, will intersect the lineD G, which will become a line of tangents, and is to be figur- ed from D to G, with 10, 20, 30, 40, &c. 5. The line of secants. The distances from the centre C to the divisions on tbe line of tangents being trans- ferred to the line C F from the centre C, will give the divisions ofthe line of secants; which must be numbered from A towards F, with 10, 20, 30, &c. 6. The line of half tangents for the tangents of half the arcs. J A ruler on E, and the several divisions of the arc A D, will intersect the radius C A, in the divisions of the semi or half tangents; mark these with the corres- ponding figures of the arc A D. The semitangents on the plane scales are generally Continued as far as the length of the ruler they are laid on will admit; the divisions beyond 90° are found by di- viding the arc A E like the arc A D, then laying a ruler by E and these divisions of the arc A E, tbe divisions of the semitangents above 90 degrees will be obtained on the line C A continued. 7. The line of longitude. Divide A H into 60 equal parts; through each of these divisions, parallels to the radius AC, will intersect the arc A E, in as many points; from E as a centre, the divisions of the arc E A, being transferred to the chord E A, will give the divisions of the line of longitude. The points thus found on the quadrantal arc, taken from A to E, belong to the sines of the equally increas- ing sexagenary parts of the radius; and those arcs rec- koned from E, belong to tbe cosines of those sexagenary parts. 8. The line of latitude. A ruler on A, and the several divisions of the sines on C D, will intersect the arc BD, in as many points; on B as a centre, transfer the inter- sections ofthe arc B D, to the right line B D; number the divisions from B to D, with 10, 20, 30, kc. to 90; and B D will be a line of latitude. 9. The line of hours. Bisect the quadrantal arcs B D, B E,in a, b; divide the quadrantal arc ab into 6 equal parts (which gives 15 degrees for each hour), and each of these into 4 others^ (which will give the quarters). A ruler on C, and the several divisions of the arc ab, will intersect the line MN in the hour, &c. points which are to be marked as in the figure. 10. The line of inclinations of meridians. Bisect the arc E A in c; divide the quadrantal arc be into 90 equal parts; lay a ruler on C and the several divisions of the arc be, and the intersections of the line HM will be the divisions of a line of inclinations of meridians. Of the sector. A sector is a figure formed by two ra- dii of a circle, and that part of the circumference com- prehended between the two radii. The instrument called a sector, consists of two flat rulers moveable round an axis or joint; and from the centre of this joint several scales are drawn on the faces of the rulers. The two rulers are called legs, and represent the ra- dii of a circle; and the middle of the joint expresses the centre. The scales generally put on sectors, may be distin- guished into single, and double. The single scales are such as are commonly put on plain scales, and from whence dimensions or distances are taken, as have been already directed. The double scales are those which proceed from the centre; each scale is laid twice on the same face of the instrument, viz. once on each leg: from these scales, di- mensions or distances are to be taken, when the legs of the instrument arc in an angular position, as will be shown hereafter. The Scales commonly put on the best Sectors are, Single ■ r 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 "Iches, each Inch divided into 8 and 10 parts. Decimals, containing 100 parts. > a line of < Chords, Sines, Tangents, Rhumbs, Latitude, Hours, Longitude, Inclin. Merid. the ") Numbers, Loga- • Sines, ritbms [Versed Sines, . of J Tangents, marked rcim. Sin. Tang. Rum. Lat. Hou. Lon. In. Me. Num. Sin. V. Sin. Tan. INSTRUMENTS. r n r 2 3 Double^ 4 j> a line o 5 6 U. fLines, or of equal parts, (Chords, Sines, marked < fLin. Cho. Sin. Tan. I Sec. Tan. LPol. The scales of lines, chords, sines, tangents, rhumbs, la- titudes, hours, longitude, ine 1. merid. may be used, whether the instrument is shut or open, each of these scales bring contained on one of the legs only. The scales of inches, decimals, log. numbers, log. sines, log. versed sines, and log. tangents, are to be used with the sector quite opened* part of each scale lying on both legs. The double scales of lines, chords, sines, and lower tangents, or tangents under.45 degrees, are all ofthe same radius or length; they begin at the centre ofthe instru- ment, and are terminated near the other extremity of each leg; viz. the lines at the division 10, the chords at 60, the sines at 90, and the tangents at 45; the remainder of the tangents, or those above 45 degrees, are on other scales beginning at | of the length of the former, counted from the centre, where they are marked with 45, and run to about 76°. The secants also begin at the same distance from the centre, where they are marked with 0, and are from thence continued to as many degrees as the length ofthe sector will allow, which is about 75 degrees. Each double scale, one being on each leg and pro- ceeding from the centre, make an angle; and in an equal angular position are all the double scales, whether of lines, or of chords, or of sines, or of tangents to 45 degrees. And the angles made by the scales of upper tangents, and of secants, arc also equal; and sometimes these an- gles are made equal to those made by the other double scales. The scales of polygons are put near the inner edge of the legs: their beginning is not so far removed from the centre, as the 60 on the chords is: where these scales be- gin, they are marked with 4, and from thence are figur- ed backwards, or towards the centre, to 12. From the disposition of the double scales, it is plain, that those angles which were equal to each other, while the legs of the sector were close, will still continue to be equal, although the sector be opened to any distance it will admit of. YVe shall now illustrate the nature of this instrument by examples. Let CL, CL, (fig. 13) be the two lines of lines upon the sector, opened to an angle LCL; join the divisions 4 and 4, 7 and 7, 10 and 10, by the dotted lines a, b, c d, LL. Then by the nature of similar triangles, it is CL, to C b, as L L to a b; and C L to C d, as L L te> cd; and therefore a b is the same part of L L as C b is of C L. Consequently, if L L be 10, then ab will be 4, and c d will be 7 of the same parts. And hence, though the lateral scale C Lbe fixed, yet a parallel scale LL, is obtainable at pleasure; and there- fore though the lateral radius is of a determined length in the lines of chords, sines, tangents and secants, yet the parallel radius may be had of any size you want, by means of the sector, as far as its length will admit; and all the parallel sines, kc peculiar to it; as will be evident by the following examples in each pair of lines. Ex. 1. In the lines of equal parts. Having 3 numbers given, 4, 7, 16, to find out a 4th proportional. To do this, take the lateral extent of 16 in the line C L, and apply it parallel-wise, from 4 to 4, by a proper opening ofthe sector; then take the parallel distance from 7 to 7 in your compasses, and applying one foot in C, the other will fall on 28 in the line of lines C L, and is the number required; for 4 : 7 : : 16 : 28. Ex. 2. In the lines of chords. Suppose it required to lay off an angle ACB, (fig. 4) equal to 35 degrees; then with any convenient opening of the sector, take the extent from 60 to 60rand with it (as radius) on the point C describe the arch A D indefinitely; then in the same opening of the sector take the parallel distance from 35 degrees to 35 degrees, and set it from A to B in the arcli A D and draw A B, and it makes the angle at C required. Ex. 3. In the lines of sines. The lines of sines, tan- gents, and secants, are used in conjunction with the lines of lines in the solution of all the cases of plain trigono- metry; thus let there be given in the triangle ABC, (fig. 14) the side A B =230; and the angle AB C = 36° 30'; to find the side A C. Here the angle at C is 53° 30'. Then take the lateral distance 230, from the line of lines, and make it a parallel from 53° 30' to 53° 30' in the line of sines; then the parallel distance between 36° 30' in the same lines, will reach laterally from the centre to 170, 19 in the line of lines for the side A C required. Ex. 4. In the lines of tangents. If instead of making the side B C radius (as before) you make A B radius; then A C which before was a sine, is now the tangent of the angle B; and therefore to find it, you use the lines of tangents, thus: Take the lateral distance 230 from the line of lines, and make it a parallel distance on the tangent radius, viz. from 45° to 45°, then the parallel tangent from 36» 80', to 36° 30', will measure laterally on the line of lines 170, 19, as before, for the side A C. Ex. 5. In the lines of secants. In the same triangle, in the base A B, and the angles at B and C given, as before, to find the side or hypotheniise B C. Here B C is the secant of the angle B. Take the lateral distance 230 from the line of lines, and make it a parallel distance on the tangent radius or beginnings of the lines of secants; then the parallel se- cant of 60° 30' will measure laterally on the line of lines 287, 12, for the length of B C as required. Ex.6. In the lines of sines and tangents conjointly. In the solution of spherical triangles, you use the line of sines and tangents only, as in the following example. In the spherical triangle A 15 C (fig. 15) right-angled at A, there are given the side A B = 36»> id\ and the adjacent angle B =42° 34', to find the side A C. The analogy is radius: sine of A B : : tangent of B : tangent of AC* INSTRUMENTS. therefore make the lateral sine of 36<> 15' a parallel at radius, or between 90 and 90; then the parallel tangent of 42° 34' will give the lateral tangent of 28° 30' for the side A C. Ex. 7. In the lines of polygons. It has been observed that the chord of 60 degrees is equal to radius; and 60° is the sixth part of 360°; therefore such a chord is the side of a hexagon, inscribed in a circle: so that in the line of polygons, if you make the parallel distance between 6 and 6, thejradius of a circle, as A C (fig. 16), then if you take the parallel distance between 5 and 5, and place it from A to B, the line A B will be the side of a pentagon A B D E F, inscribed in the circle; in the same manner may any other polygon, from 4 to 12 sides, be inscribed in a circle, or upon any given line A B. Ex. 8. Of Gunter's lines. YVc have now shown the use of all that are properly called sectoral lines, or that are to be used sector-wise; but there is another set of lines usually put upon the sector, that will in a more ready and simple manner give the answers to the questions in the above examples, and these are called artificial lines of numbers, sines, and tangents: because they are. only the logarithms of the natural numbers, sines, and tangents, laid upon lines of scales, which method was first invented by Mr. Edmund Gunter, and is the reason why they have ever since been called Gunter's lines, or the Gunter. Logarithms are only the ratios of numbers, and the ratios of all proportional numbers are equal. Now all questions in multiplication, division, the rule of three, and the analogies of plain and spherical trigonometry, are all stated in proportional numbers or terms; therefore, if in the compasses you take the extent (or ratio) between the first and second terms, that will always be equal to the extent (or ratio) between the third and fourth terms; and consequently, if with tbe extent between the first and second terms, you place one foot of the compasses on t! e third term, then turning the compasses about, the other foot will fall on the fourth term sought. Thus in example 1, of the three given numbers 4, 7, and 16, if you take the extent from 4 to 7 in the compas- ses, and place one foot in 16, the other will fall on 28 the answer, in the lines of numbers marked n. Again, the artificial lines of numbers and sines, are used together in plain trigonometry, as in example 3, where the two angles B and C, and the side AB are giv- en; for here if you take the extent of the two angles 53° 30' and 36° 30' in the line of sines marked s, then plac- ing one foot upon 230 in the line of numbers n, the other will reach to 170, 19 the answer. Also the lines of numbers and tangents are used con- jointly, as in the example 4, for take in the line of tan- gents* c, the extent from 45° (radius) to 36° 30'; that will reach from 230 to 170, 19 the answer as before. Lastly, the artificial lines of sines and tangents are used together in the analogies of spherical triangles. Thus example 6 is solved by taking in the line of sines s, the extent from 90° (radius) to 36° 15', then that in the line of tangents t, will reach from 42° 34' to 23° 30', the answer required. We shall only further observe that each pair of secto- ral lines contain the same angle, viz. 6 degrees in the common 6-inch sector; therefore to open these lines to any given angle, as 35° for instance, you have only to take 35° laterally from the line of chords, and apply it parallelvvise from 60° to 60° in the same lines, and tiiey will all be opened to the given angle of 35°. If to the angle 35° you add the angle 6°, which they contain, the sum is 41°: then take 41° laterally from the line of chords, and apply it parallelvvise, from 60 to 60, then will the sides or edges of the sector contain the same angle of 35 degrees. Of proportional compasses. Though this sort of com- pass does not pertain to a common case of instru- ments, yet a short account of their nature and use may not be unacceptable to those who are not acquainted with them. They consist of two parts or sides of brass, which lie upon each other, so nicely as to appear but one when they are shut. These sides easily open, and move about a centre, which is itself moveable in a hollow canal cut through the greatest part of their length. To this centre on each side is affixed a sliding piece of a small.lcngth, with a fine line drawn on it serving as an index, to be set against other lines or divisions placed upon the com- passes on both sides. These lines are: 1. A line of lines. 2. A line of superficies, areas, or plans. 3. A line of so- lids. 4. A line of circles, or rather of polygons to be in- scribed in circles. These lines arcall unequally divided, the three firstfrom 1 to 10, the last from 6 to 20; their uses are as follow: By the line of lines you divide a given line into any number of equal parts; for by placing the index against 1, and screwing it fast, if you open the compasses, then the distance between the points at each end will be equal. If you place the index against 2, and open the compasses, the distance between the points of the longer legs will be twice the distance between the shorter ones; and thus a line is bisected, or divided into two equal parts. If the in- dex be placed against 3, and the compasses opened, the distances between the points will be as 3 to 1, and so a line is divided into three equal parts; and so vou proceed for any other number of parts under 10. The numbers of the line of plans answer to the squares of those in the line of lines; for because superfi- cies or plans are to each other, as the square of their like sides; therefore if the index be placed against 2 in the line of plans, then the distance between the small points will be the side of a plan whose area is l; but the dis- tance of the larger points will be the like side of a plan whose area is 2, or twice as big. If the index be placed at 3, and the compasses opened, the distances between the points at each end will be the like sides of plans, whose areas are l to 3, and so of others. The numbers of the line of solids answer to the cubes of those in the line of lines; because all solids are to each other as the cubes of their like sides or diameters; therefore, if the index be placed to No. 2, 3, 4, &c. in the line of solids, the distances between the lesser and larg- er points will be the like sides of solids, which are to each other as 1 to 2, 1 to 3, 1 to 4, kc. For example, if the index be placed at 10, and the compass be opened, so that the small points may take the diameter of a bullet weighing 1 ounce, then the distance between the larger points will be the diameter of a bullet or globe of 10 ounces, or which is 10 times as big. Lastly the numbers iu the line of circles are the sides ofpolygoristobc inscribed in a given circle, or by which I N S 1 N T a circle may be divided into those equal parts from 6 to 20. Thus if the index be placed at 6, the points of the compasses at either end, when opened to the radius of a given circle, will contain the side of a hexagon, or di- vide the circle into 6 equal parts. If the index be placed against 7, and the compasses opened, so that the larger points may take in the radius of the circle; then the short- er points will divide the circle into 7 equal parts for in- scribing a heptagon. Again, placing the index to 8, and opening the compasses, the larger points will contain the radius, and the lesser points divide the circle into 8 equal parts, for inscribing an octagon or square. And thus you proceed for others. Ixstruments, surgical. A case of pocket instruments for surgeons, which they ought always to carry about with them, contains lancets of different sizes; scissars fit for several uses: forceps, plain and furnished with teeth; incision-knives, straight and crooked; a spatula, probes, needles, kc See Surgery. INSURANCE, laws of. Insurance is regarded by the laws as a contract between two or more parties; that on one paying a certain premium he shall be indemnified or insured against certain risks set forth in the policy. This is extremely convenient in commerce, but was made use of as a kind of gambling till the statute 14 Geo. III. c. 48, that no insurance shall be made on lives, or on any other event, wherein the party insured hath no in- terest; that in all policies the name of such interested party shall be inserted, and nothing more shall be recov- ered thereon than the amount ofthe interest of the insur- ed. This, however, does not extend to marine insuran- ces. But as it was a common practice of insuring large sums without having property onboard, and which were called wager policies or insurances, interest or no inter- est, and of ensuring the same goods several times over, it was enacted, that all insurances, interest or no inter- est, or without further proof ofthe interest than the po- licy, or by way of gaming, or without benefit of salvage to the insurer, should be void, except on privateers, or on ships or goods from the Spanish or Portuguese do- minions; and that no re-assurance shall be legal, unless the former insurer be insolvent or dead; and that in the East India trade the lender of money on bottomry, or at respondentia, shall alone have a right to he insured for the money lent; and the borrower shall recover no more upon any insurance than the surplus e>f his bottomry or respondentia bond. No insurance can be made on any il- legal voyage. It is generally stipulated in policies thatthe insurer shall not be answerable for any partial loss on certain articles, but on others less difficult to be preserved at sea, but liable to partial injuries, shall be liable for any par- tial hiss above five per cent.; and as to all other goods, and the ship and freight, he shall only be liable for such losses above three per cent. But he is liable on all losses, however small, called general average or losses occasion- ed by the ship stranding; but this loss must be an imme- diate, not a remote, consequence of the stranding. The commencement of the risk on the ship varies in most eases, and usually continues till the ship has been 24 hours at safe anchor. Upon goods it commences when they are on board, and continues till they are re- moved or landed. The ship insured must be sound, and in every respect fit to bear the sea, and perform the voy- age; aud if she deviates from the usual course, and stops at places not usually stopped at, without a proper cause, the contract is void. Insurance upon life is a contract by which the insur- er, for a certain sum proportioned to the age, health, and profession of the person whose life is to be insured, engages that the person shall not die within a certain period, or if he do, the underwriter will pay a sum of money to the person to whom the policy is granted. Insurance against fire. The insurer undertakes, in consideration of a premium, to indemnify the insured against all losses by fire which he may sustain in his house or goods during the time mentioned in the policy. INTAGLIOS, precious stones on which are engraven the heads of great men, inscriptions, and the like; such as wc frequently see set in rings, seals, kc INTEGER, in arithmetic, a whole number, in con- tradistinction to a fraction. INTERCALARY", in chronology. See Bissextile, kc. 1NTERCOMMONTNG, in law, is when the com- mons of two manors lie together, and the inhabitants of both have, time out of mind, caused their cattle to feed promiscuously on them. INTERCOSTAL. See Anatomy. INTERDICT, an ecclesiastical censure, by which the church of Rome forbids the performance of divine ser- vicein a kingdom, province, town, &e. This censure has been frequently executed in France, Italy, and Germany; and in the year 1170 pope Alexander 111. put all Eng- land under an interdict, forbidding the clergy to per- form any part of divine service, except baptising of in- fants, taking confessions, and giving absolution to living penitents. INTEREST, a sum of money, paid or allowed far the loan or use of some other sum, lent for a certain time, according to some fixed rate or proportion. The sum lent, and on which the interest is reckoned, is called the principal; and in any case where there is hazard of the loss or diminution of the principal, a proportionately greater interest is usually paid. The current rate of interest is generally considered as the barometer of public credit; and its lowncss is a sign almost infalli- ble of the flourishing condition of a state; it proves the increase of industry, ami the free circuhiti n of wealth, little inferior to a demonstration. In order to prevent individuals from taking unjust advantages of the necessities of others, it has b:eu found necessary in most countries to establish by law a fixed rate of inter- est for the use of money: this however must, in a great measure, depend on the cm rot rate of interest in the country: for if it is attempted to reduce by law the com- mon rale of interest lie-low the lowest ordinary market rate, the restriction will be sure to he evaded. This was the case in France in K6ti, vvlien, although the legal rate of interest was reduced from five to four p.r cent, money continued to he lent at five per cent. The first act of p;.r'.i;;oent for regelating 1';e interest for money lent in England was 37 lien. VIII. c. 9, liy which interest was fixed at 10 per cent.; ri'f"rc that time interest had usually been taken at higher rates. Io 1552 an act was passed against usury, or tak ng any interest Interest, whatever for money tent: the impolicy and oppression of this measure soon became evident; and in 1571 the sta- tute of llenry YTll. which fixed interest at 10 per cent., was revived. As the increase of commerce brought wealth into the country, the rate of interest lowered; and in 1625 it was, by 21 James I. c. 17, reduced to eight per cent. The first positive law made in Scotland for fixing the rate of interest was in 1587, when an act was passed, by which the rate of interest was not for the fu- ture to exceed 10 per cent. In France, in 1601, Henry 1YT. issued an edict for reducing the public or national interest of money in that kingdom to six and a quarter per cent. In 1651 the interest of money in several parts beyond sea being lower than the legal interest in Eng- land, the Rump-parliament reduced the legal rate from eight to six per cent.; and upon the Restoration it was confirmed by 12 Cha. II. c. 13. The last act of par- liament for regulating the interest of money was 12 Ann. st. 2. c. 16, by which it was fixed at five per cent, per annum, the present legal rate. But although this is the utmost interest which can be taken for money lent in Great Britain, yet if a contract which carries interest was made in a foreign country, our courts will direct the payment of interest according to the laws of the country in which the contract was made: thus American, Turk- ish, and Indian interest have been allowed, to the amount of even 12 per cent. The various rates which have been paid in Great Bri- tain at different periods, as the current interest for mo- ney, arc as follows: Per cent, per ann. In 1255 £.50 0 1263, 2d. c-weck for If. or 43 6 1270 to 1307 45 0 1422 to 1470 15 0 1545 restricted to 10 0 1553 to 1558 12 0 1571 restricted to 10 0 1524 to 1604, about 9 16 1625 reduced to 8 0 1645 to 1660 6 0 1660 to 1690 7 6 1690 to 1697 - 7 10 1697 to fa06 6 0 1714 reduced to 5 0 In the United States of America, the lawful interest of money is 6 per cent, in most of the states; in a few it is 7 per cent.; in one it is 5 percent. In Greece, the mean rate of interest is 20 per cent, and in the other parts of Turkey nearly the same; in Persia 25 per cent; and in the Mo- gul Empire 30 per cent. In these countries there is no fixed rate of interest, and the usual high rate arises chief- ly from the insecurity of lending. In Sydney and the other English settlements in New South Wales, the rate of interest is fixed by an ordinance, dated 14th June, 1804, at 8 per cent, per annum. Interest is disguished into Simple Interest and Com- pound Interest. Interest, Simple, is that which is reckoned on the principal only, at a certain rate for a year, and >.t a pro- portionately greater or less sum for a greateror less time; thus, if 5U is the rate of interest of 100/. for a year, 10/. is the interest for two years, 15l. for three years, kc In most computations of interest the work is much shorten- ed if the interest of \l. for a given term is-known, as the interest of any other sum for the same term will then be found by only multiplying by the given sum. The inter- est of 1/. for a year must be in the same proportion as the interest of 100/. to its principal; therefore at 5 per cent, as 100 : 5 : : 1 : T£ VOLUTION. See Algebra. IONIC ORDER. See Architecture. IPECACUANHA. See Materia Medica. IPOMEA, quamoclit, or scarlet convolvulus, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 29th order, campanacese. The corolla is funnel-shaped; the stigma round-headed; the capsule trilocular. There are twenty- seven species; but not more than one (the coccinea) culti- Tated in our gardens. This has long, slender, twining stalks, rising upon support six or seven feet high, from the sides of which arise many slender footstalks, each supporting several large and beautiful funnel-shaped and scarlet flowers. There is a variety with orange-coloured flowers. Both of them are annual. IRELAND. By statutes 39 and 40 Geo. III. c. 67. the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland shall, upon the first day of Jan. 1801, and for ever after, be united, by the name ofthe United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland; and the royal style and titles appertaining to the imperial crown of the said united kingdom and its dependancies, and also the ensigns armorial, flags and banners thereof, shall be such as his majesty, by his royal proclamation under the great seal of the united kingdom, shall be pleased to appoint. YVhere a debt is contracted in England, and a bond is taken for it in Ireland, it shall carry Irish interest; for it must be considered as referable to the place where it is made: hut if it was a simple-contract debt only, it ought to carry English interest, the variation of place in this case making no difference. 2 Atk. 382. IRESINE, a genus of the pentandria order, in the dicecia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 54th order, miscellanese. The male calyx is diphyllous, the corolla pentapetalous, and there are five nectaria. The female calyx is dyphyllous, the corolla pentapetalous; there are two sessile stigmata, and a cap- sule with flocky seeds. There is one species, a herb of Jamaica. IRIDIUM, a new metal lately discovered by Mr. Tcnnant in the ore of platina. It is of a white colour, and perfectly infusible. It does not combine with sulphur or arsenic. Lead unites with it, but may be separated by cupellation. Copper, silver, and gold, arc found to com- bine with it. IRIS, the flower-de-luce, or flag-flower, &c; a genus of the monogynia order in the triandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the sixth order, ensatae. The corolla is divided into six parts; the petals alternately reflexed; the stigmata resembling petals. There are fifty species, all herbaceous flowering pe- rennials, both of the fibrous, tuberous, and bulbous- rooted kind, producing thick annual stalks from three or four inches to a yard high, terminated by large hexapc- talous flowers, having three of the petals reflexed quite back, and three erect; most of which are very ornamen- tal, appearing in May, June, and July. All the species are easily propagated by offsets from the roots, which should be planted in September, October, or November, though almost any time from September to March will do. They may also be raised from seed, which is the best method for procuring varieties. It is to be sown in au- tumn, soon after it ripens, in a bed or border of common earth, and raked in. The plants will rise in the spring, and are to be transplanted next autumn. IRON, the most abundant, and the most useful of all metals, was neither known so early, nor wrought so ea- sily as gold, silver, and copper. Iron is of a blueish white colour; and when polished, has a great deal of brilliancy. It has a styptic taste, and emits a smell when rubbed. Its specific gravity varies from 7.6 to 7.8. It is attracted by the magnet or load- stone, and is itself the substance which constitutes the loadstone. But when iron is perfectly pure, it retains the magnetic virtue a very short time. It is malleable in every temperature, and its malleability increases in pro- portion as the temperature augments; but it cannot be hammered out nearly so thin as gold or silver, or even copper. Its ductility, however, is more perfect; for it may be drawn out into wire as fine at least as human hair. Its tenacity is such, that an iron wire 0.078 of an inch in diameter is capable of supporting 549,25 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. When heated to about 158° YYedgewood, it melts. This temperature being nearly the highest to which it can be raised, it has been impossible to ascertain the point at which this melted metal begins to boil and to evaporate. Neither has the form of its crystals been examined: but it is well known that the texture of iron is fibrous; that is, it appears when broken to be composed of a number of fibres or strings bundled together. YVhen exposed to the air, its surface is soon tarnished, and it is gradually changed into a brown or yellow pow- der, well known under the name of rust. This change takes place more rapidly if the atmosphere is moist. It is occasioned byr the gradual combination of the iron with the oxygen of the atmosphere, for which it has a very strong affinity. YVhen iron filings are kept in water, provided the tem- perature is not under 70°, they are gradually converted in a black powder, while a quantity of hydrogen gas is emitted. This is occasioned by theslow decomposition of the water. The iron combines with its oxygen, while the hydrogen makes its escape under the form of gas. If the steam of water is made to pass through a red- hot iron tube, it is decomposed instantly. The oxygen combines with the iron, and the hydrogen gas passes througli the tube, and may be collected in proper vessels. This is one of the easiest methods of procuring pure by" drogen gas. These facts are sufficient to show that iron has a strong affinity for oxygen, since it is capable of taking it from air and water. It is capable also of taking fire and burning with great rapidity. Twist a small iron wire in- to the form of a cork-screw* by rolling it round a cylia- IRON. der; fix one end of it into a cork, and attach to the other a small bit of cotton thread dipt in melted tallow. Set fire to the cotton, and plunge it while burning into a jar filled with oxygen gas. The wire catches fire from the cotton, and burns with great brilliancy, emitting very vivid sparks in all directions. For this very splendid ex- periment we are indebted to Dr. Ingcnhousz. During this combustion the iron combines with oxygen, and is converted into an oxide. Mr. Proust has proved that there are only two oxides of iron; and the protoxide has usually a black colour, but the peroxide is red. The protoxide of iron may be obtained by four differ- ent processes. 1. By keeping iron filings a sufficient time in water at the temperature of 70°. The oxide thus form- ed is a black powder, formerly much used in medicine under the name of martial cthiops, and seems to have been first examined by Lemeri; but a better process is that of De Roover. He exposes a paste formed of iron filings and water to the open air, in a stone-ware vessel; the paste becomes hot, and the water disappears. It is then moistened again, and the process repeated till the whole is oxydized. The mass is then pounded, and the powder is heated in an iron vessel till it is perfectly dry, stirring it constantly. 2. By making steam pass through a red-hot iron tube, the iron is changed into a brilliant black brittle substance, whicli, when pounded, assumes the appearance of martial cthiops. This experiment was first made by Lavoisier. 3. By burning iron wire iu oxygen gas. The wire as it burns is melted, and falls in drops to the bottom of the vessel, which ought to be cov- ered with water, and to be of copper. These metallic drops are brittle, very hard, and blackish, but retain the metallic lustre. They were examined by Lavoisier, and found precisely the same with martial ethiops. They owe their lustre to the fusion which they underwent. By dissolving iron in sulphuric acid, and pouring potass into the solution. 4. A green powder falls to the bottom, which assumes the appearance of martial ethiops when dried quickly in close vessels. This first oxide of iron, however formed, is always composed of 73 parts of iron and 27 of oxygen, as Lavoisier and Proust have demon- strated. It is attracted by the magnet, and is often itself magnetic. It is capable of crystallizing, and is often found native in that state. The peroxide or red oxi^e of iron may be formed by keeping iron filings red-hot in an open vessel, and agi- tating them constantly till they are converted into a dark red powder. This oxide was formerly called saffron of Mars. Common rust of iron is merely this oxide combin- ed with carbonic acid gas. The red oxide may be obtain- ed also by exposing for a long time a diluted solution of iron in sulphuric acid to the atmosphere, and then drop- ping into it an alkali, by which the oxide is precipitated. This oxide is also found native in great abundance. Proust proved it to be composed of 4% parts of oxygen and 52 of iron. Consequently the protoxide, when con- verted into red oxide, absorbs 0.40 of oxygen; or, which is the same thing, the red oxide is composed of 66.5 parts of black oxide and 33.5 parts of oxygen. One hun- dred parts of iron, when converted into a protoxide, ab- sorb 37 parts of oxygen, and the oxide weighs 137; when converted into peroxide, it absorbs 52 additional parti, of oxygen, and the oxide weighs 189. The peroxide cannot be decomposed by heat; but when heated along with its own weight of iron filings, the whole, as Vauquelin first observed, is converted into black oxide. The reason of this conversion is evident: This 100 parts of peroxide are composed of 52 parts of iron, combined with two different doses of oxygen: 1. With 14 parts, w liich, with the iron, make 66 of protox- ide: 2. With 3i parts, whicli, with the protoxide, make up the 100 parts of peroxide. Now, the first of these doses has a much greater affinity for the iron than the second has. Consequently the 34 parts of oxygen, which con- stitute the second dose, being retained by a weak affini- ty, are easily abstracted by the 100 parts of pure iron; and combining with the iron, the whole* almost is con- verted into black oxide: for 100 parts of iron, to be con- verted into black oxide, require only 3 7 parts of oxy- gen. The peroxide of iron is not magnetic. It is converted into black oxide by sulphureted hydrogen gas and many other substances; which deprive it of the second dose of oxygen, for which they have a stronger affinity, though they ire incapable of decomposing the protoxide. Iron is capable of combining with all the simple combustible bodies. A small mixture of it constitutes that particular kind of iron, know n by the name of cold short iron, because it is brittle when cold, though it is malleable when hot. Rinman has shown that the brittleness and bad quali- ties of cold short iron may be removed by heating it strongly with limestone, and with this the experiments of Levavasseur correspond. There are a great many varieties of iron, which artists distinguish by particular names; but all of them may be reduced under one or other of the three following clas- ses: cast iron; wrought or soft iron; and steel. Cast iron, or pig iron, is the name of the metal when first extracted from its ores. The ores from which iron is usually obtained are composed of oxide of iron and clay. The object ofthe manufacturer is to reduce the ox- ide to the metallic state, and to separate all the clay with which it is combined. These two objects are ac- complished at once, by mixing the ore reduced to small pieces with a certain portion of limestone and of charcoal, and subjecting the whole to a very violent heat in fur- naces constructed for the purpose. The charcoal absorbs the oxygen of the oxide, flies off in the state of carbonic acid gas, and leaves the iron in the metallic state; the lime combines with the clay, and both together run into fusion, and form a kind of fluid glass; the iron is also melted by the violence of the heat, and being heavier than the glass, falls down, and is collected at the bottom of the furnace. Thus the contents ofthe furnace are se- parated into two portions; the glass swims at the surface, and the iron rests at the bottom. A hole at the lower part of the furnace is now opened, and the iron allowed to flow out into moulds prepared for its reception. Ihe cast iron thus obtained is distinguished by the following properties: It is scarcely malleable at any tem- perature. It is generally so hard as to resist the file. It can neither be hardened nor softened by ignition and cooling. It is exceeding brittle. It melts at 130° YVedge- woocl. It is more sonorous than steel. For the most part it is of a dark-grey or blackish colour; but sometimes it IRON. is whitish, and then it contains a quantity of phosphuret of iron, which considerably impairs its qualities. A great number of utentials are formed of iron in this state. To convert it into wrought iron, it is put into a fur- nace, and kept melted, by means of the flame of the com- bustibles, which is made to play upon its surface. While incited, it is constantly stirred by a workman, that every part of it may be exposed to the air. In about an hour the hottest part of the mass begins to heave and swell, and to emit a lambent blue flame. This continues nearly an hour; and by that time the conversion is completed. The heaving is evidently produced by the emission of an elastic fluid. As the process advances, the iron gradually acquires more consistency; and at last, notwithstanding the continuance ofthe heat, it congeals all together. It is then taken while hot, and hammered violently, by means •f a heavy hammer driven by machinery. This not only makes the particles of iron approach nearer each other, but drives away several impurities which would other- wise continue attached to the iron. In this state it is the substance described under the same of iron. As it has never yet been decomposed, it is considered at present, when pure, as a simple body; but it has seldom or never been found without some small mixture of foreign substances. These substances are either some of the other metals, or oxygen, carbon, or phosphorus. When small pieces of iron are stratified in a close crucible, with a sufficient quantity of charcoal-powder, and kept in a strong red heat for eight or ten hours, they are converted into steel, which is distinguished from iron by the following properties. It is so hard as to be unmalleable while cold, or at least it acquires this property by being immersed while ignited into a cold liquid: for this immersiem, though it has no effect upon iron, adds greatly to the hardness of steel. It is brittle, resists the file, cuts glass, affords sparks with flint, and retains the magnetic virtue for any length of time. It loses this hardness by being ignited and cooled very slowly. It melts at above 130° YVedgewood. It is malleable when red-hot, but scarcely so when rais- ed to a white heat. It may be hammered out into much thinner plates than iron. It is more sonorous; and its specific gravity, when hammered, is greater than that of iron. By being repeatedly ignited in an open vessel, and hammered, it becomes wrought iron, which is a simple substance, and if perfectly pure would contain nothing but iron. Steel is iron combined with a small portion of carbon, and has been for that reason called carbureted iron. The proportion of carbon has not been ascertained with much precision. From the analysis of Vauquelin, it amounts, at an average, to r±^ part. Mr. Clouet seems to affirm that it amounts to 7\ part; but he has not pub- lished the experiments which led him to a proportion, which so far exceeds what has been obtained by other chemists. That steel is composed of iron combined with pure carbon, and not with charcoal, has been demonstrated by Morveau, who formed steel by combining together directly iron and diamond. At the suggestion of Clouet, he inclosed a diamond in a small crucible of pure iron, and exposed it completely covered up in a common cru- cible to a sufficient heat. The diamond disappeared, and the iron was converted into steel. The diamond weighed 907 parts, the iron 57800, and the steel obtained 56384; so that 2313 parts of the iron had been lost iu the operation. From this experiment it follows, that steel contains about ^ of its weight of carbon. This experiment was objected to by Mr. Mushet, but the objections were fully refuted by sir George M'Kenzie. Rinman, long ago, pointed out a method by which steel may be distinguished from iron. YVhen a little di- luted nitric acid dropt upon a plate of steel, allowed to remain a few minutes, and then washed off, it leaves be- hind it a black spot; whereas the spot formed by nitric acid on iron is whitish-green. We can easily see the rea- son of the black spot: it is owing to the carbon of the iron which is converted into charcoal by the acid. This experiment shows us, that carbon is much more readily oxidated when combined with iron than when crystal- lized in the diamond. Cast iron, is iron combined with a still greater pro- portion of carbon than is necessary for firming steel. The quantity has not yet been ascertained with preci- sion: Mr. Clouet makes it amount to -J ofthe iron. The blackness of the colour, and the fusibility of cast iron, are proportional to the quantity of carbon which it con- tains. Cast iron is almost always contaminated with foreign ingredients: tbese are chiefly oxide of iron, phos- phuret of iron, and silica. It is easy to see why iron is obtained from its ore in the state of cast iron. The quantity of charcoal, along with which the ore is fused, is so great, that the iron has an opportunity of saturating itself with it. The conversion of cast iron into wrought iron is ef- fected by burning away the charcoal, and depriving the iron wholly of oxygen: this is accomplished by heating it violently while exposed to the air. Mr. Clouet bus found, that when cast iron is mixed with \ of its weight of black oxide of iron, and heated violently, it is equally converted into pure iron. The oxygen of the oxide, and the carbon of the cast iron, combine, and leave the iron in a state of purity. The. conversion of iron into steel is effected by com- bining it with carbon. This combination is performed in the large way by three different processes, and the pro- ducts are distinguished by the names of natural steel, steel of cementation, and cast steel. Natural steel is obtained from the ore by converting it first into cast iron, and then exposing the cast iron to a violent heat in a furnace while its surface is covered with a mass of melted scoriae five or six inches deep. Part ofthe carbon combines with the oxygen which cast iron always contains, and flies off in the state of carbo- nic acid gas. The remainder combines with the pure iron, and constitute it steel. This steel is inferior to the other species; its quality is not the same throughout; it is softer, and not so apt to break; and as the processes by which it is obtained are less expensive, it is sold at a lower price than the other species. It is obvious that iron and carbon are capable of com- bining together in a variety of different proportions. When the carbon exceeds, the compound is carburet of I N H I N J iron, or plumbago. When the iron exceeds, the com- pound is steel or cast iron in various states, according to the proportion. All these compounds may be consi- dered as subcarburets of iron. The hardness of iron increases with the proportion of charcoal with which it combines, till the carbon amounts to about TV of the whole mass. The hardness is then a maximum; the me- tal acquires the colour of silver, loses its granulated ap- pearance, and assumes a crystallized form. If more carbon is added to the compound, the hardness dimi- nishes in proportion to its quantity. The affinities of iron, and its oxides, are arranged by Bergman as in the following table: Iron. Oxide of Iron Nickel, Oxalic acid, Coalt, Tartaric, Manganese, Camphoric, Arsenic, Sulphuric, Copper, Saclatic, Gold, Muriatic, Silver, Nitric, Tin, Phosphoric* Antimony, Arsenic, Platinum, Fluoric, Bismuth, Succinic, Lead, Citric, Mercury, Lac tic, Acetic, Boracic, Prussic, Carbonic. Iron-sick, in the sea-language, is said of a ship or boat, when her bolts or nails are so eaten with rust, and so worn away, that they occasion hollows in the planks, whereby the vessel is rendered leaky. IRRATIONAL, an appellation given to surd num- bers and quantities. See Algebra. IRREGULAR, in grammar, such inflections of words as vary from the general rules; thus we say, irregular nouns, irregular verbs. ISATIS, woad; a genus of the siliquosa order, in the tetradynamia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 39th order, the siliquosa. The sili- qua is lanceolated, unilocular, monospcrmous, bivalved, and deciduous; the valves navicular or canoe-shaped. There are four species; hut the only one worthy of no- tice in the tinctoria, or common woad, which is cultivat- ed in several parts of Britain for the purposes of dye- ing, being used as a foundation for many of the dark colours. See Dyeing. ISCHJKMUM, a genus of the moneecia order, in the polygamia class of plants; and inthe natural method ranking under the 4th order, gramina. The calyx of the hermaphrodite is a biflorous glume; the corolla bivalv- ed; there are throe stamina, two styles, and one seed. The calvx and corolla of the. male, as in the former, with three stamina. There are eight species. ISCHURY. See Meuicine. ISERTI A, a genus of the hexandria monogynia class and order; the cal. is coloured, four or six toothed; cor. six-cleft, funnel form; pome subglobular, six-celled. There is one species, a tree of Cayenne. ISINGLASS, in the materia medica, kc Sec Acer PENSER. ISNARDIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the tetrandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order, calycanthemae. There is no corolla; the calyx is quadrifid; the capsule quadrilo- cular, and girt with the calyx. There is one species, an aquatic and annual. ISOCELES Triangle, in geometry, one that has two equal sides. ISOCHRONAL, Isochrone, or Isochronous, is ap- plied to such vibrations of a pendulum, as are perform- ed in the same space of time; as all the vibrations or swings of the same pendulum are, whether the arches it describes are longer or shorter: for when it describes a shorter arch, it moves so much the slower, and when a long one proportionably faster. Isochronal line, that in which a heavy body is sup- posed to descend without any acceleration. ISOETES, a genus of the natural order of filices, be- longing to the cryptogamia class of plants. The anthe- rse of the male flower are within the base of the frons or leaf. The capsule of the female flower is bilocular, and within the base of the leaf. There are two species. ISOPERIMETRICAL Figures, in geometry, are such as have equal perimeters, or circumferences. 1. Of isoperimetrical figures, that is the greatest that contains the greatest number of sides, or the most an- gles, and consequently a circle is the greatest of all figures that have the same perimeter as it has. 2. Of two isoperimetrical triangles, having the same base, whereof two sides of one are equal, and of the other unequal, that is the greater whose two sides are equal. 3. Of isoperimetrical figures, whose sides arc equal in number, that is the greatest which is equilateral and equiangular. From hemce follows that common pro- blem of making the hedging or walling that will wall in one acre, or even any determinate number of acres a, fence or wall in any greater number of acres what- ever b. In order to the solution of this problem, let the greater number 6 be supposed a square. Let * be one a side of an oblong, whose area is a; then will — be the other side; and 2---1- 2x will be the perimeter of the ob- long, which must be equal to four times the square-root a of 6; that is, 2 —• 4- 2x = 4^/b. Whence the value of x may be easily had, and you may make infinite numbers of squares and oblongs that have the same perimeter, and yet shall have different given areas, thus Let y/b = d, X a -f 2xx = 2dx 2xx — 2dx = — a j a xx — dx=---- 2 xx — dx + Idd = — —- 4- \dd x = y] — — + ldd + id. JAC JAC Thus, if one side of the square be 10; and one side of an oblong be 19, and the other 1: then will the perime- ters of tliat square and oblong be equal, viz. each 40, and yet the area of the square will be 100, and of the oblong but 19. ISOPYRuM, in botany,'a genus ofthe polygynia or- der, in the polyandria class of plants; and in the natu- ral method ranking under the 26th order, m dtisiliquse. There is no calyx, but five petals; the nectaria trifid and tubular; the capsules recurved andpolyspermous. There are two species, of no note. ISSUE, in law, has several significations, it being sometimes taken for the children begotten between a man and his wife; sometimes for profits arising from amercements and fines; and sometimes for the profits issuing out of lands or tenements: but this word gene- rally signifies the conclusion, or point of matter, that issues from the allegations and pleas ofthe plaintiff and defendant in a cause to he tried by a jury or court. There are two kinds of issues in relation to causes, that upon a matter of fact, and that upon a matter of law: that of fact is where the plaintiff and defendant have fix- ed upon a point to be tried by a jury: and that in law is where there are a demurrer to a declaration, kc and a joinder in demurrer, which is determinable only by the judges. Issues of fact are either general or special: they are general, when it is left to the jury to find whether the defendant has done any such thing as the plaintiff has al- leged against him; and special, where some special mat- ter, or material point alleged by the defendant in his de- fence, is to be tried. General issue also signifies a plea in which the defendant is allowed to give the special matter in evidence, by way of excuse or justification; this is granted by several statutes, in order to prevent a prolixity in pleading, by allowing the defendant to give any thing in evidence, to prove that the plaintiff had no cause for his action. Issues on sheriffs, are such amercements and fines to the crown, as are levied out of the issues and profits of the lands of sheriffs, for their faults and neglects: but these issues, on showing a good and sufficient cause, may be taken off before they are estreated into the ex- chequer. Issues. See Surgery. 1TEA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pen- tandria class of plants; and in the natural method rank- ing with those of which the order is doubtful. The petals are long, and inserted into the calyx; the capsule unilo- cular and bivalved. There are two species, natives of North America. IVA, a genus ofthe pentandria order, inthe monoecia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, composite. The male calyx is common and triphyllous; the florets of the disc monopetalous and quinquefid; the receptacle divided by small hairs. There is no female calyx nor corolla; but fiv Horcts in the ra- dius; two long styles; and one naked and obtuse seed. There are two species, natives of America. IVORY, ebur, in natural history, kc. a hard, solid, and firm substance, of a white colour, and capable of a very good polish. It is the tusk of the elephant, and is hollow from the base to a certain height, the cavity being filled up with a compact medullary substance, seeming to have a great number of glands in it. It is observed that the Ceylon ivory, and that of the island of Achem, do not become yellow in the wearing, as all other ivory does; for this reason the teeth of these places bear a larger price than those of the coast of Guinea. To soften ivory and other bones, lay them for twelve hours in aqua fortis, and then three days in the juice of beets, and they will become so soft that they may be worked into any form. To harden them again, lay them in strong vinegar. Dioscorides says, that by boiling ivory for the space of six hours with the root of mandra- goras, it will become so soft that it may be managed as one pleases. Ivory -black is the coal of ivory or bone formed by great heat, while deprived of all access of air. IVY. See Hedera. IXIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the trian- dria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the sixth order, ensatse. The corolla is hexapeta- lous, patent, and equal; there are three stigmata, a little upright and petalous. There are fiftyTf mr species, con- sisting of herbaceous, tuberous, and bulbous-rooted flowery perennials, from one to two feet high, terminated by hexapetalous flowers of different colours. They are propagated by offsets, which should be taken off in sum- mer at the decay of the leaves: but as all the plants of this genus are natives of warm climates, few of them can bear the open air of this country in winter. IXORA, a genus ofthe tetrandria monogynia class of plants. The corolla consists of a single petal; the tube is cylindric, very long and slender; the limb is plane, and divided into four oval segments; the fruit is a berry of a roundish figure, with only one cell; the seeds are four in number, convex on one side, and angular on the other. There are niue species, very ornamental shrubs for the stove. J. JACK, in mechanics, an instrument in common use for raising heavy timber, or very great weights of any kind, being a powerful combination of teeth and pinions, and the whole inclosed in a strong wooden stock or frame BC, and moved by a winch or handle HP$ the outside appearing as in PlateLXXII. Miscel. fig. 131. In fig. 132, the wheel or rack work is shown, being the view of the inside when the stock is removeil. Though it is not drawn in the just proportions and dimensions, for the rack AB must be supposed at least four times as long in proportion to the wheel Q, as the figure repre- sents it; and the teeth, which will be then four times more in number, to have about three in the inch. Now if the handle HP is seven inches long, the circumference JAC J A D of this radius will he 44 inches, which is the distance or space the power moves through in one revolution of the handle; but as the pinion of the handle has but four leaves, and the wheel Q suppose 20 teeth, or five times the number, therefore to make one revolution of the wheel Q, it requires five turns of the handle, in which case it passes through' 5 times 44 or 220 inches; but the wheel having a pinion R of three leaves, these will raise the rack three teeth, or one' inch, in the same space. Hence, then, the handle or power moving 220 times as fast as the weighjt, will raise or balance a weight of 220 times its own energy. And if this is the hand of a man who can sustain 50 pounds weight, he will, by the help of this jack, be able to raise or sustain a weight or force of 11000 pounds, or about five tons weight. This machine is sometimes open behind from the bot- tom almost up to the wheel Q, to let the lower claw, which in that case is turned up as at B, draw up any weight. YVhen the weight is drawn or pushed sufficiently high, it is kept from going back by hanging the end of the hook S, fixed to a staple, over the curved part of the handle at h. The Society of Arts rewarded Mr. Mocock of South- wark, with a premium of 20 guineas, for his contriv- ance to prevent a jack from taking a retrogade course whenever the weight by any accidental circumstance overbalances the power. The improved jack only dif- fers from those ia common use in this respect, that it has a pall or clock, and ratchet, applied in such manner as to stop tho motion of the machine as soon as it begins to run back again. As the difference \n tUo mechanism is very trifling, the improvement may be easily applied to any common jacks already made. Jack is also the name of a well-known engine in the kitchen, used for turning a spit. Here the weight is the power applied, acting by a set of pulleys; the friction of the parts, and the weight with which the spit is charged, are the forces to be overcome; and a steady uniform mo- tion is maintained by means of a fly. The common worm-jack is represented atPlate LXXII. Miscel. fig. 130. ABC is the barrel round which the cord QR is wound; KL the main wheel, commonly con- taining 60 teeth; N the worm-wheel of about thirty teeth, cut obliquely; LM the pinion, of about 15; 0 the worm or endless screw, consisting of two spiral threads, mak- ing an angle of sixty or seventy degrees with its axis; X the stud, and Z the loop of the worm-spindle; P a heavy wheel or fly, connected with the spindle of the endless screw to make the motion uniform; DGthe struck wheel fixed to the axis FD; S,S,S, are holes in the frame, by which it may be nailed to a board, and thence to any wall, the end D being permitted to pass through it; HI the handle going upon the axis ET, to wind up the weight when it has run down. R is a box of fixed pul- leys, and V a corresponding one of moveable pulleys carrying the weight. The axis ET is fixed in the bar- rel AC, which axis being hollow, both it and the barrel turn round upon the axis FD, whicli is fixed to the wheel KL, when it turns in the order BTA; but cannot turn the contrary way, by reason of a catch nailed to the end AB, which lays hold of the cross-bars in the wheel LK. The weight by means of the cord QR> in consequence of its descent, carries about the barrel AB, which by the action of the catch carries the wheel KL, and this moves the pinion LM and wheel N, the latter moving the worm 0 and the fly P. Also the wheel LM carries the axis FD with the wheel DG, which carries the cord or chain that goes about the wheel or pulley at the head of the spit. But when the handle II gives motion to the axis in a contrary order to that given by the weight, the catch is depressed; so that although the barrel BC moves and winds the cord upon it, the wheel DG continues at rest. The time which the jack will continue in motion depends upon the number of pulleys at R and Yr: and as these increase or decrease, so must the weight which communicates the motion, in order to perform the same work in the same time. Jack, smoke, is an engine used for the same purpose as the common jack; and is so called from its being moved by means of the smoke, or rarefied air, ascend- ing the chimney, and striking againsttthe sails ofthe hor- izontal wheel AB (Plate LXXII. Miscel. fig. 129), which being inclined to the horizon, is moved about the axis of the wheel, together with the pinion C, which carries the wheels D and E; and E carries the chain F, which turns the spit. The wheel AB should be placed in the narrow part of the chimney, where the motion ofthe smoke is swiftest, and where also the greatest part of it must strike upon the sails. The force of this machine depends upon the draught of the chimney, and the strength of the fire. Smoke-jacks are sometimes moved by means of spiral flyers coiling about a vertical axle; and at other times by a iCTtfo»i -wUooi with sails like the float-boards of a mill; but the above is the mora 0Mtoniarv construction JACK-flag, in a shf]>, that hoisted up at tw oj,,.;^ sail top-mast head. JACKALL. See Canis. JACOB'S staff, a mathematical instrument otherwise; called cross-staff. See Cross. JACOBITES, in church history, a sect of christians in Syria and Mesopotamia; so called either from Jacob, a Syrian, who lived in the reign of the emperor Mauri- . cius; or from one Jacob, a monk, who flourished in the year 550. JACOBUS, an ancient gold coin worth twenty-five shillings. JACQUINIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants; and in tbe natural method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is decemfid; the stamina inserted into the recep- tacle; the berry monospermous. There are four species, shrubs of South America. JADE-stone, lapis nephriticus, or Jaspachates, a genus of siliceous earths. It gives fire with steel, and is semitransparent like flint. It does not harden in the fire, but melts in the focus of a burning-glass into a transpa- rent green glass with some bubbles. A kind brought from the river ofthe Amazons in S. America, and called e irconcision stone, melts more easily in the focus into a brown opaque glass, far less hard than the stone itself. The jade-stone is unctuous to the touch; whence Mr. Kirvvan seems to suspect, that it contains a portion of argillaceous earth, or rather magnesia. The specific gravity is from 2.970 to 3.389; the texture granular, JAP JAP with a greasy look, but exceedingly hard, being superior in this respect even to quartz itself. It is infusible in the fire, nor can it be dissolved in acids without a particular management; though M. Saussure seems to have extrac- ted iron from it. Sometimes it is met with of a whitish milky colour from China; but mostly of a deep or pale green from America. The common lapis nephriticus is of a grey, y ellow ish, or olive colour. It has its name from a supposition of its being capable of giving ease in nephritic pains, by being applied externally by the loins. It may be distinguished from all other stones by its hardness, semipellucidity, and specific gravity. According to Hoepfner it is composed of, 47 silica 38 carbonat of magnesia 9 iron 4 alumina 2 carbonat of lime 100 JALAP, jalapa, in botany, a plant of the pentandria monogynia class. See Convolvulus, and Materia Medica. JAMES, or knights of St. James, a military order in Spain, first instituted about the year 1170, by Ferdinand Ii. king of Leon and Galicia. JAN1ZARIES, an order ofthe Turkish infantry, re- puted the grand signior's guards, and the main strength of the Ottoman army. JANSENISTS, in church-history, a sect of the Ro- man catholics in France, who follow the opinions of Jansenius, bishop of Ypres, and doctor of i\iviui±y a£tu<> universities of L.qjiy»i» —«* i>««"iy, nearly those of Calvin- "* «^'acion to grace an4 predestination. ( JAPANNING is properly the art of varnishing and painting ornaments on wood, in the same manner as is done by the natives of Japan in the East Indies. The substances which admit of being japanned are almost every kind that are dry and rigid, or not too flexible; as wood, metals, leather, and paper, prepared for the purpose. Wood and metals do not require any other prepara- tion, but to have their surface perfectly even and clean; but leather should be securely strained, either on frames or on boards; as its bending, or forming folds, would otherwise crack and force off the coats of varnish. Paper should be treated in the same manner, and have a pre- vious strong coat of some kind of size; but it is rarely made the subject of japanning till it is converted into papier mache, or wrought by other means into such form, that its original state, partiemlarly with respect to flexibility, is changed. One principal variation from the method formerly used in japanning is, the omitting any priming, or un- dercoat; on the work to be japanned. In the other prac- tice, such a priming was always used; the use of which was to save in the quantity of varnish, by filling up the inequalities in the surface ofthe substance to be varnish- ed. But there is agreat inconvenience arising from the use of it, that the Japan coats are constantly liable to be cracked, and peeled off, by any violence, and will not endure near so long as the articles which are japanned without any such priming. Of the nature of Japan grounds___When a priming is used, the work should first be prepared by being well smoothed with fish-skin or glass-paper, and being made throughly clean, should be brushed over once or twice with hot size, diluted with two thirds water, if it is of the common strength. The priming should then be laid on as even as possible, and should be formed of a size of a consistency between the common kind and glue] mixed with as much whiting as will give it a sufficient body of colour to hide the surface of whatever it is laid upon, but not more. This must be repeated till the ine- qualities are completely filled up, and then the work must be cleaned off with Dutch rushes, and polished with a wet rag. When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no pri- ming is used, the best preparation is to lay two or three coats of coarse varnish, composed in the following manner. Take of rectified spirit of wine one pint, and of coarse seed-lac and resin each two ounces; dissolve the seed- lac and resin in the spirit, and then strain off the varnish. This varnish, as well as all others formed of spirit of wine, must be laid on in a warm place; and if it can be conveniently managed, the piece of work to be varnish- ed should be made warm likewise; and for the same rea- son, all dampness should be avoided; for either cold or moisture chills this kind of varnish, and prevents its taking proper hold of the substance on which it is laid. Y\ hen the work is so prepared, or by the priming with the composition of size and whiting above Jcm ribed, the properjauan giound must be laid on, which is murii tiiu oest formed of shell-lac varnish, and the colour de- sired, except white, which requires a peculiar treatment- and if brightness is wanted, then also other means must be pursued. The colours used with the shell-lac varnish may be any pigments whatever, which give the tint of thecround desired. ° As metals never require to be under-coated with whi- ting, they may be treated in the same manner as wood or leather. Method of painting Japan work—Japan work ought properly to be painted with colours in varnish; though for the greater dispatch, and in some very nice work in small, for the freer use of the pencil, the colours are sometimes tempered in oil; winch should previously have a fourth part of its weight of gum animi dissolved in it: or m default of that gum sandarach, or gum mastich. \V hen the oil is thus used, it should be well diluted with oil of turpentine, that the colours may lie more evenly and thin; by which means fewer of the polishing or upper coats of varnish become necessary. In some instances, water-colours are laid on grounds of gold, in the manner of other paintings; and are best, when so used in their proper appearance, without any varnish over them; and they are also sometimes so man- aged as to have the effect of embossed work. The colours employed in this way, for painting, are best prepared by means of isinglass size, corrected by honey or sugar- candy. The body, of which the embossed work is raised, need not, however, be tinged with the exterior colour, bw may be oest formed of very strong gum-water, thickened to a proper consistence by bole armenian and JAP J A S whiting in equal parts; whicli being laid on the proper figure, and repaired when dry, may be then painted with the proper colours, tempered with the isinglass size, or, in the usual manner, with shell-lac varnish. Manner of varnishing japan work.—The finishing of japan-work depends oh the laying on, and polishing, the outer coats of varnish which are necessary, as well in the pieces that have only one simple ground of colour, as with those that are painted. This is in general done best with common seed-lac varnish, except in the in- stances, and on those occasions, where particular me- thods are deemed to be more expedient; and the same reasons which decide as to the fitness or impropriety of the varnishes, with respect to the colours of the ground, hold equally writh regard to those of the painting. For where brightness is the most material point, and a tinge of yellow will injure it, seed-lac must give way to the whiter gums; but where hardness and a greater tenacity are most essential, it must be adhered to; and where both are so necessary, that it is proper one should give way to tbe other in a certain degree reciprocally, a mixed varnish must be adopted. This mixed varnish, as we have already observed, should be made of the picked seed-lac. The common seed-lac varnish, which is the most useful preparation of the kind hitherto invented, may be thus made. Take of seed-lac three ounces, and put it into water, to free it from the sticks and filth that are frequently intermixed with it; and which must be done by stirring it about, and then pouring off the water, and adding fresh quantities, in order to repeat the operation, till it is freed from all impurities, as is very effectually done by this means. Dry it then, and powder it grossly, and put it, with a pint of rectified spirit of wine, into a bottle, of which it will not fill above two-thirds. Shake the mixture well together, and place the bottle in a gentle heat, till the seed-lac appears to be dissolved; the shaking being in the mean time repeated as often as may be convenient; and then pour off all that can be obtained clear by this method, and strain the remainder through a coarse cloth. The varnish thus prepared, must be kept for use in a bottle well stopped. When the spirit of wine is very strong, it will dissolve a greater proportion of the seed-lac; but this quantity will saturate the common, which is seldom of a strength sufficient to make varnishes in perfection. As the chill- ing, which is the most inconvenient accident attending varnishes of this kind, is prevented or produced more frequently, according to the strength of the spirit; we shall therefore take this opportunity of showing a me- thod by which weaker rectified spirits may with great ease at any time be freed from the phlegm, and rendered ofthe first degree of strength. Take a pint of the common rectified spirit of wine, and put it into a bottle, of which it will not fill above three parts; add to it half an ounce of pearl-ashes, salt of tartar, or any other alkaline salt, heated red-hot, and powdered as well as it can be without much loss of its heat. Shake the mixture frequently for the space of half an hour; before which time, a great part of the phlegm will be separated from the spirit, and will appear, toge- ther with the undissolved part of the salts, in the bottom of the bottle. Let the spirit be poured off, or freed from vox. II. 62 the phlegm and the salts, by means of a tritorium, or separating funnel; and let half an ounce of the pearl- ashes, heated and powdered as before, be added to it, and the same treatment repeated. This may be done a third time, if the quantity of phlegm separated by the addition of the pearl-ashes appears considerable. An ounce of alum reduced to powder, and made hot, but not burnt, must then be put into the spirit, and suffered to remain some hours, the bottle being frequently shaken: after which the spirit, being poured off from it, will be fit for use. The addition of the alum is necessary to neutralize the remains of the alkaline salt, which wonld otherwise greatly deprave the spirit, with respect to varnishes and lacquer where vegetable colours are concerned, and must consequently render another distillation necessary. The manner of using the seed-lac, or white varnish, is the same, except with regard to the substance used iu polishing: which, where a pure white of a great clear- ness of other colours is in question, should be itself white; whereas the browner sorts of polishing-dust, as being cheaper, and doing their business with greater de- spatch, may be used in other cases. The pieces of work to be varnished, should be placed near a fire, or in a room where there is a stove, and made perfectly dryj and then the varnish may be rubbed over them by the proper brushes made for that purpose, beginning in the middle, and passing the brush to one end, and then with another stroke from the middle, passing it to the other. But no part should be crossed, or twice passed over, in forming one coat, where it can be possibly avoided. When one coat is dry, another must be laid over it; and this must be continued at least five or six times, or more, if on trial, there is not sufficient thickness of varnish to bear the polish, without laying bare the painting or ground- colour underneath. YVhen a sufficient number of coats is thus laid on, the work is fit to be polished; which must be done, in com- mon cases, by rubbing it with a rag dipped in tripoli, or rottenstone, finely powdered; but, towards the i nil of the rubbing, a little oil of any kind should be used along with the powder; and when the work appears sufficiently bright and glossy, it should be well rubbed with the oil alone, to clean it from the powder, and give it a still brighter lustre. JARGON. See Zircon. JASIONE, a genus of the monogamia order, in the sygenesia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, campanacese. The com- mon calyx is ten-leaved; and the corolla has five regular petals; the capsule beneath, two-celled. There arc four species, shrubs ofthe YVest Indies. JASM1NUM, Jasmine, or Jessamine tree, a genus of the monogynia order, in the diandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 44th order, sepiarise. The corolla is salver-shaped, the berry dicoc- cous; the seeds arillated, the antherse within the tube. There arc 17 species. The most remarkable are: i. The officinalis, or common Avhite jasmine, with shrubby long slender stalks and branches, rising upon supports 15 or 20 feet high, with numerous white flowers from the joints and ends, of a very fragrant odour. There is a variety with white-striped, and another with yellow-striped J 0 I J 0 I sail extended from the outer end of the bowsprit pro- longed by the jib-boom, towards the fore-top-masthead. See Sail. Jiu-boom, a boom run out from the extremity of the bowsprit, parallel to its length, and serving to extend the bottom of the jib, and the stay of the fore-top-gal- lant-mast. JOINT ACTIONS: in personal actions, several wrongs may be joined in one writ; but actions founded upon a tort and a contract cannot be joined, for they require different pleas and different process. 1 Vent. 336. Joint and several: an interest cannot be granted jointly and severally; as if a man grants the next ad- vowson, or makes a lease for years, to two jointly and severally; these words (severally) are void, and they are joint tenants. 5 Rep. 19. Joint lives: lease for years to husband and wife, if they or any issue of their bodies should so long live, has been adjudged so long as either the husband, wife, or any of their issue, should live; and not only so long as the husband and wife, &c. should jointly live. Moor, 539. Joint tenants, are those that come to, and hold lands or tenements by one title pro indiviso, or without partition. These are distinguished from sole or several tenants, from parceners, or from tenants in common: and they must jointly implead, and jointly be impleaded by others, which properly is common between them and coparcen- ers; but joint tenants have a sole quality of survivorship, which coparceners have not; for if there are two or three joint tenants, and one has issue and dies, then he or those joint tenants that survive, shall have the whole by survi- vorship. Cowel. The creation of an estate in joint tenantcy depends on the wording ofthe deed or device, by which the tenant claims title; for this estate can only arise by purchase or grant, that is, by the act of the parties; and never by the mere act of law. Now if any estate is given to a plu- rality of persons, without adding any restrictive, exclu- sive, or explanatory words, as if an estate is granted to A and B and their heirs, this makes them immediately joint tenants in fee of the lands; for the law interprets the grant, so as to make all parts of it take effect, which can only be done by creating an equal estate in them both. As therefore the grantor has thus united their names, the law gives them a thorough union in all other respects. 2 Black. 180. If there are two joint tenants, and one releases the other, this passes a fee without the word heirs; because it refers to the whole fee, which they jointly took, and are possessed of by fbrce ofthe first conveyance; but the tenants in common cannot release to each other, for a release supposes the party to have the thing in demand, but tenants in common have several distinct freeholds, which they cannot transfer otherwise than as persons who are sole seized. Co. Lit. 9. Although joint tenants are seized per mie et per tout, yet to divers purposes each of them has but a right to a moiety; as to enfeoff, give, or demise, or to forfeit or lose by default in a praecipe; and therefore where there are two or more joint tenants, and they all join in a feoffment, or each of tbem in judgment gives but his part. Co. Lit.. 186. The right of survivorship shall take place immedi- ately upon the death of the joint tenant, whether it is a natural or civil deatli,- as if there was no joint tenants, and one of them enters into religion, the survivor shall have the whole. Co. Lit. 181. At common law, joint tenants in common were not compellable to make partition, except by the custom of some cities and boroughs. Co. Lit. 187. But now joint tenants may make partition; the one party may compel the other to make partition, which must be by deed: that is to say, all the parties must by deed actually convey and assure to each other the several estates, which tliey are to take and enjoy severally and separately. 2 Black. 324. Joint tenants being seized per mie et per tout, and deriving by one and the same title, must jointly implead, and be jointly impleaded with others. Co. Lit. 180. If one joint tenant refuses to join in action, he may be summoned and severed; but herein it is to be observed, that if the person severed dies, the writ abates, because the survivor then goes for the whole, which he cannot do on that writ, where on the summons and severance he went only for a moiety before; for the writ cannot have a double effect, to wit, for a moiety in case of sum- mons and severance, and for the whole in case of survi- vorship. Co. Lit. 188. But in personal and mixed actions where there is summons and severance, and yet after such summons and severance the plaintiff goes on for the whole, there if one of them dies, yet the writ shall not abate, because they go on for the whole after summons and severance; and if they were to have a new writ, it would only give the court authority to go on for the whole. Co. Lit. 197. JOINTURE. A jointure strictly speaking; signifies a joint estate, limited to both husband and wife; but in common acceptation, it extends also to a sole estate, limited to the wife only, and may be thus defined, viz. a competent livelihood of freehold for the wife of lands and tenements, to take effect, in profit or possession, present- ly after the death of the husband; for the life of the wife at least. 2 Black. 1S7. By the statute of the 27th H. VIII. c. 10, if a jointure is made to the wife, it is a bar of her dower, so that she shall not have both jointure and dower. And to the ma- king of a perfect jointure within that statute six things are observed: 1. Her jointure is to take effect presently after her husband's decease. 2. It must be for the term of her own life, or greater estate. 3. It should be made to herself. 4. It must be made in satisfaction of her whole dower, and not of part of her dower. 5. It must either be expressed or averred to be in satisfaction of her dower. 6. It should be made during the coverture. 1 Inst. 32. The estate must take effect presently after her hush band's disease; therefore if an estate is made to the hus- band for life, remainder to another person for life, remainder to the wife for her jointure, this is no good jointure, for it is not within the words or intent of the statute; for the statute designed nothing as a satisfaction for dower, but that which came in the same place, and is of the same use to the wife; and though the other person dies during the life of the husband, yet this is not good; for every interest not equivalent to dower not being J U D JUG within the statute, is a void limitation to deprive the wife of her dower. 4 Co. 3. The estate must be for the term of the wife's life, or a greater estate; therefore if an estate is made for the life or lives of many others, this is no good jointure; for if she survives such lives, as she may, then it would be no competent provision during her life, as every jointure within the statute ought to be. Co. Lit. 36. The estate should be made to herself; but as the inten- tion of the statute was to secure the wife a competent provision, and also to exclude her from claiming dower, and likewise her settlement, it seems that a provision or settlement on the wife, though by way of trust, if in other respects it answers the intention of the statute, will be inforced in a court of equity. The estate must be in satisfaction of the whole dower; the reason hereof is, that if it is made in satisfaction of part only, it is uncertain for what part it is in satisfaction of her dower, and therefore void in the whole. Co. Lit. 36. The estate must be expressed or averred to be in sa- tisfaction of her dower. Lord Coke says, that it must be expressed or averred to be in satisfaction of her dower; but qua;re, for this does not seem requisite either within the words or intention of the statute. Co. Lit. 36. It should be made during the coverture; this the very words of the act of parliament require: and therefore if a jointure is made to a woman during her coverture in satisfaction of dower, she may wave it after her hus- band's death; but if she enters and agrees thereto, she is concluded; for though a woman is not bound by any act when she is not at her own disposal, yet if she agrees to it when she is at liberty, it is her own act, and she cannot avoid it. Co. Lit. 36. 4 Co. 3. JOISTS, or Joysts. See Architecture. JONCQUETIA, a genus ofthe decandria tetragynia class and order. The cal. is five-leaved; pet. five and spreading; filaments growing to a glandule; styles none; caps, sub-globular, one-celled, five-valved, five-seeded. There is one species, a large tree of Guiana. JONK, or Jonque, in naval affairs, is a kind of small ship, very common in the East Indies: these vessels are about the bigness of our fly-boats, and differ in the form of their building, according to the different methods of naval architecture used by the nations to which they belong. Their sails are frequently made of mats, and their anchors are made of wood. JOURNAL, at sea. See Navigation. JUDGE. The judges are the chief magistrates in the law, to try civil and criminal causes. Of these there are twelve in England, viz. the lords chief justices of the courts of king's-bench and common-pleas; the lord chief baron of the exchequer; the three puisne or inferior judges of the two former courts, and the three puisne barons of tbe latter. By stat. 1 Geo. III. c. 23. thejudgesareto continue in their offices during thei?good behaviour, notwithstanding any demise of the crown (which was formerly held im- mediately to vacate their seats), and their lull salaries are absolutely secured to them during the continuance of their commissions, by which means the judges are ren- dered completely independant of the king, his ministers, or bis successors. A judge at his creation takes an oath, that he will serve the king, and indifferently administer justice to all men, without respect of persons, take no bribe, give no counsel where he is a party, nor deny right to any, though the king or any other, by letters, or by expressed words, command the contrary, &c. and in default of duty, to be answerable to the king in body, land, and goods. YVhere a judge has an interest, neither he nor his deputy can determine a cause, or sit in court; and if he does, a prohibition lies. Hardvv. 503. Judges are punishable for wilful offences, against the duty of their situations; instances of which happily live only in remembrance. There are ancient prece- dents of judges who were fined when they transgressed the laws, though commanded by war-ants from the king. Judge is not answerable to the king, or the party, for mistakes or errors of his judgment, in a matter of whicli he has jurisdiction. 1 Salk. 397. JUDGMENT. The opinion of the judges is so called, and is the very voice and final doom of the law, and there- fore is always taken for unquestionable truth; or it is the sentence of the law pronounced by the court, upon the matter contained in the record. JcnoMENTs are of four sorts, viz. 1. Where the facta are confessed by the parties, and the law determined by the court, which is termed judgment by demurrer. 2. Where the law is admitted by the parties, and the facts only are disputed, as in judgment upon a demurrer. S. Where both the fact and the law arising thereon are admitted by the defendant, as in case of judgment by confession or default. 4. Where the plaintiff is convinced that fact or law, or both, are insufficient to support his action, and there- fore abandons or withdraws his prosecution, as in case of judgment upon a nonsuit or retraxit. See Warrant op Attorney. Judgments are either interlocutory or final. Interlocutory judgments are such as are given in the middle of a cause, upon some plea, proceeding, or de- fault, which is only intermediate, and does not finally determine or complete the suit; as upon dilatory pleas, wiien the judgment in many cases is, that the defendant shall answer over; that is, put in a more substantial plea. Final judgments, are such as at once put an end to the action, by declaring that tbe plaintiff has either entitled himself, or has not, to recover the remedy he sues for. 3 Black. 398. JUGERUM, in Roman antiquity, a square of 120 Roman feet; its proportion to the English acre being aa 10,000 to 16,097. JUGLANS, the walnut, a genus of the moneecia class, and polyandria order of plants: and in the natural method ranking under the 50th order, amentaceae. The male calyx is monophyllous, and squamiform; the corolla di- vided into six parts; there are 18 filaments: the female calyx is quadrifid, superior; the corolla quadripartite- there are two styles, and the fruit is a plum with a fur- rowed kernel. There are 8 species, the most remarka- ble of which is the regia or common walnut. Other two species, called the nigra and alba, or black and white Virginian walnut, are also cultivated in this country though they are less proper for fruit, having very small kernels. JUS J Y N fit.-, of his land during life, and suffer perpetual imprison- ment. Jury-mast, whatever is set up in room of a mast that has been lost in a storm or in an engagement, and to which a lesser yard, ropes, and sails, are fixed. JUSSIVE A, a genus of the monogynia order, in the decandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order, calycanthemse. The ca- lyx is quadripartite, or quinquepartite superior; there are four or five petals; the capsule quadrilocular or quin- quelocular, oblong, opening at the angles: the seeds are numerous and small. There are 11 species, mostly herba- ceous plants of the YV. Indies. JUSTICE, in a legal sense, a person deputed by the king to administer justice to his subjects, whose autho- rity arises from his deputation, and not by right of ma- gistracy. In the courts of king's bench and common pleas there are two judges styled chief justices, each of whom re- tains the title of lord during the time of his continuing in office. The first of these, who is styled lord chief jus- tice of England, has a very extensive power and juris- diction in pleas of the crown. He hears all pleas in civil causes brought before him in the court of king's bench, and also the pleas of the crown; while, on the other hand, the lord chief justice of the common pleas has the hearing of all civil causes between common persons. Be- sides the lords chief justices, there are in each of the above courts three puisne justices; there are also several other justices appointed by the king for the execution of the laws; such as the lords justices in eyre of the forests, who are two justices appointed to determine all offences committed in the king's forests; justices of assize, of oyer and terminer, of gaol-delivery, kc. They are also called justices of nisi prius, and so denominated from the words usual in a common form of adjournment of a cause in the court of common pleas. See Nisi Prius, Oyer and Terminer, Common Pleas, and King's Bench. Justices ofthe Peace. See Peace. JUSTICIARY, or court of Justiciary, in Scotland, a court of supreme jurisdiction in all criminal cases. This court came in place of the justice-eyre or justice- general, which last was taken away by parliament in 1672, and was erected into a justice or criminal court, consisting of a justice-general alterable at the monarch's pleasure, justice clerk, and five other judges, who are lords of session. This court commonly sits upon Mondays, and has an ordinary clerk, who has his commission from the justice- clerk. They have four macers, and a doomster appoint- ed by the lords of the session. The form of the process is this: the clerk raises a libel ©r indictment upon a bill passed by any of the lords of that court, at the instance of the pursuer, against the de- fendant or criminal, who is immediately committed to prison after citation. When the party, witnesses, great assize, or jury of forty-five men, are cited, the day of compearance being come, fifteen of the great assize are chosen to be the assize upon the pannel, or prisoner at the bar. The assize sits with the judges to hear the libel read, witnesses examined, and the debates on both sides, which arc written verbatim in the adjournal books. Tho king's advocate pleads for the pursuer, being the king's cause, and other advocates for the pannel. The debates being closed, the judges find the libel or indictment either non-relevant, in which case they desert the diet, and as- soil or absolve the party accused; or, if relevant, then the assize or jury of fifteen is removed into a closer room, none being present with them, where they choose their chancellor and clerk, and consider the libel, deposition, and debates; and bring in their verdict of the pannel sealed, guilty or not guilty: if not guilty, the lords ab- solve; if guilty, they condemn and declare their sentence of condemnation, and command the sentence to be pro- nounced against the pannel by a macer and the mouth of the doomster. The lords of the justiciary likewise go circuits twice a year into the country. See the article Circuit. JUSTICIES, a writ directed to a sheriff, by virtue of which he is empowered to hold a plea of debt in his coun- ty-court for a sum above 40s. though by his ordinary power he has only cognizance of sums under 40s. JUSTIFICATION, in law, is an affirming or showing good reason in court, why one does such a thing as he is called to answer; as to justify in a cause of a replevin. JUSTICIA, Malabar nut; a genus of the monogynia or- der, in the diandria class of plants; and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 40th order, personatse. The corolla is ringent; the capsule bilocular, parting with an elastic spring at the heel; the stamina have only one anthera. There are eighty species, most of them natives of the East Indies, growing many feet high; some adorned with fine large leaves, others with small narrow ones, and all of them with monopetalous ringent flowers. Only two spe- cies are ceimmonly cultivated in our gardens, viz. the adhatoda, or common Malabar nut, and the hyssopifolia or snap-tree. The first grows ten to twelve feet high, with a strong woody stem; and from the ends of the branches short spikes of white flowers, with dark spots, having the helmet of the corolla concave. The second lias a shrubby stem, and white flowers, commonly by threes, from the sides of the branches; succeeded by cap- sules, which burst open with elasticvforce for the discharge of the seeds; whence the name of snap-tree. JYrNX, the wryneck, a genus of birds belonging to the order of picae; the characters of which are, that the bill is slender, round, and pointed; the nostrils are concave and naked; the tongue is very long, very slender, cylin- dric, and terminated by a hard point; and the feet arc formed for climbing. There is only one species, viz. the torquilla. The colours of this bird are elegantly pencil- led, though its plumage is marked with the plainest co- lours. The wryneck, Mr. Pennant apprehends, is a bird of passage, appearing with us in the spring before the cuckoo. Its note is like that of the kestril, a quick-re- peated squeak; its eggs are white, with a very thin shellj it builds in the hollows of trees, making its nest of dry grass. It has a very whimsical way of turning and twist- ing its neck about, and bringing its head over its shoul- ders, whence it had its Latin name torquilla, and its En- glish one of wryneck* K. tt or k, the tenth letter of our alphabet; as a numeral, -**-? denotes 250; and with a line over it, K~, 250000. KjEMPFERIA, zedoary, a genus of the monogynia order, in the monandria class of plants, and in the natu- ral method ranking under the eighth order, scitamineae. The corolla is sexpartite, with three of the segments larger than the rest, patulous; and one only bipartite. The species are, 1. The galanga, common galangal, or long zedoary. 2. The rotunda, or round zedoary. Both are perennial in root; but the leaves rise annually in spring, and decay in winter. They flower in summer; each flower is of one petal, tubulous below, but plain above, and divided into six parts; they continue three or four weeks in beauty, but are never succeeded by seeds in this country. Both these plants must be potted in light rich mould, and always kept in the hot-house. KALI, a genus of marine plants, which arc burnt to procure mineral alkali. KALMIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the de- candria class of plants, and in the natural method rank- ing under the 18th order, bicorncs. The calyx is quin- quepartite; the corolla salver-shaped, formed with five nectariferous horns on the under or outer side; the cap- sule quinquelocular. Of this genus there are four species. Those chiefly in cultivation with us are, 1. The latifolia, a most- beautiful shrub, which rises usually to the height of five or six feet, and sometimes twice that height in its native places. The flowers grow in bunches on the tops of the branches to footstalks three inches long; they are white, stained with purplish red, consisting of one petal in form of a cup, divided at the verge into five sections; in the middle are a stylus and 12 stamina, which, when the flower first opens, appear lying close to the sides of the cup at equal distances, their api- ces being lodged in 10 little hollow cells, which being prominent on the outside, appear as so many little tuber- cles. This plant is a native of Carolina, Virginia, and other parts of the northern continent of America, yet is not common, but found only in particular places; it grows on rocks hanging over rivulets and running streams, and on the sides of barren hills. 2. The angustifolia, rises to the height of about 16 feet, with evergreen leaves. The flowers grow in clus- ters, and when blown, appear white; but on a near view, arc of a faint blueish colour, which as the flower decays grows paler. KAOLIN, the name of an earth which is used as one of the two ingredients in oriental porcelain. See Porce- i.aiv. KECKLE, or Kecklino, in the sea language, is the winding of old ropes about cables, to prevent them from galling. KEDGING, in the sea-language, is when a ship is brought up or down a narrow river by means ofthe tide, the wind being contrary. KEEL, the lowest ph'cc of timber in a ship, running her whole length from the lower part of her stem to the vol. n. 63 lower part of her stern-post. Into it are all the lower futtocks fastened; and under part of it, a false keel is often used. KEELSON, a principal timber in a ship, fayed with- inside cross all the floor-timbers; ac.J being adjusted to the keel without suitable scarfs, it serves to strengthen the bottom of the ship. KEEP, in ancient military history, a kind of strong tower which was built in the centre of a castle or fort, to which the besieged retreated, and made their last efforts of defence. Of this description is the keep of Windsor castle. KEEPER of the great seal, is a lord by his office, is styled lord-keeper of the great seal of Great Britain, and is always one ofthe privy council. All grants, charters, and commissions of the king under the great seal, pass through the hands of the lord-keeper, for without that seal many of those grants, &c. would be of no force, the king being, in the interpretation of the law, a corporation, and therefore passing nothing but by the great seal, which is also said to be the public faith ofthe kingdom, being in the highest esteem and reputation. YVhenever there is a lord-keeper, he is invested with the same place, authority, pre-eminence, jurisdiction, or execution of laws, as the lord chancellor of Great Britain is vested with. Keeper ofthe privy seal. Sec Privy Seal. KEISELSCHIEFER. This mineral occurs usually in blocks and amorphous masses of different sizes; very often in the beds of rivers: colour various shades of grey: structure slaty: usually opaque: brittle: specific gravity from 2.880 to 2.415: infusible perse. This species is divided into two subspecies. Keiselschiefer, common: colour blackish grey or green- ish: often traversed by veins of quartz: surface smooth: texture compact: fracture splintery, or imperfectly con- choidal: composed according to Wiegleb of 75.00 silica 10.00 lime 4.58 magnesia . 3.54 iron 5.02 inflammable matter 98.14 Lydian stone is another species of keiselschiefer: com- monly intersected by veins of quartz: fracture even: sometimes inclining to conchoidal: specific gravity £.596: powder black: colour greyish black. This, or a stone similar to it, was used by the ancients as a touchstone. They drew the metal to be examined along the stone, and judged of its purity by the colour of the metallic streak. On this account they called it &?«»•$, « the trier." They called it also Lydian-stonc, bov ause, as Theophrastus informs us, it was found most abun- dantly in the river Tmolus in Lydia. KELP, in the ^lass trade, a term used for a sort of potass made use of in many of the glass works, particu- larly for the green glass. It is the calcined ashes of a K. I F K 1 N plant called by the same name; and in some places of sea-tangs or laces, a sort of thick-leaved fucus or sea- wrack. This plant is thrown on the rocks and shores in great abundance, and in the summer months is raked to- gether and dried as hay in the sun and wind, and after- wards burned to the ashes called kelp. KEMO, a shell found on the coast of Sumatra; it is sometimes three or four feet in diameter, as white as ivory. See Marsden's Hist, of Sumatra. KENKS, in the sea-language, doublings in a rope or cable, when handed in and out, so that it does not run easy; or when any rope makes turns or twists, and docs not run free in the block. KERATOPHYTUM, in natural history. See Coral- lines. KERMES. See Coccus. Kermes mineral, a compound of sulphuret of anti- mony and potass. KETCH, in naval architecture, a vessel with two masts, usually applied to one carrying bombs, or rather mortars. KEVEL, in ship-building, a piece of plank fayed against the quickwork on the quarter-deck, in the shape of a semicircle; about which the running rigging is be- laid. KEY, in music, a fundamental note or tone to which the whole of a movement has a certain relation or bear- ing, to which all its modulations are referred and accom- modated, and in which it both begins and ends. There are but two species of keys, one of the major, and one of the minor mode; all the keys in which we employ sharps or flats being deduced from the natural keys of C major, and A minor, of which indeed they are only transposi- tions. Key-stone. See Architecture. KEYS. See Organ, Harpsichord, kc. KIDKNAPP1NG, is the forcible taking and carrying away a man, woman, or child, from their own country, and sending them to another. This is an offence at com- mon law, and punishable by fine, imprisonment, and pil- lory. By stat. 11 and 12 W. III. c. 7, if any captain of a merchant vessel shall during his being abroad force any person on shore, and wilfully leave them behind, or refuse to bring home all such men as he carried out, if* able and desirous to return, he shall suffer three months imprison- ment. Exclusive of the above punishment for this as a criminal offence, the party may recover upon an action for compensation in damages for the civil injury. KIDNEYS. See Anatomy. K1FFEK1L. This mineral is dug up near Konie in Natolia, and is employed in forming the bowls of Turkish tobacco-pipes. The sale of it supports a monastery of dervises established near the place where it is dug. It is found in a large fissure six feet wide, in grey calcareous earth. The workmen assert that it grows again in the fissure, and puffs itself up like froth. This mineral, when fresh dug, is of the consistence of wax; it feels soft and greasy; its colour is yellow; its specific gravity 1.600: when thrown on the fire it sweats, entits a fetid vapour, becomes hard, and perfectly white. According to the analysis of Klaproth, it is composed of 9 50.50 silica 17.25 magnesia 25.00 water 5.00 carbonic acid .50 lime. 98.25 KIGGELARIA, a genus of the decandria order, in the dicecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 37th order, columniferai. The male calyx is quinquepartite; tiie corolla pentapetalous; there are five trilobous glandules; the antherse are perforated at top; the female calyx and corolla as in the male; there are five styles; the capsule unilocular, quinquevalvcd, and polyspermous. There is but one species, viz. the Afri- cana. As this is a native of warm climates, it must be constantly kept in a stove in this country. It is propa- gated by seeds, layers, or cuttings, though most readily by seeds. KILDERKIN, a liquid measure containing two fir- kins, or 18 gallons. KINDRED. See Descent. KING, signifies him who has the highest power and absolute rule over the whole land; and therefore the king is, intendment of law, cleared of those defects which com- mon persons are subject to; for he is always supposed to be of full age, though ever so young. He pardons life and limb to offenders against the crown and dignity, ex- cept such as he binds himself by oath not to forgive. The law ascribes to his majesty, in his political capacity, an absolute immortality. The king never dies. For imme- diately on the decease of the reigning prince in his natu- ral capacity, his imperial dignity, by act of law, without any interregnum or interval, is vested at once in his heir, who is co instanti king to all intents and purposes. And so tender is the law of supposing even a possibility of his death, that his natural dissolution is generally called his demise, an expression signifying merely a transfer of property. Plowd. 177. By the articles of the union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, all papists, and persons marry- ing papists, are for ever excluded from the imperial crown of Great Britain; and in such case, the crown shall descend to such person being a protectant, as should have inherited the same, in case such papist, or person marry- ing a papist, was naturally dead. 5 Anne, c. 8. King's bench. The king's bench is the supreme court of common law in the kingdom, and is so called be- cause the king used to sit there in person; it consists of a chief justice, and three puisne justices, who are by their office the sovereign conservators of the peace, and supreme coroners of the land. This court has a peculiar jurisdiction, not only over all capital offences, but also over all other misdemeanours of a public nature, tendingcither to a breach of the peace, or to oppression, or faction, or any manner of misgo- vernment. It has a discretionary power of inflicting ex- emplary punishment on offenders, either by fine, impri- sonment, or other infamous punishment, as the nature of the crime, considered in all its circumstances, shall re- quire. The jurisdiction of this court is so transcendant, that it keeps all inferior jurisdictions within the bounds of K I N K N I their authority; and it may either remove their pro- ceedings to be determined here, or prohibit their pro- gress below: it superintends all civil corporations in the kingdom; commands magistrates and others to do what their duty requires, in every case where there is no spe- cific remedy; protects the liberty of the subject, by speedy and summary interposition; takes cognizance both of criminal and civil causes; the former in what is called the crown side, or crown office; the latter in the plea side of the court. This court has cognizance on the plea side of all ac- tions of trespass, or other injury alleged to be committed vi et armis; of actions focfiorgery of deeds, maintenance, conspiracy, deceit, and actions on the case which allege any falsity or fraud. In proceedings in this court, the defendant is arrested for a supposed trespass, which in reality he has never committed; and being thus in the custody of the marshal of this court, the plaintiff is at liberty to proceed against him for any other personal injury, which surmise of being in the custody of the marshal, the defendant is not at liberty to dispute. This court is likewise a court of appeal; into which may be removed, by writ of error, all determinations of the court of common pleas, and of all inferior courts of record in England. King's sevch prison. King's bench new rules. East. 30 G. III. it is ordered by the court, that from and after the first day of Trinity term next, the rule made in the sixth year of the reign of king George I. and all other rules for establishing the rules of the king's bench prison, shall be, and the same are hereby repealed. And it is further ordered, that from and after the said first day of Trinity term next, the rules of the king's bench prison shall be comprized within the bounds follcAving, exclusive of the public houses hereinafter mentioned; that is to say, from Great Cumber-court in the parish of St. George the Martyr, in the county of Surry, along the north side of Dirty-lane, and Melancholy walk, to Blackfriar's-road, along the western side of the said road to the obelisk, and thence along the south-west side ofthe London-road, round the direction post in the cen- tre of the roads, near the public house, known by the sign of the Elephant and Castle, and thence along the eastern side of Newington causeway to Great Cumber- court aforesaid: and it is also ordered, that the new gaol Southvvaik, and the highway, exclusive ofthe houses on each side of it, leading from the king's bench prison to the said new gaol, shall be within and part of the said rules. And it is lastly ordered, that all taverns, victual- ling-houses, ale-hous. s, and wine vaults, and houses or places licensed to sell gin, or other spirituous liquors, shall be excluded out of, and deemed no part of the said rules. It is ordered, that from and after the first day of Trinity term next, no prisoner in the king's bench pri- son, or within the rules thereof, shall have, or be enti- tled to have, day rules above three days in each term. And it is further ordered, that every such prisoner hav- ing a c\av rule, shall return within the walls or rules of the said prison, at or before nine o'clock in the evening of the day on which such rule shall be granted. Kino's palace. The limits of the king's palace at YYrcstmin*ler extend from Charing-cross to Westmin- ster-hall, and shall have such privileges a3 the ancient palaces. 28 II. VIII. c. 12. King's fisher. See Alcedo. KLINGSTEIN: this mineral composes whole moun- tains. They are usually insulated; and like basalt, show a tendency to assume the form of four-sided prisms. Its colour is usually deep grey, of various shades; but most commonly greenish. Sometimes various shades ap- pear together, which gives it the appearance of being spotted. Found not only constituting mountains, but also in globular masses, &c. Internal lustre arises chiefly ftom some crystals of hornblende and felspar which it con- tains. Structure slaty. Texture compact. Fracture usu- ally splintery; sometimes conchoidal. Brittle. Gives a clear sound when struck with a hammer. Specific gra- vity 2.575. Powder light grey. Melts easily into a glass. A specimen analysed by Klaproth yielded 57.25 silica 23.50 alumina 2.75 lime 3.25 oxide of iron 0.25 oxide of manganese 8.10 soda 3.00 water 98.10 KLEINHOYTA, a genus ofthe class and order gy- nandria decandria:. the calyx is five-leaved; corolla five. petalled; nect. bell-shaped; caps, inflated, five-lobed. There is one species, a tree of Java. KNAPSACK, a rough leather or canvas bag, which is strapped to an infantry soldier's back when he inarches, and which contains his necessaries. Square knapsacks are supposed to be most convenient. They should be made with a division to hold the shoes, blacking-balls, and brushes, separate from the linen. YYrhite goat-skins are sometimes used, but we do not conceive them to be equal to the painted canvas ones. Soldiers are put under stoppages for the payment of their knapsacks, which after six years becopie their property. KNAUTIA, a genus of the monogynia or;Vr, in the tetrandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 48th order, aggregatse. The common calyx is oblong, simple, quinqueflorous; the proper one simple, superior; the florets irregular; the receptacle na- ked. There are four species, chiefly annuals of the Levant. KNEE. See Anatomy. Knee, in a ship, a crooked piece of timber, bent like a knee, used to bend the beams and futtocks together, by being bolted fast into them both. These are used about all the decks. KNEES, carting, in a ship, those timbers which ex- tend from the sides to the hatchway, and bear up tho deck on both sides. KNIGHT, properly signifies a person, who, for his virtue and martial prowess, is by the king raised above the rank of gentleman into a higher class of dignity and honour. The ceremonies at the creation of knights have been various; the principal was a box on the ear, and a stroke with a sword on the shoulder; they put on him a shoulder-belt, and a gilt sword, spurs, and other military accoutrements; after which, being armed as a knight, he was led to the church in great pomp. Camden describes LAB LAB the manner of making a knight-bachelor, whirii is the lowest, though the most ancient order of knighthood, to be thus: the person kneeling was gently struck on the shoulder by the prince, and accosted in these words, " rise," or " be a knight in the name of God." For the several kinds eif kniglits among us, sec Banneret, Ba- ronet, Bath, Garter, kc. KNIGHTS ofthe shire, or Knights of parliament, in the British polity, are two knights or gentlemen of estate, who are elected on the king's writ, by the free- holders of every county, to represent them in parliament. The qualification of a knight of the shire is to be pos- sessed of 600/. per ami. in a freehold estate. Their ex- penses during their sittings were by a statute of Henry VIII. to be defrayed by the county; but this is now never required. Knight-marshal, an officer in the king's household, who has jurisdiction and cognizance of any transgres- sion within the king's household and verge; as also of contracts made there, whereof one of the house is party. Knights, in a ship, two thick short pieces of wood, com- monly carved like a man's head, having four shivers in each, three for the halyards, and one for the top-ropes to run in; one of them stands fast bolted on the beams abaft the foremast, and is therefore called the fore- knight; and the other, standing abaft the mainmast, is called the main-knight. KNOXIA, a genus ofthe class and order tetrandria 1 or 1, the eleventh letter of our alphabet, as a nu- ? meral, denotes 50; and with a line over it, thus, L, 50000. LA, in music, the syllable by which Guido denoted the last sound of each hexachord: if it begins in C, it answers to our A; if in G to E; and if in F to D. LABARUM, in Roman antiquity,the standard borne before the Roman emperors: being a rich purple stream- er, supported by a spear. , LA-BDANUM, or Lahanum. This resin is obtained from the cystus creticus, a shrub which grows in Syria and the Grecian islands. The surface of the shrub is covered with a viscid juice, which when concreted forms ladanum. It is collected while moist by drawing over it a kind of rake with thongs fixed to it; from these it is afterwards scraped with a knife. The best is in masses almost black, and very soft, having a fragrant odour and a bitterish taste. When dissolved in alcohol, it leaves behind it a little gum. The specific gravity of this re- sin is about 1.18. See Resins. LABEL, in heraldry, a fillet usually placed in the middle along the chief of the coat, without touching its exremities. Label of a circumferentor, a long thin brass ruler, with a sight at one end, and a centre-hole at the other; chiefly used with a tangent line to take altitudes. LABORATORY and Apparatus, chemical. A che- mical laboratory, though extremely useful, and even es- monogynia. The corolla is one-petalled, funnel-form; seeds two-grooved. There is one species, a herb of Cey- lon. KOENIGIA, a genus of the trigynia order, belong- ing to the triandria class of plants. The calyx is tri- phyllous; there is no corolla, and but one ovate and naked seed. KORAN. See Alcoimn. KUPFERNICKEL, is a sulphuret of nickel, and is generally compounded of nickel, arsenic, and sulphuret of iron. , KURTUS, a genus of fishes of the order jugulares; the generic character of which is, body broad, carinatcd ooth above and below, with greatly elevated back; giff. membrane two-rayed. The genus kurtus, instituted' by Dr. Bloch, consists at present of a single species only. This is a native of the Indian seas; and is supposed to feed on shell-fish, small cancri, and other sea insects, the remains of which were observed in the stomach of the specimen examined by Dr. Bloch. The length of this fish was about ten inches, including the tail, and its greatest breadth something more than four inches; its shape is deep or broad, the sides being much compress- ed, and the back rising very high in the middle. The colour of the whole body is silvery, as if covered with foil, without any appearance of scales; the back is tinged with gold-colour and marked by three or four black spots on its ridge, and the fins have a reddish cast. sential to all who embark extensively in the practice of chemistry, either as an art, or as a branch of liberal knowledge, is by no means required for the performance of those simple experiments which furnish the evidence e.f the fundamental truths of the science. A room that is well lighted, easily ventilated, and destitute of any valuable furniture, is all that is absolutely necessary for the purpose. It is even advisable that the construction of a regular laboratory should be deferred till the stu- dent has made some progress in the science; for he will then be better qualified to accommodate its plan to his own peculiar views and convenience. It is scarcely possible to offer the plan of a laborato- ry, which will be suitable to every person, and to all situations; or to suggest any thing more than a few rules that should be generally observed. Different apartments are required for the various classes of chemical opera- tions. The principal one may be on the ground floor; twenty-five feet long, fourteen or sixteen feet wide, and open to the roof, in which there should be contri- vances for allowing the occasional escape of suffocating vapours. This will be destined chiefly for containing fur- naces, both fixed and portable. It should be amply fur- nished with shelves and drawers, and with a large ta- ble in the centre, the best form of which is that of a double cross. Another apartment may be appropriated to the minuter operations of chemistry; such as those of precipitation on a small scale, the processes that require L. LABORATORY. merely the heat of a lamp, and experiments on the gases. In a third, of smaller size, may be deposited accurate balances, and other instruments of considerable nicety, which would be injured by the acid fumes that are con- stantly spread through a laboratory. The following are the principal instruments that are required in chemical investigations; but it is impossible, without entering into very tedious details, to enumerate all that should be in the possession of a practical chemist. 1. Furnaces. These may either be formed of solid brick- work, or of such materials as admit of their removal from place to place. See Furnace, and Chemistry. 2. For containing the materials, which are to be sub- mitted to the action of heat in a wind furnace, vessels called crucibles are employed. They are most commonly made of a mixture of fire-clay and sand, occasionally with the addition of plumbago, or black lead. The Hes- sian crucibles arc best adapted for supporting an intense beat without melting; but they are liahlcfo crack when suddenly heated or cooled. The porcelain ones made by Messrs. YVedgcwood, are of much purer materials, but ate still more apt to crack-on sudden changes of tempera- ture; and when used, they should therefore be placed in a common crucible of larger size, the interval being filled with sand. The black-lead crucibles resist very sudden changes of temperature, and may be repeatedly used; but they are destroyed when some saline substances (such as nitre) are melted in them, and are consumed by a current of air. For certain purposes crucibles are formed of pure silver or platina. Their form varies con- siderably; but it is necessary, in all cases, to raise them from the bars of the grate, by a stand. For the purpose of submitting substances to the continued action of a red heat, and with a considerable surface expeiscel to the air, a hollow arched vessel, with a flat bottom, termed a muf- fle, is commonly used. See Chemistry. 3. Evaporating vessels should always he of a flat shape, so as to expose them extensively to the action of heat. They .are formed of glass, or earthenware, and of vari- ous metals. Those of glass arc with difficulty made suffi- ciently thin, and are often broken by changes of tempe- rature; but they have a great advantage in the smooth- ness of their surface, and in resisting the action of most acid and corrosive substances. Evaporating vessels of porcelain, or YVedgewood's ware, are next in utility, are less cost I v. and less liable to be cracked. They are made both of glazed and unglazed ware. For ordinary purpo- ses, the former are to be preferred: but the unglazed should be employed when great accuracy is required, since the glazing is acted on by several chemical substan- ces. Evaporating vessels of glass, or porcelain, are generally bedded up to their edge in sand; but those of various metals are placed immediately over the naked fire. YVhen the glass or porcelain vessel is very thin, and of small size, it may be safely placed on the ring of a brass stand, and the flame of Argand s lamp, cautiously regulated, may be applied beneath it. A lamp thus sup- ported, so as to be raised or lowered at pleasure, on an upright pillar, to which rings of various diameters are adapted, will be found extremely useful; and when a strong heat is required, it is advisable to employ a lamp provided with double concentric wicks. 4. In the nroccss of evaporation, the vapour for the most part is allowed te> escape; hut in certain chemi- chal processes, the collection of the volatile portion is the principal object. This process is termed distillation. See Distillation. The common still, however, can only be employed for volatilizing substances that do not act on copper, "or oth- er metals, and is, therefore, limited to very few opera- tions, and on that account alembics and retorts are ne- cessary. See Chemistry. in several instances, the substance raised by distilla- tion, is partly a condensible liquid, and partly a gas, which is not condensed till it is brought into contact with water. To effect this double purpose, a series of re- ceivers termed Woulfe's apparatus is employed. See Chemistry. YVhen a volatile substance is submitted to distillation, it is necessary to prevent the escape of the vapour through the junctures of tlili vessels; and this is accom- plished by the appii.--at.ion of lutes. The most simple method of confining the vapour, it is obvious, would be to connect the places of juncture accurately together by grinding; and accordingly the neck ofthe retort is some- times ground to the mouth ofthe receiver. This, howev- er, adds toe> much to the expense of apparatus to ho generally practised. YVhen the distilled liquid has no corrosive property, (such as water, alcohol, ether, kc) slips of moistened bladder, or of paper or linen spread with flour paste, white of egg, or mucilage, eif gum Arabic-, sufficiently an- swer the purpose. The substance which remains,"after expressing the oil from bitter almonds, and which is sold under the name of almond meal or flour, forms a useful lute, when mixed to the consistency of glaziers' putty, with water or mucilage. For confining the1 vapour of acid or highly corrosive substances, the fat lute is well adapted. It is* formed by heating perfectly i\ry and finely sifted tobacco-pipe clay with painters'drying-oil, to such a consistence that it may be moulded by the hand. The same clay, beaten up with as much sand as it will bear without losing its tenacity, with the addition of cut tow, or of horse-dung, and a pro- per quantity of water, furnishes a good lute, wliich has the advantage of resisting a considerable heat, and is applicable in cases where the fat lute would be melted or destroyed. Various other lutes are recommended by chemical writers; but the few that have been eiuuiKi-u'ed are found to be amply sufficient for every purpose. See Lute. On some occasions, it is necessary to protect the retort from too sudden changes of temperature by a proper coating. For glass retorts, a mixture of common - h.v or loam with sand, and cut shreds of flax, may be employ- ed. If the distillation is performed by a sand heat, tho coating needs not to be applied higher than that part of the retort which is bedded in sand; but if the precess is performed in a wind furnace, the whole body ofthe ie- tort, and that part ofthe neck also which is exposed to heat, must be carefully coated. To this kind of distilla- tion, however, earthen retorts are better adapted; and they may be covered with a composition originally're- commended by Mr. Willis. Two ounces of borax are tu be dissolved in a pint of boiling water, and a. sufficient quantity of slaked Inue added to give it the thickness of LAB LAC cream. This is to be applied by a painter's brush, and allowed to dry. Over this a thin paste is afterwards to be applied, formed of slaked lime and common linseed-oil, well mixed and perfectly plastic. In a day or two, the coating will be sufficiently dry to allow the use of the retort. For joining together the parts of iron vessels used in distillation, a mixture of the finest China clay, with so- lution of borax, is well adapted. In all cases, the differ- ent parts of any apparatus made of iron should be accu- rately fitted by boring and grinding, and the above lute is to be applied to the j art which is received into an aper- ture. This will generally be sufficient without any exte- rior luting; otherwise the lute of clay, sand, and flax, al- ready described, may be used. In every instance, where a lute or coating is applied, it is advisable to allow it to dry before the distillation is begun; and even the fat lute, by exposure to the air dur- ing one or two days after its application, is much im- proved in its quality. The clay and sand lute is perfectly useless, except it is previously quite dry. In applying a lute, the part immediately over the juncture should swell outwards, and its diameter should be gradually diminish- ed on each side. Besides the apparatus already described, a variety of vessels and instruments are necessary, having little re- semblance to each other in the purposes to which they are adapted. Glass vessels are required for effecting so- lution, which often requires the application of heat, and sometimes for a considerable duration. In the latter case it is termed digestion, and the vessel called a mattrass is the most proper for performing it. YVhen solution is quickly effected, a bottle, with a rounded bottom, may be used, or a common Florence-oil flask serves the same purpose extremely well, and bears without cracking, sudden changes of temperature. Glass rods, of various length, and spoons ofthe same material, or of porcelain, are useful for stirring acid and corrosive liquids; and a stock of cylindrical tubes of various sizes, is required for occasional purposes. It is necessary also to be provided with a series of glass measures, graduated into drachms, ounces, and pints. Accurate beams and scales, of various sizes, with cor- responding weights, some of which are capable of weigh- ing several pounds, while the smaller size ascertain a minute fraction of a grain, are essential instruments in the chemical laboratory. So also are mortars of differ- ent materials, such as of glass, porcelain, agate, and metal. Wooden stands of various kinds for supporting receivers, should be provided. For purposes of this sort, anil for occasionally raising to a proper height any article of apparatus, a series of blocks, made of well- seasoned wood, eight inches (or any other number) square, and respectively eight, four, two, one, and half an inch in thickness, will be found extremely useful; since by combining them in different ways, no less than thirty-one different heights may be attained. The blowpipe is an instrument of much utility in che- mical researches. A small one, invented by Mr. Pepys, with a flat cylindrical box for condensing the vapour of the breath, and for containing caps, to be occasionally applied \vjth apertures of various sizes, is perhaps, the most commodious form. A blowpipe, which is supplied with air from a pair of double bellows, worked by the foot, may be applied to purposes that require both hands to be left at liberty, and will be found useful in blowing glass, and in bending tubes. The latter purpose, how- ever, may be accomplished by holding them over an Argand's lamp with double wicks. Laboratory, signifies also in military affairs, that place where all sorts of fire-works arc prepared both for actual service, and for pleasure, viz. quick matches, fu- sees, portfires, grape-shot, case-shot, carcases, hand- grenades, cartridges, . shells filled and fusees fixed, wads, &c. LABRUS, a genus of fishes of the order thoracici: the generic character is, teeth strong and subacute: the grinders sometimes, as in the spari, convex and crowded; lips thick and doubled: rays of the dorsal fin, in some species, elongated into soft processes. Gill-covers unar- med and scaly. Labrus hep|S;us, snout rather pointed: teeth small: pa- late furnished with a rough bone. Native of the Medi- terranean, sometimes wandering into rivers. There are 41 species belonging to this genus, all of which are but imperfectly understood. LABOURER. See Master and Servant. LABYRINTH, in gardening, a winding mazy walk between hedges, through a wood or wilderness. The chief aim is to make the walks so perplexed and intricate, that a person may lose himself in them, and meet with as great a number of disappointments as possible. They arc rarely to be meet with, except in great gardens; as Versailles, Hampton-court, kc LAC, an appellation given to several chemical prepa- rations. Lac. This resin exudes from the tree called the croton laciferum, when punctured by an insect. For the history of its formation, and the use to which it is applied by the insects, the reader is referred to the article Gum, kc. It is a substance of a deep-red colour verging on brown, and semitransparent, and distinguished by various names accordingto its purity. It possesses the properties of a resin, and is the basis of many varnishes, and of the finest kinds of sealing-wax. L.vc sidphuris, is obtained by precipitating sulphur, when in combination: it is composed of sulphur united to a little water. LACHERNALIA, a genus of the class and order hexandria monogynia. The cor. is six-parted, three outer petals difform; caps, three-winged; cells many- seeded; seeds globular, affixed to the recept. There are twelve species, chiefly bulbs ofthe Cape. LACTATS, in chemistry, a genus of salts but little known. 1. Lactat of potass, a deliquescent salt soluble in alcohol. 2. Lactat of soda. This salt does not crystal- lize. It is soluble in alcohol. 3. Lactat of ammonia. Crystals which deliquesce. Heat separates a great part of the ammonia before, destroying the acid. 4. Lactat of barytes; lime; alumina; all deliquesce. LACC1C acid. About the year 1786, Dr. Andersoa of Madras mentioned, in a letter to the governor and council of that place, that nests of insects, resembling small cowry shells, had been brought to him from the woods by the natives, who ate them with avidity. These supposed nests he soon afterwards discovered to be the LAC L A C coverings of the females of an undcscribed species of coccus, which he shortly found means to propogate with great facility on several of the trees and shrubs growing in his neighbourhood. On examining this substance, which he called white lac, he observed in it a very considerable resemblance to bees' wax; he noticed also, that the animal which se- cretes it provides itself by some means or other with a small quantity of honey, resembling that produced by our bees; and in one of his letters he complains, that the children whom he employed to gather it were tempted by its sweetness to cat so much of it. as materially to reduce the produce of his crop. Small quantities of this matter were sent into Europe in 1789, both in its natural state and melted into cakes; and in 1793 Dr. Pearson, at the request of sir Joseph Banks, undertook a chemical examination of its qualities, and his experiments were published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1794. A piece of white lac, from 3 to 15 grains in weight, is probably produced by each insect. These pieccs_arc of a grey colour, opaque, rough, and roundish. YY hen white lac was purified by being strained througli muslin, it was of a brown colour, brittle, hard, and had a bitter- ish taste. It melted iu alcohol, and in water of the temperature of 145°. In many of its properties it resem- bles bees' wax, through it differs in others; and Dr. Pearson supposes that both substances are composed of the same ingredients, but in different proportions. 1. Two thousand grains of white lac were exposed in such a degree of heat as was just sufficient to melt them. As they grew soft and fluid, there oozed out 550 grains of a reddish watery liquid, which smelled like newly baken bread. To this liquid Dr. Pearson has given the name of laccic acid. 2. It possesses tiie following properties: It turns paper stained with turnsole to a red colour. After being filtered, it has a slightly saltish taste with bitterness, but it is not at all sour. When heated, it smells precisely like newly baken hot bread. On standing, it grows somewhat turbid, and deposits a small quantity of sediment. Its specific gravity at tiie temperature of 60° is 1.025. A little of it having been evaporated till it grew very turbid, afforded on standing small needle-shaped crystals in mucilaginous matter. Two hundred and fifty grains of it were poured into a very small retort and distilled. As the liquor grew warm, mucilage-like clouds appeared; but as the heat increased they disappeared again. At the temperature of 200° the liquor distilled over very fast: a small quantity of ex- tractive matter remaineel behind. The distilled liquor while hot smelled like newly baken bread, and was per- fectly transparent and yellowish. A shred of paper stained with turnsole, which had been put into the re- ceiver, was not reddened; nor did another which had been immered in a solution of sulphat of iron, and also placed in the ree elver, turn to a blue colour upon being moistened with the solution of potass. About 100 grains of this distilled liquid being evapo- rated till it grew turbid, after being set by for a night, afforded acicular crystals, which under a lens appeared iu a group not unlike the umbel of parsley, The whole of them did not amount to the quarter of a grain. They tasted only bitterish. Another 100 grains being evaporated to dryness in a very low temperature, a blackish matter was left behind, whicli did not entirely disappear on heating the spoon containing it very hot in the naked fire; but on heating oxalic acid to a much less degree, it evaporated and left not a trace behind. Carbonat of'lime dissolved in this distilled liquid with effervescence. The solution tasted bitterish, did not turn paper stained with turnsole red, and on adding to it car- bonat of potass a copious precipitation ensued. A little of this solution of lime and of alkali being evaporated to dryness, and the residuum made red-hot, nothing remain- ed but carbonate of lime, and carbonat of potass. This liquid did not render nitrat of lime turbid, but it produced turbidness in nitrat and muriat of barytes. To 500 grains of the reddish-coloured liquor obtain- ed by melting white lac, carbonat of soda was added till the effervescence ceased, and the mixture was nutralizcd; for which purpose three grains of the carbonat were ne- cessary. During this combination a quantity of mucila- ginous matter, with little carbonate of lime, was preci- pitated. The saturated solution being filtrated and eva- porated to the due degree, afforded on standing deliques- cent crystals, which on exposure to fire, left only a resi- dum of carbonat of soda. Lime-water being added to this reddish-coloured liquor produced a light purple turbid appearance; and on standing there were clouds just perceptible. Sulphuret of lime occasioned a white precipitation, but no sulphureted hydrogen gas was preccptible by the smell. Tincture of galls produced a green precipitation. Sulphat of iron produced a purplish colour, but no pre- cipitation; nor was any precipitate formed by the addi- tion first of a little vinegar and then of a little potass to the mixture. Acetat of lead occasioned a reddish precipitation, which redissolvcd on adding a little nitric acid. Nitrat of mercury produced a whitish turbid liquor. Oxalic acid produced immediately the precipitation of white acicular crystals owing probably to the presence of a little lime in the liquid. Tartrat of potass produced a precipitation not unlike what takes place on adding tartaric acid to tartrat of potass; but it did not dissolve again on adding potass. LACE, in commerce, a work composed of many threads of gold, silver, or silk, interwoven one with the other, and worked upon a pillow with spindles, accord- ing to the pattern designed; the open work being formed with pins, which are placed and displaced as the spindles are moved. Method of cleaning gold-lace and embroidery when tar- nished.—For this purpose alkaline liquors are by no means to be used; for while they clean the gold they cor- rode the silk, and change or discharge its colour. S >ap also alters the shade, and even the species of certain co- lours. But spirit of wine may be used without any dan- ger of its injuring cither the c J our or quality of the sub- ject; and in many cases proves as effectual for restoring the lustre of the gold as the corrosive detergents. But though spirit of wine is the most innocent materi- LACERTA. al that can be employed for this purpose, it is not in all cases proper. The golden covering may be in some parts worn off; or the base metal, with whicli it has beeen ini- quiiously alloyed, may be corroded by the air, so as to leave the particles of the gold disunited; while the silver underneath, tarnished to a yellow hue, may continue a tolerable colour to the whole: in which cases it is appa- rent that the removal ofthe tarnish would be prejudicial to the colour, and make the lace or embroidery less like gold than it was before. Lack, bone, a lace made of fine linen thread or silk, much in the same manner as that of gold and silver. The pattern ofthe lace is fixed upon a large round pillow, and pins being stuck into the holes or openings in the pattern, the threads are interwoven by means of a number of bo- bins, made of bone or ivory, each of which contains a small quantity of fine thread, in such a manner as to make the lace exactly resemble the pattern. There are several towns in England, and particularly in Bucking- hamshire, that carry on this manufacture; but vast quan- tities of the finest laces have been imported from Flan- ders. LACERTA, lizard, a genus of the amphibia class, and of the order of reptiles: the generic character is, bo- dy four-footed, elongated, tailed; without any secondary integument. This numerous genus may be divided into the follow- ing sections, viz. 1. Crocodiles, furnished with very strong scales. 2. Guanas, and other lizards, either with serrated or carinated backs and tails. 3. Cordyles, with denticulated, and sometimes spiny scales, either on the body or tail, or both. 4. Lizards proper, smooth, and the greater number furnished with broad square scales or plates on the ab- domen. 5. Chamseleons, with granulated skin, large head, long missile tongue, and cylindric tail. 6". Geckos, with granulated or tuherculated skin, and lobated feet, with the t«>cs lamellated beneath. 7. Se:inks, with smooth, fish-like, scales. 8. Salamanders, newts, or efts, with soft skins, and of which some are water-lizards. 9. Snake-lizards, with extremely long bodies, very short legs, and minute feet. The above divisions neither are, nor can be, perfectly precise; since species may occur which may, with almost equal propriety, be referred to either ofthe neighbouring sections; but, in general, they will be found useful in the investigation of the species. The following are the most noted: 1. Lnrerta crocodi!us, or crocodile. The crocodile, so remarkable for its size and powers of destruction, has in all ages been regarded as one ofthe most formidable ani- mals of the warmer regions. It is a native of Asia and Africa, but seems to be most common in the latter; in- habiting large rivers, as the Nile (see Plate LXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 237), the Niger, kc and preying principally on fish, but occasionally seizing on almost every animal which happens to be exposed to its rapacity. The size to which the crocodile sometimes arrives is prodigious; spe- cimens being frequently seen of 20 feet in length, and instances arc commemorated of some which have exceed- ed the length of 30 feet. The armour with which the up- per part of the body is covered may be numbered among the most elaborate pieces of nature's mechanism. In the full-grown animal it is so strong and thick as easily to repel a musket-ball; em the lower parts it is much thin- ner, and of a more pliable nature: the whole animal ap- pears as if covered with the most regular and curious carved work: the colour of a full-grown crocodile is blackish-brown above, and yellowish-white beneath; the upper parts of the legs and the sides varied with deep yellow, and in some parts tinged with green. In the younger animals the colour on the upper parts is a mix- ture of brown and pale yellow, the under parts being nearly white: the eyes, are provided with a nictitating membrane, or transparent moveable pellicle, as in birds: the mouth is of vast width, the rictus or gape having a somewhat fluxuous outline, and both jaws being furnish- ed with very numerous sharp-pointed teeth, of which those about the middle part of each jaw considerably ex- ceed the rest in size, and seem analogous to the canine teeth in the viviparous quadrupeds or mammalia: the number of teeth in each jaw is 30, or more; and they arc so disposed as to alternate with each other when the. mouth is closed: on taking out the teeth and examining the alveoli, it has been found that small teeth were form- ing beneath, in order to supply the loss of the others when shed: the auditory foramina are situated on the top of the head, above the eyes, and are moderately large, oval, covered by a membrane, having a longitudinal slit or opening, and thus in some degree resembling a pair of closed eyes: the legs arc short, but strong and muscu- lar: the fore feet have five toes, and arc unwebbed: the hind feet have only four toes, which are united towards their base by a strong web: the two interior toes on each of the fore feet, and the interior one of the hind feet, are destitute of claws: on the other toes are strong, short, and curved claws: the tail is very long, of a laterally com- pressed form, and furnished above with an upright pro- cess, formed by the gradual approximation of two ele- vated crests proceeding from the lower part of the back. The crocodile in a young state is by no means to be dreaded, its small size and weakness preventing it from being able to injure any ofthe larger animals: it therefore contents itself with fish and other i«mall prey; and such as have occasionally been brought to Europe are so far from being formidable or ferocious, that they may be generally handled with impunity, and either from weak- ness, or the effect of a cold climate, seem much inclined to torpidity; but in the glowing regions of Africa, where it arrives at its full strength and power, it is justly re- garded as the most formidable inhabitant of the rivers. It lies in wait near the banks, and snatches dogs and oth- er animals, swallowing them instantly, and then plung- ing into the flood, and seeking some retired part, where it may lie concealed till hunger again invites it to its prey. In its manner of attack it is exactly imitated by the common lacerta palustris. or water-newt, which, though not more than four or five inches long, w ill with the greatest ease swallow an insect of more than an inch iu length; and that at one single effort, and with amo- tion so quick, that the eye can scarcely fedlow it. It poi- ses itself in the water, and havinggaincd a convenient dis- tance, springs with the utmost celerity on the insect, and LACERTA. swallows it. If, therefore, a small lizard of four or five inches only in length can thus instantaneously swallow an animal of a fourth part of its own length, we need not wonder that a crocodile of 18, 20, or 25, feet long, should suddenly ingorge a dog or other quadruped. Crocodiles, like the rest ofthe lacertse, are oviparous: they deposit their eggs in the sand or mud near or on the banks of the rivers they frequent, and the young when hatched immediately proceed to the water; but the major part are said to be commonly devoured by other animals, as ichneumons, birds, &c. The egg of the com- mon nilotic crocodile is not much larger than that of a goose, and in external appearance bears a most perfect resemblance to that of a bird; being covered with a cal- careous shell, under which is a membrane. YVhen the young are first excluded the head bears a much larger proportion to the body than when full-grow7n. The eggs, as well as the flesh of the crocodile itself, arc numbered among the delicacies of some of the African nations, and are said to form one of their favourite repasts. In the large rivers of Africa crocodiles are said to be seen swimming together in vast shoals, and resembling the trunks of so many large trees floating on the water. The negroes will sometimes attack and kill a single cro- codile, by stabbing it under the belly, where the skin, at the interstices of the scales; is soft and flexible. It is al- so, in some countries, the custom to hunt the crocodile by means of strong dogs, properly trained to the purpose, and armed with spiked collars. It is likewise pretended, that in some parts of Africa crocodiles arc occasionally tamed; and it is said that they form an article of royal magnificence with the monarchs of those regions, be- ing kept in large ponds or lakes appropriated to their residence. We may add, that the ancient Romans ex- hibited these animals in their public spectacles and tri- umphs. Scaurus, during his aedilcship, treated the people with a sight of five crocodiles, exhibited in a temporary lake; and Augustus introduced one into his triumph over Cleopatra, as well as several others, for the entertain- ment of the people. 2. Lacerta alligator. So very great is the general resemblance between this animal and the crocodile, that many naturalists have been strongly inclined to consi- der it as a mere variety, rather than a distinct species. The more accurate discrimination, however, of Blumcn- bach and some others seems in reality to prove that the alligator or American crocodile is specifically distinct from the nilotic, though the difference is not such as im- mediately to strike a general observer. The leading difference, if it be allowed to constitute a distinction of species, seems to be, that the head of the alligator is rather smooth on the upper part than marked with those very strong rugosities and hard carinated scales which appear on that of the crocodile; and that the snout is considerably flatter and wider, as well as more rounded at the extremity. The alligator arrives at a size not much inferior to that ofthe crocodile, specimens having been often seen of 18 or 20 feet in length. "Though the largest and greatest numbers of alliga- tors," says Catesby, *« inhabit the torrid zone, the con- tinent abounds with them 10 degrees more nortii, parti- cularly as far as the river Neus in North Carolina, in the latitude of about 33 degrees, beyond which I have vol. ii. 64 never heard of any, which latitude nearly answers to the northernmost parts of Africa, where they are likewise found. They frequent not only salt rivers near the sea, but streams of fresh water in the upper parts of the country, and in lakes of salt and fresh water, on the banks of which they lie lurking among reeds, to surprise cattle and other animals. In Jamaica, and many parts of the continent, they are found about 20 feet in length: they cannot be more terrible in their aspect than they are formidable and mischievous in their natures, sparing neither man nor beast they can surprise, pulling them down under water, that being dead, they may with greater facility, and without struggle or resistance, devour them. As quadrupeds do not so often come in their way, they almost subsist on fish; but as Providence, for the preser- vation, or to prevent the extinction of defenceless crea- tures, has in many instances restrained the devouring appetites of voracious animals, by some impediment or other, so this destructive monster, by the close connexion of his vertebrae, can neither swim nor run any other way than straight forward, and is consequently disabled from turning with that agility requisite to catch his prey by pursuit: therefore they do it by surprise in the water as well as by land; for effecting which nature seems in some measure to have recompensed their want of agi- lity, by giving them a power of deceiving and catching their prey by a sagacity peculiar to thein, as well as by the outer form and colour of their body, which on land resembles an old dirty log or tree, and in the water fre- quently lies floating on the surface, and there has the like appearance, by which, and his silent artifice, fish, fowl, turtle, and all other animals, are deceived, sud- denly catched, and devoured. " In Carolina they lie torpid from about October to March, in caverns and hollows in the banks of rivers, and at their coming out in the spring make an hideous bellowing noise. The hind part of their belly and tail are eaten* by the Indians. The flesh is delicately white, but has so perfumed a taste and smell that I never could relish it with pleasure." 3. Lacerta gangetica. The gangetic crocodile is so strikingly distinguished both from the nilotic and the ali- gator by the peculiar form of the mouth, that it is hardly possible, even on a cursory view, to confound it with cither of the former; the jaws being remarkably long, narrow, and perfectly straight, and the upper mandible terminated above an elevated tubercle. In a very young state the length and narrowness of the snout are still more conspicuous than the full-grown animal. The teeth are nearly double the number of those of the common crocodile, and are of equal size throughout the whole length of the jaws. This species is a nativeof India, and is principally seen in the Ganges, where it arrives at a size at least equal to the nilotic crocodile. 4. Lacerta iguana. Though the lizard tribe affords numerous examples of strange and peculiar form, yet few species are perhaps more eminent in this respect than the guana, which grows to a very considerable size, and is often seen of the length of three, four, and even five feet. It is a native of many parts of America and the YVest Indian islands, and is also said to occur in some parts ofthe East Indies. Its general colour is green, but with much variation in the tinge of different individuals: LACERTA. it is generally shaded with brown in some parts of the b idy, and sometimes this is the predominating colour. The back of the guana is very strongly serrated; and this, together with the gular pouch, which it has the power of extending or inflating occasionally to a great degree, gives a formidable appearance to an animal oth- erwise harmless. It inhabits rocky and woody places, and feeds on insects and vegetables. It is itself reckoned an excellent food, being extremely nourishing and deli- cate; but it is observed to disagree with some constitu- tions. The common method of catching it is by casting a noose over its head, and thus drawing it from its situ- ation; for it seldom makes an effort to escape, but stands looking intently at its discoverer, inflating its throat at the same time in an extraordinary manner. The guana may be easily tamed while young, and is both an innocent and beautiful creature in that state. 5. Lacerta basiliscus. The basilisk of the ancients, supposed to be the most malignant of all poisonous ani- mals, and of which the very aspect was said to be fatal, is a fabulous existence, to be found only in the represen- tations of painters and poets. But the animal known in modern natural history by this name is a species of lizard, of a very singular shape, and which is particularly distinguished by a long and broad wing-like process or expansion continued along the whole length ofthe back, and to a very considerable distance on the upper part of the tail, and furnished at certain distances with internal radii analogeius to those in the fins of the fishes, and still more so to those in the wings of the draco volans, or flying lizard. This process is of a different elevation in different parts, so as to ap- pear strongly sinuated and indented, and is capable of bring either dilated or contracted at the pleasure of the animal. The occiput or hind part of the head is elevated into a very conspicuous pointed hood or hollow crest. Notwithstanding its formidable appearance the basilisk is a perfectly harmless animal, and, like many other of the lizard tribe, resides principally among trees, where it feeds on insects, &c. The colour of the basilisk is a pale cinereous brown, with some darker variegations to- wards the upper part of the body. It is principally found in South America, and sometimes considerably exceeds the length before mentioned, measuring three feet, or even more, from the nose to the extremity of the tail. It is said to be an animal of great agility, and is capable of swimming occasionally with perfect ease, as well as of springing from tree to tree by the help of its dorsal crest, which it expands in order to support its flight. 6. Lacerta calotes. This species is considerably allied to the common guana in habit or general appearance; but is of much smaller size, rarely exceeding the length of a foot and a half from the tip of the nose to the extremity of the tail. It is also destitute of the very large gular pouch, so conspicuous in that animal; instead of which it has merely a slight inflation or enlargement on that part. In colour it occasionally varies, like most of this tribe; but it is commonly of an elegant bright blue, variegated by several broad, and somewhat irregular white or whitish transverse bands on each side ofthe body and tail. It is a native of the warmer regions both of Asia and Africa, and is found in many of the Indian islands, and particu- larly in Ceylon, in which it is common. According to the count de Cepede it is also found in Spain, kc and is said by that author to wander about the top of houses in quest of spiders; and he observes, that it is even report- ed to prey on rats, and to fight with small serpents in the manner ofthe common green lizard and some others. See Plate LXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 236. 7. Lacerta monitor. The monitor, or monitory lizard, is one of the most beautiful of the whole tribe, and is al- so one of the largest; sometimes measuring not less than four or five feet from the nose to the tip ofthe tail. Its shape is slender and elegant, the head being small, the snout gradually tapering, the limbs moderately slender, the tail laterally compressed, and insensibly decreasing towards the tip, which is very slender and sharp. Though the colours of this lizard are simple, yet such is their disposition, that it is impossible to survey their general effect without admiration. In this respect, how- ever, the animal varies perhaps more than most others of its tribe. It is commonly black, with the abdomen white, thelatter colour extending to some distance up the sides, in the form of several pointed bands, besides which the whole body is generally ornamented by several trans- verse bands consisting of white annular spots, while the head is marked with various streaks of the same colour, the limbs with very numerous round spots, and the tail with broad, distant, transverse bands. It is a native of South America, where it frequents woody and watery pla- ces; and, if credit may be given to the reports of some authors, is of a disposition as gentle as its appearance is beautiful. It has even gained the title of monitor, salva- guarda, kr, from its pretended attachment to the human race, and it has been said that it warns mankind of the approach ofthe aligator by a loud and shrill w histle. Cordyles, with either denticidated or spiny scales on the body or tail, or both. 8. Lacerta pelluma, is one of the middle sized lizards; the total length being nearly two feet, and the length of the body and tail nearly equal. It is a native of Chili, where it is said to inhabit hollows under ground. It is covered on the upper parts with very minute scales, and is beautifully variegated with green, yellow, blue, and black: the under parts are of a glossy yellowish-green: the tail long and verticillatedby rows of rhomboidal scales. Theskin of this lizard is said to be used by the Chilians for the purpose of a purse. 9. Lacerta stellio, is remarkable for the usually rough or hispid appearance of its whole upper surface; both bo- dy, limbs, and tail, being covered with pointed scales, projecting here and there to a considerable distance be- yond the surface, so that it appears muricated with spines: the tail is rather short than long, and is verticillated with rows of pointed scales. The general colour of the animal is a pale blueish-brown, with a few deeper and lighter transverse variegations: its general length is about eight inches. It is a native of many parts of Africa. Lizards proper, smooth, and the greater number furnished with broad square plates or scales on the abdomen. 10. Lacerta agilis, green lizard, is found in all the warmer parts of Europe, and seems pretty generally diffused over the ancient continent. It sometimes ar- rives at a very considerable size, measuring more than two feet to the extremity of tbe tail; its more general LACERTA. length, however, is from 10 to 15 inches. In its colours it is the most beautiful of all the European lacertae, ex- hibiting a rich and varied mixture of darker and lighter green, interspersed with specks and marks of yellow, brown, blackish, and even sometimes red. The green lizard is found in various situations, in gardens, about warm walls, buildings, kc. and is an extremely active animal, pursuing with great celerity its insect prey, and escaping with great readiness from pursuit when disturb- ed. If taken, however, it is soon observed to become fa- miliar, and may even be tamed to a certain degree; for which reason it is considered as a favourite animal in many ofthe warmer parts of Europe. It appears to run into numerous varieties both as to size and colour; but in all these states the particular characteristics of the species are easily ascertained. 11. Lacerta bullaris, red-throat lizard. This, accord- ing to Catesby, is usually six inches long, and of a shining grass-green colour. It is common in Jamaica, frequenting hedges and trees, but is not seen in houses: when approached it swells its throat into a globular form, the protruded skin on that part appearing of a bright-red colour, which disappears in its withdrawn or contracted state: this action is supposed to be a kind of menace, in order to deter its enemy; but it is incapable of doing any mischief by its bite or otherwise. See Plate LXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 235. Chameleons, with granulated skin, missile tongue, be made of any necessary length: sometimes they are made of single ropes, knotted at proper distances, with iron hooks at each end, one to fasten them upon the wall above, and the other in the ground; and sometimes they are made with two ropes, and staves between them, to keep the ropes at a proper distance, and to tread upon. YVhen they are used in the action of scaling walls, they ought to be rather too long than too short, and to be given in charge only to the stoutest of the de- tachment. The soldiers should carry these ladders with the left-arm passed through the second step, taking care to hold them upright close to their sides, and very short below, to prevent any accident in leaping into the ditch. The first rank of each division, provided with ladders, should set out with the rest at the signal, marching re- solutely with their firelocks slung, to jump into the ditch: when they arc arrived they should apply their ladders against the parapet, observing to place them towards the salient angles rather than the middle of the curtin, be- cause the enemy have less force there. Care must be taken to place the ladders within a foot of each other, and not to give them too much or too little slope, so that they may not be overturned or broken with the weight ofthe soldiers mounting upon them. The ladders being applied, those who have carried them, and those who come after, should mount up, and rush upon the enemy sword in hand: if he who goes first happens to be overturned, the next should take care not to be thrown down by bis comrade; but, on the contrary, immediately mount himself, so as not to give the enemy time to load his piece. As the soldiers who mount first may be easily tumbled over, and their fall may cause the attack to fail, it would perhaps be right to protect their breasts with the fore parts of cuirasses; because if they can penetrate the rest may easily follow. LADY'S smock. See Cardemine. Lady's slipper. See Cypripedium. LAET1A, a genus of the monogynia order, in tbe polyandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking with those of whicli the order is doubtful. The, corolla is pentapetalous, or none; the calyx is pentaphyl- lous; the fruit is unilocular and trigonal; the seeds have a pulpy arillus or coat. There are four species, natives of America. One of them, the apctala, or gum-wood, LAM LAM Dr. "Wright informs U3, is very common in the wood- lands and copses of Jamaica, where it rises to a consi- derable height and thickness. Pieces of the trunk or branches, suspended in the heat of the sun, discharge a clear turpentine or balsam, which concretes into a white resin, and which seems to be the same as gum sanda- rach. Pounce is there made of it, and our author is of opinion that it might be useful in medicine like other gums of the same nature. LAGERSTROEMIA, a genus ofthe monogynia or- der, in the polyandria class of plants. The corolla is hexapetalous, and curled; the calyx sexfid, and campa- nulated; there are many stamina, and of these the six exterior ones thicker than the rest, and longer than the petals. There are four species, trees of the East Indies. LAGOECIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants. The involucruin is universal and partial; the petals bifid; the seeds solitary, inferior. There is one species, wild cummin, an annual of the Levant. LACUNEA, a genus of the class and order monadel- phia polyandria. The calyx is simple, fivc-cuspcd; style simple; stigma peltated; capsule five-celled, five-valved. There are three species, shrubs of the East Indies and Surinam. LAGURUS, a genus ofthe digynia order, in thetri- andria class of plants, and in the natural method raking under the fourth order, gramina. The calyx is bivalved with a villous awn, the exterior petal of the corolla ter- minated by two awns, with a third on its back retorted. There is one species, a grass ofthe south of Europe. LAKES, certain colours made by combining the co- louring matter of cochineal, or of certain vegetables, with pure alumine, or with oxide of tin, zinc, the lamp, the constitution of which is best explained in fig, 2; EF is the external tube of brass, which is supplied with oil by the pipe D; in the centre of this another tube, GG, is soldered, which is open at both ends: between these tubes is a cylinder of slightly wove cotton, gg, call- ed the wick; this is fastened to a small cylinder of brass, hh (shown separately in fig. 3), which can be mined down and up as the wick burns. The wick is lowered or raised by turning round the cylinder, lill (shown separately in fig. 5), by means of"its rim, II. fastened to the cylinder, HH, by three small rods. //; the cylinder, HH, fig. 5, has a spiral groove, kk, cut obliquely round L A M LAN it: the cylinder, hh, figs. 2 and 3, which goes within the cylinder, HH, has a small stub, Z, projecting from it, which works into the groove, kk, fig. 5; the leaf, I, is long enough to project a small distance tlirough the groove, kk, and when in its place takes against a small bead, n, fig. 2, fixed withinside the cylinder, FF, so as to prevent its turning, when HH is turned by its rim, II. By the above arrangement it is evident, that when the cylinder, HH, fig. 5, is turned round, and h is prevented from turning, the sides of the groove, k, will act as an inclined plane against the stub, I, and raise the cylinder h down or up, and the cotton wick,^, with it. The rim, II, figs, l, 2, and 5, has an ornamented border, L, round it, which serves to secure the glass chimney, c, from be- ing overthrown. To prevent the cylinder, HH, from being lifted out by accident, it has a rim, o, figs. 2 and 5, at the lower end, cut through in one place to allow it to pass down by the bead, n; when it is below the end of the bead it cannot be raised, unless the notch in the rim, o, corresponds with the bead. When the wick, gg, figs. 1 and 5, is lighted, it rarefies the air in the glass chim- ney, O, and causes a draught through the tube, GG, to supply the inside of the wick, and also under the edge of the glass chimney to supply the outside: as the wick burns down it can"be raised from time to time by turning the rim, I, as betWe described. The tube, FF, is al- ways nearly full of oil, brought by the pipe, D. YVhen it is required to put in a new wick, the glass chimney, O, is lifted off; the tube, hh, is screwed up to the top; by turning the rim, II, the tube, fig. 3, is then taken out, the old wick pulled off, and a new one is put round the small part, m, of the tube, which is then put in again, and screwed down to the proper depth for lighting the wick. Rolling-'LAM-p, a machine, AB (see PI. LXXVIH. Mis. fig. 145) with two moveable circles, DE, FG, within; whose common centre of motion and gravity is at K, where their axes of motion cross one another. If the lamp, KC, made pretty heavy, and moveable about its axis, HI, and whose centre of gravity is at C, be fitted within the inner circle, the common centre of gravity of tbe whole machine will fall between K and C; and by reason of the pivots A, B, D, E, H, I, will be always at liberty to descend: hence, though the whole machine be rolled along the ground, or moved in any manner, the flame will always be uppermost, and the oil cannot spill. It is in this manner they hang the compass at sea; and thus should all the moon-lanterns be made that are car- ried before coaches, chaises, and the like. Lamp-black, among colourmen. See Black. LAMPREY. See Petromyzon. LAMPYRIS, glow-worm, a genus of insects of the order coleoptera: the generic character is, antennae fili- form; wing-sheaths flexile; thorax flat, semiorbicular, concealing and surrounding the head; abdomen with the sides pleated into papillae; female (in most species) wingless. The lampyris noctiluf,a, or common glow- worm, is a highly curious and interesting animal. It is seen during the summer months as late as the close of August, if the season is mild, on dry banks, about woods, pastures, and hedgeways, exhibiting, as soon as the dusk of the evening commences, the most vivid and beautiful phosphoric splendour, in form of a round spot of considerable size. The animal itself, which is the fe- male insect, measures about three quartet's of an inch in length, and is of a dull earthy browu colour on the up- per parts, and beneath, more or less tinged with rose- colour, with the two or three last joints of the body of a pale or whitish sulphur-colour. It is from these parts that the phosphoric light abovementioned proceeds, which is of a yellow colour, with a very slight cast of green: the body, exclusive of the thorax, consists of ten joints or divisions. The larva, pupa, and complete fe- male insect, scarcely differ perceptibly from each other in general appearance, but the phosphoric light is strong- est in the complete animal. The glow-worm is a slow- moving insect, and in its manner of walking frequently seems to drag itself on by starts, or slight efforts. The male is smaller than the female, ancl is provided both with wings ancl wing-sheaths; and it is but rarely seen. It is certain, that in some species of this genus the male, as well as the female, is luminous; as in the lam- pyris Italica, which seems to be a native of England also, though less common there than in the warmer parts of Europe. Aldrovandus describes the winged glow-worm as having its wing-shells of a dusky colour, and at the end of the body two brilliant fiery spots like the flame of sulphur. See Plate LXXV1I. Nat. Hist. figs. 238, 239. In the Philosophical Transactions for the year 1684, we find a paper by a Mr. Waller, describing the English flying glow-worm as of a dark colour, with the tail part very luminous. He maintains that both male and female of this species are winged, and that the female is larger than the male: the light of this insect was very vivid, so as to be plainly perceived even when a candle was in the room. Mr. Waller observed this species at Northaw, in Hertfordshire. From the figure given by this writer it appears to be about half an inch in length, which is much smaller than the common female glow-worm. In Italy this flying glow-worm is extremely plentiful; and we are informed by Dr. Smith and other travellers, that it is a very common practice for the ladies to stick them by way of ornament in different parts of their head- dress during the evening hours. The common or wingless gle>w-worm may be very successfully kept, if properly supplied with moist turf, grass, moss, kc. for a considerable length of time; and as soem as the evening commences, will regularly exhibit its beautiful effulgence, illuminating every object within a small space round it, and sometimes the light is so vivid as to be perceived through the box in which it is kept. This insect deposits its eggs, which are small and yel- lowish, on the leaves of grass, &c. There are 18 species of the lampyris. LAND, in the sea language, makes part of several compound terms: thus Uind-laid, or to lay the land, is just to lose sight of it. Land-locked, is when land lies round the ship, so that no point of the compass is >pen to the sea: if she is at anchor in such a place, she is said to ride land-locked, and is therefore concluded to ride safe from the violence of winds and tides. Land-mark, any mountain, rock, steeple, tree, &c. that may serve to make the land known at sea. Land is shut in, a term used to signify that another point of land hinders the sight of that the ship came from. Land to, or the ship LAN LAN lies land to, that is, she is so far from shore that it can only be just discerned. Land-turn, is a wind that in al- most all hot countries blows at certain times from the shore in the night. To set the land, that is, to see by the compass how it bears. LANDSCAPE. See Painting. Land-tax, an ancient branch of the public revenue, the origin of which may be traced to the fines or commu- tations for military service, levied during the feudal sys- tem under the name of scutages. These are supposed to have been at first mere arbitrary compositions, as the king and the persons liable could agree; but the practice having been much abused, it was declared by Magna Charta, and afterwards repeatedly confirmed by acts of parliament, that no scutagc should be imposed without the consent of the great men and commons, in parliament assembled. This tax was sometimes exacted under the name of hydage, or carrucage; but taxes on land came afterwards to be generally denominated subsidies, or as- sessments. During the Commonwealth, taxes on land were levied by monthly assessments; and commissioners were appointed in each county for rating the individuals. These assessments varied according to the exigeiu ies of the times, from 35,000/. to 120,000/. a month; the asscs- ments m Scotland were commonly 6000/. but sometimes 1000/. a month; in Ireland 9000/. a month. This mode of raising money was found so productive, that, with some little variations, it has under the denomination of land-tax ever since formed an important branch of the revenue. The land-tax, till lately, differed from all the other branches ofthe public revenue (except part of the duties on malt), in being imposed annually, whereas other taxes have been granted either for a term of years, or, more commonly of late years, for ever; but though granted for only one year at a time, it has been regularly continued from year to year since the Revolution, having never been wholly taken off; but it has varied with respect to the rate at which it has been imposed, having been usu- ally reduced during peace, and increased again in time of war, to answer, in part, the increased expenditure. In 1693 it was first raised to four shillings in the pound, upon a valuation given in the preceding year, and ac- cording to which it has continued to'be raised to the present time, at the following rates: In 1698 and 1699, at 3s. K00, at 2s. 1T01, at 3s. 1T02 to 1T12, at 4s. IT 13 to 1715, at 2s. 1716, at 4s. 1717 to 1721, at 3s. 1722 to 1726, at 2s. 1727, at 4s. 17-28 and 1729, at 3s. 1730 and 1731. at 2s. 1732 and 1733, at is. 1734 to 17 39, at ::s. 1740 to 1749, at 4S. 1750 to 1752, at 3s. 1753 to 1755, at 2s. 1756 to 1766. at 4s. 176" to 17 70, at 3S, VOL. ii. 65 1771, at 4-. 1772 to 1775, at 3s. 1776 to 1798, at 4s. The sums to be raised at 4s. in the pound were stated, in the annual act, at 1,989,673/. 7s. loii/. for England, and 47,954/. Is. 2d. for Scotland, making together 2,037,627/. 9s. Old.; and upon credit of this assessment 2,000,000/. was annually borrowed ofthe Bank in antici- pation of the tax, for which sum exchequer-bills were given them, which were to be disc barged out of the pro- duce of the tax as it came in; but the full amount of the assessment was seldom, if ever, collected, so that the nett payments into the exchequer always fell short of the sura borrowed on the credit thereof, exclusive of interest on the bills; and the deficiency was made good out of the supplies for the next year. In 1798 the current value ofthe public funds having been unusually depressed for some time past, and appre- hensions being entertained that the further increase of the funded debt would be attended with peculiar inconve- nience, unless some mode was discovered of counteract- ing its effects, a project was adopted of offering the land- tax for redemption or sale, With this view an act was passed, making the land-tax a perpetual tax, from 25th March, 1799; and being thus converted into a permanent annuity, it was offered for sale to the proprietors of the lands upon which it was charged; or if they declined it, to any other person who chose to become *a purchaser. In the first case it was considered as a redemption of the tax, the estate becoming in future wholly freed from it; in the latter case the purchaser became entitled to receive the land tax regularly from the receiver-general, half- yearly, on the 16th of March and 20th of September in every year. The consideration to be given in either case was not to be in money, but stock, eitlier in the three per cent, consols., or three per cent, reduced, to be trans- ferred to the commissioners for the reduction of the na- tional debt. The quantity of stock to be transferred for redemption of the tax by persons interested in the land on which it was charged, was so much capital as yielded an annuity or dividend exceeding the amount of the tax to be redeemed by one-tenth part thereof; and the stock to be transferred for purchase ofthe tax by persons not in- terested in the land, was so much capital as yielded an annuity or dividend exceeding the tax to be purchased by one-fifth part thereof. Thus the amount of three per- cent, stock to be transferred for 10/. per annum tax was 366/. 13s. 4c/. for redemption, or 400/. for purchase. This scheme was adopted with the view of facilitating the raising of money on loan, by absorbing a Jar°-e quantity of floating stock, and thus raising the current price; while at the same time it would be attended with an increase of revenue. This at least was the avowed object of the measure, which it was estimated would be the means of redeeming or taking out of the market about 80,000,000/. of stock: the advantages offVreil by it were, however, by no meaus.suih as to' induce a «vn" crri approval of it, many persons subjn t to tl.e'Vix declined redeeming it, and but IVw were im lined to be come purchasers. The period first limited was sevo.-d times extended, but the plan succeeded vcr> imperfect! v and on the 1st rebruary, 1802, the total amount of 3 per LAN LAN cent, stock, which had been transferred for the redemp- tion of land tax, was only 21,794,307/. 17s. 3d, LANER1A, a genus of the hexandria monogynia class and order. The corolla is superior, woedly; the caps, three-celled. There is one species, a herb of the Cape. LAN GAY A, a genus of serpents: the generic char- acter is, abdominal plates; caudal rings; terminal scales. Langaya nasuta, snouted langaya. The genus lan- gaya, consisting of a single species only, differs from all the rest of the serpent tribe in having the upper part or beginning of the tail marked into complete rings or circular divisions resembling those on the body of the amphisbena, while the extreme or terminal part is cov- ered with smail scales, as in the genus anguis. The langaya nasuta, or long snouted langaya, is in length about two feet eight inches, and its greatest dia- meter about seven lines: the head is covered with large scales, but the snout, which is extremely long and sharp, projecting to a considerable distance beyond the lower jaw, is covered with very small scales; the teeth, in shape and disposition, resemble those of a viper. The natives of Madagascar are said to hold the langaya in great dread, considering it as a highly poisonous ser- pent. LANGUED, in heraldry, expresses such animals whose tongi.e appearing out of the mouth, is borne of a different colour from that ofthe body. LANILS, the shrike or butcher-bird; a genus belong- ing to the order of accipitres, the characters of which are these: the beak is somewhat straight, with a tooth on each side towards the apex, and naked at the base; and the tongue is lacerated. 1. The excubitor, great cinereous shrike, or greater butcher-bird, is in length 10 inches. The plumage on the upper parts is of a pale ash-colour; the under, white; through the eyes there is a black stripe; the scapulars are white; the base of the greater quills is white, the rest black. The method of killing its prey is singtilur, and its manner of devouring is not less extraordinary: small birds it will seize by the throat, and strangle; anil which probably is the reason the Germans also call this bird wurchangel, or the suffocating angel. It feeds on small birds, young nestlings, beetles, and caterpillars. When it has killed the prey, it fixes them on some thorn, and when thus spitted, pulls them to pieces with its bill. When confined in a cage, they will often treat their food in much the same manner, sticking it against the wires before they devour it. This bird inhabits many parts of Europe and North America. The female makes its nest with heath and moss, lining it with wool and gossamer, and lays six eggs, about as big as those of a thrush, of a dull olive-green, spotted at the thickest end with black. In spring and summer it imitates the voices of other birds, by way of decoying them within reach, that it may destroy them; but beyond this the natural note is the same throughout all seasons. In countries where they are plenty, the husbandmen value them, on suppo- sition of their destroying rats, mice, and other vermin. They are supposed to live five or six years; and are of- ten trained up for catching small birds in Russia. 2. The collurio, or lesser butcher-bird, is seven inches and a half in length. This bird is much more common than the former species. Mr. Latham suspects its being a bird of passage, never having seen it iu winter. ltlay» six white eggs, marked with a rufous brown circle to- wards the large end. The nest is generally in a hedge or low bush, near which, it is said, no small bird chooses to build; for it not only feeds on insects, but also on the young of other birds inthe nest, taking hold of them by the neck, and strangling thein, beginning to eat them first at the brain and eyes. It is fonder of grasshoppers and beetles than of other insects, which it cats by mnrsris, and when satisfied, sticks the remainder on a thorn: when kept in a cage, it does the same against the wires of it, like the former species. 3. The infaustus, or rock shrike, is in length seven inches and three quarters. The bill is about an inch long, and blackish; the head and neck arc of a dark ash- colour, marked with small rufous spots; the upper part oftlic back is a dark brown; the lower much paler, in- clining to ash, especially towards the tail; the quills and wing-coverts are dusky, with pale margins; the breast, and under parts of the body, are orange, marked with small spots, some white and others brown. This species is met with in many parts of Europe, from Italy on the one hand, to Russia on the other; and is found in some parts of Germany, the Alpine mountains, those of Tyrol, and such-like places. The manners of this bird seem disputed. It has an agreeable note of its own, approach- ing to that ofthe hedge sparrow; and will also learn to imitate that of others. It makes the nest among the holes of the rocks, kc. hiding it with great art; and lays three or four eggs, feeding the young with worms and inserts, on whicli it also feeds itself. It may be taken young from the nest, and brought up as the nightingale. 4. The faustus, or white-wreathed shrike, is about the size of a common thrush. Its bill is pale; the upper parts of the body are grey; the under ferruginous; from the eyes to the hind head there passes a whitish line, com- posed of numerous white feathers, rendering it truly characteristic; the wings are rounded; the quills brownish, with grey edges, which are crossed with numerous slen- der brown lines; the tail is rounded, brown, and crossed with numerous bars of darker brown; the legs are pale. This elegant species inhabits China, where it is known by the name of whommaj. It may be observed, among others, in Chinese paper-hangings, where the white line seems to encompass the hack part of the head like a wreath. 5. The tyrannus, or tyrant shrike, is about the size of a thrush. Its bill is a blackish brown, beset with bristles at the base; the hides are brown; the upper parts of the plumage grey brown: the under white; the breast inclines to ash-colour; the head is blackish on the upper part; the base ofthe feathers on that part in the male is orange, but seldom visible except it erects the feathers, when there appears a streak of orange down the middle of the crown. It inhabits Virginia. There is a variety which inhabits St. Domingo and Jamaica. These birds are called titiri, pipiri, or quiquiri, from their cry, which resembles those words. All authors agree iu the manners of these birds, which are ferocious to a great degree while the hen is sitting; no bird whatever dare approach their nest; they will attack the first whicli comes near, without reserve, and usually come off conquerors. LAP L A R Many species of this genus are found in Cayenne, and other hot countries, as the lanius varius. See Plate LXXVTI. Nat. Hist. fig. 240. LANN1ERS, or Lanniards, in a ship, are small ropes reeved into the dead-man's eyes of all shrowds, eitlier to slacken them or to set them taw t; the stays of all masts are also set tawt by lanniers. LANTANA, or Inuian Sage, a genus ofthe angios- permia order, in the didynamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, personatse. The calyx is indistinctly quadridentated; the stigma broken, and turned back like a hoof; the fruit is a plum with a bilocular kernel. There are 19 species, consisting of shrubby exotics from Africa and America for the greenhouse or stove, growing to the height of a yard or two, and adorned with oblong, oval, and roundish simple leaves, with inonopetalous, tubular, four-parted flowers of different colours. They may be propagated either by seeds or cuttings. 1. The camara or wild sage, is re- markable for tbe beauty of its flowers, which arc yellow, tinged with red. 2. The involucrata, or sea-side sage, has small ash-coloured leaves and a most agreeable smell. They are both natives of the West Indies, the former growing wild among the bushes, and the latter bring found near the sea. Their leaves, particularly those of the sea-side sage, are used by the black people in teas for colds and complaints ofthe stomach. 3. The aculeata is a beautiful stove plant, remarkable for its flowers changing from yellow to red. Sec Plate LXXV1I. Nat. Hist. fig. 243. LANTERN, Magic, an optic machine, whereby little painted images are represented so much magnified, as to be accounted the effect of magic by the ignorant. See Optics. Lantern. See Architecture. LAPIDARY. There are various machines employed in the cutting of precious stones, according to the qual- ity: the diamond, which is extremely hard, is cut on a wheel of soft steel, turned by.a mill, with diamond-dust, tempered with olive-oil, which also serves to polish it. The Oriental ruby, sapphire, and topaz, are cut on a copper wheel with diamond-dust, tempered with olive- oil, and are polished on another copper wheel with tripoli and water. The hyacinth, emerald, amethyst, garnets, agates, and other stones, not of an equal degree of hard- ness with the other, are cut on a leaden wheel with smalt and water, and polished on a tin wheel with tripoli. The turquois of the old and new rock, girasol, and opal, are cut and polished on a wooden wheel with tripoli also. LAPIS, in general, is used to denote a stone of any kind. See Mineralogy. Lapis calcedonius, a genus of stones consisting of silica, a small quantity of alumina, with about one-tenth of lime, and a slight trace of oxide of iron: hard, light- ish, shining within, breaking into fragments with sharp edges; compact, not mouldering in the air; of a more or less perfectly conchoidal texture; never opake, tough, admitting of a high polish, and generally of a common form; not melting before the blowpipe. Sec P1.LXXY11. Nat.'llist. fig. 241. LAPLYS1 A, or Sea-hare, a genus of marine insects belonging to the order of vermes mollusca. See Plate LXXVII. The body is covered with membranes reflec- ted. It has a shield-like membrane on the b:uk, a lateral pore on the right side, the anus on the extremity of the back, with four feelers resembling ears. The figure represents the dcpilans minor, which grows to two inches and a half in length, and to more than an inch in diame- ter; its body approaches to an oval figure, and is soft, punctated, of a kind of gelatinous substance, and of a pale lead-colour; from the larger extremity there arise four oblong and thick protuberances: these are the ten- tacula; two of them stand nearly erect, two are thrown backward. It is not uncommon about the shores, espe- cially off Anglesea. It causes, by its poisonous juice, the hair to fall off the hands of those that touch it; and is so extremely fetid as to create sickness at the stomach. The major, or greater sea-hare, grows to the length of eight inches. LAPPAGO, a genus ofthe triandria digynia class and order. There is one species, a grass. LAPSANA, nipplexvcrt, a genus of the polygamia aequalis order, in the syngenesia class ed' plants, ancl in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, com- positse. The receptacle is naked; the calyx calculated, with all the inferior scales canaliculated or finely chan- nelled. There are five species, which grow commonly as weeds by the sides of ditches. The young leaves ofthe common kind, called dock-cresses, have the taste of radishes, and are eaten raw at Constantinople as a sallad. In some parts of England the common people boil them as greens, but they have a bitter and disagreeable taste. LAPSE, the omission of a patron to present to a church, within six months after voidable; by which ne- glect title is given to the ordinary to collate to such church: and in such case, the patronage devolves from the patron to the bishop, from the bishop to the arch- bishop, and from the archbishop to the king. A donative does not go in lapse; but the ordinary may compel the patron by ecclesiastical censures to fill up the vacancy. Rut if the donative has been augmented by the gover- nors of queen Anne's heointy, it will lapse in like man- ner as prcscntative livings. LAPSED LEGACY, is where the legatee dies before the testator: or where a legacy is given upon a future contingency, and the legatee dies before the contingency happens. As if a legacy is given to a person when he at- tains the age of 21 years, and the legatee dies before that age; in this case the legacy is a lost or lapsed legacy, and shall sink into the residuum of the personal estate. 2 Black. 613. LARBOAUD, among seamen, the 1-ft hand side ofthe ship, when you stand with your face tow arils the head. LARCENY, is the felonious and fraudulent taking away of the personal goods of another; wiich goods, if they are above the value of 12a\ it is called grand larce- ny; if of that_value or under, it is petit larceny; which two species are distinguished in their punishment, but not otherwise. 4 Black. 229. The mind only makes the taking of another's goods to be fed.my, or a bare trespass only; but as the varietv of circumstances is so great, and the complications thereof so mingled, it is impossible to prescribe all the circum- stances evincing a flonious intent, or the contrary; it must therefore be left to the due and attentive considera- tion of the judge and jury, wherein the hist rule is, in L A R L A R doubtful nn tiers, rather to incline to acquittal, than cou- viction. But in general it may be observed, that the or- dinary disc (.very of a felonious intent, is, if the party do it secretly, or being charged with the goods deny it. 1 II. H. 509. As all felony in lades trespass, every indictment must have the words feloniously took, as well as carried aw'ay; whence it follows, that if the party being guilty of no trespass in taking the goods, he cannot be guilty of felo- ny in carrying them away. 1 Haw. 89. With respect to what shall be considered a sufficient carrying away, to constitute the offence of larceny; it seems that any the least removing of the thing taken, from the place where it was before, is sufficient for this purpose, though it be not quite carried off. I Haw. 93. As grand larceny is a felonious and fraudulent taking of the mere personal goods of another above the value of 12d. se) it is petit larceny, where the thing stolen is but of the value, of \2d. or under. In the several other particu- lars above-mentioned, petit larceny agrees with grand larceny. I Haw. 95. hi petit larceny there can be no accessaries either be- fore or after. 1 H. H. 530. Larceny from the person. If larceny from the person be done privily without his knowledge, by picking of pock- ets or otherwise, it is excluded from the benefit of clergy by 8 Eliz. c. 4, provided the thing stolen be above the value of [2d, 2 H. H. 336. But if done openly and avowedly before his face, it is within the benefit of clergy. 1 Haw. 97. Larceny from the house. Every person who shall be convicted ofthe feloniously taking away in the day-time, any money or goods of the value of 5s. in any dwelling- house, or out-house thereunto belonging, and used to and with the same, though no person be therein, shall be guilty of felony, without benefit of clergy. 39 Eliz. C. 15. Receiving stolen goods. Any person who shall buy or re- ceive any stolen goods, knowing them to be stolen; or shall receive, harbour, or conceal any felons or thieves, knowing them to be so; shall be deemed accessary to the felony: and being convicted on the testimony of one wit- ness, shall suffer death as a felon convict; but he shall be entitled to his clergy. 5 Anne c. 31. Any person convicted of receiving or buying stolen goods, knowing them to be stolen, may be transported for fourteen years. 4 Geo. I. c. 11. Where the principal felon is found guilty to the value of lOd. that is, of petit larceny only, the receiver, know- ing the goods to have been stolen, cannot be transported for fourteen years, and ought not to be put upon his trial; for the acts which make receivers of stolen goods knowingly, accessaries to the felony, must be understood to make them accessaries in such cases only, where by law an accessary may be; and there can be no accessary te) petit larceny. Fost. 74. Every person who shall apprehend any one guilty of breaking open houses in a felonious manner, or of pri- vately and feloniously stealing goods, wares, or merchan- dizes, of the value of 5s. in any shop, warehouse, coach- house, or stable, though it is not broken open, and though no person is therein to be put in fear, and shall prosecute him to conviction* shall have a certificate without fee, nnder the hand of the judge, ceriifv ing surb conviction, and within what parish or place the felony w as committed, and also that such felon was discovered and taken, or discovered or taken, by the person so dis- covering or apprehending; and if any dispute arise be- tween several persons so discovering or apprehending, the judge shall appoint the certificate into so many shares, to be divided among the peisons concerned, as to him shall seem just and reasonable. Leache's Cro. Law, 307. See Burglary. LARK. See Alacda. LARKSPUU. See Delphinium. LARVA, in natural history, a name given by Linn.?us to insects in that state, called by other writers eruca, or caterpillar. < LARCS, the gull, a genus in the order of anseres, the characters of which are: the bill is straight, cultratrd, a little crooked at the point, and without teeth; the inferi- or mandible is gibbous below the apex: the nostrils are linear, a little broader before, and situated in the middle ofthe beak. The different species are principally distin- guished by their colour. The most remarkable are, l.The marinus, or black-backed gull, in length 29 inches, in breadth five feet nine. ThVbill is very strong ancl tliick, and almost four inches long; the colour a pale yellow; the head, neck, whole under-side, tail, and low- er part of the back, are white; the upper part of the back and wings are black; the quill-feathers tipt with white; the legs of a pale flesh-colour. It inhabits several parts of England, and breeds on the highest cliffs. The egg is blunt at each end, of a dusky olive-colour, quite black at the greater end, and the rest of it thinly marked with dusky spots. It is also common on most of the northern coasts of Europe. It frequents Greenland, but chiefly in- habits the distant rocks. It lays three eggs in May, placing them on the heaps of dung which the birds leave there from time to time. It is said to attack other birds, and to be particularly an enemy to the eider duck. It very greedily devours carrion, though its most general food is fish. It is common also in America, as low as South Carolina, where it is called the old-wife. 2. The cataractcs, or Skua glill, is in length two feet; the extent four feet and a half; the weight three pounds; the feathers on the head, neck, back, scapulars, and co, verts of the wings, are of a deep brown, marked with rust-colour (brightest in the male). The breast, belly, and vent are ferruginous, tinged with ash-colour. This bird inhabits Norway, the Ferroe isles, Shetland, and the noted rock Foula a little west of them. It is also a na- tive of the South Sea. It is the most formidable of the gulls; its prey being not only fish, but what is wonder- ful in a web-footed bird, all the lesser sort of water-fowl, such as teal, &c. Mr. Schroter, a surgeon in the Ferroe isles, relates that it likewise preys on ducks, poultry, and even young lambs. The natives of the Orkneys are often very rudely treated by them while they are attend- ing their sheep on the hills, and are obliged to guard their heads by holding up their sticks, on which the birds often kill themselves. In Foula it is a privileged bird, because it defends the flocks from the eagle,"which it beats and pursues with great fury; so that even that ra- pacious bird seldom ventures near its quarters. 3. The parasiticus, or dung-hunter, is in length 21 L A R L A T inches: the upper parts ofthe body, wmgs, and tail, are black; the base of the quills white on the inner webs; and the two middle feathers of the tail are near four inches longer than the rest. This is a northern species, and ve- ry common in the Hebrides, where it breeds on heath. It comes in May, and retires in August; and if disturb- ed flies about like the lapwing, but soon alights. It is al- so found in the Orkneys; and on the coasts of Yorkshire, where it is called the feaser. This bird does not often swim* and flies generally in a slow manner, except in pursuit of other birds, which it often attacks, in order to make them disgorge the fish or other food which this com- mon plunderer greedily catches up. 4. The canus, or common gull, is in length 16 or 17 inches; in breadth 36; weight one pound. The bill is yel- low; the head, neck, under parts of the body and tail are white; the back and wings pale-grey. It is a tame spe- cies, and may be seen by hundreds on the shores of the Thames and other rivers, in the winter and spring, at low tides, picking up the various worms and small fish left by the tides; and will often follow the plough in the fields contiguous, for the sake of worms and insects which are turned up; particularly the cockchafer or dor- beetle in its larva state, which it joins with the rooks in devouring most greedily. 5. The tridactylus, or tarrock, is in length 14 inches, breadth 36; weight seven ounces. The head, neck, and under parts, are white; near each ear, and under the throat, there is a black spot; and at the hind part of the neck a crescent of black; the back and scapulars are blueish-grey; the wing-coverts dusky edged with grey, some ©f the larger wholly grey. This species breeds in Scotland, and inhabits other parts of northern Europe, quite to Iceland and Spitzbergen. It is observed fre- quently to attend the whales and seals, for the sake of the fish which the last drive before them into the shallows, when these birds dart into the water suddenly, and make thein their prey. 6. The ridibundus, peewit, or black-head gull, is in length 15 inches, breadth three feet; weight ten ounces; the back and wings are of an ash-colour; the neck, all the under parts, and tail, are white; the first ten quills are white, margined, and more or less tipped with black;the Others of an ash-colour. This species breeds on the shores of some of our rivers; but full as often in the in- land fens of Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, and other parts of Englarid. They make their nest on the ground, with rushes, dead grass, kc. and lay three eggs of a greenish brown, marked with red-brown blotches. After the breeding season, they again disperse to the sea-coasts. The young birds in the neighbourhood of the Thames are thought good eating, and are called the red legs. They were formerly more esteemed, and numbers were annually taken and fattened for the table. Whitelock, in bis annals, mentions a piece of ground near Portsmouth, which produced to the owner 40/. a year by the sale of peewits, or this species of gull. These are the seagulls that in old times were admitted to the noblemen's tables. Tbe note of these gulls is like a hoarse laugh. 7. The atricilla, or laughing gull, is in length 18 in- ches, breadth three feet. It is found in Russia on the river Don, particularly about Tschercask. The note re- sembles a coarse laugh, whence the name of the bird. It is met with also in different parts .»i the eoniiueiit o: America, and is very numerous in the Bahama islands. There arc 14 or 15 other species of this genus. Sc^- Plate LXXVII. Xat. Hist. fig. 242. LARYNX. See Anatomy. LASH, or Lace, in the sea language, signifies to bind and make fast. LASERPITIUM, lazar-wort, a genus of the digynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and iu the natu- ral method ranking under the 45th order, umbellate. The fruit is oblong, with eight membranaceous angles; the petals inflexed, emarginatcd, and patent. There are 15 species, none of which are at all remarkable for their beauty, so are only preserved in botanic gardens for the sake of variety. LASIOSTOMA, a genus ofthe class and order tetran- dria monogynia: the calyx is very short, five-petalled; corolla funnel-form, four-cleft; caps, orbiculate, one- celled, two-seeded. There is one species, a shrub of Gui- ana. LASKETS, small lines, like loops, sewed to the bon- nets and drablers ofasbip, to lash or lace the bonnets to the courses, or the drablers to the bonnets. LASK ING, at sea, is much the same w ith going large, or veering; that is, going with a quarterly wind. LAST, in general, signifies the burden or load of a ship. It signifies also a certain measure of fish, corn, wool, leather, kc. A last of codfish, white herrings, meal, and ashes for soap, is 12 barrels; of corn or rape- seed 10 quarters; of gunpowder 24 barrels; of red-her- rings 20 cades; of hides 12 dozen; of leather 20 dickers; of pitch and tar 14 barrels; of wool 1-2 sacks; of stock- fish 1000; of flax or feathers 1700 pounds. LATH, in building, a long, thin, and narrow slip of wood, nailed to the rafters of a roof or ceiling, in order to sustain the covering. These are distinguished into three kinds, according to the different kinds of wood of which they are made, viz. heart of oak, sap-laths, and deal- laths; of which the last two are used for ceilings and par- titions, and the first for tiling only. Laths are also dis- tinguished according to their length, into five-feet, four- feet, and three-feet laths, though the statute allows but of two lengths, those of five and those of three feet, each of which ought to be an inch and a half in breadth, and half an inch in thickness, but they are commonly less. LATHE, a very useful engine for turning of wood, ivory, metals, and other materials. The invention ofthe lathe is very ancient; Diodorus Siculus says, the first who used it was a grandson of Daedalus, named Talus. Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, and mentions one Thericles, who rendered himself very famous by his dex- terity in managing the lathe. With this instrument the ancients turned all kinds of vases, many whereof they enriched with figures and ornaments in basso relievo. Thus Virgil: <• Lenta qiiihus toruo faciii superadditavi- tis." The Greek and Latin authors make frequent men- tion of the lathe; and Cicero calls the workmen who uses it vase ulurii. It was a proverb among the am outs, to say a thing was formed in the lathe, to express its deli- cacy and justness. The lathe is competed of two wooden cheeks or sides, parallel to the horizon. h;!vi> .; u groove or opening be- tween; perpendicular to Uase are two other pieces call- -* LATHE. puppets, made to slide between the checks, and to be fixed down at any point at pleasure. These have two points, between which the piece to be turned is sustained; the piece is turned round, backwards and forwards, by means of a string put round it, and fastened above to the end of a pliable pole, and underneath to a treadle or board moved with the foot. There is also a rest which bears up the tool, and keeps it steady. The most simple kind of lathe is too well known to require a more ample description. We shall therefore give a figure of an improved lathe manufactured by Mr. Maudslay of Margaret-street. A (PI. LXXVIII. Misc. fig. 138.) is the great wheel, with four grooves on the rim: it is worked by a crank B and treadle C, in the common way; the catgut which goes round this wheel passes also round a smaller wheel D, called the mandrel, whicli has four grooves on its circumference of different diameters for giving it different velocities, correspond- ing with the four grooves on the great wheel A. In order to make the same band suit when applied to all the different grooves on the mandrel D, the wheel A can he elevated or depressed by a screw a, and another at the other end of the axle; and the connecting rod C can be lengthened or shortened by screwing the hooks at each end of it further out of, or into it. The end M, fig. 139. of the spin- dle ofthe mandrel D, is pointed, and works in a hole in the end of a screw, put through the standard E, fig. 138.; the other end ofthe bearing F, fig. 139. is conical, and works in a conical socket in the standard, so that by tightening up the screw in E, the conical end F may at any time be made to fit its socket: the puppet G has a cylindric hole through its top to receive the polished pointed rod d, which is moved by the screw e, and fixed by the screw/; the whole puppet is fixed on the triangu- lar prismatic bar H, by a clamp fig. 143, the two ends of which, a, b, are put througli holes b, in the bottom of the puppet under the bar, ancl the whole is fixed by the screw c pressing against it; by this means the puppet can be taken off the bar without first taking off the standard 1, as in the common lathes; and the triangular bar is found to be far preferable to the double rectangular one in common use. The rest J is a similar contrivance: it is in 3 pieces; see figs. 140, 141,142. Fig. 141 is a piece, the opening (a, b, c) in which is laid upon the bar H, fig. 138.; the four legs d d d d of fig. 142. are then put up under the bar (into the recesses in fig. 141. which are made to receive them), so that the notches in d ddd may be level with the top of fig. 141.: the two beads e / in lig. 140. arc then slid into the notches in the toupfdddd, to keep the whole together; the groove i is to receive a corresponding piece on e /, fig. 140., to steady it; the whole of fig. 140. has a metallic cover, to keep the chips out of the grooves. It is plain* that by tightening the screw h in the bottom of figs. 138. ancl 142., the whole will be fixed ancl prevented from sliding along the bar II, and fig. 140. from sliding in a direction perpendicu- lar to the bar; the piece I, on which the tool is laid, can be raised or lowered at pleasure, and fixed by the screw m. On the end n of the spindle P, fi.^s. 138. and 139., is screwed occasionally an universal chuck for hold- ing any kind cf work which is to be turned (fig. 144.). A is the female screw to receive the screw n, fig. 138.; Near the bottom of the screw A is another BB, which is prevented from moving endways by a collar in the middle of it fixed to the screw A.: one end of the screw BB is cut right-handed, and the other left-handed, so that by turning tbe screw one way, the two nuts EF will recede from each other, or by turning it the con- trary way, they will advance towards each other; the two nuts EF pass through an opening in the plate C, and project beyond the same, carrying jaws like those of a vice, by which the subject to be turned is held. The large lathes which Mr. Maudslay uses in his ma- nufactory, instead of being worked by the foot, as re- presented in fig. 13 8., are worked by hand; the wheel ancl fly-wheel which the men turn work by a strap on another wheel, fixed to the ceiling directly over it; on the axis of this wheel is a larger one, which turns ano- ther small wheel or pulley, fixed to the ceiling, directly over the mandrel ofthe lathe; and this last has on its axis a larger one which works the mandrel D, by a band of catgut. These latter wheels are fixed in a frame of cast iron, moveable on a joint; and this frame has always a strong tendency to rise up, in consequence of the action of a heavy weight; the rope from which, after passing over a pulley, is fastened to the frame. This weight not only operates to keep the mandrill-band tight, when ap- plied to any of the grooves therein, but always makes the strap between the two wheels on the ceiling fit. As it is necessary that the workman should be able to stop his lathe, without the men stopping who are turning the great wheel, there are two pulleys, or rollers, (on the axis of the wheel over the lathe) for the strap coming from the other wheel, on the.ceiling; one of these pulleys, called the dead pulley, is fixed to the axis, and turns with it; and the other which slips round it, is called the live pulley: these pulleys are put close to each other, so that by slipping the strap upon the live pulley, it will not turn the axis; but if it is slipped on the other, it will turn with it: this is effected by an horizontal bar, with two upright pins in it, between which the strap passes. This bar is moved in such a direction as will throw the strap upon the live pulley, by means of a strong bell- spring; and in a contrary direction it is moved by a cord fastened to it, which passes over a pulley, and hangs down within reach ofthe workman's hand: to this cord is fastened a weight, heavy enough to counteract the be}l-spring, and bring the strap up to the dead pulley, to turn the lathe; but when the weight is laid upon a little shelf, prepared for the purpose, the sprifig will act and stop it. The following is a description of Mr. Smart's newly invented lathe for turning cylinders of wood for the pur- pose of tent-poles, pickets, handles for tools, kc &.c.the operations of which are so readily performed, that from octagonal bars of yellow deal, 5£ feet long (previously prepared by means of a circular saw) one man, besides two labourers to turn the wheel, will turn out 600 perfectly cylindrical poles, in the space of 12 hours. AA, fig. 6., (Plate Smart's lathe) represents the standards for sup- porting the great wheel, that gives motion to the lathe; these are supported by pieces of board BB spiked to the ceiling or joists above, .and by others CC fixed to the floor of the workshop. The great wheel DD is grooved round the edge for receiving the endless screw B and E, and is put in motion by the winch-handle F F. G and LAT L A V H are the standards of the lathe, firmly fixed to the floor, and carrying the side-pieces or bed I I; the stand- ard G is tall enough to act as a fixed puppet, and has a screw a working through it, for supporting the end of the mandrel or spindle of this lathe, as in the common lathe. K, L, and M, are three other puppets that can be fixed iu any place desired, by wedges beneath the bed as usual. To the puppet K is screwed a thick iron plate b, which has a conical socket, nicely turned and polished, for re- ceiving the mandrel: this puppet is further steadied by a brace N, screw ed to it, and to tbe floor of the shop. To the puppet K and L two bars oo are fixed by screws, and the same are further supported and steadied by three short puppets P P P. The mandrel, and its pulley Q, are nearly of the common construction, except that the end c has a steel point in its centre, and two shorter points for preventing the octagonal piece of wood intend- ed to be turned from slipping or turning without the mandrel. The puppet L has a square-pointed bar d fitted to it; and the puppet M has a screw, worked by its han- dle e, which by means of a collar advances or draws back the bar d. R is a piece of wood, fixed to the bed and to the floor, for the purpose of carrying a pulley/, whose use is to prevent the wheel-band EE from wear- ing by friction at the place where it crosses. Figs. 7. and 8. re present the gouge and plane, successively used in- stead of the common turner's chisel, kc: the pieces of board aa are screwed to the block b, just at the pioper distance of the outsides of the bars oo, fig. 1., so that when the tools, figs. 7. and 8. are placed on them, they can be slid along steadily, between the puppets K and L.; the holes cc being so adapted as to suit the mandrel ancl bar c and d as centres, and their diameters are suffi- cient to let the octagonal bar intended to be turned to pass through them, without touching; d, fig. 7., is apiece of tempered steel, formed as a gouge, and screwed fast to the side of the block, in the proper position fen-rough- ing off the angles ofthe octagonal bar, as it advances, and turns through the hole c. c fig. 7., is a flat piece of steel, like a plane-iron (shown separately at/), which is so fixed by a screw, that it may smooth or complete the cylindrical surface of a pole, already gouged as above, which is advanced, and turned through it. The opera- tion is thus performed: The two tools fig. 7 and 8, arc placed on the bar oo, fig. 6, and shoved close up to the puppet I; the square bar being long enough for its point (/, then to project through the centres of the holes cc, figs. 7 and 8. The workman then takes an octagonal pole, enters the centre pin of the mandrel c into the cen- tre of its end. and the point d into thecentre ofthe other end, turning the handle e sufficiently to allow the pole tei be steadily turned: the wheel D is then set in motion; the workman pushes the gouge-toed, fig. 8., forwards, towards the puppet K,, which, as it advances quickly, 6trikes oil' the angles of the pole in a rough or screw- like form. When the gouge-tool, fig, 8, bass advanced to the end of the pole, the finishing-tool, fig. 7., is iu like manner shoved forwards by the workman; and as it ad- vances, the pole is turned into a complete and smooth cylinder. The projection of the mandrel 6c. fig. 6, is suffi- cient to admit the gouge and plane toeds, to advance so as to clear the end of the pole; and by turning back the handle c, the same can be taken out of the lathe as soon as it is stopped. The velocity of the mandrel Q is u < as to make upwards of 1200 turns per minute. LATHRjEA, a genus of the angicspennia order, in the didynamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, pcrsonatse. The calyx is quadrifid; there is a depressed glai; lulc at the base of the suture of the germen. The capsule is unilocular. There are four species. LATHS, cleaving of. The lath-cleavers having cut their timbers into lengths, cleave each piece with wedges into 8, 12, or 16, according to the size of their timber; these pieces are called bolts: this is done by the felt grain, which is that grain which is seen to run round in rings at the end of a piece of a tree. Thus they are cut out for the breadth of the laths, and this work is called felting. Afterwards they cleave the laths into their pro- per thickness with their chit, by the quarter-grain, which is that which runs in straight lines towards the pith. LATHYRUS, chickling vetepo, a genus of the decan- dria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 52d order, papiliona- cea. The stylus is plain, villous above, towards the end broader; the upper two segments of the calyx are shorter than the rest. The species are 23, among which are: 1. The latifo- lius, or everlasting pea. 2. The odorata, or sweet-scent- ed pea. S. The tangitenus, or Tangier-pea, also an an- nual, and well known. LATITAT, a writ whereby all men in personal ac- tions are called originally to the king's bench. F. N. B. 78. A latitat may be considered eitlier as the commence- ment of the action, or only as a process to bring the de- fendant into court, at the election of the plaintiff. Bui. N. P. 151. If it is stated as the commencement of the action to avoid a tender, the defendant may deny that the plaintiff had any cause of action at the time of suing it out. 1 WTils. 14 1. Or if it is replied to a plea of the statute of limitations, the defendant, in order to maintain his plea, may aver the real time of suing it out, in opposition to the test. 2 Burr. 950. See Impev's B. R. and C. B. Practice. LATITl DE. See Geography. Latitide. See Astronomy. LATTEN denotes iron plates tinned over, of which tea-canisters are made. % Latten-brass, plates of milled brass, reduced to dif- ferent thickness, accordingto the uses it is intended for. LATUS RECTUM, in conic sections, the same with parameter. See Coxic Sections. Latts transversim, in the hyperbola, that part of the transverse diameter, intercepted between the vertices of the two opposite sections. LAVANDULA, lavender: a genus of the angiesper- mia order, in the didynamia < la-s of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 42d order, verticillata*. The calyx is ovale, and liitle clentaied, supported by a bractea or floral leaf; the corolla is lvsupinated; the sta- mina within the tube-. The species are sewn in number, among which are; 1. The spira, or spike lavender, has a .-lu rt shrubby stalk. The varieties of tins are: common narrow-leaved laven- L A U L A U der, with blue flowers, and with white flowers; broad- leaved lavender; dwarf lavender: all of them flowering in July. This species is the common lavender; but the narrow-leaved variety, with blue flowers, is the sort commonly cultivated for its flowers for medicine. 2. The stadias, or French lavender, has a shrubby very branchy stalk, rising two or three feet high; very narrow, spear- shaped, pointed, hoary leaves^ opposite; and all the branches terminated by short bushy spikes of purple flowers in June and July, succeeded by seeds in August. There is a variety with white flowers. 3. The dentata, or dentate-leaved stcEchas, has a woody stalk, branching on every side three or four feet high; leaves deeply in- dented in a pinnated manner; and the branches termi- nated by scaly four-cornered spikes of flowers, appearing most part of summer. The first two species are proper for the kitchen-gar- den, and for medicinal and other family uses, and to plant in the pleasure-ground to adorn the front of small shrubbery compartments, where they will increase the variety very agreeably; and are finely scented aromatics, both when growing, and their flowers when gathered; especially those of the first species, which are in great esteem for putting among clothes, and for distilling, and other economical uses. The flowers of the first sort are gathered for use in July. LAVATERA, a genus ofthe polyandria order, inthe polydelphia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 37th order, columniferae. The exte- rior calyx is double and trifid; the arilli or seed-coats are very many and monospermous. There are 9 species, most of them herbaceous flowery annuals, or shrubby perennials, growing erect from two or three to eight or ten feet high. They are easily propagated by seed in the open ground in the spring, and thrive best when sown where they are designed to remain. LAUDANUM. See Pharmacy. LAUGERIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking among those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is quinquefid; the fruit is a plum with a quinquelocular kernel. There are two species, shrubs ofthe West Indies. LAUNCH, inthe sea-language, signifies to put out: as, launch the ship, that is, put her out of the dock; launch aft, or forward, speaking of things that are stow- ed in the hold, is, put them more forward; launch, ho! is a term used when a yard is hoisted high enough, and signifies hoist no more. LAUNDER, among miners, a place where they wash ihe powdered ore. LAUREATION, in the universities of Scotland, sig- nifies the act of taking the degree of master of arts, which the students are permitted to do after four years study. LAURUS, the bay-tree, a genus of the monogynia order, in the enncandria class of plants, and in the natu- ral method ranking under the 12th order, holoracese. There is no calyx; the corolla is calycine, or serving in place of the calyx, and scxpartite: the nectarium with three glandules, each terminated by two bristles sur- rounding the germen. The interior filaments furnished ivith glandules at the base; the fruit a monospcrmous plum. There are 32 species, of which the most noted arc: 1. The nobilis, or evergreen bay-tree, a native of Italy, and has an upright trunk branching on every side from the bottom upward, with spear-shaped, nervous, stiff, evergreen leaves, three inches long, and two broad; and small, yellowish, quadrifid, dioecious flowers, succeeded by red berries in autumn and winter. Of this species there are varieties, with broad, narrow, striped, or waved leaves. 2. The aestivalis, or deciduous bay, grows natu- rally in North America. It rises with an upright stem, covered with a purplish bark, having oblong, oval, acu- minated, veined, deciduous leaves, two or three inches long, and half as broad, growing opposite, with small white flowers succeeded by red berries. 3. The benzoin, or benjamin tree, is also a native of North America; grows 15 or 20 feet high, divided into a very branchy head, with oval, acute, deciduous leaves, three or four inches long, and half as broad; ancl small yellowish flowers, not succeeded by berries in England. This, it is to be remarked, is not the tree which bears the gum benzoin, that being a species of hyrax. 4. The sassafras is a native of the same country. It has a shrub-like straight stem, with both oval and three-lobed, shining, deciduous leaves, of different sizes, from three to 6 inches long, and nearly as broad, with small yellowish flowers succeeded by blackish berries, but not in England. 5. The indica, or Indian bay-tree, rises with an upright straight trunk, branching regularly 20 or 30 feet high, adorned with very large, spear-shaped, plane, nervous, evergreen leaves on reddish footstalks; and bunches of small whitish-green flowers, succeeded by large oval black berries, wnich do not ripen in England. 6. The barbonia, or Carolina red bay-tree, rises with an upright straight stem, branching 15 or 20 feet high; with large, spear-shaped, evergreen leaves, transversely vein- ed; and long bunches of flowers on red footstalks, suc- ceeded by large blue berries sitting in red cups. 7. The camphora,or camphor-tree, grows naturally in the woods of the western parts of Japan, and in the adjacent islands. See PI. LXXV1I. Nat. Hist. fig. 244. The root smells stronger of camphor than any of the other parts, and yields it in greater plenty. The bark of the stalk is out- wardly somewhat rough; but in the inner surface smooth and mucous, and therefore easily separated from the wood, which is dry, and of a white colour. The flowers are produced on the tops of footstalks, which proceed from the armpits ofthe leaves; but not till the tree has attain- ed considerable age and size. The flower-stalks arc slender, branched at the top, and divided into very short pedicles, each supporting a single flower. These flowers are white, and consist of six petals, which are succeeded by a purple and shining berry of the size of a pea, and in figure somewhat top-shaped. It is composed of a soft pulpy substance, that is purple, and has the taste of cloves and camphor; and of a nucleus or kernel of the size of a pepper, which is covered with a black, shining, oily cor- ticle, of an insipid taste. 8. The cinnamomum, or cin- namon-tree, is a native of Ceylon. It has a large root, and divides into several branches, covered with a bark, which on the outer side is of a greyish brown, and on the inside has a reddish cast. The Wood of the root is hard, white, ancl has no smell. The body of the tree, which grows to the height of 20 or 30 feet, is covered, as well as its numerous branches, with a bark which at first LAW L A W is green and afterwards red. The leaf is longer and narrower than the common bay-tree; and it is three-nerv- ed, the nerves vanishing towards the top. When first unfolded, it is of a flame-colour; but after it has been for some time exposed to the air, and grows dry, it changes to a deep green on the upper surface, and to a lighter on the lower. The flowers are small and white, and grow in large bunches at the extremity of the branches: they have an agreeable smell, something like that of the lily of the valley. The fruit is shaped like an acorn, but is not so large. 9. The cassia, or base cinnamon, has lan- ceolated leaves, triple-nerveo". 10. The persea, avocado- pear tree, or alligator pear, rises to a considerable height, with a straight trunk, of which the bark and wood are of a greyish colour. The leaves are long, oval, pointed, of a substance like leather, and of a beautiful green co- lour. The flowers are produced in large knots or clusters. at the extremities of the branches, and consist each of six petals disposed in the form of a star, and of a dirty- white or yellow colour, with an agreeable odour, which diffuses itself to a considerable distance. It is a native of the West Indies. The persea begins to bear two years and a half, or at most three years, after being planted; and like most of the trees in warm climates, bears twice a year. LAVENIA, a genus of theclass and order syngenesia polygamia sequalis. The calyx is nearly regular; style bifid; down three-awned; recept. naked. There are two species, herbs of the East and'West Indies. LAW. Laws of England arc divided into lex non scripta, or the common law; and lex scripta, or statute law. The lex non scripta is not so called from its being con- veyed down from former ages by word of mouth, but be- cause the original authority of these laws is not set down in writing, and they receive their force by long usage, and by their universal reception throughout the kingdom; and it is curious to observe, that these rude maxims of our ancestors, of which no person knows clearly the origin, exceed in clearness, brevity, and authority, all that the united wisdom of the most enlightened men have produced in later ages. The common law is divided into: 1st. General custom, which is the universal rule of the whole kingdom, and is the law by which proceedings and determinations in the courts of justice are ordinarily directed. This for the most part settles the course of in- heritance, the manner and form of acquiring and trans- ferring property, the solemnities and obligations of con- tracts, the rules of expounding wills, deeds, and acts of parliament; the remedies of civil injuries, the different kinds of offences with the punishments allotted to each; the institution of four superior courts of record; and many other particulars which diffuse themselves as exten- sively as the distribution of common justice requires, all of which are not enacted by any particular statutes (though they are acknowledged by all) but depend en- tirely upon the common law. 2dly. Particular customs which concern the inhabitants of some particular district. 3dly. The third branch arc those laws which are adopted by certain courts and jurisdictions, as the civil and canon laws. yol. ii. C6 The civil law is understood to signify the civil law of the Roman empire. The canon law is a body of Roman ecclesiastical law relating to matters over which the church exercises a jurisdiction. The civil law is used in four courts under certain restrictions, viz. the archbi- shops' and bishops' courts, usually styled curiae chris- tianitatis; the courts martial, the courts of admirality, and the courts of the two universities. The second division of the laws of England are the statutes made by the king, lords, and commons, assem- bled in parliament. The oldest statute extant is the ce- lebrated Magnr Charta, 9 Hen. 3; though, doubtless, the records of many antecedent to that have been lost, and the maxims received as common law. Statutes arc general or special, public or private: general or public acts are those which concern the whole nation; of these the judges are obliged to take notice, though they should not be formally pleaded by the party who claims an advantage under them. Special or private acts are such as operate on private persons and concerns, which must be formally set forth by the party, or the judges are not obliged to notice them. Statutes are cither declaratory of the common law, where it is become disreputable, or fallen into disuse; or remedial, when made to supply the defects, or abridge the superfluities of the common law. These latter are subdi- vided into enlarging and restraining statutes, by enlarg- ing the common law where it was too circumscribed, and restraining it where it was too luxuriant. There is besides those grounds of the laws of England, a court of equity to moder^e and explain them. (See Equity.) The courts of equity are, however, only had recourse to in matters of property; for their constitution will not permit, that in criminal cases any judge should have the power of construing the law otherwise than ac- cording to the letter. This caution, while it protects the public liberty, can nevei* oppress the individual. A man cannot suffer more punishment than the law directs, but he may suffer less. The laws cannot be strained to in- flict a penalty beyond what the letter warrants, but in cases where the letter induces any apparent hardship, the crown has power to pardon. In treating of the laws, the best mode, and which has been adopted by sir William Blackstone in his excellent Commentaries, after the example of Wood in his Insti- tutes, is to divide them, 1st, into the rights of persons, en- tile rights as to personal security, personal liberty, and private property. 2nd, The rights of things, or the rights which a man may acquire in and to such external things as are unconnected with his person. 3rd. Private wrongs, or such as are the infringement of the private rights of individuals: ancl 4th. public wrongs, or such as are a violation of the public rights, and affect the whole community. It is of course unnecessary, and perhaps in a work of this nature irrelevant, to recommend the study of the law- it is sufficient to add the words of the great judge lila< k- stone on this subject. "It is incumbent (says he) upon every man to be acquainted with the laws, list he incur the censure as well as the inconvenience of living in so- ciety without knowing the obligations it lay shim under.'' LAWSOMA, Egyptian privet, a genus of the mono- gynia order, in the octandria class of plants, and iu the L A Z LEA natural method ranking with those of which tiie order is doubtful. The calyx is quadrifid; the petals four; the sta- mina four, in pairs; the capsule is quadriloc ular and po- lyspermous. There are four species, all natives of India. Some authors take the inermis to be the plant termed by the Arabians henna or alhenna, the pulverised leaves of whie h are much used by the Eastern nations for dyeing their nails yellow; but others, Dr. Hasselquist in parti- cular, attribute that effect to the leaves of the other spe- cies of Egyptian privet which bears prickly branches. It is probable that neither set of writers are mistaken, and that the shrub in question is a variety only of the thorny lawsonia, rendered mild by culture. LAY-BROTHERS, among the Romanists, those pi- ous, but illiterate persons, who devote themselves, in some convent, to the service of the religious. They wear a different habit from that of the religious, but never en- ter into the choir, nor are present at the chapters; nor do they make any other vow, except of constancy and obedience. In nunneries there are also lay-sisters. Lay-man, among painters, a small statue cither of wax or wood, whose joints are so formed, that it may be put into any attitude or posture. Its principal use is for adjusting the drapery in clothing of figures. LAYERS, in gardening, are tender shoots or twigs of trees, laid or buried in the ground, till, having struck root, they arc separated from the parent tree, and be- come distinct plants. The propagating trees by layers is done in the following manner: the branches of the trees are to be slit a little way, and laid under the mould for about half a foot: the groutfcl should be first made very light, and after they are laid they should be gently wa- tered. If they will not remain easily in the position they are put in, they must be pegged down with wooden books: the best season for doing this is, for evergreens, toward the end of August, and for other trees in the be- ginning of Feb. If they are found to have taken root, they are to be cut off from the main plant the succeed- ing winter, and planted out. If the branch is too high from the ground, a tub of earth is to be raised to a pro- per height for it. Some pare off the rind, and others twist the branch before they lay it: but this is not neces- sary. The end of the layer should be about a foot out of tiie ground; and the branch may be either tied tight round with a wire, or cut upwards from a joint, or cut round for an inch or two at the place, and it is a good method to pierce several holes through it with an awl above the part tied with the wire. LAZAR-HOUSE, or Lazaretto, a public building, in the nature of an hospital, to receive the poor and those afflicted with contagious distempers: in some places la- zarettos are appointed for the performance of quaran- tine; in which case, those are obliged to be confined in them who are suspected to have come from places in- fected with the plague. This is usually a large building, at some distance from a city, whose apartments stand detached from each other, where vessels are unladen, and the crew shut up for about 40 days, more or less, according to the time and place of their departure. The lazaretto of Milan is esteemed one of the finest hospitals in Italy. . L.AZULITE. This stone, which is found chiefly in 2 the northern parts of Asia, was long known to mineral- ogists by the name of lapis lazuli. Lazulite is always amorphous. Its texture is earthy. Its fracture uneven. Lustre 0. Opaque, or nearly so. Hardness 8 to 9. Specific gravity 2.76 to 2.945. Colour blue; often spotted white from specks of quartz, and yel- low from particles of pyrites. It retains its colour at 100° Wcdgewood; in a higher heat it intumesces, and melts into a yellowish-black mass. With acids it effervesces a little, and if previously cal- cincd, forms with them a jelly. Margraff published an analysis of lazulite in the Ber- lin Memoirs for 1758. His analysis has since been con- firmed by Klaproth, who found a specimen of it to con- tain 46.0 silica 14.5 alumina 28.0 carbonat of lime 6.5 sulphat of lime 3.0 oxide of iron 2.0 water loo.O From the experiments of Morveau, it appears that the colouring matter of lazulite is sulphuret of iron. LEAD, one of the perfect metals, appears to have been very early known. It is mentioned several times by Moses. The ancients seem to have considered it as nearly related to tin. It is of a blueish-white colour; and when newly melted is very bright, but it soon be- comes tarnished by exposure to the air. It has scarcely any taste, but emits on friction a peculiar smell. It stains paper or the fingers a blueish colour. When taken in- ternally, it acts as a poison. Its hardness is 5|; its spe- cific gravity is 11.3523. Its specific gravity is not in- creased by hammering, neither does it become harder, as is the case with the other metals; a proof that the hardness which metals assume under the hammer is in consequence of an increase of density. It is very mal- leable, and may be reduced to very thin plates by the hammer; it may be also drawn out into wire, but its duc- tility is not great. Its tenacity is such, that a lead wire only T|T inch diameter is capable of supporting 18 pounds without breaking. It melts, according to sir Isaac Newton, when heated to the temperature of 540° Fahrenheit: but Morveau makes its fusing point as high as 594°. When a very strong heat is applied, the metal boils and evaporates. If it is cooled slowly, it crystal- lizes. The abbe Mongez obtained it in quadrangular pyramids, lying on one of their sides. Each pyramid was composed apparently of three layers. Pajot obtain- ed it in the form of a polyhedron with 32 sides, formed by the concourse of six quadrangular pyramids. When exposed to the air, it soon loses its lustre, and acquires first a dirty-grey colour, and at last its surface bec nines almost white. This is owing to its gradual com- bination with oxygen, and conversion into an oxide; but this conversion is exceedingly slow; the external crust of oxide, which forms first, preserving the rest ofthe metal for a long time from tbe action of the air. Water has no direct action upon lead; but it facilitates the action of the external air. For when lead is exposed to the air, and kept constantly wet, it is oxidated much more rapidly than it otherwise would be. Hence thcrea- LEAD. son of the white crust which appears upon the sides of the leaden vessels containing water, just at the place where the upper surface of the water usually terminates. No less than four different combinations of lead with oxygen are at present known, though some of them have not been examined with much attention. 1. The protoxide, or first oxide of lead, may be ob- tained by dissolving lead in nitric acid, and boiling the crystals which that solution yields by concentration along with pieces of metallic lead. The consequence is the formation of scaly crystals of afyellow colour, bril- liant, and very soluble in water. These crystals are com- posed of the protoxide of lead combined with nitric acid. The protoxide may be precipitated by means of potass. Its properties have not hitherto been examined. It con- tains but a small proportion of oxy gen. 2. The deutoxide of lead may be formed by dissolving the metal in nitric acid, and pouring potass into the so- lution. A yellow-coloured powder is obtained, which is the deutoxide of lead. This oxide is composed of 91 parts of lead, and 9 of oxygen. When lead is kept melted in an open vessel, its surface is soon covered with a grey-coloured pellicle. When this pellicle is re- moved, another succeeds it; and by continuing the heat, the whole of the lead may soon be converted into this substance. If these pellicles are heated and agitated for a short time in an open vessel, they assume the form of a greenish-grey powder. Mr. Proust has shown that this powder is a mixture of deutoxide, and a portion of lead in the metallic state. It owes its green colour to the blue and yellow powders which are mixed in it. If we continue to expose this powder to heat for some time longer in an open vessel, it absorbs more oxygen, as- sumes a yellow colour, and is then known in commerce by the name of massicot. The reason of this change is obvious. The metallic portion of the powder gradually absorbs oxygen, and the whole of course is converted into deutoxide. When thin plates of lead arc exposed to the vapour of warm vinegar, they are gradually corroded, and con- verted into a heavy white powder, used as a paint, and called white lead. This powder used formerly to be considered as a peculiar oxide of lead; but it is now known that it is a compound of the deutoxide and car- bonic acid. 3. If massicot ground to a fine powder is put into a furnace, and constantly stirred while the flame of the burning coals plays against its surface, it is in about 48 hours converted into a beautiful red powder, known by the name of minium, or red lead. This powder, which is likewise used as a paint, and for various other pur- poses, is the tritoxide or red oxide of lead. 4. If nitric acid, of tbe specific gravity 1.260, is pour- ed upon the red-coloured oxide of lead, 185 parts of the oxide are dissolved; but 45 parts remain in the state of a black, or rather deep-brown, powder. This is the per- oxide, or brown oxide eif lead, first discovered by Scheele. The best method of preparing it is the following, which was pointed out by Proust, and afterwards still farther improved by Vauquelin. Put a quantity of red oxide of lead into a vesse 1 partly filled with water, and make ox- ymuriatic acid gas pass into it. The oxide beco o s deeper and deeper coloured, and is at last dissolved. Pour potass into the solution, and the brown oxide of lead precipitates. By this process 68 parts of brown ox- ide may be obtained for every 100 of red oxide employ- ed. This oxide is composed of about 79 parts of lead and 21 of oxygen. It is of a brilliant flea-brown colour. When heated it emits oxygen gas, becomes yellow, and melts into a kind of glass. When rubbed along with sul- phur in a mortar, it sets the sulphur on fire, and causes it to burn with a brilliant flame. When heated on burn- ing coals the lead is reduced. All the oxides of lead are very easily converted into glass; and in that state they oxidize and combine with almost all the other metals ex- cept gold, platinum, and silver. This property renders lead exceedingly useful in separating gold and silver from the baser metals with which they happen to be con- taminated. The gold or silver to be purified is melted along with lead, and kept for some time in that state in a flat cup, called a cupel, made of burnt bones, or the ashes of wood. The lead is gradually vitrified, and sinks into the cupel, carrying along with it all the metals which were mixed with the silver and gold, and leaving these metals on the cupel in a state of purity. This pro- cess is called cupellation. The lead employed is after- wards extracted from the cupels, and is known, in com- merce by the name of litharge. It is a half-vitrified substance, of a high red colour, and composed of scales. It is merely an oxide of lead more or less contaminated with the oxides of other metals. But the best litharge is made by oxidizing lead directly, and then increasing the heat till the oxide is fused. The more violent the fusing heat, the whiter is the litharge. Lead has not yet been combined with carbon, nor hy- drogen; but it combines readily with sulphur and phos- phorus. 1. Sulphuret of lead may be formed either by strati- fying its two component parts, and melting them in a crucible, or by dropping sulphur at intervals on melted lead. The sulphuret of lead is brittle, brilliant, of a deep blue-grey colour, and much less fusible than lead. These two substances are often found naturally com- bined; the compound is then called galena, and is usually crystallized in cubes. Sulphuret of lead is composed, accordingto the experiment of Wenzel, of 86.8 parts of lead and 13.2 of sulphur. 2. Fhosphuret of lead may be formed bv mixing to- gether equal parts of filings of lead and phosphoric glass, and then fusing them in a crucible. It may be cut with a knife, but separates into plates when hammered. It is of a silver-white colour with a shade of blue, but it soon tarnishes when exposed to the air. This phosphu- rct may also be formed by dropping phosphorus into melted lead. It is composed of about 12 parts of phos- phorus, ancl 88 of lead. Lead does not cmbine with azotic gas. Muriatic acid gradually corrodes it, and converts it into a white-co- loured oxide. Lead is capable of combining with most of the metals. 1. Lead may be easily alloyed with gold bv fusion! The colour ofthe gold is injured, and its durtiiitv dimi- nished. This alloy is of no use; but it is often formed iu order to purify gold by cupellation. 2. Platinum and lead unite in a strong heat: the allow is brittle, of a purplish colour, and soon changes oi> ex- LEA L & A posure to the air. Many experiments have been made with this alloy, in order, if possible, to purify platinum from other metals by cupellation, as is done successfully with silver and gold: but scarcely any of the experiments have succeeded; because platinum requires a much more violent heat to keep it in fusion than can be easily given. 3. Silver is often alloyed with lead in order to purify it by cupellation. This alloy is very fusible, much softer than silver, and has much less tenacity, elasticity, and sonorousness; its colour is nearly that of lead, and its specific gravity greater than the mean density of the me- tals alloyed. 4. Mereury amalgamates readily with lead in any proportion, either by triturating it with lead filings, or by pouring it upon melted lead. The amalgam is white and brilliant, and when the quantity of lead is sufficient, assumes a solid form. It is capable of crystallizing. The crystals arc composed of one part of lead and one and a half of mercury. 5. Copper and lead may be easily combined by fusion. When the lead exceeds, the alloy is of a grey colour, and ductile while cold, but brittle when hot. It is employed sometimes for the purpose of making printer's types for very large characters. ,6. It was formerly supposed that lead does not combine with iron; but the experiments of Guyton .Morveau have proved, that when the two metals are melted together, two distinct alloys are formed. At the botto'm is found a button of lead containing a little iron; above is the iron combined with a small portion of lead. 7. Lead and tin may be combined in any proportion by fusion. This alloy is harder, and possesses much more tenacity, than tin. Muschenhrocck informs us that these qualities are a maximum when the alloy is com- posed ofthrce parts of tin and one of lead. What is called in this country ley pewter is often scarcely any thing else than this alloy. Tin foil too almost always is a com- pound of tin and lead. This alloy, in the proportion of two parts of lead and one of tin, is more soluble than either of the metals separately. It is accordingly used by plumbers as a solder. The affinities of lead and of its oxide are as follow: veins; sometimes in siliceous rocks, sometimes in ealci- reous rocks. The following table exhibits a view of the different states in which this mineral has hitherto been observed. Lead. Gold, Silver, Copper, Mercury, Bismuth, Tin, Antimony, Platinum, Arsenic, Zinc, Nickel, Iron, Sulphur. Oxide of Lead. Sulphuric acid, Saciactic, Oxalic, Arsenic, Tartaric, Muriatic, Phosphoric, Sulphurous, Suberic, Nitric, Fluoric, Citric, Lactic, Acetic, Boracic, Prussir, Carbonic. I. SULPHURETS. 1. Galena, 2. Blue lead ore, 3. Black ore of lead. III. Salts. 1. Carbonat, 2. Muriocarbonat, 3. Sulphat, 4. Phosphat, 5. Molybdat, 6. Arseniat? 7. Arscniophosphat? 8. Chromat, Lead, ores o . Ores of lead occur iu great abundance in almost every part of the world. They are generally in II. Oxides 1. Earthy ore of lead, 2. Arseniated protoxide, 3. Arseniated peroxide. Of these the first species is by far the most common! From it ipdecd almost the whole of the lead of commerce is extracted. LEAF. See Botany. Leaf gold. See Auiirvt, Gold, Gilding, &c. Leaf. See Architecture. Leaf, in clocks and watches, an appellation given to the notches of their pinions. See Clockwork. LEAGUE, a measure of length, containing more or less geometrical paces, according to the different usages and customs of countries. A league at sea, where it ia chiefly used by us, being a land-measure mostly peculi- ar to the^rench and Germans, contains three thousand geometrical paces, or three English miles. The French league sometimes contains the same measure, and in some parts of France it consists of three thousand five hundred paces: the mean or common league consists of two thousand four hundred paces, and the little league of two thousand. The Spanish leagues are larger than the French, seventeen Spanish leagues making a degree, or twenty French leagues, or sixty-nine and a half English statute miles. The Dutch and German leagues contain each four geographical miles. The Persian leagues are pretty near of the same extent with the Span- ish; that is, they are equal to four Italian miles, which is pretty near to what Herodotus calls the length of the Persian parasang, which contained thirty stadia, eight of which, according to Strabo, make a mile. LEAK, among seamen, is a hole in the ship through which the water comes in. To spring a leak is said of a ship that begins to leak; to stop a leak, is to fill it with a plug wrapt in oakum and well tarred; or putting in a tarpaulin clout, to keep the water out; or nailing a piece of sheet-lead upon the placer LEAKAGE, the state of a vessel that leaks, or lets water, or other liquid, ooze in or out. See the preced- ing article. Leakage, in commerce, is an allowance of 12 per cent, in the customs, allowed to importers of wines for the waste and damage it is supposed to have received in the passage; an allowance of two barrels in twenty-two is also made to the brewers of ale and beer, by the excise-office. LEAP, in music. This word is properly applicable to any disjunct degree, but is generally used to signify a distance consisting of several intermed'ate intervals. Leap-year. See Bissextile. LEASE, a conveyance of lands, generally in conside- ration of rent or other annual rccompence made for life, L E A LEA for years, or at will, but always for a shorter term than the lessor has in the premises, otherwise it partakes more of the nature of an assignment. By the common law, all persons seized of an estate might grant leases for any period less than their inter- est lasted; but statutes have been since made, some to en- large and some to restrict it. They are divided into ena- bling and restricting statutes; by the enabling stat. 32 Henry VIII. c. 28. a tenant in tail may make leases to ensure for twenty-one years or three lives to bind his issue in tail, but not those in remainder or reversion. Husbands seized in right of their wives may make lea- ses for the same period, provided the wife join in it. All persons seized of an estate of fee-simple in right of their churches, except parsons or vicars, may bind their suc- cessors under certain restrictions. 1. The lease must be by indenture; 2. It must begin from the day of making; 3. All old leases must be surrendered or be within a year of expiring; 4. It must be for three lives or twenty-one years, not both; 5. It may be for a shorter term, but must not exceed twenty-one years; 6. It must be of lands and tenements most commonly left for twenty years past; 7. The most usual rent for that time must be reserved; 8. Such leases cannot be made without impeachment of waste. It was also specified that the lease must be of corporal hereditaments, that the lessor might resort to them to distrain; but by stat. 5 Geo. III. c. 17, a lease of tithes or other incorporeal hereditaments may be grant- ed, and the successor shall have his remedy by an action of debt. From the disabling statutes, we find that all colleges, cathedrals, and other ecclesiastical or eleemosynary cor- porations, and all parsons and vicars, are restrained from making leases unless under the following regula- tions: 1. They must not exceed 3 lives or 21 years: 2. The accustomed rent must at least be reserved thereon: 3. Houses in conporations or market-towns may be let for 40 years, provided they arc not the mansion-houses ofthe lessors, or have not more than 10 acres of ground belonging to then, and provided the lessee agrees to keep them in repair, and they may be aliened in fee-sim- ple for lands of equal value in recompense: 4. If there is an old lease which has more than 3 years to run, no new lease shall be made: 5. No base shall be made without impeachment of waste: 6. All bounds ancl covenants tend- ing to frustrate the provisions of the statutes of 13 and 18 Eliz. shall be void. Two observations seem to present themselves concern- ing these statutes: I. That they do not enable any persons to make such leases as they are by common law res- trained from making; therefore, a pars mi or vicar, though lie is restrained from making longer leases than for 21 years or 3 lives, even with the consent ofthe patron or ordinary, yet is not enabled to make any base at all, to bind his successor without such consent. 2. Though lea- ses contrary to these acts arc void, ycfc they arc good against the lessor during his life, if he is a sole corpora- tion; and if it is an aggregate corporation, as long as the head lives: for the act was intended for the benefit ofthe si;-cessor alone, and it is a maxim of law that no man shall take advantage of his own wrong. With regard to college lea es, one-third ofthe old rent must be reserved in wheat or malt, reserving a quarter of wheat for every 6s. Bd* and a quarter of malt for every 5.5.; or the lessee-; must pay for the same, at the price of the market nearest the respective colleges on the market-day before the rent is due. There are further restraining statutes which direct that if any beneficial clergyman is absent from his bene- fice above 80 days in the year, all leases and agreements made by him of the profits of his cure shall be void, ex- cept in the case of licensed pluralists; who are allowed to demise the living to the curate, if he is not absent more than 40 days in the year. Sec 13 Eliz. c. 20. 14 Eliz. c. 11, 18 Eliz. c. 11, and 43 Eliz. c. 9. All leases except such as do not exceed 3 years from the making, whereupon the reserved rent must be at least two thirds of the improved value, must be in writ- ing, though no particular form of words is necessary to constitute a good lease. They must be made to natural-born subjects of this realm, or such as have been naturalized, or to denizens, for all leases made to aliens shall be void; and there is even a statute in force, 32 lien. VIII. c. 16, which im- poses a penalty of 5l. on the lessor and lessee. It has however been held that an alien merchant may take a house for his own residence, but it shall not go to his ex- ecutors; the reasons for these laws are evidently to pre- vent foreigners getting too firm a footing in the king* dom. Lease and release is a conveyance which since, the stat. 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10, commonly called the statute of uses, has taken place of the deed of feoffment, as it supplies the need of livery and seisin. It is made thus: A lease or bargain and sale for one year, from the tenant to the lessee, is first prepared, whereby the lessee becomes actually possessed of the lands, then by the above men- tioned statute the lessee is enabled to fake a grant of the lands intended to be conveyed to him and his heirs for ever; accordingly a release is made, reciting the lease and declaring the uses. In the lease, aprppi-r-rorn is a good consideration to make the lessee capable of receivinrr a release. This mode of conveyance is become so usual, that it merits peculiar attcntiem. See this matter very ably discussed by the annotator of the latter part of Coke's Commentaries, p. 271, No. I. LEASES, value of. The purchaser of a lease may be considered as the purchaser of an annuity equal to the rack-rent of the estate; and the same principles, from which are deduced the present value of annuities to con tinue during any given term, will apply to the value of leases. The sum paid down for the grant of a lease is so much money paid in advance f;»r the annual rents, as they may become due; or, it may be considered as a sum which put out to interest, will enable the lessor to repav himself the rack-rent ofthe estate, or the yearly value of his interest therein, during the given term; therefore no more money should be demanded by the lessor, for the grant ofthe lease, than will enable him. to do tins at a given rate of interest. In order to find what this sum should be it would be necessary, to ascertain separately the pnseat value of each an unl rent, or the s im which put out to interest at the given i ate, w ill enable the land- lord to repay himself the several yearly rents asthev be- come :'ue. Thus, if a person has ibof. d.ie to' W.lit a twelvemonth lunce, aud he wishes to have the value of L E* G LEG LEDUM, marsh cistus, or wild rosemary; a genus of . the nionogy nja order, in the decandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 18th order, bicornes. The calyx is quinquefid; the corolla plain and quinquepartite; the capsule quinquclocular, and opening at the base. There are three species: The pa- lustre with very narrow leaves, grows naturally upon bogs and mosses in many parts of Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Lancashire. The flowers are produced in small clusters at the end of the branches, and are shaped like those of the strawberry-tree, but spread open wider at top. These are of a reddish colour, and in the natural places of their growth are succeeded by seed-vessels filled with small seeds which ripen in autumn. LEE, in the sea-language, a word of various signifi- cations, though it is generally understood to mean the part opposite to the wind. Thus lee-shore, is that shore against which the wind blows. Lee-latch, or have a care of the lee-latch, is, take care that the ship don't go to the leeward, or too near the shore; a lee the helm, put it to the leeward side of the ship: to lie by the lee, or to come up to the lee, is to bring the ship so, that all her sails may lie flat against her masts and shrouds, and that the wind may come right upon her broadside. Lee-fang, is a rope reeved into tbe cringles of the courses, to hale in the bottom of the sail, that the bonnets may be laced on, or the sail taken in. Lee-way, is the angle that the rhumb-line upon which the ship endeavours to sail, makes with the rhumb upon which she really sails. See Navigation. LEEA, a genus of the class and order pentandria monogynia. The calyx is one-petalled; necs. on the side of the corolla, upright, five-cleft; berry, five-seed. There are three species, trees of the East Indies. LEECH. SeeHiRUDo. LEEK. See Allium. LEERSIA, a genus of the class and order triandria digynia. Calyx none; glume, two-valved, closed. There are three species, grasses of America. LEET, a little court held within a manor, and called the king's court, on account that its authority to punish offences originally belonged to the crown, whence it is derived to inferior persons. See Court. LEETCH-lines, small ropes made fast to the leetch of the topsails, to which they belong, and reeved into a block at the yard close by the topsail-ties. They serve to hale in the leetch of the sail when the topsails are to be taken in. LEGACY, a bequest of a sum of money, or any per- sonal effects of a testator; and these are to be paid by his representative, after all the debts of the deceased are discharged, as far as the assets will extend. All the goods and chattels ofthe deceased, are by law Tested in the representative, who is bound to see whether there be left a sufficient fund to pay the debts of the tes- tator, and if it should prove inadequate, the pecuniary legacies must proportionately abate; a specific legacy, however, is not to abate unless there be insufficient without it. If the legatee die before the testator, such will in gen- eral be termed a lapsed legacy, and fall into the general fund; where however, from the general import of the will, it can be collected that tbe testator intended such a vested legacy, it will in such case go to the representative of the deceased legatee. If a bequest be made to a person, if or when he attains a certain age, the legacy will be lapsed, if he die before ' he attain that age; but if such legacy may be made pay- able at that age, and the legatee die before that age, such legacy will be vested in lus representative. If in the latter case, the testator devise interest to be paid in the mean time, it will nevertheless be a vested legacy. Where a legacy is bequeathed over to another, in case the first legatee die under a certain age, or the like, the legacy will be payable immediately on the death of the first legatee; and though such legacy be not bequeathed over, yet if it carry interest, the representative will be- come immediately entitled to it. In case of a vested legacy due immediately, and charg- ed on land, or money in the funds which yields an imme- diate profit, interest shall be payable from the death of the testator; but if it be charged on the personal estate only of the testator, which cannot be collected in, it will carry interest only from the end of the year after the death of the testator. If a bequest be for necessaries, and of small amount, the executor will be justified in advancing a part of the principal; but this should be done under very particular circumspection, as the executor may be compelled to pay the full legacy on the infant's attaining his majority, without deducting the sum previously advanced. When all the debts and particular legacies are dis* charged, the residue or surplus must be paid to the re- siduary legatee, if any be so appointed in the will; but if there be none appointed or intended, it w ill go to the executor or next of kin. When the residue does not go to the executor, it is to be distributed among the intestate's next of kin, accord- ing to the statutes of distributions; except the same is otherwise disposable by particular customs, as those of London, York, kc. See Executor. LEGATE, a cardinal or bishop, whom the pope sends as his ambassador to sovereign princes. There are three kinds of legates, viz. legates a latere, legates de latere, and legates by office, orlegati nati; of these the most considerable are the legates a latere, the next are the legates de latere. Legates by office are those who have not any particu- lar legation given them, but who by virtue of their dig- nity and rank in the church, become legates; such are the archbishops of Rheims ancl Aries; but the authority of these legates is much inferior to that of the legates a latere. LEGATUS, in Roman antiquity, a military officer who commanded as deputy of the chief general. LEGER-line, in music, one added to the staff of five lines, when the ascending or descending notes run very high or low. LEGION, in Roman antiquity, a body of foot which consisted of ten cohorts. The exact number contained in a legion, was fixed by Romulus at three thousand; though Plutarch assures us, that after the reception of the Sabines into Rome, he in- creased it to six thousand. The common number after- wards, in the first times of the free state, was four thou- L E M L E M sand; but in tbe war with Hannibal, it arose to five thousand, and after this it is probable that it sunk again to four thousand, or four thousand two hundred, wbich was the number in the fime of Polybius. LEGNOTIS, a gen ) of the class and order polyan- dria monogynia. The alyx is five-cleft;pet. 5;.caps. 3- celled. There are two species, trees of Jamaica andGuiana. LEMMA, in mathematics, a proposition which serves previously to prepare the way for the more easy appre- hension of the demonstration of some theorem, or con- struction of some problem. LEMNA, a genus ofthe moneecia diandria class and order. The male cal. is one-leaved; cor. none; female, cal. one-leaved; cor. none; style one; caps, one-celled. There are six species, known by the name of duck-weed, or duck-meat. LEMNISEA, a genus ofthe class and order polyan- dria monogynia. The cal. is 5-toothed; cor. 6-petalled, recurved; nect. cap-shaped, girding; the germ. per. 5- celled, seeds solitary. There is I species, a tree of Guiana. LEMON. See Citrus. Lemon, salt of. Sec Oxai at of potass. LEMUR, macauco, a genus of quadrupeds ofthe or- der primates: the generic character is, front-teeth in the upper jaw, four; the intermediate ones remote: in the lower jaw, six; longer, stretched forwards, compressed, parallel, approximated. Canine-teeth solitary, approx- imated; grinders several, sublobated; the foremost some- what longer and sharper. The genus lemur or macauco consists of animals ap- proaching to monkeys in the form of their feet, which, in most species, are furnished with flat nails; but differ- ing in their manners, and void of that mischievous and petulant disposition which so much distinguishes the mon- key tribe from other quadrupeds. In this, as in the former genus, we meet with some species without a tail, while others have that part ex- tremely long. Of the tailless species the most remark- able is the 1. Lemur tardigradus, slow lemur. It is about the size of a small cat, measuring sixteen inches in length; its colour is an elegant pale-brown or mouse-colour; the face flatfish; the nose inclining to a sharpened form; the eyes yellow-brown, large, and extremely protuberant, so as to appear in the living animal like perfect hemispheres. They are surrounded by a circle of dark brown, which also runs down the back of the animal. This species is very slow in its motions, and from this circumstance has actually been ranked by some naturalists among the sloths; though in no other respect resembling them. It is a nocturnal animal, and sleeps, or at least lies motion- less, during the greatest part of the clay; its voice is shrill and plaintive. 2. Lemur indri. This is a very large species; it is entirely of a black colour, except on the face, which is greyish; a greyish cast also prevails towards the lower part of the abdomen, and the rump is white. The face is of a lengthened or dog-like form; the ears shortish and slightly tufted; the hair or fur is silky and thick, and in some parts of a curly or crisped appearance: it is the largest animal of this genus, and is said by Mons. Sonnerat, its first describer, to be three feet and a half wol. II. *7 high; it is said to be a gentle and docile animal, and to be trained, when taken young, for cliace*, in the manner of a dog. Its voice resembles the crying of an infant. It is a native of Madagascar, where it is known by the name of Indri, which is said to signify the man of the wood. The nails in this species are flat, but pointed at the ends; and there is no appearance of a tail. 3. Lemur macaco, ruffed lemur. This is the species described by the count de Buffon, under the name of the vari, its colours often consisting of a patched distribu- tion of black and white; though its real or natural colour is supposed to be entirely black. In size it exceeds the mongos, or brown lemur. It is said to be a fierce and almost untameable animal: it inhabits the woods of Ma- dagascar and some of the Indian islands; and is said to exert a voice so loud and powerful as to strike astonish- ment into those who hear it, resembling, in this respect, the howling monkey or S. Belzehub, which fills the woods of Brazil and Guiana with its dreadful cries. When in a state of captivity, however, it seems to become as gen- tle as some others of this genus. The astonishing strength of voice in this animal, de- pends, according to the count de Buffon, on the peculiar structure ofthe larynx, which widens, immediately after its divarication, into a large cavity before entering the lungs. 4. Lemur tarsier. This animal is distinguished by the great length of its hind legs. Its general iength from the nose to the tail is almost six inches; and from the nose to the hind toes eleven inches and a half; the tail nine inches and a half. The face is sharp or pointed; the eyes very large and full; the ears upright, broad, naked, and rounded. Between the ears on the top of the head is a tuft of long hairs. The colour of this species is grey- brown or mouse-colour, paler beneath. It is a nativeof Amboina and some other Eastlndia islands. 5. Lemur psilodactylus, long-fingered lemur. This highly singular species has so much the general appear- ance of a squirrel, that it has been referred to that genus both by Mr. Pennant in the last edition of his History of Quadrupeds, and by Gmclin in his enlarged edition of the Systema Natural of Linnseus. The account, how- ever, given by Mons. Sonnerat, its "first describer, seems to prove it a species of lemur. It measures from fourteen to eighteen inches from the nose to the tail, which is about the same length. The general colour ofthe animal is a pale ferruginous-brown, mixed with black and grey; oa the head, round the eyes, and on the upper parts of the body, the ferruginous brown prevails, with a blackish cast on the back and limbs; the tail is entirely black; the sides of the head, the neck, the lower jaw, and the belly, are greyish. There arc also a kind of woolly hairs of this colour, and of two or three inches in length, scat- tered over the whole body; the thighs and legs have a reddish cast; the black prevails on the feet, which are covered with short hairs of that colour; the head is shaped like that of a squirrel; and there are two cutting-teeth in front of each jaw; the cars are large, round, and naked, resembling those of a bat, and of a black colour. The feet are long, and somewhat resemble those of the Tar- sier; the thumbs or interior toes of the hind feet are short, * and furnished with flat round nails, as in the macaucos; % but the principal character of the animal consists in the LEPUS. village, of a young leveret suckled and nursed by a cat, which received it very early under her protection, and continued to guard it with maternal solicitude till it was grown to a considerable size. A most singular variety of this animal is sometimes found, which is furnished with rough and slightly branched horns, bearing a considerable resemblance to those of a roebuck. This particularity, as strange as it is uncommon, seems to imply a kind of indistinct ap- proach in this animal to the order pecora. The hare is a short-lived animal, and is supposed rarely to exceed the term of seven or eight years. It may be proper to add, that in very severe winters, and especially in those of the more northern regions, the hare becomes entirely white, in which state it is liable to be mistaken for the following species. 2. Lepus variabilis, varying hare. This species is an inhabitant of the loftiest alpine tracts in the northern re- gions of the globe; occurring in Norway, Lapland, Rus- sia, Siberia, and Kamtschatka, and on the alps of Scotland. The same species is also found in America, appearing in some parts of Canada. In Its general appearance it bears an extreme resemblance to the common hare, but is of smaller size, and has shorter ears and more slender legs. Its colour in summer is a ■ tawny grey; in winter entirely white, except the tips of the ears, which are black; the soles ofthe feet are also black, but are very thickly covered with a yel- lowish fur. This animal is observed to confine itself alto- gether to elevated situations, and never to descend into the plains, or to mix with the common hare. The change of colour commences in the month of September, and the grey or summer coat reappears in April; but in the very severe climate of Siberia it continues white all the year round. It has been sometimes found entirely coal- black, a variety which is also known to take place occa- sionally in the common hare. The varying hare some- times migrates in order to obtain food in severe seasons. Troops ot five or six hundred have been seen to quit in this manner the frozen bills of Siberia, and to descend into the plains and woody districts, from which they again return in spring to the mountains. 3. Lepus Americanus, American hare. This animal is not much superior in size to a rabbit, measuring about eighteen inches. Its colour nearly resembles that of the common hare, to which it seems much allied: but the fore legs are shorter, and the hind ones longer in proportion. The belly is white; the tail black above and white be- neath; the Cars tipped with grey, and the legs of a pale- ferruginous colour. It is said to inhabit all parts of North America; and in the more temperate regions retains its colour all the year round, but in the colder parts be- comes white in winter, when the fur grows extremely long and silvery; the edges of the ears alone retaining their former colour. It is said to be extremely common at Hudson's Bay, where it is considered as a highly useful article of food. It breeds once or twice a year, producing from five to seven at a time. It is not of a migratory nature, but always continues to haunt the same places, taking occasional refuge under the roots of trees, or in the hollows near their roots. 4. Lepus cuniculus, rabbit. The rabbit bears a very strong general resemblance to the hare, but is considera- bly smaller, and its fore feet are furnished with sharper and longer claws in proportion; thus enabling it to bur- row in the ground, and to form convenient retreats, in whicli it conceals by day, and like the hare, conies out chiefly by night and during the early part ofthe morn- ing to feed. Its colour, in tbe wild state, is a dusky brown, paler or whitish on the under parts, and the tail is black above and white below. In a domestic state the animal varies into black, black-and-white, silvery-grey, perfectly white, &c. The rabbit is a native of most of the temperate and warmer parts ofthe old continent, but is not found in the northern regions, and is not originally a native of Bri- tain, but was introduced from other countries. Its gene- ral residence is in dry, chalky, or gravelly soils, in which it can conveniently burrow. It is so prolific an animal that it has been known to breed seven times in a year, and to produce no less than eight young each time. It is therefore not surprising, that in some countries it has been considered as a kind of calamity, and that vari- ous arts of extirpation have been practised against it. 5. Lepus viscaccia. This species is said to have the general appearance of a rabbit, but has a long bushy and bristly tail, like that of a fox, which the animal also resembles in colour; the fur on all parts, except the tail, is soft, and is used by the Peruvians in the manufacture of hats; it was also used by the ancient Peruvians for the fabric of garments, worn only by persons of distinction. In its manners this animal resembles the rabbit, burrow* ing under ground, and forming a double mansion, in the upper of which it deposits its provisions, and sleeps in the other. It appears chiefly by night, and is said to de- fend itself when attacked by striking with its tail. 6. Lepus alpinns, alpine hare. This is a very different species from the alpine hare described by Mr. Pennant in the British Zoology, which is no other than the vary- ing hare. The alpine hare is a far smaller animal, scarce- ly exceeding a guinea-pig (cavia cobaya) in size, and measuring only nine inches in length. Its colour is a bright ferrnginous grey, paler beneath; the head is long, and the ears short, broad, and rounded. See PlateLXXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 246. It appears to have been first described by Dr. Pallas, who informs us that it is a nativeof the Alta- ic mountains, and extends to the Lake Baikal, and even to Kamtschatka, inhabiting rough woody tracts amidst rocks and cataracts, and forming burrows beneath the rocks, or inhabiting the natural fissures, and dwelling sometimes singly, and sometimes two or three together. In their manners they greatly resemble some of the mar- mots or hamsters; preparing, during the autumn, a plen- tiful assortment of the finest herbs and grasses, which they collect in company, and after drying with great care in the sun, dispose into heaps of very considerable size, for their winter support; and which may always be distinguished, even through the deep snow, having the appearance of so many hay ricks in miniatqre, and be- ing often several feet in height and breadth. The alpine hare varies in size according to the different regions in which it is found, being largest about the Altaic moun- tains, and smaller about Lake Baikal, kc. 7. Lepus ogotona, ogotona hare. This animal, says Dr. Pallas, is called by the Mongolians by the name of ogotoaa, and is an inhabitant of rocky mountains, or LET LET sandy plains, burrowing under the soil, or concealing itself under heaps of stones, and forming a soft nest at no great depth from the surface. It wanders about chiefly by night, and sometimes appears by day, especially in cloudy weather. In autumn it collects heaps of various vegetables for its winter food, in the same manner as the alpine hare before described, disposing them into neat hemispherical heaps of about a foot in diameter. These heaps are prepared in the month of September, and are entirely consumed by the end of winter. The ogotona hare is about six inches or somewiiat more in length, and is of a pale brown colour above, and white beneath; on the nose is a yellowish spot, and the outsides ofthe limbs and space about the rump are ofthe same colour. It is entirely destitute of a tail. See Plate LXXVII. Nat. Hist. fig. 247. 8. Lepus pusillus, calling hare. In its form this species extremely resembles the ogotona hare, but is smaller, measuring near six inches, bul weighing only from three ounces and a quarter to four and a half, and in win- ter two and a half. It is an inhabitant of the south-east parts of Russia, and about all the ridge of hills spreading southward from the Uralian chain; as well as about the Irtish, and the west part of the Altaic chain. It is an animal of a solitary disposition, and is very rarely to be seen, even in the places it most frequents. Lepus, in astronomy, a constellation of the. southern hemisphere, comprehending 12 stars accordingto Ptole- my; thirteen, according to Tycho; and nineteen in the Britannic catalogue. LERCHE A, a genus of the class and order monadel- phia pentandria. The cal. is five-toothed; cor. funnel- form, five-cleft; anthers, five; style, one; caps, three- celled, many-seeded. There is one species, a shrub ofthe East Indies. LERNEA, in zoology; a genus of insects of the order of vermes mollusca, the characters of whicli are: the body fixes itself by its tentacula, is oblong, and rather taper- ing; there are two ovaries like tails, and the tentacula are shaped like arms. The cyprinacea has four tentacula, two of which are lunulated at the top. It is a small spe- cies, about half an inch long, and of the thickness of a small straw. It is found on the sides of the bream, carp, and roach, in many of our ponds and rivers, in great abundance. 2. The salmonea, or salmon-louse, has an ovated body, cordated thorax, and two linear arms, ap- proaching nearly to each other. 3. The asellina, has a lunated body and cordated thorax; and inhabits the gills ofthe cod-fish and ling ofthe northern ocean. LESKIA, a genus of the class and order cryptoga- mia niusci; a moss of little note. LESSOR and Lessee, in law. See Lease. LET Fall, a word of command at sea, to put out a sail vvlien the yard is aloft, and the sail is to come or fall down from ihe yard; but, in strictness, only applied to the main and fore courses, when their yards are hoisted up. LETTER. A servant of the post-office is within the penalty of 5 Geo. III. c. 2e, which makes it a capital fe- lony to secrete a letter containing any bank note, though he has not taken the oath required by 9 Anne c. io. But to secrete a letter containing money, is not an of- fence within the statutes concerning the servants of the post-office. Letter of credit, is where a merchant or correspon- dent writes a letter to another, requesting him to credit the bearer with a certain sum of money. Letter of licence, is a written permission granted to a person under embarrassment, allowing him to conduct his affairs for a certain time without being molested. Such instrument will bind all the creditors by whom it is executed, and it generally contains certain stipulations to be observed by all parties. Letter of attorney, is an instrument giving to a se- cond person the authority to do any lawful act in the stead ofthe maker. They are sometimes revokable and sometimes not; in the latter case the word irrevocable is inserted. The authority must be strictly pursued: and if the attorney does less than the power it shall be void; it more, it shall be good as far as the power goes, and void as to the rest; but both these rules have many exceptions. See 1 Inst. 258. LETTERS. The rate of postage in the United States of every single letter is regulated by distance in the fol- lowing proportions. For any distance not exceeding 30 miles, 6 cents; 80 miles, 10 cents; 150 miles, 1£| cents; 400 miles, 18| cents; and for any distance over 400 miles, 25 cents. No allowance to be made for intermediate miles. Eve- ry double letter is to pay double the said rates; every triple letter, triple; every packet weighing one ounce or upwards, at the rate of four single letters each ounce. Every ship letter originally received at an office for de- livery, 6 cents. Magazines and pamphlets, not over 50 miles, 1 cent per sheet; over 50 miles and not exceeding 100, i| cents; over 100 miles, 2 cents. All letters or packets weighing not more than three pounds may be sent by the post; if heavier, at the discretion of the post- master general. The master of every vessel arriving at any port in the United States where a post-office is established, before he is permitted to report, make entry, or break bulk, is bound to deliver to the post-master all letters directed to any person within the United States, which may be un- der his care or within his power, except such as are for the owner or consignee of the vessel, or are directed to be delivered at the port of delivery to which the vessel is bound, and be is to make oath or affirmation before the collector to that effect. Letters, threatening. To send letters threatening to accuse a person of any crime punishable wi'h death or any infamous punishment, ancl knowingly to send any anonymous or fictitious letter threatening to kill any one, or set fire to their tenements or property, with a view of extorting money or valuables from them, is in the first instance punishable with fine, pillory, whipping, or transportation for seven years, and in the other instance is felony without benefit of clergy. Letters patent. See Patents, and Exemplifica- tion op Patents. • . Letters, close, are grants of lhe king specially distin- guished from letters patent, in that the letters clos , be. ing not of public concern, but directed to particular py- sons, are closed up and sealed. LEV LEV Letters of marque, are extraordinary commissions* granted to captains or merchants for reprisals, in order to make a reparation for those damages they have sus- tained, or the goods they have been deprived of by strangers at sea. These appear to be always joined to those of reprise, for the reparation of a private injury; but under a declar- ed war the former only are required. LETHARGY. See Mehicine. LEVARI facias, is a writ directed to the sheriff for levying a certain sum of money upon the lands, &c. of a person who has forfeited his recognizance. LEU CITE. This stone is usually found in volcanic productions, and is very abundant in the neighbourhood of Vesuvius. It is always crystallized. The primitive form of its crystals is either a cube or a rhomboidal do- decahedron, and its integrant molecules are tetrahe- drons; but the varieties hitherto observed arc all poly- hedrons. The most common has a spheroidal figure, and is bounded by 24 equal and similar trapezoids; sometimes the faces are 12, 18, 36, 54, and triangular, pentagonal, &c. The crystals vary from the size of a pin's head to that of an inch. The texture of the leucite is foliated; its fracture somewhat conchoidal; specific gravity from 2.455 to 2. 490; colour white, or greyish white. Its powder causes syrup of violets to assume a green colour. Infusible by the blowpipe. Gives a white transparent glass with bo- rax. It is composed, as Klaproth has shown of 54 silica 23 allumina 22 potass 99. It was by analysing this stone that Klaproth discov- ered the presence of potass in the mineral kingdom, whicli is not the least important of the numerous disco- veries of that accurate and illustrious chemist. Leucite is found sometimes in rocks which have never been exposed to volcanic fire; and Mr. Dolomieu has rendered it probable, from the substances in which it is found, that the leucite of volcanoes has not been formed by volcanic fire, but that it existed previously in the rocks upon which the volcanoes have acted, and that it was thrown out unaltered in fragments of these rocks. LEUCOJUM, great snow-drop, a genus ofthe mono- gynia order, in the hexandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the ninth order, spatha- cese. The corolla is campanulatcd, scxpartite, the seg- ments increased at the points, the stigma simple. The species are, 1. The vernum; or spring leucojum, has an oblong bulbous root, sending up a naked stalk, about a foot high, terminated by a spatha, protruding one or two white flowers, appearing in March. 2. The sestivum, or summer leucojum, has a large oblong bulbous root, an upright stalk, 15 or 18 inches high, terminated by many white flowers in May. 3. The autumnale has a large oblong bulbous root, narrow leaves, an upright italk, terminated by white flowers in autumn. 4. The shumosum, with flowers white within, purplish without. LEUCOMA. See Surgery. LEVEL, an instrument used to make a line parallel to the horizon, aud to continue it out at pleasure; and by this means to find the true level, or the difference of ascent or descent, between two or more places, for con- veying water, draining fens, &c. There are several instruments, of different contri- vance and matter, invented for the perfection of level- ling; but they may be reduced to the following kinds. Wrtter-LEVEL; that whicli shows the horizontal line by means of a surface of water or other fluid, founded on this principle, that water always places itself level or horizontal. The most simple kind is made of a long wooden trough or canal, whicli being equally filled with water, its sur- face shows the line of level. The water-level is also made with two cups fitted to the two ends of a straight pipe, about an inch diameter, and three or four feet long, by means of which the water communicates from one cup to the other; and this pipe being moveable on its stand by means of a ball and soc: ket, when the two cups show equally full of water, their two surfaces mark the line of level. This instrument, instead of cups, may also be made with two short cylinders of glass three or four inches long, fastened to each extremity of the pipe with wax or mastic. The pipe is filled with common or coloured wa- ter, which show itself through the cylinders, by means of which the line of level is determined; the height of the water, with respect to the centre of the earth, being always the same in both cylinders. This level, though very simple, is yet very commodious for levelling small 'distances. .tfir-LEVEL, that which shows the line of level by means of a bubble of air inclosed with some fluid in a glass tube of an indeterminate length and thickness, and hav- ing its two ends hermetically sealed. When the bubble fixes itself at a certain mark, made exactly in the mid- dle of a tube, the case or ruler in which it is fixed is then level. "When it is not level, the bubble will rise to one end. This glass tube may be set in another of brass, having an aperture in the middle, where the bubble of air may be observed. It should be filled with a liquid not liable to freeze or evaporate. There is one of these instruments with sights, being an improvement upon that last described, which, by the addition of other apparatus, becomes more exact and commodious. It consists of an air-level (Plate LXXV1II. Miscel. fig. 146) about eight inches long, and about two- thirds of an inch in diameter, set in a brass tube 2, hav- ing an aperture in the middle C. The tubes are carried in a straight ruler, of a foot long; at the ends of which are fixed two sights 3, 3, exactly perpendicular to the tubes, and of an equal height, having a square hole, formed by two fillets of brass crossing each other at right angles; in the middle of this is drilled a very small hole, through which a point on a level with the instru- ment is seen. The brass tube is fastened to the ruler by means of two screws: the one of which, marked 4, serves to raise or depress the tube at pleasure, for bringing it towards a level. The top of the ball and socket is rivet- ted to a small ruler that springs, one end of which is fas- tened with springs, to the great ruler, and at the other end is a screw 5, serving to raise and depress the instru- ment when nearly level. But this instrument is still less commodious than tbe LEVEL. following one: for though the holes are ever so small, yet they will still take in too great a space to determine the point of level precisely. Fig. 147. is a level with telescopic sights, first invent- ed by Mr. lluygens. It is like the last, with this differ- ence, that instead of plain sights it carries a telescope to determine exactly a point of level at a considerable dis- tance. The screw 3, is for raising or lowering a little fork for carrying the hair, and making it agree with the bubble of air when the instrument is level; and the screw 4 is for making the bubble of air, D or E, agree with the telescope. The whole is fitted to a ball ancl socket, or otherwise moved by joints and screws. It may be ob- served, that a telescope may be added to any kind of level, or by applying it upon, or parallel to, the base or rule, when there is occasion to take the level of remote objects; and it possesses this advantage, that it may be inverted by turning the ruler and telescope half-round; and if then the hair cut the same point that it did before, the operation is just. Many varieties and improvements of this instrument have been made by the .more modern opticians. Dr. Desaguiliers proposed a machine for taking the difference of level, which contained the principles both of a barometer and thermometer; hut it is not accurate in practice. Reflecting Level, that made by means of a pretty long surface of water, representing the same object inverted, which we see erect by the eye; so that the point where these two objects appear to meet, is on a level with the place where the surface of the water is found. There is another reflecting level, consisting of a po- lished metal mirror, placed a little before the object-glass of a telescope, suspended perpendicularly. This mirror must be set at an angle of 45 degrees; in which case the perpendicular line of the telescope becomes a horizontal line, or a line of level; which is the invention of M. Cas- sini. Artillery Foo£-Level, is in form of a square (fig. 148.), having its two legs or branches of an equal length; at the junction of which is a small hole, by which hangs a plummet playing on a perpendicular line in the middle of a quadrant, which is divided both ways from that point into 45 degrees. This instrument may be used to other occasions by- placing the ends of its two branches on a plane; for when the plummet plays perpendicularly over the middle divi- sion ofthe quadrant, the plane is then level. To use it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece of artillery, which may be raised to any proposed height by means of the plummet, whicli will cut the tlegree-above the level. But this supposes the outside ofthe cannon is parallel to its axis, which is not always the case; and therefore they use another instrument now, either to set the piece level, or elevate it at any angle; namely, a small quadrant, with one of its radii continued out pretty long, which being put into the inside of the cylindrical bore, the plummet shows the angle of elevation, or the line of level. Carpenter's, Bricklayer"s, or Paviors Level, consists of a long ruler, in the middle of which is fitted at right angles another broader piece, at the top of which is fas- tened a plummet, which when it hangs over the middle line of the second or upright piece, shows that the base or long ruler is horizontal or level. Fig. 149. .Ifason's Level, is composed of three rulers, so jointed as to form an isoceles triangle, somewhat like a Roman A; from the vertex of which is suspended a plummet, which hangs directly over a mark in the middle of the base, when this is horizontal or level. N Plum or Pendulum Level, said to be invented by M. Picard, fig. 130. This shows the horizontal line by means of another line perpendicular to that described by a plum- met or pendulum. This level consists of two legs or branches, joined at right angles, the one of which, of about 18 inches long, carries a thread and plummet; the thread being hung near the top of the branch, at the point 2. The middle ofthe branch where the thread passes is hollow, so that it may hang free from everyr where: but towards the bottom, where there is a small blade of sil- ver, on which a line, is drawn perpendicular to the teles- cope, the said cavity is covered by two pieces of brass, with a piece of glass G, to see the plummet through, forming a kind of case, to prevent the wind from agi- tating the thread. The telescope, of a proper length, is fixed to the other leg of the instrument, at right angles to the perpendicular, and having a hair stretched hori- zontally across the focus of the object-glass, which deter- mines the point of level, when the string of the plummet hangs against the line on the silver blade. The whole is fixed by a ball and socket to its stand. Fig. 151. is a Balance Level, which being suspended by the ring, the two sights, when in eqiiilibrio, will be horizontal, or in a level. But the most complete level is the Spirits Level, in- vented by the late Mr. Ramsden. See Plate LXXVI. Spi- rits Level. ABD, fig. 7. are the three legs upon which it is placed; when shut up, they form one round rod, and arc kept together by three rings: these legs are jointed to. a brass frame E, on the top of which is a male screw, screwing into a female screw within the projection a of the plate F. Within the top of a, figs. 4 anil 7, is a he- mispherical cavity to contain the spherical ball, fig. 5: this ball has a male screw d on its top, which screws into a female screw b, fig. 6, in the plate G, fig. 7 and fig. 6, the ball is put up through an opening e, fig. 4, and screwed to the plate, fig. G; so that the tipper plate G can move in any direction within certain limits by the play of the ball in its socket; to confine the upper plate G when it is set in any direction, four screws, IIIIHII, figs. 4 and 7, are employed; they work in tubes firmly fixed to the plate F, and are turned by their milled heads; the upper ends of these screws act against the underside of the plate, fig. 6, as shown in fig. 7; so that when the plate G is required to be moved in any direction, it is done by screwing up one screw and screwing clown the opposite till it is brought to the proper inclination; then by screwing up both together, the plate is firmly fixed. The ball, fig. 5, has a conical hole/through it, to receive an axis which is screwed fast to the bottom ofthe com- pass-box I, fig. 7; a screw screwed into the end of this axis prevents its being lifted out, and at the same time leaves it at liberty to turn round independant ofthe ball, fig. 5. On each side of the compass-box I, is a bar KK, on the end of which are fixed two forked pieces 10, called the ¥'s (from their resemblance to that letter), carrying LEVELLING. the telescope M. One of these (0) is capable of being raised or lowered by means of a niilled-headcd screw N, which works through a collar in the lower end of the tube g; the rest of the tube has a triangular hole through it, in which slides a bar k, which is part ofthe Y; O the female, screw is cut within this bar, and the screw works into it, so that by turning the milled head one way, the Y is raised, and by reversing the motion, it is lowered. The axis whicli connects the compass-box and the other ap- paratus, has a collar upon it just above where it enters the ball, fig. 5, which is embraced by a clamp P, fig. 6, whirii is closed by a screw C, so as to hold the collar of the axis quite tight; and when the screw is turned back, its own elasticity opens it so as to allow the axis of the compass-box to turn round freely within it; on the oppo- site side of the damp is a projecting arm I, carrying the n.it m of the screw Q, wbirii screw works in a stud n, fixed to the upper plate G, figs. 7 and 6; by this means, when G is loosened, the telescope can be turned quite round, out when it is fastened, it can only be moved by turning the screw Q. The level-tube Z is fastened to the under side of the telescope by a screw q at one end and a bar r at the other: the use of these are to adjust it so that it shall be exactly parallel to the axis ofthe tele- scope-tube. The level, as best explained in the section, fig. 1, is a tube of glass ss, nearly filled with spirits of wine, but so as to leave a bubble of air in it; if the tube is of exactly the same diameter in every part, the bubble will rest in the middle of the tube when it is levi. In some of the best levels made by Ramsden, the inside of the tube is bent into a segment of a circle, 100 feet dia- meter, ancl the inside is ground, which causes the bubble to adhere together; if the tube is straight, it is liable to divide into several small ones. The internal parts of the telescope are explained in fig. 1: RR is the external tube of brass plate; within this slides another tube ss; it has two glasses v, w, screwed into the outer end, called ob- ject-glasses, and it has two divisions x, y, called diapha- gram, with small holes in thein; their use is to collect the prismatic rays with which the objects would otherwise be tinged; the tube ss has a rack t fixed nearly in the middle of it, which takes into a pinion on the axis ofthe milled bead T, figs. 1 and 7; by turning this, the glasses v, w, can be moved nearer to, or farther from, the eye to adjust the focus; to the tube R at v are fixed the cross wires, whose intersection is exactly in the centre of the tube. The manner of fixing these is explained in fig. 3: A is a brass box, which fits into the end of the telescope-tube, and is held there by four small screws; within this box is placed a brass plate B, carrying the wires, which are fastened by screwing four screws down upon their ends; when the plate B is in the box, a ring D is screwed in upon it, whicli prevents its falling out, but at the same time leaves it at liberty to move about in the box; the sides of the box, and also the telescope-tube, has four rec- tangular holes in it, through which four screws are pas- sed into the edges of the piece B, "so as to hold it in any position: these screws come througli the external tube, and have square heads, to be turned by a key, so as to adjust the interactions in the centre: the box A has a fe- male screw in the front, into which is screwed the eye- piece W; 3 is the tube which is screwed to the telescope; witu B ibis slides a tube, containing two glasses 4, 5j»by sliding the glasses in or out of the tube 3, they can be adjusted so as to adopt their focus to the cross wires. This eye-piece is convenient on account of its shortness; but as it reverses tbe objects, it is sometimes more con- venient to use the eye-piece fig. 2, which is much longer, but does not reverse objects, ft is the tube which is screwed to the telescope; within this slides another tube bb, having at one end a tube dd, containing two glasses ef, and a diaphagram g, and at the other end a tube hh, containing two glasses ik, and a diaphagram: m is a cap screwed on to the end to prevent the tubes coming out. When the instrument is to be carried, the level is un- screwed from the legs and packed in a case; the legs are shut up and kept so by the rings, as before described. The manner of using this instrument is as follows: When the difference of level between any two places is required, the observer with the level goes to the highest of the two, and his assistant goes to the lowest with the target, which is a long pole of wood with a groove in it, in which slides a small rod carrying a round piece of wood, called a sight, which is to be observed through the telescope; the observer opens the legs of the instrument, and sets them on the ground; the level is next screwed to them at E, as shown in fig. 7; the telescope is then brought nearly to a level by the se Tews HHHII, as before described; the screw c is then turned so as to release the clamp P, fig. 6; and the telescope is turned about, so as to point to the target; the clamp P is then closed, the observer looks through the telescope, and by turning the nut T, the focua is adjusted: the screw Q is then turned till the cross wires are brought to coincide with the object, in an horizontal plane; he then takes his eye from the telescope, and works the screw N till he brings the bubble of air in the level-tube exactly in the middle, which shows tuat tbe telescope is perfectly horizontal; the observer then makes signals to the assistant to raise or lower the sight em the slider of the target, till it is brought to coincide with the intersection of the cross wire, which shows that the tele- scope and the sight of the target are on the same level; the height which the sight is from the ground where the target stands, deducted from the height the telescope stands from the ground, is the difference of level required. LEVELLING, the art or act of finding a line paral- lel to the horizon at one or more stations, to determine the height or depth of one place with respect to another; for laying out grounds even, regulating descents, drain- ing morasses, conducting water, kc Two or more places are on a true level when they are equally distant from the centre of the earth. Also one place is higher than another, or out of level with it, when it is farther from the centre of the earth; and a line equally distant from that centre in all its points, iscalled the line of true level. Hence, because the earth is round, that line must be a curve, and make a part of the earth's cir- cumference, or at least parallel to it, or concentrical with it; as the line BCFG Plate LXXV1II. Misc. fig. 152), which has all its points equally distant from A, the cen- tre of the earth, considering it as a perfect globe. But the line of sight BDE, &c. given by the opera- tions of levels, is a tangent, or a right line perpendicular to the semidiameter of the earth at the point of contact B, rising always higher above the true line of level, the farther the distance ia, is called the apparent line of level LEVELLING. Thus, CD is the height of the apparent level above the true level, at the distance BC or Bl); also EFis the ex- cess of height at F, and Gil at G, kc The difference, it is evident, is always equal to the excess of the secant ofthe arch of distance above the radius of the earth. The common methods of levelling are sufficient for laying pavements of walks, or for conveying water to small distances, eScc; but in more extensive operations, as in levelling the bottoms of canals, which are to convey water to the distance of many miles, and such like, the difference between the true and the apparent level must be taken into the account. Now the difference CD between the true ancl apparent level, at any distance BC or BD, may be found thus: By a well-known property of the circle, 2AC + CD : BD : : BD : CD; or because the diameter of the earth is so great with respect to the line CD at all distances to which an operation of levelling commonly extends, that 2AC may be safely taken for 2AC + CD in that propor- tion without any sensible error, it will be 2AC : BD : : BD : CD, which therefore is =----, or____nearly; 2\c 2.vc that is, the difference between the true and apparent le- vel, is equal to the square of the distance between the places, divided by the diameter of the earth; and conse- quently it is always proportional to the square of the distance. Now the diameter of the earth being nearly 7958 miles; if we first take BC = 1 mile, then the excess BC be- 2AC comes ----of a mile, which is 7.962 inches, or almost 8 7958 inches, for the height of the apparent above the true level at the distance of one mile. Hence, proportioning the excesses in altitude according to the squares of the dis- tances, the following Table is obtained, showing the height of the apparent above the true level for every 100 yards of distance on the one hand, and for every mile on the other. Dist. Dif. of Level, Dist. Dif of Lev( or BC. or CD. or BC. or CD. Yards Inches. Mile* Feet. Ine 100 0.026 i 0 0^ 200 0.103 i 0 2 500 0.231 3 3 0 4\ 400 0.411 1 0 8 500 0.643 2 2 8 GOO 0.925 3 6 0 700 1.260 4 10 7 800 1.645 5 16 7 900 2.081 6 23 11 1000 2.570 7 32 6 1100 3.110 8 42 6 1200 3.701 9 53 9 1300 4.344 10 66 4 1400 5.038 11 80 3 1500 5.784 12 95 7 1600 6.580 13 112 2 1700 7.425 14 130 1 By means of tables of reductions, wc can now level to almost any distance at one operation, which the ancients vol* n. 68 could not do but by a great multitude; for, bring unac- quainted with the correction answering to any distance, they only levelled from one 20 yard's to another, when they had occasion to continue the work to sonic conside- rable extent. This table will answer several useful purposes. Th:;:;, first, to find the height of the apparent levti above the true, at any distance. If the given distance is in the ta- bi", Ihe correction of level is found on the same line with it: thus at the distance of 1000 yards, the correction is 2.57, or two inches and a half nearly; and at the dis- tance of 10 miles, it is 66 feet 4 inches. But if the exact distance is not found in the table, then multiply the square ofthe distance in yards by 2.57 and divide by 1,000,000, or cut off six places on the right for decimals; the rest are inches: or multiply the. square of the distance in miles by 66 feet 4 indies, and divide by 100. 2dly, To find the extent of the visible horison, or how far can be seen from any given height, on a horizontal plane, as at sea, &c. Suppose the eye of an observer, on the top of a ship's mast at sea, is at the height of 130 feet above the water, he will then see about 14 miles all around. Or from the top of a cliff by the sea-side, the height of which is 66 feet, a person may see to the dis- tance of near 10 miles on the surface of the sea. Also, when the top of a hill, or the light in a light-house, or such like, whose height is 130 feet, first comes into the view of an eye on board a ship, the table shows that the distance ofthe ship from it is 14 miles, if the eye is at the surface ofthe water; but if the height lAthe eye in the ship is 80 feet, then the distance will be increased by near 11 miles, making in all about 25 miles dis- tance. Sdly, Suppose a spring to be on one side of a hill, and a house on an opposite hill, with a valley between thein, and that the spring seen from the house appears by a levelling instrument to be on a level with the foundation ofthe house, which suppose is at a mile distance from it; then is the spring eight inches above the true level of the house; ancl this difference would be barely sufficient for the water to be brought in pipes from the spring to the house, the pipes bring laid all the way in the ground. 4th, If the height or distance exceed the limits of the table, then, first, if the distance be given, divide it by 2, or by 3, or by 4, kc till the quotient come within the distances in the table; then take out the height answer- ing to the quotient, and multiply it by the square of the divisor, that is, by 4, or 9, or 16, kc for the height re- quired: so if the top of a hill is just seen at the distance of 40 miles, then 40 divided by 4 gives 10, to which in the table answer 66| feet, which being multiplied by iti, the square of 4, gives 1061 * feet for the height of the hill. But when the height is given, divide it by one of these square numbers 4, 9, 16, 25. «xr. till the quotient remie within the limi:s ofthe table, and multiply the quotient by the square root of the divisor, that is by 2, or 3, or 4 or 5, cVr. for the distance sought: so when the top ejf th0 peak of Tencriffe, said to be almost 3 miles, or 15840 feet high, just comes into view at sea, elivide 15840 by 225, or the square of 15, and the quoth iu is 70 neailv; to which in the table answers by pcoporti m nearly 1;" miles; then multiply ing lof by 15, gives 154 miles and $, for the distance of the hill. LEV L I A The operation of levelling is as follows: Suppose the height of the point A (Plate LXXVIII. Misc. fig. 153,) on the top of a mountain, above that of B at the foot of it, is required. Place the level about the middle distance at D, and set up pickets, poles, or staffs at A and B, ■where persons must attend with signals for raising and lowering, on the said poles, little marks of pasteboard or other matter. The level having been placed horizontally by the bubble, &c. look towards the staff AE, and cause the person there to raise or lower the mark till it appears through the telescope or sights, &c. at E: then measure exactly the perpendicular height of the point E above the point A, which suppose 5 feet 8 inches, and set it down in your book. Then turn your view the other way to- wards the pole B, and cause the person there to raise or lower his mark, till it appears inthe visual line as before at C; and measuring the height of C above B, which sup- pose 15 feet 6 inches, set this down in your book also, immediately above the number of the first observation. Then subtract the one from the other, and the remain- der 9 feet 10 inches will be the difference of level be- tween A and B, or the height of the point A above the point B. If the point D, where the instrument is fixed, is exactly in the middle between the points A and B, there will be no necessity for reducing the apparent level to the true one, the visual ray on both sides being raised equally above the true level. But if not, each height must be corrected or reduced according to its distance, before the one correct height is subtracted from the other. "When the distance is very considerable or irregular, so that the operation cannot be effected at once placing of the level, or when it is required to know if there is a sufficient descent for conveying water from the spring A to the point B (fig. 154.), this must be performed at seve- ral operations. Having chosen a proper place for the first station, as at I, fix a pole at the point A near the spring, with a proper mark to slide up and down it, as L; and measure the distance from A to I. Then the level being adjusted in the point T, let the mark L be raised or lowered till it is seen through the telescope or sights of the level, ancl measure the height AL. Then having fixed another pole at H, direct the level to it, and cause "the mark G to be moved up or down till it appears through the instrument; then measure the height GH, and the distance from I to H, noting them down in the book. This clone, remove the level forwards to some other eminence as E, from whence tbe pole H may be viewed, as also another pole at D; then having adjusted the level in the point E, lookback to the pole H; and ma- naging the mark as before, the visual ray will give the point F; then measuring the distance HE and the height HF, note them down in the book. Then, turning the level to look at the next pole D, the visual ray will give the point. D; there measure the height of D, and the dis- tance EB, entering them in the book as before. And thus proceed from one station to another till the whole is completed. But all these heights must be corrected or reduced by the foregoing table, according to their respective dis- tances and heights, with their corrections entered in the book* in tbe following manner: 2 Back-sights. Fore-sights. Dists. yds IA 1650 EH 940 Hts. ft. ' in. AL 11 3 HF 10 7 Gors inc. 7.0 3.2 9.2 Dists. yds. IH 1265 EB 900 Hts ft. HG19 BD 8 in. 5 1 Cors inc. 4.0 2.1 2590 21 10 9.2 2165 2590 27 6 6.1 6.1 21 0.8 Dist.4755 26 11.9 0.8 Whole d level 21 if. of 5 11.1 Having summed up all the columns, add those of the distances together, and the whole distance from A to B is 4755 yards? or two miles and three quarters nearly. Then the sums of the corrections taken from the sums of the apparent heights, leave the two corrected heights; the one of which being taken from the other, leaves 5 feet 11.1 inches for the true difference of level sought between the two places A and B, which is at the rate of an inch and a half nearly to every 100 yards, a quantity more than sufficient to cause the water to run from the spring to the house. Or the operation may be otherwise performed, thus: Instead of placing the level between every two poles, and taking both back-sights and fore-sights, plant it first at the spring A, and from thence observe the level to the first pole; then move it to this pole, and observe the second pole; next remove it to the second pole, and observe the third pole; and so on, from one pole to an- other, alwrays taking foreward sights or observations only. And then at the last, add all the corrected heights together, and the sum will be the whole difference of le- vel sought. Levelling-staves, instruments used in levelling, serving to carry the marks to be observed, and at the same time to measure the heights of those marks from the ground. They usually consist each of two long wooden rulers, made to slide over one another, and di- vided into feet, inches, kc. LEVER. See Mechanics. LEVIGATION. See Pharmacy. LEV1SANUS, a genus of the class and order pentan- dria monogynia. The flowers are aggregate; corolla one- leafed, superior, five-cleft; filaments inserted into the base ofthe perianthium; styles two, conjoined; seeds five or six. There are five species, shrubs of the Cape. LEYDEN PHIAL. See Electricity. LEYSERA, a genus of the polygamia superflua or- der, in the syngenesia clase of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, compositse. The receptacle is naked; the pappus paleaceous; that of'the disc plumy; the calyx scarious. There are three species, shrubs of the Cape. LIATRIS, a genus ofthe class and order syngenesia polygamia sequalis. The calyx is oblong, imbricate, awn- less, coloured down, feathered coloured; receptacle naked, L I B L I B hollow dotted. There arc eight species, herbs of Ame- rica. LIBEL, injurious reproaches or accusations written and published against the memory of one wdio is dead, or the reputation of one who is alive, and thereby expos- ing him to public hatred, contempt, and ridicule. With regard to libels in general, there are, as in many other cases, two remedies; one by indictment or infor- formation, and the other by action. The former for a pub- lic offence; for every libel has a tendency to the breach ofthe peace, by provoking the person libelled to break it; which offence is said to be tbe same in point of law, whether the matter contained is true or false; and there- fore it is that the defendant on an indictment for pub- lishing a libel, is not allowed to allege the truth of it by way of justification. But in the remedy by action on the case, which is to repair the party in damages for the in- jury done him, the defendant may, as for words spoken, justify the truth of the facts, and show that the plaintiff has received no injury at all. The chief excellence there- fore of a civil actum for a libel consists in this, that it not only affords a reparation for the injury sustained, but is a full vindication of the innocence of the person traduced. 3 Black. 125. By a late statute, the jury are acknowledged to be judges both of the law ancl the fact. Libel, in the ecclesiastical court, is the declaration or charge drawn up in writing, on the part ofthe plain- tiff, to which the defendant is obliged to answer. Libel, in the law of Scotland, signifies an indictment. LIBELLULA, dragon-fly. a genus of insects of the order neuroptera. The generic character is: mouth fur- nished with several jaws; antennse very short; wings four, extended; tail (i« the male) hook-forripatcd. The libellulai, or dragon-flies, sometimes called by the very improper title of horse-stingers, exhibit an instance scarcely less striking than the butterfly of that strange dissimilitude in point of form under which one and the same animal is destined to appear in the different peri- ods of its existence. Perhaps few persons not particu- larly conversant in the hi.story of insects, would ima- gine that these highly brilliant and lively animals, which may be seen flying with such strength and rapidity round the meadows, and pursuing the smaller insects with the velocity of a hawk, had once been inhabitants of the wa- ter, and that they had resided for a long space of time in that element before they assumed their flying form. Of the libellulse there are many different species, both native and exotic. The most remarkable of the English specie's is the libellula varia, or great variegated libellu- la. This insect makes its appearance principally towards the decline of summer, and is an animal of singular beauty: its general length is about three inches from head to tail, and the wings, when expanded, measure near four inches from tip to tip; the head is very large, and affixed to the thorax by an extremely slender neck; the eyes occupy by far the greatest part of the head, and are of a pearly blue-grey cast, with a varying lustre; the front is greenish yellow; the thorax ofthe same colour, but marked by longitudinal black streaks; the body, which is very long, slender, ancl subc ylindrical, is black, with rich variegations of bright blue, and deep grass- green; the wings arc perfectly transparent,strengthened by very numerous black retigular fibres, and exhibit a strongly iridescent appearance, according to the various inflexions of light; each is marked near the tip by a small oblong square black spot on the outer edge; the legs are black, and the tail is terminated by a pair of black for- cipated processes, with an intermediate shorter one of similar colour. Sometimes this insect varies; the spots or marks on the abdomen and thorax being red or red- brown instead of green. The female libellula deposits or drops her eggs into the water, which sinking to the bottom, are hatched, af- ter a certain period, into hexapode flattish larvae or ca- terpillars, of a very singular and disagreeable aspect. They cast their skins several times before they arrive at their full size, and are of a dusky-brow n colour. The rudiments of the future wings appear on the back of sia h as are advanced to what may be called the pupa or chry- salis state, in the form of a pair of oblong scales or pro- cesses, and the head is armed with a most singular orgaa for seizing its prey, viz. a kind of proboseis, of a flat- tened form, and furnished with a joint inthe middle, the end being much dilated, and armed with a pair of strong hooks or prongs. This proboscis, when the animal is at rest, is folded or. turned up in such a manner as to lap over the face like a mask; but when the creature sees any insect which it means to attack, it springs suddenly for- wards, and by stretching forth thp jointed proboscis, rea- dily obtains its prey. They continue in this their larva and pupa state for two years, w hen, having attained their full size, they prepare for their ultimate change; and creeping up the stem of some water-plant, and grasping it with their feet, they make an effort, by which the skin of the back and head is forced open, and the inclosed li- bellula gradually emerges. The wings, at this early pe riod of exclusion, like those of butterflies, ace very short, tender and contracted, all the ramifications of fibres having been compressed within the small compass ofthe oblong scales on the back ofthe larva, or pupa; but in the space of abeuit half an hour, they are fully- expanded, and have acquired the solidity and strength necessary for flight. This curious process of the evolu- tion or birth of the libellula generally takes place in the morning, and during a dear sunshine. The remaining part of the animal's life is but short in comparison with that which it passed in its aquatic state, the frosts ofthe close of autumn destroying the whole race. They are also the prey of several sorts of birds. The libellula depressa is a smaller or shorter species than the preceding, though with a considerably broader body in proportion. The male is of a bright sky-blue, with the sides of the body yellow; the female of a fine brown or bay, with yellow sides also. The wings in both sexes are transparent, except at the shoulders, where they are each marked by a broad bed or patch of browii with a stripe of yellow; the tips of each wing have also a small oblong-square black spot on the outer mar- gin. The larva of this spec ies is of a shorter form than that of the preceding, and is of a greenish-brown colour. The libellula virgo is one of the most < hgant of the European insects. It is much smaller than the libellula varia, and is distinguished by its very slender, long, cy- lindric b.riy, which, as well as the head and thorax, is usually either of a bright but deep golden green, or else L I C LEA of a deep gilded blue. The wings are transparent at the base ancl tips, but are each marked in the'middlc by a very large oval patch or bed of deep blackish or violet blue, accompanied with iridescent hues according to the direction of the light: sometimes the wings are entirely violet-black, without the least appearance of transparen- cy either at the base or tips; and sometimes they are al- together transparent, without any appearance of the vio- let-black pitch which distinguishes the majority of spe- cimens; and lastly the insect sometimes appears with transparent wings, but shaded with a strung cast of gilded greenish brown, each being marked by a small white speck at the exterior edge, near the tip. A much smaller species than the preceding, and equally common, is the libellula puella of Linnseus. This varies much in colour, but is generally of a bright and beautiful sky-blue, variegated with black bars on the joints, and with the thorax marked by black longitudinal stripes. The wings are transparent, and each marked near the tip with a small oblong-square black marginal spot. The exotic libellula: are very numerous. Among the most remarkable may be numbered theL. lucrelia. It is a native ofthe Cape of Good Hope, and is distinguished by the excessive length of its slender body, which mea- sures not 1 ss than five inches and a half in length, though scarcely exceeding the tenth of an inch in diameter. The wings are transparent, of a slender or narrow shape, as in tiie L. puella, to which this species is allied in form, and measure five inches and a half in extent from tip to tip. The colour of the head and thorax is brown, with a yellowish stripe on each side, and the body is of a deep inazarinc-bliic. See Plate LXXV1I. Nat. Hist. figs. 250, 251. LIBERT US. in Roman antiquity, a person who from being a slave, had obtained his freedom. The difference between the liberti and libertihi was this: the liberti were such as had been actually made free themselves, and the libertini were the children of such persons. LUJRA, the balance, in astronomy, one of the twelve signs of the zodi.ic, the sixth in order; so called because when the sun enters it, the days and nights are equal, as if weighed iu a balance. Authors enumerate from ten to forty-nine stars in this sign. Libra, in Roman antiquity, a pound weight; also a coin, equal iu value to twenty denarii. LIBRATION, in astronomy, an apparent irregularity ofthe moon's motion, whereby she seems to librate about her axis, sometimes from the east to the west, and now and then from the west to the east; so that the parts in the western limb or margin of the moon sometimes re- cede from the centre of the disk, and sometimes move towards it, by which means they become alternately visi- ble ancl invisible to the inhabitants ofthe earth. Libkatiox of the earth, is sometimes used to denote the parallelism ofthe earth's axis, in every part of its or- bit round the siai. LICENCE, in law, an authority given to a person to do some lawful act. A licence is a personal power, and therefore cannot be transferred to another. If the person licenced abuse the power given him, in that case he becomes a tresspasser. LICENTIATE, one who has obtained the degree of a licence. The greatest number of the officers of justice in Spain are distinguished by no other title but that of li- centiate. In order to pass licentiate in common law, civil law, and physic, they must have studied seven years; and in divinity, ten. Among us, a licentiate usually means a physician who has a licence to practise, granted by the college of physicians, or the bishop of the diocese. LICHEN, liverwort, a genus of the natural order of algse, in the cryptogamia class of plants. The male re- ceptacle is roundish, sonn what plain ancl shining. In the female the leaves have a farina or mealy substance scat- tered over them. There are about 216 species, all found in Britain. Among the most remarkable are the follow- ing: 1. The geographicus; it is frequent in rocks, and may he readily distinguished at a distance. The crust or ground is of a bright greenish-yellow colour, sprinkled over with numerous plain black tubercles; which fre- quently run into one another, and form lines resembling the rivers in a map, from which last circumstance it takes it name. 2. The calcareous, or black-nobbed dyer's lichen, is frequent on calcareous rocks; and lias a hard, smooth, white, stony, or tartareous crust, cracked or tesselated on the surface, with black tubercles. Dillenius relates, that this species is used in dyeing, in the same manner as the tartareous after-mentioned. * 3. The ventosus, or red spangled tartareous lichen, has a hard tartareous crust, cracked and tesselated on the surface, of a pale yellow colour when fresh, and a light olive when dry. The tubercles are of a blood-red colour at top, their margin and base of the same colour as the crust. The texture ancl appearance of this (accor- ding to Mr. Lightfoot) indicate that it would answer the purposes of dyeing as well as some others of this tribe, if proper experiments were made. 4. The candclarius, or yellow farinaceous lichen, is common upon walls, rocks, boards, and old pales. There are two varieties. The first has a farinaceous crust of no regular figure, covered with numerous small grccn- ish-yeilovv or olive shields, and grows commonly upon old boards. The other has a smooth, hard, circular crust, wrinkled and lobed at the circumference, which adheres closely to rocks and stones. In the centre are numerous shields of a deeper yellow or orange colour, whicli, as they grow old, swell in the middle, and assume the figure of tubercles. The inhabitants of Smaland in Sweden scrape this lie hen from the rocks, and mix it with their tallow, to make golden candles to burn on festival days. 5. The tartareus, or large yellow-saucered dyer's lich- en, is frequent on rocks, both inthe Highlands and Low- lands of Scotland. The crust is thick and tough, either white or greenish white, and has a rough watered sur- face. The shields are yellow or buff-coloured, of various sizes; from that of a pin's head to the diameter of a silver penny. Their margins are of the same colour as the crust. This lichen is much used by the Highlanders for dyeing a fine claret or pompadour colour. For this purpose, after scraping it from the rocks, ancl cleaning it, they steep it in urine for a quarter of a year. Then taking it out, they make it into cakes, and hang them up in bags to dry. These cakes are afterwards pulverised, LICHEN. and the powder is used to impart the colour with an addi- tion of alum. 6. The p irellus, or crawfish-eye lichen, grows upon walls and rocks, but is not very common. The crusts spread closely upon the place where they grow, ancl cov- er them to a considerable extent. They are rough, tarta- reous, ancl ash-coloured, of a tough coriaceous substance. The shields are numerous and crowded, having white or ash-coloured, shallow, plain discs, with obtuse margins. This is used by the French for dyeing a red colour. 7. The saxatilis, or grey-blue pitted lichen, is very common upon trunks of trees, rocks, tiles, and old wood. It forms a circle two or three inches diameter. The up- per surface is of a blue grey, and sometimes of a whitish ash-colour, uneven, and full of numerous small pits or cavities; the under side is black, and covered all over, even to the edges, with short simple hairs or radicles. A variety sometimes occurs with the leaves tinged of a red or purple colour. This is used by finches and other small birds in constructing the outside of their curiously formed nests. 8. The omphalodes, or dark-coloured dyer's lichen, is frequent upon rocks. It forms a tliick widely expand- ed crust of no regular figure, composed of numerous im- bricated leaves of a brown or dark-purple colour, di- vided into small segments. The margins of the shields are a little crisped and turned inwards, and their out- side ash-coloured. This lichen is much used by the High- landers in dyeing a reddish-brown colour. They steep it in urine for a considerable time, till it becomes soft and like a paste; then, forming the paste into cakes, they dry them in the sun, and preserve them for use in the manner already related ofthe tartareous. 9. The parietinus or common yellow wall-lichen, is very common upon walls, rocks, tiles of houses, and trunks of trees. It generally spreads itself in circles of two or three inches diameter, and is said to dye a good yellow or orange-colour with alum. 10. The Islandicus, or eatable Iceland lichen, grows on many mountains both ofthe Highlands and Lowlands of Scotland. It consists of nearly erect leaves about two inches high, of a stiff substance when dry, but soft and pliant when moist, variously divided without order into broad distant segments, befid or trifid at the extremities. The upper or interior surface of the leaves is concave, chesnut-colour, smooth, and shining, but red at the base; the under or exterior surface is smooth and whitish, a little pitted, and sprinkled with very minute black warts. The margins of the leaves and all the segments from bottom to' top, are ciliated with small, short, stiff, hair- like spinulcs, of a dark chesnut-colour, turning towards the upper side. The shields are very rarely produced. Made into broth or gruel, it is said to be very servicea- ble in coughs ancl consumptions; and, according to Hal- lerand Scopoli, is much used in these complaints in Vi- enna. 11. The pulmonnreous, or lung-wort lichen, grows in shady we»oils upon the trunks of old trees. The leaves are as broad as a man's hand, of a kind of leather-like substance, hanging loose from the trunk on which it grows, and lac-"mated into wide angular segments. Their natural colour, when fresh, is green: but in drying, they turn fir.iL to a glauccous and afterwards to a fuscous co- lour. It has ar. astringent, bitter taste; and, accordingto Gmelin, is b'.iled in ale in Siberia, instead of hops. Tbe ancients used it in coughs ancl asthmas, &c. but it is not used in modern practice. 12. The calicaris, or beaked lichen, grows sometimes upon trees, but more frequently upon rocks, especially on the sea-coasts, but is not very common. It is smooth, glossy, and whitish, producing flat or convex shields, of the same colour as the leaves, very near the summits of the segments, which are acute and rigid, and. being of- ten reflected from the perpendicular by the growth of the shields, appear from under their limbs like a hooked beak. This will dye a red colour; and promises, in that intention, to rival the famous lichen roeolla or argol, which is brought from the Canary Islands, and some- times sold at the price of 80/. per ton. It was fernuriy used instead of starch to make hair-powder. 13. The prunastri, or common ragged hoary lichen, grows upon all sorts of trees; but it is generally most white and hoary on the sloe and old palm lives, or upon old pales. This"is the most variable of the whole tribe of lichens, appearing different in figure, magnitude, and co- lour, accordingto its age, place of growth, and sex. The young plants are of a glaucous colour, slightly divided into small acute crested segments. As they grow older, they are divided like a stag's horn, into more ancl deep- er "segments, somewhat broad, flat, soft, ancl pitted on both sides, the upper surface of a glauccns colour, the under one white and hoary. The male [hint-;, as Lin- naeus terms them, arc short, seldom more than an inch high, not hoary on the under side; and have pale- glau- cous shields situated at the extremities of the, segment?1, standing on short peduncles, which are only small stiff portions of the leaf produced. The female specimens have numerous farinaceous tubercles both on the edges of their leaves, and the wrinkles of their furnace. The pul- verised leaves Lave been used as a powder for the hair, and also in cly ring yarn of a red colour. 14.Thc juniperinus, or common yellow trcc-liclicn, is common upon the trunks and branches of elms and many other trees. Linnreus says it is very common upon the juniper. The Gotland Swedes dye their yarn e.i a ye I- low colour with it, and give it as a specific in the jaun- dice. 15. The caninus, or ashes hatred ground liverwn, grows upon the ground among m -c, at the roots of tries in shady woods, and is frequent also in heaths and stony- places. The leaves are large, gradually dilated towards the extremities, and divided into roundish elevated lobes. Their upper side, in dry weather, is ash-eedouit d: in rai- ny weather, of a dull fuscous green colour; their under- side white and hoary, having many thie k downy m-rves, from whicli descend numerous louir. white, pencil-like radicles. The pel:a-, or shields, grow at the extremities ofthe elevated lobes, shaped like the human nail; of a roundish oval form, convex above, and ceonavo beneath; of a chocolate colour on the upper side, and the same colour with the leaves on the under. The re . n> two va- rieties, the one called reddish, and the other manv-ftii"*- ered, ground-liverwort. The former is more lonnmn than the other. This s| <; ies 1 as been tendered famous by the celebrated Dr, >Ic;.d, who asserted tb.»t it was an LIC X IF infallible preventative of the dreadful consequence? at- tending the bite of a mad dog. 16. The aphthosus, or green ground liver-wort with black warts, grows upon the ground at the roots of trees in woods, and other stony and mossy places. It differs very little from the foregoing, ancl according to some is only a variety of it. Linnseus informs us, that the coun- try-people of Upland in Sweden give an infusion of this lichen in milk to children that are troubled with the dis- order called the thrush or aphtlne, which induced that ingenious naturalist to bestow upon it the trivial name of aphthosus. The same writer also tells us, that a decoc- tion of it in water purges upwards and downwards, and will destroy worms. 17. The cocciferus or scarlet-tipped cup-lichen, is fre- quent in moors and heaths. It has in the first state a granulated crust for its ground, which is afterwards turned into small lacinated leaves, green above, and hoary underneath. The plant assumes a very different aspect, according to the age, situation, and other acci- dents of its growth; but may be in general readily dis- tinguished by its fructifications, whie h are fungous tu- bercles of a fine scarlet colour, placed on the rim ofthe cup, or on the top of the stalk. '1 hese tubercles, steeped in an alkaline lixivium, are said to dye a fine durable red colour. 18. The rangiferinus, or rein-deer lichen, is frequent in woods, heaths, and mountainous places. Its general height, when full-grown, is about two inches. The stalk is hollow, and very much branched from bot- tom to top: the branches are divided and subdivided, and at last terminated by two, three, four, or five very fine, short, nodding horns. The axillae of the branches are often perforated. The whole plant is of a hoary white or grey colour, covered with white farinaceous particles, light and brittle when dry, soft and elastic when moist. The fructifications are very minute, round, fuscous, or reddish brown tubercles, which grow on the very extre- mities of the finest branches; but these tubercles are very seldom found. The plant seems to have no foliaceous ground for the base, nor scarce!v any visible roots. Lin- nseus tells us, that in Lapland this moss grows so luxu- riant that it is sometimes found a foot high. There are many varieties of this species, of which the principal is the syivaticus, or brown-tipt rein-deer lichen. The most remarkable difference between them is, that the syivati- cus turns fuscous by age, while the other always conti- nues white. 19. Theplicatus, or officinal stringy lichen, grows on the branches of old trees, but is not vcrv common. The stalks are a foot or more in length, cylindrical, rigid, and string-shaped, very irregularly branched, the branches entangled together, of a cinereous or ash-colour, brittle and stringy if doubled short, otherwise tough and pliant, ancl hang pendant from the trees on which they grow. The shields grow generally at the extremities of the branches, are nearly flat, or slightly concave, thin, ash- coloured above, pale-brown underneath, and radiated with fine rigid fibres. As the plant grows old. the branches become covered with a white-rough, warty crust; but the young ones are destitute of it. It was formerly used in the shops as an astringent to stop haemorrhages and to cure ruptures; but is out of the modern practice. Lin- nseus informs us, that the Laplanders apply it to their feet to relieve the excoriation occasioned by much walk- ing. 20. The barbatus, or bearded lichen, grows upon tht branches of old trees in thick woods and pine-forests. The stalks or strings are slightly branched and pendu- lous, from half a foot to two feet in length, little bigger than a taylor's common sewing-thread; cylindrical^ jointed towards the base; but surrounded every where else with numerous horizontal capillary fibres, either simple or slightly branched. Their colour is a whitish green. This has an astringent quality like the■preceding. When steeped in water, it acquires an orange colour; and, according to Dillcnius, is used in Pennsylvania for dyeing that colour. 21. The vulpinus, on gold wiry lichen, grows upon the trunks of old trees, but is not very common. It is produced in erect tufts, from half an inch to two ine lies in height, of a fine yellow or lemon-colour, which readily discovers it. The filaments which compose it are not cy- lindrical, but a little compressed and uneven in the sur- face, variously branched, the angles obtuse, and the branches straggling and entangled one with another. Linnaeus informs us, that the inhabitants of Smaland in Sweden dye their yarn of a yellow colour with this lichen, and that the Norwegians destroy wolves by stuffing dead carcases with this moss reduced to powder, and mixed with pounded glass, and so exposing them in the winter season to be devoured by those animals. LI'CONIA, in botany: a genus ofthe digynia order, belonging to the pentandria class of plants. There arc five petals inlaid in the pit ofthe nectarium at its base; the capsule is bilocular and seed-bearing. LICUALA, a genus of the nat. order of palmse. The flowers are all hermaphrodite: cal. and cor. three-parted, nect. sertiform drupe. There is one species. LIEUTENANTS, Lards, of counties, are officers who, upon any invasion or rebellion, have power to raise the militia, and to give commissions to colonels and other officers, to arm and form them into regiments, troops, and companies. Under the lords-lieutenants, are deputy-lieu- tenants, who have the same power; these are chosen by the lords-lieutenants, out of the principal gentlemen of each county, and presented to the king for his approbation. LIFE ANNUITIES, annual payments, to continue during any given life or lives. The present value of a life annuity is the sum which would be sufficient (allow- ing for the chance of the life failing) to pay the annuity without loss; and supposing money to bear no interest, the value of an annuity of U. is equal to the expectation of the life. Thus it will be found by the table given un- der the article Expectation or life, that the expec- tation of a life aged forty, is twenty-three years; or, in other words, that a set of lives at this age, will, one with another, enjoy twenty-three years each of existence, some of them enjoying a duration as much longer as others fall short of it. Therefore, supposing money to bear no interest, 2Sl. in hand for each life would be suf- ficient to pay to any number of such lives I/, per annum, for their whole duration; or, in other words, 23/. is, on this supposition, the value of a life aged forty. But if any improvement is made of money by putting it out to interest, the sum just mentioned will be more than the value, because it will be more than sufficient to pay the annuity; and it will be as much more than sufficient aa LIFE ANNUITIES. the improvement or the interest is greater. If, for in- stance, money may be so improved by being put out to interest, at 51. per cent, as to double itself in fourteen years, the seller of such ar. annuity, on putting out half the purchase money to interest, will at the end of four- teen years find himself in possession of 20/. 105. or of 11/. 10s. more than is sufficient to pay the remainder of 4he annuities, though he should make no further improve- ment of the purchase money. At whatever rate of inte- rest the money is improved, there must be a surplus; and if it is fully improved at 51. per cent., it will be found that 11/. 16a. 8d. for each annuity, will be suffi- cient (instead of 23/.) to make all the annual payments; or, if money can be improved at 6/. per cent., 10/. 14s. Id. will be sufficient. Many persons have fallen into an error wifh respect to the value of life-annuities, by considering it the same as the value of an annuity certain for a term of years equal to the expectation of the life. The inaccuracy of this mode of computation arises from the difference be- tween the value of a certain number of payments to be made every year regularly till the term is completed, and the value of the same number of payments to be made at greater distances of time from one another, and not to be all made till many years after the expiration of the term equal to the expectation. The true method of computing the values of life-an- nuities cannot be more clearly expressed than as it is given in "The Doctrine of Annuities and Assurance on Lives and Survivorships," by William Morgan.—"Was it certain that a person of a given age would live to the end of a year, the value of an annuity of ll. on such a life would be tiie present sum that would increase in a year to the value of a life one year older, together with the value of the single payment of 1/. to be made at the end of a year; that is, it would be 1/. together with the value of a life aged one year older than the given life, multiplied by the value of 1/. payable at the end of a year. Call the value of a life one year older than the given life N, and the value of l/. payable at the end of a year —; then will the value of an annuity on the given r life, on the supposition of a certainty, be---(---xN = — x 1 , N. But the fact is, that it is uncertain whether r the gi ven li fe w ill exist to the end of the year or not: this last value, therefore, must be diminished in the proportion of this uncertainty; that is, it must be multiplied by the proba- bility thatthe given life will survive one year, or supposing b b ______ — to express this probability, it will be—- x 1 ■+■ N. In U ill the same manner the values of annuities on the joint continuance of lives may be found: Call the value of any two joint lives M, the probability that two lives one year bd 1 younger will exist a year —7, and —7 as above, the value of 1/., payable at the end of the year. Then, by reason- ing as before, the value of the joint continuance of two bd lives one year younger will be expressed by —7 x TTm> By these theorems, tables may be calculated of the values of single or joint lives, according to any table oi the probabilities of life, and by the use of logarithms, and computing upwards, from the oldest to the youngest life, the labour of forming such tables is.not very great; few persons, however, have occasion to undertake it, as tho tables published by Dr. Price, Mr. Morgan and Mr. Ma- seres, show the values of life annuities as accurately as the present knowledge of the decrements and duration of human life will admit; and arc sufficient for almost every useful purpose. TABLE I. Showing the Value of an Annuity of ll. on a Single Life at every age, according to the probabilities ofthe duration of Human Life at Northampton, reckoning interest at 5 per Cent. Ages. Value. Age. Value. Age. 66 Value. Birth. 8.863 33 12.740 7.034 1 year 11.563 34 12.623 67 6.787 2 13.420 35 12.502 68 6.536 3 14.135 36 12.377 69 6.281 4 14.613 37 12.249 70 6.023 5 14.827 38 12.116 71 5.764 6 15.041 39 11.979 72 5.504 7 15.166 40 11.837 73 5245 8 15.226 41 11.695 74 4-990 9 15.210 42 11551 75 4.744 10 15.139 43 11.407 76 4-511 11 15.043 44 11.258 77 4.277 12 14 937 45 11105 | 78 4-035 13 14.826 46 10-947 ' 79 3.776 14 14.710 47 10-784 80 3.515 15 14.588 48 10-616 81 3.263 16 14.460 49 10-443 82 3.020 17 14-334 50 10.269 ! 83 2.797 18 14.217 ' 51 10097 8-1 2.627 19 14.108 52 9-925 85 2-471 20 14.007 53 9-748 ! 86 2-328 21 13.917 54 9-567 1 87 2.193 22 13.833 55 9-382 88 2-080 23 13-746 56 9-193 89 1-924 24 13-658 5 7 8-999 90 1-723 25 13.567 J 8 8-801 91 1 447 26 13-473 59 8-599 92 1.153 27 18.377 oO 8-392 93 0-S16 28 13.278 61 8 181 94 0-524 29 13.177 62 7-966 95 0.238 30 13-072 63 7-742 96 0.000 31 12-965 64 7-514 32 12-854 1 65 7-276 These values suppose the payments to be made yearly, and to begin at the end of the first year; if the payments are to be made half-yearly, the value in the table will be increased about one-fifth of a year's purchase. In order to find the present value of an annuity dur- ing any given life, it is only necessary to multiply Ihe value in the table coi responding with the age, by the giv- en annuity. Example. What should a person aged 45, give, to purchase an annuity of 50/. during his HfeJ LIFE ANNUITIES. TI.c value in the table against 45 years is 11.105, which multiplied by 50 gives the answer 555/. 5s. TABLE II. Showing the Value of an Annuity during the joint contin- uance of Two Lives, according to the probabilities of Life at Northampton; reckoning interest at 5 per Cent. Agei. Value. | Ages 20-2 Value. \g'CS. 40-45 Value. 5-5 11.9S4J [0.9S9 8.643 5-10 12.315- 20-.-.: : 0.707 40-50 8.177 5-15 L 1.9 ^4 20-3.* 10 363 40-55 7.651 5-2;J 11.561 ■20-40 9-937 40-60 7.015 5-25 L1.2:ri 20-45 9.448 40-65 6.240 5-30 10.959 20-50 8.861 40-70 5.298 5-35 10.572 20-55 8.216 40-7: 4.272 5-40 10.102 20-60 7.463 40-80 3.236 5-45 9.571. 20-65 6.576 45-45 8.312 5-50 8.941J 20-70 5.532 45-50 7.891 5-55 8.256 20-75 4.424 45-55 7.411 5-60 7.466 20-80 3.325 '45-60 6.822 5-65 6.546 25-25 10.764 45-65 6.094 5-70 5.472 25-30 10.499 45-70 5.195 5-75 4.362 25-35 10.175 ■A5-75 4.206 5-80 3.238 25-40 9.771 J45-80 3.197 10-10 12.665 25-45 9.304 50-50 7.522 10-15 12.302 25-50 8.739 50-55 7.098 10-20 11.906 25-55 8.116 50-60 6.568 10-25 11.627 25-60 7.383 ,50-65 5.897 10-30 11-304 "25-65 6.515 !50-70 5.054 10-35 10.916 '25-70 5.489 '50-75 4.112 10-40 10.442 '•25-75 4.396 50-80 3.140 10-45 9.900 '25-80 3.308 '55-55 6.735 10-50 9.260 30-30 10.255 55-60 6.272 10-55 8.560 30-35 9.954 55-65 5.671 10-60 7.750 60-40 9.576 55-70 4.893 10-65 6.803 30-45 9.135 55-75 4.006 10-70 5.700 30-50 8.596 55-80 3.076 10-75 4.522 30-55 7.999 60-60 5.388 10-80 3.395 30-60 7.292 60-65 5.372 15-15 11.960 30-65 6.447 :60-70 4.680 15-20 11.585 30-70 5.442 ! 60-75 3.866 15-25 11.324 30-75 4.365 !60-80 2.992 15-30 11.021 30-80 3.290 J65-65 4.960 15-35 10.655 35-35 9.680 J65-70 4.378 15-40 10.205 35-40 9.331 .65-75 3.665 15-45 9.690 35-45 8.921 |65-80 2.873 15-50 9.076 35-50 8.415'i70-70| 3.930 15-55 8.403 35-55 7.849J70-75 3.347 15-60 7.622 35-60 7.174;70-80 2.675 15-65 6.705 35-65 6.360|;75-75 2.917 15-70 5.631 35-7< 5.382i75-80| 2.381 15-75 4.495 35-7? 4.327'; 80-80 2.018 15-80 3.372 35-80 3.268 '85-85 1.256 20-20 11.232 40-4( 9.016 90-90 0.909 It is unnecessary to insert a Table ofthe values ofthe longest of two lives, as it may be easily found from the Values given in the above tables by the following general rules: " From the sum of the values of the single lives sub- tract the value of an annuity on the joint lives, ami the remainder will give the value of an annuity on the con- tinuance of the longest of two such lives." Example. What is the. value of an annuity on the long- est of two lives whose ages are thirty and forty? By Table I. the value- of a single life of 30 "is 13.072, ancl by the same Table the value of a single life of 10 is 11.837. Their sum therefore is 24.909. from whicli 9.576 (the value ofthe joint lives of 30 and 40 by Table II.) be- ing subtracted, gives 15.333 for the number of years pur- chase required. The value of an annuity on three joint lives may be found from the preceding tables, by the following rule: " Let A be the youngest, and C the oldest of the three proposed lives. Take the value ofthe two joint lives B and C, and find the age of a single life D of the same value. Then lind the value ofthe joint lives A and 1), whicli will be the answer." Example. Let the three given lives be 20, 30, and 4D. The value ofthe two oldest joint lives B and C will (by Table II.) be 9.576, answering in Table I. to a single life D of 54 years; and the value of thejeiint lives A and D, or the ages in the Table which come nearest to them, gives 8.216 for the value sought. The value of three joint lives being known, the value of the longest of any three lives may be computed by the following rule: " From the sum of the values of all the single lives, subtract the sum ofthe values of all the joint lives com- bined two and two. Then to the remainder add the value of the three joint lives; and this last sum will be the val- ue of the longest ofthe three lives." Example. The sum of the values of three single lives whose ages are 20, 30, and 40, is (by Table I.) 38.916. The value of two joint lives, whose ages are 20 and 30, is (by Table II.) 10.707; of two joint lives whose ages are 20 and 40, is 9.937, and two joint lives wiiose ages are 30 and 40 is 9.576; the sum of these three values is 30.220. This sum subtracted from 38.916, leaves 8.696, which remainder added to 8.216 (the va- lue of the three joint lives in the last example), gives 16.912, the value of the longest of the three lives. The answers in this ancl the preceding example are not quite exact, in consequence of the table of joint lives being confined to the combinations of every fifth year of age; those who have occasion to make such compu- tations, will find more extensive tables of the values of joint lives in Dr. Price's excellent Treatise on Rever- sionary Payments; but a general table of the values of two joint lives feir every possible difference of age, at different rates of interest, has long been very desirable. The solutions of the following Problems, in addition to the rules already given, will comprehend all the cases which most commonly occur relating to the values of annuities on lives or survivorship. Pkoh. I. To determine the value of an annuity on a given life for any number of y< urs. Solution. Find the value of a life as many years older than the given life as are equal to the term for which the annuity is proposed. Multiply this value by 1/., pajable at the end of this term, and also by the probability that the life will continue so long. Subtract the product from the present value of the given life, and the remainder multiplied by the annuity will be the answer. Example. Let the annuity be 20/. the age ofthe given life 35 years, aud the term proposed 14 years. The value L I F L I F of a life aged 49 years (or 14 years older than the given life), appears by Table I. to be 10,443. The value of 1/. payable at the end of 14 years (see Compound Inter- est), is .505068, ancl the probability that the life will exist so long, (See Expectation of Life) is -;£y§. These three values multiplied into each other are equal to 3.861, which being subtracted from 12.502 (the pre- sent value of the given life by Tabic I.), we have 8.641, and this remainder multiplied by 20, gives 162/. 16s. 4ci. for the value required. In a similar manner the value of an annuity for any given term, upon two joint lives, may be determined. Prob. II. To find the value of an annuity certain feir a given teem after the extinction of any given life or lives. Solution. Subtract the value of the life or lives from the perpetuity, and reserve the remainder. Then say, as the perpetuity, is to the present value of the annuity cer- tain, so is the said reserved remainder, to a fourth pro- portional, which will be the number of years purchase re- quired. Example. A and his heirs are entitled to an annuity certain for 14 years, to commence at the death of B, aged 35. What is the present value of A's interest in this annuity? By table I. the value of the life of B is 12,502, which subtracted from 20, the perpetuity, leaves 7.498 for the remainder to be reserved. Then, as 20, is to 9.898 (the value of an annuity certain for 14 years), so is 7.498 (the reserved remainder), to 3.7107, the number of years purchase required. Prob. III. To find the value of an annuity for a term certain, ancl also for what may happen to remain of a given life or lives after the expiration of this term. Solution. Find the value of a life or lives as many years older than the given life or lives as are equal to .the term for which the annuity certain is proposed. Mul- tiply this value by 1/. payable at the end of the given term, and also by the probability that the given life or lives will continue so long. Add the product to the value of the annuity certain for the given term, and the sum will be the answer. Example. Let the value be required of an annuity certain for 14 years, and also for the remainder of a life now aged 55 after the expiration of this term. By Ta- ble I. the value of a life aged 49 (or 11 years older than the given life) is 10.443. The value of 1/. payable at the end of 14 years, is .505068, ancl the probability that the life will exist so long is ||4I* ^hese three n.imbcrs mul- tiplied into each other, produce 3.861, which being ad- ded to 9.898, the value of an annuity certain for 14 years (see Annuities), becomes equal to 13.759, the number of years purchase required. Prob. IV. To determine what annuity any given sum will purchase during the joint lives e»f two persons of given ages, and also during the life e>f the survivor, on condition that the annuity shall be reduced one-ball at the extinction of the joint lives. Solution. Let twice the given sum be divided by the sum of the two single lives, and the quotient will give the annuity to he paid during the joint lives; out-half of which is therefore the annuity to be paid during the re- mainder of, the surviving life. vol. u. 69 Example. A aged 27, and B aged 35. are desirous of sinking 1000/. in order to receive an annuity during their joint lives, and also another annuity of half the value during the remainder of the surviving life. It is required to de- termine what annuities should be granted them under those circumstances. By Table I. the value of a life of 27 is 13.377, and the value of a life of 35 is 12.502. 2000'. (or twice the given sum) being divided by 25.879 (the sum of the values of the two lives), gives 77.282/. for the annuity to be granted during the joint continuance of the lives; ancl its half, or 38.641/. is the annuity to be paid during the life of the survivor. Prob. V. B, who is of a given age, will, if he lives till the decease of A, whose age is also given, become possessed of a perpetual annuity, or of an estate of a giv- en yearly value; to find the worth of his expectation in present money. Solution. Find the value of an annuity on two equal joint lives whose common age is equal to the age of the oldest of the two proposed lives, which value subtract from the perpetuity, and-take half the remainder: then say, as the expectation of duration of the younger of the two lives, is to that of the older, so is the said half re- mainder, to a fourth proportional; which will be the num- ber of years purchase required when the life of B in ex- pectation is the older of the two: but if B be the younger, then add the value so found to that of the jeiint lives A and B, ancl let the sum be subtracted from the perpetui- ty, and you will also have the answer in this case. Example. Suppose the age of B to be 30, and that of A 20 years, and the value of the estate 50/. per annum. Then the value of two equal joint lives, aged 30, is, by Table II. 10.255, and the perpetuity being 20, the dif- ference will be 9.745, the half of which is 4.872. There- fore as 33.43, the expectation of A, is to 28.27, the ex- pectation of B, so is 4.872, to 4.119, which being multi- plied by 50, the given annuity, we have 205.95/. for the required value of B's expectation. If the age of B had been 20, and that of A 30 years, then to 4.119, the value just found, add the value of the joint lives, which, by Table II. is 10.707, and the sum is 14.826, which subtracted from 20, the perpetuity, and the remainder multiplied by 50, gives 258.7/. for the re- quired value in this case. LIFE ESTATES are of twro kinds, such as are cre- ated by the act of the parties, or such as are created by the operation of the law, as estates by curtesy or dower. 2 Black. 120. Estates for life, created by deed or grant, are, where a lease is made of lands or tenements to a man, to hold for the term of bis own life, or for that oi another per- son, or for more lives than one; in any of which cas--*, he is called tenant for life: only when he holds tiie estate by the life of another, he is usually termed tenant pur auter \ie, for another's life. Estates for life may be created not only by the express terms before-mentioned, but also by a general grant, without defining or limiting any specific estate.'. 2 Black. 121. If such persons, for whose life any estate shall be granted, shall absent themselves snon years, ancl no proof made i.-f the lives of such persons, in anv action com me need for the recovery of such tenements by tho L I L L I L lessors or reversioners, the persons upon whose lives such estate depended, shall be accounted as dead; and the judges shall direct the jury to give their verdict as if the person absenting himself was dead. 19 Car. II. c. 6. LIGAMENT. See Anatomy. LIGATURE. See Surgery. LIGHT. See OrTics. LIGHTS: stopping lights of any house is a nauisance, for which an action will lie, if the house is an ancient house, and the lights ancient lights: but slopping a pros- pect is not. being only matter of delight, not of necesity; and a person may have either an assize of nuisance against the persons erecting any such nuisance, or he may stand on his own ground and abate it. 2 Salk. 247. LIGHTFOOTIA, a genus ofthe class and order po- lygamia dioee ia. The cal. is four-leaved; cor. none; fem. and her. stigma sessile; berry umbiiicated. There are three species, shrubs ofthe E. Indies. LIGHTNING. See Electricity. LIGUSTIC UM, lovagc; a genus of the digynia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 45th order, umbellate. The fruit is oblong, and quinquesule ated on each side; the florets are equal; the petals involuted or rolled inwards, and entire. There are eight species, of which the most remarkable are, the levistic um, or common, and the Sco- ticum, or Scots, lovage. The first is a native of the Appe- nine mountains in Italy. The second is a native of Scot- land, and grows near the sea in various parts of the country. The root of the first species agrees nearly in quality With that of angelica: the principal difference is, that the lovage root has a stronger smell, and a somewhat less pungent taste, accompanied with a more durable sweet- ness, the seeds being rather warmer than the root; but although certainly capable of being applied to useful purposes, this root is not regarded in the present prac- tice. The leaves of the second are sometimes eaten raw as a salad, or boiled as greens, by the inhabitants of the Hebrides. They give an infusion of the leaves in whey to calves, to purge them. LIGUST11UM, privet, a genus of the monogynia or- der, in the diandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 44th order, sepiarise. The Corolla is quadrifid; the berry tetraspermous. There are three species; of the common there are two varieties, the deciduous and the evergreen. They are hardy plants, rising from ten to fifteen feet high. They are easily pro- pagated by seed, layers, suckers, or cuttings. They are used for making hedges. The purple colour upon cards is prepared from the berries. With the addition of alum, these berries are said to dye wool and silk of a good and durable green; for which purpose they must be gath- ered as soon as they are ripe. The leaves are bitter and slightly astringent. Oxen, goats, and sheep, eat the pi ant; horses refuse it. LIKE, in geometry, eke. denotes the same with simi- lar. See Similar. LILAC, in botany, a genus of trees, otherwise called s; ringa. See Syringa. LILALITE.This stone appears to have been first ob- served by the abbe Poda, and to have been then describ- ed by De Bom. Hitherto it has only been found in Mo- ravia in Germany, and Sudermania in Sweden. There it is mixed with granite in large amorphous masses, it is composed of thin plates, easily separated, and not unlike , those of mica. Not easily pulverised. Specific gravity 2.8549. Colour of the mass, violet-blue; ofthe thin plates, silvery white. Powder white, with a tint of red. Before the blowpipe, it froths, and melts easily into a white semi- transparent enamel, full of bubbles. Dissolves in borax with effervescence, and communicates no colour to it. Effervesces slightly with soda, and melts into a mass spotted with red. With microcosmic salts it gives a pearl-coloured globule. This stone was first called lilalite from its colour, that of the lily. Klaproth, who discovered its component parts, gave it the name of lepidolite. It is composed of 53 silica 20 alumina 18 potass 5 float of lime 3 oxide of manganese 1 oxide of iron 100. LILIUM, the lily; a genus of the monogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants; and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 10th order, coronarise. The corolla is hexapetalous, and campanulated, with a lon- gitudinal nectariferous line or furrow; the capsules con- nected by small cancellated hairs. There are eleven species; all of them bulbous-rooted, herbaceous, flowery pen nnials, rising with erect annual stalks three or four feet high, garnished with long narrow leaves, and termi- nated by fine clusters of large, bell-shaped, hexapetalous flowers of great beauty, of white, red, scarlet, orange, purple, and y ellow colours. All the species are propagated by sowing the seedsj and if care is taken to preserve these seeds from good flowers, very beautiful varieties are often produced. The roots e>f the white lily are emollient, maturating, and suppurative, ancl are used externally in cataplasms for these purposes with success. The common form of applying them is, boiled and bruised. Gerard recom- mends them internally against dropsies. The Kamtschatence, or Kamtschatka lily, called there saranne. makes a principal part of the food of Kamtschat- kans. Its roots are gathered by the women in August, dried in the sun, and laid up for use: they are the best bread ofthe country; and after being baked are reduced to powder, and serve instead of flour in soups and seve- ral dishes. They are sometimes washed, and eaten as potatoes; are extremely nourishing, and have a pleasant bitter taste.. Our navigators boiled and ate them with their meat. The natives often parboil, and beat it np with several sorts of berries, so as to form of it a very agreeable confection. Providentially it is an universal plant there, and all the grounds bloom with its flower during the season. Another happiness remarked there is, that while fish are scarce, the saranne is plentiful;- and when there is a dearth of this, the rivers pour in their provisions with redoubled profusion. It is not to the labours of the females alone that the Kaaitschatkans L I M L I M are indebted lor these roots. A species of mouse saves them a great deal of trouble. The saranne forms part of the winter provisions of that little animal: they not only gather them in the proper season, and lay them up in their magazines, but at times have the instinct of bringing them out in sunny weather to dry them, lest they should decay. The natives search for their hoards; but with prudent tenderness leave part for the owners, be- ing unwilling to suffer such useful caterers to perish. LIMAN, the slug, or naked snail; a genus of insects belonging to the order of vermes mollusca. The body is oblong, fitted for crawling, with a kind of muscular coat on the upper part, and the belly is plain. They have four tentacula, or horns, situated above the mouth, which they extend or retract at pleasure. This reptile is alw ays destitute of shell; but besides that its skin is more clam- my, and of a greater consistency, than that of the snail, the black naked slug has a farrowed cloak, almost as thick and as hard as leather, under which it withdraws its head as within a shell. The head is distinguished from the breast by a black line. It is in its head and back that the snail-stone is found; which is a small pearl- ed and sandy stone, of the nature of limestones: accord- ing to a popular opinion, it cures the tertian ague, if fast- ened to the patient's arm. These slugs move on slowly, leaving every where clammy and shining marks of their passage. They deposit their eggs in the carth. There are eight species, distinguished entirely by their colour; as the black slug, the wiiite slug, the reddish slug, the ash-coloured slug, &c. The black slug is hermaphrodite. A black slug, powdered over with snuff, salt, or sugar, falls into convulsions, casts forth all its foam, and dies. LIME, one of those earthy substances, which exist in every part of the known world. It is found purest in limestone, marble, and chalk. None of these substances are lime, but are capable of becoming so by burning in a white heat. Lime may be also obtained perfectly pure by burning those crystallized limestones called calcareous spars, which are perfectly wiiite and transparent, and also by burning some pure white marbles. It may be procured also in a state of purity by dissolving oyster-shells in muriatic acid, filtring the solution, mixing it with am- monia as long as a white powder continues to fall, and filtring again. The liquid is now to be mixed with a so- lution of carbonat of soda: the powder which falls being washed and dried, and heated violently in a platinum cru- cible, is pure lime. Pure lime is of a white colour, moderately hard, but easily reduced to a powder. It has a hot burning taste, and in some measure corrodes and destroys the texture of those animal bodies to which it is applied. Its specific gravity is 2.3. It tinges vegetable blues green, and at last converts them to yellow. If water be poured on newly burnt lime, it swells and falls to pieces, and is soon reduced to a very tine powder. In the mean time so much heat is produced, that part of the water flies off in vapour. If the quantity of lime slacked (as this process is termed) be great, the heat produced is sufticient to set fire to cooibu.-iiihles. In this manner., vessels loaded with lime have sometimes been burnt. When great quantities of line aie slacked in a dark place, not only heat but light ai.so is emitted, as Mr. Pelletier has observed. When slacked in:ie is weighed, it is found to be heavier than it was before. This additional weight is owing to tbe combination of part of the water with the lime; whicli water may be separated again by the application of a red heat; and by this pro- cess the lime becomes just what it was before being slack- ed. Hence the reason of the heat evolved during the slacking of lime. Part of the water combines with the lime, and thus becomes solid; of course it parts with its caloric of fluidity, and probably also with a considerable quantity of caloric, which exists in water even when in the state of ice: for w hen two parts of lime and one part of ice (each at 32°) arc mixed, they combine rapidly, and their temperature is elevated to 212°. The elevation of temperature during the slacking of barytes and strontian is owing to the same cause. The smell perceived during the slacking of lime is ow- ing to a part of that earth being elevated along with the vapour of the water; as evidently appears from this cir- cumstance, that vegetable blues exposed to this vapour are converted to green. Limestone and chalk, though they are capable of be- ing converted into lime by burning, posesst s hardly any ofthe properties of that active substance. They arc taste- less, scarcely soluble in water, ancl do not perceptibly acton animal bodies. Now, to what are the new proper- ties of lime owing? What alteration does it undergo in the fire? It had been long known, that limestone loses a good deal of weight by being burned or calcined. It was na- tural to suppose, therefore, that something is separated from it during calcination. Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, published in 1756, those celebrated experiments on this subject, which form so brilliant an era in the history of chemistry. He first ascertained, that the quantity of water separated from limestone dining its calcination is not nearly equal to the weight which it lost. He concluded in consequence, that it must have lost something else than mere water. What this could be, he was at first at a loss to conceive; but recollecting that Dr. Hales had proved, that limestone, during its solution in acids, emits a great quantity of air, he conjectured that this might probably be what it lost during calcination. He calcined it ac- cordingly, and applied a pneumatic apparatus to receive the product. He found his conjecture verified; and that the air and water which separated from the lime were to- gether precisely equal to the loss of weight which it had sustained. Lime, therefore, owes its new properties to the loss of air; and limestone differs from lime merely in being combined with a certain quantity of air: for he found that, by restoring again the same quantity of air to lime, it was converted into limestone. This air, because it existed in lime in a fixed state, he called fixed air. It was afterwards examined by Dr. Priestley and either philosophers; found to possess peculiar properties, and to be that species of gas now known by the name of car- bonic acid gas. Lime- then is a simple substance, and limestone is composed of carbonic acid and lime. Heat separates the carbonic acid, and leaves the lime in a state of purity. See Air. When lime is exposed to the open air, it gradually at- tracts moisture, and falls to powder; alter which it 'soon LIME becomes saturated with carbonic acid, and is again con- verted into carbonat of lime or uiiburnt limestone. Water, at. the common temperature ofthe atmosphere, dissolves about 0.002 parts of its weight of lime. This solution is called lime-water. It is limpid, has an acrid taste, and changes vegetable blue colours to green. One ounce fry of lime-water contains about one grain of lime. It is usually formed by throwing a quantity of lime in powder in!o pure water, allowing it to remain for some time in a close vessel, and then decanting the transpa- rent solution from the undissolved lime. When lime-wa- ter is exposed to the air, a stony crust soon forms on its surface, composed of carbonat of lime; when this crust is broken it falls to the bottom and another succeeds it; and in this manner ihe whole ofthe lime is soon preci- pitated, by absorbing carbonic acid from the air. Lijnc is not acted on by light, neither does it combine with oxvgcn. Sulphur and phosphorus are the only sim- ple combustibles with vhich it unites. Sulphuret of lime may be formed by mixing its two component parts, reduced to a powder, and heating them in a crucible. They undergo a commencement of fusion, and form an acrid taste. When it is exposed to the air, or moistened with water, its colour becoming greenish jellow, sulphureted hydrogen is formed, and the sulphu- ret is converted into a hydrogenated sulphuret, which exhales a \ery f tid odour of sulphureted hydrogen gas. This hydrogenated sulphuret may be formed also by boiling a mixture of lime and sulphur in about ten times its weight of water, or by sprinkling quicklime with sul- phur and then moistening it: the heat occasioned by the slacking of the lime is sufficient to form the combination. When this hydrogenated sulphuret is exposed to the air, it imbibes oxygen; which combines at first with the hy- drogen, and afterwards with the sulphur, and converts the compound into sulphat of lime. Phosphuret of lime may be formed by the following process: put into the bottom of a glass tube, close at one end, one part of phosphorus; and, holding the tube hori- zontally, introduce five parts of lime in small lumps, so that they shall be about two inches above the phospho- rus. rl hen place the tube horizontally among burning coals, so that the part of it which contains the lime may be made red-hot, while the bottom of the tube containing the phosphorus remains cold. When the lime becomes red-hot, raise the tube, and draw it along the coals till that part of it which contains the phosphorus is exposed to a red heat. The phosphorus is immediately volatiliz- ed, and passing through the hot lime combines with it. During the combination the mass becomes of a glowing red heat, and a quantity of phosphuretcd hydrogen gas is emitted, which takes fire when it comes into the air. Lime does not combine with azote; but it unites readi- ly with muriatic acid, and forms muriate of lime. It fa- cilitates the oxidizement of several ofthe metals, and it combines with several ofthe metallic oxides, and forms salts which have not hitherto been examined, if we ex- cept the compounds which it forms with the oxides of mercury and lead, which have been described by Ber- thollet. The red oxide of mercury, boiled with lime-water, is partly dissolved, and the solution yields by evaporation small transparent yellow crystals. This compound has been called by some mercuiiat of lime. Lime-water also dissolves the red oxide of lead, and (still better) litharge. This solution, evaporated in arc- tort, gives very small transparent crystals, forming pris- matic colours, and not more soluble in water than lime. It is decomposed by all the alkaline sulphats, and by sul- phureted hydrogen gas. The sulphuric and muriatic acids precipitate the lead. This compound blackens wool, the nails, the hair, and white of eggs; but it does not affect the colour of silk, the skin, the yolk of egg, nor animal oil. It is the lead which is precipitated on these coloured substances in the state of oxide; for all acids can dis- solve it. The simple mixture of lime and oxide of lead blackens these substances; a proof that the salt is easily formed. Lime docs not combine with alkalies. The affinities of lime are arranged by Bergman in the following order: Oxalic acid Arsenic Sulphuric Lactic Tartaric Citric Succinic Benzoic Phosphoric Sulphurous Saclactic Acetic Nitric Boracic Muriatic Carbonic Suberic Prussic Fluoric One ofthe most important uses of lime is, in the for- mation of mortar as a cement in building. Mortar is com. posed of quicklime and sand reduced to a paste with wa- ter. When dry it becomes as hard as stone, and as dura- ble; and adhering very strongly to the surfaces of the stones which it is employed to cement, the whole wall becomes in fact nothing else than one single stone. But this effect is produced very imperfectly unless the mor- tar is very well prepared. The lime ought to be pure, completely free from car- bonic acid, and in the state of a very fine powder: the sand should be free from clay, and partly in the state of fine sand, partly in that of gravel: the water should be pure; and if previously saturated with lime, so much the better. The best proportions, according to the expe- riments of Dr. Higgins, are three parts of fine sand, four parts of coarse sand, one part of quicklime recently slacked, and as little water as possible. The stony consistence which mortar acquires, is ow- ing partly to the absorption of carbonic acid, but princi- pally to the combination of part of the water with the lime. This last circumstance is the reason that if to com- mon mortar one-fourth part of lime, reduced to powder without being slacked, is added, the mortar, when dry, acquires much greater solidity than it otherwise would do. This was first proposed by Loriot; and a number of experiments were afterwards made by Morveau. The proportions which this philosopher found to answer best are the following: Fine sand ... o.3 Cement of well-baked bricks 0.3 Slacked lime - - - 0.2 Unslacked lime - - 0.2 1.0 L I M L I M The same advantages may be attained by using as little water as possible in slacking the lime. Iliggins found that the addition of burnt bones im- proved mortar by giving it tenacity, and rendering it less apt to crae-k in drying; but they ought never to ex- ceed one-fourth of the lime empleiyed. When a little manganese is added to mortar, it ac- quires the important property of hardening underwater; so that it may be employed in constructing those edifices which are constantly exposed to the action of water. Limestone is often combined with manganese: in that case it becomes brown by . alcination. LIMESTONE. See Salts, calcareous. Limestone, primitive and secondary. See Rocks. LIMEUM, a genus of the class and order heptandria digynia. The cal. is five-leaved; pet. five; caps globular, two-celled. There are three species, herbaceous plants of the Cape. LIMIT, in a restrained sense, is used by mathemati- cians for a determinate quantity to which a variable one continually approaches; in which sense the circle may be said to be the limit of its circumscribed and in- scribed polygons. In algebra, the term limits is applied to two quantities, one of which is greater, and the other less, than another quantity; and in this sense it is used in speaking of the limits of equations, whereby their so- lution is much facilitated. Let any equation, as x3—px2 x qx — r = 0 be pro- posed; and transform it into the following equation: 1/3 + seif 4- 3ey2 + e3 ^ vv—vt —%Pey — P& L = o, 4- qy + qe f — r J where the values of y are less than the respective values of .t, by the difference e. If you suppose e to be taken such as to make all the co-efficients of the equation of y positive, viz. e3 — pe2 + qe — r, Se2 — 2pe + q, 3e — P' then there being no variation ofthe signs in the equa- tion, all the values of y must be negative; and conse- quently the quantity e, by which the values of x are di- minished, must be greater than the greatest positive value of x: and, consequently, must be the limit of the roots of the equation x3 — px* + qx — r - 0. It is sufficient, therefore, in order to find the limit, to inquire what quantity substituted for x, in each of these expressions x3 —px2 + qx — r, 3x2 — 2px + q, Sx — «, will give them all positive; for the quantity will be the limit required. Having found the limit that surpasses the greatest po- sitive root, call it m. And if you assume y = m — x, and for x substitute m — y, the equation that will arise will have all its roots positive; because m is supposed to surpass all the values of x, and consequently m — x e _ «) mi,st alw ays be affirmative. And by this means, any equation may be changed into one that shall have all its roots affirmative. Qlf jf__n represent the limit of the negative roots, then b) assuming y---r 4- n, the proposed equation shall be transformed into one that shall have all its roots affirmative; for, -f ft being greater than any negative va- lue of x, it follows thaty = x — n must be always po- sitive. What is here said of the above cubic equation, may be easily applied to others; and of all sin ii equations, two limits are easily discovered, viz. o, which is le- s titan the least; and e, found as above, which surpasses the greatest root of the equation. But besides thes'-, other limits still nearer the roots may be found: for the method of doing which, the reader may consult Maciaurin's A! gebra. LIMITATION, a certain time prescribed by statute, within which an action must be brought. The time, of li- mitation is twofold; first in writs, by divers acts of par- liament; secondly, to make a title to any inheritance, and that is by the common law. Limitation on penal statutes.—All actions, suits, bills, indictments, or informations, which shall be brought for any forfeiture upon any statute penal, made or to be made, whereby the forfeiture is or shall be limited to the queen, her heirs or successors only, shall be brougiit within two years after the offence committed, and nor after twro years; and all actions, suits, bills, or informa- tions, which shall be brought for any forfeiture, upon any penal statute,made or to be made, except the statutes of tillage, the benefit and suit whereof is or shall be by tho said statute limited to the queen, her heirs or successors, and to any other that shall prosecute in that behalf, s'wAl be brought by any person that may lawfully sue for the same, within one year next after the offence com mi to d; and in default of such pursuit, then the same shall be brought for the queen's majesty, her heirs or successors, any time within the two years, after that year is ended; and it is provided, that where a shorter time is limited by any penal statute, the prosecution must be within that time. 31 Eliz. c. 5. Limitation in regard to personal actions of assault and battery, and actions arising upon contract aud trespass. All actions of trespass, of assault, battery, wounding, imprisonment, or any of them, shall be commenced and sued within four years next after the cause of such ac- tions or suits, and not after. 21 Jac. I. c. 16. Actions of account, kc.—All actions of trespass quare clausum fregit, all actions of trespass, detinue, trover, and replevin, all actions of account, and upon the case (other than such accounts as concern the trade of mer- chandize, between merchant and merchant), all ac- tions of debt grounded upon any lending, or contract without specialty, (that is, not being by deed or mule r seal) all actions of debt for arrearages of rent, and all actions of assault, menace, battery, wounding, and im- prisonment, shall be commenced within the time and li- mitation as followeth, and not after; that i-> to say, the said actions upon the case (other than for slander), and the said actions for trespass, debt, detinue, and reple- vin, and the said acts for trespass quare clausum fre- git, within six years, after the cause of such action. 21 Jac. c. 16. Exception in relation to infants.—It has been holden, that if an infant during his infancy, bv his guardian bring an action, the de-fendant caiuiat plead the statute of limitation, although the cause of action accrued six years before; and the words ui the statute are, that alter his coming of age, \c. Exe eption in relation to merchants' accounts.__As to this exception, it has been matter of much controvei y, L I M L I N whether it extends to all actions and accounts relating to merchants and merchandize, or to actions of account open and current only. But it is now settled, that ac- counts open and current only are within the statute; and that therefore, if an account be stated and settled between merchant and merchant, and a sum certain agreed to be due to one of them, if in such case, he to whom the mo- ney is due, do not bring his action within the limited time, he is barred by the statute. 2 Mod. 312. Exception in relation to persons beyond sea.—It seems to have been agreed that the exception as to persons be- ing beyond sea, extends only where the creditors or plaintiffs are so absent, and not to debtors or defendants, because the first only are mentioned in the statute; and this construction has the rather prevailed, because it was reputed the creditor's folly, that he did not file an ori- ginal, and outlaw the debtor, whicli would have prevent- ed the bar of the statutes. Executor or administrator.—If A receives money be- longing to a person who afterwards died intestate, and to whom B takes out administration, and brings an ac- tion against A, to which he pleads the statute of limita- tions, ancl the plaintiff replies, and shows that adminis- tration was committed to him such a year, which was within six years; though six years are expired since the receipt ofthe money, yet not being so since the adminis- tration committed, the action is not barred by the statute. 1 Salk. 421. Where a debt barred by the statute shall be revived.— Any acknowledgment of the existence of the debt, howr- ever slight, will take it out of the statute, and the limita- tion will then run from that time: and where an expres- sion is ambiguous, it shall be left to the consideration of the jury, whether it amounts or not to such acknowledg- ment. 2 Durnf. k East, 760. It is dearly agreed, that if after the six years, the debtor acknowledges the debt, and promise payment, that this revives it, ancl brings it out of the statute: as if a debtor by promissory note, or simple contract, promises within six years of the action brought, that he will pay the debt; though this was barred by the statute, yet it is revived by the promise; for as the note itself was at first but an evidence ofthe debt, so that being barred the ac- knowledgment and promise is a new evidence of the debt, and being proved, will maintain an assumpsit for recove- ry of it. 1 Salk. 28. " Limits of a planet, its greatest excursion from the ecliptic, or which is the same thing, the points of its greatest latitude. LIMITED problem, a problem that admits but of one solution, as to make a circle pass through three gi- ven points, not lying in the same right line. L1MOSELLA, a genus ofthe didynamia angiosper- mia class of plants: the flower consists of one erect petal, divided into live segments; fruit is an unilocular capsule, with a great many seeds. Two species, annuals of the Cape. LIMODORUM, a genus of the gynandria diandria class of plants, the flower of which consists of five ob- long petals, and the nectarium hollow, and formed of a single leaf: the fruit is a columnar unilocular capsule, containing a great number of very small seeds. There are thirteen species, bulbs of America, kc. L1MONIA, agenns ofthe decandria monogynia class and order. The cal. is five-parted; pet. five-berry, three- celled. Seeds solitary. There are seven species, trees of the East Indies, &c. LINCONIA, a genus of the class and order pentan- dria digynia. The pet.%re five; caps, two-celled. There is one species, a shrub of the Cape. L1NDERA, a genus of the class and order hexandria monogynia. The cor. is sixpetalled; caps, two-celled. There is one species, a shrub of J apan. LINDERNIA, a genus ofthe class and order didy- namia angiospermia. The cal. is five-parted; caps, one- celled. There are three species, annuals of America. LINE, in geometry, a quantity extended in length only, without any breadth or thickness. It is formed by the flux or motion of a point: see Fluxion, and Geo- metry. Right lines are all of the same species, but curves are of an infinite number of different species. We may conceive as many as there may be different ratios between their ordinates and abscisses. Curve lines are usually divided into geometrical and mechanical; the former are those which may be found exactly in all their points; the latter are those, some or all of whose points arc not to be found precisely, but only tentatively, or nearly. Curve lines are also divided into the first order, second order, third order, kc. See Cuhve. Lines considered as to their positions, are eitlier pa- rallel, perpendicular, or oblique, the construction and properties whereof see under Parallel, &c. Euclid's second book treats mostly of lines, ancl of the effects of their being divided ancl again multiplied into one another. Lines, in perspective, are, 1. Geometrical line, which is a right line drawn in any manner on the geometrical plane. 2. Terrestrial line, or fundamental line, is a right line wherein the geometrical plane, and that ofthe picture or draught, intersect one another. See Per- spective. Lines. See Dialling. Line of direction on the earth's axis, in the Pythago- rean system of astronomy, the line connecting the two poles of the ecliptic and of the equator, when they are projected on the plane of the former. Line of direction. See Mechanics. Line of gravitation of any heavy body, a line drawn through its centre of gravity, and according to which it tends downwards. Line of the swiftest descent of a heavy body, is the cycloid. See Cvcloid. Lines on the plain scale, are the line of chords, line of sines, line of tangents, line of secants, line of semitan- gents, line of leagues; the construction and application of whicli see under the words Scale, Sailing, Instru- ments, kc Lines on Gunter's scale. Sec Gunter's Scale. Lii\ES ofthe sector. See Instruments. Lines, in fortification, are those of approach, capital defence, circumvallation, coutravallation ofthe base, kc To Line a work, signifies to strengthen a rampart with a firm wall; or to encompass a parapet or moat with good turf, &c. L I N L I N Line, in the art of war, is understood of the disposi- tion of an army, ranged in order of battle, with the front extended as far as may be, that it may not be flanked. Line of battle, is also understood of the disposition of a fleet on the day of engagement. Ship ofthe Line, a vessel large enough to be drawn up in the line, and to have a place in a sea-fight. Line, also denotes a French measure, containing the twelfth part of an inch, or the hundred and forty-fourth part of a foot. Geometricians conceive the line subdivided into six points. The French line answers to the English barleycorn. LINEAR numbers, in mathematics, such as have re- lation to length only; such is a number which represents one side of a plane figure. If the plane figure be a square, the linear number is called a root. Linear problem, that which may be solved geometri- cally, by the intersection of two right lines. This is call- ed a simple problem, and is capable but of one solution. LINEN, in commerce, a well-known kind of cloth, Chiefly made of flax. See Linum, and Weaving. LING. See Gadus. LINIMENT. See Pharmacy. LINNjEA, a genus of the class and order didynamia angiospermia. The cal. is double; the cor. bell-shaped; the berry dry, three-celled. There is one species, a herb of Sweden. LINNET. See Fringillia. LINSEED, the seed of the plant linum. See Linum. LINSPINS, in the military art, small pins of iron, which keep the wheel of a cannon or waggon on the axle- tree; for when the end of the axle-tree is put through the nave, thelinspm is put in, to keep the wheel from falling off. LINT, the scrapings of linen; which is used in dressing Wounds, and is made up in various forms, as tents, dos sils, pledgets, &c. See Surgery. LINUM, FL\x; a genus of the pentagynia order, in the. pentandria class of plants; and inthe natural method ranking under the 14th order, gruinales. The calyx is pentaphyllous; the petals are five; the capsule is quin- quevalved and decemlocular; and the seeds are solitary. There are 25 species, of which the most remarkable are, 1. The usitatissiinum, or common annual flax. 2. The perenne, or perennial Siberian flax, with umbellate clus- ters of large blue flowers. 3. The catharticum, or purg- ing flax, a very small plant, not above four or five inches high; found wild upon chalky hills and in dry pleasure- grounds. The first species is cultivated in the fields for the use of the manufactures. The second sort is chiefly ornament- al. The virtue of the third species is expressed in its title: an infusion in water or whey of a handful of the fresh leaves, or a dram of them in substance when dried, is said to purge, without inconvenience. Ofthe cultivation of flax. A skilful flax-raiser always prefers a free, open, deep loam; ancl all grounds that pro- duced the preceding year a good crop of turnips, cab- bages, potatoes, barley, or broad clover; or have been formerly laid down rich, and kept for some years in pas- ture. If the linseed is sown early, and the flax not allowed to stand for seed, a crop of turnips may be got after the flax that very year; the second year a crop of rye or bariey may be taken; and the third year, grass-seeds arc some- times sown along w ith the linseed. Of preceding crops. potatoes and hemp are the best preparation for flax. 11 the ground is free and open, it should be but once plough- ed, and that as shallow as possible, not deeper than two and a half inches. It should be laid flat, reduced to a fine garden mould by good harrowing, and all stones and sods should be carried off. Except a little pigeon's dung for cold or sour ground, no other dung should be used preparatory for flax; because it produces too many weeds, and throws up the flax thin and poor upon the stalk. Before sowing, the bulky clods should be broken, or car- ried off the ground; and stones, quickenings, and every other thing that may hinder the growth ofthe flax, should be carefully taken away. The brighter in colour, and heavier the seed is, so much the better; that which when bruised appears of a light or yellowish green, and fresh in the heart, oily, and not dry, and smells and tastes sweet, and not fusty, may be depended upon. Dutch seed of the preceding year's growth, for the most part, answers best; but it seldom succeeds if kept another year. It ripens sooner than any other foreign seed. Philadelphia seed produces fine lint and few bools, because sown thick, and answers best in wet cold soils. The quantity of linseed sown should be proportioned to the condition of the soil; for if the ground is in good heart, and the seed sown thick, the crop will be in danger of falling before it is ready for pulling. The time for sowing linseed is from the middle of March to the end of April, as the ground and season answer; but the earlier the seed is sown, the less the crop interferes wi:h the corn harvest. Late sown linseed may grow long, but the flax upon the stalk will be thin and poor. Flax ought to be weeded, when the crop is about four inches long. If longer deferred, the weeders will also much break and bend the stalks, aud they will perhaps never recover their straightness again; and when the flax grows crooked, it is more liable to be hurt in the rippling ancl swingling. Quicken grass should be taken up; for, being strongly rooted, the pulling of it always loosens a great deal of the lint. If there is an appearance of a settled drought, it is better to defer the weeding, than by that operation to expose the tender roots of the flax to the drought. When the crop grows so short and branchy as to ap- pear more seed than flax, it ought not be pulled bcfore'it is thoroughly ripe; but if it grows long and not branchy, the seed should be disregarded, and all the attention given to the flax. In the last case it ought to be pulled after the bloom has fallen, when the stalk begins to turn yellow, and before the leaves fall, and the bolls turn hard and sharp-pointed. When the stalk is small, and carries few bolls, the flax is finej^but the stalk of coarse flax is gross, rank, branchy, and carries many bolls. When the flax has fallen, and lies, such as lies ought to be im- mediately pulled, whether it has grown enough or not, as otherwise it will rot altogether. When parts of tiie same field grow unequally, so that some parts sur ready for pulling before other parts, only what is ready should be pulled, and the rest should be suffered to stand till it ripens. The flax-raiser ought to be at pains to p.dl and keep by itself, each difterent kind of lint which he finds LINUM. in his field; what is both long and fine, by itself; what is both long and coarse, by itself; what is both short and fine, by itself; what is both short and coarse by itself; and in like manner every other kind by itself that is of the same size and quality. If the flax is more valuable than the seed, it ought by no means to be stacked up; for its own natural juice as- sists it greatly in the watering; whereas, if kept long un- watered, it loses that juice, and the hark adheres so much to the boon, that it requires longer time to water, and even the quality ofthe flax becomes harsher and coarser. Besides, the flax stacked up is in great danger from ver- min ancl other accidents; the water in spring is not so soft and warm as in harvest; ancl near a year is lost of the use of the lint; but if the flax is so short and branchy as to appear most valuable for seed, it ought, after pulling, to be stacked and dried upon the field, as is done with corn; then stacked up for winter, rippled in spring; and the seed should be well cleaned from bad seeds, kc If the flax is to be regarded more than the seed, it should, after pulling, be allowed to lie some hours upon the ground to dry a little, and so gain some firmness, to pre vent the skin or harle, which is the flax, from rubbing off in the rippling; an operation which ought by no means to be neglected, as the bolls, if put into the water along with the flax, breed vermin there, and otherwise spoil the water. The bools also prove very inconvenient in the grassing and breaking. The handfuls for rippling should not be great, as that endangers the lint in the rippling comb. After rippling, the flax-raiser will per- ceive, that he is able to assort each size and quality of the flax by itself more exactly than he could before. In watering, a running stream wastes the lint, makes it white, and frequently carries it away. Lochs, by the great quantity and motion of the water, also waste and whiten the flax, though not so much as running streams. Both rivers and lochs water the flax quicker than canals. The greater way the river or brook has run, the softer, and therefore the better, will the water be. Springs, or short rans from hills, are too cold, unless the water is al- lowed to stand long in the canal. Water from coal or iron is very bad for flax. A little of the powder of galls thrown into a glass of water will discover if it comes from minerals of that kind, by turning it into a dark co- lour, more or less tinged in proportion to the quantity of metal it contains. When the water is brought to a proper beat, small plants will be rising quickly in it, numbers of small insects and reptiles will be generating there, and bubbles of air rising on the surface. If no such signs ap- pear, the water is scarcely warm enough, or is otherwise unfit for flax. Moss-holes, when neither too deep nor too shallow, frequently answer well for watering flax, when . tbe water is proper, as before described. The proper season for watering flax is from the end of July to the end of August. The doing this as soon as possible after pulling is' very advantageous. The flax being sorted after rippling, as before mentioned, should next be put in beets, never larger than a man can grasp with both his bands, and tied very slack with a band of a few stalks. Dried rushes answer exceedingly well for binding flax, as they do not rot in the water, and may be dried and kept for use again. The beets should be put into the ca- nals slope-ways, or half-standing upon end, the root end uppermost. Upon the crop ends, when uppermost, vermin frequently breed, destructive of the flax, which are effect- ually prevented by putting the crop end downmost. The whole flax in the canal ought to be carefully covered from the sun with divots; the grassy side of which should be next the flax, to keep it clean. If it is not thus covered, the sun will discolour the flax, though quite covered with water. If the divots are not weighty enough to keep the flax entirely under water, a few stones might be laid above them; but the flax should not be pressed to the bot- tom. When the flax is sufficiently watered, it feels soft to the gripe, and the harle parts easily with the boon or show, which last is then become brittle, and looks whitish. When these signs are found, the flax should be taken out of the water, beet after beet; each gently rinsed in the water, to cleanse it of the filth which has gathered about it in the canal; and as the lint is then very tender, and the beet slackly tied, it must be carefully and gently handled. Great care ought to be taken that no part be overdone: and as the coarsest waters soonest, if differ- ent kinds are mixed together, a part will be rotted, when the rest is not sufficiently watered. Wlien lint taken out of the canal is not found sufficiently watered, it may be laid in aheap for twelve, eighteen, or twenty-four hours, which will have an effect like more watering; but this operation is nice, and may prove dangerous in unskilful hands. After the flax is taken out of the canal, fresh lint should not be put a second time into it, until the former water is run off, and the canal cleaned, and supplied with a fresh quantity of water. Short heath is the best field for grassing flax; as, when wet, it fastens to the heath, and is thereby prevented from being blown away by the wind. The heath also keeps it a little above the earth, and so exposes it more equally to the weather. When such heath is not to be got, links or clean old lea-ground is the next best. Long- grass grounds should be avoided, as the grass growing through the lint frequently spots, tenders, or rots it; and grounds exposed to violent winds should also be avoided. The flax, when taken out of the water, must be spread very thin upon the ground; ancl being then very tender, it must be gently handled. The thinner it is spread the better, as it is then more equally exposed to the weather. But it ought never to be spread during a heavy shower, as that would wash and waste the harle too much, which is then excessively tender, but soon after becomes firm enough to bear the rains, which, with the open air and sunshine, cleans, softens, and purifies the harle to the degree wanted, and makes it blister from the boon. In short, after the flax has got a little firmness by being a few hours spread in dry weather, the more rain and sun- shine it gets the better. If there is little danger of high winds carrying off the flax, it will be much the better for being turned about once a week. If it is not to be turned, it ought to be very thin spread. The spreading of flax and hemp, which requires a great deal of ground, en- riches it greatly. The flax-raiser should spread his first row of flax at the end of the field opposite to the. point whence the most violent wind commonly comes, placing the root ends foremost. He makes the root ends of every other row overlap the crop ends of the former row three or four inches, and binds down the last row with a rope; L I Q L I V by which means the wind does not easily get below the lint to blow it away; and as the crop ends are seldom so fully watered as the root ends, the overlapping has an ef- fect like giving the crop ends more watering. A dry day ought to be chosen for taking up the flax; and if there is no appearance of high wind, it should be loosed from the heath or grass, and left loose for some hours, to make it thoroughly dry. As a great quantity of flax can scarcely he all equally watered and grassed, and as the different qualities will best appear at lifting the flax off the grass; therefore at that time each different kind should be gathered together, and kept by itself; that is, all of the same colour, length, and quality. The smaller the beets lint is made up in, the better for drying, and the more convenient for stacking, housing, kc. and in making up these beets, as in every other ope- ration upon flax, it is of great consequence that the lint be laid together as it grew, the root ends together, and the crop ends together. The profit on five acres of flax raised in Shropshire, was 46/. 4s. 5d. LION. See Felis. LIPARIA, a genus ofthe diadelpbia decandria class and order. The cal. is five-cleft; cor. wings two-lobed, below; stain, the larger, with three shorter teeth; legume ovate. There are four species, shrubs ofthe Cape. LIPPIA, a genus of the didynamia gymnospermia class and order. The cal. is four-toothed; the caps, one-ceiled, three-valved, two-seeded; seed one, two-celled. There are five species, shrubs of America. LIQUEFACTION. See Fluibity. LIQUIDS, expansion of. See Expansion. LIQUIDAMBAR, Sweet gum tree, a genus ofthe polyandria order, in the moneecia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking with those of which the or- der is doubtful. The male calyx is common and triphyl- lous; there is no corolla, but numerous filaments; the male calyces are collected into a spherical form, and tctraphyllous; there is no corolla; but seyen styles, and many bivalved and monospcrmous capsules, collected into a sphere. There are only two species, both decidu- ous, viz. 1. The styraciflua, or the Virginia or maple- leaved liquidambar; a native of the rich moist parts of Virginia and Mexico. It will sho<;t in a regular man- ner to thirty or forty feet high, having its young twigs covered with a smooth light-brown bark, while those of the older are of a darker colour. The flowers are of a kind of saffron-colour: they are produced at the ends of the branches the beginning of April, and sometimes sooner; and are succeeded by large round brown fruit, which looks singular, but is thought by many to be no ornament to the tree. 2. The peregrinum, Canada li- quidambar, or splecnwort-leavcd gale, is a native of Canada and Pennsylvania. The young branches of this species are slender, tough, and hardy. The flowers come out from the sides oftlic branches, like the former; and they are succeeded by small roundish fruit, which sel- dom ripens in England. These may be propagated eitlier bv seeds or layers. The leaves of this tree emit their odoriferous particJes in such plenty as to perfume the (•ircumambient air; nay, the whole tree exudes such a fragrant transparent resin, as to have given occasion to its being taken for the Vol. ii. 70 sweet storax. (See Styrax.) These trees, therefore, are very proper to be planted singly in large opens, that they may amply display their fine pyramidal growth, or to be set in places near seats, pavilions, &c. The resin was formerly of great use as a perfume, and is at present no stranger in the shops. LIQUORICE. See Glycirrhiza, and Materia Medica. LIRIODENDRON, the Tulip-tree, a genus of the polygynia order, in the polyandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the S2d order, coadunatse. The calyx is triphyllousj there are nine petals; and the seeds imbricated in such a manner as to form a cone. There are two species; the tulipfera, is best known here, and is a deciduous tree, native of most part of America. It rises with a large upright trunk, branch- ing forty or fifty feet high. Tbe trunk, which often at- tains to a circumference of thirty feet, is covered with a grey bark. The leaves grow irregularly on the branch- es, on long footstalks. They are of a particular struc- ture, being composed of three lobes, the middlemost of which is shortened iu ^sucli a manner that it appears as if it had been cut off and hollowed at the middle. The two others are rounded off. They are about four or five inches long, and as many broad. The flowers are pro- duced with us in July, at the ends of the branches. The number of petals of which each is composed, like those of the tulip, is six; and these are spotted with green, red, white, and yellow. The flowers are succeeded by large cones, which never ripen in England. LISIANTHUS, a genus ofthe pentandria monogynia class and order. The cal. is keeled; cor. with ventiicose tube and recurved division; stigma two-plated; caps. two-valved, two-celled. There are nine species, herbs of the West Indies. LIT A, a genus ofthe class and order pentandria mo- nogynia. The cal. is five-cleft; cor. salver-shaped, long tube, five-cleft; caps, one-celled, two-valved; seeds nu- merous. There are two species, herbs of Guiana. LITHOPI1ILA. a genus of the diandria monagynia class and order. The cal. is three leaved; cor. three- petalled; nect. two-leaved. There is one species, of no note. LITHARGE, an oxide of lead. See Lead. LITHOPHYTA, the name of Linnfeus's third order of vermes. LITHOSPERMUM, geomwell: a genus of the mo- nogynia order, iu the pentandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 41st order, as- perifolise. The corolla is funnel-shaped, with the throat perforated and naked; the calyx quinquepartite. There are 12 species; but the only remarkable ones are the offi- cinale or common groin well, and the arvensa or bastard alkanet. Both these are natives of Britain; the former growing in dry gravelly soil, the latter in corn-fields LITHOTOMY. See Sukgkry. LITTOKKLLA. a genus of the monoecia tetrandria class and order. The male cal. is four-leaved; cor. four. cleft; stun. long. No fen.^e cal.; cur. four-cleft, seed a nut. There is one species. LIVER. See Ax atom v. LIVERY of seisin, in law, vitrifies cVr-vrri.ig they possession of lands, &c. to him who lots a rk::t to /fte*\ There are two kinds of livery andK'isinj livery in foq L 0 A L 0 A vvhere the feoffer being in view of the land, house, or other thing granted, says to the feoffee, on delivery of the deed, "I give to you yonikr land, &c. to hold to you ancl to your heirs, so go into the same, and take possession accordingly." And livery in deed, is where the parties, or the attorneys by them authorised, coming to the door of the house, or upon some part of the land, declare the occasion of their meeting before witnesses, lead the deed, or its contents, and in case it be made by attorney, the letter of attorney is also read, after which, if tbe delivery is of a house, the grantor, or his attorney, takes the ring, key, or latch belonging to the door, or if it be a land, a turf, or clod of earth, and a twig of one ofthe trees, and delivering them with the deed to the grantee or his attorney, says, «« I A. B. do hereby deliver to you possession and seisin of this messuage or tene- ment, kc to hold to you, your heirs and assigns, accor- ding to the purport, true intent, and meaning of this indenture, or deed of feoffment." After which the gran- tee enters first alone, and shutting the door, and then opening it, lets in others. Since the making the statute of uses, livery and seisin are not so much used as formerly; for a lease and re- lease, a bargain and sale by deed inrolled, are sufficient to vest the grantee with possession, without the formality of livery. LIVERYMEN of London, are a number of men se- lected from among the freemen of each company. Out of this body, the common council, sheriff, and other supe- rior officers for the government of the city are elected, and they alone have the privilege of giving their votes for members of parliament; from which the rest of the citizens are excluded. LIVES, or insurance of lives. Sec Insurance, and .Life. LIXIVIUM. See Pharmacy. LIZARD. See Lacerta. LOAD, or Lobe, in mining, a word used especially in the tin-mines, for any regular vein or course, whether metallic or not; but most commonly load means a metal- lic vein. It is to be observed, that mines in general are veins within the earth, whose sides receding from or approaching to each other, make them of unequal breadths in different places, sometimes forming large spaces, which are called holes; these holes are filled like the rest with substances, which whether metallic, or of any other nature, are called loads. When the substances forming these loads are reducible to metal, the loads are by the English miners said to be alive, otherwise they are termed dead loads. The load is frequently intercepted by the crossing of a vein of earth or stone, or some other metalline sub- stance; in which case it generally happens, that one part ofthe load is moved to a considerable distance on one side. This load is by the miners termed a Hooking, and the part ofthe load which is moved, is by them said to be heaved. This fracture, or heave of a load,--accord- ing to Mr. Price, is produced by a subsidence of the strata from their primary positions, which he supposes to have been horizontal or parallel to the surface of the earth, and therefore should more properly be called a depression than a heave. This heaving of the load would be aa inexpressible loss to the miner, did not experi- 2 ence teach him that as the loads always run on the -^des of the hills, so the part heaved is always moved to- ward the descent of the hill; so that the miner, work- ing toward the ascent of the hill, and meeting a Hooking, considers himself as working in the heaved part; where- fore, cutting through the flookingr he works upon its back up the ascent of the hill, till he recovers the load, and vice versa. LOAMS. See Husbanbry. LOANS, in political economy, sums of money, gen- erally of large amount, borrowed from individuals or public bodies, for the service of the state. They are either compulsory, in whicli case they may be more properly termed requisitions; or voluntary, whicli is the only mode that can he frequently resorted to with ad- vantage. Loans are sometimes furnished by public com- panies as a consideration for peculiar privileges secured to them; but are much more commonly advanced by in- dividuals on a certain interest being allowed for the use of the money, either for a term of years, or until the principal shall be repaid. The practice of borrowing money, for defraying part of the extraordinary expenses in time of war, had been adopted in other countries long before it was introduced into Great Britain; but it has been carried to afargrea* ter extent here than by any other state: and the facility with which the government has been enabled to raise the largest sums, has arisen entirely from the strict punctu- ality with which it has constantly made good all pecuni- ary engagements. The chancellor of the exchequer is the officer who usually conducts negotiations of this kind on the part of the government, and the agreement is afterwards confirmed by parliament; the governor and company of the bank of England, have of late years been usually appointed receivers of the contributions, for which they have an allowance, at a certain rate per mil- lion; and the sums received by them are paid into the exchequer in the name of the chief cashier of the hank. The money appropriated to pay the interest or annuities, is issued at the receipt of the exchequer to the chief cashier of the bank upon account, and he is enjoined to pay the annuities, and render his account in due course. The bank detain their allowance for receiving the con- tributions out of the sum received, and likewise what they have allowed as discount to those subscribers who advanced their money before the times fixed for the several instalments. When the parliament has voted the supplies, and the extent ofthe loan found necessary is determined, a com- munication is usually made to the bank or stock exchange stating the particular stock on which the loan is to be made, ancl fixing a clay for those who intend to bid for it to wait on the minister with their proposals; in the mean time each person forms his list of friends who are to take different proportions with him in case he succeeds. When the day comes, each party offers as low as he thinks he can venture with a fair prospect of profit, and the lowest offer is generally accepted. The only step to be taken by those who are not of the number just mentioned, and who may wish to take a share in the transaction, is to apply to one of the subscribers for a part of his subscription, which at first may sometimes be had without any premi- um, or for a very small one, for it cannot be presumed LOANS. that any small number of men, who have subscribed for the whole sum to be raised, intend, or can keep it, but that they propose to include in their subscriptions a great number of their connections and acquaintance. Sometimes the subscription lies open to the public at the bank, as in the instance of the loan of eighteen millions for the ser- vice of the year 1797, and then every person is at liberty to subscribe what he thinks proper; and if upon casting up the whole, there is a surplus subscribed, which has ge- nerally been the case, the sum each person has subscribed, is reduced in an equal proportion, so as to make in the whole the sum fixed by parliament. As soon as conveniently may be, after the subscription is closed, receipts are made out, and delivered to the sub- scribers, for the several sums by thein subscribed; and for tbe conveniency of sale, every subscriber of a consi- derable sum has sundry receipts for different proportions of bis whole sum, by whicli means he can readily part with what sum he thinks proper; ancl a form of assign- ment is drawn upon the back of the receipt, which being signed and witnessed, transfers the property to any pur- chaser. The deposit is generally ten per cent, and is made at or about tbttfcime of subscribing; the second payment is about a moMafter, and so on till the whole is paid in, each instalment being usually either ten or fifteen per cent. Those subscribers who choose to pay the whole sum before the appointed days of payment, are allowed discount at an agreed rate per cent, on the sum paid in advance, from the time of such payment to the period when the whole is required Ijp be paid in by instalments. Those who do not complete the payment of the sum they have subscribed for, forfeit the part they have paid; and this is the case according to the acts of parliament, if the money is not paid by the days appointed; but payments are sometimes received after the appointed days on pay- ing certain fees to the clerk. Loans are usually raised upon either redeemable or ir- redeemable annuities. The former are those whicli ac- cording to the conditions of the acts by which they are created, government may redeem without the consent of the proprietors, by discharging the debt at par; the lat- ter are such as being granted for specific terms, cannot be redeemed without the consent ofthe proprietors. The various debts that have been incurred at different periods by loans on either of these species of annuities, consti- tute the funded debt of the nation; that is, the debt which has been secured upon certain funds, created by parlia- ment, and appropriated to the payment ofthe annual in- terest on the sums borrowed. The constant hope of being able at a future period to redeem the debts contracted, has induced the government generally to prefer raising money on annuities redeemable at par; and the disadvan- tage which might arise to the stock-holder from being paid off at par, if his principal bore a high rate of inter- est, has always made those who advance money on loans prefer a large capital bearing a low rate percent, though it may actually produce a somewhat less annual interest than would have been given on a capital equal to the sum advanced: the great speculations which are carried on in tiie public funds are also a strong inducement to prefer advancing money on these conditions, which have contributed so much to increase the nominal magnitude •f the national debt. The terms of all the public loans which have been raised from the commencement ofthe funding system, have been collected by Mr. J. J. Grellier, who observes, that " the economy or extravagance of every transaction of this kind depends on its correspondence or disagreement with the price of the public funds, and the current rate of in- terest at which money could be obtained on good security at the time the bargain was concluded; and consequent- ly, a loan on which the highest interest is paid, may have been obtained on the best terms that could possibly be made at the time it was negociated." The interest paid, however, forms the real burthen of each loan to the country, and is the circumstance to be chiefly attended to in all comparisons of the advantage or disadvantage of the terms on whicli the public debts have been contracted at different periods. From the difference in the terms ofthe loan, with re- spect to the capital created, the rate of interest it bears, and the different periods of the terminable annuities which have been granted with most of the loans, it is evident, tint in order to form a proper comparison of the rate of interest paid for the money borrowed at different periods, the various conditions must be brought into some degree of uniformity; and the most obvious mode of doing this is, by converting that part of the interest which con- sists of terminable annuities into equivalent perpetual annuities; that is, into the additional interest, which must have been paid in lieu of such terminable annuities. The rate of interest at which such conversion is made affects the result in some instances very materially; thus, the perpetual annuity, whicli is equal to an annuity of 10/. for 21 years, is, at S per cent. 41. I2.s. 5d. but at 5 per cent. 61. 8s. 2d.; and the perpetual annuity equal to an annuity of 10/. for 60 years, which at 3per cent, is 81. 6s. is at 5 per cent. 9/. 9s. 3d. from which it is evident, that, if the terminable annuities, granted at different periods, are all valued at the same rate of interest, the comparison will by no means be just; for if a high rate is adopted, the loans which have been obtained at the low est interest will be set in an unfavourable view; and if, on the contra* ry, they are all valued at a low rate, the charge of those loans, for which the highest interest is paid, will appear less than it really is. Nor is a medium or average rate more proper for exhibiting the real difference in the terms on which the several loans have been e)btained. The least objectionable mode appears to be to convert the terminal ble annuities into perpetual annuities, according to the current rate of interest at the time when the annuities were granted, as it is upon the rate of interest that the proportionate value of an annuity for a certain term to the perpetuity depends; and in forming the following- statements, the conversion has been made at the interest produced by money invested in the three per cents, ac- cording to the price of this stock at the times when the terms of the respective loans were settled: for, though by this means, the rate is, in each case, rather lower than it would have been had the interest produced by 4 or 5 per cent, stock been adopted, it is most probable, from the nature ofthe principal loans, that the stock which must have been given in lieu of a long annuity, would chiefly have been three per cents.; and, therefore, the interest equivalent to the long annuity should be found according to the interest produced by this stock. It tuav also be LOANS. proper to remark, that, as tbe terminable annuities have mostly been granted for a long term, and form but a small pant of the whole interest, particularly on the loans of the last war, the difference of a quarter or even half per cent, in the rate at which they are valued has in ge- neral but little effect on the whole rate per cent, of the loan. Thus, if the long annuity of the loan of 14,500,000/., in 1797, is valued at 6 per cent, (being the interest pro- duced by 3 per cents, at that time) it makes the whole rate per cent. 61. 6s. I0d.; but, if the long annuity is va- lued at of percent, it will be 6/. 6s. 9|i/.; at 5\ percent. 61. 6s. 9'i(/.; and, at 5 per cent. 6/. 6s. 8§d. On the loan of 1798, the difference would be still less. Till the last war, the lottery g nerally formed part of the terms of the loan; every subscriber of a certain sum towards the latter being entitled to a certain number of tickets, at 10/. each, the price at which the lottery-scheme is usually formed. As the whole profits ofthe lotteries , were thus given up to the subscribers, a part of the mo- . ney advanced must be considered as equivalent to the _ sum which government would otherwise have received for the .lottery, and is therefore to be deducted from the whole sum. advanced on the loan. This profit is variable, bit has generally been taken at the average of 21. 10s. per ticket; making, on a lottery of 50,000 tickets, 125,000/. to be deducted from the sum advanced, in estimating the rate of interest paid thereon. There arc some other circumstances which affect the interest paid: such as the discount allowed for prompt payment, the different peiiods of the instalments, and the times from which the annuities commence; but as these drawbacks do not in general amount to any considerable sum, in comparison with the whole amount of the loan, they do not materially augment the rate of interest; and as they more or less affect all the loans, the-y are of still less importance in a comparative view. In the following statement, however, a deduction is made on the loans of 18,000,000/. in 1796 and 1797, on account ofthe advan- tage allowed with respect to the time from which the an- nuities commenced, being greater than usual. It is unnecessary to enter into a particular investiga- tion of the interest paid for the money borrowed in the infancy of the funding system, as the first loans differed materially from those of subsequent peiiods, in being raised wholly on terminable annuities, and in having a particular fund assigned for each loan, by the supposed adequateness or insufficiency of which the interest re- quired by the lenders was frequently influenced, as well as by other causes, which have since ceased to exist. During the reign of queen Anne, loans were chiefly raised on annuities for 99 years, till 1711, when, by the establishment of the South Sea company, a variety of debts were consolidated and made a permanent capital, bearing 6 per cent, interest. About this period lotteries were also frequently adopted for raising money for the public service, under which form a considerable premium was given, in addition to a high rate of interest. This mode of raising money was followed in 1712, 1713, and 1714. In the latter year, though the interest paid was equal to only 5/. 7s. 2d. per cent, on the sum borrowed, the premium allowed was upwards of 34/. per cent.; but as peace was restored, and the legal rate of interest had been reduced to 5 per cent, it seems that a larger pre- mium was allowed, for the sake of appearing to barrow at a moderate rate of interest. In the reign of George I. the interest on a considerable part of the public debts was reduced to 5 per cent, and the few loans that were raised were comparatively of small amount; that of the year 1720 was obtained at little more than 4 per cent, interest. About 1730 the current rate of interest was 3± per cent.; and in 1736, government was enabled to borrow at 3 per cent, per annum. The extraordinary sums ne- cessary for defraying the expenses of the war which be- gan in 1739, were at first obtained from the sinking fund and the salt duties; a payment from the bank, in 174 2, rendered only a small loan necessary in that year, which was obtained at. little more than 3 per cent, interest. In the succeeding years the following sums were raised by loans; Sum borrowed. Interest. 1743 . - L 1,800,000 - L 3 8 4 1744 - 1,800,000 . 3 6 10 1745 - 2,000.000 . 4 0 7 1746 - 2,500,000 . 5 5 1 1747 - 4,000,000 . t 4 8 0 1748 - 6,300,000 . 4 8 0 Loans of the seven years war. 1756 - 2,000,000 . 3 12 0 1757 - 3,000,000 . 3 14 3 1758 - 5,000,000 . 3 6 5 1759 - 6,600,000 . 3 10 9 1T60 - 8,000*000 . 3 13 7 iroi - 12,000,000 . 4 1 11 1762 - 12,000,000 , 4 10 9 1763 - 3,500,000 . 4 4 2 Loans ofthe American war. 1776 - 2,000,000 _ 3 9 8 1777 - 5,000,000 _ 4 5 2 1778 - 6,000,000 . 4 18 7 1779 - 7,000,000 _ 5 18 10 1780 - 12,000,000 . 5 16 8 1781 * 12,000,000 _ 5.11 1 1782 - 13,500,000 . 5 18 1 1783 - 12,000,000 . 4 13 9 1784 - 6,000,000 „ 5 6 11 Loans of the war with the French re ■public. 1793 - 4,500,000 . 4 3 4 1794 - 11,000,000 _ 4 10 7 1795 - 18,000,000 . 4 15 8 1796 T 18,000,000 „ 4 14 9 1796 - 7,500,000 . 4 12 2 1797 - 18,000,000 . 5 14 I 1797 - 14,500,000 _ 6 6 10 1798 - 17,000,000 - 6 4 9 1799 - 3,000,000 . 5 12 5 1799 - 15,500,000 . 5 5 0 1800 - 20,500,000 . 4 14 2 1801 - 28,000,000 . 5 5 5 Loans of the war with the French empire. 1803 - 12,000,000 . 5 2 0 1804 - 14,500,000 • 5 9 2 1805 - 22,500,000 . 5 3 2 1806 - 20,000,000 - 4 19 7 LOASA, a genus of the polyandria monogynia class and order. The cal. is five-leaved; cor. five-petalled; LOG LOl' nect. five-leaved; caps, turbinate, one-celled, three-valv- ed, many-seeded. There is one species, an annual of South America. LOBE. See Anatomy. LOBELIA, carbinal-flower, a genus of the mo- nogamia order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 29th order, com- panacese. The calyx is quinquefid; the corolla monope- talous and irregular; the capsule inferior, bilocular or trilocular. There are 42 species, but only four of them are cultivated in our gardens, two of which are hardy herbaceous plants for the open ground, and two shrubby plants for the stove. They are all fibrous-rooted peren- nials, rising with erect stalks from two to five or six feet high, ornamented with oblong, oval, spear-shaped, sim- ple leaves, and spikes of beautiful monopetalous, some- what ringent, five-parted flowers, of scarlet, blue, and violet colours. They are easily propagated by seeds, offsetts, and cuttings of their stalks. Tbe tender kinds require the common treatment of other exotics. They are natives of America, from which their seeds must be procured. The root of the species called the syphilitica (see Plate LXXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 252.) is an article of the ma- terica medica. This species grows in most places in "Virginia, and bears our winters. It is perennial, has an erect stalk three or four feet high, blue flowers, a milky juice, and a rank smell. The root consists of white fibres about two inches long, resembles tobacco in taste, which remains on the tongue, and is apt to excite vomit- ing. It is used by the North American Indians as a spe- cific in the venereal disease. The benefit, however, to be derived from this article has not, as far as we know, been confirmed either in Britain or by the practitioners in Virginia. LOCAL, in law, something fixed to the freehold, or tied to a certain place: thus, real actions are local, since they must be brought in tiie country where they lie, and local customs are those peculiar to certain countries and places. Local problem, among mathematicians, such a one as is capable of an infinite number of different solutions, by reason that the point which is to resolve the problem may be indifferently taken within a certain extent, as suppose any where within such a line, within suce a plane figure, kc. which is called a geometric locus, and the problem is said to be a local or indetermined one. A local problem may be either simple, when the point Bought is in a right light; plane, when the point sought is in the circumference of a circle; solid, when the point re- quired is in the circumference of a conic section; or lastly, eursolid, when the point is in the perimeter of a line of the second geuder, or of a higher kind, as geometers call it LOCHIA. See Mibwifery. LOCK, a well-known instrument, and reckoned the masterpiece in smitherv; a great deal of art and delicacy being required in contriving and varying the wards, spring, bedts, kc and adjusting them to the places where th.y are to used, and to the various occasions of using them. From the various structure of locks, accommo- dated to their different intentions, they acquire various names. Those placed on outer doors are called stock- locks; thoso on chamber-doors, spring-locks: those .-n trunks, trunk-locks, padlocks, &c. Of these the spring- lock is the most considerable, both for its frequency and the curiosity of its structure. A treatise upon this subject has been published by Mr. Joseph Bramah, who begins with observing, that the principle on which all locks depend, is the application of a lever to an interior bolt, by means of a communication from, without; so that, by means of the latter, the lever acts upon the bolt, and moves it in such a manner as to secure the lid or door from being opened by any pull or push from without. The security of locks in general, there- fore, depends on the number of impediments we can inter- pose betwixt the lever (the key) and the bolt which se- cures the door; and these impediments are well known by the name of wards, the number and intricacy of which alone are supposed to distinguish a good lock from a bad one. If these wards, however, do not in an effectual manner preclude the access of all other instruments be- sides the proper key, it is still possible for a mechanic of equal skill with the lock-maker to open it without the key, and thus to elude the labour oftlic other. "As no- thing (pays Mr. Bramah) can be more opposite in prin- ciple to fixed wards than a lock which derives its proper- ties from the motion of all its parts, I determined that the construction of such a lock should be the subject of my experiment." In the prosecution of this experiment, he had the satisfaction to find that the least perfect of all his models fully ascertained the truth and certainty of his principle. The exclusion of wards made it necessary to cut oft' all communication between the key and the bolt; as the same passage which (in a lock simply constructed) would admit the key, might give admission likewise to other instruments. The office, therefore, which in other locks is performed by the extreme point of the key, is here assigned to a lever, which cannot approach the bolt till every part of the lock has undergone a change of posi- tion. The necessity of this change to the purposes of the lock, and the absolute impossibility of effecting it other- wise than with the proper key, are the points to be ascer- tained. Plate LXX1X. Lock and Loom, fig. 4, represents a mor- tice lock, made under the patent which Mr. Stansbury took out in 1805, for various improvements in locks, in which A is the spring-latch, as in common; the end B of this is bent, and has a frame D screwed to it. carrying a roll r E; against this roller a wedge F called a pusher, shown se- parately in fig. 5, acts; the spindle G on which this pusher is fixed, slides through holes in the side-plate of the lock, so as to have no shake, and on each end is fastened a handle; by this arrangement it is plain that when the handle of the wedge is pushed from without the door, its wedge E will act against the roller E, fig. 4, draw back the bolt A, and release the door; a continuation of the same motion opens it. The operations from within the room are the same, except that the handle ofthe pusher must be pulled instead of pi shed; but as it is on ihe other end of the spindle, the operation on the wedge and bolt is the same. For the convenience of persons not acquaint- ed with the new method, the bolt may be drawn back bv turning the handle, as in the common lock. II is a piece of metal, figs. 4 and 5. which has a ro„nd collar a above, and another 6 beneath, which work in holes in the two L 0 C LOB side-plates of the lock, so as to turn easily round; this piece has a hole through it, large enough to admit the pusher to move up and down; and an opening in one side thereof admits the wedge F; so that when the spindle is turned round, one of the two arms d e of this piece, acts against the arm B of the bolt A, fig. 4, and draws back the bolt when the handle is turned, as in the common way. In order to reduce the friction against the bolt, in shutting the door, a small roller a, fig. 1, is applied to it. In lieu of the slip-holt of common locks, Mr. Stansbury uses a piece I; which has a spindle going through the plate of the lock, and projecting from the door with a handle on it, by which its armjfcan be moved up and down, when the door is to be bolted; this handle is turned so that the knobg on the arm/may fall in the notch cut in the bolt to receive it; this prevents the bolt being moved back by the pusher, till the arm / is first removed. There is a spring at the back of this arm, which pressing against the plate of the lock, by its friction keeps it from falling by accident. K is the main bolt of the lock; it is kep't steady by a rectangular opening, through which a screw passes. The bolt is moved by a circular iron plate, mov- ing round a pin h, which is riveted into a circular bridge N, screwed to the plate shown separately in fig. 3; this bridge has a circular opening i in it, through which a pin el riveted to the plate L, moves; this pin takes into a notch in the bolt, so as to move it backwards and forwards, when the plate is turned round its centre. The locking part is performed thus: the wheel L has a certain number of holes drilled in it, as at m; the bridge has the same number of similar holes in it, and in the same position; each hole in the bridge has a small pin in it, which is pushed in by a slight spring n n u, fig. 3.; when the holes in the plate coincide with the holes in the bridge, the springs nnn push up the pins through the plate, and lock them both together. The key, fig. 2$ has the.same number of pins projecting from its lower end, as the pin-holes in the bridge, and in the same po- sition; the length of the pins is the same as the thickness ofthe plate L, fig. 4. When it is to be unlocked, the key is introduced, and as it is turned round, it is pushed gently forward against the plate; when the pins and key come opposite the pin holes and pins, the force applied overcomes the resistance ofthe springs nnn, the pins are pushed out, and the key gets hold of the plate L, when being turned round, it draws the bolt back by the pin 6,-fig. 3. LOCUS geometricus, denotes a line by which a lo- cal or indeterminate problem is solved. A locus is a line, any point of which may equally solve an indeterminate problem. Thus, if a right line suffice for the construction of the equation, it is called locus ad rectum; if a circle, locus ad circulum; if a parabo- la, locusjid pdrabolum; if an ellipsis, locus ad elipsin; and so of the rest ofthe conic sections. The loci of such equa- tions as are righilines, or circles, the ancients called plane loci; and ofthose that are parabolas, hyperbolas, &c. so- lid loci. But Wolfius, and others among the moderns, di- vide the loci more commodiously into orders, according to the number of dimensions to which the indeterminate qnantities rise. Thus, it will be a locus ofthe first order, if the equation is x = —; a locus of the second or quadratic order, if y. = ax2, or if = a"—x*; a locus of the third or cubic order, if y* = a2x, or y2 = ax* — x3, kc. All equations whose loci are of the first order, may be reduced to some one ofthe four follow ing formulas- 1 y-5f. 2.y = hjZ + e. 3.y = b^c. 4. j, = c - K a a a ~a" where the unknown quantity!'!/, is supposed always to be freed from fractions, and the fraction that multiplies the other unknown quantity x, to be reduced to this exprcs- b sion, ■—-, and all the known terms to c. All loci of the second degree are conic sections, viz. either the parabola, the circle, ellipsis, or hyperbola: if an equation, therefore, is given, whose locus is of the second degree, and it is required to draw the conic sec- tion which is the locus thereof, first draw a parabola, el- lipsis, or hyperbola; so as that the equations expressing the natures thereof may be as compound as possible, in order to get general equations or formulas, by examining the peculiar properties whereof we may know whicli of these formulas the given equation ought to have regard to; that is, which of the conic sections will be the locus of the proposed equation. This known, compare all the terms of the proposed equation with the terms of the general formula of that conic section, which you have found will be the locus of the given equation; by which means you will find how to draw the section which is the locus of the equation given. If an equation, whose locus is a conic section, is giv* en, and the particular section whereof it is the locus is required; all the terms of the given equation being brought over to one side, so that the other ts equal to nothing, there will be two cases. Case I. When the rectangle x y is not in the given equation. 1. if either y y or x x is in the same equation, the locus will be a parabola. 2. If both x x andi/ y are in the equation with the same signs, the locus will be an el- lipsis or a circle. 3. If x x and y y have different signs, the locus will be an hyperbola, or the opposite sections regarding their diameters. Case II. When the rectangle x y is in the given equation. 1. If neither ofthe squares xx or y y, or on- ly one of them, is in the same, the locus of it will be as hyperbola between the asymptotes. 2. If y y and ^ a? is therein, having different signs, the locus will be an hy- perbola regarding its diameters. 3. If both the squares x x and yy are in the equation, having the same signs, you must free the square y y from fractions; and then the locus will be an hyperbola, when the square of £ the fraction multiplying x y, is equal to the fraction multi- plying x x; an ellipsis, or circle, when the same is less; and an hyperbola, or the opposite sections, regarding their diameters, when greater. LOCUST. See Gryllus. LODGMENT, in military affairs, is a work raised with earth, gabions, fascines, woolpacks, or mantelets, r« cover the besiegers from the enemy's fire, and to pre- vent their losing a place which they have gained, and are resolved, if possible, to keep. For this purpose, when a lodgment is to be made on the glacis, covered way, or in the breach, there must be great provision made of fascines, sand-bags, &c. in the trenches; and during the action, the poincers with fascines, sand-bags, &c. should & 0 Q LOG Be making the lodgment, in order to form a covering in as advantageous a manner as possible from the opposite bastion, or the place most to be feared. LOEFLINGIA, a genus of the class and order trian- dria monogynia. The calyx is five-leaved; corolla five- petalled; capsule one-celled, three-valved. There is one species, an annual of Spain. LOESEL1A, a genus ofthe didynamia angiospermia class of plants, the flower of which is monopetalous and quinquefid at the limb; it he fruit is a trilocular capsule, with several angulated seeds in each cell. There is one aperies, a herb of South America. LOG, in naval affairs, is a flat piece of wood, shaped somewhat like a flounder, with apiece of lead fastened to its bottom, which makes it stand or swim upright in the water. To this log is fastened a long line, called the log- line; and this is commonly divided into certain spaces 50 feet in length by knots, which are pieces of knotted twine inreeved between the strands ofthe line; which show, by means of a half-minute glass, how many of these spaces or knots are run out in half a minute. They commonly begin to be counted at the distance of about 10 fathoms or 60 feet from the log; so that the log, when it is hoven overboard, may be out of the eddy ofthe ship's wake be- fore they begin to count: and for the ready discovery of this point of commencement, there is commonly fastened. at it a red rag. The log being thus prepared, and hoven overboard from the poop, and the line veered out by the help of a reel, as fast as the ship sails from it, will show how far the ship has run in a given time, and consequently her rate of sailing. Hence it is evident, that as the distance of the knots bears the same proportion to a mile as half a minute docs to an hour, whatever number of knots the ship runs in half a minute, the same number of miles she will run in an hour, supposing her to run with the same degree of velocity during that time; and therefore, in order to know her rate of sailing, it is the general way to heave the log every hour; but if the force or direction of the wind varies, and does not continue the same during the whole hour, or if there has been more sail set, or any sail handed in, by which the ship has sailed faster or slower than she did at the time of heaving the log, there must then be an allowance made for it accordingly. Log-boarb, a table generally divided into five co- lumns, in the first of which is entered the hour of the day; in the second the course steered; in the third, the number of knots run off the reel each time of heaving the log; in the fourth, from what point the wind blows; and in the fifth, observations on the weather, variation of the compass, tScc. Log book, a book ruled in columns like the log-board, into which the account on the log-board is transcribed every day at noon; whence, after it is corrected, &c. it is entered into the journal. See Navigation. Log-woou, in commerce. See H^matoxylum. Logwood is used by dyers for dying blacks ancl blues. LOGARITHMIC, in general, something belonging to logarithms. See Logarithms. Logarithmic curve. If on the line AN (Plate LXXVIII. Miseel., fig. 155.) both ways indefinitely extended, be taken, AC, CE, EG, GI, IL, on the right hand, and A g, g P, &c. on the left, all equal to one another, and if at the points P, g, A, C, E, G, I, L, be erected to the right line AN, the perpendiculars PS, gd, AB, CD, EF, GH, IK, LM, which let be continual- ly proportional, and represent numbers, viz. AB, 1; CD, 10; EF, 100, &c. then shall we have two progressions of lines, arithmetical and geometrical: for the lines AC, AE, AG, &c. are in arithmetical progression, or as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and so represent the logarithms to whicli tbe geometrical lines AB, CD, EF, &c. do correspond. For since AG is triple ofthe right line AC, the number GH shall be in the third place from unity, if CD is in the first; so likewise shall LM be in the fifth place, since AL = 5 AC. If the extremities ofthe proportionals S, d, B, D, F, &c. are joined by right lines, the figure SBML will become a polygon, consisting of more or less sides, ac- cording as there are more or less terms in the progression. If the parts AC, CE, EG, &c. are bisected in the points c, e, g, i, I, and there are again raised the perpen- diculars cd, ef,gh, ik, Im, which arc mean proportionals between AB, CD; CD, EF, &c. then there will arise a new series of proportionals, whose terms beginning from that which immediately follows unity, are double of those in the first series, and the difference of the terms is be- come less, and approaches nearer to a ratio of equality, than before. Likewise, in this new series, the right lines AL, Ac, express the distances of the terms LM, cd, from unity, viz. since AL is ten times greater than Ac, LM shall be the tenth term of the series from unity; and be- cause Ae is three times greater than Ac, ef will be the third term ofthe series if cd is the first, ancl there shall be two mean proportionals between AB and ef; and be- tween AB and LM there will be nine mean proportionals. And if the extremities of the lines Bii, Df, Fh, kc. arc joined by right lines, there will be a new polygon made, consisting of more but shorter sides than the last. If, in this manner, mean proportionals are continually placed between every two terms, the number of terms at last will beraadeso great, as also the number of the sides ofthe polygon, as to be greater than any given number, or to be infinite; and every side of the polygon so lessen- ed, as to become less than any given right line; and con- sequently the polygon will be changed into a curvelined figure: tor any curve-lined figure may be conceived as a polygon whose sides are infinitely small and infinite in number. A curve described after this manner, is called logarithmieal. It is manifest, from this description ofthe logarithmic curve, that all numbers at equal distances are continual- ly proportional. It is also plain, that if there are four numbers, AB, CD, IK, LM, such that the distance be- tween the first and second, is equal to the distance be- tween the third and fourth, let the distance from the second to the third be what it will, these numbers will be proportional. For bivause the distance AC, IL, are equal, AB shall be, to the increment Ds. as IK is to the increment MT. Wherefore, by composition, AB : DC : IK : ML. ATM contrariwise, if four numbers are propor- tional, the distance between the first and second shall be equal to the distance between the third and fourth. The distance between any two numbers, is called the logarithm ofthe ratio of those numbers; and, indeed, does not measure the ratio itself, but the number of terms in a. LOGARITHMS. n__i —£— x -T—#3, 6cc. we shall have 1-f nx kc = N. But since n, from the nature of the logarithms, is here gnpposed indefinitely great, it is evident that the num- bers connected to it by the sign — may all be rejected, as far as any assigned number of terms. For as 1,2, 3, &c. are indefinitely small in compari- son to n, the rejecting of those numbers can very little affect the values to w Inch they belong. If, therefore, 1, 2, 3, kc. he thrown out ofthe factors n—1 11—2 n—3 2 ' 3 ' 4 t u 111 - n?x2 n3x3 kc. we shall have 1 -f- nx -|------p 2.i n*x* 2.3.4' &c. = N. But nx (= Ii) is the hyperbolic logarithm of (1 -f x) , or N, by what has been before specified; and therefore L2 L3 L4 + L + T + T3 + 2.3.4 , kc. = N — number required. Ofthe method of using a Table of Logarithms.—Having explained the method of making a table of the logarithms of numbers greater than unity, the next thing to be done is, to show how the logarithms of fractional quantities may be found. And, in order to this, it may be observed, that as we have hitherto supposed a geometric seiies to increase from an unit on the right hand, so we may now suppose it to decrease from an unit towards the left; and the indices, in this case, being made negative, will still exhibit the logarithms of the terms to which they belong. Thus Log. — 3 — 2—1 04-14-24-3, &C. Num. „»„ -tU *V 1 10 10° 1000» &c- Whence 4- 1 is the log.inthm of 10, and — 1, the loga- rithm of -j1^; 4- 2 the logarithm of 100, and — 2 the lo- garithm of T^, &c. And from hence it appears that all numbers, consisting ef the same figures, whether they be integral, fractional, or mixed, will have the decimal parts of their logarithms the same. Thus, the logarithm of 5874 being 3.7689539, the logarithm of TV> t*o> ttW' &c* Part of il wili be as follows: Num. Logarithms. 5874 3.7 6 8 9 3 3 9 5 8 T.4 2.7 6 8 9 3 3 9 5 8.7 4 17 689 3 39 5.8 7 4 0.7 6 8 9 3 3 9 .5 87 4 —1.7 6 8 9 3 3 9 .05874 —2.7 6 8 9 3 3 9 .005874 —3.7 6 8 9 3 3 9 ces, the index of its log. is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. And a frac- tion having a digit in the place of primes, seconds, thirds, fourths, &c. the index of its logarithm will be — l,__2, — 3, — 4, &C. It may also be observed, that though the indices of fractional quantities are negative, yet the decimal parts of their logarithms are always affirmative; and all ope- rations are to be performed by them in the same manner as by negative and affirmative quantities in algebra. In taking out of a table the logarithm of any number not exceeding 10000, we have the decimal part by in- spection; and if to this the proper characteristic be affixed, it will give the complete logarithm required. But if the number, whose logarithm is required, be above 10000, then find the logarithm ofthe two nearest numbers to it that can he found in the table, and say, as their difference : the difference of their logarithms : : the difference ofthe nearest number and that whose lo- garithm is required : the difference of their logarithms, nearly; and this difference being added to, or subtracted from, the nearest logarithm, according as it is greater or less than the required one, will give the logarithm required, nearly. Thus, let it be required to find the logarithm of 367182. The decimal part of 3671 is by the table .5647844; and of 3672 is .5649027; .-.The f i>67100 is 5.5647844 ") log. of \ 367200 is 5.5649027 J From this it also appears, that the index, or charac- teristic, of any logarithm, is always one less than the number of figures which the natural number consists of: and this index is constantly to be placed on the left hand of the decimal part of the logarithm. When there are integers in the given number, the index is always affirmative; but when there are no inte- gers, the index is negative, and is to be marked by a line drawn before it, like a negative quantity in algebra. Thus, a number having 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, kc. integer pla- 2 Their diff. 100 Nearest No. f Given No. \ .0001183 diff. 367200 367182 18 diff. Therefore 100 : 0001183 :: 18 : 0000212. And 5.5649027 — .0000212 = 5.5648815 = logarithm of 367182, nearly. If the number consists both of integers and fractions, or is entirely fractional, find the decimal part of the logarithm as if all its figures were integral; and this, being prefixed to the proper characteristic, will give the logarithm required. And if the given number is a proper fraction, subtract the logarithm of the denominator from the logarithm of the numerator, and the remainder will be the logarithm sought; which, being that of a decimal fraction, must always have a negative index. And, if it is a mixed number, reduce itto an improper fraction, and find the difference ofthe logarithms of the numerator and denominator, in the same manner as before. In finding the number answering to any given loga- rithm, the index, if affirmative, will always show how many integral places the required number consists of; and, if negative, in what place of decimal the first, or significant figure, stands; so that, if the logarithm can be found in the table, the number answering to it will always be had by inspection. But, if the logarithm cannot be exactly found in the table, find the next greater, and the next less, and then say, As the difference of these two logarithms : the dif- ference of the numbers answering to them : : the differ- ence of the given logarithm, and the nearest tabular LOG LOG logarithm : a fourth number; which added to, or subtrac- ted from, tbe natural number answering to the nearest tabular logarithm, according as that logarithm is less or greater than the given one, will give the number required, nearly. Thus, let it be required to find the natural number answering to the logarithm 5.5648815. The next less and greater logarithms, in the table, are 5.5647844 "J The numbers f 367100 5.5649027 J answering \ 367200 Their cliff. .0001183 100 And 55649027 — 5.5648815 = 0000212. Therefore .0001183 : 100 : : 0000212 : 18 nearly. Whence 367200 — 18 = 377182 = number required. Tiie Use and Application of Logarithms.—It is evident, from what has been said of the construction of loga- rithms, that addition of logarithms must be the same thing as multiplication in common arithmetic; and sub- traction in logarithms the same as division; therefore, in multiplication by logarithms, add the logarithms of the multiplicand and multiplier together, their sum is the logarithm of the product. num. logarithms. Example. Multiplicand 8.5 6.9294189 Multiplier 10 1.0000000 Product 85 1.9294189 And in division, subtract the logarithm of the divisor from the logarithm of the dividend, the remainder is the logarithm of the quotient. num. logarithms. Example. Dividend 9712.8 3.9873444 Divisor 456 2.6589648 Quotient 21.3 1.3283796 Tofin^ the Complement of a Logarithm.—Begin at the left hand, ancl write down what each figure wants of 9, ' only what the last significant figure wants of 10; so the complement of the logarithm of 456, viz. 2.6589648, is 7.3410352. In the Rule of Three. Add the logarithms ofthe second and third terms together, and from the sum subtract the logarithm of the first, the remainder is the logarithm of the fourth. Or, instead of subtracting a logarithm, add its complement, and the result will be the same. To raise Powers by Logarithms.—Multiply the loga- rithm of tbe number given, by the index of the power required, the product will be the logarithm ofthe power sought. Example. Let the cube of 32 be required by loga- rithms. The logarithm of 32 = 1.5051500, which multi- plied by 3, is 4.5154500, the logarithm of 32768, the cube of 32. But in raising powers, viz. squaring, cubing, kc. of any decimal fraction by logarithms, it must be observed, that the first significant figure of the power be put so many places below the place of units, as the index of its logarithm wants of 10, 100, kc. multiplied by the index ofthe power. To extract the Roots of Powers by Logarithms.—Di- vide the logarithm of the number, by the index ofthe power, the quotient is the logarithm of tho root sought. To find Mean Proportionals between any two numlers. Subtract the logarithm of the least term from the loga- rithm of the greatest, and divide the remainder by a number more by one than the number of means desired then add the quotient to the logarithm of the least term (or subtract it from the logarithm of the greatest con- tinually, and it will give the logarithms of all the mean proportionals required. Example. Let three mean proportionals be sought, between 106 and 100. Logarithm of 106 = 2.0253059 Logarithm of 100 = 2.0000000 Divide by 4)0.0253059(0.0063264.75 Log. of the least term 100 added 2.0000000 Log. of the 1st mean 101.4673846 2.0063264.75 Log. of the 2d mean 102.9563014 2.0126529.5 Log. of the 3d mean 104.4670483 2.0189794.25 Log. ofthe greatest term 106. 2.0253059. LOGIC. The professed business of logic is to express the nature ofthe human mind, and the proper manner of conducting its several powers, in order to the attainment of truth and knowledge. Those, therefore, who have treated expressly of this subject, have endeavoured first to define and describe the several faculties and operations of tho human mind, as perception, judgment, memory, invention, kc. They next proceed to lay down rules for correct reasoning and argument. Every act of the judgment they term a proposition, and all propositions are either affirmative or negative. All questions or arguments they reduce to syllogisms, that is, from two axioms or propositions (called terms, in the technical language) laid down, they deduce a third, or conclusion, and the previous proposi- tions they divide into major and minor. Thus, let the questiein be, Whether God is an intelligent being? Here the major or principal propositions proceeds from the word intelligent, and the minor respects God. They would then arrange the syllogism as follows: Moj. To dispose things in right and perfect order is the work of an intelligent Being: Min. Rut God has disposed creation in right and perfect order; Coqpbusion. Therefore God is an intelligent Being. - They next class or arrange the different kinds of syl- logisms according to the nature of them. Propositions are" not only affirmative and negative, but they are also particular or universal. Hence syllogisms will vary not only as the major or minor proposition is negative or af- firmative, but as either is an universal or particular affir- mative, &c. Hence they dispose the several kinds of propositions into modes, and the syllogisms into figures, according as they affect the subject or tbe predicate. The modes are indicated by the letters, a, e, i, o, as they are affirmative or negative, universal or particular. There are nineteen modes and four figures. The first figure is when the middle term is the subject of the major, and the predicate of the minor: as, No work of God is bad: But the natural passions and appetites of men are the work of God- Therefore they are not bad. ' This figure ine hides four modes, denoted by the words " Barbara, ct!a:cnt, Darii, fc-rio;" referring to the vowels which each sv liable contains. LONGITUDE. 10,000/. if the method determined the longitude to 1° of a great circle, or to 60 geographical miles; of 15,000/. if it determined it to 40 miles; and of 20,000/. if it deter- mined it to 30 miles; with this proviso, that if any such method extend no further than 30 miles adjoining to the coast, the proposer should have no more than half the rewards. The act also appoints the first lord ofthe admi- ralty, the speaker of the house of commons, the first commissioner of trade, the admirals of the red, white, and blue squadrons, the master ofthe Trinity-house, the president of the royal society, the royal astronomer at Greenwich, the two Savilian professors at Oxford, and the Lucasian and Plumian professors at Cambridge, with several other persons, as commissioners for the longi- tude at sea. The Lowndian professor at Cambridge was afterwards added. After this act of parliament, several other acts passed in the reigns of George II. and III. for the encouragement of finding the longitude. At last, in 1774, an act passed, repealing all other acts, and offer- ing separate rewards to any person who should discover the longitude, either by the watch keeping true time within certain limits, or by the lunar method, or by any other means. The act proposes as a reward for a time- keeper, the sum of 5000/. if it determine the longitude to 1° or 60 geographical miles; the sum of 7500/. if it deter- mine it to 40 miles; and the sura of 10,000/. if it deter- mine it to 30 miles, after proper trials specified in the act. If the method is by improved solar and lunar tables, constructed upon sir Isaac Newton's theory of gravita- tion, the author shall be entitled to 5000/. if such tables shall show the distance of the moon from the sun and stars, within fifteen seconds of a degree, answering to about seven minutes of longitude, after allowing half a degree for the errors of observation. And for any other method, the same rew arils are offered as those for time- keepers, provided it gives the longitude true within the same limits, and is practicable at sea. The commission- ers have also a power of giving smaller rewards, as they shall judge proper, to any one who shall make any dis- covery for finding the longitude at sea, though not with- in the above limits; provided, however, that if such per- son or persons shall afterwards make any further discov- ery as to come within the above-mentioned limits, such sum or sums as they may have received shall be consid- ered as part of such greater reward, and deducted there- from accordingly. To find the longitude by a time-keeper. The sun appears to move round the earth from eastto west, or to describe 660°, in 24 hours, and therefore he appears to move 15° in an hour. If therefore the meridians of two places make an angle of 15° with each other, or if the two pla- ces differ 15° in longitude, the sun will come to the eas- tern meridian one hour before he comes to the western meridian, and therefore when it is 12 o'clock at the for- mer place, it is only eleven at the latter; and in general, the difference between the times by the clock at any two places, will be the difference of their longitudes, convert- ed into time at the rate of 15° for an hour, the time at the eastern place being the forvvardest. If, therefore, we can tell what o'clock it is at any two places at the same in- stant of time, we can find the difference of their longitudes, by allowing 15° for every hour that the clocks differ. Let. therefore, the timekeeper be well regulated and set to the time of Greenwich, that being the place from which we reckon our longitude; then if the watch neither gains nor loses, it will always show the time at Green- wich, wherever you may be. Now to find the time by the clock at any other place, take the sun's altitude, and thence find the time; now the time thus found is appa- rent time, or that found by the sun, which differs from the time shown by the clock by the equation of time. We must, therefore, apply the equation of time to the time found by the sun, ancl we shall get the time by the clock; and the difference between the time by the dock so found, and ,the time by the timekeeper, or the time at Green- wich, converted into degrees at the rate of 15° for an hour, gives the longitude of the place from Greenwich. For example: let the time by the timekeeper, when the sun's altitude was taken, be 6h. 19', and let the time deduced from- the sun's altitude be 9h. 27', and suppose at that time the equation of time to be 7', showing how much the sun is that day behind the clock, then the time by the clock is 9h. 34', the difference between which and 6h. 19', is 3h. 15'; and this converted into degrees, at the rate of 15° for 1 hour, gives 48° 45', the longitude of the place from Greenwich; and as the time is forwarder than that at Greenwich, the place lies to the east of Greenwich. Thus the longitude could be very easily determined, if you could depend upon the timekeeper. But as a watch will always gain or lose, before the timekeeper is sent out, its gaining or losing every day for some time, a month for instance, is observed; this is called the rate of going of the watch, and from thence the mean rate of go- ing is thus found: Suppose I examine the rate of a watch for 30 days; on some of those days I find it has gained, and on some it has lost; add together all the quantities it has gained, and suppose they amount to 17"; add together all the quantities it has lost, and suppose they amount to 13"; then upon the whole, it has gained 4" in 30 da) s; and this is called the mean rate for that time; and this divid- ed by 30, gives 0", 133 for the mean daily rate of gain- ing; so $hat if the watch had gained regularly 0",133 eve- ry day, at the end of 30 days it would have gained just as much as it really did gain, by sometimes gaining and sometimes losing. Or you may get the mean daily rate thus: Take the difference between what the clock was too fast or too slow on the first and last days of observation, if it be too fast or too slow on each day; but take the sum, if it is too fast on one day and too slow on the other, and divide by the number of days between the observations, and you get the mean daily rate. Thus, if the watch was too fast on the first day 18", and too fast on the last day 32", the difference 14" divided by 30, gives 0'',466, the mean daily rate of gaining. But if the watch was too fast on the first day 7", and too slow on the last day 10", the sum 17" divided by 30, gives 0",566, the mean daily rate of losing. After having thus got the mean daily rate of gaining or losing, and knowing how much the watch was too fast or too slow at first, you can tell, according to that rate of going, how much it is too fast or too slow at any other time. In the first case, for instance, let the watch have been l' 17" too fast at first, and 1 want to know how much it is too fast 50 days after that time; now it gains 0",133 every day; if this is multiplied by 50, it gives 7",65 for the whole gain in 50 days; there- LONGITUDE, fore, at the end of that time, the watch would be 1'. 23",65 to fast. This would be the error, if the watch continued to gain at the above rate; and although, from the different temperatures ofthe air, and the imperfection of the workmanship, thll cannot be expected, yet the probable error will by this means be diminished, and it is the best method we have to depend upon. In watches which are under trial at the Royal Observatory at Green- wich, as candidates for the rewards, this allowance of a mean rate is admitted, although it is not mentioned in the act of parliament: the commissioners, however, are so indulgent as to grant it, which is undoubtedly favour- able to the patches. As the rate of going of a watch is subject to vary from so many circumstances, the observer, whenever he goes ashore, and has sufficient time, should compare his watch for several days with the true time found by the sun, by whicli he will be able to find its rate of going. And when he comes to a place whose longitude is known, he may then set his watch to Greenwich time; for when the lon- gitude of a place is known, you know the difference be- tween the time there and at Greenwich. For instance, if he go to a place known to be 30° east longitude from Greenwich, his watch should be two hours slower than the time at that place. Find therefore the true time at that place, by the sun, and if the watch is two hours slower, it is right; if not, correct it by the difference, and it again gives Greenwich time. In the year 1726, Mr. John Harrison produced a time- keeper of his own construction, which did not err above one second in a month for ten years together; and in the year 1736 he had a machine tried in a voyage to and from Lisbon, which was the means of correcting an error of almost a degree ancl a half in the computation of the ship's reckoning. In consequence of this success, Mr. Harrison received public encouragement to proceed, and he made three other time-keepers, each more accurate than the former, which were finished successively in the years 1739, 1758, and 1761; the last of which proved so much to his own satisfaction, that he applied to the com- missioners of the longitude to have this instrument tried iu a voyage to some port in the West Indies, according to the directions of the statute of the 12th of Anne above cited. Accordingly, Mr. William Harrison, son of the inventor, embarked in November 1761, on a voyage for Jamaica, with this fourth timekeeper or watch; and on bis arrival there, the longitude, as shown by the time- keeper, differed but one geographical mile and a quarter from the true longitude, deduced from astronomical ob- servations. The same gentleman returned to England with the timekeeper, in March 1762, when he found that it had erred in the four months, no more than 1' 54"| in time, or 28| minutes of longitude; whereas the act re- quires no greater exactness than 30 geographical miles, or minutes of a great circle, in such a voyage. Mr. Harrisem now claimed the whole reward of 20,000/. offer- ed by the said act: hut some doubts arising in the minds of the commissioners concerning the true situation of the island of Jamaica, and the manner in whicli the time at that, place had been found, as well as at Portsmouth; and it being farther suggested by some, that although the timekeeper bajipened to be right at Jamaica, and after its return to England, it was by no means a proof that it had been always so in the intermediate time; another trial was therefore proposed, in a voyage to the island of Barbadoes, in which precautions were taken to obviate as many of these objections as possible. Accordingly the commissioners previously sent out proper persons to make astronomic al observations on that island, which, when compared with other corresponding ones made in England, would determine, beyond a doubt, its true si- tuation; and Mr. William Harrison again set out with his father's timekeeper, in March 1764, the watch having been compared with equal altitudes at Portsmouth before he set out, and he arrived at Barbadoes about the middle of May; where, on comparing it again by equal altitudes of the sun, it was found to show the difference of longi- tude between Portsmouth and Barbadoes to be 3h. 55m. 3s.; the true difference of longitude between these places, by astronomical observations, being 3h. 54m. 20.; so that the error of the watch was 43s., or 10' 45" of longitude. In consequence of tbis and the former trials, Mr. Harri- son received one moiety of the reward offered by the • 12th of queen Anne, after explaining the principles on which his watch wras constructed, and delivering this, as well as the three former, to the commissioners of the longitude for the use of the public: ancl he was promised the other moiety of the reward, when other timekeepers should be made on the same principles, either by himself or others, performing equally well with that which he had last made. In the mean time, this last timek » per was sent down to the Royal Observatory at Green with, to be tried there under the direction of the Rev. Dr. Maskelyne, the astronomer-royal. But it did not appear, during this trial, that the watch went with the regularity that was expected; from which it was apprehended that the performance even of the same watch was not at all times equal; and consequently that little certainty could be ex- pected in the performance of different ones. Moreover the watch was now found to go faster than during the voyage to and from Barbadoes by 18 or 19 seconds in 24 hours; but this circumstance was accounted for by Mr. Harrison, who informs us that he had altered the rate of its going by trying some experiments, which he had not time to finish before lie was ordered to deliver up the watch to the board. Soon after this trial, the commis- sioners of longitude agreed with Mr. Kendal, one of the watch-makers appointed by them to receive Mr. Harri- son's discoveries, to make another watch on the same construction with this, to determine whether such watches could be made from the account whie h Mr. Harrison had given, by other persons as well as himself. The event proved the affirmative; for the watch produced by Mr. Kendal, in consequence of this agreement, went consiile- rably better than Mr. Harrison's did. Mr. Kendal's watch was sent out with captain Cook, in his second voyage towards the south pole ancl round the globe, in the. years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775; when the only fault found in the watch was, that its rate of g ing was continually accelerated: though in this trial of tiiree years and a half it never amounted to I4"i a day. The conse- quence was, thatthe house of commons, in 1774 to whom an appeal had been made, were pleased to order the se- cond moiety ofthe reward to be given to Mr. Harrison and to pass the act above-mentioned. Mr. Harrison had also at different times received some other sums of money, LONGITUDE. as encouragements to him to continue his endeavours, from the board of longitude, and from the India company, as well as from many individuals. Mr. Arnold and some other persons have since also made several very good watches for the same purpose, and have been remunerated for their skill and labour. Others have proposed various astronomical methods for finding the longitude. These methods chiefly depend on having an ephemeris or almanac suited to the meridian of some place, as Greenwich for instance, to which the Nautical Almanac is adapted, which shall contain for every day computations of the times of all remarkable celestial motions and appearances, as adapted to that meridian. So that if the hour and minute is known when any of the same phenomena are observed in any other place whose longitude is desired, the difference between this time and that to which the time of the said pheno- menon was calculated and set down in the almanac, will be known, and consequently the difference of longitude also becomes known between that place and Greenwich, allowing at the rate of fifteen degrees to an hour. • Now it is easy to find the time at any place, by means of the altitude or azimuth of the sun or stars, which time it is necessary to find by such means, both in these astro- nomical modes of determining the longitude, and in the former by a timekeeper; and it is the difference between that time, so determined, and the time at Greenwich, known either by the timekeeper or by the astronomical observations of celestial phenomena, which gives the dif- ference of longitude at the rate above-mentioned. Now the difficulty in these methods lies in the fewness of pro- per phenomena, capable of being thus observed; for all slow motions, such as belong to the planet Saturn, for in- stance, are quite excluded, as affording too small a dif- ference, in a considerable space of time, to be properly observed; and it appears that there are no phenomena in the heavens proper for this purpose, except the eclipses or motions of Jupiter's satellites, and the eclipses or mo- tions of the moon, viz. such as her distance from the sun or certain fixed stars lying near her path, or her longi- tude or place in the zodiac, &c. Now of these methods, 1st. That by the eclipses of the moon is very easy, and sufficiently accurate, if they did but happen often, as every night. For at the moment when the beginning or middle or end of an eclipse is observed .by a telescope, there is no more to be done but to determine the time by observ- ing the altitude or azimuth of some .known star; which time being compared with that in the tables, set down for the happening of the same phenomenon at Greenwich, gives the difference in time, and consequently of longi- tude sought. But as the beginning or end of an eclipse of the moon cannot generally be observed nearer than one minute, and sometimes two or three minutes of time, the longitude cannot certainly be determined by this me- thod, from a single observation, nearer than one degree of longitude. However, by two or more observations, as of the beginning and end, &c. a much greater degree of exactness may be attained. 2d. The moon's place in the zodiac is a phenomenon more frequent than her eclipses; but then the observation of it is difficult, and the calculus perplexed and intricate, by reason of two parallaxes; so that it is hardly practi- cable to auy tolerable degree of accuracy. 3d. But the moon's distances from the sun or certain fixed stars, are phenomena to be observed many times in almost every night, and afford a good practical method of determining the longitude of a ship at almost any time; either by computing from tbeUce the moon's true place, to compare with the same in the almanac; or by com- paring her observed distance itself with the same as there set down. From the great improvements made by Newton in the theory ofthe moon, and more lately by Euler and others on his principles, professor Mayer, of Gottingen, was enabled to calculate lunar tables more correct than any former ones; having so far succeeded as to give the moon's place within one minute ofthe truth, as hasbeen proved by a comparison of the tables with the observa- tions made at the Greenwich observatory by Dr. Bradley, and by Dr. Maskelyne, the late astronomer-royal; and the same have been still farther improved under his di- rection, by the late Mr. Charles Mason, by several new equations, and the whole computed to tenths of a second. These tables, when compared with the above-mentioned seiies of observations, a proper allowance being made for the unavoidable error of observation, seem to give always the moon's longitude in the heavens correctly within 30 seconds of a degree; which greatest error, added to a pos- sible error of one minute in taking the moon's distance from the sun or a star at sea, will at a medium only pro- duce an error of 45 minutes of longitude. To facilitate the use of the tables, Dr. Maskelyne proposed a nautical ephemeris, the scheme of which was adopted by the com- missioners of longitude, and first executed in the year 1767, since which time it has been regularly continuedi But as the rules that were given in the appendix to one of those publications, .for correcting the effects of re- fraction and parallax, were thought too difficult for ge- neral use, they have been reduced to tables. So that, by the help of the ephemeris, these tables, and others that are also provided by the board of longitude, the calcula- tions relating to the longitude, which could not be per- formed by the most expert mathematician in less than four hours, may now be completed with great ease and accuracy in half an hour. As this method of determining the longitude depends on the use of the tables annually published for this purpose, those who wish for farther information are referred to the instructions that accompany them, and particularly to those that are annexed to the tables requisite te> be used with the Astronomical and Nautical Ephemeris. 4th. The phenomena of Jupiter's satellites have com- monly been preferred to those of the moon, for finding the longitude; because they are less liable to parallaxes than these are, and besides they afford a very commo- dious observation whenever the planet is above the hori- zon. Their motion is very swift, and must be calculated for every hour. Now, to find the longitude by these satellites: with a good telescope observe some of their phenomena, as the conjunction of two of them, or of one of them with Jupi- ter, &c. and at the same time find the hour and minute, from the altitudes of the stars, or by means of a clock or watch, previously regulated for the place of observation; then, consulting tables of the satellites, observe the time when the same appearance happens in the meridian of tbe L 0 N LOO place for which the tables are calculated; and the differ- ence of time, as before, will give the longitude* The eclipses of the first and second of Jupiter's satel- lites are the most proper for this purpose; and as they happen almost daily, they afford a ready means of deter- mining the longitude of places at land, having indeed contributed much to tbe modern improvements in geo- graphy; and if it were possible to observe them with proper telescopes, in a ship under sail, they would be of great service in ascertaining its longitude from time to time. To obviate the inconvenience to which these ob- servations are liable from the motions of the ship, Mr. Irwin invented what he called a marine chair: this was tried by Dr. Maskelyne, in his voyage to Barbadoes, when it was found that no benefit could be derived from the use of it. And indeed, considering the great power requisite in a telescope proper for these observations, and the violence as well as irregularities in the motion of a ship, it is to be feared that the complete management of a telescope on shipboard will always remain among the desiderata in this part of nautical science. And far- ther, since all methods that depend on the phenomena of the heavens, have also this other defect, that they cannot be observed at all times, this renders the improvement of timekeepers of the greater importance. LONICEltA, honeysuckle, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants. The corolla is monopetalous and irregular; the berry polyspermous, bi- locular, and inferior. There are 19 species, of which the most remarkable are, 1. The alpigena, or upright red-berried honeysuckle, rises with a shrubby, short, upright stem, four or five feet high. 2. The cserulea, or blue-berried honeysuckle, with a shrubby upright stem, three or four feet high, and many white flowers proceeding from the sides of the branches. 3. The nigra, or black-berried upright honeysuckle, with a shrubby stem three or four feet high, and wiiite flowers succeeded by single and distinct black berries. 4. The tartarica, or Tartarian honeysuckle, with a shrubby upright stem, three or four feet high, heart- shaped opposite leaves, and whitish erect flowers succeed- ed by reel berries, sometimes distinct, and sometimes double. 5. The diervilla, or yellow-flowered Arcadian honey- suckle, with shrubby upright stalks, to the height of three or four feet, and clusters of pale yellow flowers, appear- ing in May and June, and sometimes continuing till au- tumn. 4. The xylosteum, or fly honeysuckle, with a strong shrubby stem, branching erect to the height of seven or eight feet, and erect white flowers proceeding from the sides of the branches. 7. The symphoricarpos, or shrubby St. Peter's-wort, with a shrubby rough stein, four or five feet high, and small greenish flowers. 8. The periclymenum, or common climbing honeysuc- kle, has two principal varieties, viz. the English wild honeysuckle, or woodbine of the woods and hedges, and the Dutch or German honeysuckle, with a shrubby de- cimated stalk, and long trailing purplish branches, fur- nishing large beautiful reel flowers of a fragrant odour, appearing in June and July. vol. ii. 72 9. Thecaprifolium, or Italian honeysuckle, with shrub- by declinated stalks, sending out long slender trailing branches, terminated by verticillate or whorled bunches t of close-sitting flowers, very fragrant, and white, red, and yellow colours. 10. The sempervirens, or evergreen trumpet-flowered honeysuckle, with a shrubby declinated stalk, sending out long slender trailing branches, terminated by naked verticillate spikes, of long, unreflexed, deep-scarlet flowers, very beautiful, but of little fragrance. LOOF, in the sea language, is a term used in various senses; thus the loof of a ship is that part of her aloft which lies just before the chest-trees; hence the guns which lie there are called loof-pieces: keep your loof, signifies, keep the ship near to the wind: to loof into a harbour, is to sail into it close by the wind: loof up, is to keep nearer the wind: to spring the loof, is when a ship that was going large before the wind, is brought close by the wind. Loof-tackle, is a tackle in a ship which serves to lift goods of small weight in or out of her. LOOKING-GLASSES. See Optics. LOOM, the weaver's frame, a machine whereby se- veral distinct threads are woven into one piece. Looms are of various structures, accommodated to the various kinds of materials to be woven, and the various manner of weaving them, viz. for woollens, silks, linens, cottons, cloths of gold, and other works, as tapestry, ribands, stockings, &c. See Weaving. The weaver's loom-engine, otherwise called the Dutch loom-engine, was brought into use from Holland to London, in or about the year 1676. The lower compartment of Plate LXXIX. Lock and Loom, represents a loom for weaving silks or other plain work. A, fig. 6, is a roll called the cloth-beam, on which the cloth is wound as it is wove; at one end it has a racket-wheel a, and a click to prevent its running back; at the same end it has also four holes in it, and is turned by putting a stick in these holes: at the other end of the loom is another roll B, on which the yarn is wound; this has two small cords bb wrapped round it, the ends of which are attached to a bar d, which has a weight D hung to it: by this means a friction is caused, wVich prevents the roll B turning by accident. EF are called lambs; they are composed of two sticks eflii, between which are fastened a great number of threads; to the bar e are fastened two cords gh, which pass over pullevs, and are fastened to the bar h of the lamb F; the lower bars of each lamb are connected by cords with the trea- dles GH: the workman sits on the seat K, and places his feet upon these treadles; as they are connected toge- ther by the cords gh, when he presses down one, it will raise the other, and the lambs with them; a great num- ber of threads, according to the width of the cloth, are wound round the yarn-beam B, and are stretched to the cloth-beam A; the middle ofthe threads which compose the lamb EF, have loops (called eyes) in them, through which the threads between the rolls AB, which are called the warp, are passed; the first thread of the warp goes through the loops of the lambs E, the next attached to the Iamb F, and so on alternately; by this means, w hen the weaver presses down one of the treadles with bis foot ami raises the other, one lamb draws up every other thre«id» LOP L O T a:id the other sinks all the rest, so as to make an opening between the sets of thread: LL is a frame moving on a * centre at the top of the frame of the loom; the lower part *>f this frame is shown in fig. 8; LL arc the two uprights <>i the frame, / is the bar that connects them, M is a frame carrying a great number of pieces of split reed or sometimes fine wire at equal distances; between these the threads of the warp are passed; the frame Mis supported by a piece of wood m cailed the shuttle-race, which is fastened into the front of the pieces LL; each end of this piece has boards nailed to the sides, so as to form troughs NO; at a small distance above these are fixed two very smooth wires no; thein use is to guide the two pieces pq, called peckers or drivers; to each of these pieces a string is fastened, and these strings are tied to a piece of wood P, which the weaver holds in his hand, and by snatching the stick to either side, draws the pecker forwards very quick, and gives the shuttle, fig. 7. (which is to be laid in the trough before the pecker) a smart blow, and drives it along across the race m into the other trough, where it pushes the pecker along to the end of the wire, ready for the next stroke which throws it back again, and so on. Fig. 7. represents the underside of the shuttle on a larger scale; its ends are pointed with iron; it has a large mortise through the middle of it, in which is placed a quill a containing the yarn; & is a piece of glass, called the eye of the shuttle, with a hole in it, through which comes the end of the thread; dd are two small wheels to make it run easily on the race. The operations are as follow: the workman sitting upon the seat K. holds the stick P in his right hand, and takes hold of one of the bars of the frame LL with his left; presses his foot on one of the treadles GH, which by means of the Iambs EF, as before described, divides the warp; he then snatch- es the stick P, and by that means throws the shuttle, fig. 7, which unwinds the thread in it, and leaves it lying in between the threads of the warp; he then relieves the treadle he before kept down, and presses down the other; while he is doing this, he with his left hand draws the frame LL towards him, and then returns it. The use of this is to beat the last thread thrown by the shuttle close up to the one that was thrown before it b) '.'ie split reeds M, fg. 8. As soon as he has brought the frame LL back to its original position, and again divided the warp by the treadle, he throws the shuttle again: when he bus in this manner finished about 12 or 14 inches of cloth, he winds it up by turning the roll A with the stick, as before described. Some very expert weavers will throw the shuttle and perform the other operations at the rate of 120 times per minute. Loom, in the sea language. When a ship appears big when seen at a distance, they say she looms. Loom gale, a gentle easy gale of wind, in which a ship can carry her topsails atrip. LOOP, in the iron works, denotes a part of a sow or block of cast iron, broken or melted off from the rest. LOPHI US, fishing-frog, toad-fish, or sea- devil, a genus jof the branchiostegious order of fishes, whose head is in size equal to all the rest of the body. There are three species, the most remarkable of which is the piscatorius, or common fishing-frog, an inhabitant of the British seas. This singular fish grows to a large size, some be- ing between four and five feet in length; and Mr. Pen- nant mentions one taken near Scarborough, whose mouth was a yard wide. The fishermen on that coast have a great regard for this fish, from a supposition that it is a great enemy to the dog-fish; and whenever they take it with their lines, set it at liberty. The head of this fish is much larger than the whole body, is round at the cir- cumference, and flat above; the mouth of a prodigious wideness. The under jaw is much longer than the up- per; the jaws are full of slender sharp teeth; in the roof of the mouth are two or three rows of the same. On each side the upper jaw are two sharp spines, and others are scattered about the upper part of the head. The body grows slender near the tail, the end of which is quite even. The colour of the upper part of this fish is dusky; the lower part wiiite; the skin smooth. LORANTHUS, a genus of the monogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 48th order, aggirgatse. The germen is inferior; there is no calyx; the corolla is sexfid and in- voluted; the stamina are at the tops of the petals; the berry is monospennous. There are 18 species, natives of America. LORD. See Peer. LORD'S DAY. No person upon the Lord's day shall serve or execute any writ, process, warrant, order, judg- ment, or decree (except in cases of treason, felony, or breach ofthe peace) but the service thereof shall be void. LOTTERIES are declared to be public nuisances, 5 Geo. I. c. 9.; but for the public service of the govern- ment, lotteries are frequently established by particular statutes, and managed by special officers and persons appointed. By stat. 42 Geo. III. c. 54, lottery-office keepers are to pay 50/. for every licence in London, Edinburgh, and Dublin, or within 20 miles of cither, and 10/. for every licence for every other office; and licensed persons shall deposit 30 tickets with the receiver general of the stamp- duties, or licence to be void. By stat. 22 Geo. III. c. 47, lottery-office keepers must take out a lie ence; and offices are to be open only from eight in the morning to eight in the evening, except the Saturday evening preceding the drawing. The sale of chances and shares of tickets, by persons not being pro- prietors thereof, is prohibited under penalty of 50/.; and by 42 Geo. III. c. 119, all games or lotteries called little goes, are declared public nuisances, and all persons keep- ing any office or places for any game or lottery, not au- thorized by law, shall forfeit 500/. and be deemed rogues ancl vagabonds. The proprietor of a whole ticket may nevertheless insure it for its value only, with any licensed office for the whole time of drawing from the time of insurance, under a bona fide agreement without a stamp. LOTUS, or bird's-foot trefoil, a genus ofthe decaiulria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the na- tural method ranking under the 32d order, papilionaceae. The legumen is cylindrical, and very erect, the alse closing upwards longitudinally; the calyx is tubulated. There are 23 species, hut only five or six are usually cultivated in our gardens. 1. The siliquosus, or winged pea, has trailing, slender, branchy stalks, about a foot long, with trifoliate oval leaves, and from the axillas of the branches, large, pa- pilionaceous, red flowers, one on each footstalk, sue- L 0 X L OX ceeded by tetragonous solitary pods, having a membra- nous wing or lobe, running longitudinally at each corner. It flowers in June and July, and the seeds ripen in au- tumn. 2. The creticus, or Cretan silvery lotus. 3. The Jacobseus, or black lotus of St. James's island. 4. The hirsutus, or hairy Italian lotus. 5. The dorcynium, white Austrian lotus, or shrub trefoil of Montpelier. 6. The edulis, with yellow flowers. The first species is a hardy annual. The other species may be propagated either by seeds or cuttings, but re- quire to be kept in pots in the greenhouse during the winter season. LOUIS, or KtfiGiTTs of St. Louis, the name of a military order in France, instituted by Louis XIV. in 1693. LOUSE. See Pediculus. LOXIA, a genus of birds of the order of passeres, the distinguishing characters of which are: the bill is strong, convex above and below, and very thick at the base; the nostrils are small and round; the tongue is as if cut off at the end; the toes arc four, placed three before and one behind, excepting one species; which has only two toes before and one behind. The most remarkable are: 1. The curvirostra, or common cross-bill, is about the size of a lark, is known by the singularity of its bill, both mandibles of which curve opposite ways and pe, and throughout Russia and Siberia, at which last places it is caught for the table. In winter It approaches gardens and orchards, and has been generally stigmati-ed for making havock among the buds of trees. From some late observations however, it would appear, that the object of these birds is not the bud, but «• the worm in the bud;" and that this species, in conjunction with various other species of small birds, are the frequent m:'ans of defending the embryo fruits, and thence promoting their growth to maturity; for the warmth thatswellsthe buds, not only hatcheseggs of unnumbered tribes of insects, whose parent flies, by an unerring instinct, laid them there, but brings forward a numerous race already in a caterpillar state, that now issue from their concealments, and make their excursion along the budding branches, and would probably destroy every hope of fruitage, but for those useful instruments for its preservation, whose young are principally fed by eating caterpillars. The bulfinch, in its wild state, has only a plain note; but when tamed, it becomes remarkably docile, and may be taught any tune after a pipe, or to whistle any note in the best manner; it seldom forgets what it has learned; and will become so tame as to come at call, perch on its master's shoulder, and (at command) go through a difficult musical lesson. They may be also taught to speak, and some thus instructed are aunually brought to London from Germany. 4. The cardinalis, or cardinal grossbeak, near eight inches in length. The bill stout, and of a pale-red co- lour; the irides a hazel; the head is greatly crested, the feathers rising up to a point when erect; round the bill, and on the throat, the colour is black, the rest of the bird of a fire-red. The female differs from the male, being mostly of a reddish brown. This species is met with iu several parts of North America, and has attained the name of Virginia nightingale, from the fineness of its song, the note of which resembles that of the nightin- gale. 5. The orix, or grenadier grossbeak, is about the size of a house-sparrow. The forehead, sides of the head, and chin, are black, the breast and belly the same; the wings are brown, with pale edges; and the rest of the body of a beautiful red colour. These birds are inhabi- tants of St. Helena; they are also in plenty at the Cape of Good Hope, where they frequent watery places that abound with reeds, and among which they are supposed to make their nest. If, as is supposed, this is the same with Kolben's finch, he says that the nest is of a peculiar contrivance, made with small twigs, interwoven very closely and tightly with cotton, and divided into two apartments with but one entrance, the upper for the male, the lower for the female, and is so tight as n:>t to be pe- netrated by any weather. He adds, that the bird is scar- let only in summer, being in the winter wholly ash-co- loured. These birds, se en among the green reeds, are said to have a wonderful effect: for, from the brightness of their colours, they appear like so many scarlet lilies. See Plate LXXX1V. Nat. Hist. fig. 253. 6. The pensilis, or pensile grossbeak, (the toddy-bird of Fryer) is about the size of the house-sparrow: the bill is black; the irides are yellow; tiie head, throat, and fore- part of the neck, the same; from the nostrils springs a dull green stripe, which passes through the eye and be- yond it, where it is broader; the hind part of the head ancl neck, the back, rump, and wing-coverts, are of the same colour; the quills are black, edged with green; the belly te deep grey, and the vent of a rufous red; the tail and legs are black. This species is found at Madagas- car; and fabricates a nest of a curious construction, com- posed of straw and reeds interwoven in shape of a bag, the opening beneath. It js fasu ucd above to a twig of L 0 Z some tree; mostly to those growing on the borders of streams. On one side of this, within, is the true nest. The bird does not form a new nest every year, but fas- tens a new one to the end of the last; and often as far as five in number, one hanging from another. These build in society like rooks, often five or six hundred be- ing seen on one tree. They have three young at each batch. See Plate LXXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 254. 7. The bengalensis, or Bengal grossbeak, is a trifle bigger than a house-sparrowr. The female lays three or four eggs. 8. The socia, or sociable grossbeak, is about the size of a bullfinch; the general colour of the body above is a rufous brown, the under parts yellowish. It inhabits the interior country at the Cape of Good Hope, where it was discovered by colonel Paterson. These birds, ac- cording to our author, live together in large societies, and their mode of nidification is extremely uncommon. They build in a species of mimosa which grows to an un- common size. In one described by col. Paterson, there could be no less a number than from 800 to 1000 re- siding under the same roof. He calls it a roof, because it perfectly resembles that of a thatched house; and the ridge forms an angle so acute ancl so smooth, projecting over the entrance of the nest below, that it is impossible for any reptile to approach them. The industry of these birds « seems almost equal (says our author) to that of tbe bee: throughout the day they appear to be busily em- ployed in carrying a fine species of grass, which is tbe principal material they employ for the purpose of erect- ing this extraordinary work, as well as for additions and repairs. Though my short stay in the country was not sufficient to satisfy me by ocular proofs, that tliey added to their nest as they annually increased in numbers, still from the many trees which I have seen borne down with the weight, and others which 1 have observed with their boughs completely covered over, it would appear that this is really the case. When the tree which is the support of this aerial city is obliged to give way to the increase of weight, it is obvious that they are no longer protected, and are under the necessity of rebuilding in other trees. One of these deserted nests I hud the curiosity to break down, so as to inform myself of the internal .structure of it, and found it equally ingenious with that of the exter- nal. There are many entrances, each of which forms a regular street, with nests on both sides, at about two inches distant from each other. 9. The tridactyla, or three-toed grossbeak, (the guifso balito of Buffon) has only three toes, two before and one behind. The bill is toothed on the edges; the head, throat, and fore-part ofthe neck, are of a beautiful red; the up- per part ofthe neck, back, and tail, are black; the wing- Coverts brown, edged with white; quills brown, with greenish edges; and legs a dull red; the wings reach half- way on the tail. This species inhabits Abyssinia, where it frequents woods, and is a solitary species. According to Linnaeus there are 48 species of the loxia. LOZENGE, Lozange, rhombus, in geometry, a qua- drilateral figure, consisting of four equal and parallel sides, two of whose opposite angles are acute, and the #ther two obtuse; the distance between the two obtuse LUG ones being always equal to the length of one side: when the sides are unequal, Jhis figure is called a rhomboides. Lozenge, in heraldry, a rhombus, or figure of equal sides, but unequal angles. Lozenge, in pharmacy, the same with what is other- wise called troche. LUC ANUS, stag-chaffer, a genus of insects of the or- der coleoptera: the generic character is, antennse cla- vated, with compressed tip, divided into lamellae on the inner side; jaws stretched forwards, exserted, and tooth. ed. The principal species is the lucanus cervus, com- monly known by the name of the stag-beetle, or stag. chaffer. It is the largest of all the European coleopterous insects, sometimes measuring nearly two inches and a half in length, from the tips of the jaws to the end ofthe body. Its general colour is a deep chesnut, with the thorax and head, which is of a squarish form, of a blacker cast; and the jaws are often of a brighter or redder ches- nut-colour than the wings-shells; the legs and under-parts are coal-black, and the wings, which, except during flight, are concealed under the shells, are large, and of a fine pale yellowish-brown. This remarkable insect is chiefly found in the neighbourhood of oak-trees, delight- ing in the sweet exsudation or honey-dew so frequently observed on the leaves. Its larva, which perfectly re- sembles that of the genuine beetles, is also found in tlie hollows of oak-trees, residing inthe fine vegetable mould usually seen in such cavities, and feeding on the softer parts of the decayed wood. It is of very considerable size, of a pale yellowish or whitish-brown colour; and when stretched out at full length, measures nearly four inches. When arrived at its full size, whicli, according to some, is hardly sooner than the fifth or sixth year, it forms, by frequently turning itself, and moistening it with its glutinous saliva, a smooth oval hollow in the earth, in which it lies, and afterwards remaining perfectly still for the space of near a month, divests itself of its shin, and commences pupa or chrysalis. It is now of a shorter form than before, of a rather deeper colour, and exhibits in a striking inu'iner the rudiments of the large extended jaws and broad head so conspicuous in the perfect insect: the legs are also proportionally larger and longer than in the larva state. The ball of earth in which this chrysa- lis is contained is considerably larger than a hen's egg, and of a rough exterior surface, but perfectly smooth and polished within. The chrysalis lies about three months before it gives birth to the complete insect, whicli usually emerges in the months of July and August. The time, however, of this insect's growth and appearance in all its states varies much, according to the difference of seasons. It is not very uncommon in many parts of England. The commonly supposed female differs so much in ap« pearance from the male, that it has by some authors been considered as a dictinct species. It is not only small- er than the former, but totally destitute of the long and large ramified jaws, instead of which it has a pair of very short curved ones, slightly denticulated on their in- ner side: the head is also of considerably smaller diame- ter than the thorax. In point of colour it resembles the former. The exotic species of this genus are mostly natives of America, and one in particular, frequently found in Vir- ginia, is so nearly allied to the English stag-beetle as L U N L U T hardly to differ, except in having fewer denticulations or divisions on the jaws. A highly elegant species has lately been discovered in New Holland. This differs from the rest in being entire- ly of a beautiful golden-green colour, with short, sharp- pointed, denticulated jaws of a brilliant copper-colour. The whole length of the insect is rather more than an inch. There are seven species of the lucanus. LUCIDA, in astronomy, an appellation given to seve- ral fixed stars on account of their superior brightness; as the lucida coronas, a star of the second magnitude in the northern crown; the lucida hydrse; or cor hydra?; and the lucida lyrse, a star of the first magnitude in that con- stellation. LUDWTGIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the tetrandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order, calycanthemse. The corol- la is tetrapetalous; the calyx quadripartite, superior; the capsule tetragonal quadrilocular, interior, and polysper- mous. There are four species, annuals of the West In- dies. LUES. See Medicine. LUMBAGO. See Medicine. LUMBRICUS, the worm, in zoology; a genus of in- sects belonging to the order of vermes intestina. The body is cylindrical, annulatcd, with an elevated belt near the middle, and a vent-hole on its side. There are two spe- cies of this animal: 1. Lumbricus terrestris, the earth or dew worm, Mr. Barbut observes, differs extremely in colour and external appearance in the different periods of its growth, which has occasioned peeqile little ac- quainted with the variations of this kind of animals to make four or five different species of them. The general colour is a dusky red. They live under ground, never quitting the earth but after heavy rains, or at the ap- proach of storms. The method to force them out is, eith- er to water the ground with infusions of bitter plants, or to trample on it. The bare motion on the surface of the soil drives them up, in fear of being surprised by their formidable enemy, the mole. The winding progression ofthe worm is facilitated by the inequalities of its body, armed with small, stiff, sharp-pointed bristles: when it means to insinuate itself into the earth, there oozes from its body a'clammy liquor, by means of whicli it slides down. It never damages the roots of vegetables. Its food is a small portion of earth, which it has the faculty of digesting. The superfluity is ejected by way of excre- ment, under a vermicular appearance. Earth-worms are hermaphrodites. 2. The marinus, marine worm, or lug, (see Plate LXXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 255.) is of a pale red colour, and the body is composed of a number of annular joints; the skin is scabrous, and all the rings or joints are covered with little prominences, which render it ex- tremely rough to the touch. It is an inhabitant of the mud about the sea-shores, and serves for food to many kinds of fish. The fishermen bait their hooks and nets with it. LUNAR caustic. ") See Silver, Chemistry, and LUNA cornea. J Salt9, Detonating. LUIS ARIA, Satin-flower, Moonwort, or Hones- ty, a genus of the siliculosa order, in the tetradynamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking un- der the 39th order, Stliquosae. The silicula is entire, el- liptical, compressed-plane, and pedicellated; with the valves equal to the partition, parallel, and plane; the leaves of the calyx are alternately fritted at the base. There are three species. This plant is famous in some parts of England for its medicinal virtues, though it has not the fortune to be received iu the shops. The peo- ple in the northern countries dry the whole plant in an oven, and give as much as will lie on a shilling for a dose twice a day in hemorrhages of all kinds, and with great success. The Welch, among whom it is not uncommon, Dr. Needham informs us, make an ointment of it, which they use externally, and pretend it cures dysenteries. LUNATIC. SeelDEOT. LUNGS. See Anatomy, and Physiology. LUPIN US, lupin, a genus of the decandria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 32d order, papiliouaceae. Tlie calyx is bilabiated; there are five oblong and five roundish antberse; the legumen is coriaceous. There are ten species, chiefly hardy herbaceous flowery annuals, rising with upright stalks from one to three or four feet high, ornamented with digitate or fingered leaves, and terminated by long when led spikes of papilionaceous flowers, white, blue, yellow, and rose-coloured. They are all easily raised from seed, and succeed in any open borders, where they make a fine variety. LUPUS, in astronomy, a southern constellation, con- sisting of 19, or, according to Flamstced, of 24 stars. LUSTRATION, in antiquity, sacrifices or ceremo- nies by which the ancients purified the ir cities, field, ar- mies, or people, defiled by any crime or impurity. LUSTliE, a term signifying the gloss or brightness which appears on tiie external surface of a mineral, or on the internal surface when newly broken. .The first is called the external, the second internal lustre. Two par- ticulars respecting lustre require attention, viz. the de- gree, and ihe kind. 1. With respect to degree, Dr. Thomson gives five terms of comparison, viz. l. very brilliant; 2. brilliant; 3. sub-brilliant; 4. glimmering, that is, having only certain parts brilliant; 5. dull, or without lustre. 2. With respect to kind, the lustre is either metallic or common. The common lustre is subdivided into vitreous or glossy, silky, waxy or greasy, mother of pearl, dia- mond, and semi-metallic. LUTE, a stringed instrument formerly much in use; anciently containing only five rows of strings, but to which six, or more, were afteivvards added. The lute consists of four parts, viz. the table; the body, which has nine or ten sides; the neck, which has as many stops or divisions; and the head, or cross, in which screws for tuning it are inserted. In plav ing this instrument, the performer strikes the strings with the fingers ofthe right hand, and regulates the sounds with those of the left hand. The origin of this instrument is not known, though generally believed to be of very early date. Indeed, au- thors are not agreed as to the country to which we are indebted for its invention. Some give it to Germany and derive its name from the German word I itue, which signifies the same thing, while others as. • ibe it to Hie Arabians, and trace its name from the At.ioit alland. LUTES. In many chemical operation* ihe vessels must L Y C L Y C be covered with something to preserve them from the violence of the fire, from being broken or melted; and also to close exactly their joinings to each other, in or- der to retain the substances which they contain, when they are volatile, and reduced to vapour. The coating used for retorts, kc to defend them from the action of the lire, is usually composed of nearly equal parts of coarse sand, and refractory clay. These matters ought to be well mixed with water and a little hair, so as to form a liquid paste, with which the vessels are covered, layer upon layer, till it is of the required thickness. The sand mixed with the clay is necessary to prevent the cracks which are occasioned by the contract- ing of the clay during its drying, which it always does when pure. The hair serves also to bind the parts of rhe lute, and to keep it applied to the vessel; for, notwith- standing the sand which is introduced into it, some cracks are alwavs formed, which would occasion pieces ofittofall off. The lutes with which the joinings of vessels are clos- ed, are of different kinds, according to the nature of the intended operations, and ofthe substances to be distilled in these vessels. When vapours of watery liquors, and such as are not corrosive, arc to be contained, it is sufficient to surround the joining of the receiver, to the nose of the alembic, or of the retort, with slips of paper or linen, covered with flour paste. In such cases also, slips of wet bladder are very conveniently used. When more penetrating and dissolving vapours arc to be contained, a lute is to be employed of quick-liine, slacked in air, and beaten into a liquid paste with whites of eggs. This paste is to be spread upon linen slips, which are to be applied exactly to the joining ofthe ves- sel. This lute is very convenient, easily dries, becomes solid, and sufficiently firm. Lastly, when saline, acid, and corrosive vapours are to be contained, we must then have recourse to the lute called fat-lute. This lute is made by forming into a paste some dried clay finely powdered, sifted through a silken scarce, and moistened with water; and then, by beating this paste well in a mortar with boiled linseed-oil, that is, oil which has been rendered dry by litharge dissolved in it, this lute easily takes ancl retains the form given to it. It is generally rolled into cylinders of a convenient size. These are to be applied, by flattening them, to the join- ings of the vessels, which ought to be perfectly dry; be- cause the least moisture would prevent the lute from ad- hering. When the joinings are closed with this fat-lute, tbe whole is to be covered with slips of linen spread with a lute of lime ancl whites of eggs. These slips are to be fastened with pack-thread. The second lute is necessary to keep on the fat-lute, because the latter remains soft, and does not become solid enough to stick on alone. Ground linseed made into a paste with water makes also a very useful lute for most occasions. LUTHERANS, the christians who follow the opin- ions of Martin Luther, one of the principal reformers of the church in the sixteenth century. See Gregory's Church History, vol. ii. LUXATION. See Surgery. LYCHNIS, campion, a genus of the pentagynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural meth- od ranking under the 22d order, caryophyllese. The ca- lyx is monophyllous, oblong, and smooth; there are five unguiculated petals, with the segments of the limbs al- most bifid; the capsule quinquelocular. There are 12 spe- cies, the principal are, 1. The chalcedonica, or chalcedoni- an scarlet. Of this there are varieties, with single scar- let flowers, with large double scarlet flowers of exceed- ing beauty and elegance, with pale red flowers, and with white flowers. Of these varieties the double scarlet ly- chnis is superior to all for size and elegance, the flowers being large, very double, and collected into a very large bunch, exhibit a charming appearance; the single scarlet kind is also very pretty, and the others effect an agreea- ble variety with the scarlet kinds. 2. Thediurna: the va- rieties are, the common single red-flowered bachelor's button, double red, double white, and single white-flow- ered. Ihe double varieties are exceeding ornamental in their bloom; the flower large, very double, and continue long in blow; the single red sort grows wild by ditch- sides and other moist places in many parts of England; from which the doubles were accidentally obtained by culture in gardens. 3. The viscaria, or viscous German lychnis, commonly called catch-fly. Of this also there are varieties with single red flowers, with double red flow- ers, and with white flowers. The double variety is con- siderably the most eligible for general culture, and is pro- pagated in plenty by parting the roots. All the varieties of this species emitting a glutinous liquid matter from their stalks, flies happening to light on them sometimes stick and entangle themselves, whence the plant obtains the name catch-fly. 4. The flos cuculi, cuckoo-flower lychnis. The flowers having each petal deeply quadrifid in a torn or ragged-like manner, the plant obtained the name of ragged robin. There are varieties with single and double flowers. The double sort is a large flower; it is an improved variety of the single, which grows wild in most of our moist meadows, and is rarely culti- vated; but the double, beiug very ornamental, merits cul- ture in every garden. LYCIUM, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 28th order, luridse. The corolla is tu- bular, having its throat closed up with the beard of the filaments; the berry is bilocular. There are eight species, natives of various countries, and chiefly shrubs. LYCOPP:RDON, a genus ofthe natural order of fun- gi, belonging to the cryptogamia class of plants. The fungus is roundish, and full of farinaceous seeds. Dr. Withering reckons 25 species, of which the following are the most remarkable: 1. The tuber, truffles, or subter- raneous puff-balls, is a native of woods both in England and Scotland. It is a subterraneous fungus, growing generally in clusters 3 or 4 inches under ground, without any visible root. The figure of it is neariy spherical, the size that of a potatoe; the exterior coat at first white, afterwards black, and studded with pyramidical or poly- hedrous tubercles: the internal substance solid and cal- lous, of a dirty-white or pale-brown colour, grained like a nutmeg with serpentine lines; in which, according to Micheli, are imbedded minute oval capsules, containing each from 2 to 4 round watered seeds. The truffles of Great Britain seldom exceed 3 or 4 ounces in weight; but in Italy, and some other parts of the continent, they L Y C L Y T are said to have been found of the enormous size of 8, and even 14 pounds. They have a volatile and some- what urinous smell, and are reputed to be aphrodisical. 2. The bovista, or common puff-ball, is frequent in mea- dows ancl pastures in the autumn. It varies exceedingly in size, figure, superfices, and colour. In general, it con- sists of a sack or bag, having a root at its base, and the bag composed of 3 membranes, an epidermis, a tough white skin, and an interior coat which adheres closely to the central pith. The pith in the young plants is of a yellowish colour, at first firm and solid, but soon chan- ges into a cellular spongy substance, full of a dark dull- green powder, which discharges itself through an aper- ture at the top of the fungus, which aperture is formed of lacerated segments, in some varieties reflexed. The powder is Imlieved to be the seeds, which through a mi- croscope appear of a spherical form, and to be annexed to elastic hairs. LYCOPODIUM, or Cluh-moss, a genus of the natu- ral order of musci, belonging to the cryptogamia class of plants. The antherse are bivalved and sessile; there are no calyptra. There are 29 species, of which the follow- ing are the most remarkable: 1. The clavatmn, or com- mon club-moss, is common in dry and mountainous pla- ces, and in fir forests. The stalk is prostrate, branched, and creeping from a foot to two or three yards long; the radicles woody. The leaves are numerous, narrow, lan- ceolated, acute, often incurved at the extremity, terminat- ed with along white hair, and every where surround the stalk. The peduncles are erect, firm, and naked, (except being thinly set with lanccolet scales), and arise from the ends of the branches. They are generally two or three inches long, and terminated with two cylindrical yellow- ish spikes, imbricated with oval-acute scales, finely lace- rated on the edges, and ending with a hair. In the ala or bosom of the scale is a kidney-shaped capsule, which bursts with elasticity when ripe, and throws out a light- yellow powder, which, blown into the flame of a candle, flashes with an explosion. LYCOPSIS, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 41st order, asperifoliae. The corolla has an incurvated tube. There are eight species, chiefly annuals. LYCOPUS, a genus ofthe monogynia order, belong- ing to the diandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 42d order, verticillatse. The corolla is quadrifid, with one of the segments emargin- ated; the stamina standing asunder, with four retuse seeds. There are three species, of which the water-ho re- bound might probably be of use in dyeing. LYGEUM, a genus of the monogynia order, in the triandria class of plants, and in the natural method rank- ing under the fourth order, gramina. T.ie spatha or sheath is monophyllous; there are a pair of corollse upon the same germen; the nut is bilocular. There is one species, a grass of Spain. LYDIAN,STONE, in mineralogy, is commonly inter- sected by veins of quartz. Fracture even, ancl sometimes inclining to conchoidal. Specific gravity 2.6 nearly. Powder black, or greyish black. This stone, or one simi- lar to it, was used by the ancients as a touchstone. They drew the metal to be examined along the stone, and judg- ed of its purity by the colour of the metallic streak. On this account it was called E«o-«v«s, the trier. It was called the Lydiaii stone, as being found in the river Tmolus in Lydia. LYMPH. See Anatomy, and Physiology. LYNX. See Felis. LYRE, Lyra, a musical instrument of the string kind, much used by the ancients. LYRE, lyra, in astronomy, a constellation of the north- ern hemisphere, the number of whose stars, in Ptolemy's and Tycho's catalogues, are only 10, but 19 in the Bri- tannic catalogue. LYRIC. See Poetry. LYSIMACHIA, loosestrife, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natu- ral method ranking under the 20th order, rotaceae. The corolla is rotaceous; the capsule globular, beaked, and ten-valved. There are 12 species, but only four are com- monly cultivated in gardens. These are hardy herbace- ous perennials and biennials, rising with erect stalks from 18 inches to two or three feet high, and terminated by spikes and clusters of inonopetaious, rotated, five- parted spreading flowers of wiiite ancl yellow colours. The numulana, or yellow moneywort, or herb jcvopcree, is particularly beautiful. LYTHRUM, purple loosestrife, a genus of the mono- gynia order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order, calycan- themse. The calyx is cleft in 12 parts; and there are six petals inserted into it; the capsule is bilocular and polys- permous. There are 18 species, of which the most re- markable are, 1. The salicaria, or common purple loose- strife, with oblong leaves, is a native of Britain, and grows naturally by the sides of ditches and rivers. 2. The hispanum, or Spanish loosestrife, with a hyssop leaf, grows naturally in Spain and Portugal. The flowers aro larger than those ofthe common sort, and make a fine appearance in the month of July, when they are in beauty. M. Mthe twelfth letter of our alphabet. As a numeral it ? stands for mille, a thousand; and with a dash over it, thus M, for a thousand times a thousand, or 1000000. Used as an abbreriature M. signifies Manlius, Marcus, Martius, Mucius; and M. Manius; M. B. niulier bona; Mag. Eq. magister equitum: Mag. Mil. magister mili- tum; M. M. P. mauu mancipio potestate; M. A. magister artiuni; MS. manuscript, and M. SS. manuscripts, in the plural. In the prescriptions of physicians, M. stands for manipulus, a handful; and sometimes for misce, or mix- ture. MABA, a genus of the triandria order, in the dieecia class of plants. The pcrianthium of the male is tnfid; that ofthe female is as in the male; the fruit is a plum two-celled, superior. There is one species, a tree of the Friendly islands. MABEA, a genus of the monoecia polyandria class and order. The calyx is one-leaved; corolla none. There are two species, called pipewood, shrubs of the West Indies. MACARONIC, or Macaronian, an appellation giv- en to a burlesque kind of poetry, made up of a jumble of words of different languages, and words of the vulgar tongue latinized. MACE, the second coat or covering of the kernel of the nutmeg, is a thin and membranaceous substance, of an oleaginous nature and a yellowish colour; being met with in flakes of an inch an more in length, which are divid- ed into a multitude of ramifications. It is of an extreme- ly fragrant, aromatic, and agreeable flavour, and of a pleasant, but acrid ancl oleaginous taste. See Myris- T1CA. MACERATION, in pharmacy, is an infusion of, or soaking ingredients in, water, or any other fluid, in or- der either to soften them or draw out their virtues. MACHINE. See Mechanics. MACKREL. See Scomber. MACROCNEMON, a genus of the class and order pentandria monogynia. The cor. is bell-shaped; the cap- sule two-celled, two-valved; seeds imbricate. There are three species, small trees ofthe West Indies. MACROLOBIUM, a genus of the class and order tri- andria monogynia. The calyx is double, pet. live, germ. pedicelled legume. There are three species, trees of Gui- ana. MACULAE, in astronomy, are dark spots appearing on the luminous surfaces of the sur |,nd moon, and even some of the planets. The solar maculse are dark spots of an irregular and changeable figure, observed in the face of the 'sun. These were first observed in November and December of the year 1610, by Galileo in Italy, and Har- riot in England, unknown to, and independant of, each other, soon after they had made or procured telescopes. There have been various observations made of the phe- nomena of the solar maculae, and hypotheses invented for explaining them. Many of these maculae appear to consist of heterogeneous parts; the darker and denser be- ing called, by Hevclius, nuclei, which are encompassed as it were with atmospheres, somewhat rarer and less ob- scure; but the figure, both of the nuclei and entire maculaa, is variable. These maculae are often subject to sudden mutations. In 1644, Hevclius observed a small thin ma- cula, which in two days time grew to ten times it bulk, appearing also much darker, and having a larger nucle- us: the nucleus began to fail sensibly before the spot dis- appeared; and before it quite vanished, it broke into four, which reunited again two days after. Some maculae have lasted 2, 3, 10, 15, 20, 30, but seldom 40 days; though Kirchius observed one in 1681, that was visible from April 26th to the 17th of July. It is found that the spots move over the sun's disc with a motion somewhat slacker near the edge than in the middle parts; that they contract themselves near the limb, and in the middle appear larger; that they often run into one in the disc, though separat- ed near the centre; that many of them first appear in the middle, and many disappear there; but that none of them deviate from their path near the horizon; whereas Hc- velius, observing Mercury in the sun near the horizon, found him too low, being depressed 27" beneath his form- er path. From these phenomena are collected the following con- sequences: 1. That since Mercury's depression below7 his path arises from his parallax, the maculae, having no parallax from the sun, are much nearer him than that planet. 2. That since they rise and disappear again in the middle of the sun's disc, and undergo various alterations with regard both to bulk, figure, and density, they must be formed de novo, and again dissolved about the sun; and hence some have inferred, that they are a kind of solar clouds, formed out of liis exhalations; and if so, the sun must have an atmosphere. 3. Since the spots appear to move very regularly about the sun, it is hence inferred, that it is not that they real- ly move, but that the sun revolves round his axis, and the spots accompany him, in the space of 27 days, 12 hours, 20 minutes. 4. Since the sun appears with a circular disc in every situation, his figure, as to sense, must be spherical. The magnitude of the surface of a spot may be esti- mated by the time of its transit over a hair in a fixed telescope. Galileo estimates some spots as larger than both Asia and Africa put together; but if he had known more exactly the sun's parallax and distance, as they are known now, he would have found some of those spots much larger than the whole surface of the earth. For in 1612 he observed a spot so large as to be plainly visible to the naked eye, and therefore it subtended an angle of about a minute. But the earth, seen at the distance of the sun, would subtend an angle of only about 17''; therefore the diameter ofthe spot was to the diameter of the earth, as 60 to 17, or 3-£ to 1 nearly; and consequently the sur- face of the spot, if circular, to a great circle of the earth, as 12| to l, and to the whole surface ofthe earth, as 12| to 4, or nearly 3 to 1. Gassendus observed a spot whose breadth was ^ of the sun's diameter, and which there- fore subtended an angle at tbe eye of above a minute aud M A C MAD a half, and consequently its surface was above seven times larger than the surface of the whole earth. He says he observed above forty spots at once, though with- out sensibly diminishing the light of the sun. In the year 1779 there was a spot on the sun which was large enough to be seen by the naked eye. It was divided into two parts, and must have been 50,000 miles in diameter. Various opinions have been formed concerning the nature, origin, and situation of the solar spots; but the most probable seems to be that of Dr. Wilson, professor of practical astronomy in the university of Glasgow. By attending particularly to the different phases present- ed by the umbra, or shady zone, of a spot of an extra- ordinary size that appeared on the sun, in the month of November 1769, during its progress over the solar disc, Dr. Wilson was led to form a new and singular conjecture on the nature of these appearances; whicli he afterwards greatly strengthened by repeated observations. The re- sults of these observations are, that the solar maculae are cavities in the body ofthe sun; that the nucleus, as the middle or dark part has usually been called, is the bot- tom ofthe excavations; and that the umbra, or shady zone surrounding it, is the shelving sides of the cavity. Dr. Wilson, besides having satisfactorily ascertained the reality of these immense excavations in the body ofthe sun, has also pointed out a method of measuring the depth of them. He estimates, in particular, that the nucleus or bottom of tlie large spot above-mentioned, was not less than a semidiameter of the earth, or about 4000 miles below the level of the sun's surface; while its other di- mensions were of a much larger extent. He observed that a spot near the middle of the sun's disc is surround- ed equally on all sides with its umbra; but that when, by its apparent motion over the sun's disc, it comes near the western limb, that part of the umbra which is next the sun's centre gradually diminishes in breadth, till near the edge ofthe limb it totally disappears; whilst the umbra on the other side of it is little or nothing altered. After a semi-revolution of the sun on his axis, if the spot ap- pear again, it will be on the opposite side of the disc, or un the left hand, and the part of the umbra which had be- fore disappeared is now plainly to be seen; while the um- bra on the other side ofthe spot seems to have vanished in its turn, being hid from the view by the upper edge of the excavation, from the oblique position of its sloping sides with respect to the eye. But as the spot advances on the sun's disc, this umbra, or side of the cavity, comes in sight; at first appearing narrow, but afterwards grad- ually increasing in breadth, as the spot moves towards the middle of the disc. These appearances perfectly agree with the phases that are exhibited by an excava- tion in a spherical body, revolving on its axis; the bottom of the cavity being painted black, and the sides lightly shaded. Dr. Herschcl supposes that tbe spots in the sun are mountains on its surface, which considering the great at- traction exerted by the sun upon bodies placed at its sur- face, and the slow revolution it has about its axis, he thinks mav be more than 300 miles high. lie says, that in August 1792 he examined the sun with several powers, from 90 to 500; and it appeared that the black spots are the opaque ground or bodv of the sun, aud that the lu- YOL. II. 73 minous part is an atmosphere which being broken, gives a glimpse of the sun itself. MADDER. See Rubia. MADNESS. See Medicine. MADREPORA, in natural history, the name of a ge- nus of submarine substances, the characters of which are, that they are almost of a stony hardness, resembling the corals, and are usually divided into branches, and per- vious by many holes or cavities, which are frequently of a stellar figure. In the Linnaean system, this is a genus of lithophyta: the animal that inhabits it is a medusa; it comprehends 39 species. According to Donati, the madrepora is like the coral as to its hardness, which is equal to bone or marble; the colour is white when polished; its surface is lightly wrinkled, and the wrinkles run lengthwise of the branches; in the centre there is a sort of cylinder, which is often pierced through its whole length by two or three holes. From this cylinder are detached about 17 laminae, which run to the circumference in straight lines; and are transversely intersected by other laminae, forming many irregular cavities; the cellules, which are composed of these laminae ranged into a circle, arc the habitations of litle polypes, which are extremely tender animals, gene- rally transparent, and variegated with beautiful colours. M. de Pcyssonel observes, that those writers who only considered the figures of submarine substances, denomi- nated that class of them which seemed pierced with holes, pora; and those the hides of which were large they called madrepora. He defines them to be all those marine bodies which are of a stony substance, without either bark or crust, and which have but one apparent opening at each extremity, furnished with rays that proceed from the centre to the circumference. He observes that the body of the animal of the madrepora, whose flesh is so soft that it divides upon the gentlest touch, fills the centre; the head is placed in the middle, and surrounded by several feet or claws, which lill the intervals of the partitions observed in this substance, and are at pleasure brought to its head, and are furnished with yellow papillae. He discovered that its head or centre was lifted up occasion- ally above the surface, and often contracted and dilated itself like the pupil ofthe eye: he saw all its claws moved, as well as its head or centre. When the animals of the madrepora are destroyed, its extremities become white. In the. madrepora, he says, the animal occupies the ex- tremity, and the substance is of a stony but more loose texture than the coral. This is formed, like other sub- stances of the same nature, of a liquor which the animal discharges: and he father adds, that there are some spe- cies ofthe polype of the madrepora which are produced singly, and others in clusters. Sec Plate LXXXIV. Nat. Hit. figs. 256, 257; and Zoophytes. MADREPORITE, a mineral found in the valley of Russback in Salzburg, and which obtained its name from its resemblance to madrepore. Colour in some parts black, in others dark-grey. Found in large round mas- ses. Fracture even, passing to the conchoidal. Lustre greasy, passing to the silky. Brittle: moderately heavy. Streak grey; it is composed of 93.00 carbonat of lime 0.5O carbonate of magnesia 7.25 carbonat of iron m a a M A C 0.50 charcoal 4.50 silica in sand. 99.75 MADRIER, in the military art, along and broad plank of wood, used for supporting the earth in mining and car- rying on a sap, and in making coffers, caponiers, galle- ries, and for many other uses at a seige. Madriers are also used to cover the mouths of petards alter they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the gates or places designed to be forced open. MyKMACTERION, the fourth month ofthe Atheni- an year consisting of only 29 clays, and answering to the latter part of September ancl the beginning of October. MAGAZINE, a place in which stores are kept, or arms, ammunition, provisions, kc Every fortified town ought to be furnished with a large magazine, which should contain stores of all kinds, sufiicient to enable the garri- son and inhabitants to hold out a long siege, and in which smiths, carpenters, wheel-wrights, bakers, &c. may be employed in making every thing belonging to the artil- ler >, as carriages, waggons, &c. Magazine, powder, is that place where the powder is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ greatly both in regard to situation and construction; but all agree, that they ought to be arched, and bomb-proof. In forti- fications they arc frequently placed in the rampart; but of late they have been built in different parts ofthe town. The first powder-magazines were made with Gothic arches; but M. Vauban, findingthem too weak, construct- ed them in a semicular form, whose dimensions are 60 feet long within, 25 broad; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick, and eight feet high from the foundation to the spring of the arch; the floor is two feet from the ground, which keeps it from dampness. An English engineer of great experience, some time since, had observed, that after the centres of semicircu- lar arches are struck, they settle at the crown, and rise up at the haunches, even with a straight horizontal extra- de>s$ and still much more so in powder-magazines, whose outside at top is formed like the roof of a house, by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top of the arch, to give a proper descent to the rain; which effects are exactly what might be expected agreeable to the true theory of arches. Now, as this shrinking ofthe arches must be attended with very inconsequences, by breaking the texture of the cement after it has been in some de- gree dried, and also by opening the joints of the voussoirs at one end, so a remedy is provided for this inconveni- ence, with regard to bridges, by the arch of equilibration in Dr. Hutton's book on bridges; but as the ill effect is much greater in powder-magazines, the same ingenious gentleman proposed to find an arch of equilibration f r them also, and to construct it when the span is 20 feet, the pitch or height 10 (which are the same dimensions as the semicircle), the inclined exterior walls at top forming an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their angular point above the top of the arch equal to seven feet. MAGI, or Magians, an ancient religious sect in Per- sia, and other Eastern countries, who maintained, that there were two principles, the one the cause of all good, the other the cause of all evil; and abominating the adora- tion of all images, worshipped God only by fire, which 2 they looked upon as the brightest and most glorioir, sym bol of Oromasdes, or the good God: as darkness is the truest symbol of Arimanius, or the evil God. This re- ligion was reformed by Zoroaster. The sect still sub- sists in Persia, under the denomination .of gaurs. MAGIC Lantern. See Oi-tics. Magic Square, in arithmetic, a square figure made up of numbers in arithmetical proportion, so disposed in parallel and equal ranks, that the sums of each row, taken either perpendicularly, horizontally, or diagonal! ly, are equal: thus, Natural square. Magic square. *l - |6 »r 5 n 4| " - Magic squares seem to have been se) called, from their being used in the construction of talismans. . MAGNA CHARTA, the great charter of the liber- ties of England, and the basis of their laws and privi- leges. This charter may be said to derive its origin from king Edward the Confessor, who granted several privi- leges to the church and state, by charter; these liberties and privileges were also granted and confirmed by king Henry I., by a celebrated great charter now lost; but which was confirmed or re-enacted by king Henry II. and king John. Henry III., the successor of this last prince, after having caused twelve men to m?ike inquiry into the liberties of England in the reign of Henry I., granted a new charter, which was the same as the pre- sent Magna Charta; this he several times confirmed, and as often broke; till in the thirty-seventh year of his reign, he went to Westminster-hall, - and there, in the presence of the nobility and bishops, who held lighted candles in their hands, Magna Charta was read, the king all the while holding his hand to his breast, and at last solemnly swearing faithfully and inviolably to observe all the things therein contained, kc; then the bishops extin- guishing the candles, and throwing them on the ground, cried out, "Thus let him be extinguished, and stink in hell, who violates this charter." It is observed, that not- withstanding the solemnity of this confirmation, king Hen- ry, the very next year, again invaded the rights of his people, till the barons entered into a war against him; when, after various success, he confirmed this charter, and the charter of the forest, in the fifty-second year of his reign. This excellent charter, so equitable and bene- ficial to the subject, is the most ancient written law in the kingdom: by the 25 Edw. I. it is ordained, that it shall he taken as the common law; and by the 43 Edw. III. all statutes made against it are declared to be void. MAGNESIA. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, a Roman canon exposed a white powder to sale at Rome as a cure for all diseases. This powder lie cal- led magnesia alba. He kept the manner of preparing it a profound secret; but in 1707 Valentini informed the public that it might be obtained by calcining the lixivium which remains after the preparation of nitre: and two years after, Slevogt discovered that it might be precipi. tated by potass from the mother-ley of nitre. Tbis pow. der was generally supposed to be lime, till Frederic Hoff, MAG M A G man observed that it formed very different combinations with other bodies. But little was known concerning its nature, and it was even confounded with lime by most chemists, till Dr. Black made his celebrated experiments on it in 1755. Margraff published a dissertation on it in 1759, and Bergman another in 1775, in which he col- lected the observations of these two philosophers, and which he enriched also with many additions of his own. Butini of Geneva likewise published a valuable disserta- tion on it in 1779. As magnesia has never yet been found native in a state of purity, it may be prepared in the following manner: sulphat of magnesia, a salt composed of this earth and sulphuric acid, exists in sea-water, and in many springs, particularly in some about Epsom; from which circum- stance it was formerly called Epsom salt. This salt is to be dissolved in water, and half its weight of potass added. The magnesia is immediately precipitated, be- cause potass has a stronger affinity for sulphuric acid. It is then to be washed with a sufficient quantity of water, and dried. Magnesia thus obtained is a very soft white powder, which has very little taste, and is totally destitute of smell. Its specific gravity is about 2.3. It converts de- licate vegetable blues (paper for instance, stained with the petals of the mallow) to green. It is not melted by the strongest heat which it has been possible to apply; butM. Darcet observed that, in a very high temperature, it became somewhat agglutinated. When formed into a cake with water, and then exposed to a violent heat, the water is gradually driven off, and the magnesia contracts in its dimension; at the same time it acquires the property of shining in the dark when rub- bed upon a hot iron plate. It is almost insoluble in water; for, according to Mr. Kirvvan, it requires 7900 times its weight of water at the temperature of 60° to dissolve it. It is capable, howe- ver, of combining with water in a solid state; for 100 parts of magnesia, thrown into water, and then dried, are increased in weight to 118 parts. Even when combined with carbonic acid (for which it has a strong affinity) it is capable of absorbing and retaining 1| times its own weight of water without letting go a drop; but on expo- sure to the air, this water evaporates, though more slow- ly than it would from lime. Magnesia has never yet been obtained in a crystalliz- ed form. When exposed to the air, it attracts carbonic acid gas and water; but exceedingly slowly. Butini left a quan- tity of it for two years in a porcelain cup merely covered with paper; its weight was only increased Ti^ part. Magnesia does not combine with oxygen; nor is it al- tered by any of the compounds into which oxygen enters. The only one of the simple combustibles with which it •au be united is sulphur. No person has hitherto suc- ceeded in forming a phosphuret of magnesia. The sul- phuret of magnesia may be formed by exposing a mix- ture of two parts of magnesia and one part of sulphur, to a gentle heat in a crucible. The result is a yellow pow- der, slightly agglutinated, which emits very little sul- phureted hydrogen gas. when thrown into water. A mo- derate heat is sufficient to drive off the sulphur. Magnesia does not combine with azote, but it unites with muriatic acid, and forms a compound tailed muriat of magnesia. It has no action upon tbe metals: nor does it combine, as far as is known at present, with the metal- lic oxides, unless some intermediate substance is present. It does not combine with the fixed alkalies, neither arc its properties altered by these bodies; but it has a strong propensity to enter into triple compounds with ammonia. There seems to be little affinity between magnesia and barytes; at least no mixture of the two earths is fusible in the strongest heat which it has been possible to ap- ply. Mr. Kirwan has shown that there is but little affinity between strontian and magnesia. They do not melt when exposed to a strong heat, at least when the strontian ex- ceeds or equals the magnesia. Equal parts of lime and magnesia, mixed together, and exposed by Lavoisier to a very violent heat, did not melt; neither did they melt when Mr. Kirwan placed them in the temperature of 150° Wedgewood. The affinities of magnesia, accordingto Bergman, are as follows: Oxalic acid, Tartaric, Phosphoric, Citric, Sulphuric,. Lactic, Fluoric, Benzoic, Arsenic, Acetic, Saclaetic, Boracic, Succinic, Sulphurous, Nitric, Carbonic, Muriatic, Prussic. Magnesia is used in medicine, to remove acidities. MAGNETISM. The natural magnet, or loadstone, is a hard mineral body of a dark brown, or almost black colour, and when examined, is found to be an ore of iron. It is met with in various countries, generally in iron mines, and of all sizes and forms. This singular substance was known to the ancients; and they had remarked its peculiar property of attract- ing iron, though it does not appear that they were ac- quainted with the wonderful property which it also has, of turning to the pole when suspended, ancl left at liberty to move freely. Upon this remarkable circumstance the mariner's com- pass depends, an instrument which gives us such infinite advantages over the ancients. It is this which enables the mariners to conduct their vessels through vast oceans out of the* sight of land, in any given direction; ancl this directive property also guides the miners in their subter- ranean excavations, and the traveller through desarts otherwise impassable. It is not precisely known when and by whom this di- rective property of the magnet was discovered. The most probable accounts seem to prove, that it was known early in the 15th century; and that the person who first made mariner's compasses, at least in Europe, was a Neapolitan of the name of Flavio, or John de Gioga, or Giova, or Gira. The natural loadstone has also the quality of commu- nicating its properties to iron and steel; and when pieces of steel properly prepared are touched, as it is called, by the loadstone, they are denominated artificial mag- nets. These artificial magnets are even capable of beius MAGNETISM. made more powerful than the natural ottos; and as they can be made of any form, and are more convenient, they are now universally used, so that the loadstone or natu- ral magnet is only kept as a curiosity. All magnets, whether natural or artificial, arc distin- guished from other bodies by the following characteris- tics, which appear to be inseparable from their nature; so that no body can be called a magnet, unless it is possess- ed of all these properties: 1. A magnet attracts iron. 2. When a magnet is placed so as to be at liberty to move freely in every direction, its ends point towards the poles of the earth, or very nearly so; and each end al- ways points to the same pole. This is called tbe polarity of, the magnet; the ends of the magnet are called pedes; and they are called north and south poles of the magnet, according as they point to the north or south pole of the earth. When a magnet places itself in this direction, it is said to traverse. 3. When the ne-rth pole of one magnet is presented to tbe south of another magnet, these ends attract each other; but if the south pole of one magnet is presented to the south pole of another, or the north pole of one to the north pole of another, these ends will repel each ©ther. From these criteria, it is easy to determine the names of the poles of a magnetical bar, by applying it near a sus- pended magnet whose poles are known. 4. When a magnet is situated so as to be at liberty to move itsedf with sufficient freedom, its two poles do not lie in a horizontal direction, but it generally inclines one of them tetwards the horizon, and of course it elevates the other pole above it. This is called the inclination or dipping of the magnet. 5. Any magnets may, by proper methods, be made to impart those properties to iron or steel. A plane perpendicular to the horizon, and passing through the poles of a magnet when standing in their natural direction, is called the magnetic meridian; and the angle which the magnetic meridian makes with the meridian of the plane where the magnet stands, is called the declination of the magnet at that place. Of magnetic attraction and repulsion.—When a piece of iron is brought within a certain distance of one ofthe poles of a magnet, it is attracted by it; ancl if the iron is at liberty to move, it adheres to the magnet, and can- not be separated without some force. It appears at first sight, that the attraction lies only inthe magnet, but ex- periment proves this attraction to be mutual; the iron attracting the magnet as much as the magnet attracts the iron. Place the magnet and the iron upon two sepa- rate pieces of cork, or wood, floating upon water, at a little distance from each other, and it will be found that the iron moves towards the magnet, as well as the mag- net towards the iron; but if the iron is kept steady, the magnet will move towards it. This attraction is strongest at the poles of a magnet, and diminishes in proportion to the distance of any part from the poles, so that in the middle between the poles there is no attraction. This may be easily perceived by presenting a piece of iron to various parts of the surface of a magnet. The intensity of the attractive power diminishes also» according to the distance from the magnet. If the mag. net and iron touch each other, it requires a certain dc- gree of force to separate them; if the iron is removed a little way from the magnet, an attraction will be plainly perceived, but not so powerful; and by increasing this distance the attraction'will be much diminished. The law of diminution of this attraction is not yet known. Some have imagined that it diminishes in pro. portion to the square of the distance, others as the cube of the distance. But either from the difficulty of the sub- ject, on account of the experiments having been made without sufficient accuracy, the question remains yet un- decided; it is only known that the attractive force de- creases faster than the simple ratio of the distances. As magnetic attraction takes place only between poles of different names of different magnets; that is, the north pole of one magnet, attracts the south pole of another; consequently magnetic repulsion acts only between poles of the same name of different magnets. Thus, if the north pole of one magnet is opposed to the north pole of another magnet, or if the south pole be opposed to the south pole of the other, then those magnets will repel each other, and that nearly with as much force as the polea of different names would attract each other. But it frequently happens, that though magnets are placed with the same poles towards each other, yet they either attract each other, or show a perfect indifference, This, at first, seems to contradict the above-mentioned general law; but this difficulty is removed by the follow- ing considerations: When a piece of iron is brought within a certain dis- tance of a magnet, it becomes, in fact, itself a magnet, having the polarity, the attractive and repulsive proper- ties for other iron, kc; that part of it which is nearest to the south pole of the magnet, becoming a north pole, and the opposite part a south pole, or vice versa, according to the end of the magnet presented. Thus if A B, Plate LXXX. Magnetism, fig. 1, be an oblong piece of iron, aud be brought near tbe north pole N ofthe magnet NS, then this piece of iron while standing within the magnet's sphere of action, will have all the properties of a real magnet, and its end A will be found to be a south pole, while the end B is a north pole. Soft iron, when placed within the influence of a mag- net, easily acquires these properties; but they last only while the iron remains in that situation, and when it is removed its magnetism vanishes immediately. But with iron containing carbon, and particularly with steel, the case is very different; and the harder the iron or the steel is, the more permanent is the magnetism which it acquires from the influence of a magnet; but it will be in the same proportion more difficult to render it magnetic. If a piece of soft iron, and a piece of hard steel, both of the same shape and size, are brought within the influ- ence of a magnet at the same distance, it will be found that the iron is attracted more forcibly, and appears more powerfully magnetic than the steel; but if the magnet is removed, the soft iron will instantly lose its acquired properties, whereas the hard steel will preserve them for a long time, having become an artificial magnet. Neither the magnetic attraction nor repulsion is in the least diminished, or at all affected, by the interposition MAGNETISM. of any sort of bodies, except iron, or such bodies as con- tain iron. The properties of the magnet are not affected cither by the presence or by the absence of air. Heat weakens the power of a magnet, and subsequent cooling restores it, but not quite to its former degree. A white heat de- stroys it entirely, or very nearly so; and hence it ap- pears, thatthe powers of magnets must be varying con- tinually. Cavalloobserves, that iron in a full red heat, or white heat, is not attracted by the magnet; but the at- traction commences as soon as the redness begins to ap- pear. The attractive power of a magnet may be considerably improved by suspending a weight of iron to it by its power of attraction, which may be gradually increased; and also by keeping it in a proper situation, viz. with its north pole towards the north, and its south pole, conse- quently, towards the south. On the contrary, this pow- er is diminished by an improper situation, and by keep- ing too small a piece of iron, or no iron at all, appended to it. In these northern parts of the world, the north pole of a magnet has more power than its south pede; whereas, the contrary effect has been said to take place in the south- ern parts. Amongst the natural magnets, the smallest generally possess a greater attractive power in proportion to their size than those of a larger size. It frequently happens, that a natural magnet, cut off from a larger loadstone, will be able to lift a greater weight of iron than the original loadstone itself. As both magnetic poles together attract a much great- weight than a single pole; and as the two poles of a mag- net generally are in opposite parts of its surface, in which case it is almost impossible to adapt the same piece of iron to them both at the same time; therefore it has been commonly practised to adapt two broad pieces of soft iron to the poles of the stone, and to let them project on one side of the stone; for those pieces become themselves magnetic while thus situated, and to them the piece of iron or weight may be easily adapted. Those two pieces of iron are generally fastened upon the stone by means of a brass or silver box. The magnet in this case is said to be armed, and the two pieces of iron arc called the armature. Fig. 2. represents an armed magnet, where A B is the loadstone: C D, C D, are the armature, or the two pieces of soft iron, to the projections of which D D the iron weight F is to be applied. The dots ECDCD represent the brass box, with a ring at E, by which the armed magnet may be suspended. Artificial magnets, when straight, are sometimes arm- ed in the same manner; but they are frequently made in the shape of a horse-shoe, having their poles at the trun- cated extremities, as at N and S, fig. 3, in which shape it is evident that they want no armature. Most probably the magnet attracts iron only; but when it is considered how universally iron is dispersed through- out nature, it is evident that a vast number of bodies must on that account be attracted by the magnet more or less forcibly, in proportion to the quantity and quality of the iron tliey contain. Indeed, it is wonderful to ob- serve what a small portion of iron will render a body subject to the influence of the magnet. The polarity ofthe magnet___Every magnet b'-.s a south and a north pole, which are at opposite ends: and a line drawn from one end to the other, passes througli the centre of the magnet Here it must not be understood, that the polarity of a magnet resides only in two points of its surface; for in reality, it is the one half of the magnet that is possessed of one kind of polarity, and tbe other half of the other kind of polaritv; the poles, then, are those points in which that power is the strongest. The line drawn from pole to the other, is called th© axis of the magnet; and a line formed all round the sur- face of the magnet, by a plane which divides the axis in- to two equal parts, and is perpendicular to it, is called the equator of the magnet. It is the polarity of the magnet that renders it so useful to navigators. When a magnet is kept suspended freely* so that it may turn north and south, tbe pilot, by looking at the position of it, can steer his course iu any requir- ed direction. Thus, if a vessel is steered towards a cer- tain place which lies exactly westward of that from whicb it set out, the navigator must direct it so, that its course may be always at right angles with the direction of the magnetic needle of his compass, keeping the north end of the magnet on the right-hand side, and of course, the the south end on the left-hand side of the vessel; for as the needle points north and south, and the direction is east and west, the intended course of the vessel is exact- ly perpendicular to the position of the magnet. A little reflection will showr how the vessel may be steered in any other direction. An artificial magnet fitted up in a proper box, for the purpose of guiding the direction of a traveller, is called a magnetic needle, and the whole together is called the mariner's compass. Although the north pole of the magnet in every part of the world, when suspended, points towards the north- ern parts, and the south pole towards the southern parts, yet its ends seldom point exactly towards the poles of the earth. The angle in which it deviates from due north and south, is called the angle of declination, or the declina- tion of the magnetic needle, or the variation of the com- pass; and this declination is said to be east or west, ac- cording as the north pole of the needle is eastward or westward of the astronomical meridian of the place. This deviation from the meridian is not the same in all parts of the world, but is different in different places, and it is even continually varying in the same place. For instance, this declination is not the same in London as at Paris, or as in India; and the declination in Lon- don, or in any other place, is not the same at this time as it was some years ago. This deeiination from the me- ridian is so variably, that it may he observed to change, even in one or two hours time; and this is not owing' to the construction of the magnetic needle; for in the same place, and at the same time, all true magnetic needles point the same way. The declination from the meridian, and the variation of this indifferent parts ofthe world, are very uncertain, and cannot be foretold; actual trial is the only method of ascertaining them. This circumstance forms a great im- pediment to the improvement of navigation. It is truej MAGNETISM. that great pains have been taken by navigators and other observers, to ascertain the declination in various parts of the world, and such declinations have been marked in maps, charts, books, kc; but still, on account of the con- stant change to which this variation is liable, these can only serve for a few years; nor has the law of this varia- tion or fluctuation been yet discovered, though various hypotheses have been formed for that purpose. When the variation was first observed, the north pole of the magnetic needle declined eastward of the meridian of London; but it has since that time been changing contin- ually towards the west; so that in the year 1657the mag- netic needle pointed due north and south. At present, it declines about 241" westward, and it seems to be still ad- vancing towards the west. Before volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, the mag- netic needle is often subject to very extraordinary move- ments. It is also agitated before and after the appearance of the aurora borealis. The magnetic inclination or dip ofthe needle.—If a nee- dle which is accurately balanced, and suspended so as to turn freely in a vertical plane, is rendered magnetical, the north pole will be depressed, and the south pole elevated above the horizon: this property is called the inclination, or dip ofthe needle, and was discovered by Robert Nor- man, about the year 1576. Take a globular magnet, or, which is more easily procured, an oblong one, like SN, fig. 4; the extremity N of which is the north pole, the other extremity S is the south pole, and A is its middle or equator; place it hori- zontally upon a table CD: then take another small ob- long magnet ns (viz. a bit of steel wire, or a small sew- ing-needle magnetized) and suspend it by means of a fine thread tied to its middle, so as to remain in an hori- zontal position, when not disturbed by the vicinity of iron, or other magnet. Now if the same small magnet, be- ing held by the upper part ofthe thread, be brought just over the middle ofthe large magnet, within two or three inches of it, the former will turn its south pole s, towards the north pole, N, of the large magnet; ancl its north pole n, towards the south pole, S, of the large one. It will be farther observed, that the small magnet, whilst kept just over the middle A ofthe large one, will remain parallel to it; for since the poles ofthe small magnet are equally dis- tant from the contrary poles of the large magnet, they are equally attracted. But if the small magnet be moved a little nearer to one end than to the other ofthe large magnet, then one of its poles, namely, that which is nearest to the contrary pole of the large magnet, will be inclined downwards, and of course the other pole will be elevated above the horizon. It is evident that this incli- nation must increase according as the small magnet is placed nearer to one of the poles of the large one; because the attraction of the nearest pole will have more power upon it. If the small magnet be brought just opposite to one of the poles of the large magnet, it will turn the con- trary pole towards it; and will place itself in the same straight line with the axis ofthe large magnet. This simple experiment will enable the reader to com- prehend easily the phenomena of the magnetic inclina- tion, or of the dipping needle, upon the surface of the earth j for it is only necessary to imagine that the earth is a large magnetic (as in fact it appears to be), and that any magnet, or magnetic needle, commonly used, is the small magnet employed in the above-mentioned exueii ment; for, supposing that the north pole ofthe earth is possessed of a south magnetic polarity, and that the oppo- site pole is possessed of a north magnetic polarity, it an pears evident, and it is confirmed by actual experience" that when a magnet, or magnetic needle, properly shan' ed and suspended, is kept near the equator of the earth (since neither the magnetic equator nor the magnetic poles of the earth, coincide with its real equator and poles), it must remain in a horizontal situation- if the magnet is removed nearer to one of the magnetic poles of the earth, it must incline to one of its extremities namely, that which is possessed ofthe contrary polarity- and this inclination must increase in proportion as the needle recedes from the magnetic equator of the earth Lastly, when the needle is brought exactly over one ofthe magnetic poles of the earth, it must stand perpendicular to the horizon of that place. A magnetic needle constructed for the purpose of show ing this property, is called a dipping-needle, and its direc- tion in any place is called the magnetical line. When it was said, that the north pole of the earth possessed south polarity, it was only meant that it had a polarity contra- ry to that end of the magnetic needle which is directed towards it. If the geographical poles of the earth (that is, the ends of its axis), coincided with its magnetic poles- or even if the magnetic poles were constantly at the same djstance from thefti; the inclination ofthe needle, as well as its declination, would alw ays be the same; and hence by observing the direction of the magnetic needle in any particular place, the latitude and longitude of that nlace might be ascertained; but this is not the case, for the magnetic poles of the earth do not coincide with its real poles, and they are also certainly shifting their situation- hence the magnetic needle changes continually and irre'- gularly, not only in its horizontal direction, but like- wise in its inclination, according as it is removed from one place to another, and also while it remains in the ve- ry same place. This change of the dip in the same place, however, is very small. In London, about 1576, the north pole of the dipping needle stood 71° 50' below the horizon; and m 1775, it stood at 72° 3'; the whole change of inclina- tion, during so many years, amounting to less than a quarter of a degree. There are various methods of giving the magnetic property to steel or iron. In some cases, it appears to be acquired without the use of another magnet. If you take a bar of iron three or four feet long, and hold it in a vertical position, you will find that the bar is magnetic, and will act upon another magnet: the low- er extremity of the bar attracting the south pole, and repelling the north pole. If you invert the bar, the pola- rity will be instantly reversed; the extremity which is now lowest, will be found to be a north pole, and the other extremity will be a south pole. A bar of hard iron, or steel, will not answer for the above experiment, the magnetism of the earth not beint? sufficient to magnetise it. Bars of iron that have stood in a perpendicular position. MAGNETISM. are generally found to be magnetical; as fire-irons, bars of windows, iV. II a long piece of hard iron is made red-hot, and then left to cool in the direction of the magnetical line, it he- roines magnetical. Striking an iron bar with a hammer, or rubbing it with a file, while held in this direction, likewise renders it magnetical. An electric shock produces the same effect; and lightning often renders iron magnetic. A magnet cannot communicate a degree of magnetism stronger than that which itself possesses; but two or more magnets, joined together, may communicate a greater power to a piece of steel, than cither of them possesses singly: hence we have a method of constructing very pow- erful magnets, by first constructing several weak artifi- cial magnets, and then joining them together to form a compound magnet, and to act more powerfully upon a piece of steel. 1. Place two magnetic bars, A, B, fig. 5. in a line with the north, or marked end of one, opposed to the south, or unmarked end of the other; but at such a distance from each other, that the magnet to be touched may rest with its marked end on the unmarked end of A, ancl its un- marked end on the marked end of B; then apply the north end of the magnet E, and the south end of D, to the middle of the bar C, the opposite ends being elevated as in the figure; draw E and D asunder along the bar C, one towards A, the other tow aids B, preserving the same elevation; remove E and D a foot or two from the bar when they are off the ends, then bring the north and south poles of these magnets together, and apply them again to the middle of the bar C as before: repeat the same process five or six times, then turn the bar, and touch the opposite surface in the same manner, and after- wards the two remaining surfaces; by this means the bar will acquire a strong fixed magnetism. 2. Place the two bars which are to be touched parallel to each other; and then unite the ends by two pieces of soft iron, called supporters, in order to preserve, during the operation, the circulation ofthe magnetic matter; the bars are to be placed so that the marked end D (fig. 6), may be opposite the unmarked end B; then place the two attracting poles G and I on the middle of one of the bars to be touched, raising the ends so that the bars may form an obtuse angle of 100 or 120 degrees; the ends G and I of the bars are to be separated two or three tenths of an inch from each other. Keeping the bars in this posi- tion, move them slowly over the bar AB, from one end to the other, going from end to end about fifteen times. Having done this, change the poles of the bars (i. e. the marked end of one is always to be against the iimarked end of the other), and repeat the same operation on the bar CD, and then on the opposite faces of the bars. The touch thus communicated may be further increased, by rubbing the different faces of the bars with sets of mag- netic bars, disposed as in fig. 7. In these operations all the pieces should be well polish- ed, the sides and ends made quite flat, and the angels quite square. A magnet bent so that the two ends almost meet, is called a horse-shoe magnet, fig. 3. To rendar it magne- tic, place a pair of magnetic bars against the ends ofthe horse-shoe, with the south end of the bar against that of the horse-shoe which is intendod to be the north, and the north end ofthe bar to that which is to be the south; the contact, or lifter of soft iron, to be placed at the other end of the bars. Also rub the surfaces of the horse-shoe with a pair of bars placed in the form of a compass, or with another horse-shoe magnet, turning the poles pro- perly to the poles of he horse-shift magnet; being care- ful that these bars never touch the ends of the straight bars. If the bars are separated suddenly from the horse-shoe magnet, its force will be considerably dimin- ished; to prevent this, slip on the lifter, or support, to the end of the horse-shoe magnet, but in such a manner, however, that it may not touch the bars; the bars may then he taken away, and the support slid to its place. Magnetism is best communicated to compass-needles by the two following methods: Procure a pair of magnetic bars, not less than six inches in length. Fasten the needle down on a board, and with a magnet in each hand draw them from the cen- tre upon the needle outwards; then raise the bars to a con- siderable distance from the needle, and bring them per- pendieularly down upon the centre, and draw them over again. This operation repeated about twenty times will magnetize the needle, and its ends will point to the poles contrary to those that touched them. Over one end of a combined horse-shoe magnet, of at least two in number, and six inches in length, draw.from its centre that half of the needle which is to have the contrary pole to the end of the magnet: raise the needle to a considerable distance, and draw it over the magnet again; this repeated about twenty times at least, and the same for the other half, will sufficiently communicate the power. A set of bars are exceedingly useful for magnetizing other bars, or needles of compasses, &c. their power may also be increased when lost or impaired by mismanage- ment, &c. A set of such bars, viz. six bars and the two iron conductors, may be preserved in a box; taking care to place the north pole of one contiguous to the south pole of the next, and that contiguous to the north pole of the third, &c. as shown in fig. 8. After what has been said above, we need not describe how a knife, or any other piece of steel, &c. may be ren- dered magnetic, or in what manner a weak magnet may be rendered more powerful. But it may perhaps be neces- sary to say something concerning the communication of magnetism to crooked bars like ABC, fig. 9. Place the crooked bar flat upon a table, and to its ex- tremities apply the magnetic bars DF, EG; joining their extremities FG, with the conductor or piece of soft iron FG; then to its middle apply the magnetic bars placed at an angle: or you may use two bars only, placed as shown in fig. 9, and stroke the crooked bar with thein from end to end, following the direction of that bent bar; so that on one side of it the magnetic bars may stand in the direction of the dotted representation LK. In this man- ner, when the piece of steel ABC has been rubbed a suf- ficient number of times em one side, it must be turned with the other side upwards, exe. In communicating magnetism, it is best to use weak magnets first, and those that arc stronger afterwards- but you must be very careful not to use weak after strong magnets. MAGNETISM. A magnet loses nothing of its own power by commu- nicating to other substances, but is rather improved. Every kind of violent percussion weakens the power of a magnet. A strong magnet has been entirely deprived of its virtue, by receiving several smart strokes of a ham- mer; indeed, whatever deranges or disturbs the internal pores of a magnet wih\ injure its magnetic force. Fill a small dry glass tube with iron filings, press them in rather close, and then touch the tube as if it was a steel bar, and the tube will attract a light needle; shake the tube, so that the situation of the filings may be disturbed, and the magnetic virtue will vanish. Magnets should never be left with two north or two south poles together; for when they are thus placed, they diminish and destroy each other's power. Magnetic bars should therefore be always left with the opposite poles laid against each other, or by connecting their opposite poles by a bar of iron. The power of a magnet is increas- ed by letting a piece of iron remain attached to one or both of its poles. A single magnet should therefore be always thus left. The difference of steel in receiving magnetism is very great, as is easily proved by touching in the same man- ner, and with the same bars, two pieces of steel of equal size, but of different kinds. With some sort of steel, a few strokes are sufficient to impart to them all the pow- er they are capable of receiving; other sorts require a longer operation; sometimes it is impossible to give them more than a small degree of magnetism. A piece of spring-tempered steel will not retain as much magnetism as hard steel; soft steel still less, and iron re- tains scarcely any. Iron when oxydated loses its magne- tism. The construction and the use of the principal magne- tical instruments. (Sec.— The magnetical instruments may be reduced to three principal heads; viz. 1st. the magnets or magnetic bars, which are necessary to magnetize needles of compasses, or such pieces of steel, iron, kc as may be necessary for divers experiments; and whicli have already been sufficiently explained in the preceding pa- ges: 2dly, the compasses, such as are used in naviga- tion, and for other purposes, which are only magnetic needles justly suspended in boxes, and which, according to the purposes for which they.are particularly employ- ed, have several appendages, or differ in size, and in ac- curacy of divisions, kc whence they derive the different names of pocket compasses, steering compasses, varia- tion compasses, and azimuth compasses: and 3dly, the dipping needle. The magnetic needles which are commonly used at sea, are between four and six inches long; but those which are used for observing the daily variation, are made a lit- tle longer, and their extremities point the variation upon an arch or circle properly divided and affixed to the box. The best shape of a magnetic needle is represented in figs. 10 and 11; the first of which shows the upper side, and the second shows a lateral view of the needle, which is of steel, having a pretty large hole in the middle, to which a conical piece of agate is adapted by means of a brass piece O, into which the agate-cap (as it is called) is fastened. Then the apex of this hollow cap rests upon the point of a pin F> which is fixed in the centre of tbe box, and upon which the needle, being properly balanc- ed, turns very nimbly. For common purposes, those needles have a conical perforation made in the steel itself, or in apiece of brass which is fastened in the middle of the needle. A mariner's compass, or compass generally used on board of ships, is represented in fig. 12. The box, which contains the card or fly with the needle, is made of a circu- lar form, and either of wood, or brass, or copper. It is sus- pended within a square wooden box, by means of two con- centric circles, called gimbalds, so fixed by cross axes a, a, a, a,to the two boxes (see the plan, fig. 13), that the inner one, or compass-box, shall retain a horizontal position in all motions ofthe ship, whilst the outer or square box is fixed with respect to the ship. The compass box is cov- ered with a pane of glass, in order that the motion of the card may not be disturbed by the wind. What is called the card (fig. 14), is a circular piece of paper, which is fastened upon the needle, and moves with it. Sometimes there is a slender rim of brass, which is fastened to the extremities of the needle, and serves to keep the card stretched. The outer edge of this card is divided into 360 equal parts or degrees, and within the circle of those divisions it is again divided into 32 equal parts, or arcs, which are called the points of the compass, or rhumbs, each of which is olten subdivided into quarters. The ini- tial letters N, NE, kc. are annexed to those rhumbs, to denote the north, north-east, &c. The middlemost part of the card is generally painted with a sort of star, whose ray terminate in the above-mentioned divisions. To avoid confusion those letters, &c. are not drawn in the figure. The azimuth compass is nothing more than the above- mentioned co'mpass, to which two sights are adapted, through which the sun is to be seen, in order to find its azimuth, and from thence to ascertain the declination of the magnetic needle at the place of observation; see fig. 15. The particulars in which it differs from the usual compass, are the sights F, G; in one of which, G, there is an oblong aperture with a perpendicular thread or wire stretched through its middle; ancl in the other sight F, there is a narrow perpendicular slit. The thread or wire HI is stretched from one edge of the box to the op- posite. The ring AB ofthe gimbalds rests with its pivots on the semicircle CD, the foot E of which turns in a socket, so that whilst the box KLM is kept steady, the compass may be turned round, in order to place the sights F, G, in the direction ofthe sun. The pivots of the gimbalds of this, as well as of the common sort of compasses, should lie in the same plane with the point of suspension of the needle, in order to avoid as much as possible the irregularity of the vibra- tions. There are, on the inside of the box, two lines drawn perpendicularly along the sides ofthe box, just from the points where the thread HI touches the edge of the box. These lines serve to show how many degrees the north or south pole of the needle is distant from the azimuth of the sun; for which purpose, the middle of the apertures of the sights F, G, the thread HI, and the said lines, must be exactly in the same vertical plane. The use of the thread HI. which is often omitted in instruments of this sort, is likewise to show the degrees between the M A G M A G magnetic meridian and the azimuth; when the eye ofthe observer stands perpendicularly over it. On the side of the box of this sort of compasses, there generally is a nut or stop, swhich, when pushed in, bears against the card and stops it, in order that the divisions of the card which coincide with the lines in the box, may be more commodiously read off. The dipping-needle, though of late much improved, is however still far from perfection. The general mode of constructing it is to pass an axis quite tlirough the nee- dle, to let the extremities of this axis, like those of the beam of a balance, rest upon its supports, so that the needle may move itself vertically round, and when situ- ated in the magnetic meridian, it may place itself in the magnetic line. The degrees of inclination are shown up- on a divided circle, in the centre of which the needle is suspended. Fig. 16 represents a dipping-needle of the simplest construction; AB is the needle, the axis of which FE rests upon the middle of two lateral bars CD, CD, which are made fast to the frame that contains the divi- ded circle A1BK. This machine is fixed on a stand G; but, when used at sea, it is suspended by a ring H, so as to hang perpendicularly. When the instrument is fur- nished with a stand, a spirit-level O is generally annex- ed to it, and the stand has three screws, by which fi\e in- strument is situated so that the centre of the motion of the needle, and the division of 90° on the lower part of the divided circle, may be exactly in the same line, per- perdicular to the horizon. See Level. The few experiments which follow, are principally in- tended to illustrate the theory. Ex. 1. The method of discovering whether a body is attractable by the magnet or not, and whether it has any polarity or not, or which is its south, and which is its north pole, is so easily performed as not to require many words; for by approaching a magnet to the body in ques- tion (which, if necessary, may be set to swim upon wa- ter), or by presenting the body in question to either ex- extreraity of a suspended magnetic needle, the desired ob- ject may be obtained. Ex. 2. Tie two pieces of soft iron wire, AB, AB, fig, 17 and 18, each to a separate thread, AC, AC, which join at top, and forming them into a loop, suspend them so as to hang freely. Then bring the marked end D fig. 19, which is the north, of a magnetic bar just under them, and the wires will immediately repel each other, as shown in fig. 18; and this divergency will increase to a certain limit; according as the magnet is bronght nearer, and vice versa. The reason of this phenomenon is, that by the action of the north magnetic pole D, both the ex- tremities B, B, of the wires, acquire the same, viz. the south polarity; consequently they repel each other; and the extremities, A, A, acquire the north polarity, in con- sequence of which they also repel each other. If instead of the north pole D, you present the south pole of the magnetic bar, the repulsion will take place as before; but now the extremities B, B, acquire the north, and the extremities A, A, acquire the south po- larity. On removing the magnet, the wires, if of soft iron, will soon collapse, having lost all their magnetic power; but if steel wires, or common sewing needles be used, they will continue to repel each other after tho removal vol. iz. 74 ofthe magnet; the magnetic power being retained uv steel. Ex. 3. Lay a sheet of paper flat upon a table, strew some iron filings upon the paper, place a small magnet among them; then give a few gentle knocks to the table, so as to shake the filings, and you will find that they dis- pose themselves about the magnet NS, as shown in fig. 20; the particles of iron clinging to one another, and forming themselves into lines, which at the very poles N, S, are in the same direction with the axis ofthe magnet; a little sideway of the poles they begin to bend, and then they form complete arches, reaching from some point in the northern half of the magnet, to some other point in the southern half. Ex. 4. Place a magnetic bar AB, fig. 21, so that one of its poles may project a short way beyond the table, and apply an iron weight C to it; then take another magnetic bar, DE, like the former, and bring it parallel to, and just over tlie other, at a little distance, and with the contrary poles towards each other; in consequence of which the attraction of B will be diminished, and the iron C, if sufficiently heavy, will drop off, the magnet AB being then only able to support a smaller piece of iron. By bringing the magnets still nearer to each other, the attraction of B will be diminished still farther; and, when the two magnets come quite into contact (provid- ed they are equal in power), the attraction between B and C will vanish entirely; but if the experiment be re- peated with this difference, viz. that the homologous poles of the magnets be brought, towards each other, then the attraction between B and C, instead of being dimin- ished, will be increased. MAGNITUDE, whatever is made up of parts locally extended, or that has several dimensions; as a line, sur- face, solid, &c. The apparent magnitude of a body is that measured by the visual angle, formed by rays drawn from the extremes to the centre ofthe eye; so that what- ever things are seen under the same or equal angles, ap- pear equal; and vice versa. MAGNOLIA, a genus of the polygynia order, belong- ing to the polyandria class of plants; ancl in the natural method ranking under the 52nd order, coadnatte. The ca- lyx is triphyllous; there are nine petals; the capsules bi- valved and imbricated; the seeds pendulous, and in the form of a berry. There are seven species: the principal are, 1. Theglauca, or small magnolia, a native of Virginia, Carolina, and other parts of North America. In moist places it rises from seven or eight to fifteen or sixteen feet high, with a slender stem. The wood is white and spongy, the flowers are produced at the extremities ofthe branches, are white, composed of six concave petals, and have an agreeable scent. 2. The grandiflora, or great magnola, is a native of Florida and South Carolina. It ri- ses, to the height of eighty feet or more, with a straight trunk upwards of two feet diameter, having a regular head. The leaves resemble those of the laurel, but are larger, and continue green throughout the year. The flowers are produced at the ends of the branches, and are of a purplish-white colour. 3. The tripetala, or umbrella tree, is a native of Carolina; it rises, with a slender trunk, to the height of sixteen ort wenty feet; the wood is soft and spongy$ the leaves remarkably large, and pre- M A L M A I, duced in horizontal circles, somewhat resembling an um- brella, whence the inhabitants of those countries have given it this name. The'flowers are composed often or eleven white petals, that hang down without any order. The leaves drop off at the beginning of winter. 4. The acuminata, with oval, spear-shaped, pointed leaves, is a nativeof the inland parts of North America. The leaves are near eight inches long, and five broad, ending in a point. The flowers come out early in the spring, and are composed of twelve white petals; the wood is of a fine grain, and an orange colour. MAHERNIA, a genus of the class and order pentan- dria pcttUsgvnia. The cal. is 5-toothed: petals 5; nee. 5 obcoidate, placed under the filaments; caps. 5-celled. There are three species, shrubs ofthe Cape. The incisa is a beautiful little shrub for the greenhouse*. MAIL, or coat of Mail, a piece of defensive armour for the body, made of small iron rings, interwoven in tlie manner of a net. MAIM, Maihem, or Mayhem, inlaw. It is enacted, by the statute of 22 ancl 23 Car. II. that if any person from malice aforethought, shall disable any limb or member of any of the king's subjects with an intent to disfigure them, the offender, with his aides and abettors, shall be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy; though no such attainder shall corrupt the blood, or occasion forfeiture of lands, kc. If a man attack another with an intent to murder him, and he does not murder the man, but only maim him, the offence is nevertheless with in the statute 22 and 23 Car. II. c. I, usually called the Coventry act. 1 Haw. 112. MAINPRISE, the taking or receiving a man into friendly custody, that otherwise is or might be commit- ted to prison, upon security given for his forthcoming at a day assigned. See Bail Bond. MAINTENANCE, is the unlawful taking in hand, or upholding; of a cause or person: this offence bears a near resemblance to barratry, being a person's inter- meddling in the suit of another, by maintaining or as- sisting him with money, or otherwise, to prosecute or de- fend it. A man may maintain the suit of his near kinds- man, servant, or poor neighbour, out of charity or com- passion, without being guilty of maintenance. By the common law. persons guilty of maintenance may be pro- secuted by indictinent, ancl be fined and imprisoned, or be compelled to make satisfaction by action, &c; and a court of record may commit a man for an act of main- tenance done in the face ofthe court. 1 Inst. 368. MAJOR, in logic, the first proposition of a syllogism. Major and Minor, in music, signify imperfect con- cords, which differ from each other by a semitone minor. t MALACHODENDRUM, a genus of the class and order monadelphia polyandria. The cal. is simple; germ. pear-shaped, pentagonal; styles, 5; >caps. 5, one-seeded: on > species, of no note. MALACHOA, a genus of the class and order mona- delphia polyandria. The cal. is common, 3-leaved, ma- ny-flowered, longer; arils 5, 1-seeded. There are five species, herbs ofthe West Indies. MALACHITE, green carbonat of copper. This ore is often amorphous, but often crystallized in long slen- der needles. Colour green. Brittle. Specific gravity 3*571 to 3.653. Effervesces with nitric acid, and gives a blue colour to ammonia. Before the blowpipe it decripitates and black- ens, hut does not melt. Tinges borax yellowish green. Tinges flame green. Variety 1. Fibrous malachite.—Texture fibrous. O- paque when amorphous; when crystallized it is partly transparent is 2. Colour generally grass-green. Variety 2. Compact malachite.—Texture compact. Opaque. Colour varies from the dark emerald-green to blackish green. A specimen of malachite from Siberia, analysed b) Klaproth, contained 58.0 copper 18.0 carbonic acid 12.5 oxygen 11.5 water 100. This species is sometimes mixed with clay, chalk, and gypsum, in various proportions; it it then known by the name of common mountain-green. Its colour is verdi- gris-green. Brittle. Texture earthy. Effervesces feebly with acids. Before the blowpipe it exhibits the same phenomena as malachite. A comparison of the analysis of Klaproth with that of Pelletier seems to prove that malachite contains copper oxidized to a greater degree than blue copper ore. MALACOLITE. This mineral was first observed iu Sweden in the silver-mine of Sahla in Westermania; af- terwards in Norway. Colour green. Found massive and crystallized in six-sided prisms, having two opposite edges truncated. Waxy. Texture lamcllated. Feel soft. Specific gravity 3.2307. Melts before the blowpipe into a porous glass. According to the analysis of Vauquelin, it is composed of 53 silica 20 lime 19 magnesia 3 alumina 4 oxide of iron and manganese 99 MALATS, in chemistry. This genus of salts is almost unknown, owing chiefly to the difficulty of procuring pure malic acid. The followiug are the only facts hither- to ascertained. Malat of potass. Malat of soda. Malat of Ammonia. These salts were formed by Scheele. They are deli- quescent and very soluble. Malat of Barytes. When malic acid is dropt into ba- rytes water, a white powder precipitates, which is malat of barytes. According to Scheele, the properties of this salt resemble those of malat of lime. Malat of strontian. Malic acid occasions no precipi- tate in strontian water. Hence it follows, that malat of strontian is more soluble than malat of barytes. When malic acid is neutralized with lime, it forms a salt scarcely soluble in water, which may be obtained in crystals, by allowing the supcrmalat of lime to evapo- rate spontaneously. Crystals of natural malat are formed in the solution. But this acid has a strong tendency to M A L M A L combine in excess with lime, and to form a supcrmalat of lime. This salt is formed when carbonat of lime is thrown into malic acid, or into ^ny liquid containing it. This supersalt exists in various vegetables, especially the supervivum tectum tn, and some ofthe sedums. Supcrmalat of lime has an acid taste. It yields a pre- cipitate with alkalies, sulphuric arid, and oxalic acid. Lime-water saturates the excess of acid, and throws down a precipitate of malt of lime. When the superma- let of lime is evaporated to dryness, it assumes exactly the appearance of gum arabic; and if it has been spread thin upon the nail or wood, it forms a varnish. It is not so soluble in water as gum arabic, and the taste readily distinguishes the two. Supermalet of lime is insoluble in alcohol. Malet of magnesia, this salt is very soluble in water, and when exposed to the air deliquesces. Malat of alumina. This salt is almost insoluble in wa- ter. Of course it precipitates when malic acid is dropt into a solution containing alumina. Mr. Cbenevix has proposed this acid to separate alumina from magnesia; which earths, as it is well known, have a strong affini- ty for each other. MALAXIS, a genus ofthe class ancl order gynandria diandria. The nee. is one-leaved, concave, coruate; ae:u- mina, pale, bifid in front. There are two species, bulbs of Jamaica. MALIC acid, obtained from the juice of apples; it is also extracted from the juice of comniom house-leek, where it exists combined with lime. The process is as follows: To the juice ofthe house-leek add acetat of lead as long as any precipitate takes place. Wash the precipi- tate, and decompose it by means of diluted sulphuric acid in the manner directed by Scheele. Malic acid may be formed also by the action of nitric acid of sugar. If nitric acid is distilled with an equal quantity of sugar, till the mixture assumes a brown co- lour (which is a sign that all the nitric acid has been ab- stracted from if), this substance will be found of an acid taste; and after all the oxalic acid which may have been formed is separated by lime-water, there remains anoth- er acid, which may be obtained by the following process: saturate it with lime, and 'filtre the solution: then pour upon it a quantity of alcohol, ancl a coagulation takes place. This coagulation is the acid combined with lime. Separate, it by filtration, and edulcorate it with fresh al- cohol; then dissolve it in distilled water, ancl pour in ace- tat of lead till no more precipitation ensues. The precip- itate is the acid combined with lead, from which it may be separated by diluted sulphuric acid. Malic acid, thus obtained, is a liquid of a reddish- brown colour and a very acid taste. When evaporated it becomes thick and viscid like a mucilage or syrup, but it does not crystallize. When exposed to a dry atmosphere in thin layers, it dries altogether, and assumes the ap- pearance of varnish. When heated in the open fire it be- comes black, swells up, exhales an acrid fume, and leaves behind it a very voluminous coal. When distilled, the products are an acid water; a little carbureted hy- drogen gas, and a large proportion of carbonic acid. It is very soluble in water. It gradually decomposes spon- taneously, by undergoing a kind of fermentation in the vessels in which it is kept. Sulphuric acid chars it, and nitric acid converts it into ozalic acid. Hence it is evi- dent that it is composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and car- bon, though the proportiou of these substances have not been ascertained. Malic acid combines with alkalies, earths, and metal- lic oxides, and forms salts known by the name of Malats, which see. Its affinities have not yet been ascertained. This acid bears a strong resemblance to the nitric, but differs from it in the following particulars: 1. The citric acid shoots into fine crystals, but this acid does not crys- tallize. 2. The salt formed from the citric acid with lime is almost insoluble in boiling water; whereas, the salt made with malic acid and the same basis is readily solu- ble by boiling water. 3. Malic acid precipitates mercu- ry, lead, and silver, from the nitrous acid, and also the solution of gold when diluted with water; whereas citric acid does not alter any of these solutions. 4. Malic acid seems to have a less affinity than citric aiid for lime; for wiien a solution of lime in the former is boiled a minute, with a salt formed fro4n volatile alkali and citric acid, a decomposition takes place, and the latter acid combines with the lime, and is precipitated. MALLEABLE, a property of metals, whereby they are capable of being extended under the hammer. MA LOPE, a genus of the class ancl order monadel- phia polyandria. The calyx is double, outer three-leav- ed; arils glomerate, one-seeded. There are two species, herbs of Tuscany, kc. MALPIGHIA, Barbadoes cherry, a genus of the tri- gynia order, in the decanclria class of plants, aud in the natural method ranking under the 23d order, trihilatse. The calyx is pentaphyllous, with melliferous penes on the outside at the base. There are five petals, roundish and unguiculated; the berry unilocular and ti ispermous. There are 18 species, ail of them shrubby evergreens of the warm parts of America, rising with"branchy stems from 8 or 10 to 15 or 20 feet high, ornamented with oval and lanceolate entire leaves, and large pentapetalous flowers, succeeded by red, cherry-shaped, eatable ben ies, of an acid ancl palatable flavour; and which in the West Indies, where they grow naturally, are used instead of cherries. Three of the species arc reared in English, gardens, ancl make a fine variety in thcste>\ c. They retain their leaves all the year round; and begin to flowerabo?-t the end of autumn, continuing in constant succession till the spring: after which they frequently produce and ripen their fruit, which commonly equals the size of a sm.nl cherry. The flowers are of a pale-red or purple colour. MALT, is barley prepared, to fit it for making a po- table liquor called beer, or ale, by stopping it short at the beginning of vegetation. In making malt from barley, the usual method is to steep the grain in a sufficient quantity of water, for two or three days, till it swells, becomes plump, somewhat tender, and tinges the water of a bright-brown, or red- dish colour. Then this water being drained away, the barley is removed from the steeping cistern to the'ih.or, where it is thrown into what is called the wet couch; that is. an even heap, rising to the height of about two feet In this wet couch the capital part of the operation is perl formed; for here the barley spontaneously heats, and be- gins to grow, sboutmg out first the radick; aud if sufr M A M M A N fered to continue, then the plume, spire, or blade. But the process is to be stopped short at the eruption of the radicle, otherwise the malt would be spoiled. In order to stop it, they spread the wet couch thin over a large floor, and keep turning it once in four or five hours, for the space of two days, laying it somewhat thicker each time. After this, it is again thrown into a large heap, and there suffered to grow sensibly hot to tbe hand, as it usually will in 20 or 30 hours time; then being spread again, and cooled, it is thrown upon the kiln, to be dried crisp without scorching. MALTA, knights of, otherwise called hospitalers of St. John of Jerusalem, a religious military order, whose residence is in the island of Malta. The order consists of three estates, the kniglits, chaplains, and servants at arms: there are also priests who officiate in the churches, friar-servants who assist at the offices, and donnes orde- microsses; but these are not reckoned constituent parts of the body: the government of the order is mixt, being partly monarchical, and partly aristocratical: the grand master is sovereign. The knights formerly consisted of eight different languages, but now only seven, the En- glish having withdrawn themselves. None are admitted into this order but such as are of noble birth: the knights are of two sorts, those who have a right to be candidates for the dignity of grand-master, called grand-crosses, and those who are only knights assistants: they never marry. The knights are received into this order, eitlier by undergoing the trials prescribed by statutes, or by dispensation. MALTHA, in antiquity, a kind of cement of which there were two sorts, native and factitious; one of the latter sort, much in use, consisted of pitch, wax, plaister, and grease. Another kind used by the Romans in their aqueducts, was made of lime slacked in wine, incorpo- rated with melted pitch, and fresh figs. Natural maltha is a kind of bitumen, with which the Asiatics plaister their walls; and which being once set on fire, water makes it burn more fiercely. See Bitumen. MALVA, the mallow, a genus of the polyandria order, in the monadelphia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 37th order, columniferse. The calyx is double; the exterior one triphyllous; the arilli numerous and monospermous. There are 34 species, consisting of herbaceous perennials, biennials, and an- nuals, for medical, economical, and ornamental uses. The leaves of the common mallow are reckoned the first of the four emollient herbs: they were formerly in some esteem as food; at present decoctions of them are sometimes employed in dysenteries, heat, and sharpness of urine, and in general for obtunding acrimonious hu- mours: their principal use is in emollient glysters, cata- plasms, and fomentations. The leaves enter the officinal decoction for glysters, and a conserve is prepared from ihe flowers. Several pieces of malva, macerated like hemp, afford a thread superior to hemp for spinning, and which is said to make more beautiful cloths and stuffs than even flax. These species are the crispa, Peruviana, and Maurisiana. From the former, which affords stron- ger and longer fibres, cords and twine have also been made. From the malvse likewise a new sort of paper bas been fabricated by M. de I'Isle. MAMMAE, in anatomy, the breasts of a female. MAMMALIA, in natural history, the first class of animals in the Linnsean system, divided into seven or- ders. See Zoology. MAMMEA, mammee-tree, a genus of the monogynia order, in the polyandria class of plants, and in the natu- ral method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is tetrapetalous; the calyx diphyl- lous; the berry very large and tetraspermous. There is one species, a large evergreen tree of the hot parts of America and Asia, adorned with large, oval, oblong, stiff leaves, and large quadripetalous flowers, succeeded by large, round, eatable fruit, of a most exquisitely rich flavour. They are propagated by seed, whicli in cold countries is to be sowed in small pots of light earth, and kept in the stove* MAMM1LLARY. See Anatomy. MAN All, in zoology, See Trichecus. MANCA, was a square piece of gold coin, common- ly valued at 30 pence; and m'ancusa was as much as a mark of silver, having its name from manucusa, being coined with the hand (Leg. Canut.). B ut the manca and mancusa were not always of that value: for sometimes the former was valued at six shillings, and the latter, a* used by the English Saxons, was equal in value to our half-crown. MANDAMUS, is a writ issuing in the king's bench, and directed to any person, corporation, or inferior court of judicature, commanding to some particular thing there- in specified, as appertaining to their office and duty. A writ of mandamus is a high prerogative writ, of a most extensive remedial nature, and may be issued in some cases where the injured party has also another more tedious method of redress* as in the case of admis- sion or restitution to an office; but it issues in all cases where the party has a right to have any thing done, and has no other specific means of compelling its performance. 3 Black. 100. And this general jurisdiction and superintendence of the king's bench over all inferior courts to restrain thera within their bounds, and to compel them to execute their jurisdiction, whether such jurisdiction arises from a mod- ern charter, subsists by custom, or is created by act of parliament, yet being in subsidium justitia;, has of late been exercised in a variety of instances. Mandamus was also a writ that lay after the year and a day (where, in the mean time, the writ called diem clausit extremum had not been sent out) to the escheat- or, commanding him to inquire of what lands holden by knight-service the tenant died seized, &c. F. N. B. 561. Mandamus was also a writ to charge the sheriff to take into the king's hands all the lands and tenements ofthe king's widow, who, against her oath formerly given, mar- ries without the king's consent. Reg. 295. MANETTIA, a genus of the class and order tetran- dria monogynia. Tlie calyx is eight leaved; corolla four- cleft; capsule inferior, two-valved, one-celled; seeds im- bricate, unilocular. There are three species, shrubs of of the West Indies. MANGANESE. I. The dark-grey or brown mine- ral called manganese has been long known and used in the manufacture of glass. A mine of it was discovered in England by Mr. Boyle. A few experiments were made upon this mineral by Glauber in 1656, and by MANGANESE. Wailz in 1795; but chemists in general seem to have paid but very little attention to it. The greater number ol mineralogists, though much puzzled what to make of it, agreed in placing it among iron ores: but Pott, who published the first chemical examination of this mineral in 1740, having ascertained that it often contains scarce- ly any iron, Cronstcdt, in his System of Mineralogy, which appeared in 1758, assigned it a place of its own, on the supposition that it consisted chiefly of a peculiar earth, iiinman examined it anew in 1765; and in the year 1770 Kaim published at Vienna a set of experiments, in order to prove that a peculiar metal might be extract- ed from it. The same idea had struck Bergman about the same time, and induced him to request of Scheele, in 1771, to undertake an examination of manganese. Scheele's dissertation on it, which appeared in 1774, is a masterpiece of analysis, and contains some of the most important discoveries of modern chemistry. Berg- man himself published a dissertation on it the same year; in which he demonstrates that the mineral, then called manganese, is a metallic oxide. He accordingly made several attempts to reduce it. but without success; the whole mass either assuming the form of scorise, or yielding only small separate globules attraeted by the magnet. This difficulty of fusion led him to suspect that the metal he was in quest of bore a strong analogy to platinum. In the mean time Dr. Gabn, who was mak- ing experiments on the same mineral, actually succeed- ed in reducing it by the following process: lie lined a crucible with charcoal-powder moistened with water, put into it some of the mineral formed into a ball by means of oil, then filled up the crucible with charcoal-powder, luted another crucible over it, and exposed the whole for about an hour to a very intense heat. At the bottom of the crucible was found a metallic button, or rather a num- ber of small metallic globules, equal in weight to one- third of the mineral employed. It is easy to see by what means this reduction was accomplished. The charcoal attracted the oxygen from the oxide, and the metal re- mained behind. The metal obtained, which is called manganese, was farther examined by Ilscman in 1782, Hielm in 1785, and Bindheim in 1789. Manganese, when pure, is of a grevish-white colour, and has a good deal of brilliancy. Its texture is granu- lar. It has neither taste nor smell. Its hardness is equal to that of iron. Its specific gravity is 7.000. It is very brittle; of course it can neither be hammered, nor drawn out into wire. Its tenacity is unknown. It re- quires, according to Morveau, the temperature of 160° Wedgewood to melt it; so that plantinum excepted, it is the most infusible of all the metals. When reduced to powder it is attracted by the magnet, owing probably to a small portion of iron from which it can with difficulty be parted. II. Manganese, when exposed to the air, attracts oxygen more rapidly than any other body, phosphorus excepted. It loses its lustre almost instantly, becomes grey, violet, brown, and at last black. These changes take place still more rapidly if the metal is heated in an open vessel. This metal seems capable of combining with three different proportions of oxygen, and of forming three different oxides, the white, the red, and the black. The protoxide or white oxide may be obtained by dis- solving the black oxide of manganese in nitric ac id bv adding a little sugar. The sugar attracts oxv gen from the black oxide, and converts it into the white, which is dissolved by the acid. Into the solution pour a quantity of potass; the protoxide precipitates in the form of a white powder. It is composed, according to Bergman, of 80 parts of manganese and 20 of oxygen. When ex- posed to the air it soon attracts oxygen, and is converted into the black oxide. The deutoxide or red oxide may be obtained by dissol- ving the black oxide in sulphuric acid, without the addi- tion of any combustible substance. When black oxide of maganese, made into a paste with sulphuric acid, is heated in a retort, a great quantity of oxygen gas comes over, while the oxide, thus deprived of part of its oxygen. dissolves in the acid. Distil to dryness, and pour water upon the residuum* and pass it through a filtre. A red- coloured solution is obtained, consisting of the sulphat of manganese dissolved in water. On the addition of an al- kali a red substance precipitates, which is the red oxide of manganese. According to Bergman it is composed of 74 parts of manganese and 26 of oxygen. This oxide likewise attracts oxygen when exposed to the atmosphere, and is converted into the black oxide. The peroxide of black oxide of manganese exists abim dantly in nature; indeed it is almost always in this state that manganese is found. It was to the black oxide that the appellation manganese itself was originally applied. It may be formed very soon by exposing the metal to the air. This oxide, according to Fourcroy, is composed of 60 parts of manganese and 40 of oxygen. When heated to redness in an earthen retort it gives out abundance of oxygen gas, which may be collected in proper vessels. By this operation it is reduced nearly to the state of red oxide. If it is exposed to the air, and moistened occa- sionally, it absorbs a new dose of oxygen; aud thus the same process may again be repeated. No oxygen gas can be obtained from the white oxide: a proof that its oxygen is retained by a stronger affinity than the addi- tional dose of oxygen which constitutes the black oxide. Seguin has observed, that in some cases the black oxide of manganese emits, before it becomes red, a quantity of azotic gas. When long exposed to a strong heat it as- sumes a green colour. In that state it is whitened by sulphuric acid, but not dissolved. A very violent heat fuses this oxide, and converts it into a green-coloured glass. II I. Manganese docs not combine with hydrogen. When dissolved in sulphuric acid a black spongy mass of car- buret of iron is left behind. Hence it has been supposed capable of combining with carbon; but it is more proba- ble that the carbon is combined with the iron, which is almost always present in manganese. It seems pretty clear, however, that carburet of iron is capable of com- bining with this metal, and that it always forms apart of steel. Bergman did not succeed in his attempt to combine manganese with sulphur; but he formed a sulphureted oxide of manganese, by combining eight parts of the black oxide with three parts of sulphur. It is of a green colour, and gives out sulphureted hydrogen gaswhen acted on by acids. It cannot be doubted, however, that M^A N MAN the sulphur is capable of combining with manganese: for Proust has found native sulphuret of manganese in that ore of tellurium which is known by the name of gold ore of Nagyag. Phosphorus may be combined with manganeseby melt- ing together equal parts of the metal and of phosphoric glass; or by dropping phosphorus upon red-hot man- ganese. The phosphuret of manganese is of a white colour, brittle, granulated, disposed to crystalize, not altered by exposure to the air, and more fusible than manganese. When heated the phosphorus burns, and the metal is oxidized. IV. Manganese does not combine with either of the simple combustibles. V. Manganese combines with many of the metals, and forms with them alloys which have been but very imper- fectly examined. It unites readily with copper. The compound, ac- cording ty Bergman, is very malleable, its colour is red, and it sometimes becomes green by age. Gmelin made a number of experiments to see whether this alloy could be formed by fusing the black oxide of manganese along with copper. He partly succeeded, and proposed to sub- stitute this alloy instead of the alloy of copper and arse- nic, which is used in the arts. It combines readily with iron; indeed it has scarcely been found quite free from some mixture of that metal. Manganese gives iron a white colour, ancl renders it brit- tle. It combines also with tin, but scarcely with zinc. It does not combine with mercury nor with bismuth. Gmelin found that manganese cannot^be alloyed with bismuth without great difficulty; and that it unites to antimony very imperfectly. Chemists have not attempt- ed to combine it with gold, plantinum, silver, nickel, nor cobalt. VI. The affinities of manganese, and of its white and red oxides, are, according to Bergman, as follows: Manganese. Oxide of mangt Copper, & Oxalic acid, Iron, Citric, Gold, «#. Phosphoric, Silver, Tartaric, Tin, Fluoric, Muriatic, Sulphuric, Nitric, Sadactic, Succinic, Tartaric, Lactic, Acetic, P'russic, Carbonic. MANGIFERA, the mango-tree, a genus of the mono- gynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is pentapetalous; the plum kid- ney shaped. There are three species, the principal of which is a native of many parts of the East Indies, ^s hence it has been transplanted to Brazil, and other warm parts of America. It grows to a large size; the wood is brittle; the bark rough when old; the leaves are seven or eight inches long," and more than two inches broad. The flowers are produced in loose panicles at the ends ofthe branches, and are succeeded by large oblong kidney-shaped plums. This fruit, when fully ripe, is greatly esteemed in the countries where it grow.s; but in Europe they have only the unripe fruit brought over in pickle. All attempts to propagate the plant have hither- to proved ineffectual; and Mr. Millar is of opinion that the stones will not vegetate unless they are planted soon after they are ripe. MANIA. See Medicine. MANICHEES, in church history, a sect of christian heretics in the third century, the followers of Manes, who made his appearance in the reign of the emperor Prob us; pretending to be the Comforter, whom our sa- viour promised to send into the world. He taught that there are two principles, or gods, coeternal and indepen- dant on each other; the one the author of all evil, and the other of all good; a doctrine which he borrowed from the Persian magi. He held that our souls were made bv the good principle, and our bodies by the evil one: and that the souls of his followers passed through the ele- ments to the moon, and from thence to the sun, where being purified, they then went to God, and became unit- ed with his essence; but as for the souls of other men, they either went to hell, or were united toother bodies. MANILLE, iu commerce, a large brass ring, in the form of a bracelet, either plain or engraven, flat or round. Manillcs are the principal commodities which the Euro- peans carry to the coast of Africa, and exchange with the natives for slaves. These people wear them as orna- ments on the small of the leg, and on the thick part of the arm above the elbow. The great men wear the manilles of gold and silver, but these arc made in the country by the natives themselves. MANIPULUS, in Roman antiquity, a body of infan- try, consisting of 200 men, and constituting the third part of a cohort. See Cohort. MAMS, a genus of quadrupeds ofthe order of hruta. The generic character is, teeth none; tongue cylindric and extensile; mouth narrowed into a snout; body cover- ed with scales. The genus manis presents an appearance not less extraordinary than that of dasypus or armadillo; being covered on every part, except on the belly, with extremely strong and large horney scales, constituting a suit of armour si ill more powerful than in the following genus, and capable of defending the animals, when rolled up from the assaults of the most ferocious enemies. This external covering, together with the uncommon length ofthe body and tail, gives an aspect so much resembling that of a lizard, that these creatures arc commonly known by the title of scaly lizards: they may be allow- ed, however, in a general view of the animal kingdom, to form a kind of shade or link of approximation between the proper viviparous quadrupeds and the lizards. They are animals of a harmless nature, and feed in the same manner as the ant-eaters, by thrusting out their very long tongue into the nests of ants and other insects, and swallowing their prey by suddenly retract- ing it, having no teeth, and differing from the ant-eaters in scarcely any other circumstance than that of their MAN &faly integment. They arc found in India and the Indi- an islands. l. Manis tctradactyla, long-tailed manis. This animal, known in India by the numc of the phatagcn; is of a ve- ry long and slender form: the head is small; the snout narrow; the whole body, except beneath, covered with broad, but sharp-pointed, scales, which aro striated through their whole length: the tail is more than twiee the length of the body, and tapers gradually to the tip. The legs are very short, scaled like the body, and on each of the feet are four claws, of which those on the fore feet are stronger than those of the hind. The colour of the whole animal is an uniform deep-brown, with a cast of yellowish, and with a glossy or polished surface. The manis tetradactyia grows to the length of five feet, mea- suring from the tip of the nose to the extremity of the tail. 2. Manis pentadactyla, short-tailed' manis, differs from the former, in being of a much thicker and shorter form; the tail, in particular, differs greatly in proportion from that of the preceeding, being not so long as the bo- dy, very thick at the base, and thence gradually taper- ing, but terminating very obtusely. The head is small as in the former; the ears small and rounded; the feet fur- nished with five toes each, of which those on the fore feet are extremely strong, except the exterior one, which is much smaller than the rest. The whole animal is cover- ed with most extremely thick, strong, and large scales, which in the full-grown specimens are perfectly smooth, but in those which are smaller are slightly striated about half way from the base. Sometimes afew bristles appear between the scales, but in others this is not observable. The scales differ in shape from those of the preceeding, being much wider and larger in proportion to the body and tail. The colour of the whole animal is a very pale yellow brown, and the surface is glossy, as in the former species. In India it is called the pongoelling. In the neighbourhood of Bengal it is named vajracite, or the thunderbolt reptile, from the excessive hardness of the scales, which are said to be capable even of striking fire like a flint. It is said to walk slowly; but, when pursued, rolls itself up, and is then so securely armed, that even a leopard attacks it in vain. It is also said sometimes to de- stroy the elephant, by twisting itself round the trunk, and thus compressing that tender and sensible organ with its bard scales. Wc are told in the Asiatic Researches that the Malabar name of this animal is alungu; and that the natives of Bahar call it bajar-cit, or.the stone vermin; and in the stomach ofthe one examined and described in the above work was found about a teacupful of small stones, which it is supposed to have swallowed for the purpose of facilitating digestion. It was only 34 iuches long from the nose to the end ofthe tail; and a young one was found in it. Specimens of the manis pentadactyla have sometimes been seen of the length of six feet from the nose to the tip ofthe tail. Sec PI. LXXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 258. MANNA, in natural-history. This substance exudes from the fraxinus ornus, in the months of June and July, from the stem aud branches. It is at first liquid, but gradually becomes solid. It is collected in Sicily and the southern parts of Italy, It is in form of oblong glo- bules of a whitish-yellow colour, and somewhat tran spa- xM A N rent. It is very light. Its taste is sweet, and it lea»vj a nauseous bitter impression in the mouth, lis propTtic- have not been examined by chemists, it acts as a mild cathartic. See Materia Medic a. MANOMETER, or Manosccpe, an instrument 5f 3 (3) The Globular Projection of the Sphere on the Plane of the Equator. On the centre P, fig. 5, draw the circle WN ES, to repr-.sent the equator. Draw the two diameters, WTE and NS, at right angles with each other. Divide the arcs of the four quadrants into nine equal pui-'s: each of the parts will be equal to ten degrees. Number them from N towards P, 10, 20, 30,40, 50, &c. On the centre P draw circles passing through those points of division, which will be the circles of latitude. For the arctic circle, set off 23£° from P towards N; do the same at N towards P, for the tropic circle. Through each of those points draw an obscure circle. Draw diameteis from the divisions on one half of the 2 circumference to the corresponding divisions on the op- posite one, to represent the meridians, and this will com- plete the projection. (4) The Stereographic Projection of the Sphere on the Plane ofthe Equator. Draw the circle N, W, S, E, fig. 6, and the two dia- meters at right angles with each other. Divide the arcs of each of the four quadrants into nine equal parts; subdivide each of those parts into 10 degrees; number those degrees 10, 20, 30, &c. Draw diameters from the divisions on one side of the circumference to the corresponding divisions on the other, which will represent the meridians. For the parallels of latitude, project a line of semitan- gents as directed in the 2d case. On the centre P describe circles passing through the semitangents, which will complete the diagram. Note, The foregoing methods of projecting the sphere are the best. There is another method sometimes used, viz. the projection on the plane ofthe horizon when any assumed place is considered as the centre; but as this me- thod is rarely used, it need not be elucidated. The orthographic projection is in fact so erroneous, that it ought to be entirely rejected for that purpose, and ap- plied only to dialling. The gnomonical projection is only applicable to dialling. We shall now point out the advantage and disadvantage of Mercator's projection. A method has been found to obviate some of the diffi- culties attending all the circular projections by one, which, from the person who first used it (though not the inven- tor), is called Mercator's projection. In this there are none but right lines: all the meridians are equidistant, and continue so through the whole extent; but, on the other hand, in order to obtain the true bearing, so that the compass may be applied to the map (or chart) for the purpose of navigation, the spaces between the parallels of latitudes (which in truth are equal, or nearly so) are made to increase as they recede from the equator in a proportion whicli, in the high latitudes, becomes prodigi- ously great. The great advantages peculiar to this projection are, that every place drawn upon it retains its true bearing with respect to all other places; the distances may be measured with the nicest exactness by proper scales, and all the lines drawn upon it are right lines: for these rea- sons it is the only projection in drawing maps or charts for the use of navigators. We shail show the method of this kind of projection. /[creator's or Jf "right1 s projection of maps.—Draw the line AB, fig. 7, and divide it into as many degrees as your map is to contain in longitude, suppose 90°. At the ex- tremities A and B raise perpendiculars, to which draw parallel lines at every single, fifth, or tenth degree of the equator, for the meridians; as in the figure, where they are drawn at every tenth degree. This done, put one foot of the compasses in the point A, and extending the other to the point in the first meridian in the equator G; or, for greater exactness, to some more distant joint, as B 90; describe the quadrant FB, which divide into nine equal parts, and draw lines from A to each pomt of the division; or, to avoid scoring the paper, only : .ark wh re a ruler cuts tiie first meridian GH, at every tenth dc* MAP. grec's distance. Lastly, because the distances of the parallels from one another are marked, by this means, in the line GH, you must transfer them from that line to the sidelines AC, BD, after the following manner: 1. Set one foot of the compasses in A, and extending the other to the first point above G, marked 1, transfer this dis- tance, viz. A 1, to the lines AC, BD,and draw a line pa- rallel to the equator AB, for the tenth parallel 2. Next transfer the distance A 2 into the lines AC, BD, from the 10th parallel to the 20th, which is to be drawn. 3. In the same manner the distances A 3, A 4, A 5, &c. laid off upon the lines AC, BD, from the immediately preceding parallels, viz. 20, 30, 40, kc. will successively point out where the parallels 30, 40, 50, &c. are to be drawn. This is the geometrical projection, which may also be laid down by means of a scale or table of meridional parts, by the line of secants, &c. This projection supposes the earth, instead of aglobular, to have a cylindrical figure; in consequence of which, the degrees of longitude become of an equal length through- out the whole surface, and are marked out on the map by parallel lines. The circles of latitude also are repre- sented by lines crossing the former at right angles, but at unequal distances. The further we remove from the equator, the longer the degrees of latitude become in pro- portion to those of longitude, and that in no less a degree than as the secant of an arch to the radius of the circle; that is, if we make one degree of longitude at the equa- tor the radius of a circle; at one degree distant from the equator, a degree of latitude will be expressed by the se- cant of one degree; at ten degrees distance, by the secant •f ten degrees, and so on. A map of the world, there- fore, cannot be delineated upon this projection, without distorting the shape of the countries in an extraordinary manner. The projection itself is, however, as we have already observed, very useful in navigation, as it shows the different bearings with perfect accuracy, which can- not be done upon any other map. We shall now add a more exact method of projecting particular maps, wherein the squares are so projected as to form equal diagonals throughout. Of the projection of maps of jyarticular parts of the world.— There are several methods of projecting particu- lar parts of the world, we shall notice only two. First, when the meridians and parallels of latitude are right lines. To project a map of England after this method.—En- gland is situated between 2<> E. and 6° 20' W. from Greenwich, and between 50° and 56° N. lat. Draw a base line AB, fig. 8, in the middle of which erect the perpendicular CD. Assume a distance for a degree of lat. ancl set off as many degrees on CD as are wanted, which in this in- stance are 6; but as a little space beyond the limits of the country is generally left, set off 7. Through these points draw lines parallel to AB, which will be parallels of latitude. Respcctingthe degrees of longitude it must be observed, that on the equator they would be of the same length as they are on a meridian, but must gradually decrease from thence to 0 at the poles. The follow ing table exhibits the length in geographical iles, of a degree of longitude fer every degree of lati- Deg. Geograp. Deg. Oc-o-n.p. Q Deg. Cie'"i^:-ap. Lat. • Miles- Lat. M:i. S Lat. Miles. 0 60,00 31 51,48 61 29,09 1 59,99 32 50,88 62 2%17 2 59,96 33 50,32 63 27,24 3 59,92 34 49,74 49,15 64 26,30 4 59,85 35 65 25,36 5 59,77 36 48,54 66 24,41 6 59,67 37 47,92 67 23,44 7 59,56 38 47,28 68 22,48 8 59,42 39 46,63 69 21,50 9 59,26 | 40 45,96 70 20,52 10 59,09 ; 41 45,28 71 19,53 11 58,90 42 44,59 72 18,54 12 58,69 43 43,38 73 17,54 13 58,46 44 43,16 74 16,53 14 58,22 45 42,43 75 15,53 15 57,95 46 41,68 76 14,52 16 57,67 47 40,92 ,. 77 13,50 17 57,38 48 40,15 78 12.47 18 57,06 49 39,36 79 11,45 19 56,73 50 31,57 80 10,42 20 56,38 51 38,76 81 9,38 21 56,02 52 36,94 82 8,34 22 55,63 53 36,11 83 7,31 23 55,23 54 35,27 34 6,27 24 54,81 55 34,41 85 5,23 25 54,38 56 33,55 86 4,18 26 53,93 57 32,68 87 3,14 27 53,46 58 31,79 88 2,09 28 52,97 59 30,90 89 1,40 29 52,47 60 30,00 90 0,00 30 51,96 To use this table, divide the assumed degree into sixty parts by a diagonal line, fig. 9: look for the number of miles answering to the degree of lat. 49, which is 39, 36, say 39|, which take off the scale, fig. 9, at a, and set off four times from C towards A, and the same from C to- wards B. The top meridian is 56° of lat. opposite which, in the table, is 33, 55, say 33|, wiiich take from the scale, fig. 9, at b, and set off four times from D towards E, and the same from D towards F. Draw the meridian lines to the corresponding divisions at top and bottom, of which 0 0 is the meridian of London. Second. When the meridians and parallels are curved lines. To project a map of Europe by this method.—Draw a base line GH, fig. 10, in the middle of which erect the perpendicular J P, and assume any distance for 10° of latitude. Europe extends from 36c to 72° N. lat. Let the point J be 30°. from which set off six of the assumed distance* to P, which will be theN. pole. Number the distances 40, 50, Go. kc On the centre 1\ describe arcs passing through the points of division on the line JP, wiiich will be parallels of latitude. Divide the space assumed for 10° of lat. into 60 parts by a diagonal line, fig. 11. MAR M A R Look into the foregoing table for the number of miles answering to 30°, which is 51,96, say 52, whicli take from the scale, fig. 11, at 6. Set this distance off on the arc 30, 30, from the centre line JP both ways. D>, the same for 40°, 50°, 60«, kc. Through the corresponding divisions, on all the arcs, driv curve lines; which will represent the meridians. \ timber the degrees of lat. and Ion., which will com- plete the diagram. MARANTA, Indian arrow-root, a genus of the mono- gynia order, in the monandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the eighth order, scitami- nese. The coredia is ringent and quinquefid, with two seg- ments alternately patent. There are five species, all of them herbaceous perennial exotics of the Indies, kept in some hot houses for curiosity: they have thick, knotty, creeping roots, crowned with long, broad, arundinaceous leaves, ending in points, and upright stalks, half a yard high, terminated by bunches of monopetalous, ringent, five-parted flowers. The root of the galanga is used by the Indians to extract the virus communicated by their poisoned arrows: wiience it has derived its name of ar- row-root. The arundinacca, or starch plant, rises to two feet, has broad pointed leaves, small white flowers, and one seed. It is cultivated in gardens and in provision grounds in the West Indies; and the starch is obtained from it by the following process: The roots when a year old are dug up, well washed in water, and then beaten in large deep wooden mortars to a pulp. This is thrown into a large tub of clean water. The whole is then well stirred, and the fibrous part wrung out by the hands, and thrown away. The milky liquor being passed through a hair sieve, or coarse cloth, is suffered to settle, and the clear water is drained off. At the bottom of the vessel is a white mass, which is again mixed with clean water, and drained: lastly, the mass is dried on sheets in the sun, and is pure starch. MARATTIA, a genus of the cryptogamia Alices. The capsules are oval, gaping longitudinally at top, with several cells on each side. There are three foreign spe- cies. MARBLE, in natural history, a genus of fossils, com- posed chiefly of lime; being bright and beautiful stones, moderately hard, not giving fire with steel, fermenting with, and soluble in, acid, menstrua, and calcining in a slight fire. The word comes from the French marbre, and that from the Latin marmor, of the Greek ^x^ui^u», to shine, or glitter. See Lime. The colours by which marbles are distinguished are almo t innumerable; but the most remarkable are, 1. The black marble ofFlanders. 2. Plain yellow. 3. Yellow with some white veins. 4. Yellow with black dendrites. 5. Yellow with brown figures resembling ruins. 6. Black and yellow. 7. Black and white. 8. Pale yellow, with spots of a blackish-grey colour. 9. Yellow, white, and red. 10. Pale yellow. 11. Olive-colour, with deeper- Goloured cross lines, and dendrites. 12. Brownish-red. 13. Flesh coloured and yellow. 14. Common red mar- ble. 15. Crimson, white, and grey. 16. Reddish-brown lumps, on a whitish ground. 17. Blueish-grey. 18. Snowy-white. The finest solid modern marbles are those of Italy, Blankenburg, France, and Flanders. It has also I tea lately discovered that very fine marble is contained iu some of the western islands of Scotland. Those of Ger- many, Norway and Sweden, are of an inferior kind, be- ing mixed with a kind of scaly limestone; and even seve- ral of those above-mentioned are partly mixed with this substance, though in an inferior degree. Cronstedt, however, mentions a new quarry of white marble in Swe- den, which, from the specimens he had seen, promised to be excellent. The specific gravity of marble is from 2700 to 2800; that of Camera, a very fine Indian marble, is 2717. Black marble owes its colour to a slight mixture of iron. Mr. Bayen found some which contained five per cent, of the metal; notwithstanding which the lime prepared from it was white, but in time it acquired an ochry, or red- dish-yellow colour. Marble, polishing of, is performed by first rubbing it well with a free stone, or sand, till the strokes of the axe are worn off, then with pumice-stone, and afterwards with emery. MARBLING, in general, the painting any thing with veins and clouds, so as to represent those of marble. Marbling of books or paper is performed thus: Dis- solve four ounces of gumarabic into two quarts of fair water; then provide several colours mixed with water in pots or shells, and with pencils peculiar to each colour, sprinkle them by way of intermixture upon the gum water, which must be put into a trough, or some broad vessel; then with a stick curl them, or draw them out in streaks, to as much variety as may be done. Having done this, hold your book or books close together, and only dip the edges in, on the top of the water and colours, very lightly; which done, take them off, and the plain im- pression of the colours in mixture will be upon the leaves; doing as well the ends as the front of the book in the like manner. Marbling books on the covers is performed by forming clouds with aquafortis, or spirit of vitriol mixed with ink, and afterwards glazing the covers. MARCGRAVTA, a genus of the polyandria monogy- nia class of plants, the corolla whereof consists of a single petal, of a conico-oval figure; and its fruit is a globose berry, with a single cell, containing a great num- ber of very small seeds. There is one species, a shrub of the West Indies. MARCHANTIA, a genus of the cryptogamia class of plants, the corolla of which is monopetalous, turbinat- ed, and shorter than the cup; in the lower cavity of which there are contained several naked seeds, of a roundish but compressed figure. There are seven species, five of them British. MARC IGNITES, christians in the second century, thus denominated from their leader Marcion, who main- tained that there were two principles or gods, a good and a bad one. MARCOS1ANS, a sect of christians in the second century, so called from their leader Marcus, who repre- sented the supreme God as consisting not of a trinity, but a quaternity, viz. the ineffable, silence, the father, and truth. MARE. See Equus. MARG AIUTERIA, a genus of the diecia octandria MAR M A n class and order. The male calyx is four-toothed; corolla four-petalled. Female calyx and corolla as above; styles four or five. There is one species, a native of Surinam. MAltICA, a genus of the trigynia monogynia class and order. The calyx is six-parted; stigma petal-form, trifid; capsule three-celled, inferior. There is one species, a fleshy bulb of Guiana. MARILLA, a genus of the class and order polyan- dria memogynia. The calyx is five-leaved; corolla five- petalled; capsule four-celled, many seeded; stigma simple. There is one species, a native of the West Indies. MARK, knights of St., an order of knighthood in the republic e>f Venice, under the protection of St. Mark the evangelist. The arms of the order are, gules, a lion winged e>r, with this device, "Pax tibi Marce evangel- ista." This order is never conferred but on thqse who have done signal service to the commonwealth. Mark or Marc, also denotes a weight used in several states of Europe, and for several commodities, especial- ly gold and silver. In France, the mark is divided into 8 oz. or 64 drachms, or 192 derniers or pennyweights, or 160 csterlines, or 300 mailles, or 640 felins, or 4608 grains. In Holland the mark-weight is also called troy- weight, and is equal to that of France. When gold and silver are sold by the mark, it is divided into 24 caracts. Mark is also used in England for a money of account, and in some other countries for a coin. The English mark is two-thirds of a pound sterling, or 13s. 4rder to obviate these inconveniences the following method has been proposed: Place two chandeliers, each seven feet high and two broad, between tbe uprights, af- ter which fill up the vacant spaces with facines nine feet high, upon six inches diameter. One toise and a half of epaulement will requre two chandeliers and 60 fascines to mask it. The engineer, or artillery officer, places himself behind this mask, and draws his plan. As you must necessarily have earth, &c. to complete your work, these articles may be brought in shovels, sacks, or baskets; and if the quarter whence you draw them should be exposed to the enemy's fire, cover that liue, as well as the line of communication, between the trenches, or the parallels, with a mask. If you cannot procure earth and fascines, make use of sacks stuffed with wool, kc and let their diameters be tiiree feet, and their length likewise three; and let the outside be frequently wetted to prevent them from catch- ing fire. MASTOIDES. See Anatomy. MATCH, a kind of rope slightly twisted, and prepar- ed to retain fire for the uses of artillery, mines, fireworks, &c. It is made of hempen tow, spun on the wheel like cord, but very slack; and is composed of three twists, which are afterwards again covered with tow, so that the twists do not appear: lastly, it is boiled in the lees of old wines. This, when once lighted at the end, burns on gradually and regularly, without ever going out, till th« whole is consumed: the hardest and driest match is gene- rally the best. Match, quick, used in artillery, is made of three cot- ton strands drawn into lengths, and put into a kettle just covered with white-wine vinegar, and then a quantity of saltpetre and mealed powder is put into it, and boiled till well mixed. Others put only saltpetre into water, and af- ter that take it out hot, and lay it into a trough with somt mealed powder, moistened with some spirits of wine, thoroughly wrought into the cotton by rolling it backwards and forwards with the hands; and when this is done they are taken out separately, drawn through mealed powder, and dried upon a line. MATERIA MEDICA. « The materia medica (says Dr. Darwin) includes all those substances which may contribute to the restoration of health." If, however, medicine be defined the art of preventing, as well as of curing, diseases, the science of w hich we arc now to treat ought, by consequence, to comprehend the preservatives of living existence, as well as the restoratives of healthy action. Instead, therefore, of restricting this article to the mere enumeration and discussion of drugs, wc shall, in the first place, introduce some general remarks on those substances which are employed as articles of diet or food. PART I. DIETETICS. Organic life appears to be influenced and supported by two leading principles: 1st, fibrous excitation; and, 2dly, the substitution of nutritious particles, in place of those which are constantly dissipated or abraded. The power by wiiich this last object is effected has been de- nominated by the author of Zoonomia, animal appeten- cy. The principal and prime organs by which it is ex- erted, or the media through which new matter is origi- nally communicated, are those which are termed the digestive and assimilating: it has, however, recently been conjectured that the organs of digestion are not the sole organs of nutrition, but that both the external sur- face of the body, and likewise the lungs, are media for the admission into the system of proper nutrative mat- ter. Accordingly we find the class nutrientia, in the ma- teria medica of the author just quoted, to comprehend not merely those substances which are received into tht stomach as food, but also the matter which is taken into the lungs in the act of respiration, as likewise air, water, and other substances that may be applied naturally or ar- tificially to the outer skin. To inquire into the grounds upon which this doctrine is established, that the lungs, the stomach, and the surface of the body, each affords instruments in common of actual nutrition, does not fall within the province of the present article. See Physio- J.0GT. It will be proper here to confine ourselves to the MATERIA MEDICA. general consideration of what is usually denominated animal and vegetable diet. OF ANIMAL FOOD. That man is designed by nature for a mixture of ani- mal and vegetable food, is obvious from the structure of his organs, both of mastication and digestion. That the flesh of animals contains more nutritive matter, and that it stimulates the absorbent and secerning vessels more powerfully, than vegetable aliment, is demonstrated by the superior warmth and strength which in a state of health we experience after a meal of flesh than of vege- tables: of the former (animal flesh), that, in general, which is of the darkest colour, contains more nutritive matter, and stimulates our vessels with more energy, than the white kinds: indeed the flesh of those animals which are carnivorous, or which live entirely on animal food, seldom enters into the diet of European, or civiliz- ed nations. The greater stimulating virtue of this kind of food has been attributed to the greater quantity which it has been supposed to contain of volatile alkali. Dr. Dar- win, however, properly questions whether it is not rather the elements only of this principle that are con- tained even in the strongest dark-coloured animal flesh. Next in strength to the flesh of carnivorous animals ought to rank that of those animals when killed after full growth, the young of which afforded a softer, whiter, more digestible, but less nutritious, food, such as the sheep, the bullock, the hog, and likewise several of the shell-fish, as lobsters, crabs, muscles, &c. in which class may likewise be enumerated several fish that are desti- tute of scales or shells, as ell, barbolt, tench, smelt, tur- tle, turbot. Of the fowl kind the bustard, wood-pecker, starling, sparrow, goose, duck, and lapwig, ought to be arranged in this second class. These, with a due mixture of vegetable aliment, constitute the best kinds of food for healthy and athletic individuals, whose digestion is pow- erful, and who have a firm fibre. The flesh of the young animals, as of lamb, veal, and ucking pigs, afford aless stimulating and nutritious, but more digestible food: these meats are consequently most congenial to persons of less muscular energy, who have more feeble powers of digestion, and who accustom them- selves to but little exercise: they are adapted to the hy- pochondriac and should be principally used as aliment by individuals who are disposed to those kind of affections which have received the vulgar and indiscriminate appel- lation of scorbutic. A still milder, but, in the same proportion, less nutri- tive food, is furnished by the white meats, such as the domestic fowl, partridge, pheasant, and their eggs, with oysters and young lobsters. These, from their bland and unacrimonious nature, are generally allowed te» conva- lescents from acute diseases: they are peculiarly suitable to very weak stomachs, and ought in general to form the first articles in the diet of females after childbirth. The major part of the river fish which have scales, as pike, perch, and gudgeon, are possessed of very inferior nutritive faculty. ©F MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS. Milk partakes of the properties of both animal and vegetable aliuient: it may be separated by rest or by agi- vol. u. 76 tation into cream, buttermilk, whey, and curd. The cream is easier of digestion by the adult stomach, on ac- count of its containing less of the caseous, or cheesy part; it is likewise on this account more nutritive. But- ter contains still more nutriment, and is likewise, if not taken to excess, exceedingly easy of digestion, and is by no means calculated to generate unpleasant humours in the body. If given without any separation of its principles by artificial preparation, it might be admitted into the diet of infancy with much greater propriety than other articles which are employed with less apprehension of in- jury. Buttermilk is agreeable, bland, and gently nutri- tive. Whey is the least nutritious, and most easy of di- gestion. It is on this account ordered with the utmost propriety to those invalids whose constitutions have been rendered too irritable to bear the stimulus of more solid and nutritive aliment. Cheese is of various kinds, aris- ing principally from the greater or less quantity of cream that it contains. Those cheeses which are broken to pieces in the mouth with most readiness are, for tht> most part, most easy of digestion, and most nutritive. Many kinds of cheeses are a considerable time in under- going chemical change in the stomach; and on this ac- count, although difficult ol digestion, do not disagree with weak stomachs. Dr. Darwin observes that he" has seen toasted cheese vomited up a whole day after it was eaten, without having become perceptibly altered, or giv- en any uneasiness to the patient. New cow's-milk is the food of infants, and is by far the best substitute for the milk ofthe mother, if this last be not afforded in sufficient quantity or quality by the parent, which, however, is seldom the case. The sto- machs of children abound with acidity; and milk, which is always curdled before it is assimilated, is consequent- ly digested with more facility in the earlier than in tlie more advanced periods of life. It is on this account like- wise that certain vegetable substances, which have a great tendency to acidity, are exceedingly injurious to the infantile stomach. See the article Infancy. OF VEGETABLE FOOD. The seeds, roots, leaves, and fruits, of plants, particu- larly the two former, constitute a very material part of the food of mankind. According to the opinion of Dr. Cullen, and other physiologists, the quantity of actual nourishment that these contain, is in proportion to the quantity of sugar that they can be made to produce; it is imagined that the mucilage which the farinaceous seeds contain, is changed in the granary to starch; and that this starch, in the proce^sses to winch the seeds are af- terwards subjected, or bj digestion in the stomach, is at length converted into saccharine principle. See Physio- logy. The farinaceous seeds are wheat, bavlev, oats, rye, millet, maize or Indian corn, &c. The roots of this class are the sugar-root, the common carrot, beet, and polypody. Those with less of the saccharine principle, and which afford a tender farina, are the turnip rooted cabbage, tlie parsnip, parsley root, asparagus, turnips, potatoes, kc. all of which, if less imtiitire, are better suited to weakly organs of digestion than those in which the sugar is more abundant. Other vegetables contain oil, sugar, mucilage, or acid. in various proportions, diluted with much water: these MATERIA MEDICA. are but slightly nutrimental; and are, for the most part, injurious to delicate stomachs especially, unless taken with moderation; these are the apple, pear, plum, apri- cot, nectarine, peach, strawberry, grape, orange, melon, cucumber, dried figs, raisins, and a great variety of other roots, seeds, leaves, and fruits. Of these it maybe observed generally, that those which are cold, watery, and sweet, are most calculated to prove indigestible, and consequently injurious. DIFFERENT METHODS OF DRESSING VICTUALS. Various modes of preparing and dressing both animal and vegetable articles of food have been contrived, in or- der to render ihem more palatable, and better adapted to the stomach. By boiling, animal flesh is, in some mea- sure, deprived of its nourishing juice, which is with more or less facility given out to, ancl incorporated with, the broth: this last then contains the most nutritious part of the meat; but unless stronger than is ordinarily used, it is too diluted to admit of an easy digestion. Broths likewise have a remarkable tendency to acidity, particu- larly when made from the flesh of young animals, as of lamb and veal; and on this account also are much less congenial to weak stomachs than is generally imagined. The various jellies, which contain the gelatinous and nutritive, to the exclusion of the fibrous part of animal flesh, are in general much more suitable to the invalid and the convalescent than cither broths or soups. Per- haps the most eligible mode of preparing animal food is by tbe process called stewing; for by this process its nitritious and substantive parts are concentrated and preserved. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the gravy of boiled meat contains its nutritive parts in a state of concentration; it is digested with facility; and gravy is therefore the best mode of giving animal food to "very young infants. Roasting preserves the nutritive part of flesh from dis- sipation in a greater degree than boiling: ancl it has been asserted by an observant author (Dr. Willich) that " one pound of roast meat is, in real nourishment, equal to two or three pounds of boiled meat." It ought however to be noticed, that the fat of meat treated in this way has undergone some degree of chemical decomposition from its exposure to heat, and is in consequence more oppres- sive to delicate stomachs, and generally less salutary, than that of boiled flesh. Both baking and frying are up- on similar principles improper methods of preparing an- imal food. Smoked meats, as prepared hams, are hard of digestion. They should only be taken in small quanti- ties, and rather as condiment than food. The art of cookery, as applied to vegetable substances, is principally useful in destroying the native acrimony, and rendering the texture softer of some, ancl by con- verting the acerb juices of others into saccharine matter. The boiling of cabbage, of asparagus, &c. are examples of the one, the baking of unripe pears is an instance of the other. The above are all chemical processes; they are too familiar to need description. Another mode by which the nourishment of mankind is facilitated, is the mechanic art of grinding farinaceous seeds into powder; and, in some instances, exposing them afterwards to a fermenting process, as in the making of bread, and then to the action of fire by baking or boiling. The mill-stones, by which the process of grinding is ef- fected, have been quaintly termed the artificial teeth of society. It has been suggested by Dr. Darwin, that "some soft kinds of wood, especially when they have un- dergone a kind of fermentation, and become looser, might, by being subjected to the action of the mill-stones, be probably used as food in the times of famine. Nor is it improbable," continues our ingenious speculator, "that hay which has been kept in stacks, so as to undergo the saccharine process, may be so managed by grinding and by fermentation with yeast, like bread, as to serve in part for the sustenance of mankind in times of great scarcity. Dr. Prieslley gave to a cow, for some time, a strong in- fusion of hay in large quantities for drink, and found that she produced during this treatment above double the quantity of milk. Hence if bread cannot be made from ground hay, there is great reason to suspect that a nu- tritive beverage may be thus prepared, either in its sac- charine state, or fermented into a kind of beer. In times of great scarcity there are other vegetables, which, though not in common use, would most probably afford whole- some nourishment, eitlier by boiling them, or drying and grinding thein, or by both those processes in succession. Of these perhaps are the tops and barks of all those ve- getables which are armed with thorns or prickles, as gooseberry-trees, holly, gorse, and perhaps hawthorn. The inner bark of the elm-tree makes a kind of gruel; and the roots of fern, and probably very many other roots, as of grass and clover taken up in winter, might yield nourishment, either by boiling or baking, and sepa- rating the fibres from the pulp by beating them; or by getting only the starch from those which possess an acrid mucilage, as the white betony. And the alburnum of perhaps all trees, and especially of those which bleed in spring, might produce a saccharine and mucilaginous li- quor, by boiling it in the winter or spring." OF DRINK. "Water," says Dr. Darwin, "must be considered as a part of our nutriment, because so much of it enters the composition of our fluids; and because vegetables are be- lieved to draw almost the whole of their nourishment from this source." It may, however, be questioned whether pure elementary water taken into the stomach acts upon the system as a nutrimental matter in any other mode than by procuring the solution, and thus facilitating assimilation, of solid aliment. Water is the natural and proper drink of man. It is the basis of all other liquids; and the larger proportion of water that enters their composition, the more easily, in a state of health, and provided proper food has been taken, are the solution and digestion of such food effected. This fluid, however, is never or seldom taken in a state of entire purity. Even in nature's laboratory it is invariably impregnated with foreign substances; and it is this admixture of extraneous matter which constitutes its varieties. Thus we have snow water, rain water, spring water, river water, and water from lakes, wells, and swamps, each possessing their individual character- istics. Spring water is, in general, most free from impurities; it is, however, less suited for drink than the water of ri- vers, as it almost constantly contains calcareous^ or sa- MATERIA MEDICA. line ingredients. The calcareous earth dissolved in the water of many fprings, has been supposed indeed by Dr. Darwin to contribute to our nourishment in the manner that lime proves useful in agriculture. This principle, however, is not perhaps fully established; and we believe that too much stress has by theorists in general been laid on the specific qualities of water, as modifying both the bodily and intellectual character of individuals and na- tions. The cretinism and fatuity of the Alpine valleys were formerly attributed to the waters of these countries, but are now more commonly, and we believe more justly, referred to constitutional propensity, innutritious food, and a humid unhealthy atmosphere. That water however possesses great varieties, accord- ihg to the nature ofthe soil and situation of the place in which it is produced or contained, is undeniable; and we shall here extract part of what is observed on these va- rieties by an attentive and judicious observer. « Spring water,1'' says Dr. Willich,«» originates partly from that of the sea, which has been changed into vapours by subterraneous heat, and partly from the atmosphere. As it is dissolved and purified in a variety of ways before it becomes visible to us, it is lighter and purer than other waters. «Well water. .Wells opened in a sandy soil are the purest. The more frequently a well is used, the better; for the longer water stands unmoved, the sooner it turns putrid. "River water is more pure and wholesome if it flows over a sandy am! stony soil, than if iiVpasscs over-muddy beds, or through towns, villages, and forests: water is rendered foul by fish, amphibious animals, and plants. "Lake water much resembles river water, but being less agitated it is more impure. The water which, in cases of necessity, is obtained from swamps and ditches, is the worst of all; because a great variety of impurities are there collected, which, in a stagnant and soft soil, readily putrify. "Rain water is also impure, as it contains many saline and oily particles, soon putrefies, and principally consists of the joint exhalations of animals, vegetables, and mine- rals, of an immense number and variety of small insects and their eggs, seeds of plants, and the like. Rain water is particularly impure in places filled with many noxious vapours; such as marshy countries, and large manufactur- ing towns, where the fumes of metallic and other sub- stances are mixed with rain. In high and elevated situa- tions, at a distance from impure exhalations, if no strong Winds blow, and after agentle shower, rain water is then purest. In summer, however, on account of the copious exhalations, rain water is most objectionable. " Snow water possesses the same properties as rain water, but is purer; both are soft, that is, without so many mineral and earthy particles as spring, well, and river waters. Hail water, being produced in the higher regions of the atmosphere, is still purer from its congela- tions. Lastly, dew, as it arises from the evaporation of various bodies of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, is more or less impure, according to the different regions and seasons." Of the different kinds and qualities of fermented and flpirituous liquors, it does not fall within the compass of the present article to treat They all consist of water as their base or vehicle, of more ui iess alcohol or ardent spirit according to their different degrees of strength, of sugar, and of the particular ingredient by which their nature is determined; such as the grape in wine, the apple and pear in cyder and perry, the malt and hop in beer, kc. kc (See the respective articles in their alpha- betical order.) it is only necessary here to observe, that, with few exceptions, fermented liquors, when immoder- ately taken, are more detrimental than elementary fluids in proportion to the quantity that they contain of alcohol, or ardent spirit. With respect to the China tea and the coffee-berry, which have lately come into such general use, we believe them to be much less injurious to the animal economy than some theorists have been disposed to conjecture. In excess, however, and when indulged in as substitutes for, and, as is sometimes the case, almost to the exclu- sion of, nourishing diet, they are highly deleterious, as tliey tend to the induction of a morbidly irritable condi- tion of the nervous system. It deserves to be remarked, that these stimuli do not, like alcohol, produce those formidable, and often irremediable, disorders, affections of the liver, dropsy, and apoplexy. An enumeration of spices (which, like spirituous li- quors, are used as articles of diet with too great freedom) will be found under the head Aromatics, in a subsequent section of this article. PART II. MKOICINALS. We now proceed to the second division of our subject, or to the consideration of the materia medica in its more ordinary and limited signification. Various divisions and modes of classification of those articles which are used in medicine, have been proposed and adopted by different authors. Some systematic writers arrange the articles of the materia medica ac- cording to their alphabetical order: others have taken for the basis of their arrangement the more sensible pro- perties of drugs, as detected by the taste; thus reducing medicines to the different heads of bitterness, sweetness, astringency, acidity, kc: while some have been regula- ted in their classification of medicinal articles, by their characters as objects in natural history. ** As, however, the study of the materia medica is merely the study of the medicinal properties of certain substances, it is evi- dent that the method of arranging them as they agree in producing effects on theliving system is the one best calculated to fulfil all its objects." Murray. Among the different plans of arrangment which have been framed on this principle, that adopted by Mr. Mur- ray, in his late work on the materia medica, appears liable to the fewest objections. It is founded on the prin- ciple of Dr. Brown, ''that medicines operate by stimu- lating the living fibre, or exciting it into motion." See the article Bkcno.man System. This proposition, however, was received and applied by its author in too unlimited a sense. In the first place, stimulation differs not merelv in degree, but also in kind; or, in other words, one given medicine cannot by any regulation of its quantity be made to produce the same effects which result from the agency of another; some are more diffu- sible and transient, others more slow and permanent ia MATERIA MEDICA. their action; some affect the universal system in almost an equal degree, while the operation of others is more especially, and in some instances almost exclusively, directed to a certain part. They have all likewise pro- perties peculiar to themselves. But beside this general and very important modifica- tion of the Brunonian materia medica, it is necessary further to take into view, that medicines sometimes ap- pear to display their agency even on the living body al- uie)st entirely upon chemical or mechanical principles; these last modes of operation, although less common-and extensive than were supposed in the ancient systems of medicine, must still be admitted as interfering with the universality, and opposing the unqualified assumption, of Dr. Brown, to which we have just alluded. Guided by these views, Mr. Murray has adopted the general division of medicines under the four heads of universal stimulants, local stimulants, chemical remedies, and mechanical remedies, which are subdivided in the following manner: TABLE Of CLASSIFICATION. A- General stimulants. C Chemical remedies. D. Mechanical remedies. « Tk-o- -u f Narcotics. a. Diffusible, j Antispasmodics. * t> i. f Tonics. b. Permanent. | Astringents. B. Local stimulants. Emetics. Cathartics. Emmenagogues. Diuretics. Diaphoretics. Expectorants. Sialagogues. Errhines. Epispastic§. Refrigerants. Antacids. Lithontriptics. Escharotics. Anthelmintics. Demulcents. Diluents. Emollients. The objections which still lie against this which we have chosen as the most perspicuous and comprehensive arrangement of medicines will be urged, as we proceed to make some observations on their subdivisions, in the order of the above table. The following, then, may be regarded, with some few exceptions, as an abridgment, or condensation, of the materia medica department of Mr. Murray's treatise. The names of the articles are adopted from the last edi- tion, recently published, of the Parmacopoeia collegii re- gii Medicorum Eclinburgcnsis. In this edition the sim- ples are principally indicated by theLinnsean names. We have added, however, the more customary titles, in order to obviate confusion. OF NARCOTICS. Medicines of this class had, previous to the time of Dr. Brown, been almost universally regarded as sedative, or depressing, even in their primary operation. By a bold, and, in some measure, legitimate generalization, ouv au- thor proved that this kind of agency is, in the greater number of cases, merely of a secondary nature; and tha' the symptoms of depressed, or, more properly speaking, exhausted power, resulting from their administration, arc consequent upon the faculty they possess of exciting, in a prompt and very extraordinary manner, the actions of the system. Thus opium, which is one of the most powerful of the narcotics, Dr. Brown maintained is, in the first instance, invariably stimulant; and the same virtue he attributes to the whole range of narcotic, or, as they were formerly characterized, sedative powers. Although this conclusion is deduced from principles in the main correct, and in its application has been of abun- dant service in developing the laws of organic existence, it cannot, as we have above remarked, be admitted as universal, as the fact must be obvious to all who are not biassed by system, that «« the sedative effects of narcotics are often disproportioned to their previous exciting ope- ration, allowing even in such cases for its rapidity and little permanence." Murray. This fact then, in some measure, interferes with the correctness of our author's (Mr. Murray's) classification. Narcotics are employed medicinally with different and opposite intentions. As stimulants they«are given in va- rious disorders of debility; in intermittent and continued fever, in gout, hysteria, epilepsy, dropsy, &c. As seda- tives they are administered to allay pain and irritation, and are consequently largely administered in spasmodic and painful affection*?. Alcohol, ardent spirit; spirit of wine. For the origin and preparation of this consult the article Alcohol. The stimulant effect of alcohol is generally known to be very powerful and diffusible; its exciting power is per- haps, in proportion to its sedative quality, greater than any of the other narcotics. Moderate excitement, with proportionate subsequent languor, results from a mode- rate dose of spirits. In larger quantities it occasions intoxication, delirium, stupor, coma, death. Alcohol is used externally as a stimulant in muscular pains: it has lately been discovered to be an useful appli- cation in the cure of burns. Internally it is seldom em- ployed in medicine without dilution; and then is rather administered as an auxiliary, or solvent of other ingre- dients. Ether. Ethers hear some resemblance in their medici- nal powers to alcohol: they are more diffusible, and less permanent in their operation. They are employed prin- cipally in asthma, hysteria, and other spasmodic affec- tions. Their dose is from half a drachm to one or two drachms. Externally applied, sulphuric ether has been found to relieve spasmodic contraction of the muscles, and is often useful when applied to the temples in head- ache*. Camphora, laurus camphora (Lin.): habitat, Japan, In- dia. Camphor is a proximate principle of vegetables; it is principally obtained from the laurus camphora of Ja- pan. In a moderate dose camphor is stimulant; in a larger quantity it invariably diminishes the force ofthe circula- tion, and induces sleep. Camphor has been used as a stimulant in typhus, cy- nanchc maligna, and other affections attended with debi- MATERIA MEDICA. lity and irritation; as a sedative in pncuomonia, rheu- matism, kc. In mania it has been given as an anodyne. As an antispasmodic it is employed in asthma, St. Vitus's dance, and epilepsy. Its dose is from five to twenty grains. Externally, in combination with oil or liquid opium, camphor has been advantageously used in rheumatism, bruises, and other inflammatory affections. Papaver somuiferum, poppy. Europe, Asia. The con- crete juice ofthe capsule of this plant is opium, which is chiefly imported from Egypt, Turkey, and the East In- dies. The effects of opium, as above stated, are stimulating: it often occasions, when given in somewhat large doses, intoxication, and even actual delirium. If a larger dose be given, the symptoms of diminished action appear with- out any previous excitement, and are succeeded by deli- rium, stupor, stertorous breathing, convulsions, and death. Where opium is given as a stimulus it ought to be ad- ministered in small and frequently repeated doses. Where the intention is to mitigate pain or irritation, it ought, on the contrary, to be given in a large dose, and at distant intervals. It is of importance to observe, that where evacuations have been previously procured, or when a state of diaphoresis is present, opium is much more genial and salutary than while the skin is dry, or the bowels torpid. In continued, as well as intermittent, fevers, opium is given as a stimulus. In the profluviae of Dr. Cutlen, opium is employed to diminish the discbarge. In gout it is highly serviceable. In convulsive and spasmodic af- fections it is often administered to a very great extent, as in tbe tetanus of warm climates. In lues venerea it is thought to accelerate the action of mercury. It is often given to promote suppuration, and is extremely efficacious in arresting gangrene. In the form of enema opium is often administered in violent affections of the bowels. Its usual dose is one grain to an adult. Hyoscyamus niger, indigenous, barb a, semen, black henbane. This plant, in its action on the system, hears a considerable resemblance to opium; for which it is often employed as a substitute, where the latter, from idiosyn- cracy, occasions unpleasant symptoms. It is free from the constipating effects of opium. Atropa belladonna, indigenous, deadly nightshade. Both the leaves and berries of this plant, and also its root, are narcotic. It is seldom used in medicine. Aconitum napellus, aconite, monk's-hood, herb a. Eu- rope, America. Aconite has been employed in obstinate chronic rhu- matism, in schirrus, kc Its dose is from one to two grains of the powdered leaves; of the inspissated juice half a grain. Conium maculatum, cicuta, hemlock, folia, semen, in- digenous. This is a powerful narcotic. Like the aconite, it has been used in schirrous and scrophulous affections, as well as in rhumatisms. Dose two or three grains of the powdered leaves; one or two of the inspissated juice. Digitalis purpurea, foxglove, folia, indigenous. Of all the narcotics, digitalis most speedily and certainly dimin- ishes the actions of the s} stem, especially of the arteries. It acts at the same time as a stimulant on the absorbent system; hence its abundant utility in dropsy. Lately it has been extensively employed in phthisis, and in the early stages of this disorder with remarkable success. Dose one grain of the powdered leaves, and ten drops of the tincture of the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia, gradually in- creased. JWcotianum tabacum, tobacco, folia. America. This is a powerful narcotic. Its extreme activity prevents i\ from being much used in medicine. Lactuca vcrosa, strong-scented lettuce, folia, indige* nous. From five to ten grains of the inspissated juice, gradu- ally increased, have been given as a narcotic, diuretic, and antispasmodic. Datura stramonium, thorn-apple, herba, indigenous This has been used in mania, epilepsy, and convulsive diseases. Dose from one to three grains of the inspissat- ed juice. Arnica montana, leopard's-bane, flores, radix. Ger- mauy. The flowers have been used in the dose of five grains in palsy, convulsions, kc Its root has been employed as a substitute for Peruvian bark. Rhododendrum chrysanthrum, yellow-flowered rhoda- dendron, folia, Siberia. This has been given in chronic rheumatism and gout. Rhus toxicodendron, poison-oak, folia. N. America. The dried leaves have been used in palsy. Dose half a grain twice or thrice a day. Strychnos nux vomica, vomica nut. East Indies. It has been employed in mini a, hysteria, &c. Dose five grains twice a day. Prunus lauro-cerasus, cherry-tree laurel, folia, Europe. This has scarcely been employed in medicine. OF ANTISPASMODICS. Antispasmodics form a kind of intermediate class be- tween narcotics and tonics. Spasm sometimes arises from local irritation in states of general irritability, and is sometimes occasioned by pure debility. Both narcotics therefore and tonics are used as antispasmodics; but there arc certain substances which in some measure appear to possess a specific antispasmodic power; these we are now to enumerate. Moschus, musk, moschus moschiferus. South of Asia. Musk is a peculiar substance found in a small sac, situ- ated in the umbilicus in the male of the above animal. Its antispasmodic powers are considerable. Dose from six to twenty grains in the form of bolus: it is useful in much smaller quantities inthe convulsions of infants from dentition. Castorenm,castor, castor fiber. Tbis is a deposition col- lected in cells near the extremity ofthe rectum in the bea ver. It is much used in hysteria. Dose from ten to twen ty grains. Oleum animate empyreumaticum, empyreumatic animal oil. This is nearly discarded from practice. Petroleum, a bitumen of a red colour. This was fornv erly, but is not now, much employed. Ammonia. This, when employed alone as an antispae. modic, is given in the form of carbonate. Ferula assafoetida, assafoetida, Persia. This is a con- crete juice, obtained by incision from the roots of certain plants. Its dose, as an antispasmodic, is from five to twenty grains. MATERIA MEDICA. Sagapenum, gummi-rcsina, Persia; virtues the same as assafoetida, hut inferior in power. Bubon galbanum, gummi-rcsina, Africa. Dose ten graii,s. Valeriana officinalis, wild valerian: radix, indigenous. This is one ofthe principal antispasmodics. Dose from one scruple to one drachm, three or four times a day. Crocus, sativus, saffron, indigenous. This substance is composed of the stigmata which crown the pistil of the flower. It has scarcely any virtue. Melalcucha leucadendron, cajeput oil, India. This is scarcely in use, except as a local application in tooth- ache. OF TONICS. This term ought not perhaps to he retained. The agency of tonics is not that of increasing tension or tone, but they are permanent stimulants to the living fibre. Tonics, then, are properly regarded as slow and durable, in opposition to tie more diffusible and transient stimuli. They are chosen from the mineral and vegetable king- dom; the former are less speedy and sensible in their action than the latter. From the mineral Kingdom. Hydrargyrus, argentum vivum, mercury. Ferrum, iron. Zincum, zinc. Cuprum, copper. Arsenicum, arse- nic. For the various preparations and medicinal virtues of the above important minerals, consult the articles Pharmacy and Medicine. Barytes, terra ponderosa, heavy carth. This has only been used in medicine combined with muriatic acid. Dr. Crawford introduced the saturated solution into practice as a remedy for scrophula. Dose from five to twenty or more drops. Calx, lime. This earth exists in nature as a carbo- nate: like barytes, it has been used as a tonic in combina- tion with muriatic acid. Acidum nitricum, nitric acid. This acid has been used as a tonic to support the system under a mercurial course. it has likewise been tried, but not with decided and in- variable success, as a specific in the cure of lues venerea. Oxymurias putassce, oxy muriate of potash. This may be classed as a remedy with the former article. Its dose is, ten grains increased to twenty or twenty-five. Tonics from the vegetable kingdom. The tonic faculty in vegetables is intimately united with certain sensible qualities, with bitterness, astrin- gency, and aroma. The aromatic principle is more ac- tive, but less permanent in its stimulating operation. The purest bitters independantly possess a tonic power. Astriugency, when it exists exclusively, or as the most predominant principle in vegetables, constitutes a dis- tinct class; the remaining tonics may be arranged ac- cording as bitterness or aroma is predominant. Cinchona officinalis, cortex Peruvianus, Peruvian bark, Peru. Three kinds of this bark are in use, the pale, red, and yellow. The last is now principally employed, as it gives out more bitterness and astringency to water, alco- hol, and other media. Peruvian bark was first employed in intermittent fever. In this disease it is given in the dose-of a scruple or half a drachm every third hour, du- ring the interval of the paroxysm. In continued fever it is principally employed during the latter stages, when debility is urgent. In rheumatism, erysipelas, gangrene, haemorrhage, and almost all asthenic disorders, it has been administered as a tonic. Cinchona Caribcea, Caribeean bark, Caribee islands. Angustura, Spanish West Indies. These barks have both been use d as substitutes for the Peruvian. Aristolochia serpentaria, Virginian snake-root. This is a stimulating aromatic tonic. It is generally given in the form of tincture. Dorsteniacontrayerva, contrayerva, Peru, West Indies. This is scarcely possessed of any virtue. Crotoneleutheria, cascarilla cortex, N.America. This is another substitute for Peruvian bark. Dose a scruple or half a drachm. Colombo, radix, Ceylon, a very useful tonic bitter. Dose half a drachm. Quassia excelsa, lignum, West Indies. This is like- wise an excellent tonic. Dose, in substance, from ten to thirty grains. Quassia simaronba, simarouba, cortex, South America. This has been extolled as a remedy in dysentery, and chronic diarrhoea. Dose a scruple. Swietenia febrifuga, Swietenia, cortex, East Indies. Swietenia mahagani, mahogany. Two other proposed substitutes for the Peruvian bark. Gentiana lutea, gentian, Switzerland, Germany. This is a common and useful remedy in dyspepsia; its virtues are extracted both by water and spirit. Dose in substance half a drachm. Anthemis nobilis, chamomile, flores, indigenous; a pow- erful and well-known bitter. N. B. The following plants are now not used in medicine: artemisia absinthium, wormwood; chironia centaurum, centaury; marrubium vulgare, horehound; menyanthes trifoliata, trefoil; cen~ taura benedicta, blessed thistle. AROMATICS. Citrus aurantium, orange, cortex flavus. The rind of the orange is principally employed as an addition to com- binations of bitters used in dyspepsia. It is given in the form of tincture, conserve, and syrup. Citrus medica, lemon, cortex fructus, Asia; similar in flavour and virtue, but rather less bitter than the orange. Laurus cinnamomum, cinnamon, cortex, Ceylon. This is the most grateful of the aromatics. Laurus cassia, cassia, cortex, E. Indies. This nearly resembles the cinnamon in appearance, taste, and virtue. It is therefore used with the same intention as this last. Its flavour, however, is less grateful. Canella alba, cortex, West Indies. This is a mode- rately strong aromatic: it is not much used except in combination with other substances in the form of tinc- ture. Acorus calamus, sweet-scented flag, radix, indigenous. This is scarcely at all employed in medicine. Ammonium zingiber, ginger, radix, East Indies. The dose of ginger is about ten grains. Koempferia rotunda, zedoaria, radix, East Indies. This is seldom employed in medicine. SanUdum album, yellow sanders, lignum, E. Indies. This wood is now nearly banished from practice. MATERIA MEDICA. Pterocarpus santalinus, santalum rubrum, red sanders, lignum, India. This, although slightly aromatic, is at present merely used in pharmacy as a colouring ingre- dient. Myristica moschata, India. Under the officinal name myristica, both nutmeg and mace are included: the for- mer is the seed, or kernel of the fruit; the latter its cap- sule. Nutmeg is given as an aromatic in doses of from five to fifteen grains. In larger doses it is narcotic. Mace is employed for the same purposes as nutmeg. Carophyllus aromaticus, clove, flores, India. Cloves are the unexpanded flowers of the plant. Dose from five to ten grains. Capsicum annuum, capsicum, Guinea pepper, fructus, E. and W. Indies. This fruit is a very powerful stimu- lant. It is not in much use as a medicine. Dose from five to ten grains. Piper nigrum, black pepper, fruit, India. Black pep- per is the unripe Iruitof the plant. White pepper is the ripe berry of the same vegetable, freed from its outer covering. It is milder than the black. Dose ten or fifteen grains. Piper longum, long pepper. This is the berry of the plant, gathered before it is fully ripened. It is similar to the black pepper in its qualities. Piper Cubeba, cubebs, the dried fruit of the tree. It lias similar virtues to the other peppers. Myrtus pimenta, Jamaica pepper, baccse,.W. Indies. This is usually called pimento; it is used in medicine principally on account of its flavour. Amomum repens, lesser cardamom, semen. Cardamoms form an ingredient in many of the bitter tinctures. Carum carui, caraway, semen, indigenous. These are in common use, in culinary as well as medicinal prepa- rations. Coriandum sativum, coriander, semen. South of Eu- rope. These are used with the same intention as cara- way. Pimpinella anisum, anise, semen, Egypt. Anise is used chiefly in the flatulence of children. The four following seeds have similar virtue's to the anise and caraway: Anethum foeniculum, sweet fennel, semen, indigenous. Ancthum graveolens, dill, semen, Spain and Portugal. Cumimum eynimum, cumin, semen, South of Europe. Angelica archangelica, garden angelica, semen, folia, radix. North of Europe. Mentha piperita, peppermint, herba, indigenous. Men- tha viridis, spear mint, herba, indigenous. Mentha pule- gium, penny-royal, herba, indigenous. Of these three mints the first is the most pungent and carminative. Hyssopus officinalis, hyssop, herba, Asia, South and East of Europe. This plant is nearly similar in virtues to the mints just enumerated. OF ASTRINGENTS. Astringents are those substances that restrain morbid evacuations. Their mode of operation has been erro- neously supposed similar to that by which dead animal matter is ronstringed and condensed. Increased evacua- tions do not depend merely upon mechanical laxity ofthe solids; the process, therefore, by which they are arrest- ed, cannot entirely be ascribed to chemical principles; although in some cases medicines which are employed to arrest profuse discharges, confessedly possess a power of constringing dead animal fibre. Tins faculty in vegr tables is denominated astringencv, and results from the union of gallic acid and tanning principle combined; th* former, when separated, is distinguished by its property of striking a deep-black colour with the salts of iron; the other by its great attraction to animal gelatin. Ve.«-c' table astringents then may be considered as moderate permanent stimuli, modified in their action, even on li- ving matter, by the principle above alluded to. Inordi- nate evacuations are, however, often restrained by mi~ neral as well as vegetable substances, and in this case the former deserve to be arranged in the class of astrin gents, according to the definition above given of these powers. Dr. Darwin refers astringency to the promo^ tion of absorption. Many agents, however, which have the greatest efficacy in exciting the absorbent vessels, are not capable of stopping hemorrhages, or other mor- bid discharges. Vegetable Astringents. Qxiercus robur, oak, cortex, indigenous. This has been employed in haemorrhage, diarrhoea, and intermittent fe- ver. Its dose in powder is from fifteen to thirty grains. querents cerris, galls, south of Europe. These are tu- bercles found on the branch of the tree which produces them. They are employed in medicine for the same purposes, and are used under the same forms, as oak- bark. Tormentilla erecta, tormentil, radix, indigenous. This has been used in diarrhoea in decoction. Its dose in sub- stance, is from half a drachm to a drachm. Polygonum bistorta, bistort, radix, indigenous. This is a strong astringent. Dose a scruple to a drachm. Anchusa tinctoria, alkanet, radix, South of Europe. This is at present merely employed as a colouring mat- ter. Hcematoxylon Campcchianum, logwood. It is used as an astringent under the form of decoction, or watery ex- tract. Rosagallica, red rose, South of Europe. The princi- ple use of this astringent is in the form of gargle. Arbutus uva ursi, bear's wortle-berry, folia, Europe, America. This has been principally given in disorders of the urinary organs. Recently it has been proposed in phthisis pulmonalis. Mimosa catechu, catechu, or Japan earth, East Indies. This is a powerful and useful astringent in diarrhoea! Its dose is from fifteen to thirty grains. Kino is employ! ed with the same intention as catechu. Its dose is from twenty to thirty grains. Pterocarpus draco, dragon's blood, resina, South America. This is scarcely employed in medicine. Lacca, lac, ficus indica, resina, East Indies. Lac is very little employed as a medicinal. Pistacea lentiscus, mastiche, resina, South of Europe. This is likewise discarded from practice. Mineral Astringents. The chief of these are the mineral acids, especially the sulphuric, and the compounds this acid affords with metals and earths. Acidum sulphuricum, vitriolic acid. This is used in MATERIA MEDICA. hemoptysis, mennrrhagia, diabetes, hectic, &c. It is given in general in the form of .diluted acid. Dose from en to thirty drops. Argilla, argil, argillaceous earth with oxyd of iron, forming the boles of which the chief is the armenian hole, were formerly employed in, but are now rejected from, practice as nearly inert. Supersulphas argillce et potassce, alum, is given in hsemeirrhage, and serous evacuations. Its dose is from five to fifteen grains. Calx, lime; calx viva, quicklime. Lime has been em- ployed as an astringent in the form of lime-water; it is now not much used. Carbonas calcis, carbonate of lime. The carbonates of ime are chalk (crcta alba), crab's-claws (chele cancro- rum), oyster-shells (teste astreorum); they are rather antacids than strictly astringents. Plumbum, lead. This, in the form of oxyd, or salts, is evidently and powerfully astringent. Its preparations that are employed are the white oxyd (cerusa, white lead), and the acetate (acetis plumbi, sugar of lead). Zincum, zinc. The sulphate of zinc (sulphas zinci), and the acetate (acetis zinci), are both powerful astrin- gents. The former is in principal use. It is given sometimes in dysentery, inthe dose of two or three grains twice a day. In injections and colly ria, it is employed in the proportion of two or three grains to an ounce of water. Ferrum, iron. The sulphate is the most astringent preparation of iron: it is, however, oftener used as a tonic than astringent. Cuprum, copper. The saline preparations of this metal are considerably astringent. The sulphas cupri is the most powerful. It has been employed externally as a styptic. The acetite of copper (verdigris) is used as a collyrium from its astringent styptic property. OF EMETICS. Emetics are very properly defined by Mr. Murray, "Substances capable of exciting vomiting, independant of any effect arising from the mere quantity of matter intro- duced into the stomach, or of any nauseous taste or fla- vour." The phenomenon of vomiting, as to its remote cause, is of a difficult explanation. It cannot be owing simply to debilitated, and consequently inverted action of the stomach from previous excitement, as a greater quantity of stimulus may be thrown into this organ with- out being succeeded by an inversion of its peristaltic motion. Dr. Darwin attributes the effect to a suspen- sion of the exciting power of pleasurable sensation, in consequence of which the fibres of the stomach are ar- rested for a time, and at length, from the undue accumu- lation of irritability, their action becomes inverted. The sensation of nausea does not, however, invariably pre- cede the act of vomiting; and even allowing this feeling to be a necessary prelude, the cause of the sensation itselfis left unexplained by thesensoiial theory of Dr. Darwin. The utility of emetics under some circumstances ofthe system is very extensive. Their salutary effects are not solely referable to the discharge which they occasion; but they also produce other changes on the living body, both general and partial, which will be noticed in the Article Medicine. Emetics arc derived from the vegetable and mineral kingdoms. Emetics from tlu vegetable Kingdom. Ipecacuanha, ipecaeuan, radix, South America. This 1 wot is the one in most general use as an emetic: it is both mild and certain in its operation. It is given in a dose from fifteen to thirty grains. Ipecaeuan is employed in conjunction with opium, as a diaphoretic. In this case its dose is from three or four to ten grains. Scilla maritima, squill, radix, South of Europe. This bulbous root of a plant growing on tbe sandy shores of Spain and Italy, is not at present in much use as an eme- tic: it is principally employed as an expectorant and diuretic. Sinapis alba, mustard, semen, indigenous. This per- haps might have been classed among the aromatics. When employed as an emetic, its administration has been principally confined to paralytic affections. It is given in the dose of a tea-spoonful mixed w ith water. Asarum Europceum, asarabacca, folia, indigenous. The introduction of ipecaeuan into practice, has almost superseded the use of this powerful drug. Dose twenty grains of the dried leaves; of the dried root ten grains. Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco. This is a violent emetic, as well as narcotic. It is scarce ever employed in practice. From the mineral Kingdom. Antimonium, stibium, antimony. Than antimony, scarcely any mineral is in more gen- eral use: it is, however, seldom used but in a state of combination with oxygen or acid. Its preparations> doses, and virtues, will be treated of under the articles Pharmacy and Medicine. Sulphas zinc, sulphate of zinc. This salt is sudden in its operation: it is in principal use in cases of poisons having been received into the stomach. Its dose is from ten grains to a scruple. Sulphas cupri, sulphate of copper. Neither this nor the acetite of copper is in much use; they are violent in their operation, and in no respect preferable to milder emetics. OF CATHARTICS. A discharge of the intestinal contents appears to be occasioned by medicines upon a twofold principle. Ca- thartics either immediately excite the fibres ofthe intes- tines, thus accelerating their peristaltic motion, and consequent fecal evacuations, or they produce this effect more immediately by stimulating the exhalant and se- cerning vessels; whose fluids (the bile, pancreatic juice, and intestinal mucus) act as solvents to, and promote the discharge of, the feces. These latter are milder in their operation than the former: they are classed by Darwin among the secernentia. There are, however, many drugs which act at the same time in each of the above modes. Cathartics, still more than emetics, are extensively employed in medicine, as capable of operating important changes throughout the system. Their use has recently been brought more systematically into notice. Upon the grounds just stated, cathartics may with some propriety be divided into purgative and laxative. Purgatives. Cassia senna, senna, folia, Egypt, Arabia. This is fre- quently employed: it is given in the form of infusion. Dose a drachm or more. MATERIA MEDICA. Rheum palmatum, rhubarb, radix, Tartary. The best rhubarb is imported from Turkey. The China rhubarb has less ofthe aromatic flavour. British rhubarb is much inferior to either. The dose of rhubarb, as a cathartic, is from fifteen grains to two scruples. It is given with advantage in diarrhoea and dysentery, as it contains an astringent principle. In small doses it is stomachic and tonic. Convolvulus jalapa, jalap, radix, Mexico. This is often administered both alone and more especially with calomel (siibmurias hydrargyri). Its dose is from fifteen grains to two scruples. Hellcborus niger, black hellebore, radix, Austria, Italy. This, in a dose from ten to twenty grains, is a violent cathartic. It is seldom employed in modern practice. Dr. Mead attributed a powerful eminenagogue property to it, which however has scarcely been realized by others. The ancient physicians gave it freely in maniacal disor- ders. Bryonia alba, bryony, radix, indigenous. This root is not much used. Dose from twenty to thirty grains. It is slightly diuretic. Cucumis colocynthis, colocynth, fructus, pulpa, Syria. A drastic purgative in a dose from three to six grains. It is seldom given by itself. It has been chiefly had re- course to in obstinate constipation. Momordica elaterium, wild cucumber, fructus, south of Europe. This is the most violent of all purgatives. Its dose is half a grain to two grains. Rhamnus catharticus, buckthorn, baccarum succus, in- digenous. This is seldom used. Aloe perfoliata, socotrine, Barbadoes, or hepatic and cabbaline aloes; succus spissatus, Africa, Asia, America. The socotrine aloes is the purest. The Barbadoes and hepatic rank next. The cabbaline is the most impure, and is the weakest. Dose from fifteen grains to a scru- ple. Its action is principally upon the larger intestines, and on account of the vicinity to, and sympathy of these with, the uterus, it is often useful in amenorrhcea. Convolvulus scammonia, scammony, gummi-resina, Syria. This is a very drastic cathartic. Dose from five to ten grains. Gambogia gutta, gamboge, gumini-resina. East Indies. Another violent cathartic. Dose from one to four or five grains. In conjunction with the last and following article gamboge is often administered in dropsy. Siibmurias hydrargyri, mild muriate or mercury, calo- mel. Dose from five to eight or ten grains. Laxatives. Manna, manna, fraxinus ornus, succus concretus, South of Europe. This is a mild and pleasant laxative. It is frequently given to children in conjunction with senna. Dose to an adult from one to two ounces. Cassia fistula, purging cassia, n' cassia in the pod; pulpa fructus, Egypt, East and West Indies. Dose from four to six drachms. Tamarindus Indica, tamarind, fructus conditus, E. and W. Indies, America, Arabia. vox. i\. 77 The tamarinds of the shops is the pulp of the tree mixed with seeds and small fibres., with a quantity of coarse su- gar. It may be taken to the extent of two ounces, or more. Ricinus communis, palma Christi, oleum, semen, W. Indies. The oil from the nuts of palma Christi is the castor oil ofthe shops. This is a mild and very useful purgative. Sulphur, a simple inflammable substance, and magnesia, either pure or carbonated, arc all the laxitives that are afforded by the mineral kingdom. The operation of either is exceedingly mild. For the different neutral salts that are employed as purgatives in medicine, see Pharmacy. The purgatives that are administered only in the form of enema, are the Murias sodce, common salt. An ounce of this dissolved in a pint of tepid water with an ounce of expressed oil, forms the common domestic enema. Terebinthina veneta, turpentine, pinus larix, gummi- resina. This is sometimes employed as an enema tritu- rated with the yolk of an egg. Dr. Cullcn recommends this as a very certain cathartic. It is indicated in obsti- nate costiveness. Nicotiana. The introduction perano of tobacco smoke has sometimes been effectual in procuring alvine evacua- tion, after other cathartics have failed. The infusion of from one to two drachms in a pint of water is a more con- venient mode of administering this medicine. Much cau- tion is requisite in either case to obviate its depressing effects. OF EMMENAGOGUES. These are medicines which promote the menstrual dis- charge. Obstruction or retention of the menses, unless consequent upon defective conformation, or uterine im- pregnation, is usually ow ing to weakness or want of due excitation in the vessels of the uterus. This-debility is best overcome by general stimulating and tonic agents, which thus acting, become emmena- gogues; sometimes, however, it is necessary more imme- diately and directly to excite the parts in the vicinity of the uterus, by such purgatives whose action is prin ipally directed to the inferior portion ofthe intestinal canal. In this case these cathartics prove emmenagogues, but not, as was formerly conjectured, by virtue of any specific power. Emmenagogues from the class of tonics. Ferrum, the carbonate of iron, rubigoferri preparata; is given in a dose of ten or fifteen grains in amenorrlioea; the sulphate of iron in three or four grains. This last is the ferrum vitriolatum ofthe London pharmacopcea. Hydrargyria, the mild muriate of mercury, as already noticed. Cinchona. This is frequently given in amenorrhea* in conjunction with some of the preparations of iron. From the class of antispasmodics. Castoreum. This is a medicine of very trilling efficacy when used as an eminenagogue. Dose from ten to twenty grains. Ferula assafxtida, and the other foetid gums, (galba- MATERIA MEDICA. nuin, sagap?num, and ammoniacum) are employed some- times as eminenagogues. Dose from tn grains to fifteen. From the cl *s of cathartics. AJtie-i. T ''■■■. substance ;. generally connected with othe.''a when given to promoi j tiie menses, as in the pilula aloes ri,'1 myr!•;■,, &c. Helleborus mg"r This is not at present in much re- pine. Dm' of !>;.- exh- .--t from three to ten grains. Sinapis alba, semen, mustard-seed in the dose of about "half an ounce is sometimes taken as an eminenagogue. Rosmarinus officinalis, rosemary, summitales florentis. This is now nearly banished from practice. Rjubia tinctorum, madder, radix, south of Europe. Dose from a scruple to half a drachm. Its virtues are not much confided in by modern physicians. Rtitea graveolens, ruta, rue, herba, south of Europe. The herb in the form of infusion, and likewise its essen- tial oil, are the preparations of rue that are given. It is perhaps of inferior efficacy. Juniperus sabina, savin, folia, south of Europe. Savin is not much used internally, although supposed by some to be a powerful emmenagogue. of diuretics. Diuretics are those medicines which augment the uri- nary discharge. This effect is either produced by a direct stimulus communicated to tbe kidneys, by a sympathetic excitement of these organs from a previous action excited in the stomach, or lastly, by the promotion of absorption, by which more than their usual quantity is directed to the secretory vessels of the urine. The saline diaphoretics seem principally to exert their agency in the first of these ways. Squill and others appear to produce a primary action of the stomach, and digitalis from its extraordi- nary power over the absorbent system is an example of the last-mentioned mode of procuring diuresis. Saline diuretics. Supertartris potassai, cream of tartar. Dose four or six drachms twice a day in a considerable quantity of water. This has been much employed in dropsy. Nitras potassce nitre. Dose from five to twenty grains. Nitre was formerly much used in gonorrhce, in order to abate the ardor urine. Marias ammonice, crude sal ammoniac. This is not much employed. Dose from eight grains to a scruple. Acetis potassce, sal diureticus. This has now likewise fallen into disuse. Potassa, kali. The dose of carbonated kali is from twenty to thirty grains. Vegetable diuretics. SciUa maritima. Dose as a diuretic from one to three or four grains. * Digitalis purpurea. Dose from one grain to two or more, of the powdered leaves: from ten to thirty drops of the saturated tincture. The dose requires to be regu- lated and increased with much caution. JWcotiana tabacutn. An ounce of the dried leaves in- fused in a pint of water, has been given as a diuretic in the dose of from sixty to a hundred drops. Solanum dulcamara, woody nightshade/JEptttfV sweet, indigenous. This is scarcely ever Drescribejl,r Lactuca verosa. Dose from ten g> ;■ ins to three drachms. It is not much used. Colchium autumnale, meadow saffron, indigenous. This has not been in much use in this country. It was first prescribed in dropsy by Stork of Vienna. Gratiola officinalis, hedge hyssop, south of Europe. The leaves of this plant have likewise been given in dropsy, but they have not come into general use. Spartium scoparium, broom, summitales, indigenous. The broom tops infused in water have proved advanta- geous in dropsy. Juniperus communis, juniper, bacce, indigenous. Ju- niper berries given in infusion have a pretty considerable diuretic power. Copaifera officinalis, copaiva balsam, South America. Dose from twenty to thirty drops twice a day. it is prin- cipally employed in gleet. Pinus larix, Venice turpentine, balsamum. Dose from five to twelve drops of the essential oil. This has like- wise been given in gleet, and in ichias. Pistachia terebinthinus, Cyprus turpentine. This is more fragrant than the balsam from the pinus; as is likewise Strasburgh turpentine, the produce ofthe pinus picea. The common turpentine (pinus sylvestris balsam) is on the other hand the most offensive. Diuretics fr»m the animal Kingdom. Meloe vesicatorius, cantharides, Spanish fly. This is an insect collected from the leaves of plants growing in the South of Europe. It has principally been given internally for gleet and retention of urine. Dose one grain gradually increased. of diaphoretics. If the natural and constant exhalation from the skin be condensed on the surface from its augmented discharge, it constitutes sweat. This effect when produced only to a certain extent, is called diaphoresis. Diaphoretic and sudorific powers differ then only in degree. Diaphoretics are classed by Darwin under the head of secernentia. They necessarily operate by directly or indirectly ex- citing the cutaneous exhalants. The saline and cooling diaphoretics appear to act in the latter, the heating me- diciuals which are given to procure sweat in the former manner. Diaphoretics with respect to their influence on the system, are often abundantly powerful and salutary. Ammonia. All saline preparations are more or less diaphoretic under proper regulation. The ammoniacal salts have been imagined to be so in a greater degree than others. See Pharmacy. Hydrargijnis. The mild muriate (calomel) in conjunc- tion with opium in very small doses, is sometimes use- fully employed as a diaphoretic. Antimonium. AH the preparations of antimony may be made to prove sudorific. Ipecacuanha. In a dose of two or three grains with or without an opiate. Opium. This when employed as a diaphoretic is gen- erally combined with one or other of the three former medicines. Camphor likewise must be united with mercury, anti- mony, or opium, when it is intended as a diaphoretic. Guaiacum officinale, guaiac lignum, et guinnii- resina, South America, and the West Indies. Guaiac wood is MATERIA MEDICA. given in the form of decoction, a quart of which is given in the course of the day. The gum-resin is commonly administered in spirit of ammonia, from which it derives a considerable part of its virtues. Dose from one drachm to two of the tincture. Daphne mezereum, mezereon, cortex radicis, indige- nous. This is a stimulating diaphoretic: it is generally given in lues venerea, with sarsaparilla, and guaiac, forming the Lisbon diet-drink. Smilax sarsaparilla, radix, South America. This has scarcely any power exclusively employed. Lauras sassafras, sassafras, lignum, America. This is slightly stimulant and diaphoretic. It is probably less efficacious than has generally been imagined. Cachlearia armoracia, horse-radish, radix, indigenous. This is a stimulant capable of promoting perspiration. About a drachm of the root cut in small pieces and swal- lowed whole, has been recommended in paralysis, rhu- matism, asthma, and dropsy. Salvia officinalis, sage, folia, south of Europe. Its aqueous infusion drunk warm is slightly stimulant and diaphoretic. expectorants Are those medicines which facilitate the rejection of mucus or other fluids from the lungs. This object is accomplished by increasing pulmonary exhalation where deficient, or diminishing it when too copious. In the one instance expectorants are secernent, in the other absor- bent powers: their operation, like that of emetics, is in both cases either direct or indirect. Antimonium. The most common preparation of anti- mony for an expectorant is the emetic tartar of the shops. This is given in pneumonia, catarrh, hooping cough, and asthma, in the dose of one eighth of a grain. It is generally combined with opiates in mucilaginous mixtures, and in this way is more efficacious. Ipecacuanha. It is given with the same intention in a dose of two or three grains. Digitalis, in the dose of half a grain, has been use>d as an expectorant, as likewise Nicoliana, in the dose of one, two, or three grains. Scilla. This is one of the most effectual of the expecto- rantia. Dose one grain of the dried root. Allium sativum, garlic, radix, south of Europe. Garlic is given in humoral asthma, dropsy, &c. in the dose of half a drachm or two scruples. Poly gala senega, seneka, radix, North America. Dose from ten grains to a scruple. It is chiefly employed in the secondary stage of pneumonia. Ammoniacum, ammoniac, East Indies, gummi-resina. Dose from ten to thirty grains. This is frequently used as an expectorant. Assafoetida. Dose from ten to twenty grains. Myrrha, myrrh, gummi-resina, Abyssinia and Arabia. Dose from ten to twenty grains. N. B. The plants producing the above two gum-resins are nnknown. Styrax benzoin, benzoir or Benjamin, balsamum, East Indies. Dose ten or fifteen grains. It is perhaps possessed of little power. Styrax officinale, storax, bals. south of Europe, Asia. Storax is like benzoin iu its virtues. Toluifera balsamum, balsam of tolu, South America. The powers of this balsam are very inconsiderable. Myroxolon peruiferum, Peruvian balsam, South Ame- rica. Dose in asthma, leucorrhoea, kc from five to fifteen grains. Amyris gileadensis, balm of Gilead, Arabia. The qual- ities of this nearly resemble the balsam of tolu. of sialagogces. These are substances which increase the secretion of saliva. This is in general effected by mastication of acrid substances, but in some few instances is occasioned by medicines taken into the stomach. Mercury, perhaps, is the only medicine wiiich uniformly displays a siala- gogue power. Hydrarrgyrm. All the preparations of mercury have more or less influence over the salivary glands. Anthemis pyretrum, pellitory of Spain, radix, south of Europe. This is sometimes chewed in order to relieve the tooth-ache. Arum maculatum, wake-Robin, radix, indigenous. This resembles pellitory, and may be employed with the same intention. Ginger, mezereum, and tobacco especially, are some- times used as sialagogues. errhines Are medicines which occasion a more than ordinary secretion from the mucous membrane of the nostrils. They all operate by direct application. Irisflorentina, Florentine orris, radix, south of Eu- rope. This is a mild sternutatory and forms one of the ingredients of some cephalic snuffs. JEsculus hippocastinum, horse chesnut, semen. This acts as a moderate sternutatory. ^ Origanum majorana, sweet maijorum, herba, south of Europe. This has a slight errhine power. Lavandula spica, lavender, spice florcntes, south of Europe. The dried leaves in powder. Nicotiana, tobacco. The powder of the dried leaves is the basis of snuffs. Asarum Europteum, asarabaca, folia, indigenous. The leaves of this plant in powder form the basis of officinal sternutatory powders. Vcratram album, white hellebore, radix, south of Eu- rope. This is a very violent errhine. Euphorbia officinalis, gummi-resina, Africa. This is the most powerful of all the errhines. It is seldom or never employed. Subsulphus hydrargyri. This preparation e»f mercury has been recommended to be snuffed up the nostrils in some kinds of chronic ophthalmia. EPISPASTICS AND RDHEFACIANTS. Epispastics are those substances which applied to the skin produce either serous or purulent discharge through the medium of inflammation. Rubefaciants oo asion in- flamation, but not so violent as to be followed ov such discharges. Meloe veskatorius, cantharis. Spanish fly. ThU is tho principal substance employed for blistering. Alter a blister has been raised the uisih ,rgc is olten convert 'l from serum into pus by the continued application of any MATERIA MEDICA. stimulating acid ointment. This practice is often pursu- ed in asthma, para] v sis, kc. Cantharides in the form of tincture may be employed simply as a rubcfaciant. Ammonia with oil, forms a liniment fer this purpose. Pinus ulbns, Burgundy pitch, resina. This is used in the form of plaster, in chronic affections of the lungs and chest. Hinapis, mustard. The flour of mustard-seed mixed with crumbs of bread, and made into a paste with vine- gar, forms a sinapism, a powerful rubefacient. It is ap- plied to the soles of the feet in cases of pressing debility, as in the last stages typhoid fever, and in comatose af- fections. Allium, garlick. The bruised root of this plant is used for similar purposes with the mustard sinapism. OF REFRIGERANTS. Mr. Murray considers those medicines which directly lower the temperature of the body, to be principally chemical in their operation. They are acids, or substan- , ces containing a superabundant proportion of oxygen, which being received into the stomach, occasions a less demand for this principle (oxygen) by the lungs, and consequently a less generation or evolution of heat. This doctrine, however, does not appear satisfactory. See Physiology, Sections Digestion and Respiration; and Medicine, Section Fever, kc. Of refringcrants, the vegetable acids are the most ef- ficacious. Citrus aurantium, orange, succus fructus. Tbe acidity of China orange is connected with sweetness, of the orange from Serville with bitterness. The former is used as a refrigerant in fever. Citrus medica, lemon, succus fructus. The juice of the lemon is composed of citric acid, and saccharine and mucilaginous matter. It is the most powerful and agreea- ble of the refrigerants. With carbonate of potass, (kali prep.) it forms the saline draught, the virtues of which are perhaps owing to the carbonic acid that is evolved by. the mixture of the acid and alkali. Tamarindus indica. Tamarind is a very pleasant re- frigerant: a solution of it in water constitutes a pleasant beverage in fever. Acidum acetosum, vinegar. The use of this in medicine is principally as a substitute for the lemon-juice. Supertartris potasses, cream of tartar. JVitras potassce. This is given as a refrigerant, in a dose of from five grains to a scruple. ANTACIDS. These perhaps are more strictly chemical in their pri- mary operation than the last class of medicines. They immediately neutralise the prevailing morbid acidity of the stomach. Alkalies. Pure potass in solution is employed to cor- rect acidity, in doses of fifteen drops in water. The carbonates of potass and soda are, however, in more general use for this purpose. Aqua ammonia: is given likewise with this intent. Dose from twenty to forty drops. Aqua cakis. Lime-water is also used to correct acidity; six or eight ounces being taken occasionally. Carbouas calcis. Of this there are two varieties, creta alba, (prepared chalk) and chela cancrorum (crab'* claws). These, especially the former, arc principally us- ed in the diarrhoea of infants. Magnesia (carbouas magnesie). This is in some cases preferable to chalk as an antacid, as the neutral com- pound formed by its union with the acid of the stomach proves slightly purgative. OF LITHONTRIPTICS, Medicines supposed to have a power of dissolving stone in the bladder. Calculus is principally formed by a peculiar acid, called the lithic, or uric, with which alka- lies unite out of the body, and thus become solvents of the stone. These medicines, however, cannot in any way be conveyed to the urinary organs in sufficient quan- tity to effect this purpose, without material injury to the parts and the general system. It has indeed been ascer- tained, from experiment, that by the exhibition of alka- line substances, for a length of time, the constitutional disposition to secrete fresh caculus is in a great measure obviated. These substances theu are rather preventives than curatives of calculary disorders. That tjiey do not, when taken into the stomach, operate as solvents, is suf- ficiently evident, from the circumstance of their being more useful when administered saturated with carbonic acid; for these alkaline carbonates do not exert any ac- tion on the urinary calculi out ofthe body, as the lithic acid of the concretion is not of sufficient attractive pow- er to disengage the carbonic acid from is union with the salt. The only power then that is possessed by the me- dicines termed lithontriptics, is that of neutralizing aci- dity in the first pasages, and thus preventing the deposi- tion of lithic acid in the urinary organs. Potassa, potass. The dose of the solution of pure po- tass is 15 or 20 drops gradually increased. The form in which it is generally employed as a lithontriptic, is in the supersaturated solution". Dose, one or two pounds daily. Soda* This is likewise used in the form of saturated solution, under the name of soda water. Dose, one or two pounds. Sapo albus. Soap is a combination of expressed oil with potass or soda. Dejse, one or two ounces in the course of the day. Calx. Lime-water is sometimes employed as a lithon- triptic. ESCHAROTICS Are substances which destroy the texture of both liv- ing and dead animal matter. They are employed to con- sume excrescences, or to open ulcer. Their action on the livmg system is principally, but not entirely, chemical. The mineral acids have been employed as escharotics, but are not convenient, in consequence of their fluidity. Potassa, in its solid state, is a powerful escharotic: mixed with lime it is somewhat milder. *Yitras argenh. Lunar caustic. This is in common use. Murias antimonii. A powerful caustic, but inconveni- ent trom its being in a fluid form. Sulphas cupri is often employed. Acetis cupri. (Verdigris.) This is milder than the sulphate. Murias hydrargyri. Principally used in the venereal ulcers. M A T MAT Subnitras hydrargyri. Employed with the same inten- tion as the muriate. Oxydum arsenici albi. A solution of wiiite arsenic is sometimes made use of as an external application to cancer. Juniperus sabina. Savine is principally applied in the form of ointment to obstinate ulcers. It is used in powder to consume warts. ANTHELMINTICS Are those medicines employed to expel wTorms from the intestinal canal. Their operation is supposed to be different. Some acting mechanically by the sharpness or roughness of their particles, as filings of tin, cowhage, kc. Others prove noxious to these animals from their poisonous and narcotic properties, or expel them by sim- ply evacuating the bowels, as pink root, worm seed, gamboge, calomel, &c. Dolichos pruriens, cowhage, East and West Indies. This substance is the down growing on the pods ofthe plant. The action of this medicine may perhaps be prin- cipally mechanical. Ferrum, iron. The filings and rust. Stannum, tin. This is used in the form of powder. Tin may perhaps operate by a mechanical power. Dose, one or two drachms. Olea Europata, olive oil, oleum expressum, South of Europe. Dose half a pound. Artemisia santonica, worm seed, Persia. Dose half a drachm. Spigelia marilandica, Indian pink, radix, North Ame- rica. Dose half a drachm. Polypodium filix mas, male fern, radix, indigenous. Dose two or three drachms. Tanacetum vulgare, tansy, folia et flores, indigenous. Dose from a scruple to a drachm. Geofifida inermis, cabbage bark-tree, cortex, Jamaica. Dose thirty grains. Gambogia. Dose from five to twenty grains. Submurias hydrargyri. Calomel is perhaps the most efficacious of all the anthelmintics. Dose ten or twelve grains to an adult. DEMULCENTS Are substances employed in medicine to shield from acrimony; they can only act on the parts to which they are directly applied. From some circumstances, howev- er, attending their internal administration, it is suppos- ed that they are capable of being absorbed and again separated by particular secretory organs. This suppo- sition does not appear to be entirely satisfactory. Mimosa nilotica, gum arabic, Africa. This is used to allay the irritation of the fauces in catarrh. It is like- wise given in tenesmus, strangury, kc. Astragalus tragacantha, tragacanth, South of Europe, Asia. This has virtues similar to gum arabic. It is more viscid. Linum usitatissimnm, flax, semen, indigenous. This is sometimes used in gonorrhoea, and catarrh. Althwa officinalis, mai-sh mallow, radix, indigenous. Malva sylvestris, common mallow, folia, indigenous. Glycyrrhiza glabra, liquorice, radix. South of Europe. These three, last are all pleasant demulcents. Cycas circinalis, sago, East Indies. This is a fecula from the pith of the plant; it is often given in dysentery, kc as demulcent and at the same time nutritive. Orchis mascula, salop, indigenous. Similar in virtue to sago. Maranta arundinacea, South America. Arrow-root is demulcent, and slightly nutritive. Tryticum hybernum, wheat, amylum. Starch is useful as an enema with opium in dysentery, &c. Cornu cervii-asura, hartshorn shavings. Icthyocolla, isinglass is obtained from the skin of the fish. Isinglass is a demulcent in frequent use. Olea olivae. The expressed oil principally used as a demulcent is obtained from the fruit of the olive. Amygdalus communis, almond oil. 01. express. South of Europe. Sceevum ceti. Spermaceti is obtained from the head of a certain species oif whale. Like the almond oil, it is giv- en as a demulcent in catarrh, kc. Cera, wax. This is collected from the anthere of ve- getables by bees. This is particularly employed in the composition of ointments and plasters. Of diluents and emollients the two remaining classes scarcely any thing remains to be said. Water, strictly speaking, is the only diluent, and emollients are chiefly formed of heat combined with moisture, as in formations and cataplasms; or of unctuous substances, as lard (ax- ungia porcina) ancl the varieties of expressed oils. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS. See In STRUMENTS. MATHEMATICS, from ftxfaw, originally signified any discipline or learning; but at present denotes that science which teaches or contemplates whatever is capable of being numbered or measured, in so far as com- putable or measurable, and accordingly is subdivided into arithmetic, which has number for its object, and geometry, which treats of magnitude. See Arith- metic, and Geometry. Mathematics are commonly distinguished into pure and speculative, which consider quantity abstractedly; and mixed, which treat of magnitude as subsisting in material bodies, and consequently are interwoven every where with physical considerations. Mixed mathematics are very comprehensive; since to them may be referred astronomy, optics, geography, hydrostatics, mechanics, fortification, navigation, <5cc. See Astronomy, Optics, kc Pure mathematics have one peculiar advantage, that they occasion no disputes among wrangling disputants, as in other branches of knowledge; ancl the reason is, because the definitions of the terms are premised, and every body that reails a proposition has the same idea of every part of it. Hence it is easy to put an end to all mathematical controversies, by showing cither that our adversary has not stuck to his definitions, or has not laid down true premises; or else that he has drawn false con- clusions from true principles; and in case we are able to do neither of these, we must acknowledge the truth of what he has proved. It is true, that in mixed mathematics, where we rea- son mathematically upon physical subjects, we cannot give such just definitions as the geometricians; we must therefore rest content with descriptions, and they will be ofthe same use as definitions, provided we are* consis MAX M A X principles, which appear essentially different from each other, and wiiich have never yet been brought to a more simple form. Thus the matter of fire, or light, appears totally different from that of all other bodies; thus the acid and alkaline principles can never be brought to ex- hibit the same properties; nor can even the different spe- cies of earths be converted into the substance of each other. If hypothetical reasoning was to be admitted on this occasion, it would probably appear more agreeable to the analogy of nature, to suppose that different substances are formed from the different combinations of a few sim- ple principles in different proportions, than that the very opposite qualities of some of the rarest and most subtile fluids should depend wholly on the different form or mo- dification ofthe extremely minute particles which enter into their composition. It is proper, however, to observe, that on this subject there has hitherto appeared no decisive experimental proof on either side. The imperfection of all human ef- forts, and perhaps of the human faculties themselves, has hitherto confined our investigations to the properties of a few substances, the simplest which chemical analysis has been able to obtain, and whicli for that reason are deno- minated elements. See Elements. MATTUSCIIKjEA, a genus of the tetrandria mono- gynia class and order. The calyx is four-parted; corolla one-petallcd; germ superior, four-cleft. There is one spe- cies, a herb of Guiana. MAURITIA, the ginkgo or maiden hair, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order of palme. The calyx of the male is monophyllous; the corolla monopeta- lous, with six stamina. It is a native of Japan, where it is also known by the names of ginan and itsio. It rises with a long, erect, thick, and branched stem to the size of a walnut-tree. The bark is ash-coloured, the wood brit- tle or smooth, the pith soft and fungous. The leaves are large, expanded from a narrow bottom into the figure of a maiden-hair leaf, unequally parted, streaked, without fibres or nerves. From the uppermost shoots hang the flowers in.king catkins that are filled with the fertilizing power; and to which succeeds the fruit, adhering to a thick fleshy pedicle, which proceeds from the bosom of the leaves. This fruit is either exactly or nearly round, and of the appearance and size of a damask plum. The substance surroundingthe fruit is fleshy juice, white, very harsh, and adheres so firmly to the inclosed nut, as not to be separated from it except by putrefaction. The nut, properly termed gineau, resembles the pistachia nut, es- pecially a Persian species named bergjes pistoia; but is almost double in size, and of the figure of an apricot- stone. The shell is somewhat white, woody, and brittle, and incloses a white loose kernel, having the sweetness of an almond, along with a degree of harshness. These kernels taken after dinner are said to promote digestion, whence they make part of the dessert in great entertain- ments. MAXILLA. See Anatomy. MAXIMUM, in mathematics, denotes the greatest quantity attainable in any given case. If a quantity conceived to be generated by motion, increases, or de- creases, till it arrives at a certain magnitude or position, and then, on the contrary, grows less or greater, and it be required to determine the said magnitude or position, the question is called a problem de maximis et minimis. Thus, let a point m move uniformly in a right line from A towards B, and let another point n move after it' with a velocity either increasing or decreasing, but so that it may, at a certain pcsltion D, become equal to that of the former point m, moving uniformly. D C A-----------+---------+-----------Bt n m This being premised, let the motion of n be first con- sidered as an increasing one; in which case the distance of n behind m will continually increase, till the two points arrive at the contemporary positions C and D; but af- terwards it will again decrease; for the motion of n till then being slower than at D, it is also slower than that of the preceding point m (by the hypothesis), but be- coming quicker afterwards than that of 711, the distance m n (as has been already said) will again decrease; and therefore is a maximum, or the greatest of all, when the celerities of the two points are equal to each other. But if n arrives at D with a decreasing celerity, then its motion being first swifter, and afterwards slower, than that of m, the distance m n will first decrease and then increase, and therefore is a minimum, or the least of all, in the forementioned circumstance. Since then the distance m n is a maximum, or a minimum, when the velocities of m and n are equal, or when that distance increases as fast through the motion of m as it decreases by that of n, its fluxion at that instant is evidently equal to nothing. Therefore, as the motion of the points m and n may be conceived such that their distance m n may express the measure of any variable quantity whatever, it follows, that the fluxion of any variable quantity what- ever, when a maximum or a minimum, is equal to no- thing. The rule therefore to determine any flowing quantity in an equation proposed, to an extreme value, is: having put the equation into fluxions, let the fluxion of that quantity whose extreme value is sought be supposed equal to nothing; by which means all those members of the equation in which it is found will vanish, and the re- maining ones will give the determination of the maximum or minimum required. Prob. I. To divide a given right line into two such parts, that their product, or rectangle, may be the greatest possible. This is the case when the line is bisected or divided into equal parts. See Fluxions. In any mechanical engine, the proportion of the power to the weight, when they balance each other, is found by supposing the engine to move, and reducing their veloci- ties to the respective directions in which they act; for the inverse ratio of those velocities is that of the power to the weight according to the general principle of mecha- nics. But it is of use to determine likewise the propor- tion they ought to bear to each other, that when the power prevails, and the engine is in motion, it may pro- duce the greatest effect in a given time. When the power prevails, the weight moves at first with an accelerated motion; and when the velocity of the power is invariable, its action upon the weight decreases, while the velocity ' ofthe weight increases. Thus the action of a stream of water or air upon a wheel, is to be estimated from the M A T M A T tent with ourselves, and always mean the same thing by those terms we have once explained. MATHIOLA, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class aud order. The calyx is entire; corolla tubular, superior, undivided, drupe with a globular nucleus. There Ls one species, American. MATRICARIA, feverfew, a genus of the polygamia Superflua order, in the syngenesia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, com- posite. The receptacle is naked; there is no pappus; the calyx hemispherical and imbricated, with the marginal leaflets solid, and something sharp. There are eight spe- cies, but the only remarkable one is the parthenium or common feverfew, of whicli there are varieties with dou- ble flowers, with semi-double flowers, with double fistu- lar disk and plain radius with short-rayed flowers, with rayless flowers, with ray less sulphur-coloured heads, and with finely curled leaves. 411 these varieties flower abundantly in June, each flower being composed of nume- rous hermaphrodite and female florets; the former com- pose the disk, the latter the radius or border, and which, in the double and fistulous kinds, are very ornamental in gardens, but of a disagreeable odour; and are all succeed- ed by plenty of seed in autumn. This plant has received a most extraordinary character in hysteric and other af- fections of the nerves, as well as for being a carminative or warm stimulating bitter. Dr. Lewis, however, thinks it inferior to camomile; with which he says it agrees in all its sensible qualities, only being somewhat weaker. MATRICE, or Matrix, in dyeing, is applied to the five simple colours, whence all the rest are derived or composed. These are, the black, white, blue, red, and yellow or root-colour. See Dyeing. Matrice, or matrices, used by the letter-founders. See Type. MATRICES. See Coining. MATRIX, or. Mother Earth, the stone in which metallic ores are found enveloped. MATROSSES, arc soldiers in the train of artillery, who are next to the gunners, and assist them in loading, firing, and spunging the great guns. They carry fire- locks, and march along with the store-waggons both as a guard, and to give their assistance in case a waggon should break down. MATT, in a ship, rope-yarn, junk, &c. beaten flat and interwoven; used in order to preserve the yards from galling or rubbing in hoisting or lowering them. MATTER. The word matter'(materia, which some lexicographers have derived from mater, a mother) de notes, in its primitive sense, that unexplained something from which all those things which are objects of our senses are formed. The term body is sometimes confounded with that of matter; hut they are essentially different. Body is of Saxon origin. It is explained by the Latin words statu- ra, pectus, truncus; and signified the person or form of a man, or other creature; whence it is plain that it ought to be confined to express a substance possessing form or figure. Substance, both in its etymology and application, ap- proaches nearer to the meaning of the former of these terms. It is well known to be compounded from the La- Hu preposition sub (under) and the verb stare (to stand). It consequently implies that which supports or stands under the different forms and appearances which are pre- sented to our senses. It is still, however, used in a el :'.->• tinct and more limited sense than matter. It is general- ly indeed used with the article, to signify a distinct or definite portion of matter; whereas matter in the ab- stract implies a more confused and general idea of soli- dity and extension, with little or no regard to figure, proportion, or quantity. That the whole matter of which this universe of things is composed, is essentially the same, and that the ap- parent differences which subsist in different bodies depend altogether on the particular distribution or disposition of the component particles, isx an opinion which has been entertained by some philosophers of the highest reputa- tion. The wonderful apparent transmutations which take place in the different processes and operations of nature do, it must be confessed, at first sight countenance thiS hypothesis. A plant will vegetate, ancl become a solid substance, in the purest wTater. Tiie generation of stones in the earth, the various phenomena of petri- factions, and a multitude of other facts, contribute great- ly, on a fair consideration, to diminish the absurdity of the alchemists (who seem chiefly to have rested on this hypothesis, viz. that all matter was intrinsically the same) and their hopes of converting the basest materials by the efforts of art into the most splendid and valuable of sub- stances. Mr. Boyle distilled the same water about two hundred times, and at the end of each distillation found a fresh deposit of earth. Margraff repeated the experiment with still greater caution. By means of two glass globes, which communicated with each other, he preserved the water while in the state of vapour from all contacj; with the air; and on repeated distillation, a quantity e>f earth of the calcareous kind was deposited at the conclusion of each process. The extreme rarity and minuteness of the particles into which different substances may be resolved, imparts a still greater degree of probability to this hypothesis: and in general the more any body can be divided, the simpler it appears in its component parts. Wc must, however, be cautious of admitting opinions which are not sanctioned by the direct test of experi- ment; and however plausible the opinion, the accurate observations of modern philosophy have suggested sonic objections to the homogenity of matter, whicli, without further discoveries, it will not be easy to silence. Whatever phenomena may appear to indicate a trans- mutation of bodies, or a change of one substance into another, wc have the utmost reason, by the latest and best experiments, to believe them merely the effect of dif- ferent combinations. Thus the conversion of water and air into a solid substance, such as the body of a plant, is merely an apparent conversion; for that solid substance may, by an artificial process, be resolved again iitio water and air, without any real change iu the principles or ele- mentary particles of which those fluids arecomposed; and the formation of stones, and the phenomena of petrifac- tions, are accounted for upon much easier principles than that of transmutation. On the other hand, the utmost ef- forts of chemistry have neve.'been able to proceed farther iu the analysis of bodies than to reduce them to a few MAXIMUM. excess of the velocity of the fluid above the velocity of the part of the engine wiiich strikes, or from their relative velocity only. The motion of the engine ceases to be accelerated when this relative velocity is so far diminish- ed, that the action ofthe power becomes equal to the re- sistance of the engine arising from the gravity of the matter that is elevated by it, and from friction; for when these balance each other, the engine proceeds with the uniform motion it has acquired. Prob. II. Let a denote the velocity of the stream, u the velocity of the part of the engine which it strikes when the motion of the machine is uniform, and a — u will represent their relative velocity. Let A represent the weight which would balance the force of the stream when its velocity is a, and p the weight which would ba- lance the force of the same stream if its velocity was only a — u; then p : A:: a — u2; a2, or p = A x ———, and p aa • shall represent the action of the stream upon the wheel. If we abstract the friction, and have regard to the quan- tity of the weight only, let it be equal to e/A, (or be to A as q to 1); and because the motion of the machine is sup- _ i .». . ax ft—u2 a — u2 posed uniform, p = q x A =_________, or q =______ ftft aa The momentum of this weight is qAu =----------; aa which is a maximum when the fluxion of---------va- aa nisbes, that is, when u x a— n2— 2uu x a — u =*= 0, or a — aw = 0. Therefore, in this case, the machine will a have "the greatest effect if u = -—, or the weight oA = -----—— = —; that is, if the weight that is raised by aa 9' the engine be less than the weight which would balance the power in the proportion of 4 to 9: and the momentum of the weight is----. . ° 27 Prob. III. Suppose that the given weight P (plate XC1V. Miscel. fig. 156.) descending by its gravity in the vertical line, raises a given weight W by the cord PMW (that passes over the pulley M) alongthe inclined plane BD, the height of which BA is given; and let the position of the plane *BD be required, along which W will be raised in the least time from the horizontal line AD to B. Let AB = a, BD = x, t = time in which W describes DB; then the force which accelerates the motion of W is p _^, tt is as XX , and if we suppose the fluxion x rx—aw 2 a w -1-. of this quantity to vanish, we shall find x =----, or P = 2aw: consequently the plane BD required is that upon x which a weight equal to 2W would be sustained by P; or if BC be the plane upon which W would sustain P, then BD = 2BC. But if the position of the plane BD be given, and W being supposed variable, it be required to find the ratio of W to P, when the greatest momentum i3 produced in W along the given plane BD; in this casci W ought to be to P as BD to BA + v BD + BA + y/ HA* Questions of this kind may be likewise demonstrated from the common elementary geometry, of whicli the following may serve as an example. Prob. IV. Let a fluid, moving with the velocity and direction AC (plate XCIV. Miscel. fig 157), strike the plane CE; and suppose that this plane moves parallel to itself in the direction CB, perpendicular to CA, or that it cannot move in any other direction, then let it be re- quired to find the most advantageous position of the plane CE, that it may receive the greatest impulse from the action ofthe fluid. Let AP be perpendicular to CE in P, draw AK parallel to CB, and let PK be perpen- dicular upon it in K; and AK will measure the force with which any particle ofthe fluid impels the plane EC in the direction CB. For the force of any such particle being represented by AC, let this force be resolved into AQ parallel to EC and AP perpendicular to it; and it is manifest, that the latter AP only has any effect upon the plane CE. Let this force AP be resolved into the force AL perpendicular to CB, and the force AK parallel to it; then it is manifest, that the former, AL, has no effect in promoting the motion of the plane in the direc- tion CB; so that the latter, AK, only, measures the effort by which the particle promotes the motion of the plane CE, in the direction CB. Let EM and EN be perpendicular to C A and CB, in M and N; and the num- ber of particles moving with directions parallel to AC, incident upon the plane CE, will be as EM. Therefore the effort of the fluid upon CE, being as the force of each particle, and the number of particles together, it will be as AK x EM; or, because AK is to AP (= EM) -g^t j. cm EM2EM X EN ,, , .-,.-, . . as EN to CE, as-----------; so that CE being given, CE the problem is reduced to this, to find when EM2 x EN is the greatest possible, or a maximum. But because the sum of EM2 and of EN2 (= CM2) is given, being always equal to CE2, it follows that EN2 x EM4 is greatest when EN2 = \ CE2; for when the sum of two quantities AC and CB (fig 158.) was given, AC x BC2 is greatest when AC = A AB, as will be very evident if a semicircle is described upon AD. But when EN2 X EM2 is greatest, its square root EN x EM2 is of neces- sity at the same time greatest. Therefore the action of the fluid upon the plane CE, in the direction CB, is greatest when EN* = -i CE2, and consequently LM2 = § CE2; that is, when EM, the sine of the angle ACE, in which the stream strikes the plane, is to the radius, as wll be fine and fit for bottling. If you would give it a finer flavour, take cloves, mace, and nutmeg, of each four drams; beat them small, tie the powder in a piece of cloth, and put it into the cask. MEADOW. See Husbandry. MEAN, a middle state between two extremities; as a mean motion, mean distance, arithmetical mean, geome- trical mean, kc Arithmetical Mean, is half the sum of the extremes. So, 4 is an arithmetical mean between 2 and 6, or be- tween 3 and 5, or between 1 and 7; also an arithmetical a l b is half that quantity, they will be to one another as 2 to 1, to answer the conditions of the problem. Prob. VI. To find the greatest cone that can be in- scribed in a given sphere. Let AD (plate Miscel. fig. 159) the diameter of the sphere = a; 7854 (the area of a circle whos^diameter is 1) *= c; and AC, the altitude ofthe cone, == x; th% CD = a — x. By El. iii. 35, AC x CD = CB2, that is, x x a — x = ax — x2 = CB2; hut the square of the diameter is four times the square of the radius; therefore, by EL. xii. 2, 4acx — 4cx2 «= the area of the cone's base, which, by El. xii. 10, drawn into \ x, is | acx2 — %cx3 = the cone's solidity, which is a maximum; therefore, by taking away what is common, we get ax2 — a;3 a maximum, the fluxion of which is = 0, that is, 2a Qaxx — 3x*x = 0, or 2a = 3x, and x = -^—. So that the cone will be a maximum, when its altitude is equal to two-thirds of the sphere diameter. MEAD, an agreeable liquor made of honey and wa- ter. See Honey. vex. ii. 75 mean between a and b is or \a + \b. Geometrical Mean, commonly called a mean propor- tional, is the square root of the product of the two ex- tremes; so that, to find a mean proportional between two given extremes, multiply these together, and extract the square root of the product. Thus, a mean proportional between I and 9, is y/ i 9 = ,/ 9 tween 2 and 4 IS,/ -2. 5; a mean bc- 4i = \/ 9 = 3 also; the mean between 4 and 6 is *y_ 4 x 0 = */ 24; and the mean be- tween ft and 6 is v* ab* The geometrical mean is always less than the arith- metical mean between the same two extremes. So the arithmetical mean between 2 and 4\ is 3|, but the geo- metrical mean is only 3. To prove this generallyi let a and b be any two terms, a the greater, and b the less; then, universally, the arithmetical mean a + _ shall be 2 greater than the geometrical mean ^ ab, or a 4- b greater than 2\/ ab. For, by squaring both, they are a2 4-2ab 4-b2 y 4ab; subtr. 4a& from each, then a2 — 2ab +b2y 0, that is, (a — by 0. To find a Mean Proportional geometrically, between two given lines M and N. Join the two given lines together at C, in one continued line AB; upon the diameter AB describe a semicircle, and erect the perpendicular CD; whicli will be the mean proportional between AC and CB, or M and N. To find two Mean Proportionals between two given ex- tremes. Multiply each extreme by the square of the other, viz. the greater extreme by the square of the less, and the less extreme by the square of the greater; then extract the cube root out of each product, and the two roots will he the two mean proportionals sought. That is, V"2& and V«&2 are the two means between a and b. So, between 2 and to. the two mean proportionals are 4* and 8; for V * x lo = V 64 = 4, aud v"~ x io-: = V512 = 8. v In a similar manner we proceed for three means, or four means, or five means, &c; from all which it appears, M E A M E A that the series of the several numbers of mean propor- tion:,is between a and b will be as follows: viz. 1 mean, y/ab; 2 means, V a?b, V «^25 3 means, V a*b2, V a*b, V a¥', 4 means, V a4°* W a2¥, V a263, V ob4; 5 means, V a5b, V a*b2, V a3l>3, V ft2&4> 6\/ <*&• kc. kc Harmonical Mean, is double a fourth proportional to the sum of the exlremes, and the two extremes them- selves a and b: thus, as a -f b : a : : 2b : 2° = m, ft -r b the harmonical mean between a and 6. Or it is the re- ciprocal of the arithmetical mean between the recipro- cals of the given extremes; that is, take the reciprocals ofthe extremes a and b, which will be__and__; then a b take the arithmetical mean between these reciprocals, or half their sum, which will be__-f—. or ,,', "T", ; lastly, 2a 2b 2ab 2ab the reciprocal of this is------ = m, the harmonical a -+ b mean: for arithmetical and Iiarmonicals are mutually reciprocals of each other; so that if a, m, b, kc be arithmetical, then shall—, —, -—-, &c. be harmonicals; or if a m b the former be Iiarmonicals, the latter will be arithmeti- cal. For example, to find a harmonical mean between 2 and 6: here a == 2, and 6=6; therefore----= ---------- a-i-b 2 + 6a 24 = — = 3 = m, the harmonical mean sought between 8 2 and 6. Pappus has shown a curious similiarity that subsists between the three different sorts of mean: a, m, b, being three continued terms, either arithmeticals, geometricals, ftr Iiarmonicals, then in the Arithmeticals a : a : : a — m: m — b Geometricals a : m: : a — m : m — b Iiarmonicals a : b : : a — m : m — b. MEASLES. See Medicine. MEASURE of an angle, is an arch described from the vertex in any place between its legs. Hence angles are distinguished by the ratio ofthe arches, described from the vertex between the legs to the peripheries. Angles then are distinguished by those arches; and the arches are distinguished by their ratio to the periphery: thus an angle is said to be so many degrees as there are in the said arch. See Angle. Measure of a figure, or plane surface, is a square whose side is one inch, one foot, one yard, or some other determined length. Among geometricians, it is usually a rod called a square rod, divided into 10 square feet, and the square feet into 10 square digits. Measure of a solid, is a cube whose side is one inch' foot, yard, or any other determinate length. In geometry it is a cubic perch, divided into cubic feet, digits, &c. Hence cubic measures, or measures of capacity. See Sphere, Cube, &c. Measure of velocity, in mechanics, the srtace passed over by a moving bodj in a given time. To' measure a velocity therefore, the space must be divided into as many equal parts as the time is conceived to be divided into; tin quantity of space answering to such a part of time is the measure of the v locity. Measure, in geometry, denotes any quantity assumed as one, or unity, to which the ratio of the other homoge- nous or similar quantities is expressed. Measures in a legal and commercial sense are various, according to the various kinds and dimensions of the things measured. Hence arise lineal or longitudinal measures, for lines or lengths, square measures, for areas or superficies; and solid or cubic measures, for bodies and their capacities; all which again are very different in different countries and in different ages, and even many of them for different commodities. Whence arise other divisions of ancient and modern measures, domestic and foreign ones, dry measures, liquid mea- sures, &e. I. Long measures, or measures of application. 1. The English and Scotch standards. The English lineal standard is the yard, containing 3 English feet, equal to 3 Paris feet 1 inch and T3T of an inch, or £ of a Paris ell. The use of this measure was established by Henry I. of England, and the standard taken from the length of his own arm. It is divided into 36 inches, and each inch is supposed equal to 3 barley- corns. When used for measuring cloth, it is divided into 4 quarters, and each quarter subdivided into 4 nails. The English ell is equal to a yard and a quarter, or 45 inches, and is used in measuring linens imported from Germany and the Low-countries. The Scots el wand was established by king David I. and divided into 37 inches. The standard is kept in the council-chamber of Edinburgh, and being compared with the English yard, is found to measure 37j inches; and therefore the Scots inch and foot are larger than the English, in the proportion of 180 to 185; but this difference being so inconsiderable, is seldom attended to in practice. The Scots ell, though forbidden by law, is still used for measuring some coarse commodities, and is the foundation ofthe land-measure of Scotland. Itinerary measure is the same both in England and ot!an4* The length of the chain is 4 poles, or 22 ids; 80 chains make a mile. The old Scots computed miles were generally about a mile and a half each. The reel for yarn is 2\ yards, or 10 quarters, in cir- cuit; 120 threads make a cut; 12 cuts make a hasp or hank, and 4 hanks make a spindle. 2. The French standard was formerly the aune or ell, containing 3 Paris feet, 7 inches, 8 lines, or I yard $ English; the Paris foot royal exceeding the English by t!4o Parts, as in one of the following tables. This ell is divided two ways, viz. into halves, thirds, sixths, and twelfths; and into quarters, half-quarters, and six- teenths. The French, however, have also formed an entirely new system of weights and measures, according to the following table: MEASURES. "Proportion of the measures of each species to its principal measure or uni- ty- 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 l-'irst part of the name whicli in- dicates the pro- portion to the principal mea- sure or unity. 1 Myria Kilo Hecto Deca Deci Centi Milli Proportion of the principal"] measures between them- i selves, and the length of \ the meridian. J PRINCIPAL MEASURES OR UNITIES. Length. Metre. 10,000,000 part >f the dist. from the pole to the equator. Capacity. Litre. A decimetre cube. Value of the principal meao | g fcct }. | 1 pint and ^, suresintheancientFrench vj _, T____,„' ,or 1 liton and measures. and | nearly. nearly. Value in English measures. ^- Inches 39,383 J! Weight. Gramme. Weight of a entimetre cube of distilled water. 18 grains and 841,000 parts. Agrarian. Arc. 100 square metres. For firewood. Stere. One cubic metre. Two .square 1 denii-voie,or [ierchesdeseaux| of a cord des et foret. eaux et foret. 11.968 square yards. S. The English avoirdupois pound weighs 7004 troy grains; whence the avoirdupois ounce, whereof 16 make a pound, is found equal to 437.75 troy grains. And it follows, that the troy pound is to the avoirdupois pound as 88 to 107 nearly; for as 88 to 107, so is 5760 to 7003.636: that the troy ounce is to the avoirdupois ounce, as 80 to 73 nearly; for as 80 to 73, so is 4S0 to 438: ancl, lastly, that the avoirdupois pound and ounce are to the Paris two-marc weight and ounce, as 63to 68 nearly; for as 63 to 68, so is 7004 to 7559.873. See Weight. 4. The Paris foot ex- pressed in decimals is equal to 1.0654 of the English foot, or contains 12.785 English inches. 3. The standard in Holland, Flanders, Sweden, a good part of Germany, many of the Hanse-towns, as Dant- zic and Hamburgh, and at Geneva, Franckfort, kc. is likewise the ell; but the ell in all these places differs from the Paris ell. In Holland it contains one Paris foot 11 lines, or 4-sevenths of the Paris ell. The Flanders ell contains 2 feet 1 inch 5 lines and half a line, or 7-twelfths of the Paris ell. The ell of Germany, Brabant, kc. is equal to that of Flanders. 4. The Italian measure is the bracchio, brace, or fa- thoin. This obtains in the states of Modena, Venice, Florence, Lucca, Milan, Mantua, Bologna, kc. but is of different lengths. At Venice it contains 1 Paris foot, 11 inches, 3 lines, or 8-fifteenths of the Paris ell. At Bo- logna, Modena, and Mantua, the brace is the same as at 61.083 inches, which is more than the wine 22.966 grains. and less than the beer quart. Bergama, the brace is 1 foot 7 inches, 6 lines, or 5 ninths of a Paris ell. The usual measure at Naples, however, is the anna, containing 6 feet, 10 inches, and 2 nes, or one Paris ell and 15-seveiiteenths. 5. The Spanish measure is the vara or yard, in some places called the barra; containing 17 twenty-fourths of the Paris ell. But the measure in Castile and Valencia is the pan, span, or palm; which is used, together with the canna, at Genoa. In Arragon, the vara, is equal to a Paris ell and a half, or 5 feet, 5 inches, 6 lines. 6. The Portuguese measure is the cavedos, containing 2 feet, 11 lines, or four-sevenths of a Paris ell; and the vara, 106 whereof make a 100 Paris ell. 7. The Piedmontese measure is the ras, containing 1 Paris foot, 9 inches, 10 lines, or half a Paris ell. In Sici- ly, their measure is the canna, the same with that of Na- ples. 8. The Muscovite measures are the cubit, equal to 1 Paris foot, 4 inches, 2 lines; and the arcin, two whereof are equal to 3 cubits. 9. The Turkish and Levant measures arc the picq, containing 2 feet, 2 inches, and 2 lines, or three-fifths of the Paris ell. The Chinese measure is the cobre, ten whereof are equal to three Paris ells. In Persia, and some parts of the Indies, the gueze, of which there are two kinds; the royal gueze, called also the gueze monkelser, containing 2 Paris feet, 10 inches, 11 lines, or four-fifths Venice. At Lucca it contains 1 Paris foot, 9 inches, 10 of the Paris ell; and the shorter gueze, called simply lines, or half a Paris ell. At Florence it contains 1 foot, gueze, only two-thirds of the former. At Goa and Or- 9 inches, four lines, or 49-hundrcdth.s of a Paris ell. At muz, the measure is the vara, the same with that of the Milan, the brace for measuring of silks is 1 Paris foot, Portuguese, having been introduced by them. In Pegu, 7 inches, 4 lines, or 4 ninths of a Paris ell; that for wool- and some other parts of the Indies, the cando or candij leu cloths is the same with the ell of Holland. Lastly, at equal to the cil of Venice, At Goa, and other parts, they MEASURES. use a larger cando, equal to 17 Dutcfi ells, exceeding that keubs, the keub 12 nious or inches, the niou to be equal of Babel and Balsora by | per centum, and the vara by to eight grains of rice, i. e. to about nine lines. At Cam- 6|. In Siam, they use the ken, short of three Paris feet boia they use the haster; in Japan the tatam; and the span by one inch. The ken contains two soks, the sok two on some of the coasts of Guinea. English Measures of Length. Barley - corns 3 Inch 9 31 9 27 36 12 18 36 60 72 54 108 180 216 594 198 7920 23760 190080 63360 Palm 3 4 6 12 20 24 66 Span 2640 21120 - 1 H Foot 2 1| Cubit 4 3 2 6f 5 H 8 6 4 22 880 m 11 660 440 7040 .5280 3520 Yard l£ 1 3 Pace 2 1* Fath 110 880 om si Vo Pole 40 320 220 132 1760 1056 Furlong 8 Mile. Scripture Measures of Length, reduced to English. Digit 12 24 96 144 192 1920 Palm Span 24 36 48 480 12 16 160 Cubit 80 Fathom Ezekiel's reed Arabian pole 20 H 13| Eng. feet. 0 0 0 1 7 10 14 "Dec 0.912 3.643 10.944 9.888 3.552 11.328 7.104 10|Schoenus, or measuring line 145 11.04 The Longer Scripture Measures Cubit - 400 2000 4000 10 12000 30 960001240 English miles, paces, feet. 0 0 1.824 0 145 4.6 0 729 3.000 1 403 1.000 4 153 3.000 8|A day's journey 3ft 172 4.000 Stadium - Sab. day's journey Eastern mile '4 ft Parasang MEASURES. Grecian Measures ojf Length, reduced to English. iDactylus, digit Doran, dochme 10 11 12 16 18 20 24 96 9600 76800 21 2| 3 41 24 2400 19200 Lichas Wo 1* 1 6 1| 21 5 q 3 y 7 960 7680 Orthodoron Spithame Wi 1 5 *TT U7- 1 9 CT 2 ZTT 872T8T 6981T9T 2 8 800 6400 Foot - __^_ H Cubit H H Pygon —— — —-—— U H H Cubit larg 6 51 n 4 Pace 600 5331 480 400 100 4800 4266| 3840 3200 800 English paces, feet dec. 0 0 0.75544$ 0 0 3.0218 I 0 0 7.5546| 0 0 8.3101-^ 0 0 9.0656 \ 0 1 0.0875 0 1 1.5984| Digitus trans H Uncia 3 4 16 12 20 15 24' 40 18 30 80 60 7500 10000 80000 60000 Roman Measures of Length, reduced to English. ersus ...... Palmus minor * Pes...... | Palmipes - Cubitus 0 1 3.109 | 0 1 6.13125 0 6 0.525 Furlong - 100 4 4.5 8 Mile - 805 5 0 English Pace9. feet dec. 10 20 2500 20000 H Palmi i§ H a* 2 5 4 625 500 5000 4000 H 416| 3333-| Gradus Passus Stadium 250 2000 125 1000 8 Milliare 0 0 0.725| 0 0 0.967 0 0 2.901 0 0 11.604 0 1 2.505 0 1 5.406 0 2 5.01 0 4 10.02 120 4 4.5 967 0 0 A TABLE Of the Measures of Length of the principal Places in Eu- rope, compared with the English Yard. Eng. yard. 100 Aunes, or ells of England, equal to 125 100 of Holland or Amsterdam 75 100 of Brabant or Antwerp 76 100 of France 128| 100 of Hamburgh, Francfort, &c.' 62| 100 of Breslau 69 100 ofDantzick 66| 100 of Bergen and Drontheim 68£ 100 of Sweden or Stockholm 65| 87| 67 124| 100 of St. Gall, for linens .100 of ditto, clotbs 100 of Geneva 100 Canes of Marseilles and Montpelier 214| 100 of Toulouse & High Languedoc 200 100 of Genoa, of 9 palms 245| 100 of Rome 227 \ 100 Varas of Spain 93* 100 of Portugal 123 100 Cavidosof Portugal 75 102 Brasses of Venice 731 100 of Bergamo, &c. 71? 100 of Florence and LegWn 64 100 of Milan 58i MEASURES. N. B. The annes or ells of Amsterdam, Haerlem, Leyden, the Hague, Rotterdam, and other cities of Hol- land, as also that of Nuremberg, being all equal, are comprehended under that of Amsterdam; as those of Osnaburg are under those of France; and those of Bern and Basil are equal to those of Hamburg, Francfort, and Liipsic. For the subdivisions and multiples of each of these measures of length, see the article Aune. For the proportion of the feet of the principal nations in Europe, compared with the English foot, see the ar- ticle r'oox. Square, z\ 0 f life; and laws, with their effects in machines. for however weak the force of man appears to be, when The term mechanics is equally applied to the doctrine unassisted by this art; yet, with its aid, there is hardly of the equilibrium of powers, more properly called statics; any thing above his reach. It is distinguished by sir and to that science which treats of the generation and Isaac Newton into practical and rational mechanics; the communication of motion, which constitutes mechanics former of which treats of the mechanical powers, viz. the strictly so called. See Statics, Power, Motion, &c. lever, balance, axis and wheel, pulley, wedge, screw, and The knowledge of mechanics is one of those things, inclined plane. MECHANICS. Rational mechanics comprehends the whole theory of motion, shows when the powers or forces are given how to determine the motions that aro produced by them; and conversely when the plijenomena of the motions are given, how to trace the powers or forces from whicli they arise. Mechanical powers are simple engines that enable men to raise weights, to move heavy bodies, and overcome re- sistances, which they could not do with their natural strength alone. Their importance to society is incalcu- lable. Every machine whatever is composed of one or more of them, sometimes of several combined together. In considering this science, it will be necessary at first to take some things for granted that are not strictly true; and after the theory is established, to make the proper allowances for them. 1. That a small portion of the earth's surface, which is spherical, may be considered as a plane. 2. That all bodies be supposed to descend in lines parallel to each other; for though all bodies really tend to the centre of the >arth, yet the distance from which they fall, is com- paratively so small, that their inclination towards each other is inconsiderable. 3. That all planes be consider- ed as perfectly smooth; levers to be inflexible, and with- out thickness or weight; cords perfectly pliable; and machines without friction and inertia. Three things are always to be considered in treating of mechanical engines; the weight to be raised, the pow- er by which it is to be raised, and the instrument or engine by which this is to be effected. The mechanical powers are generally reckoned six; the lever, the pulley, the wheel and axis, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw. These perhaps may be reduced to two; for the pulley and wheel are only assemblages of levers, and the wedge and screw are inclined planes. To calculate the power of a machine, it is usually con- sidered in a state of equilibrium; that is, in the state when the power which is to overcome the resistance just balances it. Having discovered what quantity of power will be requisite for this purpose, it will then be neces- sary to add so much more as to overcome the friction and weight of the machine itself, and to give the neces- sary velocity. The lever is the simplest of all machines; and is only a straight bar of iron, wood, or other material, support- ed on, and moveable round, a prop called the fulcrum. In the lever there are three circumstances to be princi- pally attended to: 1. The fulcrum, or prop, by which it is supported, or on which it turns as an axis, or centre of motion: 2. The power to raise and support the weight: 3. The resistance or weight to be raised or sustained. The points of suspension are those points where the weights really are, or from which they hang freely. The power and the weight are always supposed to act at right angles to the lever, except it is otherwise expressed. The lever is distinguished into three sorts, according to the different situations of the fulcrum or prop, and the power, with respect to each other. 1. W\ien the prop is placed between the power and the weight. 2. When the prop is at one end of the lever, the power at the other, and the weight between them. 3. When the prop is at one end, the weight at tbe other, and the power applied between them. VOL. II. 79 A poker, in stiring the fire, is a lever of the first sort: the bar of the grate upon which it rests is the fulcrum the fuel, the weight to be overcome; and the hand is tin power. The lever of the first kind is principally used for loosening large stones; or to raise great weights to small heights, in order to get ropes under them, or other means of raising them to still greater heights; it is the most common species of lever. ABC, Plate LXXXHI. Mechanics, fig. 1. is this lever, in which B is the fulcrum, A the end at whicli the power is applied, and C the end where the weight acts. To find when an equilibrium will take place between the power and the weight, in this as well as in every other species of lever, it is necessary to recollect, that when the momenta, or quantities of force, in two bodies are equal, they will balance each other. Now let us consider when this will take place in the lever. Sup- pose the lever AB (fig. 2) to be turned on its axis, or fulcrum, so as to come into the situation DC; as the end D is farthest from the centre of motion, and as it has moved through the arch AD in the same time as the end B moved through the arch BC, it is evident that the velocity of AB must have been greater than that of B. But the momenta being the products ofthe quantities of matter multiplied into the velocities, the greater the velo- city, the less the quantity of matter need be to get the same product. Therefore, as the velocity of A is the greatest, it will require less matter to produce an equi- librium than B. Let us next see how much more weight B will require than A to balance it. As the radii of circles are in pro- portion to their circumferences, they are also proportion- ate to similar parts of them; therefore, as the arches AD, CB, are similar, the radius or arm DE bears the same proportion to EC that the arch AD bears to CB. But the arches AD and CB represent the velocities of the ends ofthe lever, because they are the spaces which they moved over in the same time; therefore the arms DE and EC may also represent these velocities. It is evident then, that an equilibrium will take place when the length of the arm AE multiplied into the power A, shall equal EB multiplied into the weight B; and con- sequently, that the shorter EB is, the greater must be the weight B; that is, the power and the weight must be to each other inversely, as their distances from the ful- crum. Thus, suppose AE, the distance of the power from the prop, to be 20 inches, and EB, the distance of the weight from the prop, to be eight inches, also the weight to be raised at B to be five pounds, then the pow- er to be applied at A must be two pounds; because the distance of the weight from the fulcrum eight, multiplied into the weight five, makes 40; therefore 20, the distance of the power from the prop, must be multiplied by two, to get an equal product, which will produce an equilibri- um. It is obvious, that while the distance of the power from the prop exceeds that of the weight from the prop, a power less than the weight will raise it, so that then the lever affords a mechanical advantage: when the distance of the power is less than that of the weight from the prop, the power must be greater than the weight to raise it; when both the arms are equal, the power and the weight must be equal, to be in equilibrio. MECHANICS. Tiit second kind of lever, when the weight is between the fulcrum and the power, is represented by fig. 3. in which A is the fulcrum. B the weight, and C the power. The advantage gained by this lever, as in the first, is as git at as the distance of the power from the prop ex- cteds the distance of the weight from it. Thus if the point a, on which the power acts, is seven times as far from A as the point b, on which the weight acts, then one pound applied at C will raise seven pounds at B. This lever shows the reason why two men carrying a burden upon a stick between them, bear shares of the burden which are to one another in the inverse proportion of their distances from it. For it is well known, that the nearer cither of them is to the burden, the greater share he bears of it; and if he goes directly under it, he bears the whole. So if one man is at A, and the other at a, having the pole or stick resting on their shoulders; if the burden or weight B is placed five times as near the man at A, as it is to the man at a, the former will bear five times as much weight at the latter. This is likewise applicable to the case of two horses of unequal strength to be so yoked, that each horse may draw a part proportional to his strength; which is done by so dividing the beam they pull, that the point of trac- tion may be as much nearer to the stronger horse than io the weaker, as the strength of the former exceeds that of the latter. To this kind of lever may be reduced oars, rudders of ships, doors turning upon hinges, cutting-knives which are fixed at the point, &c. If in this lever we suppose the power and weight to change places, so that the power may be between tbe weight and the prop, it will become a lever of the third kind; in which, that there may be a balance between the power and the weight, the intensity of the power must exceed the intensity of the weight just as much as the distance of the weight from the prop exceeds the distance of the power. Thus, let E (fig. 4.) be the prop of the lever EE, and W a weight of one pound, placed three times as far from the prop as the power P acts at F, by the cord going over the pulley D: in this case the power must be equal to three pounds, in order to support the weight of one pound. To this sort of lever are generally referred the bones uf a man's arm; for when he lifts a weight by the hand, the muscle that exerts its force to raise that weight is fix- ed to the bone about one-tenth part as far below the elbow as the hand is. And the elbow being the centre round which the lower part of the arm turns, the muscle must therefore exert a force ten times as great as the weight that is raised. As this kind of lever is a disadvantage to the moving power, it is used as little as possible; but in some cases it cannot be avoided, such as that of a ladder, which being fixed at one end, is by the strength of a man's arms rear- ed against a wall. What is called the hammer-lever differs in nothing but its form, from a lever of the first kind. Its name is de- rived from its use, that of drawing a nail out of wood by a hammer. Suppose the shaft of a hammer to be five times as long as the iron part which draws the nail, the lower »art resting on the board as a fulcrum; then by pulling backwards the end of the shaft, a man will draw a nail with one-fifth part of the power that he must use to pull it out with a pair of pincers, in which case the nail would move as fast as his hand; but with the hammer the hand moves five times as much as the nail, by the time that the nail is drawn out. Let ACB (fig. 5.) represent a lever of this sort, bent at C, which is its prop, or centre of motion. P is a power acting upon the longer arm AC, at A, by the means of the cord DA going over the pulley D; anil W is a weight or resistance acting upon the end B of the shorter arm CB. If the power is to the weight as CB is to CA, they are in equilibrio: thus, suppose W to be five pounds, acting at the distance of one foot from the centre of motion C, and P to be one pound, acting at A, five feet from the centre C; the power and weight will just balance each other. Thus we see, that in every species of lever there will be an equilibrium, when the power is to the weight, as the distance of the weight from the fulcrum is to the dis- tance of the power from the fulcrum. In making experiments on the mechanic powers, some difficulties arise from the weight ofthe materials; but as it is impossible to find any that are without weight, we take care that they arc perfectly balanced themselves, before the weights and powers are applied. The bar, therefore, used in making experiments on levers, lias the short end so much thicker than the long arm, as will be sufficient to balance it on the prop. Hitherto we have supposed that the power and weight acted perpendicularly upon the lever; but they do not!, they act with less force upon it; the power should, there- fore, if possible, be always made to act at right angles to the lever. If several levers are combined together in such a man- ner, as that a weight being appended to the Srst lever, may be supported by a power applied to the Iatt, as in fig. 6. (which consists of three levers of the first kind, and is so contrived, that a power applied at the point L of the lever C, may sustain a weight at the point S of lever A), the power must here be to the weight, in ratio, or proportion, compounded of the several ratios, which those powers that can sustain the weight by the help of each lever, when used singly and apart from the rest, have to the weight. For instance: if the power which can sustain the weight P by the help of the lever A, is to tbe weight as 1 to 5; and if the power which can sus- tain the same weight by the lever B alone, is to the weight as 1 to 4; and if the power which could sustain the same weight by the lever C, is to the weight as 1 to 5; then the power which will sustain the weight by the help of the three levers joined together, will be to the weight in a proportion consisting of the several propor- tions multiplied together, of 1 to 5, 1 to 4, and 1 to 5; that is, of l to 100. For since, in the lever A, a power equal to one-fifth of the weight P pressing down the lever at L, is sufficient to balance the weight; and since it is the same thing whether that power is applied to the lever A at L, or the lever B at S, the point S bearing on the point L; a power equal to one-fifth of the weight P, being applied to the point S of the lever B, will support the weighty but one-fourth of the same power being applied to the MECHANICS. point L of the lever B, and pushing the same upward, will as effectually depress the point S of the same lever, as if the whole power was applied at S; consequently a power equal to one-fourth of one fifth, that is, one-twenti- eth of the weight P, being applied to the point L of the lever B, and pushing up the same, will support the weight; in like manner, it matters not whether that force is ap- plied to the point L of the lever B, or to the point S of the lever C, since, if S be raised, L, which rests on it, must be raised also; but one-fifth of the power applied at the point Lof the lever C, and pressing it downwards, will as effectually raise the point S of the same lever, as >f the whole power was applied at S, and pushed up the same; consequently a power equal to one-fifth of one- twentieth, that is, one-hundredth part of the weight P, being applied to the point L of the lever C, will balance tbe weight at the point S of the lever A. The*balance, an instrument of very extensive use in comparing the weights of bodies, is a lever of the first kind, whose arms are of equal length. The points from which the weights are suspended being equally distant from the centre of motion, will move with equal velocity; consequently, if equal weights are applied, their momen- ta will be equal, and the balance will remain in eqiii- librio. In order to have a balance as perfect as possible, it is necessary to attend to the following circumstances: 1. The arms of the beam ought to be exactly equal, both as to weight and length. 2. The points from which the scales are suspended should be in a right line, passing through the centre of gravity of the beam: for by this the weights will act di- rectly against each other, and no part of either will be lost on account of any oblique direction. 3. If the fulcrum, or point upon which the beam turns, is placed in the centre of gravity of the beam, and if the fulcrum and the points of suspension are in the same right line, the balance will have no tendency to one position more than another, but will rest in any position it may be placed in, whether the scales are on or off, empty or loaded. If the centre of gravity of the beam, when level, is immediately above the fulcrum, it will overset by the smallest action; that is, the end which is lowest will de- scend; and it will do this with more swiftness, the higher the centre of gravity is, and the less the points of suspen- sion are loaded. But if the centre of gravity of the beam is immedi- ately below the fulcrum, the beam will not rest in any po- sition but when level; and if disturbed from that position, and then left at liberty, it will vibrate, and at lust conic to rest on the level. In a balance, therefore, the fulcrum ought always to be placed a little above the, centre of gravity. Its vibrations will be quicker, and its horizon- tal tendency stronger, the lower the centre of gravity, and the less the weight upon the points of suspension. 4. The friction of the beam upon the axis ought to be as little as possible; because, should the friction be great, it will require a considerable force to overcome it; upon which account, though one weight should a little exceed the other, it will not preponderate, the excess not being sufficient to overcome the friction, and bear down the beam. The axis of motion should be formed with an edge like a knife, and made very hard; these edge3 are- at first made sharp, and then rounded with a fine hone, or piece of buff leather, which causes a sufficient blunt- ncss, or rolling edge. On the regular form and excellence of this axis, depends chiefly the perfection of the instrn ment. 5. The pivots which form the axis or fulcrum, should be in a straight line, and at right angles to the beam. 6. The arms should be as long as possible, relatively to their thickness, and the purposes for which they are in- tended; as the longer they are, the more sensible is the balance. They should also be made as stiff and inflexible as possible; for if the beam is too weak, it will bend, and become untrue. 7. The rings, or the piece on which the axis bears, should be hard and well polished, parallel to each other, and of an oval form, that the axes may always keep its proper bearing, or remain always at the lowest point. Very delicate balances are not only useful in nice ex- periments, but are likewise much more expeditious than others in common weighing. If a pair of scales with a certain load is barely sensible to one-tenth of a grain, it will require a considerable time to ascertain the weight to that degree of accuracy, because the tarn must be ob- served several times over, and is very small. But if no greater accuracy was required, and scales were used which would turn with one-hundreth of a grain, a tenth of a grain more or less would make so great a difference in tbe turn, that it would be seen immediately. The statera, or Roman steel-yard, is a lever of the first kind, and is used for finding the weights of different bodies, by one single weight placed at different distan- ces from the prop or centre of motion D (fig. 7.). For the shorter arm DG is of such a weight as exactly to counterpoise the longer arm DX. If this arm is divided into as many equal parts as it will contain, each equal to GD, the single weight P (which we may suppose to be one pound) will serve for weighing any thing as heavy as itself, or as many times heavier as there are divisions in the arm DX, or any quantity between its own weight and that quantity. As for example, if P is one pound, and placed Iff the first division 1 in the arm DX, it will balance one pound in the scale at W; if it is removed to the second division at 2, it will balance two pounds in the scale; if to the third three pounds; and so on to the end of the arm DX. If any of these integral divisions is subdivided into as many equal parts as a pound contains ounces, and the weight P is placed at any of these sub- divisions, so as to counterpoise what is in the scale, the pounds and odd ounces therein will by that means be as- certained. The wheel and axle is a machine much used, and is made in a variety of forms. It consists of a wheel with an axle fixed to it, so as to turn round with it; the pow- er being applied at the circumference ofthe wheel, and the weight to be raised is fastened to a rope which coils round the axle. AB (fig. 9.) is a wheel and CD an axle fixed to it. and which moves round with it. If the rope whicli goes round the wheel is pulled, and the wheel turned once round, it is evident that as much repe will be drawn off as the circumference of the wheel; but while the wheel turns once round, the axle turus once round; and consequently MECHANICS. the rope by which the weight is suspended, will wind ounce round the axis, and the weight will be raised through a space equal to the circumference ofthe axis. The velocity ofthe power, therefore, will be to that of the weight, as the circumference of the wheel to that of the axis. That the power and the weight may be in eqiiilibrio, the power must be to the weight as the circumference ofthe wheel to that of the axis. It is proved by geometry that the circumferences of different circles bear the same proportion to each other as their respective diameters do; consequently the power is to the weight, as the diameter also of the axis to that of the wheel. Thus, suppose the diameter of the wheel to be eight inches, and the diameter ofthe axis to be one inch; then one ounce acting as the power P, will balance eight oun- ces as a weight W; and a small additional force will cause the wheel to turn with its axis, and raise the weight; and for every inch which the weight rises, the power will fall eight inches. The wheel and axis may be considered as a kind of perpetual lever, of which the fulcrum is the centre of the axis, and the long and short arms are the diameter of the wheel and the diameter of the axis. See fig. 10. From this it is evident, that the larger the wheel, and the smaller the axis, the stronger is the power of this ma- chine; but then the weight must rise slower in propor- tion. A capstan is a cylinder of wood, with holes in it, into which are put bars, or levers, to turn it round; these are like the spokes of a wheel without the rim. Sometimes the axis is turned by a winch fastened to it, which in this respect serves for a wheel; and is more powerful in pro- portion to the largeness of the circle it describes, com- pared with the diameter of the axle. When the parts of the axis differ in thickness, and weights are suspended at the different parts, they may be sustained by one and the same power applied to the circumference of the wheel; provided the product arising from the multiplication ofthe power into the diameter of the wheel, is equal to the sum of the products arising from the multiplication of the several weights into the diameters of those parts of the axis from wiiich they are suspended. In considering the theory of the wheel and axle, we have supposed the rope that goes round the axle to have no sensible thickness; but as in practice this cannot be the case, if it is a thick rope, or if there are several folds of it round the axis, you must measure to the middle of the outside rope, to obtain the diameter of the axis; for the distance of the weight from the centre is increased by the coiling of the rope. If teeth are cut in the circumference of a wheel, and if they work in the teeth of another wheel of the same size, as fig. 11, it is evident that both the wheels will . revolve inthe same time; and the weight appended to the axle of the wheel B, will be raised in the same time as if the axle had been fixed to the wheel A. But if the teeth of the second wheel are made to work in teeth made in the axle of the first, as at fig. 12, as every part ofthe circumference of the second wheel is applied successively to the circumference of the axle of the first, and as the former is much greater than ihe latter, it is evident that the first wheel must go round as many times more than tbe second, as the circumference ofthe second wheel ex- ceeds that of the first axle. In order to a balance here, the power must be to the weight, as the product of the circumferences, or diame- ters ofthe two axles multiplied together, is to the circum- ferences or diameters of the two wheels. This will become sufficiently clear, if it is considered as a compound lever, which was explained above. In- stead of a combination of two wheels, three or four wheels may work in each other, or in any number; and by thus increasing the number of wheels, or by proportion- ing the wheels to the axis, any degree of power may be acquired. To this sort of engine belong all cranes for raising great weights; and in this case the wheel may have cogs all round it, instead of handles; and a small lanthtfrn, or trundle, may be made to work in the cogs, and be turned by a winch, whicli will make the power of the engine to exceed the power of the man who works it, as much as the number of revolutions ofthe winch exceeds those of the axle CD, fig. 9, when multiplied by the excess ofthe length of the winch above the length of the semidiameter ofthe axle added to the semidiameter or half-thickness of the rope K, by which the weight is drawn up. Thus, suppose the diameter of the rope and axle taken together to be 13 inches, and consequently half their diameter to be 61 inches, so that the weight W will hang at 6| in- ches perpendicular distance from below the centre of the axle. Now, let us suppose the wheel AB, which is fixed on the axle, to have 80 cogs, and to be turned by means of a winch 6| inches long, fixed on the axle of a trundle of eight staves, or rounds, working in the cogs of the wheel; here it is plain, that the winch and trundle would make ten revolutions for one of the wheel AB, and its axis CD, on whicli the rope K winds in raising the weight W; and the winch being no longer than the sum of the semidiameters of the great axle and rope, the trundle could have no more power on the wheel than a man could have by pulling it round by the edge, because the winch would have no greater velocity than the edge of the wheel has, which we here suppose to be ten times as great as the velocity of the rising weight; so that, in this case, the power gained would: be as 10 is to 1. But if the length of the winch is 13 inches, the power gained will be as 20 to 1; if 19| inches (which is long enough for any man to work by), the power gained will be as 30 to 1; that is, a man could raise 30 times as much by such an engine, as he could do by his natural strength without it, becausethe velocity ofthe handle ofthe winch would be 30 times as great as the velocity of the rising weight; the absolute force of any engine being in the pro- portion of the velocity of the power, to the velocity ofthe weight raised by it. But then, just as much power or ad- vantage as is gained by the engine, so much time is lost in working it, which is common in all mechanical cases whatever. In this sort of machines it is requisite to have a ratch- et wheel on the end of the axle C, with a catch to fall into its teeth; which will at any time support the weight, and keep it from descending, if the person who turns the handle should, through inadvertence or carelessness, quit MECHANICS. bis hold while the weight is rising. By this means, the danger is prevented which might otherwise happen by the running down ofthe weight when left at liberty. Thepultey is a small wheel turning on an axis, with a drawing-rope passing over it: the small wheel is usually called a sheeve, and is so fixed in a.box, or block, as to be moveable round a pin passing through its centre. Pulleys are of two kinds:—1. Fixed, which do not move out of their places: 2. Moveable, which rise and fall with the weight. When a pulley is fixed, as fig. 13, two equal weights suspended to the ends of a rope passing over it, will ba- lance each other; for they stretch the rope equally, and if either of them is pulled down through any given space, the other will rise through an equal space in the same time; and consequently, as the velocities of both are equal, they must balance each other. This kind of pul- ley, therefore, gives no mechanical advantage; so that you can raise no greater weight by it than you could do by your natural strength. Its use consists in changing the direction of the power, and sometimes enabling it to be applied with more convenience. By it, a man may raise a weight to any point, without moving from the place he is in; whereas, otherwise, he would have been obliged to ascend with the weight: it also enables several men together to apply their strength to the weight by means of the rope. The moveable pulley represented at A (fig. 14), is fixed to the weight W, and rises and falls with it. In comparing this to a lever, the fulcrum must be consider- ed as at A; the weight acts upon the centre, and the pow- er is applied at the extremity of the lever D. The pow- er, therefore, being twice as far from the fulcrum as the weight is, the proportion between the power and weight, in order to balance each other, must be as 1 to 2. Whence it appears, that the use of this pulley doubles the power, and that a man may raise twice as much by it as by his strength alone. Or it may be considered in this way: Every moveable pulley hangs by two ropes equally stretched, and which must, consequently, bear equal parts of the weight; but the rope AB being made fast at B, half the weight is sustained by it; and the oth- er part of the rope, to which the power is applied, has but half the weight to support; consequently the advan- tage gained by this pulley is as 2 to 1. When the upper and fixed block contains two pvlleys, which only turn upon their axes, and the lower moveable block contains also two, which not only turn on their axis, but rise with the weight W (fig. 15), the advantage gained is as 4 to 1. For each lower pulley will be acted upon by an equal part ofthe weight; and because in each pulley that moves with the weight, a double increase of power is gained, the force by which F may be sustained, will be equal to half the weight divided by the number of lower pulleys; that is, as twice the number of lower pulleys is to 1, so is the weight suspended to the power. But if the extremity C (fig. 16) is fixed to the lower block, it will sustain half as much as a pulley; conse- quently here the rule will be, as twice the number of pulleys adding unity is to 1, so is the weight to the power. These rules hold good, whatever may be the number of pulleys in the blocks. If, instead of one rope going round all ific pulleys, the rope belonging to each pulley is made fast at top, as in fig. 17, a different proportion between the power and the weight will, take place. Here it is evident, that each pul- ley doubles the power: thus, if there are two pulleys, the power will sustain four times the weight. Fig. 8, is the concentric pulley, invented by Mr. James Wiiite. O, R, are two brass blocks, in which grooves are cut; and round these a cord is passed, by which means they answer the purpose of so many dis- tinct pulleys. The advantage gained is found by doub- ling the number of grooves in the lower block. It is common to place all the pulleys in each block on the same pin, by the aide of each other, as in fig. 18; but the advantage, and rule for the power, are the same here as in figs. 15 and 16. A pair of blocks with the rope fastened round it, is commonly called a tackle. [The above is the doctrine usually given in books to il- lustrate the theory of the mechanical jMiwer of the move- able block; but for the following ingenious and more sim- ple method, we are in some measure indebted to a gen- tleman at Cambridge, England. We call it the moveable block, because it is entirely er- roneous to consider a pulley a mechanical power; as no advantage whatsoever is gained by the pulley itself, ex- cepting that which merely arises from the abatement of the friction. Axiom. The tension of the same string is the same though continued over any number of puliies. Cor. In a fixed pulley, the power and the weight are equal; for the tension at B (fig. 13.) is equal to that at C. It is evident, therefore, that the sole use of the fixed pulley is to change the direction ofthe moving p wcr. But it is just the reverse in the moveable pulley or block, which adds to the moment of the power, but causes no change in its direction. A weight is supported by a power with the assistance of a moveable block containing one pulley: To linii the ratio between the power and the weight. Let the power or tension of the string C (fig. 14) = m, the tension of F and E is each equal to m, but the strings F and E are spent in supporting the siring for the weight, which therefore — 2ui. Consequently the power : weight:: m : 2m :: 1 : 2. Cor. IT the number of puliies in the moveable Mock = 7i, it may be found by a similar process thai P : W :: 1 : 2n. Therefore, if the same string be continued o\er two blocks of puliies (figs. 15, 16, 18,) P will be to Was unity to the number of strings at the nuivea'i' block. The strings which support the moveable hi .-<: . support each an equal share of the weight, and the power is equal to the tension of those strings. Let the power (fig. 17) = m: to calculate the tension of the strings A, B, C, Ace. f A = m B = ni C = m The tension of ^ K ~ ~ F - 4 m G ---. 4 m «. H = 8?B MECHANICS Therefore P : W: : m : 8m : : 1 : 8. Cor. In a combination of puliies of this kind, if the number of puliies = n, P : W :: 1 : 2U. That is, as unity to that power of 2 whose index is tbe number of moveable blocks. We have generally observed, however, that me- chanics, in the arrangement of tackle, especially on board of our vessels, prefer constructions different from those which have been noticed: and as these constructions have not, as fin- as we know, been exhibited in any treatise on the mechanical powers, we shall insert them, with the separate statement of the power gained. In fig. 33, the tension ofthe strings 1,1, is each equal to 1 and the tension of 2 = 2; therefore the power: weight : : 1: I +2 = 3. The universal rule in this construction is, if n = number of puliies both fixed and moveable, P: W ::l:8n-l. In fig. 30, the tensiou of the strings is represented by the figures, therefore P : W : : 1: 1 4- 2 4- 1 4- 1 = 5. As in some cases it becomes desirable to be enabled with the same tackle to hoist heavy articles with ease, and also light ones without loss of time, a very advanta- geous method is adopted by means ;>f a rope called a run- ner; which, when lighter goods are hoisted from the holds of vessels, is hooked to a staple on deck near the hatch- way, and when heavy packages are to be raised, is hook- ed to them: as in fig. 31; if W be light, the runner A is attached to the staple C, and the power = 3; but if it be heavy, it is hooked with B, to W, and the power = 7. "Whereas it is evident, that if A were always attached to B, the power 7, being greater than necessary to hoist smaller packages, a loss of time would follow; and if A were always hooked to the staple C, the power 3 would be less than efficient to raise heavy articles. In fig. 52 the same effects follow, and by that con- struction the powers vary from 4 to 9. It may be observed, generally, that in all constructions of puliies, the power is to the weight as the velocity of the weight is to the velocity of the power; or, which is the same thing, the space passed through by each in any given time. [/>] The inclined plane. This mechanical power is of very great use in rolling up heavy bodies, such as casks, wheelbarrows, &c. It is formed by placing boards, or earth, in a sloping direction. The force wherewith a body descends upon an inclin- ed plane, is to the force of its absolute gravity, by which it would descend perpendicularly in free space, as the height of the plane is to its length. For suppose the plane AB (fig. 12) to be parallel to the horizon, the cylinder C will keep at rest on any part of the plane where it is laid. If the plane is placed perpendicularly, as AB, fig. 20, the cylinder C will descend with its whole force of gravity, because the plane contributes nothing to its support or hindrance; and therefore it would require a power equal to its whole weight to keep it from descending. Let AB (fig. 21) be a plane parallel to the horizon, and AD a plane inclined to it; and suppose the whole length AD to be three times as great as the perpendicu- lar DB. In this case the cylinder E will be supported upon the plane DA, and kept from rolling, by a power equal to a third part ofthe weight of the cylinder; there- fore a weight may be rolled up this inclined plane, by a third part of the power which would be sufiicient to draw it up by the side of an upright wall. It must also be evident, that the less the angle of ele- vation, or the gentler the ascent is, the greater will be the weight which a given power can draw up; for the steeper the inclined plane is, tlie less does it support of the weight; and the greater the tendency which the weight has to roll, consequently the more difficult for the power to support it: the advantage gained by this mechanical power, therefore, is as great as its length exceeds its perpendicular height. To the inclined plane may be reduced all hatchets, chisels, and other edge-tools. The wedge is the fifth mechanical power or machine: it may be considered as two equally inclined planes, joined together at their bases; then DG (fig. 22) is the whole thickness of the wedge at its back ABGD, where the power is applied; EF is the depth or height of the wedge, BF the length of one of its sides; and OF is its sharp edge, which is entered into the wood intended to be split, by the force of a hammer or mallet striking perpendicularly on its back. Thus, AB (fig. 23) is a wedge driven into the cleft CED of the wood FG. When the wood docs not cleave at any distance before the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between the power impelling the wedge downward, and the resistance of the wood acting against the two sides of the wedge, when the power is to the resistance as half the thickness of the wedge at its back is to the length of either of its sides; because the resistance then acts perpendicular to the side of the wedge. But when the resistance on each sides acts parallel to the back, the power that balances the resistances on both sides will be, as the length ofthe whole back of the wedge is to double its perpendicular height. When the wood cleaves at any distance before the wedge (as it generally docs), the power impelling the wedge will not be to the resistance of the wood as the length on the back of the wedge is to the length of both its sides, but as half the length of the back is to the length of either side ofthe cleft, estimated from the top or acting part of the wedge. For, if we suppose the wedge to be lengthened down from the top CE, to the bottom ofthe cleft at D, the same proportion will hold; namely, that the power will be to the resistance as half the length of the back of the wedge is to the length of either of its sides: or, which amounts to the same thing, as the whole length of the back is to the length of both tlie sides. The wedge is a very great mechanical power, since not only wood, but even rocks, can be split by it; which it would be impossible to effect by the lever, wheel and axle, or pulley; for the force ofthe blow, or stroke, shakes the cohering parts, and thereby makes them separate more easily. The screw (fig. 24.) is the sixth and last mechanical power, but cannot properly be called a simple machine, because it is never used without the application of a lever or winch to assist in turning it; and then it becomes a compound engine of a very great force, either in pressing the parts of bodies closer together, or in raising great weights. It may be conceived to be made by cutting a piece of paper, ABC (fig. 25), into the form of an incli- MECHANICS. ned pane,"or half wedge; and then wrapping it round a cylinder (fig. 26), the edge of the paper AC will form a spiral line round the cylinder, which will give the thread of the screw. It being evident that the winch must turn the cylinder once round, before the weight of resistance can be moved from one spiral winding to another; there- fore, as much as the circumference of a circle described by the handle of the winch is greater than the interval or distance between the spirals, so much is the force of the screw. Thus, supposing the distance of the spirals to be half an inch, and the length of the winch twelve inches, the circle described by the handle of the winch where the power acts will be 76 inches nearly, or about 152 half inches, and consequently 152 times as great as the distance between the spirals: and therefore a power at the handle, whose intensity is equal to no more than a single pound, will balance 152 pounds acting against the screw; and as much additional force as is sufficient to overcome the friction, will raise the 152 pounds; and the ' velocity of the power will be to the velocity ofthe weight, as 152 to 1. Hence it appears, that the longer the winch is, and the nearer the spirals are to one another, so much the greater is the force of the screw. A machine for showing the force or power ofthe screw may be contrived in the following manner:—Let the wheel C have a screw (fig. 24) on its axis, working in the teeth of the wheel D, which suppose to be 48 in number. It is plain, that for every time the wheel C and screw are turned round by the winch A, the wheel D will be moved one tooth by the screw; and therefore, in 48 revolutions of the winch, the wheel D will be turned once round. Then, if the circumference of a circle, described by tbe handle of the winch A, is equal to the circumference of a groove round the wheel D, the velocity of the handle will be 48 times as great as the velocity of any given point in the groove. Consequently, if a line G goes round the groove, and has a weight of 48 pounds hung to it, a pow- er equal to 1 pound at the handle will balance and sup- port the weight. To prove this by experiment, let the circumferences of the grooves of the wheels C and D be equal to one another; and then if a weight H, of 1 pound, is suspended by a line going round the groove of the wheel C, it will balance a weight of 48 pounds hanging by the line G; and a small addition to the weight H will cause it to descend, and so raise up the other weight. If a line G, instead of going round the groove of the wheel D, goes round its axle 1, the power of the machine will be as much increased as the circumference of the groove exceeds the circumference of the axle; which sup- posing to be six times, then one pound at H will balance six times 48, or 288 pounds, hung to the line on the axle: and hence the power or advantage of this machine will be as 288 to 1. That is, a man who by his natural strength could lift a hundred weight, will be able to raise 288 cwts. by this engine. If a system of pulleys was applied to the cord H, the power would be increased to an amazing de- gree. When a screw acts in a wheel in this manner, it is called an endless screw. When it is not employed in turning a wheel, it consists of two parts: the first is called the male or outside screw; being cut in such a manner, as to have a prominent part going round the cylinder in a spiral manner, which pro- minent part is called the thread of sic screw: the ot!;er part, wiiich is called the female, or inside screw, is a solid body, containing a hollow cylinder, whose concave sur- face is cut in the same manner as the convex surface of the male screw, so that the prominent parts of the one may fit the concave parts of the other. A very considerable degree of friction always acts against the power in a screw; but this is fully compen- sated by other advantages; for on this account the screw continues to sustain a weight, even after the power is re- moved, or ceases to act, and presses upon the body against which it is driven. Hence the screw will sustain very great weights: insomuch that several screws, properly applied, would support a large building, whilst the foun- dation was mending, or renewed. OF COMPOUND MACHINES. Though itis evident from the principles delivered above, that any of the mechanical powers is capable of over- coming the greatest possible resistance, in theory; yet, in practice, if used singly for producing very great ef- fects, tliey would be frequently so unwieldy and unma- nageable, as to render it impossible to apply them. For this reason, it is generally found more advantageous to combine them together; by which means the power ia more easily applied, and many other advantages are ob- tained. In all machines, simple as well as compound, what is gained in power is lost in time. Suppose that a man, by a fixed pulley, raises a beam to the top of a house in two minutes, it is clear that he will be able to raise six beams in twelve minutes; but by means of a tackle, with three lower pulleys, he will raise tbe six beams at once, with the same ease as he before raised one; but then he will be six times as long about it, that is, twelve mi- nutes: thus the work is performed in the same time, whether the mechanical power is used or not. But the convenience gained by the power is very great; for if the six beams are joined in one, they may be raised by the tackle, though it would be impossible to move them by the unassisted strength of one man. Consequently, if by any power you are able to raise a pound with a given velocity, it will be impossible, by the help of any machine, to raise two pounds with the same velocity; yet, by the assistance of a machine, you may raise two pounds with half that velocity, or even one thou- sand with the thousandth part of that velocity; but still there is no greater quantity of motion produced, when a thousand pounds are moved, than when one pound is moved; the thousand pounds moving proportionally slower. No real gain of force is, therefore, obtained by mecha- nical contrivances; on the contrary, from friction, and other causes, force is always lost; but by machines we are able to give a more convenient direction to the moving power, and to apply its action at some distance from the body to be moved, which is a circumstance of infinite importance. By machines also, we can so mo- dify the energy of the moving power, as to obtain effects which it could not produce without this modification. In machines composed of several of the mechanical powers, the power will be to the weight, when they are in equilibrio, in a proportion formed by the multiplication of the several proportions which the power bears to tbe MEDALS. was the drachma, or eighth part of an ounce, of which Mr. Pinkerton describes the medial value to be ninepence sterling: the didrachm, tridrachm, and tetradrachm, ex- plain themselves, except thetetradrachm of theiEginean standard, which was valued at five shillings. This last was the largest form of the Greek silver coins. The sil- ver divisions of drachma were the tetrobolion, the hemi- drachm or tribolion, the diobolion, theobolus, the hemio- bolion, the tetrabolion, and dichalcos; the first of the value of sixpence, the last of a farthing and a half. Of the distinct names by which many of these coins were called among the different states, our intelligence is par- tial; nor are such names of consequence. The next Greek coinage, in point of antiquity, is that ef copper, wiiich is said not to have been introduced till four hundred and four years before the christian sera. The first copper coin of Greece was the chalcos, of which two went to the quarter of the silver obulus. In days of poverty, however, even this was divided by different states into different portions, which were called hvxi*,or little coins. The lepton, dilepton, and tetralepton, were the divisions of the chalcos, the smaller of which, from their perishable size, are very rare. Such were the brass coins of Greece previous to the subjection of that country to the Roman empire. The earliest of the gold coins of Greece are those of Philip of Maccdon, although they were struck in Sicily considerably earlier. Philip, having conquered the city Crenides, on the confines of Thrace, found gold-mines in its neighbourhood, formerly ill explored, and of small produce. From this gold he first struck the coins called Philippi, because of his portrait wiiich appears on them. The Philippi it should seem were didracluns, the form most universal in the ancient coinages of gold; and at their first appearance went for 20 silver drachma;, but in latter times for 25 Greek drachmae, or Roman denarii. The Philippus was also called Xpc.«-or. There were like- wise the Tipitfvros and the Terxfro^fve-e^ with gold coins of Cyrene, which could not have gone for more than two drachmas of silver. There were also the A« xfvd- vessiis on the one hand, and mere debility on the other, by comparing it with the smothered sound which may be supposed to be emitted from a musical instrument, pro- vided a heavy weisht were anolied to the chords; which ought to be suffered to vibrate freely and without ob- struction, in order to produce a full and harmonious sound. An illustration of a similar nature is likewise era- ployed by Dr. Jackson. Dr. Brown defines fever, « an asthenic disease that disturbs the pulse." In this, however, there is the same want of distinction which we have just complained of in the definition of Dr. Cullen. Asthenic diseases are dis- eases of deficient excitement; but in fevers we have an in- terruption rather than diminution of power. The facul- ties are locked up, not lost. Of the phenomena of fever. Dr. Cullen very properly selects the more ordinary circumstances that present themselves in the course of an attack of intermittent fe- ver, as an example of what occurs with more or less re- gularity in every case of genuine febrile disorder. " The following," he says, " are to be observed in such a paroxysm. The person is affected with languor or sense of debility, a sluggishness in motion, and some uneasiness in exerting it, with frequent yawning and stretching. At the same time the face and extremities become pale, the features shrink, the bulk of every ex- ternal part is diminished, and the skin over the wiiole body appears constricted as if cold had been applied to it. At the coming on of these symptoms, some coldness of the extremities, though little taken notice of by the patient, may be perceived by another person. At length the patient himself feels a sensation of cold, commonly first in his back, but then passing over his whole body; and now his skin feels warm to another person. The pa- tient's sense of cold increasing, produces a tremor in all his limbs, with frequent successions or rigors in the trunk of the body. When this sense of cold and its ef- fects have continued for some time, they become less vio- lent, and are alternated with warm flushings. By de- grees the cold goes off entirely; and a heat greater than natural prevails and continues over the whole body. With this heat the colour of the skin returns, and a pre- ternatural redness appears especially in the face. Whilst the heat and redness come on, the skin is relaxed and smooth, but for some time continues dry. The features of the face and other parts of the body, recover their usual size, and become even more turgid. When the heat, redness, and turgescence, have increased and continued for some time, a moisture appears on the forehead, and by degrees becomes a sweat, wiiich gradually extends downwards over the wrhoIe body. As this sweet continues to flow7, the heat of the body abates; the sweat, after con- tinuing for some time, gradually ceases, the body returns to its usual temperature, and most of the functions are restored to their ordinary state. Species of fevers. The general division of systema- tic is into continued and intermittent. The very correct description above given answers, as we have stated, to a single paroxvsm or fit of fever. It is not however often that the disorder terminates with the decline of the parox- ysm. Inthe course of a certain time it is renewed: and according to the suddenness or tardiness of the parox- ysm's recurrence, the fever is called continued, remittent, or intermittent. Sometimes, indeed, the disordered ac- tions recur with such celerity, that the fever appears to be one continuous series; " the remission is inconsidera- ble, is perhaps without sweat,, and the returning pm-ox MEDICINE. ysm is not marked by the usual symptoms of a cold stage, but chiefly by tlie exacerbation or aggravation of the hot one." The disease in this last case is considered as a continued fever; in whicli, however, there is, though not the distinct stages of an intermittent, almost invaria- bly, especially in tbe earlier periods, a diurnal remission and recurrence of paroxysm. Of intermittent fevers, the paroxysms, such as we have just described, are always finished in less than 24 hours, and most frequently are not extended to nearly this time. We are then furnished with a natural division of fever into intermittent and continued, which however have many circumstances in common, and often pass into each other; thus, what is termed in the schools'a quartan in- termittent, formed by an interval of 72 hours from the commencement of one to the commencement of another paroxysm, will in its course become a tertian ague, with only 48 hours of interval: this again shall fall into a quotidian, characterized by an interval of only 24 hours. A quotidian shall pass into the state of a remittent, and this last be converted into a true continued fever. Besides, however, this leading distinction of fever, from the times of the recurrence of the fits, wc have ma- ny others arising from the nature ofthe constitution of J.hc individuals attacked, the prevailing condition of the j.tmosphcrc, and other extraneous circumstances, and likewise (what is ascertained however with less exact- ness) the specific difference of the exciting cause; thus, common fever has sometimes the inflammatory, at oth- ers the typhoid, character. Thus are presented the bili- ous remittent fever of dampj and warm climates, the yellow fever ofthe West India islands, the jail fever of crowded prisons, and the plague in Eastern countries. On Cullen's genera. It will be perceived that under the appellation of fever we confine ourselves to the conside- ration of what has been by way of distinction termed sim- ple fever, and perhaps with propriety regarded by Mr. Wilson as " the only general disease," other diseases being either local, or general and local. Thus the sensi- tive irritated fever of Darwin, which forms principally the phlegmassia of Cullen, is a disorder cither sympto- matic of, or at least supported by. local irritation. The genera of Dr. Cullen of continued fever, are, 1. Synocha. " Great heat, pulse frequent, strong, and hard; high-coloured urine, the functions of the sensori- um not much impaired." Such character, however, docs not answer to any case of simple fever; it is the defini- tion of what Dr. Brown calls the sthenic, which is op- posed to the true febrile state. 2. Typhus. " A contagious disease, the heat not much increased, pulse frequent, small, and weak; urine little changed, sense much impaired, and the strength greatly diminished." This definition approaches nearest to the more usual form of fever in this country. That part of tlie definition, however, is extremely defective which de- scribes the heat as not much increased. 3. Synochus. This is made by Cullen a kind of inter- mediate disease between synocha and typhus. Exciting causes of fever. On this subject the most op- posite opinions prevail. It is imagined by some, that no case of genuine fever, beyond those ephemcraMrritations which are of daily occurrence, can possibly originate with the previous application, cither through the medi- um of the lungs, or the surface of the body, of a certain something generated in the system of another individual in the course of the same disease. Others infer, from the daily observation of febrile diseases where no com- munication with the sick can be traced or suspected, that although the febrifacicnt matter just spoken of be in ma- ny, it is not in all instances the cause of fever; that cold, damp, heat, putrid exhalations whether animal or vege- table, insufficient ventilation, the depressing passions, kc are all, either singly or in conjunction, capable, un- der some circumstances, not merely of predisposing to, but of actually engendering, proper fever. Lastly, there are some who consider contagion, or the generation in fever of specific febrifacicnt matter, as totally imaginary; and conceive iu instances where fever has spread by communication, that either certain undetected conditions in the air, or tlie confined effluvia of animal excretions accumulated by want of cleanliness and ventilation, with other circumstances, are causes sufficiently adequate to produce the affection, without supposing the agency of a specific and occult power. " It is from nastiness," says one of the most celebrated of the anticontagionists, " degenerating into infection by chemical changes, that the bodies, clothes, beds, and apartments, of the poor in Great Britain, derive their poisonous, their pestilential charge. By a common putrefactive process, this septic venom is formed, and derives none of its qualities from pulsating arteries or glands. Away then with this pre- posterous phrase,« from the poison engendered by septic processes.' Let human contagion for the future mean nothing but small-pox, vaccinia, and the kindred forms of morbid secretions." (Dr. Rush.) Notwithstanding, however, the circumstances here pointed out and rested upon, we conceive the general facts to be in favour of poison engendered, independant of mere putrefaction or filth; and we shall shortly state the grounds upon which our opinion is established, when upon the subject of preventing the spread of fever. That contagion, however, is absolutely requisite to the production of this disorder, in every instance, does not seem an opinion authorized by facts, although it must be admitted that the negative is incapable of proof: for when we refer to its generation from mere filth aud sloth, un- der the circumstances just mentioned from Dr. Rush, it may be replied, that contagion in such cases might have been in some manner conveyed without suspicion, and that the situation of the recipient constituted merely a predisposition to suffer from its application. A contest has likewise arisen respecting the produc- tion of intermittent as well as continued fever. Inter- mittent fevers are observed to prevail especially in situ- ations the soil of which is marshy: on this account it has been imagined, that they arc invariably consequent upon a certain taint or miasma arising from moist ground. " The similarity ofthe climate, season, soil, in the differ- ent countries in wiiich iutermittents arise, and the simi- larity of the disease, though arising in different regions, concur in proving that there is one common cause of these diseases, and that this is the marsh miasma." (Cul- len.) Dr. Brown and others have contended, that the noxious influence of cold or of heat, " when the com- mon asthenic noxious powers accompany cither," are sufficient to occasion genuine intermittent. It however MEDICINE. appears an established principle, that intermittent fevers arc most frequently the offspring of poison arising from marshes or moist ground. That other causes act in con- junction, anil augment the predisposition, is likewise an established fact; for the agues of marshy countries occur most abundantly at cold seasons which have succeeded hot ones, and especially amongst those whose diet has been innutritious and unstimulating. It is also beyond dispute that more cold or poor living will induce ague after the habit has been once established. Proximate cause of fever. On this subject the follow- ing errors appear to have misled systematics. 1. A want of distinction between final and proximate cause; be- tween inquiries instituted in order to divine the inten- tions of nature, and a careful examination of the pheno- mena of nature as they occur in sequence. 2. The in- divisibility of the body, and the universal nature of the disorder, have been too much overlooked. Fever has been considered as au affection of parts rather than of the universal system. 3. An error which appears to re- sult from the conjunction ofthe two former; that shrink- ing and coldness ofthe external surface, which is merely a consequence and concomitant effect resulting from a febrile attack, has been viewed as a cause of the other symptoms which present themselves in the course of the affection. " The remote causes of fever," says Dr. Cullen, " are certain sedative powers applied to the nervous system, which diminishing the energy of the brain, thereby pro- duce a debility in the whole of the fuctions, and particu- larly in the action of the extreme vessels; this debility proves an indirect stimulus to the sanguiferous system, whence by the intervention of the cold stage, and spasm connected with it, the action of the heart and larger arte- ries is inn-cased, and continues till it has had the effect of restoring the energy of the brain, of extending this energy to the extreme vessels, of restoring therefore their action, and thereby especially overcoming the spasm affecting them." Inthe historical sketch of the progress of medical the- ory with which weiniroduced the present article, it was ob- served thatthe spasmodic theory of Hoffman engendered that of Dr. Cullen. In the hands, however, of this last systetnatist, the doctrine in question appears to have re- ceived mutilation rather than amendment: Dr. Cullen add- ed another set of entangled links to the previously entang- led chain. The shrinking, coldness, and general inac- tivity, observed at the commencement of fever fits, and which are the necessary consequences of the sudden quiescence throughout the system, induced by the pecu- liar action of the noxious powers producing fever, our author considers as one of nature's first steps in obtain- ing relief and obviating the progress of the disorder. On this theory wc may in the first place remark, that when the progress of a febrile affection is arrested by remedies applied during the first or cold si age. both the torpor of tlie brain and the shrinking of ihe sin face may he removed without the intervention of the hot fit. In- deed, obviating the recurrence of this constitutes the cure of fever. The succession, then, ofthe hot fit is not a necessary consequence of the previous cold one, much less is it an agency contrived by nature to remedy this last. The theory is likewise •'•' erroneous, in as far as it enters into the supposed intentions of nature." Secondly, the action of the heart and larger arteries is not, as is justly observed by Dr. Darwin, occasioned in the mechanical manner of reaction, which the theory we are canvassing supposes. During the continuance of the cold fit, the whole circulation is lessened, or in a manner suspended, the blood is not retreating for safety to the centre, less blood passes through the lungs as well as through the vessels on the surface of the body; the fortress, and not merely the outposts, has received the. attack of the enemy. Now, when the hot fit comes on, the marks of irritation, or as Dr. Brown happily terms it, of "counterfeited vigour," by which it is characterized, are merely consequent upon the natural stimuli acting upon accumulated irritability, of irritability accumulat- ed by the previous quiescence of the cold stage, and are not to be attributed to the blood's reacting and flowing back in order to influence and occupy the parts and cavities wiiich it had deserted. This supposed action and reaction cannot indeed take place in that mode and to that extent which our theorists imagine. The human body is a living and not an hydraulic machine. The blood is not dammed up at one part in order to rush with violence into another. To illustrate: When even apart of the body only, as the hand, is immersed in water, or in any other way abruptly exposed to a diminished tem- perature for a short period, a lessened fibrous or vital action is the immediate consequence, the sensorial power or excitability accumulates in a corresponding ratio, and when the part is now again subjected to the influence of those powers which were previously operating, an irrita- tive and disturbed, in place of regular and healthy, action succeeds; the blood, however, does not flow into the empty vessels like the waters of a river intolatcral chan- nels: not more than the same volume of blood, in cases of much weakness not so much, now circulates through parts, the excitability of which has been changed, and an accelerated, but not, properly speaking, increased motion, with febrile heat, is the consequence. We have perhaps conceded too much to the spasmo- dic theory of fever, in likening the state of the surface in the cold fit to that produced in consequence of dimin- ished temperature, for in this last the shrinking is direct- ly prpduced; whereas, in fever, it is occasioned indirect- ly, or, as we have previously noticed, is merely one of the effects arising from the general interruption of the functions. Fever does not commence by attacking ex- clusively " the extreme vessels and the capillaries of the surface." The spasmodic theory of fever then, is not only a sub- stitution of terms for an explanation of facts, but even the phraseology which it emplovs in order to trace and connect the leading symptoms of the malady, appears to he deduced from defective knowledge of the laws and qualities of life. It is physically, metaphysically, and practically wrong. " Fever fits are not efforts of na- ture to relieve herself." Darwin. Before proceeding further, it may be proper to notice one or two defects, as they appear to us, in tlie ingenious theory of the author of Zoonomia. In our remarks !<;tion of caloric is diminished. Such an opinion has been ingeniously argued by Dr. Reid; and if the following observations of Dr. Darwin are just, they appear to place the matter beyond dispute. " The pers- pirable matter," says this last author, "is secreted in as great quantity during the hot fit of fever, as towards the end of it, when the sweat is seen upon the skin. But during the hot fit, the cutaneous absorbents act also with increased energy, and the exhalation is likewise increas- ed by the greater heat of the skin; and hence it does not appear in drops upon the surface; but is in part reabsorb- ed and in part dissipated in the atmosphere. But as the mouths of the cutaneous absorbents are exposed to the cool air or bed-clothes; while those of the capillary glands, which secrete the perspirable matter, are exposed to the warmth of the circulating blood; the former, as soon as the fever fit begins to decline, lose their increased action first; and hence the absorption of sweat is dimi- nished, whilst the increased secretion of it continues for some hours afterwards, which occasions it to stand in drops upon the skin. As the skin becomes cooler, the evaporation of the perspirable matter becomes less as well as the absorption of it. And hence the dissipation of aqueous fluids from the body, and consequent thirst, are perhaps greater during the hot fit than during the subse- quent sweat. For the sweats do not occur, according to Dr. Alexander's experiments, till the skin is cooled from 112 to 108 degrees of heat; that is, till the paroxysm be- gins to decline. From this it appears that the sweats are not critical to the hot fit, any more than the hot fit can be called critical to the cold one, but simply that they are the natural consequences of the decline of the hot fit. And from hence," continues our author," it may be concluded, that a fever fit is not an effort of nature to restore health, but a necessary consequence of the pre- Jous torpor; and that the causes of fever would be less detrimental, if the fever itself could be prevented from existing, as appears in the cool treatment of the small pox." Of Purgatives and Emetics. Nothing, perhaps, is of greater moment in almost every stage and every kind of fever, than to preserve the whole of the alimentary canal free frem accumulations of col- luvies, kc. From a deficient attention to this principle, the medical practitioner is in many instances foiled in the treatment of this, and indeed in a variety of other diseases. Viscidities and impurities in the stomach and bowels, are often both effect and cause ofthe pcrsistanee of the febrile state; for as the'powc/s of assimilation are weakened by the induction of fever, so tiie consequent accumulations of foreign matter in the alimentary and intestinal canal, themselves prove direct sources ol irri- tation and disorder. In the priinarv stages of fever, an emetic has been known abruptly to arnst its progress, and the same purpose is sometimes accomplished, especi- ally in ephemeral affections ofthe febrile kind, by the employment of a brisk purgative, Iu the more advanced periods however ofthe disorder, the object oftlic physi- cian ought to be rather that of keeping the bowel* gently open, and this is best effected by saline in place of drastic purgatives; the former of which principally operate by exciting the exhalants on the internal surface of the in- testines to pour out their contents, the latter by stimu- lating in a forcible manner the intestinal fibre. It is a fact worthy particular notice in the treatment of fevers especially, that where due attention is given to ensure regular evacuations from the bowels, those sti- muli, the copious use of which is often necessary to sup- port the sinking powers in the last stages of the disease, are more freely admissible and abundantly more effica- cious: this is indeed an important principle in the treat- ment of diseases generally; and it is perhaps chiefly by virtue of preserving the excitability in an orderly and due condition for the agency of other stimuli, that pur- gatives, like sudorifics, fdVm so useful, and indeed the former, almost an indispensable, part of the remedial process iu ihe greater number of aliments. In intermit- tent fevers it is generally necessary to evacuate the bow- els by more stimulant cathartics, more especially when the cure of these fevers is conducted by the Peruvian bark. Having thus discussed the nature, causes, and treat- ment of fever, it may be propel*to present the reader with a recapitulatory view ofthe remedies which are re- quired in the different forms of this affection: as a pre- liminary, however, to such recapitulation, we shall make one or two remarks on the more unfavourable symptoms with which fever is sometimes attended, and on the pe- riods in which the disorder displays a greater or less disposition to terminate. The unfavourable signs are, in the first place, an ab- rupt alteration of type. If during fever, indicating in its primary stages no particular severity of disease, a rapid change take place in the feelings and expressions ofthe invalid; if upon the more ordinary symptoms, suddenly and unexpectedly supervene delirium, prostration of strength, an observable change in the countenance, ac- companied by irregular and partial alterations of heat and cold, without the intervention of the perspiring state, the patient's life is in considerable danger. The above changes are often indeed preludes to a speedy death. Weakness, quickness, and irregularity of pulse, de- lirium, tendency to fainting when iu an erect posture, prostration of strength, partial and irregular sweats, difficult respiration and deglutition, starting of the tendons, unusual foe tor in the excretions, great foul- ness of the tongue andfauces, are all evidences of a fatal tendency in the complaint; in general likewise it may be observed, that in cases where marks of great nervous ir- ritation attend the onset of a fever, even though the dis- order may not assume what has erroneously been termed the putrid tvpe, much danger is to be apprehended. In- deed, the^ management of fever is not seldom rendered more difficult, and the indications of treatment less decid- ed, from the absence of such type. Genuine nervous fevers are often the most obstinate and malignant. In fevers of this kind, indeed, the heat is < ftenso par- tial and irregular as not to admit of the cold affusion. Dr. Cunic in his Medical Reports, describes a fever in MEDICINE. which this remedy was tried without success. This fe- ver, says Dr. Currie, does not appear to originate in contagion, or to be propagated by contagion. Calculations respecting critical days have been in some measure forced and systematic. It is worthy how- ever of remark, that continued fevers as well as intermit- tent, in the successive stages of their course, are dispos- ed to assume progressively the quotidian, tertian, and quartan aspect. Thus, if the fever has lasted more than a week, the ninth and eleventh days from its first attack are those on which we may anticipate its declination; after the second week the seventeenth and twentieth are the more usual days of termination. These, however, are by no means unexceptionable rules. RECAPITULATION OF THR TREATMENT OF FEVER. Treatment of continued fever during the first three or four days. Cold affusion. Water to be impregnated with salt, its application to be confined to the hot stages of the paroxysm. Large draughts of cold water taken un- der the same limitation. Cold and pure air. Emetics. Purgatives. Antimonial and saline sudorifics. After the fifth or sixth day. Cold and tepid ablution. Water employed to be impregnated with salt or mixed with vinegar. In the urgency of debility, coldness, or de- lirium, pediluvium or the warm bath. Bowels to be kept gently but constantly open, by saline or mild purgatives and subacid drinks. While the skin is preserved moist by diaphoretics, give opiates and wine; these last arc al- most invariably improper when the skin is dry and hot, and the bowels costive. For head-ache and other ner- vous affections, blisters, asther, camphor. In the last sta- ges, when critical sweats break out. and the powers of life appear to be shrinking from the contest, repeated glasses of port wine with tincture of opium in large quan- tities. During the whole couse of tbe disease, the apart- ment to be diligently preserved cool, clean, constantly ventilated, and free from all individuals but those who lire necessary attendants on the sick. I'reatment of intermittent fever. Cold affusion imme- diately upon the full accession of the hot fit. Warm bath, warm spiced wine, during the cold stage ofthe paroxysm. Tincture of opium, either previous to the accession of the cold; or towards the decline of the hot fit. Emetics, immediately preceding the accession of the paroxysm. Calomel purges before the administration of tonics; ar- senic, zinc, Peruvian bark, quassia, and if any enlarge- ment of one of the viscera (ague cake) appear, steel. Hope: upon the excitation of hope the power of charms altogether depends; these sometimes succeed in ague, when other remedies are counteracted by the violence of the complaint. Although he have judged it expedient to enumerate the different medicines which in the event of fever's pro- traction maybe requisite, it is proper to observe that the progress of the complaint may for the most part be ab- ruptly arrested, and the necessity of other means of cure consequently superseded, by an early and judicious em- ployment of tbe cold affusion. If the application of the wrater in the mode described in the narrative of Dr. Wright be objected to, a shower bath may be employed, or, what is au excellent and convenient substitute for the voi,. ii. 82 latter, a common gardener's watering-pot; the patient is to be taken out of his bed, if convenient, conducted or carried into an adjoining apartment, and the water pour- ed from this instrument as hastily as it will admit of over his naked body; the skin is then to be quickly and effectually dried with towels, and tbe invalid reconducted to his bed; this course is to be repeated with the full re- currence of the hot paroxysm, even should this be on the same day, and continued, if requisite, on the following days, until the disorder's decline; or, in the pointed lan- guage of a modern writer, until " the fever be washed away." (Reid's Medical Reports, Monthly Magazine.) Fever Houses, $c. The rapid and extended diffusion of fever through families and districts might be deemed sufficient evidence in favour of matter engendered by febrile action, having the power to produce a similar disorder in another indi- vidual. The fact, however, appears to have been plac- ced beyond doubt by the unfortunate result of several experiments made with sceptical temerity in order to prove the negative of this assumption. While the writer of the present article was pursuing his studies in the Edinburgh university, several anti- contagionists, as these gentlemen were denominated, free- ly exposed themselves within what they regarded the imaginary sphere of contagion, in the wards ofthe in- firmary of thatcity; many in consequence became infected with fever, and in some instance the disorder had a fa- tal termination. In these instances the production of the disease could not be referred to want of cleanliness, or to any peculiar condition ofthe atmosphere; for the fever did not extend to those gentlemen attending the hospital, who were fortunate enough to remain satisfied with the previous evidence in favour of contagion. But with a knowledge of the evil, we have at length acquired a knowledge of its antidote; and it has been de- monstrated by experiments upon a most extensive scale, that, whether the matter producing fever be introduced into the system by the lungs, the surface ofthe body, or the stomach, its power to infect extends but an exceed- ingly small distance—three feet at furthest—from the pa- tient in whom it is generated, « when he is confined where the air has free entrance and egress." This fact, it has been well observed, " cannot be corroborated by too great a variety of testimony, nor repeated too often, until it shall be familiar not only to the most unlearned of tbe profession, but well known to the community at large." (Dr. Bateman.) Its application with that of another fact immediately to be mentioued, has already gone a considerable way to- wards the actual extermination of febrile contagion. This second fact is, that although infectious matter be rendered almost immediately inert by exposure to the air, it is capable of being rendered concentrated, and even transported to an unlimited distance, when made to come in contact with any material, even •• a rag or a hit of lint," if such material be excluded from the air. From these, one should expect unquestionable premises, sepa- rate receptacles, apartments, and houses, have been ex- clusively devoted to the admission of the sick in fever, and, as we have just observed, with the most eud en MEDICINE. and extended benefit, particularly to the inferior classes of the community. The example of fever institutions was set to the me- tropolis by the very active and laudable exertions of pro- vincial physicians. In Chester, Manchester, Liverpool, Dublin, Cork, and other large towns in the British isles, the plan of thus separating the infectious fevers from other diseases, had already been adopted, and at length an establishment of this kind was founded in Gray's- inn-lane, in London, and with the happiest effects. Among the internal regulations of these houses, the fol- lowing are the most important;—they have been adopt- ed in the fever wards of common hospitals, and apply in a general manner to private practice. Every patient when admitted into the house, is to change his infectious for clean linen; the face and hands are to be washed clean with warm water, and the low- er extremities fomented. •* The effect which thissaluta- ry change has upon the patient before any medicine is given, is often more beneficial than those which all the febrifuge drugs in the world could bestow." All dischar- ges are to be speedily removed. The floors of the sick room are to be washed twice a wreek, and near the beds every day. The cloths which the patient brings with him are to be carefully purified by washing the linen, and exposure for a length of time ofthe other habiliments to pure air. Blankets and other bed-clothes are to be exposed to the open and fresh air before they are used by another patient. Several windows of the apartment to be con- stantly opened in the day, unless the weather is very cold and wet; and some of them should not be shut in the night, if the patients are numerous, and the weather moderate. By a due enforcement of these regulations, the neces- sity in general may be obviated of employing the acid fumigations recommended by Morveau, Cannichacl Smith, and others, which have been ingeniously, and we think justly, imagined to operate upon the same princi- ples with atmospheric or pure air, viz. by oxidating, and thus destroying the virulence of the contagious effluvia. By cleanliness then, and procuring a free circulation of air, by guarding against the lodgment of contagious matter, and by keeping as much as possible from actual contact with the sick in fever, every cause is obviated from which infection can be communicated. The indivi- dual who resides in the house adjoining to a fever insti- tution is equally out ofthe sphere of contagious influence with one at fifty miles distance; nay, in the contiguous apartment, and even in the sick room itself, the immuni- ty is precisely the same: such are the preventive as well as the sanative effects of cleanliness and ventilation, which, whether in sickness or in health, cannot be too highly appreciated, or too extensively adopted. Order II.—Phlegmasice, Inflammations. When any part of the body has an unusual heat and redness, with pain and swelling, it is said to be inflamed. To constitute this state of a part, an inordinate action and dilation of vessels have generally been esteemed suf- ficient. Such opinion, however, has been questioned by the author of Zoonomia. " Inflammation," says Dr. Darwin, " is uniformly attended with the production or secretion of new fibres, constituting new vessels; this, therefore, may be esteemed its essential character, or criterion of its existence. The extension of the old ves- sels seems rather a consequence than a cause of the ger- mination or pullulation of these new ones; for the old vessels may be enlarged and excited with unusual ener- gy, without any production of new ones, as in tbe blush of shame or of anger." On the contrary, however, we are disposed to regard the formation of new vessels, wiiich does not perhaps take place in every case even of genuine inflammation, to be subsequent to, and not the oc- casion of, capillary dilatation. The case which Dr. Dar- win puts in opposition to this theory is not in point. It is permanent and forcible, not transcient and slight, exten- sion of blood vessels, which constitutes the inflamed state The eye maybe exposed to a vivid light, its vessels con- sequently act with more than ordinary excitement, and this to a certain extent without actual inflammation; but if such excitation be extended beyond a certain point, the small vessels ofthe organ shall be deprived of their proper resistance, and thus shall not merely trans- mit a more than due quantity of blood, but such blood shall in a manner become congested in their vessels, and shall cause pain, unusual redness, heat, and tumour. This induced weakness of the capillaries, ought then, perhaps, according to the opinion of some modern phy- siologists, to be regarded as the proximate cause of in- flammation; the too great or too little excitement on which it may have depended the remote cause; and the increased action of the larger vessels of the part, the proximate effect. The augmented action, if considera- ble, is accompanied by an irritation ofthe whole system; such irritation constitutes the " sensitive irritated fever" of Dr. Darwin, which is distinguished from simple, or what we have considered genuine fever, by its being a sequent of local affection. Sthenic and asthenic inflammation. The disturbance of the system does not correspond more with the magni- tude of the local disorder, than with the constitutional character of the individual affected. Of two persons that are the subjects of inflammation, as of the mucous mem- brane ofthe nostrils, constituting inflammatory catarrh, or a cold; ofthe pulmonary vessels, occasioning inflamma- tion ofthe lungs; or ofthe joints, forming rheumatism; one shall previously have possessed much constitutional vigour, the other shall have been languid and feeble—the former will have a sthenic, the latter asthenic disease This distinction in practice will be found of immeasura- ble importance. It was first distinctly pointed out h) Dr. Brown. We believe, however, that this author was mis- taken in the mode in which the inflammation of a part, and the disorder of the system, are connected; for the pur- pose of confirming his favourite tenet of sthenic and as- thenic disorder, he laboured to prove that the systematic in many cases of inflammation actually preceded the local disease—this is not the case. Even in tbe most violent forms of pneumonia, the disorder ofthe lungs precedes that ofthe system: and indeed sthenic disorder, indepen- dantly of local irritation, is in some measure a contra- diction in terms. High excitement, to whatever extent it may be carried, while there is no irregularity or want of balance in any of the corporeal or mental functions, and no affection of a part cannot be properly regarded MEDICINE. as a disease, however it may predispose to the diseased state. Termination of inflammation. Inflammation is said to be resolved when tbe natural state and action of parts are renewed without disorganization. If, however, the inflammation has existed for any time, or has been violent, an unnatural secretion takes place from the vessels in- flamed, which is called pus; this when collected or con- firmed, constitutes abscess, and when the inflammation ends in this manner, it is said to terminate by suppura- tion. In cases of much weakness, constitutional or in- duced, the vascular action in the part shall cease alto- gether, its excitability be irrecoverably exhausted, and what in scholastic language is termed gangrene be the consequence, which extending, shall form spacelus, or mortification. Resolution, suppuration, gangrene, are therefore the usual modes in which inflammation termi- nates. There are others, however, which are peculiar to certain parts; thus, an inflammation ofthe lungs often ends fatally by a copious effusion of a watery matter into the C'.ilular texture of these organs; thus, an inflammation of a gland shall end in schirrus, or hardness of the parts, depending perhaps upon the deposition of matter which remains unabsorbed. Species of inflammation. This disorder is systematical- ly divided into two leading species—phlegmonous and erytberaatic. The first is defined by Dr. Cullen, " an in- flammation of a bright-red colour, with a circumscribed pointed tumour, and tending towards suppuration." The erythema has a less vivid colour, with scarcely any tu- mour, spreading irregularly, burning rather than throb- ing pain, and terminating in vesicles. These species are principally established by the differ- ence of part upon which the inflammation may happen to fall. Thus if the disorder be seated superficially, or in any internal part where there is an uninterrupted ex- pansive or cellular texture, it will be erythematic or spreading; if it be more deeply lodged among muscular substance, it will be for the most part phleginonic. Indications of the disorder's decline. It scarcely requires to be observed, that a cessation of pain, a reduction of tumor, a loss of redness and heat, a diminution of the systematic disturbance, are all evidences that the inflam- mation is about to terminate. If, however, it be suffered to run on into the stage of suppuration, the indications of this state are, the pulse becoming fuller and softer, the patient being attacked with shiverings, and a pulsatory feel in the affected part. Again, the tendency to gangrene is denoted by the tumour losing of its redness, and as- suming a darker hue; by the sudden cessation of pain; sometimes by blisters arising near or upon the tumour; and, lastly, if the local disorder have been considerable, by a rapid declension of the pulse, and powers of life. Treatment. The indications of cure are to be deduced from the sthenic or asthenic disposition of the disease, and from the peculiar nature of the part or organ injured. Before the time of Dr. Brown, action, at least inflam- matory action, was too indiscriminately viewed as an evidence, of power; the inference from this highly erro- neous doctrine was, that inflammation almost invariably required for its cure a debilitating and evacuating plan of treatment. Nothing can be more inconsistent with the laws of the animal economy. " It had been," says the author of the Elemcnta Me- dicinse, "a prevailing opinion that the fits of the gout could not be constituted by debility, because inflammation accompanies them. This question he subjected to tbe test of experiment. He invited some friends to dinner; and by taking stimulants in their presence, recovered the most perfect use of that foot with which, before din- ner, he could not touch the floor for pain. By this he saw, that not only the gout itself, but the inflammation accom- panying it, was asthenic, that is, depending upon debility. Such he found likewise to be the nature ofthe inflamma- tions in the gangrenous sore throat, in chronic rheuma- tism, &c. &c." The application of this principle in the practice of medicine has proved of incalculable impor- tance. In conducting the cure, then, of inflammation, the physician is to be guided not so much by the extent and degree of the local injury, as by the nature of what Brown calls the prevailing diathesis; if inflammation be attended by a full, hard, and vigorous pulse, with other expressions of power, a debilitating plan of treatment is to be adopted; blood is to be drawn from the arm, saline purgatives are to be administered; col;!, under the limita- tions immediately to be mentioned, is to be applied, and tbe exciting powers as much as possible withdrawn. If, on the contrary, an equal degree of local affection shall be accompanied with feeble, although quick, pulse, and the remaining symptoms of debility, an opposite plan, under certain regulations and exceptions, is to be pursued; sti- mulants are to be thrown in, and the inflammation cured by impelling and supporting the torpid and feeble powers ofthe frame. But from the peculiar nature of the part or organ affected, the mode of treatment in the same de- gree and kind of inflammation will likew ise be materially modified. Thus an asthenic affection ofthe liver requires different stimuli from an asthenic affection of the sto- mach. Again, although in inflammation, as in fever, we gene- rally recommend the cool treatment, and consequent free admission of air, it is to be recollected that this prim iple is objectionable in some kinds of inflammations, as of the lungs. For example, in small-pox and in measles, we shall have the same degree of pyrexia, or fever, present; and cold air would be equally indicated in cither, were we to infertile proper method of treatment alone from the inflammatory excitement; but in measles the lungs are often the principal seat of the local affection, an oxygen- ous or pure atmosphere would prove too stimulating to these organs; and thus if we pursued general doctrines without particular exceptions, or overlooked "the pecu- liar nature of the part or organ injured," the object oi our plans would be frustrated and defi at d. As it relates to this important prim iple in medicinal agency, the system of Dr. Brown is exceedingly deficient. Tbe peculiar susceptibility of the separate organs our author overlooked in the rapid and general survey which he took of the animal economy. Genus I. Ophthalmia, inflammation of the eye. See Surgery. Genus II. Phrenitis, inflammation ofthe brain. This, as a sthenic affection, indcpendantly of proper maniacal disorder, or febrile affection, is an extremely rare disease. Symptoms. Redness of the face and eves, impatien e of light and sound, watchfulness, and furious delirium. MEDICINE Methodic medendi. Copious evacuations. " Foment the head with cold water for hours together." Blisters. Blood to be drawn from the temporal artery. N. B. The delirium of fever, which has been supposed to indicate an infia;u,nation ofthe brain, is for the most part of an asthenic nature, and requires stimuli. Genus III. Cynanche, quinsy. Species 1st. Cynanche tonsillaris, common inflamma- tory sore throat. M. M. Bleeding. Acid gargles. Saline purgatives. Blisters. Antimonial diaphoretics. Species 2d. Cynanche maligna. An accidental, but very common, symptom of scarlet fever. See Scarla- tina. Species 3d. Cynanche trechealis, croup. See In- fancy. Species 4th. Cynanche pharyngasa, a mere extension into the pharynx ofthe cynanche tonsillaris. Species 5th. Cynanche parotidsea. Tbe mumps is an af- fection of the parotid and maxillary glands, which ap- pears in the form of a swelling under the jaws: it is more common in some than in other counties of England. It sometimes appears as an epidemic. The mumps is in itself a slight disease; but after its declension, which is in general about the fourth day, the testes in men, and breasts in women, are very apt to be affected with swelling, iu consequence of some peculiar sympathy of these parts with the throat. M. M. If delirium supervene upon the retrocession ofthe swellings, blisters. "Foment the head with warm water." Darwin. Genus IV. Pneumonia, inflammation ofthe lungs. Genus V. Carditis, inflammation of the heart or pe- ricardium. Genus VI. Peritonitis, inflammation of the peritoneum. The disorder which is usually termed inflammation of the lungs varies in some measure its seat. Thus the diseased action shall be directed towards that part of the pleura which is called the pericardium, and then it may he called carditis; or it may pass down the diaphragm, or the peritoneum, and form the peritonitis of Cullen, the diaphragmatis of Darwin. The general symptoms, are, pyrexia, pain in the chest, difficulty of breathing, cough; and, if the disorder happen in the sthenic diathesis, the pulse is hard and frequent. -Sometimes the expectoration is tinged with blood. The particular symptoms are, in carditis, palpitation, with unequal intermitting pulse, pain in the region of the heart, vomiting, fainting: if the inflammation be par- ticularly directed to the diaphragm, the pain is situated towards the lower ribs, the respiration in a recumbent posture is extremely difficult, and the corners of the mouth are sometimes so retracted as to form a disagreea- ble smile, called risus sardonicus. M. M. It is ofthe utmost importance to attend to the prevailing diathesis. If the constitution is sthenic, and the disorder urgent, immediate and copious bleeding. Re- frigerant and emollient cathartics. Cool and equal, not cold and irregular, atmosphere. Diluent drinks. Total abstinence from animal food, sometimes during the first five days. Antimonial preparations. After venesection a blister on the pained part. Digitalis, in Dr. Currie's Medical Reports we find the following observations: " I have employed the digitalis to a very considerable extent in inflammations of the brain, of the heart, and the lungsj and have succeeded with it in cases where I otherwise should have despaired." In Dr. Reid's Treatise on Consumption wc meet with an acquiescence in this sen- timent on the fox-glove. Our experience, however, has taught us to value this remedy principally in other pul- monary affections than the more violent kinds of inflam- mation, as is mentioned under the head of phthisis. After the excitement has been moderated, opium in small doses. " Do neutral salts increase the tendency to cough?" Pediluvium. Small doses of calomel, to prevent adhe- sions. N. B. If pneumonia run on into suppuration pus w ill be discharged by cough, and thus a species of consump- tion be formed; or will be detained in the cavity of the chest, and constitute empyema. In either case, digitalis in large doses. Calomel. Opium. Peruvian bark. Genus VII. Gastritis, inflammation of the stomach. Symptoms. Violent pain in the region of the stomach, with pyrexia; small, frequent, and sometimes contracted, pulse; vomiting; hiccough. Causes. It may be occasioned by any thing acrid taken into the stomach; by blows on the region of this organ; and a slight species of it is often consequent upon taking cold liquids after exercise. M. M. In inflammation ofthe stomach and bowels wc have, in some measure, an exception to the general rule of cure, according as the disease appears sthenic or as- thenic. The pulse and vital powers are often suddenly reduced, and yet venesection is required. Warm bath. Fomentations. Anodyne and mucilaginous clysters. Blis- ters on the pained part. Genus VIII. Enteritis, inflammation ofthe bowels; fix- ed and distressing pain in the bowels. Pyrexia; pulse always quick, sometimes hard. Causes. The same as of gastitis. Likewise strangu- lated hernia, spasmodic colic, introsusception. M. M. The same as in gastritis after the urgent symp- toms have subsided. Small doses of calomel and opium. Genus IX. Hepatitis, inflammation ofthe liver. Symptoms. Pain in the region of the liver, extending to the clavicle and top of the right shoulder; difficulty of lying, on the left side especially. Pyrexia; high colour- ed urine; pulse frequent, strong, and often hard. Bilious evacuations, or jaundice. The tendency of the disease is to suppuration. M. M. Copious and repeated bleedings before the sup- purative process has commenced. Calomel, and cathar- tics of the refrigerant class. Digitalis in considerable doses. Blisters to the region ofthe liver. If suppuration takes place, the matter makes its way through the lungs, or the intestinal canal, into the cavity of the abdomen, or through the peritoneum to the surface. During this process opium and bark. N. B. The disease above described is principally an affection of warm climates. A species of chronic hepa- titis is more usual in Britain, and indeed is one of the most common maladies, especially among dram-drink- ers. Symptoms, Obtuse and weighty kind of sensation in the region ofthe liver; difficulty of lying on the left side; MEDICINE. -pain in the right shoulder; the countenance slightly mark- ed by hectic; dejection of spirits. (Edema of the ancles. M. M. Small doses of calomel, with, or without, opium. Tonic bitters, such as quassia, or gentian. An absti- nence from spirituous liquors. Genus X. Splenitis, inflammation of the spleen. Symptoms. Tension; tumor; heat ofthe left side; py- rexia; pain increased by pressure. M. M. Venesection. Blisters, cathartics, calomel, and digitalis. Genus XI. Nephritis, inflammation ofthe kidneys. Symptoms. Pyrexia; pain in the lumbar regions; re- traction of the testicle; numbness ofthe thigh; vomiting; costivencss. Causes. Aternationsofheatand cold; external violence, kc as in other inflammations but chiefly calculi. Distinctions. Nephritis is distinguished from lumbago by the more confined situation and pungent character of the pain; by the presence of pyrexia; and by there being in the latter no retraction ofthe testicle, or numbness of the thigh. It is distinguished from incipient psoas ab- scess, by the pain of this last being principally heated in the vertebral column; by such pain being increased on pressure of this part; and by its taking the course of the psoas muscle. See Surgery. M. M. Venesection. Digitalis, and opium. Nitrous aether. Emollient clysters. Castor oil. Demulcents. Genus XII. Cystitis. Inflammation of the bladder. Pyrexia. Pain and tumor above thepubes; pain in dis- charging urine; tenesmus. M. M. Venesection. Warm bath. Anodyne clysters. Diluents. Genus XIII. Hystcritis. Inflammation of the womb. Heat, pain, tension, and swelling in the lower belly; pyrexia; vomiting. M. M. Venesection. Mucilaginous clysters, with opiates. Anodyne fomentations. Genus XIV. Rheumatismus. Pyrexia; pains inthe joints, frequently extending along the muscles; heat and tumor on the part. Peculiarities. Rheumatic inflammations never, like others, terminate in suppuration. Dr. Darwin attributes this circumstance to the secondary and associate nature ofthe disease; the original cause, like that of the gout, not being in the inflamed part; and therefore not conti- nuing to act after the inflammation commences. Perhaps the peculiarity would be more properly referred to the nature ofthe parts that rheumatism attacks. Division. Rheumatism is sthenic, or asthenic: the lat- ter, or chronic rheumatism, often succeeds to the former; which tbe author just quoted refers to the deposition of mucus, or coagulable lymph, which the inflamed vessels had poured out in the first stages, remaining unabsorbed on the membranes of the joints. It would probably be more correctly attributed to the loss of energy in the parts affected: an opinion which appears to receive sup- port from the circumstance of the asthenic form ofthe complaint sometimes coming or in a direct way, without the intervention of the acute species. M. M. Bleeding would appear to be indicated in the sthenic kind of rheumatism: in this disorder, however, the physician is so often unexpectedly foiled by the rapid occurrence of indirect debility, that venesection is not often adviseable. In the acute rheumatism of the United States, blood letting is generally practised, and found absolutely necessary to give efficacy to the subsequent treatment in subduing the disease. Leeches to the inflam- ed joints. Volatile embrocations after the inflammation has in some measure subsided. Calomel, and opium. Sudorifics. Warm bath. " 1 have found digitalis an ex- cellent remedy in inflammatory rheumatism, one of the most tedious and intractable of all diseases." Dr. Cur- rie. Peruvian bark in chronic rheumatism. Volatile tinc- ture of gum guaiacum. Flesh-brush. Sea-bathing. Elec- tricity. Bath waters. Genus XV. Odontalgia, tooth-ache. See Surgery. Genus XVI. Podagra, gout. Symptoms. Pain in the joints, principally ofthe great toe, and especially ofthe hands and feet, returning at in- tervals. Previously to the accession ofthe inflammation the functions of the stomach are generally disturbed. The fits generally come on in the morning. Causes and peculiarities. Gout is produced in a system predisposed to its influence by the indirectly debilitating powers; such as a too liberal indulgence in fermented and spirituous liquors, high-seasoned meats, Ace and likewise by the directly debilitating powers of vegetable and wa- tery food, depressing passions, &c. The inflammation of this disease often alternates with, and appears in a manner vicarious of, torpor in other parts of the system; as ofthe brain producing apoplexy, the stomach consti- tuting d>spcpsy, and of the liver giving rise to jaundice: all which symptoms indeed may be considered as part of the disease. On this account gout has been divided into the atonic; that is, where a disposition to the infl unma- tion of the foot is observable, but does not actually take place; the rctrocedent, where, after the continuance for some time of such inflammation, it shall seem to be trans- ferred to another part, and thus form a gouty inflamma- tion of the stomach, or other organs; and, lastly, the mis- placed, in which the gouty tendency, instead of display- ing itself in its ordinary course, falls upon some other organs, as the lungs, the stomach, or the brain. Dr. Darwin supposes " the original seat of the gout to be the liver, which is probably affected with torpor not only previous to the annual paroxysms, but to every change of its situation from one limb to another." For this principle of associate action there does not, however, appear sufficient support; and indeed the sympathy is dis- played with more force and frequency between the in- flamed foot and the organs we have above mentioned (the stomach, the lungs, and the brain), than the hepatic vis- cus. It is indeed the nervous system, and not the glan- dular, with which the paroxysm of the gout appears to have the most intimate connection; and it would have found a more appropriate place under the head of nervous diseases, than where it now stands in the Nosolugv. It is, however, very often combined with calculary disor- ders. The predisposition to gout is evidently hereditary but the attacks of this maladv may, in general, be warded off, even from the most susceptible habit, by a temoerato mode of living. This principle is illustrated in an extra- ordinary manner by the history of Dr."Gregory, the pre- sent professor ofthe practice of medicine in Edinburgh" We have often heard him iu his lectures produce his own MEDICINE. as an instructive case of the beneficial effects of an absti- nence from fermented and spirituous liquors. Gout has been imagined, like fever, to be a sanative process of na- ture for the purpose of expelling something from the constitution. The doctrine, in either instance, is equally erroneous. M. M. Dr. Beddoes, in his Hygeia, says, that one of the greatest martyrs to gout he ever met with informed him, " that his freest year was that of a warmly contest- ed election, at which he was candidate for a county. He both drank and exerted himself at this time more than at any period of his life." The physician must be ex- tremely careful in his application of the remedy intro- duced into practice, the application of cold water to the inflame I part. In some violent cases this may be proper; but it should never be extended beyond the limit of plea- surable sensation. To bleed is likewise hazardous in the extreme. Dr. Brown's mode of suspending the par- oxysms has already been referred to; and every arthritic experiences temporary benefit from his dinner, his glass, and pleasurable company. It is by acting on the imagin- ation that empirics suspend the threatened attacks of gout. In this, as in numberless other instances, faith in, constitutes the virtue of, remedies; both therefore in chro- nic rheumatism and gout, we might place among the cu- rative agents metallic tractors, whether authorized by Perkins, or formed of old nails, as in the instructive ex- periments of Dr. Haygarth. Even a piece of scaling wax, or stick, when supposed by the patient to be the genuine tractors, operated in a most astonishing manner. (Haygarth on Perkins's Tractors.) The influence of the imagination over the body, whether in health or disease, has not been sufficiently acted upon in the profes- sional practice of medicine. The irregular affections in gout must be combated by stimulants carefully adapted to tbe excitability; for the spasmodic affections ofthe sto- mach aromatics and bitters, as ginger and quassia. If the head is affected camphor, musk, ether, opium; these likew ise arc remedies for the gouty asthma. The Port- land powder, which is a composition of bitters and aro- matics, may prove for a time highly useful; but the pro- tracted use*of medicines of this class is objectionable, as eventually detrimental to the stomach aqd general fibre. Regular and steady, and not capricious and merely tem- porary, abstinence from wine, spirits, and spices. The body to be preserved gently open. Pure air, moderate exercise, encouragement of cheerful habits. Warm and (told sea-bathing. Bathwaters. Very small doses of di- gitalis. Hop (huinulus lupulus)? Order III.—Exanthemata, Eruptions. The exanthemata are more nearly allied to genuine fever than those disorders of which we have just been treating, as the local affections are consequences rather tin n causes of the general irritation. They have been c- iied eruptive fevers. They are defined by Cullen con- tagious diseases, affecting a person only once during the whole of life, commencing with fever, and succeeded by eruption on the skin. The contagious matter upon which these depend may indeed operate upon certain parts more particularly, and"thus the disease be entitled to rank among the sensative, irritative, or symptomatic fevers. This, however, is by no means certain: the primary action of contagion, whether of a specific or general nature, has hitherto escaped the penetration of the pa- thologist. Genus I. Erysipelas, St, Anthony's fire. Symptoms. This disease does not correspond with the whole of the above definition; it is not contagious; and it has frequently been found to recur. The face is the more ordinary seat of this affection. After febrile irri- tation has commenced, and continued for a short time, during which there is often an unusual drowsiness, and sometimes delirium, the face suddenly becomes bloated, the eye-lids swell, and the skin is red an 1 blistered. If the disorder is violent, or ill-treated, the inflammation and redness extend down the neck, and spread some- times on the shoulders; the tumid appearance of the countenance increases; delirium supervene**, and the patient has been known to die apoplectic. The erysi- pelas is an er) thematic inflammation. Its scat is the rete mucosum. Its tendency is to gangrene rather than to suppuration. A fatal termination is said to be prin- cipally on tbe 7th, 9th, or 1 ith days. M. M. In no other affection is it of more urgent mo- ment to decide on the treatment by the nature of the prevailing diathesis. It has been observed, that in large and populous cities St. Anthony's fire almost al- ways appears in the form of asthenia; and in this case requires wine, bark, opium: while in the hardy consti- tution of the rustic it assumes a sthenic character, and demands the vigorous employment of what has been cal- led tbe antiphlogistic regimen. Venesection. Saline purgatives. Diluent drinks. Might not digitalis be employed with a prospect of singular advantage, as the disease has an evident affinity with certain species of dropsy? With respect to external application, it has been customary to use mealy substances, such as flour. So- lutions of lead, zinc, or alum, are improper, " as they stimulate the secerning vessels into too great action." (Darwin.) Cold water. Blisters to the part have of late been found important remedies in this species of inflam- mation. Genus II. Pestis, the plague, is an epidemic typhoid fever. Genus III. Variola, small-pox. Symptoms. After the pyrexial symptoms have continu- ed for three days, eruptions appear on the skin, which on the eighth day contain pus, and at length fall off in crusts. Species. The small-pox is divided into the distinct, and confluent: the first has more ofthe sthenic, the latter of the asthenic, character. In the former the eruptions are of aphlegmonic, in the latter of an erythematic or spread- ing, nature. The eruption of the distinct small-pox makes its appearance in circumscribed red spots on the face; in the course of two days the body and legs receive their portion. The fever now ceases, the face swells, the pustules enlarge, and on the eighth day are mature. The swelling of the face now goes off, and the hands and feet begin to swell, with a slight return of fever, which how- ever soon declines. In the confluent, or asthenic, species, the fits are not so regular; the eruptions are not circumscribed and pro- minent, but diffused, and scarcely appearing above the skin; a kind of erysipelas sometimes precedes them, and MEDICINE. every symptom denotes debility. The fatal termination is often* on the I lth day. Inoculation. The advantages of inoculation .for the small-pox need not be insisted on. The circumstances, however, upon which depends the more favourable cha- racter of inoculated over natural small-pox, does not ap- pear to have been satisfactorily accounted for. The only cautions requisite in preparing for inoculation, are to preserve the bowcln free from sordes, and to choose a time for the insertion of the matter when teething, or other irritative processes, are not going on in the sys- tem. With respect to the time, it has been well said, that inoculation ought to be performed either before the se- cond month, or after the second year. M. M. Cold air. The bowels to be preserved open. Animal food to be denied. If the fever runs high, anti- monials and nitre. In the confluent species, the alimen- tary and intestinal canal is with the utmost solicitude to be preserved free from congestions by purgatives, and the powers of the system supported by opium, bark, small doses of nitre, wine, pure air; vinegar aspersed about the bed, walls, and floor, of the apartment. Pedi- luvium. ; N. B. For an account of the vaccine disease, or cow- pox, see the article Vaccination. Genus IV. Varicella. The chicken-pox is a very slight disease; tbe eruptions sometimes assume nearly the cha- racter of the distinct small-pox; but there is not much irritation of the system, and they generally disappear in the course of three or four days from their first break- ing out. Genus V. Rubeola. Measles. Symptoms. Pyrexia, sneezing, inflamed eyes, dry cough, drowsiness; about the fourth day, or later, small red points appear on the skin, which in the course of about three days fall off in branny scales. " As the contagious material of the small-pox may be supposed to be diffused in the air like a fine dry powder, and mixing with the saliva in the mouth to infect the tonsils in its passage to the stomach, so the contagious material of the measles may be supposed to be more com- pletely dissolved inthe air, and thus to impart its poison to the membrane of the nostrils which covers the sense of smell; whence a catarrh with sneezing ushers in the fever." Zoonomia. M. M. Measles too often lay the foundation of pulmo- nary consumption, to prevent which the symptoms deno- ting" inflammation of the lungs are to be with much soli- citude obviated; and for this purpose venesection is often necessary. Small doses of tincture of digitalis are to be preferred to every other medicine. Steady and cool atmosphere, not cold air in currents. Refrigerant cathar- tics, with calomel. Animal food not to be given. Digi- talis, with a very small quantity of opium, for the cough succeeding to measles. Genus VI. Miliaria, miliary fever, is merely a symp- tomatic eruption of small red pimples about the neck and face, which in two days become white pustules, and des- quamate. They have a peculiar smell. Mmii anxiety and difficulty of breathing precede the eruption. This disorder appears to be a consequence of an improper beating regimen in fever. Genus VII. Scarlatina, scariet fever. Symptoms, kc After pyrexia has lasted about four days a scarlet eruption appears on the skin, sometimes attended with inflamed tonsils and cervical glands: these last sometimes appear without cutaneous eruption, and the disease has been called cynanche maligna. This dis order is apt to be mistaken for measles; but in scarlet fever there are no catarrhal symptoms as in measles. This disorder is very irregular in its aspect; aud often, without much care, fatal in its termination. Sometimes, without any alarming symptoms in the onset of the fever, a change takes place, and in the course of a few hours the patient falls into the arms of death. The unfavoura- ble symptoms are the same as in other fevers. It is a disease principally of children. Whether it depend upon specific contagion, like measles and small pox, is not perhaps fully ascertained. M. M. Cold affusion. Cold air. Antimonials, opium, bark, wine, saline purgatives or enemas, nitre, blister.-. See the section on Fever iu this article. Genus VIII. Urticaria, nettle-rash. After pyrexia for a day, small red spots, like the stinging of nettles, ap- pear on the skin, which almost vanish during the day, but return in the evening. It scarcely requires any me- dical treatment. The disease does not last more than two or three days. Genus IX. Aphtha, thrush. Spots on the fauces and tongue, by which this disorder is constituted, are almost always symptomatic of other diseased states. Genus, X. Pemphigus, " a fever attended by successive eruptions of vesicles about the size of almonds, which are filled with a yellowish^ serum, and in three or four days subside." The treatment is to be regulated by the nature ofthe attendant fever. . Order IV.—Hemorrhagic, Discharges of blood. The definition of this order is, pyrexia, with profusion of blood, without any external violence; blood when drawn from a vein showing the buffy coat. Discharges of blood, however, are often unattended with pvrexlcal irritation, and indeed for the most part are evidences not merely of local, but also of general weakness. Aug- mented energy in the larger propelling vess-is may in- deed overcome the resisting power of the smaller bran- ches, and produce what is called active hemorrhage; in this case we have only local debility to contend with in the cure. Dr. Darwin divides hemorrhage int > the arte- rial and venous, the latter of which he attributes to de- fect of venous absorption; it does not appear, however, thatthe veins act in the manner of absorbents, according to the opinion of our author. Venous hemorrhage de- pends upon general weakness, accidentally directed to the vessels from which the blood is poured out by rup- ture of their coats. It is alwavs a highly asthenic dis- ease. Rupture of blood-vessels, ana* consequent hemorrhage, has been ascribed to an immediate and primarv change effected in the constituent particles of the vital fluid. This supposition, however, seems to be tofalh unfound- ed; even in the most active hemorrhage the blood does not undergo •» orgasm, ebullition, turgcsi n< e. or exnan- sion," according to tho theory of Hoffmann. Genus I. Epistaxis, bleeding from the nose. MEDICINE. Symptoms. Pain or fullness of the head, giddiness, dimness of vision, drowsiness, irritation of the nostrils. It is the disorder principally of young persons, who have a lax and weak fibre; in some few instances it occurs as vicarious of obstructed menses, and sometimes appears iu men when the hemorrhoidal discharge has been sud- denly arrested. M. M. Cold applied to the neck and head. Mechani- cal pressure, or absorbing substances, to the nostrils. Acids and astringents internally. Avoiding irritation of the body or mind. The bowels to be kept gently open. Nourishing but not stimulating aliment. In theepistaxis of old people, and in cases of much weakness, bark, vit- riolic acid, opium. If the disorder is violent, and have depended upon the suppression of some other discharge, such discharge to be restored. Genus II. Hemoptusis. Spitting of blood. Symptoms. Redness of the cheeks, a sensation of weight in the breast, difficult respiration. Saltish taste in the mouth,.irritation in the trachaea, coughing up of florid blood. Hemoptysis more usually appears in individuals with a slender make and contracted chest, who are of an irri- table habit, and who have been subjected in their earlier years to epistaxis. It generally comes on at the age of puberty. Causes. Violent irritation of mind or body, sudden vicissitudes of beat and cold, too powerful exertion of the lungs, as in singing, coughing, playing upon wind instruments. Like epistaxis, and indeed more frequently, it immediately originates from obstructed menses. Some- times it appears vicarious of a gouty paroxysm. M. M. All irritation and irregularities to be carefully guarded against. Copious and repeated blood-letting of- ten necessary. Bowels to be kept evacuated by mild purgatives. Manna. Tamarinds. Peruvian or oak- bark, combined with mineral acids, especially the sulphu- ric. Opium. Digitalis in large doses, so as to occasion nausea. •• A table-spoonful of common salt." (Dr. Rush.) " One immersion in cold water, or a sudden sprinkling all over with cold water, would probably stop a pulmonary hemorrhage." (Darwin.) Procure a re- turn of the obstructed discharge. Phthisis pulmonalis, consumption ofthe lungs. Symptom?. Emaciation, weakness, cough, hectic fever, and for the most part an expectoration of pus. Dr. Cullen has introduced pulmonary consumption in- to his nosology, as a sequel of hemoptysis. This com- mon and fatal malady, however, often, and indeed for the m st part, originates indcpendantly of hemorrhage from the lungs. Its origin and progress are most usually ex- ceedingly insidious. The persons chiefly obnoxious to phthisis, are those of a scrophulous habit, who have been disposed previously to suffer by lymphatic tumours, who are of a slender make, havfc long necks and narrow chests, who have been liable in their early years to bleeding at the nose, who have had frequent catarrhal affections while children, and in whom cough has remained or been ill-treated after the eruptive diseases of infancy, more especially the measles. Tbese predispositions ordinari- ly break out into actual disease, at or shortly after the period of puberty. It is at this time that the pulmonary circulation becomes altered; and the seeds of the disease, hitherto latent, are expanded and developed. In any constitution then at this period, and more espe- cially in those that are characterised by a scrophulous tendency, a short and generally dry cough, succeeding perhaps to a trivial cold, attended with emaciation in thq smallest degree, and more especially if the pulse be ra- pid, and the cheek be marked by hectic redness, alternat- ing with more than usual paleness of countenance, the pa- tient is to be assiduously watched, and the disorder ear- nestly combated. Causes. Phthisical ulceration of the lungs, or confirm- ed consumption, is ordinarily produced through the me- diuin of tubercles, or small bodies, in the cellular texture of these organs, which by repeated and gradual irrita- tion, at length come to ulcerate and destroy the fabric of the lungs, and produce the symptoms of fully formed phthisis. The origin and actual nature of these bodies are not perhaps very evident; they were formerly erro- neously imagined to be indurated lymphatic glands. The more immediately exciting cause of pulmonary consumption is generally an exposure to' cold, which ope- rates in the manner described under the section Catarrh. Consumption, however, may be brought on by amenor- rhea, lues venerea, unseasonably repelled eruptive ac- tion on the surface, mental affections, kc. M. M. " The facility," says a modern author, " of repressing the primary symptoms of phthisis pulmonalis, is proportioned to its difficulty of cure when the charac- ters of the disorder are fully confirmed, and the texture of the lungs almost wholly destroyed." (Reid on Con- sumption.) In no case, perhaps, is neglect or early mis- management of disease more pregnant with irremediable evils, than in the instance of consumptive affections. Venesection in the inflammatory stage, and low diet. Bli.sters to the chest. Digitalis properly and timely had recourse to is " the anchor of hope." " In families where this fatal disease (phthisis) is hereditary, the use of this remedy as a prophylactic, will, I have no doubt,save many lives that would otherwise have been cut short." (Dr. Currie.) " Digitalis is a remedy in pulmonary con- sumption in its earlier periods, which under due regu- lations, and with sufficient attention to other circum- stances of regimen and diet, may be employed with a prospect of almost invariable relief." (Dr. Reid.) Other testimonies, equally decided, might be adduced in favour of this valuable remedy. Warm bathing. A regular temperature in the air that the person breathes. Warm clothing. Avoiding currents of air. Assiduously guard- ing against damp, and especially cold application to the feet, as by sitting with the feet on a stone floor, or an oil- cloth. Milk diet, of which Hoffman elegantly says, " Qua perplures phthisicos, in cymba Charontis quasi hsereui.es, sanatos, pristinseque redditos valetudini, novi." Avoiding all spirituous liquors, and spiced or high-sea- soned meats. Keeping the bowels gently open by man- na, castor-oil, senna, &c. Lva ursi has recently been re- commended by Dr. Bourne. These are the remedies of the first stage, or, more pro- perly speaking, the menacing symptoms of consumption. When the lungs have actually become ulcerated after gradual and protracted irritation, very little expectation of recovery can remain. Griffith's mixture, composed of MEDICINE. steel, myrrh, and alkali. Digitalis in larger doses, and combined with the above tonic. Uva ursi? opium and vitriolic acid. Digitalis combined with calomel. Change of climate. If a tendency to absorption from the surface of pulmonary ulcer could be induced greater than the de- position of it, we might have some prospect of curing the disease in its.advanced stages. In order to produce this absorption, sailing so as to occasion sea-sickness has been bad recourse to. Swinging, riding in a carriage, and other modes of occasioning a degree of vertiginous affection, and consequent nausea, have likewise been re- • commended and practised. Inhalation of a lowered at- mosphere, of other modified gases, and even volatile as- tringent substances, have been also proposed and tried, but not with decided benefit. Bath waters and cold sea- bathing are improper in every stage of the complaint. N. B. If consumption be symptomatic of other dis- eases, while the symptoms are subdued by thf above re- medies, the attention must necessarily be turned princi- pally towards the original affection. Caution. All the signs of consumption may be present without the presence of the disease. Debility, emaciation, and cough, may be brought on by nervous, independant of organic disease, as well as by worms and intestinal viscidities. Hectic fever may be occasioned in certain constitutions by mental affections alone; this likewise is sometimes induced by worms. Purulent expectoration, indeed, is decisive; but the nature ofthe sputa is not with facility, in every case, to be decided upon. Genus III. Hoemorrhois, the piles. Weight and pain of the head, vertigo, pain in the anus and loins, swellings and flux of blood from the anus. M. M. If symptoms of arterial activity accompany the haemorrhoids, bleeding and laxatives first followed by vitriolic acid, with moderate astringents, such as infusion of roses. Temperance, exercise, abstinence from spiritu- ous liquors and spices. Tamarinds. Lenitive electuary. Sulphur. Chrystals of tartar. Castor oil. Leeches. These two last remedies, are especially serviceable in wiiat are railed the blind haemorrhoids, where there is swelling with pain from congestion in the hsemorrhoidal veins, without any discharge of blood from the anus. When the hsemorrhoidal flux is attended with much de- bility, while the bowels are kept open by castor-oil and other similar purgatives, the more powerful astringents are to be employed. Steel. Exercise. Generous diet. Cheerful train of thinking. See Surgery. Genus IV. Menorrhagia, immoderate menstrual flux. Symptoms. Pain in the back and loins, vertigo, diffi- culty of breathing, flushes of heat and cold, frequent pulsp; in casis where the disease is more directly from debility, loss of appetite, paleness of countenance, cold- ness of the limbs, (edematous swellings about the ancles. M. M. In the first species, the menstrual irregularity generally arises from hysteric or nervous affections, li- bidinous desires, and other violent passions; in this ase attention must be paid to counteract the cause. Avoid stimuli of all kinds, mental or physical. Venesection if the pulse calls for it. Refrigerant cathartics, if costive- ness be present. Moderate astringents, such as inf.ision of roses, and the sulphuric acid. In the menorrlngia of direct debility, astringents, cordials, and stimulants. Peruvian bark and sulphuric acid, opium, alum, port wine. External application of cold water, or vinegar. Steel. See Midwifery. Order V. Profluvia. The profluvise are distinguished by Dr. Cullen from hemorrhages, by the discharges not being naturally sanguinary. This order contains two genera, catar- rhus and dysenteria, both of which might have found more appropriate situations even in Dr. Cullen's own nosology. Genus I. Catarrhns, a cold. Symptoms* Pyrexia, with increased discharge from the mucous membrane of the nostrils, and in violent cases of the fauces and bronchise, with cough. The term cold, which is made use of, in common lan- guage, principally to denote an inflammatory condition ofthe mucous membrane of the nose, is exceedingly in- correct; it not only confounds the effect with the cause of the disorder, but conveys an erroneous idea of the mode in wiiich such disorder is created. The operation of cold, unless through the medium of the sensations, is invariably negative; it is merely an abstraction of the stimulant power of heat, and by its application to the living body (from an invariable law of organic existence) renders the frame in a more than ordinary measure susceptible of such, and other stimu- lant powers. For example: Suppose an animal to exist in a medium temperature of 60°, let 10° be subtracted for a short period, and afterwards precipitately added, the 60° will now act as with a power, perhaps, of 65, on ac- count of the previous abstraction of stimuli producing, as it has been very properly expressed, " an accumulation of excitability." In this manner then is explained the agency of cold, in engendering inflammatory disorders, among which that wc are now considering is one of the most frequent; an explanation founded upon a principle for the developement of which we are unquestionably in- debted to the genius of Dr. Brown. This author, how- ever, made an improper use of his own discovery; he did not sufficiently take into account the complicated and combined functions ofthe animal economy; and the very first position which he deduced from the detection of tlis important, and indeed characteristic, quality of living existence, is practically incorrect. " Cold applied to the animal system never proves injurious unless succeeded by heat:" frigus nunquam nocet, nisi ubi ejus actionem calor excipit. In endeavouring to support this assump- tion, Dr. Brown and his disciples have aimed to prove that those symptoms which are usually characterised by the appellation of a cold, as well as rheumatism, and all other diseases arising from exposure to cold, are not occasioned until the same or a superior degree of exter- nal heat be restored; forgetting thatthe " accumulation of excitability" immediately resulting from diminished temperature is acted upon, and thus inflammatory irrita- tion engendered, by the remaining stimuli of the frame, external and internal. Thus an individual, while still exposed to the catarrh-producing temperature, while, for example, his feet remain wet and cold, shall have inflam- mation in the mucous membrane of the nose and fauces, febrile irritation, and all the usu i phenomena of catarrh; the balance f excitement being verturned, and turbulent irritaiit action being established iu its stead. MEDICINE. Further, the existence of a cold does not suppose the presence of a sthenic disease: indeed the exact contrary is the fact, for the malady will be occasioned with most facility when the frame is weak and irritable. Why the membrane of the nostrils, kc should be the readiest to suffer more particularly, does not seem to ad- mit of an easy explanation; it is important, however, to recollect what has been pointed out in an explicit manner by Dr. Beddoes, and since by Dr. Reid, that this mem- brane is a part of the same expansion with that which lines the windpipe and enters the lungs; so that in fact common inflammatory cold is a degree of the same disease with an inflammation ofthe lungs. M. M. Moderate and equal temperature. The bowels to be kept gently open. If the febrile irritation is consi- derable, blood letting, sudorifics. Antimonial, nitre. Oleaginous substances may be used to allay the cough; but irritating balsams, such as cough medicines are ge- nerally composed of, are in the highest degree detrimen- tal; they too often increase the disposition to, and some- times actually produce, confirmed consumption. Liquo- rice, honey, boiled fig, almond emulsion. If the phthisical tendency is conspicuous, digitalis (see the section on Phthisis pulmonalis). Genus II. Dysenteria, dysentery. Symptoms. Frequent but small stools, mixed with mucus, and sometimes with blood, attended with griping and tenesmus, the proper alvine excretions being retain- ed; pyrexia, pulse quick and feeble The disease is sometimes contagious and epidemic. Causes. Its predisposing and exciting causes are al- ternations of heat and cold, more especially when accom- panied by damp, as when an army is encamped on marshy ground; the putrid miasma arising from the marshes; the contagious effluvia proceeding from the discharge in the disease; and, according to sir John Pringle, from dead bodies left unburied in the field of battle. It is like- wise occasioned by unwholesome and putrid food. The immediate cause of the symptoms seems to be, a spasmodic constriction of the larger intestines, retaining the fseces. M. M. Castor-oil, calomel, opium, and rhubarb, to relieve the spasm, and discharge the contents of the bowels. Mucilaginous clysters, as of starch with tinc- ture of opium. Emetics. Small doses frequently re- peated of ipecaeuan. Colombo. Peruvian bark. Warm bathing. Class II. Neuroses, Nervous diseases. Man is indebted for all his acquisitions to casual ob- servation, leading to experiment. That the faculty we call the sentient resided in, or was developed through, tlie instrumentality of a peculiar and distinct organiza- tion, we should not, a priori, have conceived; there is no- thing in the composition either of brain or nerve to lead to this conjecture. If, however, a portion of the bony defence of the encephalon be accidentally pressed in upon its substance, and an interruption in the faculties of sen- sation and voluntary motion be the consequence; if such accident be repeated with the same result; finally, if it be found, as it has been, that by voluntarily producing p/cssure on this organ, similar effects may be occasioned iri proportion to the degree and extent of the force em- ployed} the inference will come at length to be indisputa- ble, that the brain is the organ or reservoir of sensation, and the medium tlirough which loco-motion is effected. Again, if it be found that at pleasure we can deprive any portion ofthe body both of sense and motion, by di- viding the nerve supplying such part, or cutting off its communication with the brain, we are likewise fully jus- tified in inferring, that the chord we have severed was the instrument by which the empire ofthe will had been exercised over the now inert and useless member. It is by the aggregation of such observances that wc arrive at the pathology of nervous, as a distinct class of morbid affections. When, for example, any particular member of the body suddenly refuses to obey the com- mand ofthe will, or, in common language, becomes pa- ralytic, although we may not be able to trace the remote cause from which this has originated, we know that it must have immediately depended upon some morbid change, either in the brain itself, or at least in the nerve supplying the organ indisposed. This mode of inferring the nature of what is not an object of our senses, by comparing it with what we ac- tually observe, will be found equally satisfactory, in re- lation to partial as total interruption of sense and motion; thus, by a less degree of injury done to a nerve, as by lacerating or puncturing, instead of dividing it, we shall perceive not an entire deprivation of, but merely an im- pediment to, the loco-motive faculty; the actions of the member will be in a manner refractory; and convulsive or irregular, instead of orderly and steady, motion, will follow the mandates of the will. If then, without the interference of an experimenter, and without visible injury to the animal structure, the movements of an organ become improperly accelerated, or cease to be exercised in their usual mode; if, to in- stance by example, the heart perform two feeble, in place of one full and vigorous contraction; we are authorized to state, that the disorder thus constituted is strictly and properly a nervous affection; and our conclusion, as to the fact, will be precisely the same, whatever theory we incline to, respecting the quo modo in which nervous power is displayed; whether with Hartley we conceive it to depend upon vibrations and vibratiuneles, whether we embrace the doctrine of universally pervading aether, or subscribe to the untenable positions of the author of Zo- onomia. Depraved perception and interrupted motion, are therefore the essences of nervous disease: the percipient, however, is to be distinguished from the motive faculty; for we have a class of living actions, which, although equally under the influence of nervous power with those over which the will presides, are nevertheless, in a state of health, incessantly carried on without perception or consciousness; thus, by impeding the functions of the nerves of the stomach, we may interrupt the function of digestion. Digestion, however, is a process performed without design, and independantly of volition; on the other hand, the intellect may be impaired by a derange- ment in the nervous system, while the digestive power shall proceed without tlie smallest hindrance. Dr. Cullen's definition of a nervous disease, would therefore have been more accurate, had he stated it to be an affection of cither sense or motion, without idiopathic MEDICINE, pyrexia, or visible disease of parts. The orders of this class (neuroses) are four: 1. Comata. A diminution of voluntary motion, with sleep or impaired senses. 2. Adynamic, a diminution of the involuntary motions of either natural or vital functions. 3. Spasmi, morbid motions of muscular fibre. 4. Vesanise, disorders of the judgment or intellect without primary pyrexia, or observable affection of any particular part of the body. Order I. Comata. Genus I. Apoplexia, apoplexy. Symptoms. Abolition of the sentient and loco-motive faculties, the sleep in general attended with snoring. The respiration, motion of the heart, and other involuu- tary actions, remaining. Causes. We conclude from the analogy above-stated, that there is some degree of pressure on the brain in al- most all cases of apoplectic stupor; but that effusion of blood takes place in the manner described by the gene- rality of authors, is exceedingly problematical; if the appearances on dissection are appealed to in behalf of this theory, it is answered, that such appearances can alone apply to fatal cases of the disease; and in such, an actual rupture of vessels and effusion of blood will readily be admitted. Epilepsy, palsy, and apoplexy, were contended by Brown to originate from the mere irregularity of nervous power consequent upon debility or deficient excitement; and to be occasioned without either an unusual impetus of circulation to the vessels ofthe brain, or impeded re- turn of blood from this organ. We believe, however, that although the cause of apoplexy often is in one sense mere deficiency of excitement directed to the sentient organization, the immediate occasion of the apoplectic symptoms is for the most part the state of the vessels of the brain. Apoplexy, for the sake of illustration, may be divided into sthenic and asthenic. If a vigorous and plethoric man, sitting down to his dinner and his glass, suddenly, during the excitement of conviviality, of niirih, and of alcohol, fall on the floor with deprivation of sense and apoplectic stertor, it must be evident thatthe fit has been induced by a greater flow of arterial blood into the ves- sels of the brain, than the veins of this organ could, in due time, convey away. The apoplexy has been induced in the manner of a sthenic disease. If, on the other hand, a debauched and debilitated indi- vidual be the subject of an apoplectic attack, at the time when the excitement of intoxication shall have been suc- ceeded by the condition of indirect debility, the disease will here have been brought about in a different manner; the impetus in the vessels of the brain shall have partaken of the general diminution of power throughout the whole system; sluggish vascular action shall have caused con- gestion; which congestion, in union with the deficient excitement on which it had depended, shall have induced that sudden suspension of the sentient faculty which con- stitutes the apoplectic paroxysm. Apoplexy often immediately succeeds to a full meal: what more natural than, under such circumstances, to at- tribute the fit to a distended stomach pressing upon the aot^a or large descending blood-vessels, and consequent determination ol the vital fluid in an inordinate measure to the head? Such conclusion, however, will not bear the scrutiny of strict inquiry. Upon this principle, the apo- plectic stertor aud insensibility ought to be ii'juced with most readiness, as in oneordynia or night-mare, while the body is in a recumbent posture, and the. stomach is most distended from the extrication of gas which takes place in consequence of the weakened digestive, power; in place of this, however, the fall is immediate; the at- tack is made while the body is in an erect position, and often before the stomach has become in a very great de- gree distended; the fit then arises, in this last case, from that degree of excitement wiiich the digestive pow- ers have called off to their aid, leaving the brain in a condition of insufficient energy, properly to propel the vital fluid through its owrn vessels; congestion of blood is the consequence, and this last the proximate or immedi- ate cause of the fit. M. M. The strictest attention to the manner in which the disorder has been brought on. If the disease is sthe- nic, and the physicians are called in while the paroxysm still continues, immediate and copious bleeding from the arm, the jugular veins, or the temporal artery. Every ligature about the patient's body, especially about the neck, to be loosened immediately. Press hard with the thumb and fore-finger upon the carotid arteries, taking care to avoid the jugular veins. Place the head of the patient high on his pillow, or seat him erect in a chair. Preserve the apartment cool. Cold water may in some cases be applied vigorously to the forehead and temples. Afterwards saline purges, and subacid drinks. Enemas. Carelul preservation from irregular and violent excita- tions, either of body or mind. Inthe asthenic, and by far the most usual form, ofthe complaint, bleeding with much less freedom and only during the paroxysm; in general, it is not at all proper. It is better to open the temporal artery, if convenient, than to bleed from the arm or jugular.,. Tlie application of cupping-glasses still preferable; apply blisters to the neck. When the power of deglutition has returned, cordials and stimu- lants. Opium and wine in very small doses. Volatile al- kali. Sprinkle vinegar about the room. To prevent the returns ofthe fits; tonics, particularly bitters, as Colom- bo, gentian, quassia; exercise and mental amusement, without violent excitation. Journeys to Bath or else- where. Preserve the body regularly open, without vio- lent purgations. Avoid sudden exposure to cold, especial- ly cold and wet feet. If the fit has followed the suppres- sion of any accustomed discharge, or cutaneous rrup. tion, let them, if possible, be restored. Genus ll. Paralysis, palsy. Partial interruption of the loco-motive faculty, some- times vviili a degree of apoplectic stertor. This is partial apoplexy, arising from similar causes operating in a less degree. It sometimes succeeds to a full fit of apoplexy, and continues for months, or during life. The palsy often alfects the whole of one side, and is con- fined to that side; hence it has been supposed, that the in- jury ofthe brain is likewise partial; and from the decusa- tion that has been imagined traceable ef the nerves from the cncephalon, Dr. Darwin and others have concluded, that the origin of the disease is on that side of the brain opposite to the affected side. MEDICINE. Palsy, however, certainly originates at times (even if genuine apoplexy docs not) from interrupted excite- ment, without any congestion in the brain, as its more immediate source, as when it results from the poison of lead and other causes. M. M. Ascertain the exciting cause, and if possible, counteract it. Emetics; purgatives, preceding stimulants and tonics. Tonics and stimulants the same as in asthe- nic apoplexy. Volatile embrocations to the paralyzed side or limb. Warm bath. Bath waters. Electricity. Galvanism. N. B. Fatuity, or second childhood, very often takes place through the medium of paralytic affections; the faculty of memory appears to be overthrown by the as- sociate sentient actions, which constitute this faculty, be- ing dissevered beyond the power of reunion; and exis- tence is reduced, in consequence, to a state of mere vi- tality from immediate impression. This is not seldom the case when the loco-motive power, and the energy of the muscular fibre, shall have been restored to their for- mer state. In this case the recollection of the past, and anticipation of the future, have both probably been irre- coverably lost. The mere possibility of his being reduced to this con- dition of humiliating existence, one would think a mo- tive sufficiently powerful to check the intemperate in his course. Order II. Adynamics Genus I. Syncope, fainting. Symptoms. A diminution, or even, for a time, a total cessation, in the action of the heart. Fainting may arise from passions of the mind; from sudden reduction of stimulus, as from bleeding, or draw- ing off the waters in dropsy; violent pain; the irritation of worms, or other crudities, in the stomach and bowels; much heat, offensive effluvia, &e: in these cases the dis- order has been called syncope cerebralis. » hen faint- ing arises from deficiency of oxygen iu the circumam- bient air, as in a crowded assembly, the cessation of the heart is produced nearly upon the same principles as in actual suffocation, drowning, or strangling. It is then termed syncope pulmonea. M. M. Immediately obviate, if possible, the exciting cause. Endeavour to restore sensation by aspersing cold water on the face and neck; attempt to force down a small quantity of brandy; and in all cases, but more es- pecially when the affection arises from impure air, throw open the windows, and prevent compassionate specta- tors from crowding round the insensible patient. N. B. If fainting, or palpitation, recur frequently, and without any manifest cause, either predisposing or exciting, there "will be reason to suspect that the disor- der is not nervous, but depends upon some malconfor- mation in the heart, or neighbouring blood-vessels. In this last case it is irremediable. Genus II. Dyspepsia, indigestion. Symptoms. Deficient, or depraved, appetite; nausea; vomiting; inflation from flatulence; heartburn; pain in the stomach, especially when the body is in a bent posi- tion; oppressed breathing; costiveness. This disease evidently arises from deficient action in the muscular fibres of the stomach, which in violent ca- ses amounts to inverted motion and vomiting. It acknow- ledges the same sources as other affections of weakness: these are, intemperate use of spirituous liquors, and of tea; exposure to damp and cold; irregular hours of repose; intense study; mental depression and anxiety; when ori- ginating from this last source the disorder has an equal claim to the appellation of hypochondriasis, or low spir- its, with that of dyspepsia. M. M. Purgatives, with calomel, previously to giving tonics. An emetic. Colombo, gentian, quassia. Magne- sia, in order to neutralize the acidity, and ease the con- sequent pain of heartburn if present. Chalk, which is used with the same intention, is im- proper, on account of that neutral compound which it forms with the acid of the stomach being insoluble, and tending to increase the costive state. " The dyspeptic must be persuaded that a horse is the best physician; and that temperance of every kind, with reasonable dis- position and exercise in a dry healthy air, will do more for him than all the medicines in the world." (Townsend.) Cold, or shower, bath, in very warm, and warm bathing in cold weather. A glass of warm water after dinner and supper. Genus III. Hypochondriasis, low spirits. Indigestion, with languor, and causeless apprehension of evil, more especially as it relates to the patient's state of health. This disease and dyspepsia only deserve to be distin- guished by separate names, inasmuch as the mental de- pression in hypochondriasis appears especially to in- crease the disease by which it is, in part, constituted; and such disease is again magnified beyond measure by the morbid imagination of the invalid. Thus, in some cases of confirmed hypochondriasis, the dyspeptic sensa- tions shall be attributed by the sufferer to the immedi- ate agency of a malevolent power. M. M. Aim at converting solicitude and apprehension into confidence and hope; not by deriding the feelings of the hypochondriac, and treating them as fanciful; but by breaking the chain of diseased associations. Procure a gradual change of scene and of habits. Journeys to Bath, or elsewhere, according to the previous disposition ofthe patient. Bath waters. Warm bathing. Preserve care- fully the alimentary canal free from c'olluvies and visci- dities. Maintain a regular moisture of the skin, without copious perspiration. Tonics with aromatics. Dr. Dar- win particularly insists, and with justice, on the advan- tage of uniformity in the hours of meals: this uniformity should even extend to medicinals,the same hour of repe- tition being invariably observed. " Siesta, or sleep after dinner." Genus IV. Chlorosis, green-sickness. Dyspepsia; paleness ofthe skin and of the lips; lassi- tude; difficult breathing, and palpitation ofthe heart, af- ter using more exercise than usual, especially in going rapidly up stairs; pulse small, feeble, and sometimes ve- ry quick: coldness of the extremities; appetite deficient, and oftentimes depraved; pain in the back and loins; cos- tiveness; ce.dematous ancles, especially towards evening; and obstructed menstruation. " Chlorosi laborat debilis puelia totuin corpus, laxo oedemate tumet; pallent et frigent omnia." (Van Swieten.) Dr. Cullen has, with much impropriety, classed this. MEDICINE. among the nervous diseases; it ought to have been trans- ferred to the next leading division of disease, or rather regarded as an affection of the lymphatic and absorbent system. Incases of much debility, especially of disposi- tion to torpor, in the absorbent and secerning vessels; if, at the time when nature demands a new secretion and discharge from the system, iu place of generous living, due exercise, moderate and pleasurable excitation of the mind, " the ever-springing hope" of youth, &c. be sub- stituted to poverty and unwholesomeness of diet, watery and vegetable food, inactivity; concealed, oppressing, ungratified, and hopeless desires; the effect is the disease now under notice: which, however, from much natural debility, indcpcndantly either of mental depression, un- wholesome diet, or any other cause, may be, and very often is, occasioned. Chlorosis, indeed, is of exceeding- ly frequent occurrence. The immediate cause is evidently an inactive state of the absorbent vessels, more especially of those which supply the chyle: hence deficiency of red blood in the vessels, want of propelling power in the heart and arte- ries: hence want of menstruation, cedematous swellings of the feet, " pallentet frigent omnia." M. M. Almost as certainly as some kinds of pain yield to opium, does even obstinate chlorosis fall before the power of steel. " Dum hoc utitur, incipit oriri major ca- lor." To steel, then, must the physician principally trust in every case of genuine green-sickness. It is ne- cessary, however, frequently to commence with an eme- tic; and in almost all cases it is proper to give a purga- tive, joined with calomel, before the administration of 8'eel. Tonic bitters. Aromatics. Moderate exercise in a pure atmosphere. Flesh diet. "A bath of about eighty de- grees, as Buxton;" not by any means colder. Marriage. Order III. Spasmi, Spasms. In the introduction to tbe class Neuroses, wc endea- voured to describe briefly the manner in which a know- ledge was acquired ofthe separate functions and distinct diseases of the nervous system. In the case of spasmo- dic affections this is especially illustrated. If in any ani- mal the nerve supplying a limb be denuded, and a vio- lent stimulus be applied to its surface, the whole, mem- ber shall be immediately thrown into convulsive agita- tions: a fact which is perhaps too often demonstrated in galvanic and other experiments. When then such con- vulsive movements appear, without experiments, and sometimes without apparent cause, a similar change is justly inferred to take place in the nerve or nerves pass- ing to the organ which may be the subject of the disease. Sect. I. Spasmodic affections in the animal functions. Genus I. Tetanus. A spasmodic regidity of a great part ofthe body: in some instances it is drawn violent- ly backward, at others forwards, and in both cases the disease is generally followed or attended by trismus or lock-jaw; these symptoms may last with greater or infe- rior violence from twenty-four hours to a month or more. The immediate exciting causes of tetanus are. wounds or pricks of tendons; the sudden application of cold af- ter extreme heat; great intemperance, or other vices: the disease may likewise be consequent upon viscid mucus, worms, and other irritating substancts, in the alimenta- ry passages. M. M. As in fevers, it is highly necessary to pre- serve the alimentary canal free from colluvics, in order that the return of due and orderly excitement may not be prevented by this cause; so it is especially necessary in nervous and spasmodic affections carefully to keep iu mind the incalculable importance of this principle. In- deed, among the actually exciting causes of the malaily now under notice, these intestinal crudities are perhaps the most frequent. Let the practitioner then, in every spasmodic disorder, pay solicitous attention to the condi- tion of the stomach and bowels: it is in these organs " that the archer may be seated," in whatever directions he may send out his arrows. It is not, let it be as care- fully remembered, by the act of evacuation in reducing the system, that either emetics or purgatives operate thus beneficially; but by the disposition that a freedom in the first passages favours to the due .sucecptibilitv of the exciting powers, on the agency of which the return of health depends. Indeed, as far as either purging or vomiting are in themselves immediately instrumental in dissolving spasm, as it has been expressed, indcpcndant- ly ofthe source just referred to, it is by virtue of the agitation and stimulus, not by the discharge of wiiich they are productive. (See In fancy.). Emetics, cathartics with calomel. Pouring large quantities of (old water over the body during the spasm, in order forcibly to se- ver the catenated motions by which it is constituted. Warm bathing. Very large quantities of opium. More than four hundred drops ofthe tincture have been given in some violent tetanic affections in the course of twenty- four hours, and without producing any intoxicating ef- fect. Other antispasmodic medicines. Mercury. If the spasm has originated from a lacerated or punctured ten- don, divide it freely, and produce pain and inflamma- tion. Genus II. Convulsio, convulsions. On the cause and treatment of these, we need not enlarge, after the re- marks we have introduced on the nature, predisposing and exciting causes, of convulsive and spasmodic disor- ders in general. Genus III. Chorea, St. Vitus's dance. Symptoms. Convulsive agitations of the limbs, in gene- ral almost confined to one side of the body. When tiie patient attempts to walk, he produces involuntary gesti- culations. M. M. Emetics, cathartics with calomel; anthelmin- tics; bark, steel, and other tonics; electricity, galvanism, tepid bathing, sea-bathing. Genus IV. Raphania, contractions in the joints. Symptoms. Spastic contractions of the joints, with ex- crutiating pain, and convulsive motions, returning peri- odically, and continuing for many days. It appears to be a species of rheumatism. M. M. Purges, followed by tonics; mercury combined with opium. Genus V. Epilepsia, epilepsy. Viol iit convulsions of the muscles, attended with sleep. Epilepsy in its nature and causes appears to hold a kind of intermediate situation between ap.qdcxv and con- vulsion; it has the sudden fall and the sopor of the »n with the irregular muse alar action of the other. Epilep- MEDICINE. sy.in agreat or less degree, is a disease of extreme fre- quency: indeed, all the convulsions of children may be called epileptic. In its full and formidable shape, it is not so frequently met with as several other diseases. A phy- sician, however, may denominate, with propriety, all fits epileptic, of which alternate or combined convulsions and sleep constitute the characters, especially if these are connected in any degree with an increased action of the salivary glands. M. M. Epileptic fits are sometimes congenital, heredita- ry, and depend upon some occult state of the nervous system. In these cases the disorder is generally irreme- diable. All that can be done by art is merely to ascer- tain, and endeavour, if possible, to obviate, the exciting ' ausesof the disease; and during the paroxysm to loosen C '! nefiudshimselfattai^ appetite, and an unpleasant taste in his mouth I °f course to two emetics ut proper interval* anA rl r.e" operation of the first emetic takes a cathartic ''' J'"5 certainly got rid of the infection: ,n the sZTL hM even after three days, or perhaps a week ifS! T^' ten by the dog be cut out witl^the L ^ theT* UU escaped." (Townsend.) Dr. Thorntontlvis d the applf cation ot hot vinegar, sharpened with vitroliacTt the wounds o five men who had been bittenby ?&« animal, and this application was attended with seem in. success. Mercury: this by some has been eitolfcd as S s|>ccibe for hydrophobia. «»kmumi as a ,v , » .,°"?Ba lV- reunite. ^ Disorders of the ...teHect, independant of pKcxia 0P raising up in the mind of ima™« „ * ,\. * ^ t,,e from impressions on the sen es % V* d,stl"S,''^ble ofthe insane state-" the ca^?n»I n f°Per definiti,,n ness tuims"--the above apo^ •un- regarded as rather bold/ndLpSi^ in^y7^ curate. It were surely mnroner l„ .I-.,™- Z •!■ y plectic, the paralytic, the h Xw0rT™'Z, *? tl,C apo" ,et an indiv.duai under tlT««"£££^^ the master, ofthe eie nen* comnS """"'I'°J"?"" tUity on the barren soil' Commands ™» to shed fer- That the disorders of thp in toil™*. .. nerves we readily adm t it is S ™ ^l*?™ °f thc sitionwepresunfetoqueVt^ fy Dr. Cullen, in consuSin " the v "^ WC justi" iections,. a^istinct 0^0^^ Sr0""1 af" iliepaUiologyot such diseases is peculiars perplex- ing. Y>e find by experience, that an increase'of vascu" lar action in a tender organ will give rise to the feeli™ ot pani; we have ascertained by the conjunctive aidI m 8 tuaily reflective aid of casual observation am,1™«7X~ perunent, that convulsive movements in t"e macular nure are occasioned by an interruption of „erVous ex ciuimnt 11, whatever that may consist; we see Z b, presscu upon, and the apopletfc stupor foHo^b't in eT devouring to irai e derailed consciousness to disorder ed orgamzanon, temporary or permanent, an JvZle ot intricacy appears in a manner to grow out of lAt>Z anu research. uul MEDICINE. Dissection docs not afford that assistance to the patho- logist in this, as in many other departments of his inqui- ries; for, independantly of the great want of uniformity that has been observed in the brains of the unfortunate victims to mental derangement, it is impossible to judge from an inspection of this organ, how far the altered structures and appearances have been causes, and how far consequences, of the malady. Dr. Cullen has four genera in his order vesaniae, viz. amentia, melancholia, mania, and oneirodynia, on each of wiiich wc shall introduce a few remarks. Genus 1. Amentia, ideocy. Amentia is defined an imbecility of judgment, prevent- ing the perception or the recollection of the relations of things. Man is born with merely a susceptibility of knowledge, a capacity of acquisition; he is conducted from observa- tion to comparison, and from comparison to principle. Place an infant in a spacious apartment, give him for the first time the free use of all the senses with wiiich nature has furnished him, and he will stretch out his hand to perhaps the most distant object in the room, with a full persuasion of being able to grasp it. Like the youth couched by Cheselden on Epsom Downs, every thing within the scope of his vision appears in a manner to touch his eye, he has not the smallest conception either of distance or magnitude, and the same to- tal ignorance prevails in respect to objects which have relation to all his other senses. Knowledge then is the s result of experience, which is another word for compari- son or observation of " the relations of things." As man, however, essentially differs from the brute, by the more extended compass of his intellectual grasp, the supcrinduction of the moral sense, and the anticipa- tion of future events, so different individuals have varied susceptibilities of acquiring information; and this varia- tion, which constitutes every shade of difference in in- tellectual character, must necessarily arise either from difference in the perceptive organs, or combining and re- taining faculty. When then, without any apparent defi- ciency of the external senses, which are the inlets to knowledge, we find an individual not to have arrived at a given standard of intelligence by the constant employ- ment of such senses, not to have obtained a due know- ledge of •< the relation of things," we place him out of the range of intelligent existences, have an obscure con- ception of something defective in the interior structure of his sentient organization; and denominate him an ideot. This is the amentia congenita of Cullen, ideocy from birth. Ideocy, however, may be produced. Fatuity may suc- ceed to intellectual vigour, and the whole fabric of ac- quired knowledge be undermined and overthrown. Thus man may be literally reduced to the humiliating condi- tion of second childhood. Tbis state may be engendered abruptly and visibly, or gradually, and in almost in an imperceptible manner. It may follow violent agitations of the frame, as desolation succeeds to tempest, or may be brought about by the gradations of natural decay. The causes of ideocy, when it is not the result of origi- nal malconformation, are, all kinds of intemperance, more especially indulgence in the use of spirituous liquors: VAT *» °* " it has been traced up to somnolence too much indul^1 ed." The media through which it is principally occa- sioned are mania, apoplexy, and above all cpilcpsv. When firmly cstablisbed even in youth, very little hope of recovery can be entertained by the friends of the un- fortunate victim to his own imprudence. The con litioii of ideocy is a condition beyond the reach cither of physi- cal or moral influences! Genus II. Melancholia. Genus III. Mania. We have placed these two genera of Dr. Cullen togeth- er, as we deem our author fundamentally erroneous in considering them distinct affections. Melancholia is de- fined « partial madness without dyspepsia." From this mode of reasoning, mania, instead of being distinguished by the character of universal madness, would have been with as much propriety denominated partial madness without fever. Insanity is intensity of idea, converting imagination into implicit belief, and thus producing an incongruity of action; incongruity as it respects former, consistency as it relates to present, impressions and associations. It partakes of the character of mania or melancholia, of violent rage or gloomy despondency, according to the previous temperament of the sufferer, and the nature of the prevailing idea. In each the disordered associations are engendered upon precisely the same principles. Madness differs from ideocy, as the conclusions derived from erroneous principles, in philosophising, differ from the conceptions of ignorance: the one is correct rea- soning from erroneous premises, the other is defective judgment from defective information. How this intensity of idea is produced, we have no means of ascertaining: we do not indeed feel it difficult to comprehend, that an absorbing attachment to one object, or an exclusive attention to one particular pursuit, may come at last to make shipwreck of the understanding; but it is the susceptibility of being carried away by this idea, that constitutes the difficulty of the question. Like the developement of intellectual character, the dispo- sition to run into the state of insanity may perhaps de- pend upon the most minute circumstances of accidental associations: *< II ne faut qu'un leger accident, qu'un atome deplace, pour te fair pfcrir, pour te degrader, pour te ravir cette intelligence dont tu parois si fier!" So pre- carious is the tenure, even of the most exalted posses- sions of man! Madness, however, like ideocy, may be produced through the medium of bodily disorders; thus, fever will often oc- cassion delirium, which is a species of temporary insani- ty. Thus, an obstruction of the menstrual discharge will frequently be the means of developing the latent dis- position to maniacal disorder, occasioned by previous dis- ease, resulting from erroneous education, or depending upon hereditary conformation. Indeed, almost the whole range of nervous diseases may, under predisposing cir- cumstances, come to be exciting causes of genuine insan- ity. When lunacy has been brought on by bodily disor- der, the complexion of the derangement shall be*formed by the previous temperament, or natural disposition, ot the sufferer; thus, the favourite ideas of health shall, in their increase, be the predominant aud overwhelming ideas of madness; again, when the insaue state has more MEDICINE. immediately proceeded from passions of the mind, or moral rather than physical causes, the idea that has van- quished the intellect shall continue to reign. The ima- ginary monarch shall preserve his dominions and sway, and through the medium of his distempered fancy, shall observe menials and attendants in the persons who sur- round him; the melancholy lover shall require but a fe- male form to pass before bis cell, to be persuaded of the actual presence of the object of his affections; and the re- ligious enthusiast shall read a special embassy from hea- ven, in the countenance of every compassionate visitor. Prognosis. « The chances of recovery are against those madmen, who can trace their indisposition to luna- tic ancestry. When the causes are accidental, or ob- viously corporeal, a favourable termination may be ex- pected. " The insanity subsequent to parturition, is generally curable if the curative attempts be rational." (Cox.) « Patients who are in a furious state recover in a larger proportion, than those who are depressed and melancholic. When the furious state is succeeded by melancholy, and after this shall have continued a short time the violent paroxysm returns, the hope of recovery is very slight. Indeed whenever these states ofthe diseas- ed frequently change, such alteration may be considered as unfavourable. When insanity supervenes on epilepsy, or where the latter disease is induced by insanity, a cure is very seldom effected." (liaslam.) " When a person becomes insane who has a family of small children to so- licit his attention, the prognostic is very unfavourable, as it shows the maniacal hallucination to be more power- ful than those ideas that generally interest us the most." (Darwin.) «« Though individuals of every temparament become insane, it has been observed that those of the sanguine more frequently recover." M. M. Endeavour to draw off the mind from the pre- vailing idea, or otherwise to convince the maniac of the errors of his conceptions, and fallacy of his pretensions, by relating the incongruous conceits of other maniacs which have some affinity with his own. M. Pinel states, that in the Bicetre of Paris, a maniac was cured of the hallucination of supposing his head had been taken off by the guillotine, and that another had been placed on bis shoulders, by a person judiciously ridiculing in his hearing the miracle of St. Dennis, who was said to carry his head under his arm, and to kiss it. When the ma- niac was endeavouring to prove the possibility of the fact by an appeal to his own case, the narrator of the story suddenly exclaims, " Why, how, you fool, could he kiss his own head? was it with his heel?" In incipient and equivocal madness, cautiously abstain from expressing suspicions in the hearing of the patient. « Nothing is more calculated to make a person mad than the idea of being thought so." (Reid.) On this account, premature confinement is to be deprecated, not merely as cruel, but as injudicious in the extreme. Those who are placed over the insane as guardians, should unite decision and firmness of character with tenderness of disposition and gentleness of manners. In strong plethoric habits, venesection. Cathartics. These last, especially in melancholy, often require to be of tbe drastic kind, and united with calomel. " Diarrhoea very often proves a natural cure of insanity." (Haslam.) Vomits. Camphor. Opium in large doses. Cold bath- ing during the violence of the paroxysms, and in some cases warm bathing in the intervals. During the ur- gency of phrenzy, apply cold water to the head. Clay cap. Blisters to the scalp. In some cases the pro- duction of a vertiginous state by a rotatory swing, has lately been found effectual in breaking the morbid asso- ciations constituting phrenetic and melancholy parox- ysms. Digitalis in very large doses, but regulated with care. Introducing a new disease, which is of a trivial nature, and easy of cure. « I should place considerable hopes on inoculation, had the party not had the small- pox, taking care by proper medicines and management, to increase the symptoms that usually attend this last dis- ease to such a degree, that the whole system should be considerably affected without the life being endangered." (Cox.) In instances where madness has originated from cor- poreal diseases, it scarcely requires to be observed, that a considerable part of the treatment must be constituted by the administration of those remedies that in common cases of these affections have been found to be effectual. Genus IV. Oneirodynia. This genus is defined by Dr. Cullen « a violent and distressing imagination in time of sleep." It is divided into two species^ the active, or that exciting to walking and various other motions; and the gravans, with a sense of weight or pressure on the chest. This last is the incubus of authors, or night- mare, which is doubtless placed erroneously among the disorders of the judgment. The former of these is generally either congenital, or induced by unknown causes; it is perhaps principally curious, as it evinces the almost unlimited power of one sense, when concentrated as it were, or employed to the exclusion of the rest. Dr. Darwin relates the case of a gentleman who had lost his sight, entering his room, and immediately informing him ofthe length, breadth, and height ofthe apartment, by the undivided exercise of his sense of hearing; an accuracy which he could not have arrived at, had he retained the faculty of sight. In like manner the sleep-walker "will unlock his door, wander far from home, avoid opposing obstacles, and pass with safety over narrow bridges," which during his waking hours he would have shunned as unable to accomplish. The incubus, or night-mare, appears to arise from an interruption of the circulation of blood through the lungs, from defective irritability in tbese organs, induced by fatigue, mental oppression, "a full supper, and wine;" whicli last, in some persons, will almost invariably induce the disease. M. M. Temperance; especially moderate suppers. " To sleep on a hard bed with the head raised." Emetics. Purgatives of aloes and calomel. Tonics. Sleeping in a large airy apartment, and without curtains to the bed. Class III. Cachexia;. Cachexies. Previously to an acquaintance with the distinct struc- ture and separate functions ofthe nervous system, before the important discovery of the circulation of the blood, and the more recent, but hardly less important, developc- ment of the anatomy and physiology of the secerning and absorbent vessels, the notions of pathologists on the mode in which disease, local and general, is occasioned, were indistinct and erroneous. MEDICINE. When, for example, on the surface of the body appear- ed a peculiar eruption, which after a certain time broke through the outer skin, and discharged an offensive mat- ter, it was natural to infer that such discharge was en- gendered from a depraved condition of the solids or fluids of the living system, nearly in the same manner as exha- lations proceed from dead and putrid animal or vegetable substance, or as wort is formed in the fermenting vat. Hence tbe use of the terms bad habit of body, foulness of blood, peccancy of humours, cachexies. These gross and indiscriminate opinions respecting the actual nature and immediate cause of disease, are now retained alone by the vulgar; and as the nomencla- ture should keep pace with the advances of science, the word cachexy, as descriptive of those affections we are now to notice, ought to be banished from the phraseology of the nosologist; and a generic title substituted, indica- tive of disordered or deranged action in the secerning, absorbing, and glandular organs. Order I. Marcores. A wasting of the body or general emaciation. Genus I. Tabes. Asthenia, emaciation, and hectic. Genus II. Atrophia. Asthenia, and emaciation without hectic. Dr. Cullen has properly distinguished the emaciation connected in its origin with hectic fever, from that inde- pendant of this as a primary and essential character. The latter, however, or atrophia, should not appear in the last class of diseases. When, for example, in consequence of mental affection, of sudden and too copious evacuation of any of the fluids, of deficiency in the quantity or de- pravation in the quality of the articles of diet, a loss of flesh and strength is perceived, the effect shall have been occasioned without any default in the absorbent vessels, and consequently without hectic; for let it be retained in the recollection, as a principle of the utmost importance iu practice, that where hectic fever is present, a greater or less degree of derangement in the lymphatic vessels is likewise present. Hectic fever is a disease of the absor- bent system. For the purpose of illustrating this distinction between tabid and atrophic disorders, let two individuals be sup- posed equally emaciated and equally weak; but this weak- ness and emaciation in one shall have been induced by an indisposition to take a due quantity of nourishment, in order to supply the requisitions of the frame; in the other perhaps, notwithstanding the loss of bulk and of strength, an equal, or even greater quantity of aliment shall have been received into the stomach. Now, in this latter case, the tabid state has been occasioned by a tor- pid condition or improper action of those vessels whose office it is to separate the nutritive part of the food, and convey it, properly prepared, to the blood-vessels (see the article Digestion). In the former the mischief has proceeded from a want of those materials upon which these vessels exercise their functions. In the one the hec- tic flush from the very onset ofthe malady shall imprint the cheek; in the other, hectic will not be occasioned un- til the absorbents, from not being properly exercised, come at length to be disordered. The one complaint is the tabes of Dr. Cullen; the other is the atrophia of the «ame author. We have been particular in pointing out this distinc- tion, because it is not sufficiently noticed by writers in general, notwithstanding its extreme importance in prac- tice; and because, by keeping it distinctly in view, we shall be enabled to reconcile the apparently contrary operation of those medicines which are employed with varied effect under different circumstances of debility and emaciation. Steel, for instance, is one of those articles which, on account of their almost magic power over some diseases of debility, have been indiscriminately recommended in all; it has acquired the erroneous appellation of a tonic medicine, but as a tonic it often fails. Now let us trace its effects in the two species of ema- ciation just alluded to. In the first stage of atrophy its administration will be often followed by irritative action, in the place of due excitement; the attendant febrile heat (not hectic fever) will be augmented, costiveness and an arid skin will follow, and indeed all the symptoms of the malady be heightened and confirmed. Iu tabid diseases, on the. other hand, the revei-se ef- fects will arise. Here the fever is hectic; and in ('ph'ii'is. ;.ud in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, per- sonatae. The calyx is quadrifid; the upper lip ».f the corolla is compressed, with the edges folded back; the capsule is bilocular and oblique, opening at one side; there arc two gibbous seeds. There are five species', MEL M E L four of them natives of Britain, and growing spontane- ously among corn-fields. They are""excellent food for cattle; and Linnseus tells us, that where they abound, the yellowest and best butter is made. Th. ir seeds, when mixed with bread, give it a dusky colour; and, according to some authors, j roduee a vertigo, and other disorder ?of the head; hut this is denied by Mr. With- ering, though he allows that they give it a bitter taste. MELASTOMA, the American gooseberry tree, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the decaiidria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order, calycanthemse. The calyx is quinquefid and campanu- lated; the petals are five, inserted i: *t the calyx; the berry is quinquelocular, and wrapped in the calyx. There are 67 species, most of them shrubs of the warm parts of America, and very beautiful on account of the variegation of their leaves. Most of the leaves are of two different colours on their surfaces; the under side being either white, gold-coloured, or russet, and the upper parts of different shades of green; so that they make a fine appearance in the hot-house all the year round. There are but few of these plants in the Euro- pean gardens; whicli may, perhaps, have been occasioned by the difficulty of bringing over growing plants from the West Indies; and the seeds, being small when taken out from the pulp of their fruits, rarely succeed. Some of these species strike very easily from cuttings. MELCHITES, in church history, the name given to the Syriac, Egyptian, and other christians of the Le- vant. They celebrate mass in the Arabian language. The religious, amongtlie Melchites, follow the rules of St. Basil, the common rule of all the Greek monks. They have four fine convents, distant about a day's journey from Damas, and never go out of the cloister. MELCHIZEDECHIANS, in church history, a sect which arose about the beginning of the third century, and affirmed, that Melchisedech was not a man, but a hea- venly power, superior to Jesus Christ. MELEAGRIS, in ornithology, the turkey, a genus of birds belonging to the order of gallinse. The head is covered with spongy caruncles; and there is likewise a membranaceous longitudinal caruncle on tbe throat. There are but two species, viz. the gallopavo, or North American turkey of Ray; and the satyra, or horned tur- key. The first has a caruncle both on the head and throat; and the breast of the male is bearded or tufted. It lives upon grain and insect:-:; when the cock struts, he blows up his breast, spreads and erects his feathers, relaxes the caruncle on the forehead, and the naked parts of the face and neck become intensely red. Barbot informs us that very few turkeys are to be met with in Guinea, and those only in the handsof the chiefs of the European forts; the negroes declining to breed any on account of their ten- derness, which sufficiently proves them not to be natives of that climate. He also remarks, that neither the com- mon poultry nor ducks are natural to Guinea, any more than the tin key. Neither is that bird a native of Asia; the first that were seen in Persia were brought from Ve- nice by some Armenian merchants. They are bred in Cev Ion, but not found wild. In fact, the turkey, properly so called, was unknown to the ancient naturalists, and even to the old world, before the discovery of America; and with this the Portuguese name peru remarkably coincides. It was a bird peculiar to the new continent, and is now the commonest wild-fowl in the northern parts of that country, where they are frequently met with by hundreds in a flock; in the day-time they frequent the woods, where they feed on acorns, and return atniHit to the swamps to roost, which they do on the trees. They are frequently taken by means of dogs, though they run faster for a time; but the dogs persisting in the pursuit the birds soon grow fatigued, and take to the highest tree, where they will suffer themselves to be shot one after another, if within reach of the marksman. This fowl was first seen in France in the reign of Francis I. and in England in that of llenry VIII. By the date of the reign of these monarchs, the first turkeys must have been brought from Mexico, the conquest of whicli was com- pleted A. D. 1521. The turkey hen begins to lay early in the spring, and will often produce a great number of eggs, which arc wiiite, marked with re.. ':^h or yellow spots, or rather freckles. She sits well, and is careful of her young; of which in this climate she will often have from 14 to 17 , for one brood: b it she scarcely ever sits more than once in a season, except allured thereto by putting fresh egga under her as soon as the first set are hatched; for, as she is a close sitter, she will willingly remain two months on the nest, tie ugh this conduct, as may be supposed, is said greatly to injure the bird. Turkeys are bred in quantities in some of the eastern counties of England, and are driven up to London towards autumn for sale in flocks of several hundreds, which are collected from the several cottages about Norfolk, Suffolk, and neigh- bouring counties, the inhabitants of which think it well worth their while to attend carefully to them, by making these birds apart of their family during the breeding- season. It is pleasing to see with what facility the dri- vers manage them by means of a bit of red rag fastened to the end of a stick, which, from their antipathy to it as a colour, acts with the same effect as a scourge to a quadruped. Of the turkey there are several varieties, which have arisen from domestication. The most common is dark- grey, inclining to black, or barred dusky-white and black. There is also a beautiful variety of a fine deep copper colour, with the greater quills pure white, and tho tail of a dirty white; it is when old a most beautiful bird. A variety with a pure white plumage is also now notun- frequent, and appears very beautiful. It was once esteem- ed as a great rarity, and the breed supposed originally to have arisen in Holland. The sahjou inhabits India, and is sometimes less than the last. See Plate LXXX1V. Nat. Hist. fig. 261. MELES, in zoology. See Ursus. MELIA, azarderach, or the bead-tree, a genus of the monogynia order, inthe decandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 23d order, trihila- tte. The calyx is quinquedentated; the petals five; the nectarium cylindrical, as long as the corolla, with its mouth ten-toothed; the fruit is a plum with a quinquelo- cular kernel. There are three species, all of them exotic trees of the Indies, rising near 20 feet high, adorned with large pinnated or winged leaves, and clusters of penta- petalous flowers. They are all propagated by seeds sown on hotbeds. MEL MEL MELIANTHUS, honey-flower, a genus of the angio- spermia order, in the didynamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 24th order, cory- dales. The calyx is pentaphyllons, with the lowermost leaf gibbous: there are four petals, with the nectarium under tbe lowest ones. The capsule is quadrilocular. There are three species: 1. The major has many upright, ligneous, durable stalks, and from the sides and tops of the stalks long spikes of chocolate-coloured flowers. 2. The minor has upright, ligntous, soft, durable stalks; and from the sides and ends of the branches long, loose, pendulous bunches of flowers tinged with green, saffron- colour, and red. Both the species flower about June;.but rarely produce seeds in this country. They are very or- namental, both in foliage and flower, and merit admittance in every collection. They are easily propagated by suc- kers and cuttings. They thrive best in a dry soil, and in a sheltered warm exposure. 3. The common, little known. MELICA, ropegrass, a genus of the digynia order, in the triandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 4th order, gramina. The calyx is bivalved, biflorous, with an embryo of a flower betwixt the two florets. There are three species, of which the most remarkable is the nutans. It is a native of several parts of Britain, and the adjacent islands; and the inha- bitants of some of the western islands make ropes of it for fishing-nets, as it will bear the water for a long time without rotting. MELICOCCA, a genus ofthe class and order octan- dria monogynia. The calyx is four-parted; the petals four, bent back; stigma subpeltate, drupe coriaceous. There is one species, a tree of South America. MELICYTUS, a genus*of the class and order dioecia pentandria. There is one species, of New Zealand, little known. MELISSA, baum, a genus of the didynamia gymno- spermia class of plants, with a monopetalous ringent flower, the lower lip of wiiich is divided into three seg- ments, whereof the middle one is cordated: the seeds are four in number, and contained in the bottom of the cup. There are six species. Baum is greatly esteemed among the common people as good in disorders of the head and stomach; but is less regarded in the shops. It is most conveniently taken in infusion by way of tea; the green herb is greatly better than the dry, which is contrary to the general rule in re- lation to other plants. MEL1TTIS, bastard baum, a genus of the didyna- mia gymnospermia class of plants; the upper lip of whose cup is emarginated; the upper lip of its flower is plane, and the lower one crenated. There are two species. MELIUS INQUIRENDUM, in law, a writ that lies for a second inquiry to be made of what lands, &c. a man died seized; when partiality is suspected upon the writ diem clausit, &c MELLATS. This genus of salts is but imperfectly known, in consequence of the scarcity of mellitic acid*. Hitherto they have been examined only by Klaproth and Vauquelin, and even by them too slightly to admit a de- scription of their properties. The following are all the facts hitherto ascertained. I. When mellitic acid is neutralized by potass, the vol, «. " 64 solution chrystallizes in long prisms. The acid appeal's capable of combining with this salt, and forming a su- permellat of potass. For when the mellite (or native mellat of alumina) is decomposed by carbonat of potass, and the alkaline solutions mixed with nitric acid, crystals are obtained consisting of mellitic acid combined with a small portion of potass. 2. When mellitic acid is neutralized by soda, the solu- tion crystallizes in cubes, or three-sided tables; some- times insulated, sometimes in groups. 5. When mellitic acid is saturated by ammonia, the solution yields fine transparent six-sided crystals, which become opaque when exposed to the air, and assume the white colour of silver. 4. When mellitic acid is dropt into barytes water, strontian water, or lime water, a white powder imme- diately precipitates, whicli is dissolved by adding a little more of the acid. 5. When the acid is mixed with a solution of sulphat of lime, very small gritty crystals precipitate, which do not destroy the transparency ofthe water; but Mie addition of a little ammonia renders the precipitate flaky. Tho precipitate produced by this acid in lime water is redis- solved by the addition of nitric acid. 6. When this acid is dropt into acetat of barytes, a flaky precipitate appears, which is dissolved by adding more acid. With muriat of barytes it produces no pre- cipitate; but in a short time a group of transparent nee- dle-form crystals is deposited, consisting most likely of supermellat of barytes. 7. When this acid is dropt into sulphat of alumina, it throws down an abundant precipitate in the form of a white flaky powder. MELLITE, h$neystone, mellat of alumina. This mi- neral was first observed about 10 years ago in Thuringia, between the layers of wood coal. It is of a honey-yellow colour (whence its name); and is usually crystallized in small octahedrons, whose angles are often truncated. Fracture conchoidal. Specific gravity, according to Abich, 1.666. When heated it whitens, and in the open air burns without being sensibly charred. A white matter remains, which effervesces slightly with acids, and which at first has no taste, but at length leaves an acid impres- sion upon the tongue. Klaproth analysed the mellite in 1799, and ascertained it to be a compound of alumina and a peculiar acid, to which he gave the name of mellitic. And this analysis was soon after confirmed by M. Vauquelin. MELLITIC ACID has been found only in the mel- lite. It may be procured from that mineral by the follow- ing process: Reduce the mellite to powder, and boil it in about 72 times its weight of water. The acid combines with the water, and the alumina separates in flakes. By filtering the solution, and evaporating suffii iently, the mellitic acid is obtained in the state of chrystals. These crystals are either very fine needles, sometimes collected into globules, or small short prisms. They have a brownish colour, and a taste at first sweetish-sour, and afterwards bitterish. This acid is not very soluble in water; but the precise degree of solubility has not been ascertained. When ex- posed to heat, it is readily decomposed, exhaling an abundant 6i»oke, which however is destitute of smell. A MEL MEL small quantity of insipid ashes remains behind, which do not alter the colour of litmus paper. All attempts to convert it into oxalic acid by the ac- tion of nitric acid have failed. The nitric acid merely caused it to assume a straw-yellow colour. The effect of the simple bodies on this acid has not been tried. It combines with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, and forms with them salts which are distinguished by the name of mellats. The properties of these com- pounds will be considered afterwards. From the analysis of M. Klaproth, we learn that the mellite is composed of 46 mellitic acid 16 alumina 38 water 100. From other analyses by the same chemist, he infers that mellitic acid is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but the proportions are not yet known. MELOCMIA, Jew's mallow, a genus of the pentandria order, inthe monadelphia class of plants, and in the natu- ral method ranking under the 37th order, columniferse. The capsule is quinquelocular and monospermous. There are 11 species: but the only remarkable one is the olito- rius, or common Jew's-mallow, which is a native ofthe warm parts of Asia and America. It is an annual plant. The flowers sit close on tbe opposite side ofthe branches to the leaves, coming out singly; they are composed of five small yellow petals, and a great number of stamina surrounding the oblong germen, which is situated in the centre of the flower, and afterwards turns to a rough swelling capsule two inches long, ending in a point, and having four cells filled with angular greenish seeds. This species is cultivated about the city of Aleppo in Syria, and in the East Indies, as a pot-herb; the Jews boiling the leaves, and eating them with their meat. MELODINUS, a genus ofthe class and order pentan- dria digynia. It is contorted; nect. in the middle of the tube, stellate; berry two-celled, many-seeded. There is one species, a shrub of New Caledonia. MELODY, in music, the agreeable effect of different sounds, ranged and disposed in succession; so that melo- dy is the effect of a single voice or instrument, by which it is distinguished from harmony. MELOE, a genus of insects of the order coleoptera; the generic character is; antennse moniliform, with the last joint ovate; thorax roundish; wing-sheaths soft, flex- ile; head inflected. Among the principal species of me- loe may be numbered the meloe proscarabaeus, com- monly called the oil-beetle. It is of considerable size, often measuring near an inch and a half in length; its colour is violet-black, especially on the antennae and limbs; the wing-sheaths are very short, in the female insect especially, scarcely covering more than a third of the body, and are of an oval shape. This species is frequent in the advanced slate of spring in fields and pastures, creeping slowly, the body appear- ing so swoln or distended with eggs as to cause the in- sect to move with difficulty. On being handled it sud- denly exsudes from tlie joints of its legs, as well as from some parts of the body, several small drops of a clear, deep-yellow oil or fluid, of a very peculiar and pen- etrating smell. This oil or fluid has been highly celebrated for its supposed efficacy in rheumatic pains, &c. when used as an embrocation on the parts affected; for this purpose also the oil expressed from the whole insect has been used with equal success. The female of this species deposits her eggs, whicli are very small and of an orange-colour, in a large heap or mass beneath the surface of the ground; each egg, when view- ed by the microscope, appears of a cylindric shape, with rounded ends; from these are hatched the larva;, which, at their first appearance, scarcely measure a line in length, and are of an ochre yellow, with black eyes; they are /urnished with short antennse, six legs of moderate length, and a long, jointed, tapering body, terminated by two forked filaments or processes. These larvae are found to live by attaching themselves to other insects, and absorbing their juices. They arc sometimes seen strongly fastened to common flies, kc a practice so ex- traordinary as to have caused considerable doubt wheth- er they could possible have been the real larvse of the meloe proscarabseus. The accurate observations of De- geer, however, have completely proved that fact. The meloe scabrosus extremely resembles the preced- ing, and is found in similar situations but differs in be- ing of a reddish purple colour, with a cast of deep gilded green. Meloe vesicatorius, blister-fly or Spanish fly, is an in- sect of great beauty, being entirely ofthe richest gilded grass green, with black antennte. Its shape is lengthen- ed, and the abdomen, which is pointed, extends somewhat beyond the wing-sheaths; its usual length is about an inch. This celebrated insect, the cantharis of the ma- teria medica, forms, as is well known, the safest and most efficacious epispatic, or blister-plaster; raising, after the space of a few hours, the cuticle, and causing a plentiful •serous discharge from the skin. It is supposed however that the cantharis of Dioscorides, or that used by the an- cients for the same purpose, was a different species, viz. the meloe cichorei of Linnseus, an insect nearly equal in size to the meloe proscarabseus, and of a black colour, with three transverse yellow bands on the wing-shells. The meloe vesicatorius is principally found in the warmer parts of Europe, as Spain, the south of France, kc It is also observed, though far less plentifully, in some parts of Great Britain. See Plate LXXXIV.Nat. Hist. fig. 263. MELON. See Cucumis. MKLOTHRIA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the triandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 34th order, cucurbitaceae. The calyx is quinquefid; the corolla campanulated and monopeta- lous; the berry trilocular and monospcrmous. There is only one species, viz. the pendula, a native of Carolina, Virginia, and also many ofthe American islands. The plants strike out roots at every joint, wiiich fasten them- selves into the ground, by wiiich means their stalks ex- tend to a great distance each way. The flowers are very small, in shape like those of a melon, of a pale sul- phur-colour. The fruit in the West Indies grows to the size of a pea, is of an oval figure, and changes to black when ripe; these are by the inhabitants sometimes pickled when they are green. In Britain the fruit are much smaller, and arc so hidden by the leaves that it is diffi- M ir. M cult to find them. The plants are too tender to be rear- ed in England without artificial heat. MELYRIS, a genus of insects ofthe order coleoptera: the generic character is. an ten me entirely perfoliate; head inflected under the thorax; thorax margined; lip clavate, emarginatc; jaw one-toothed, pointed. There are three species. See Plate LXXXIV. Nat. Hist. fig. 264. MEMBRANE. Sec Anatomy. MEMECYLON, a genus of the octandria monogynia class and order. The calyx is superior; corolla one-pe- talled; anth. inserted in the side of the apex of the fila- ment; berry crowned with cylindrical calyx. There are three species, trees of the East Indies. MEMORY, artificial, a method of assisting the memo- ry, by forming certain words, the letters of which shall signify the date or sera to be remembered. In order to this, the follow ing seiies of vowels, diphthongs, and con- sonants, together with their corresponding numbers, must be exactly learned, so as to be able at pleasure to form a technical word, that shall stand for any number, or to resolve such a word already formed. a e i 0 u an oi ei ou V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 b d t f I s P k n » The first five vowels, in order, naturally represent 1, ■2. 3, 4, 5; the diphthong au — 6, as being composed of o and u, or 1 -f 5 = 6; and for the like reason, oi = 7, and ou *= 9. The diphthong ei will easily be remem- bered for 8, as being the initials of the word. In like manner, where the initial consonants could conveniently be retained, they are made use of to signify the number, as t for 3,/for 4, s for 6, and n for 9. The rest were assigned without any particular reason, unless that pos- sibly p may be more easily remembered from 7 or sep- tcm, k for 8, or Uru, d for 2, or duo; b for 1, as being the first consonant; and I for 5, being tlie Roman letter for 50; than any others that could have been put in their places. It is farther to be observed, that « and y being made use of to represent the cypher, where many cyphers meet together, as 1000, 1000000, &c. instead of a repetition of a % y * y z y, kc let g stand for 100, th for a thousand, and m for a million. Thus ag will be 100, ig 300, oug 900, &C. ath 1000, am 1000000, loum 59000000, &c. Fractions may be set down in the following manner: let r signify the line separating the numerator and denomi- nator, the first coming before, the other after it; as iro |, urp £, pourag tVjt» &c« When the numerator is 1, or unit, it need not be expressed, but begin the fraction with r; as re \, ri $,ro i, kc So in decimals, ragT»7,ralh (JV7. This is the principal part ofthe method, whicli consists in expressing numbers by artificial words. The applU cation to history and chronology is also performed by ar- tificial words. The art herein consists in making such a change in the ending of the name of a place, person, planet, coin, kc. without altering the beginning of it, as shall readily suggest the thing sought, at the same time that the beginning ofthe word being preserved, shall be a leading or prompting syllable to the ending of it so changed. Thus, in order to remember the years in which Cyrus, Alexander, and Julius Caesar, founded M E 2s their respective monarchies, the following words may be formed; for Cyrus, Cyruts; for Alexander, Aiexifa; for Julius Csesar, Julio*. Uts signifies, according to the powers assigned to the letters before-mentioned) 536; ita is 331; and os is 46. Hence it will be easy to remember, that the empire of Cyrus was founded 536 years before Christ, that of Alexander 331, and that of Julius Csesar 46. This account is taken from a treatise, entitled, a New Method of Artificial Memory; where the reader will find several examples in chronology, geography, kc. of such artificial words disposed in verses, which must be allowed to contribute much to the assistance of tlie memory, since being once learned, they are seldom or never forgotten. However, the author advises his rea- der to form the words and verses himself, in the manner described above, as he will probably remem- ber these better than those formed by another. We shall, in this place, give his table of the kings of England since the Conquest, where one thousand bein^ added to the Italics in each word, expresses the year when they began their reigns. Thus, Will consau, RufA-oi, Henrr?.** Stephfti/ k Hensecbuf, Rich&ein, Jann, Hctlnfas k Ed- doid. Edsctyp, Edtertep, Riser's, Hefofoun, Hefi.sadque. Henfifed, Edquar/aus, En-Rokt, Hensepfttf, Henoc- lyn. EdsexZos, Marylut, Ehluk, Javasyd, Caroprimsd. Carsecsofe, Jamseif, Viilseik, Anpyd, Geo-bo-doi. MENACHANITE. This substance has been found abundantly in the valley of Menachan in Cornwall; and hence was called menachanite by Mr. Grcgor, the disco- verer of it. It is in small grains like gunpowder, of no determinate shape, and mixed with a fine grey sand. Colour black. Easily pulverised. Powder attracted by the magnet. Specific gravity 4.427. Does not detonate with nitre. With two parts of fixed alkali it melts into an olive-coloured mass, from which nitric acid precipi- tates a white powder. The mineral acids only extract from it a little iron. Diluted sulphuric acid, mixed with the powder, in such a proportion that the mass is not too liquid, and then evaporated to dryness, produces a blue- coloured mass. Before the blowpipe does not decrepitate nor melt. It tinges microcosmic salt green; but the colour becomes brown on cooling; yet microcosmic salt does not dissolve it. Soluble in borax, and alters its colour in the same manner. According to the analysis of Mr. Gregor, it is com- posed of 46 oxide of iron 45 oxide of titanium 91, with some silica and manganese. According to M. Klaproth's analvsis, it is composed of 54.00 oxide of iron 45.25 oxide of titanium 3.50 silica .25 oxide of manganese. 100.00 Another variety of this ere from the Uralian moun- tains, analysed by Lowitz, contained MEM MEN 53 oxide of titanium 47 oxide of iron 100. A mineral, nearly of the same nature with the one just described, has been found in Bavaria. Its specific gra- vity is only 3.7. According to the analysis of Vauquelin and Hecht, it is composed of 49 oxide of titanium 35 iron 2 manganese 14 oxygen combined with the iron and manganese 100. A specimen of the same ore from Botany Bay has been lately analysed by Mr. Chenevix. MENAIS, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class and order. The calyx is three-leaved; the corolla salver- shaped; berry four-celled; seeds solitary. There is one species, a herb of South America. MENDICANTS, or begging friars, several orders of religious in popish countries, who, having no settled re- venue, are supported by the charitable contribution they receive from others. MENISCIUM, a genus of the cryptogamia Alices. The capsules are heaped in crescents interposed between the veins of the pod. There is one species, a native of the West Indies. MENISCUS. See Optics. MENISPERMUM, a genus of the dioecia dodecan- dria class and order. The male petals are four outer, eight inner; stamina sixteen; female corolla, as in the male; stam. eight, barren; berries two, one-seeded. There are 13 species, herbs ofthe East Indies. MENNON1TES, a sect of baptists in Holland so call- ed from Mennon Simonis of Friezland who lived in the sixteenth century. This sect believe that the New Testa- ment is the only rule of faith; that the terms person and trinity are not to be used in speaking of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; that the first man was not created per- fect; that it is unlawful to swear or to wage war upon any occasion; that infants are not the proper subjects of bap- tism; and that ministers of the gospel ought to receive no salary. They all unite in pleading for toleration in reli- gion, and debar none from their assemblies who lead pious lives, and own the scriptures for the word of God. MENSES. See Physiology. MENSTRUUM, in chemistry, the fluid in which a solid body is dissolved. Thus water is a menstruum for salts, and gums; and alcohol for resins. MENTHA, mint, a genus of thegymnospermia order, in the didynamia class of plants; and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 42d order, verticillatse. The co- rolla is nearly equal and quadrifid, with one segment broader than the rest, and emarginated; the stamina are erect, standing asunder. There are 19 species; but not more than three are cultivated for use, namely, the viridis, or common spearmint, the piperita or peppermint, and the pulegium or pennyroyal. All these are so well known as to need no description; and all of them are very easily propagated by cuttings, parting the roots, or by offsets. For culinary purposes, the spearmint is preferred to the other two'. but for medicine, the peppermint and pen- nyroyal have almost entirely superseded it. A conserve ofthe leaves is very grateful; and the distilled waters both simple and spirituous, are universally thought plea- sant. Dr. Lewis says, that dry mint digested in rectified spirits of wine, gives out a tincture which appears by day- light of a fine dark-green, but by candle-light of a bright red colour. The fact is, that a small quantity of this tincture is green either by day-light or by candle-light, but a large quantity of it seems impervious to common day-light; however^ when held betwixt the eye and a candle, or betwixt the eye and the sun, it appears red. The virtues of mint are those of a warm stomachic, capable of relieving colicky pains, and the gripes, to which children are subject. It likewise proves an useful cordial in languors and faintness. When prepared with rectified spirit, the whole virtues of the mint are extrac- ted. The expressed juice contains only the astringent and bitter parts, together with the mucilaginous sub- stance common to all vegetables. The peppermint is much more pungent than the others. Pennyroyal has the same general characters with the mint, but is more acrid and less agreeable when taken into the stomach. It was long held in great esteem in hysteric complaints, and suppressions of the menses, but its effects are trifling. It is observable, that both water and rectified spirit extract the virtues of this herb by infusion, and likewise elevate the greatest part of them by distillation. MENTZELIA, a genus of the polyandria monogynia class and order. The cal. is five-leaved; cor. five- petalled; caps, inferior, cylindric, many-seeded. There is one species, an annual of South America. MENYANTHUS, buckbean, a genus of the pentan- dria monogynia class of plants, with a monopetalous funnel-like flower, divided into five deep segments at the limb: the fruit is an oval capsule with one cell, contain- ing a great many small seeds. There are five species. Buckbean, called by authors trifolium palustrc and paludosum, is greatly recommended as a diuretic in dropsical cases; as also in the cure of intermittent fevers, and disorders of the breast arising from tough matter in the lungs: the general way of taking it is in a strong infusion, though many prefer the juice fresh expressed from the leaves. MERCATOR's projection of maps. See Map. MENSURATION, in general, denotes the act or art of measuring lines, superficies and solids; and it is, next to arithmetic, a subject of the greatest use and impor- tance, both in affairs that are absolutely necessary in human life, and in every branch of mathematics; a sub- ject by which sciences are established, and commerce is conducted; by whose aid we manage our business, and inform ourselves of the wonderful operations in nature; by which we measure the heavens and the earth, estimate the capacities of all vessels and the bulks of all bodies, gauge our liquors, build edifices, measure our lands and the works of artificers, buy and sell an infinite variety of things necessary in life, and are supplied with the means of making the calculations which are necessary for the construction of almost all machines. It is evident that the close connection of this subject with the affairs of men would very early evince its im- portance to them; and accordingly the greatest among MENSURATION. them have paid the utmost attention to tt; and the chief and most essential discoveries in geometry in all ages have been made in consequence of their efforts in this subject. Socrates thought that the prime use of geome- try was to measure the ground, and indeed this business gave name to the subject; and most of the ancients seem to have had no other end beside mensuration in view in all their geometrical disquisitions. Euclid's Elements are almost entirely devoted to it; and although there are contained in them many properties of geometrical figures, which may be applied to other purposes, and indeed of which the moderns have made the most ma- terial uses in various disquisitions of exceedingly differ- ent kinds; notwithstanding this, Euclid himself seems to have adapted them entirely to this purpose: for, if it is considered that his Elements contain a continued chain of reasoning, and of truths, of which the former are successively applied to the discovery of the latter, one proposition depending on another, and the succeeding propositions still approximating towards some particular object near the end of each book; and when at the last we find that object to be the quality, proportion, or relation between the magnitudes of figures both plane and solid; it is scarcely possible to avoid allowing this to have been Euclid's grand object. Accordingly he determined the chief properties in the mensuration of rectilineal plane and solid figures; and squared all such planes, and cubed all such solids. The only curve figures which he attempted besides are the circle and sphere; and when he could not accurately determine their mea- sures, he gave an excellent method of approximating to them, by showing how in a circle to inscribe a regular polygon which should not touch another circle, concentric with the formej', although their circumferences should be ever so near together; and, in like manner, between any two concentric spheres to describe a polyhedron which should not any where touch the inner one; and approxi- mations to their measures are all that have hitherto been given. But although he could not square the circle, nor cube the sphere, he determined the proportion of one circle to another, and of one sphere to another, as well as the proportions of all rectilineal similar figures to one another. Archimedes took up mensuration where Euclid left it, and carried it a great length. He was the first who squared a curvilineal space, unless Hippocrates must be excepted on account of his luncs. In his times the conic sections were admitted in geometry, and he applied himself closely to the measuring of them as well as other figures. Accordingly he determined the relations of spheres, spheroids, and conoids, to cylinders and cones; and the relations of parabolas to rectilineal planes whose quadratures had long before been determined by Euclid. He has left us also his attempts upon the circle: he pro- ved that a circle is equal to a right-angled triangle, whose base is equal to the circumference, and its altitude equal to the radius; and consequently that its area is found by drawing the radius into half the circumference; and so reduced the quadrature of the circle to the determination of the ratio of the diameter to the circumference; but whicli, however, has not yet been found. Being disap- pointed of the exact quadrature of the circle, for want of the rectification of its circumference, whi^h all his methods would not effect, he proceeded tr> assign aa useful approximation to it: this he effected by the numer- ical calculation of the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons; from which calculations it ap- pears that the perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of 192 sides is to the diameter, in a less ratio than that of S| (3y£) to 1, and that the inscribed polygon of 96 sides is to the diameter in a greater ratio than that of 3^.° to 1; and consequently much more than the cir- cumference of the circle is to the diameter in a less ra- tio than that of 3-f to 1, but greater than that of 3$$ to 1: the first ratio of 5y to 1, reduced to whole numbers, gives that of 22 to 7, for 3J : 1 : : 22 : 7, which there- fore will be nearly the ratio ofthe circumference to the diameter. From this ratio of the circumference to the diameter he computed the approximate area of the circle, and found it to be to the square ofthe diameter as 11 to 14. He likewise determined the relation between the circle and ellipse, with that of their similar parts. The hyperbola too, in all probability, he attempted; but it is not to be hoped, that he met with any success, since ap- proximations to its area are all that can be given by all the methods that have since been invented. Besides these figures, he has left us a treatise on the spiral described by a point moving uniformly along a right line, which at the same time moves with an uniform angular motion; and determined the proportion of its area to that of its circumscribed circle, as also the pro- portion of their sectors. Throughout the whole works of this great man, which are chiefly on mensuration, he every where discovers the deepest design, and finest invention; and seems to have been (with Euclid) exceedingly careful of admitting into his demonstrations nothing but principles perfectly geo- metrical and unexceptionable: and although his most general method of demonstrating the relations of curved figures or straight ones, is by inscribing polygons in them, yet to determine those relations, he does'not in- crease the number and diminish the magnitude of the sides ad infinitum; but from this plain fundamental prin- ciple, allowed in Euclid's Elements, viz. that any quan- tity maybe so often multiplied, or added to itself, as that the result shall exceed any proposed finite quantity of the same kind, he proves that to deny his figures to have the proposed relations, would involve an absurdity. He demonstrated also many properties, particularly in the parabola, by means of certain numerical progres- sions, whose terms are similar to the inscribed figures; but without considering such series to be continued ad infinitum, and then summing up the terms of such infin.tu series. He had another very curious and singular contrivance for determining the measures of figures, in which he proceeds as it were mechanically by weighing them. Several other eminent men among the ancients wrote upon this subject, both before and after Euclid and Archimedes; but their attempts were usually upon par- ticular parts of it, and according to methods not essen- tially different from theirs. Among these are to he rec- koned Thales, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Bryson, An'i- phon, Hippocrates of Chios,' Plato, Apollonius, Phiio, and Ptolemy; most of whom wrote of the quadrature of the circle: and those after Archimedes, bv this method, MER M E R usually extended the approximation to a greater degree of .t:.CUI ary. Many of the moderns have also prosecuted the same problem of the quadrature of the circle, after the same methods, to greater lengths: such are Vieta and Metius, whose proportion between the diameter and circumference is that of 113 to 355, which is within aboutT7TV37VTV of the. true ratio; but above all Ludolph van Ceulen, woh, with an amazing degree .of industry and patience, by the same ratio to 20 places of figures, making it that of 1 to S. 14159265358979323846 +. See Circle. Hence it appears, that all or most of the material improvements or inventions in the principles or methods of treating of geometry, have been made especially for the improvement of this chief part of it, mensuration, which abundantly shows the dignity of the subject; a subject which, as Dr. Barrow.says, after mentioning some other things, " deserves to be more curiously weighed, because from hence a name is imposed upon that mother and mistress of the rest of the mathematical sciences, which is employed about magnitudes, and which is wont to be called geometry (a word taken from ancient use, because it was first applied only to measur- ing the earth, and fixing the limits of possessions): though the name seemed very ridiculous to Plato, who substitutes in its place the more extensive name of me- trics or mensuration; and others after him give it the title of pantometry, because it teaches the method of measuring all kinds of magnitudes." See Heights, Surveying, Levelling, Geometry, and Gauging. MERCURIALIS, mercury, a genus of theenneandria Order, in the dicecia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 38th order, tricoccese. The calyx of the male is tripartite; there is no corolla, but 9 or 12 stamina; the antherse globular and twin. The fe- male calyx is tripartite; there is no corolla, but two si vies; the capsule is bicoccous, bilocular, and monos- pcrmous. There are six species . Of these, the perennis, according to Mr. Lightfoot, is of a soporific deleterious nature, noxious both to man and beast. There are instances of those who have eaten it by mistake, instead of the chenopodium bonus Henri- cus, or English mercury, and have thereby slept their last. Tournfort informs us, that the French make a syrup of the juice of the annua, another species, two ounces of which are given as a purge; and that they use it in pessaries and clysters, mixing one part of honey to one and a half of the juice. Dr. Withering differs greatly from Lightfoot concerning the qualities of the perennis. ** This plant, (says he), dressed like spinach, is very good eating early in the spring, and is frequently gath- ered for that purpose; but it is said to be hurtful to sheep." Mr. Ray relates the case of a man, his wife, and three children, who experienced highly deleterious effects from eating it fried with bacon; but this was pro- bably when the spring was more advanced, and the plant had become acrimonious. When steeped in water, it affords a fine deep-blue colour. Sheep and goats eat it; but cows and horses refuse it. MERCURY, called also qucKsiLVER, was known in the remotest ages, and seems to have been employed by the ancients in gilding and in s paratin^, gold from other bodies, just as it is by the moderns. Its rolour is white, and similar to that of silver; hence the names hydrargyria, argentum vivum, quicksilver, by which it has been known in all ages. It has no taste nor smell. It possesses a good deal of brilliancv; and when its surface is not tarnished, makes a very good mir ror. Its specific gravity is 13.568. At the common tem- perature of the atmosphere, it is always in a state of flu- idity. In this respect it differs from all other metals. But it becomes solid when exposed to a sufficient degree of cold. The temperature necessary for freezing this metal is—39°, as was ascertained by the experiments of Mr. Macnab at Hudson's-bay. The congelation of mercury was accidentally discovered by the Petersburgb acade- micians in 1759. Taking the advantage of a very severe frost, they plunged a thermometer into a mixture of snow and salt, in order to ascertain the degree of cold. Observing the mercury stationary, even after it was re- moved from the mixture, they broke the bulb of tbe ther- mometer, and found the metal frozen into a solid mass. This experiment has been repeated very often since, es- pecially in Britain. Mercury contracts considerably at the instant of freezing; a circumstance which mislead the philosophers who first witnessed its congelation. The mercury in their thermometers sunk so much before it froze, that they thought the cold to which it had been exposed, much greater than it really was. It was in con- sequence of the rules laid down by Mr. Cavendish, that Mr. Macnab was enabled to ascertain the real freezing point of the metal. Solid mercury may be subjected to the blows of a ham- mer, and may be extended without breaking. It is there- fore malleable; but neither the degree of its malleability, nor its ductility, nor its tenacity, has been ascertained. Mercury boils when heated to 660°. It may therefore be totally evaporated, or distilled from one vessel into another. It is by ^distillation that mercury is purified from various metallic bodies, with which it is often con- taminated. The vapour of mercury is invisible and elas- tic like common air; like air, too, its elasticity is indefi- nitely increased by heat, so that it breaks through the strongest vessel. Geoffrey, at the desire of an aichym- ist, inclosed a quantity of it in an iron globe, strongly secured by iron hoops, and put the apparatus into a fur- nace. Soon after the globe became red-hot, it burst with all the violence of a bomb, aud the whole of the mercury was dissipated. Mercury is not altered by being kept under water. When exposed to the air, its surface'is gradually tarnish- ed, and covered with a black powder, owing to its com- bining with the oxygen of the atmosphere. But this change goes on very slowly, unless the mercury is eith- thcr heated or agitated, by shaking it, for instance, in a large bottle full of air. By either of these processes, the metal is converted into an oxide: by the last, into a black- coloured oxide; and by the first, into a red-coloured ox- ide. This metal does not seem to be capable of combus- tion. The oxides of mercury at present known are four in number: l. The protoxide was first described with accuracy by Boerhaave. He formed it by putting a little mercury into a bottle, and tying it to the spoke of a mill-wheel. By the constant agitation which it thus underwent, it MERCURY. was converted into a black powder, to which he gave the name of ethiops per se. The oxide is readily formed by agitating impure mercury in a phial. It is a black powder without any of the metallic lustre, has no taste, and is insolublein water. According to the experiments of Four- croy, it is composed of 96 parts of mercury ami 4 of oxy- gen. When this oxide is exposed to a strong heat, oxy- gen gas is emitted, and the mercury reduced to the metallic state. In a more moderate heat it combines with an additional dose of oxygen, and assumes a red co- lour. . .. ... 2. When mercury is dissolved in nitric acid without the assistance of heat, and tbe acid is made to take up as much mercury as possible, it has been demonstrated, by the experiments of Mr. Chenevix, that it combines in that case with 10.7 per cent, of oxygen. Of course an oxide is formed, composed of 89.3 mercury and 10.7 ox- ygen. This is the deutoxide of mercury. This oxide cannot be separated completely from the acid wiiich holds it in solution without undergoing a change in its compo- sition; of course we are at present ignorant of its colour and other properties. Indeed it is very probable that it is the same with the black oxide just described under the name of protoxide; but this has not yet been proved in a satisfactory manner. 3. When mercury, or its protoxide, is exposed to a heat of about 600°, it combines with additional oxygen, as- sumes a red colour, and is converted into an oxide, which, in the present state of our knowledge, we must consider as a tritoxide. This oxide may be found two different ways: 1. By putting a little mercury into a flat bottomed glass bottle or matrass, the neck of which is drawn out into a very narrow tube, putting the inattrass into a sand bath, and keeping it constantly at tbe boil- in." point. The height ofthe mattrass, and the smallness oflts mouth, prevent Tlie mercury i'rom making its es- cape, while it affords free access to the air. The surface ofthe mercury becomes gradually black, and then red, bv combining with the oxygen of the air: and at the end of several months the whole is converted into a red powder, or rather into small crystals, of a very deep red colour. The oxide, when thus obtained, was formerly called precipitate perse. 2. When mercury is dissolved, in nitric acid, evaporated to dryness, and then exposed to a pretty strong heat in a porcelain cup, it assumes, when triturated, a brilliant red colour. The powder thus obtained was formerly called red precipitate, and posses- ses exactly the properties of the oxide obtained by the former process. This oxide has an acrid and disagreeable taste, possess ins poisonous qualities, and acts as an escharetic when applied to any part of the skin. It is som-wh.-t s.ilu^iu in water. When triturated with mercury it gives out part of its oxygen, and tbe whole mixture is converted into protoxide or black oxide of mercury. When heated along with zinc, or tin filings, it sets the metals on fire. According to Fourcroy, it is composed of 92 parts of mercury and 8 of oxygen. But the analysis of Mr. Che- nevix, to be described hereafter, gives, for the propor- tion of its component parts, 85 parts of mercury and 15 parts of ox v gen. The red oxide of mercury,prepared m the usual way, is not pure, bat always contains a portion of nitric acid. If wle dissolve it in muriatic acid, and precipitate it again, it falls in the state of a white powder, and re- tains a portion of muriatic acid. It was in this state that it was examined by Chenevix. The difficulty of procur- ing this oxide in a state of purity, and the uncertainty respecting the proportion of acid which it retains, may, in some measure, account for the different results ob- tained by different chemists in their attempts to ascer- tain its proportions. 4. Fourcroy has observed, that when oxymuriatic acid gas is made to pass through the red oxide of mercury, it combines with an additional dose of oxygen, and is converted into a peroxide; but as this peroxide cannot be procured in a separate state, we are ignorant of ita properties: Mercury does not combine with carbon or hydrogen; but it unites readily with sulphur and with phosphorus. When two parts of sulphur and one of mercury are triturated together in a mortar, the mercury gradually disappears, and the whole assumes the form of a black powder, formerly called ethiops mineral. It is scarcely possible by'any process to combine the sulphur and mer- cury so completely, that small globules of the metal may not be detected by a microscope. When mercury is add- ed slowly to its own weight of melted sulphur, and the mixture is constantly stirred, the same black compound is formed. Fourcroy had suggested, that in this compound the mercury is in the state of black oxide, absorbing the ne- cessary proportion of oxygen from the atmosphere dur- ing its combination with the sulphur. But the late expe- riments of Proust have shown that this is not the case. Berthollet has made it probable that ethiops mineral contains sulphureted hydrogen. Hence we must consi- der it as composed of three ingredients, namely, mercu- ry, sulphur, and sulphureted hydrogen. Such com- pounds are at present denominated by chemists hydro- genous sulphurets. Ethiops mineral of course is an hy- drogenous sulphuret of mercury. When this substance is heated, part of the sulphur is dissipated, and the com- pound assumes a deep violet colour. When heated red-hot, it sublimes; and if a proper ves- sel is placed to receive it, a cake is obtained of a fine red colour. This cake was formerly called cinnabar; and when reduced to a fine powder, it is well known in commerce under the name of vermilion. It has been hitherto sup- posed a compound ofthe oxide of mercury an.I sulphur. But tie experiments of Proust have demonstrated that ,'ie mercury which it contains is iu the metallic state. According to that very accurate chemist, it is composed of 85 parts of mercury and 15 of sulphur. It is therefore sulphuret of mercury. The sulphuret of mercury has a scarlet colour, more or less beautiful, according to the mode of preparing it. Its specific gravity is about 10. It is tasteless, insoluble in water, and in muriatic acid, and not altered by expo- sure to the air. When heated sufficiently, it takes lire, and burns with a blue flame. When mixed with hall its weight of iron filings, and distilled in a stone.ware retort, the sulphur combines with the iron, and the mercury pas- ses into the receiver, which ought to contain water, liy tbis process mercury may be obtained iu a state uf pmi* M E fl ty. The use of sulphuret of mercury as a paint is well known. Mr. Pelletier, after several unsuccessful attempts to combine phosphorus and mercury, at last succeeded by distilling a mixture of red oxide of mercury and phos- phorus. Part of the phosphorus combined with the oxy- gen of the oxide, and was converted into an acid; the rest combined with the mercury. He observed that the mercury was converted into a black powder before it combined with the phosphorus. As Pelletier could not succeed in his attempts to combine phosphorus with mer- cury in its metallic state, we must conclude that it is not with mercury, but with the black oxide of mercury, that the phosphorus combines. The compound, therefore, is not phosphorus of mercury, but black phosphureted ox- ide of mercury. It is of a black colour, of a pretty solid consistence, and capable of being cut with a knife. When exposed to the air, it exhales vapours of phosphorus. Mercury does not combine with the simple incombus- tibles. Mercury combines with the greater number of metals. These combinations are known in chemistry by the name of amalgams. The amalgam of gold is formed very readily, because there is a very strong affinity between the two metals. If a bit of gold is dipped into mercury, its surface, by combining with mercury, becomes as white as silver. The easiest way of forming this amalgam is to throw small pieces of red-hot gold into mercury. The propor- tions of the ingredients are not determinable, because the amalgam has an affinity both for the gold and the mercury; in consequence of which they combine in any proportion. This amalgam is wiiite, with a shade of yellow; and when composed of six parts of mercury and one of gold, it may be obtained crystallized in four-sided prisms. It melts at a moderate temperature; and when heated sufficiently, the mercury evaporates, and leaves tbe gold in a state of purity. It is much used in gilding. The amalgam com- posed of ten parts of mercury and one of gold, is spread upon the metal whicli is to be gilt; and then, by the ap- plication of a gentle and equal heat, the mercury is driv- en off, and the gold left adhering to the metallic surface is then rubbed with a brass-wire brush under water, aud afterwards burnished. Dr. Lewis attempted to form an amalgam of platinum, but hardly succeeded after a labour which lasted for seve- ral weeks. Guyton Morveau succeeded by means of heat. He fixed a small cylinder of platinum at the bottom of a tall glass vessel, and covered it with mercury. The vessel was then placed in a sand-bath, and the mercury kept constantly boiling. The mercury gradually combin- ed with the platinum; the weight of the cylinder was doubled, and it became brittle. When heated strongly, the mercury evaporated, and left the platinum partly oxi- dated. It is remarkable, thatthe platinum, notwithstand- ing its superior specific gravity, always swam upon the suri'aee of the mercury, so that Morveau was under the necessity of fixing it down. The amalgam of silver is made in the same manner as that of gold, and .with equal ease. It forms dentritical crystals, which, according to the Dijon academic lens, contain eight parts of mercury and one of silver. It is of MER a white colour, and is always of a soft consistence. If* specific .gravity is greater than the mean of the two mi tals. Gellcrthas even remarked that, when thrown into pure mercury, it sinks to the bottom of that liquid. When heated sufficiently, the mercury is volatilized, and the silver^emains behind pure. The affinities of mercury as ascertained by Morveau, and of its oxides as exhibited by Bergman, arc in the following order: Mercury. Oxide of Mercury. Gold, Muriatic acid. Silver, Oxalic, Tin, Succinic, Lead, Arsenic, Bismuth, Phosphoric, Platinum, Sulphuric, Zinc, Sadactic, Copper, Tartaric, Antimony, Citric, Arsenic, Sulphurous, Iron, Nitric, Fluoric, Acetic, Boracic, * Prussic, **> Carbonic. Mercury, in astronomy, the smallest of the planets, and the nearest the sun. See Astronomy. MERGUS, in ornithology, a genus of birds of the or- der of anseres; distinguished by having the beak of a cylindrical figure, and hooked at the extremities, and its denticulations of a subulatcd form. 1. Theculcullatus, or crested diver of Catesby, has a globular crest, white on each side; and the body is brown above, and white below. This elegant species inhabits North America. It appears at ffhdson's-bay the end of May, and builds close to the lakes. The nest is compos- ed of grass, lined with feathers from the breast; the num- ber of eggs from four to six. The young are yellow, and are fit to fly in July. They all depart from thence in au- tumn. They appear at New York, and other parts, as low as Virginia and Carolina, in November, where they frequent fresh waters. They return to the north in March, and are called at Hudson's-bay omiska sheep. See Plate XCI. Nat. Hist. fig. 265. 2. The merganser, or goosander, weighs four pounds; its length is two feet four inches: the breadth three feet- four. The dun-diver, or female, is less than the male; the head and upper part ofthe neck arc ferruginous; the throat white; the feathers on the hind part are long, and form a pendant crest; the back, the coverts ofthe wings, and the tail, are of a deep ash-colour; the greater quill- feathers are black, the lesser white; the breast and mid- dle of the belly are white, tinged with yellow. The goos- ander seems to prefer the more northern situations to those of the south, not being seen in the last except in very severe seasons. It continues the whole year in the Orkneys; and has been^shot in the Hebrides in summer. It is common on the continent of Europe and Asia, but most so towards the north. 3. The albellus, or smew, weighs about 34 ounces; tbe length is 18 inches, the breadth 26; the bill is near tw« inches long, and of a lead-colour; the head is adorned mer: M E R with a long crest, white above and black beneath; the head, neck, and whole under part of the body, are of a pure white; the tail is of a deep ash-coiour, the legs a blueish grey. The female, or lough-diver, is less than the male; the back, the scapulars, and the tail, are dus- ky; the belly is white. The smew is seen in England only in winter, at which season it will sometimes be met with at the southern parts of ie; as also in France, in the neighbourhood of Picardy, where it is called la piette: similar to this, we have heard it called in Kent by the name, of magpie-diver. There are three other species. MERIDIAN. See Astronomy and Geography. MERIDIONAL PARTS, MILES, or MINUTES, in navigation, are the parts by which the meridians in Mr. Wright's chart (commonly though falsely called Mercator's) increase as the parallels of latitude decrease: and as the cosine ofthe latitude of any place is equal to the radius or semi-diameter of that parallel, therefore, in the true sea-chart, or nautical planisphere, this radius be- ing the radius of the equinoctial, or whole sine of 90°, the meridional parts at each degree of latitude must in- crease, as the secants of the arch, contained between that latitude and the equinoctial, do decrease. The tables therefore of meridional parts, which we have in books of navigation, are made by a continual addition of secants; they are calculated in some books for every degree and minute of latitude; and they will serve either to make or graduate a Mercator's chart, or to work the Mercator's sailing. To use them, you must enter the table with the degree of latitude at the head, and the minute on the first coiumn towards the left hand, and in the angle of meet- ing you will have the meridional parts. Having the lati- tudes of two places, to find the meridional miles or mi- nutes between them: Consider whether one of the places lies on the equator, or both on the same side of it; or, lastly, on different sides. 1. If one ofthe proposed places lies on the equator, then the meridional difference oflati- -, tude is the same with the latitude of the other place, ta- ' ken from the table of meridional parts. 2. If the two proposed places be on the same side of the equator, then the meridional difference of latitude is found by subtract- ing the meridional parts answering to the least latitude, from those answering to the greatest, and the difference is that required. 3. If the places lie on different sides of the equator, then the meridional difference of latitude is found by adding together the meridional parts answer- ing to each latitude, and the sum is that required. To find the Meridional Parts to any Spheroid, with the same exactness as in a Sphere. Let the semidiameter ofthe equator be to the distance of the centre from the focus of the generating ellipse, as m to 1. Let A repre- sent the latitude for wiiich the meridional parts are re- quired, s the sine of the latitude, to the radius 1 : find the arc B, whose sine is 1.; take the logarithmic tan- in geTittf half the complement of B, from the common ta- bles; subtract the log. tangent from 10.0000000, or the log. tangent of 45°; multiply tlie remainder by the num- ber 79l5.7044(i7(J. and divide the product by m; then the quotient subtracted from the meridional parts in the sphere, computed in the usual manner for the latitude A, will give the meridional [arts, expressed in the minutes, vol. n. 86 for the same latitude in the spheroid, when it 13 the ob- late one. Example. If mm : 1 : •. 1000 : 22, then the greatest difference ofthe meridional parts in the sphere and sphe- roid is 76.0929 minutes. In other cases it is found by multiplying the remainder above-mentioned by the num- ber 1174.078. When the spheroid is oblong, the difference in the me- ridional parts between the sphere and spheroid, for the same latitude, is then determined by a circular arc. We shall here add a table of meridional parts, calcu- lated both for the sphere and oblate spheroid, by the re- verend Mr. Murdoch, in his new and learned Treatise of Mercator's Sailing applied to the true Figure of the Earth. By this table may be projected a true chart for any part of the earth's surface, and the several problems of sailing me.y be solved by it. Maps of countries may be delineated and applied to the various purposes of navigation, geography, and .astronomy. Nor are the er- rors of the common spherical projections so very small in many cases, as to be inconsiderable and not dange- rous. For instance, if a ship sails from south latitude 25°, to north latitude 30°, and the angle of the course be 43°: then the difference of longitude by the common table would be 3206', exceeding the true difference 3141'by 65'. or miles. Also the distance sailed would be 4512. exceeding the true distance, 1423, by 89', or miles, which differences arc too great to be neglected. For other in- stances of such a correction of the charts, wc refer to the author's admirable book above-mentioned. A TABLE Of Meridional Parts to the Spheroid and Sphere, with their differences. 1). Sp'UTOSil Sphere Diff. 1 58.7 60.0 1.3 o 117.3 120.0 2.7 3 176.1 180.1 4.0 4 234.9 240.2 5.3 5 293.8 300.4 6.6 6 352.7 360.6 7.9 7 411.8 421.0 9.2 8 471.0 481.5 10.5 9 530.4 542.2 11.8 10 589.9 603.0 13.1 11 64 U. 7 664.1 14.4 12 709.6 725.3 15.7 13 769.3 786.8 17.0 14 830.2 848.5 18.3 15 890.9 910.5 • 19.6 16 951.8 972.7 20.9 17 1013.1 1035.3 22.2 18 1074.8 1098.3 23.5 19 1136.8 1161.6 24.8 20 1199.2 1225.2 26.0 21 1262.0 1289.2 27.2 22 1325.3 1353.7 28.4 23 1389.0 1418.6 29.6 24 14 53.3 1484.1 30.8 25 15 18.0 1550.0 32.0 26 1583.3 1616.5 ~ 4 1649.1 168.1.5 34.4 28 1715.6 1751.2 35.6 M E R M E S 1). Spheroid Snherp. Diff. 29 1782.7 1819.5 36.S 30 1850.5 1888.4 37.9 SI 1919.0 1958.0 39.0 32 1988.2 2028.3 40.1 S3 2058.3 2099.5 41.2 34 2129.0 2171.4 42.3 35 2200.8 2244.2 43.4 36 2273.4 2317.9 44.5 37 2347.0 2392.6 45.6 38 2421.6 2468.3 46.7 39 2497.2 2544.9 47.7 40 2573.9 2622.6 48.7 41 2651.8 2701.5 49.7 42 2730.9 2781.6 50.7 43 2811.3 2863.0 51.7 44 2893.1 2945.8 52.7 45 • 2976.2 3029.9 53.7 46 3060.9 3115.5 54.6 47 3147.2 3202.7 55.5 48 3235.1 3291.5 56.4 49 3324.8 3382.1 57.3 50 3416.3 3474.5 58.2 51 3509.7 3568.8 59.1 52 3605.3 3665.2 59.9 53 3703.1 3763.8 60.7 54 3803.1 3864.6 61.5 55 3905.7 3968.0 62.3 56 4010.9 4073.9 63.0 57 4118.9 4182.6 63.7 58 4229.8 4294.2 64.4 59 4344.0 4409.1 65.1 60 4461.5 4527.3 65.8 61 4582.7 4649.2 66.5 62 4707.8 4775.0 67.2 63 4837.1 4904.9 67.8 64 4971.0 5039.4 68.4 65 5109.8 5178.8 69.0 66 5254.0 5323.6 69.6 67 5403.9 5474.0 70.1 68 5560.2 5630.8 70.6 69 5723.5 5794.6 71.1 70 5894.4 5965.9 71.5 71 6073.7 6145.6 71.9 72 6262.4 6334.7 72.3 73 6461.6 6534.3 72.7 74 6672.6 6745.7 73.1 75 6896.8 6970.3 73.5 76 7136.2 7210.0 73.1 77 ' 7393.0 7467.1 74.1 78 7670.1 7744.5 74.4 79 7970.9 8045.6 74.7 «a 8300.2 8375.2 75.0 81 8663.8 8739.0 75.2 92 9070.0 9145.4 75.4 83 9530.2 9605.8 75.6 84 10061.1 10136.9 T5.8 85 10688.7 10764.6 75.9 86 11456.5 11532.5 76.0 87 12446.0 12522.1 76.1 88 13840.4 13916.4 76.0 89 16223.8 16299.5 75.7 90 37.75 MERLIN. See Falcon. MFRLON, in fortification, is that part of the para- pet which is terminated by two imbrasures of a batterv. Its height and thickness are the same with those of the parapet; but its breadth is generally nine feet on the in- side, and six on the outside. It serves to cov.r those on the battery from the enemy; and is better when made of earth well beaten and ciose,*than when built with stones; because they fly about and wound those whom they should defend. MEROPS, in ornithology^ a genus belonging to the order of pica?. The bill is crooked, flat, and carinated; the tongue is jagged at the point; and the feet are ofthe walking kind. The principal species are, 1. The apias- ter, or bee-eater, which has an iron-coloured back; the belly aud tail are of a blueish green; and the throat yel- low. This bird inhabits various parts of Europe, on tho continent, though not in Kngland; yet it is said to have been seen in Sweden, aud^flocks of them have been met with at Anspach in Germany in the month of June. It takes the name of bee-eater from its being very fond of those insects; but, besides these, it will catch gnats, flies, cicadse, and other insects, on the wing, like swallows. These birds make their nests in the boles in the banks of rivers, like the sand martin anil kingfisher; at the end of which the female lays from fire to seven white eggs, ra- ther less than those of a blackbird. The nest itself is com- posed of moss. 2. The viridis, or Indian bee-eater, is green, with a black belt on the breast; and the throat and tail are black. It inhabits Bengal. 3. The crythrop- terus, or red-winged bee-eater, is in length six inches; the bill is one inch, and black; the upper parts of the head, body, wings, and tail coverts, are green brown, deepest on the head and back, lightest on the rump and tail-coverts; behind the eye is a spot of the same, but of a very deep colour; the quills and tail are red, tipped with black; the last two inches in length; the throat is yellow; the under parts of the body arc a dirty wbitejiL and the legs black. There are more than 20 other species.»-; MESEMRRYANTHEMlffa, fig-marigold, a genus ^ of the pentagynia order, in the icosandria class of plants, ~,\; and in the natural method ranking under the 13th or- der, succulents. The calyx is quinquefid; the petals are numerous and linear; the capsule is fleshy, inferior, and monospermous. There are seventy-five species, all African plants, from the Cape of Good Hope, near 40 of wiiich are retained in our gardens for variety. Of these only one is annual, and the most remarkable of them all: it is called the crystallinum, diamond, ficoides, or ice- plant. This singular and curious plant, being closely co- vered with large pellucid pimples, full of moisture, shin- ing brilliantly like diamonds, is in great esteem. It is a very tender plant while young, and is raised annually from seed by means of hotbeds. In June it will endure the open air till October, when it perishes; but if placed in a hot-house in autumn it will often live all winter.. The other species are most durable in stem aifd foli- age. Some are shrobby; others pendulous, with loose straggling stems, and branches inclining to the ground; while others have no stalks at all; theirleaves are uni- versally very thick, succulent, fleshy, and of many various shapes, situations, and directions; while some are punc- tured, or dotted with transparent points; and some have * J M E T MET pellucid pimples, as already mentioned. They afford a very agreeable variety at all times of the year, and me- rit a place in every collection. They are greenhouse plants, and are propagated by cuttings of their stalks and branches. MESENTERY. See Anatomy. MESNE, he who is lord of a manor, and so has ten- ants holding of him, yet himself holds of a superior lord. 15 Viu. Abr. MESNE PROCESS, is an intermediate process, which issues pending the suit, upon some collateral inter- locutory matter, as to summon juries, witnesses, and the like; sometimes it is put in contradistinction to final pro- cess, or process of execution; and then it signifies all such process as intervenes between the beginning and end of a suit. 3 Black. 279. MESPILUS, the medlar; a genus of the pentagynia order, in the icosandria class of plants; and iu the natu- ral method ranking under the 36th order, pomaceae. The calyx is quinquefid; the petals are five; the berry is inferior and pentaspermous. There are nine species, the principal of which are, l.The Germani' a, German mespilus, or common medlar, rises with a deformed tree-stem, branching irregularly 15 or 20 feet high; spear-shaped leaves, and brown fruit, the size of middling apples* which ripen in October, but are not eat- able till beginning to decay. The varieties are, common great German medlar; smaller Nottingham medlar; spear- shaped Italian medlar. 2. The arbutifoiia, arbutus leaved mespilus, has a small, roundish, purple fruit, like haws. 3. The amelanchier, or shrubby medlar, with black fruit. 4. The chamae-mespilus, or dwrarf medlar, commonly called bastard quince, has small red fruit. 5. The eoto- neaster, commonly called dwarf quince, with small roundish bright-red fruit. 6. The Cadanensis, Canada Bnowy mespilus, with small, purplish fruit, like haws. *§. The pyracantha, or evergreen thorn., rises with a shrubby, spinous stem, branching diffusely 12 or 14 feet high, all tbe shoots terminated by numerous clusters of whitish flowers: succeeded by large bunches of beautiful red berries, remaining all winter, and exhibiting a very ornamental appearance. MESSENGERS, are certain officers chiefly employ- ed under the direction ofthe secretaries of state, and al- ways in readiness to be sent with all kinds of despatches foreign and domestic. They also, by virtue ofthe secre- tari'.-s' warrants, take up persons for high treason, or other offences against the state. The prisoners they ap- prehend are usually kept at their own houses, for each of which they are allowed 6s. Sd. per day, by the govern- ment: and when they are sent abroad, they have a stated allowance for their journey. METALS may be considered as the great instrument of all improvements: without them, many ofthe arts and sciences could hardly bave existed. So sensible were the ancients of their great importance, that tliey raised those persons who first discovered the art of working them to the rank of deities. In chemistry, they have always filled a conspicuous station: at one period the whole science was confined to them; and it may be said to have owed its very existence to a rage for making and transmuting metals. 1. One ofthe most conspicuous properties ofthe me- tals is a particular brilliancy which they posses*,, and which has been called the metallic lustre. There are other bodies indeed (mica for instance) which apparently pos- sess this peculiar lustre, but in them it is confined to the surface, and accordingly disappears when they are scratched, whereas it pervades exery part of the metals. This lustre is occasioned by their reflecting much more light than any other bodies; a property which seems to depend partly on the closeness of their texture. This renders them peculiarly proper for mirrors, of which they always form the basis. 2. They are perfectly opaque, or impervious to light, even after they have been reduced to very thin plates. Silver leaf, for instance, TTTVso °^ an inc*' t,,irk» does not permit the smallest ray of light to pass through it. Gold, however, when very thin, is not absolutely opaque: •for gold leaf, 7T^TT of an inch thick, when held between the eye and the light, appears of a lively green; and must therefore, as Newton first remarked, transmit the green-coloured rays. It is not improbable that all other metals, as the same philosopher supposed, would also transmit light if they could be reduced to a proper de- gree of'thinness. It is to this opacity that a part of the excellence of the metals, as mirrors, is owing; their bril- liancy alone would not qualify them for that purpose. 3. They may be melted by the application of heat, and even then still retain thir opacity. This property ena- bles us to cast them in moulds, and then to give them any shape we please. In this manner many elegant iron utensils are formed. Different metals differ exceedingly from each other in fusibility. Mercury is so very fusible, that it is always fluid at the ordinary temperature ofthe atmosphere; while other metals, as platinum, cannot be melted except by the most violent heat which it is possi- ble to produce. 4. Their specific gravity is much greater than that of any other body at present known. Antimony, one ofthe lightest of them, is more than six times heavier than water; and the specific gravity of platinum, the heaviest of all the metals, is 23. This great density, no doubt, contributes considerably to the reflection of that great quantity of light which constitutes the metallic lustre. 5. They are the best conductors of electricity of all the bodies hitherto tried. 6. None of the metals are very hard; but some of them may be hardened by art to such a degree as to exceed the hardness of almost all other bodies. Hence the numerous cutting instruments which the moderns make of steel, and which the ancients made, of a combination of copper and tin, 7. The elasticity of the metals dtpends upon their hardness; and it may be increased by the same process by which their hardness is increased. Thus the steel of whicli the balance-springs of watches are made, is almost perfectly elastic, though iron in its natural state posses- ses but little elasticity. 8. But one of their most important properties is mal- leability, by which is meant the capacity of being ex- tended ami flattened when struck with a hammer. This property, which is peculiar to metals, enables'us to tjive the metallic bodies any form we think proper, and thus renders it easy for us to convert them into the various instruments for which we have occasion. All metals do not possess this property; but it is remarkable that al- METALS. most all those which were known to the ancients have it. Heat increases this property considerably. Metals be- come harder and denser by being hammered. 9. Another property, which is also wanting in many of the metals, is ductility; by which we mean the capacity of being drawn out into wire, by being forced through holes of various diameters. 10. Ductility depends, in some measure, on another property which metals possess, namely, tenacity; by which is meant the power which a metallic wire of a given diameter has of resisting, without breaking, the action of a weight suspended from its extremity. Metals differ exceedingly from each other in their tenacity. An iron wire, for instance, Ty,h of an inch in diameter, will support, without breaking, about 500lb. weight; whereas a lead wire, of the same diameter, will not sup- port above 291 b. 11. When exposed to the action of heat and air, most ofthe metals lose their lustre, and are converted into earthy-like powders of different colours and properties, according to the metal and the degree of heat employed. Several of the metals even take fire when exposed to a strong heat; and after combustion the residuum is found to be the very same earthy-like substance. 12. If any of these calces, as they are called, is mixed with charcoal-powder, and exposed to a strong heat in a proper vessel, it is changed again to the metal from whicli it was produced. This fact is easily explained on the principles of modern chemistry; the calx is the metal combined with oxygen, or an oxide, in modern language, and by heating it with charcoal, which has a stronger attraction for oxygen, that substance is taken from the metal, and it is brought again to the metallic htate. The oxygen in this process, uniting with the charcoal, forms carbonic acid gas. The words calx and calcination, then, are evidently improper, as they convey false ideas; philosophers there- fore now employ, instead of them, the words oxide and oxidizement, which were invented by the French che- mists. A metallic oxide signifies a metal united with oxygen: and oxidizement implies the act of that union. 13. Metals, then, are all capable of combining with oxygen; and this combination is sometimes accompanied by combustion, and sometimes not. The new compounds formed are called metallic oxides, and in some cases metallic acids. These were formerly distinguished from each other by their colour. One of the oxides, for in- stance, was called black oxide, another was termed red oxide; but it is now known that the same oxide is capa- ble of assuming different colours according to circum- stances. The mode of naming them from their colour, therefore, wants precision, and is apt to mislead; espe- cially as there occur different examples of two distinct oxides of the same metal having the same colour. As it is absolutely necessary to be able to distinguish the different oxides of the same metal from each other with perfect precision, and as the present chemical no- menclature is defective in this respect, we may . till some better method is proposed, distinguish them from each other, by prefixing to the word oxide the first syllable of the Givek ordinal numerals. Thus the protoxide of a metal will denote the metal combined with a minimum of oxygen, or the first oxide which the metal is capable of forming; deutoxide will denote the second oxide of a metal, or the metal combined with two doses of oxygen. When a mcfal has combined with as much oxygen as possible, the compound formed is denoted by the term peroxide; indicating by it, that the metal is thoroughly oxidized. Thus wc have the term oxide to denote the combina- tion of metals with oxygen in general; the terms protox- ide and peroxide to denote the minimum or maximum of oxidizement; and the terms deutoxide, tritoxidc, kc. to denote all the intermediate states which are capable of being formed. 14. Metals are capable also of combining with the simple combustibles. The compounds thus formed are denoted by the simple combustible which enters into the combination, with the termination uret added to it. Thus the combination of a metal with sulphur, phosphorus, or carbon, is called the sulphuret, phosphuret, or carburet of the metal. Hydrogen has not been proved capable of entering into similar combinations; neither have the simple incombustibles. 15. The metals are capable likewise of combining with each other, and of forming compounds, some of which are extremely useful in the manufacture of instru- ments and utensils. Thus pewter is a compound of lead and tin; brass, a compound of copper and zinc; bell- metal, a compound of copper and tin. •These metallic compounds are called by chemists alloys, except when one of the combining metals is mercury. In that case the compound is called an amalgam. Thus the com- pound of mercury and gold is called the amalgam of gold. 16. The metals at present amount to 27; only 11 of which were known before the year 1730. They may be very conveniently arranged under three classes; namely, 1. Malleable metals; 2. Brittle and easily fusible metals; 3. Brittle and difficultly fusible metals. The metals be- longing to each of these classes will be seen from th4§f following Table: Malleable (formerly called perfect metals). 1. Gold, 2. Platinum, 3. Silver, 4. Mercury, 5. Copper, 6. Iron, 7. Tin, 8, Lead, 9. Nickel, 10. Zinc, 11. Rhodium, 12. Palladium* 13. Iridium, 14. Osmium. Brittle, and easily fused. 1. Bismuth, 2. Tellurium, 3. Antimony, 4. Arsenic. Brittle, and difficultly fused. 1. Cobalt, 2. Manganese, 3. Tungsten, 4. Molybdenum, 5. Uranium* 6. Titanium, 7. Chromium, 8. Columbium, 9, Tantolium. The ancients gave to the seven following metals tho names ofthe planets, and denoted each of them by par- ticular marks, which represented both the planets and the metals. Gold was the Sun, and represented by O Silver . Moon,.......3 Mercury . Mercury,......\* Copper . Venus, ........9 Iron . . Mars, .......$ Tin . . Jupiter,.......% Lead . . Saturn,..... • h M E T MET It seems nif>st probable that these names were first given to the planets; aud thatthe seven metals, the only ones then known, were supposed to have some relation to the planets or to the Gods that inhabited them, as the number of both happened to be the same. It appears from a passage in Origen, that these names first arose among the Persians. Why each particular metal wjas denominated by a particular planet, it is not easy to see. Many conjectures have been made, but scarcely any of them are satifactory. As to the characters by which these metals were ex- pressed, astrologers seem to have considered them as the attributes of the deities of the same nature. The circle, in the earliest periods among the Egyptians, was the symbol of divinity and perfection; and seems with great propriety to have been chosen by them as the character of the sun, especially as, when surrounded by small strokes projecting from its circumference, it may form some representation of the emission of rays. The semi- circle is, in like manner, the image of the moon; the only one of the heavenly bodies that appears under that form to the naked eye. The character b_ is supposed to re- present the scythe of Saturn; % the thunderbolt of Jupi- ter; % the lance of Mars, together with his shield; 9 the looking-glass of Venus; ami $ the caduccus or wand of Mercury. Professor Beckmann, however, who has examined this subject with much attention, thinks that these characters are mere abbreviations ofthe old names of the planets. "The character of Mars (he observes), according to the oldest mode of representing it, is evidently an ab- breviation of the word ©eo 'A ct n ■t >n co i/i ic n CO N « N eo M O) tO — b-— co oo m o -■* ■* COM K o rt 3i to oo oe eo oi 31 Oi Oi Oi Ol Ol o\ (N Cl CN CN CJ br. N CO N IO Ol Ol Tj« 00 — tf» — Ol o >o (N s s -3i IO N 00 t- Oi CO'^incNNiOCOii'IN ififtiOSOCOSCOO (Oco-^-inoocooi in co oi u * io - ■*}• oo IO b- b- T >0 NOO-04 cn io io o eo N CC 00 CO o Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol 5' 46. 47. 48. 44.5 46.5 54.5 57.5 63. 66. 68. 68. 63. 55. 51. *9, METEOROLOGY. Lat. 44° 43° 45.5 42° 46. 4P 40° 49.5 _ 39° 38° 37° January 45. 46.5 51. 52. 53.5 February 47. 48. 49. 50. 53. 56.5 58. 60. March 55.5 56.5 58.5 59.5 60. 60.5 61. 62. April 58.4 59.4 60.3 61.2 62.1 63. 63.9 64.8 May 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 70.5 June 67. 68. 69. 70. 70.5 71. 71. 71. July 69. 69.5 70. 70. 71. 71. 72. 72. August 69. 69.5 70. 70. 71. 71. 72. 72. September 64. 66. 68. 69.5 70.5 71. 71.5 72. October 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. November 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. December 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. Lat. 26° 25° 24° 23° 22° 21° 20° 19° January 64.5 65.5 67. '68. 69. 71. 72. 72.5 February 70.5 71. 72. 72. 72.5 74. 75. 76. March 73. 73.5 74.5 75. 75.5 76. 77. 77.5 April 73.8 74.5 75.4 75.9 76.5 77.2 77.8 78.3 May 76.5 77.5 78. 78.5 79.5 80. 80.5 81. June 76.5 78. 78.5 79. 79.5 80. 80.5 81.5 July 76.5 78. 78.5 79. 79 5 80. 80.5 81.5 August 76.5 78. 78.5 79. 79.5 80. 80.5 81.5 September 76.5 77.5 78. 78.5 79. 79.5 80. 81. October 73. 73.5 74.5 75. 75.5 77. 78. 79. November 71.5 72. 73.5 74. 74.5 75. 75.5 76. December 68.5 69.5 70. 71. 71.5 72. 72.5 73. From this table it appears, that January is the coldest month in every latitude, and that; July is the warmest month in all latitudes above 48°. In lower latitudes, Au- gust is generally warmest. The difference between the hottest and coldest months increases in proportion to the distance from the equator. Every habitable latitude enjoys a mean heat of 60° for at least two months; this heat seems necessary for the production of corn. Within 10° ofthe poles, the temperatures differ very little; neither do they differ much within 10° of the equator: the temperatures of different years differ very little near the equator; but they differ more and more as the latitudes approach the poles. 2. That the temperature of the atmosphere gradually diminishes, accordingto its height above the level ofthe sea, is well known. Thus the late Dr. Hutton, of Edin- burgh, found, that a thermometer, kept on the top of Ar- thur's-seat, usually stood three degrees lower than a thermometer kept at the bottom of it. Hence, then, a height of 800 feet occasioned 3° of diminution of tempe- rature. On the summit of Pinchinca, the thermometer stood at 30°, as observed by Bougucr; while at the level of the sea, in the same latitude, it stood at 84°. Here a height of 15564 feet occasioned a diminution of tempe- rature, amounting to 54°. But though there can be no doubt of the gradual diminution of temperature, accord- ing t. the height, it is bv no means easj to determine the rate of diminution. Euler supposes it to be in a harmo- nic progression; but this opinion is contradicted by ob- servations. Saussure supposes, that in temperate climates the diminution of temperature amounts to 1° for every 287 feet of elevation. But Mr. Kirwan has shown that no such rule holds, and that the rate of diminution varies with the temperature at the surface of the earth. We are indebted to this philosopher for a very ingenious method of determining the rate of the diminution iu every 36a 35° 34? 33° 32° 31° 30° 29° 28° 27^ 55. 56. 59.5 63. 63. 63. 63.5 63.5 63.5 64. 61. 62. 63. 64.5 66. 67. 68.5 68.5 69.5 69.5 63. 64. 65. 66.5 67.5 68.5 69.5 71. 72. 72.5 65.7 66.7 67.4 68.3 69.1 69.9 70.7 71.5 72.3 72 8 71. 71. 72. 72.5 73. 73 73.5 74.5 75.5 76. 71.5 71.5 72. 72.5 73. 73. 73.5 74.5 75.5 76. 72.5 72.5 72.5 72.5 73. 73. 73.5 74.5 75.5 76. 72.5 72.5 72.5 72.5 73. 73. 73.5 74.5 75.5 76. 72.5 72.5 72.5 72.5 73. 73. 73.5 74. 75.5 76. 64. 65. 66. 67.5 68.5 69.5 70.5 71. 72.5 72.5 60. 61. 62. 63. 64.5 65.5 66.5 68. 69. 69.5 58. 59. 60. 61. 62.5 63.5 64.5 66. 67. 67.5 18° 17° 16° ■ 15° 74. ! 74.5 14° 13° 12° 11° 10° 73. 73.5 75. 76. 76.5 77. 77.5 76.5 77. 77.5 78. 78.5 79. 79.5 79.8 80. 78. 78.5 79. 79.5 80. 80.8 81. 81.5 81.8 78.9 79.4 79.9 80.4 80.8 81.3 81.7 82. 82.3 81.5 82. 82.5 83. 83. 83.5 84. 84. 84.3 82. 82.5 83. 83.5 83 8 84. 84.3 84.6 84.8 82. 82.5 83. 83.5 83.8 84. 84.3 84.6 84.8 82. 82.5 83. 83.5 83.8 84. 84.3 84.6 84.8 81.5 82. 82.5 83. 83. 83.5 : 84. 84.3 84.6 80. 81. 81.5 82. 82.5 83. 83.5 83.8 84:. 77. 78. 78.5 79. 79.5 '80. 80.5 80.8 81. 74. 75. 75.5 76. 76. 77. .77.5 78. 78.5 particular case, supposing the temperature at the surface of the earth known. Since the temperature of the atmosphere is constantly diminishing as we ascend above the level of the sea, it is obvious, that at a certain height we arrive at the region of perpetual congelation. This region varies in height according to the latitude of the place; it is highest at the equator, and descends gradually nearer the earth as we approach the poles. It varies also according to the season, being highest in summer, and low est in winter. M. Bouguer found the cold on the top of Pinchinca, one ofthe Andes, to extend, from seven to nine degrees below the freezing-point every morning immediately before sun- rise. He concluded, therefore, that the mean height of the term of congelation (the place where it freezes during some part of the day all the year round) between the tropics was 15,577 feet above the level of the sea; but in latitude 28° he placed it in summer at the height of 13,440 feet. Now, if we take the difference between the temperature of the equator and the freezing-point, it is evident that it will bear the same proportion to the term of congelation at the equator, that the difference between the mean temperature of any other degree of latitude and the freezing-point bears to the term of congelation in that latitude. Thus the mean heat ofthe equator being 84°, the difference between it and 32 is 52; the mean heat of latitude 28° is 72.5°; the difference between which and 32 is 40.5: then 52 : 15577 : : 40.5 : 12072. In this manner Mr. Kirwan calculated the following table: Mean height of the term ofcwu^elaion. Lat. ltd. 0 13577 5 15457 10 15067 METEOROLOGY. 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 14498 15719 15050 11592 10664 9016 7658 6260 4912 3684 2516 1557 748 120 Beyond this height, which has been called the lower term of congelation, and which must vary with the sea- son and other circumstances, Mr. Bouguer has distin- guished another, which he called the upper term of con- gelations; that is, the point above which no visible vapour ascends. Mr. Kirwan considers this line as much less liable to vary during the summer months than the lower term of congelation, and therefore has made choice of it to determine the rate of the dim unit ion of heat, as we ascend in the atmosphere. Bouguer determined the height of this term in a single case, and Kirwan has cal- culated the following table of its height for every degree of latitude in the northern hemisphere: TABLE Of the Height of the Upper Line of Congelation in the dif- ferent Latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. N.Lat. Feet. N.Lat Feet. 19800 N. Lat. Feet. 0° 28000 35 62 4989 5 27784 34 19454 65 4910 6 27644 ! 35 19169 64 4851 T 27504 36 18577 65 4752 8 27564 : 37 17985 66 4684 9 27224 : ss 17595 67 4616 10 27084 59 16801 68 4548 11 26880 40 16207 69 4480 12 26676 41 15712 70 4413 IS 26472 42 15217 71 4354 14 26268 45 14722 72 4295 15 26061 , 44 14227 75 4236 16 25781 45 18730 74 4177 17 25501 46 13235 75 4119 18 25221 47 12740 76 4067 19 24941 48 12245 77 4015 20. 24661 49 11750 78 5965 21 24404 50 11253 79 5911 •22 24147 51 10124 80 5861 25 25890 52 8965 81 5815 \'4 25633 55 7806 82 5769 25 23425 54 6647 85 5725 26 22906 55 5617 84 5677 27 22389 56 5553 85 5651 28 21872 57 5459 86 5592 29 21355 58 5545 87 5553 30 20838 59 5251 88 3514 31 20492 60 5148 89 5475 32 20146 61 I 5068 90 3432 The following rule of Mr. Kirwan will enable us (• ascertain the temperature at any required height, pro- vided we know the temperature at the surface of the earth. Let the observed temperature at the surface of the earth be = m, the height given = h, and the height of the upper term of congelation for the given latitude be = t; then —------= the diminution of temperature for every — 1 hundred feet of elevation; or it is tbe common difference ofthe terms of the progression required. Let this com- mon difference thus found be denoted by c; then c * JL__gives us the whole diminution of temperature from 100 the surface of the earth to the given height. Let this diminution be denoted by d, then m —d is obviously the temperature required. An example will make this rule sufficiently obvious. In latitude 56°, the heat below be- ing 54°, required the temperature of the air at the height of 805 feet? Here then ro = 54, t = 5555, ro— 52 22 t Too 54.53 =0.404 = C h and c x " = 0.404 x 8.05 = 3.24 = d, and ro — A 100 — 54 — 3.24 = 50.75. Here we see that the tempera- ture of the air 80S feet above the surface of the earth is 50°.75. From this method of estimating the diminution of tem- perature, which agrees remarkably well with observa- tion, wre see that the heat diminishes in an arithmetical progression. Hence it follows, that the heat of the air at a distance from the earth is not owing to the ascent of hot strata of air from the surface of the earth, but to the conducting power of the air. 8. This rule, however, applies only to the temperature of the air during the summer months of the year. In winter the upper strata of the atmosphere are often warmer than the lower. Thus, on the Slst of January, 1776, the thermometer on the summit of Artbur's-seat stood six degrees higher than a thermometer at Hawkhill, whicli is 684 feet lower. Mr. Kirvvan considers this su- perior heat, almost uniformly observed during winter, as owing to a current of warm air from the equator, which rolls towards the north pole during our winter. 4. Such, then, in general is the method of finding the mean annual temperature over the globe. There are, however, several exceptions to these general rules, which come now to be mentioned. That part of the Pacific Ocean which lies between north latitudes 52° and 66°, is no broader at its ni.^hern extremity than 42 miles, and at its southern extremity than 1500 miles: it is reasonable to suppose, therefore, that its temperature will be considerably influenced by the surrounding land, which consists of ranges of moun- tains covered a great part of the year with snow; and there are besides a great many high, and consequently cold, islands scattered through it. For these reasons Mr. Kirwan concludes, that its temperature is at least four or five degrees below the standard. B ut we are not METEOROLOGY. yet furnished with a sufficient number of observations to determine this with accuracy. It is the general opinion, that the southern hemisphere, beyond the 40th degree of latitude, is considerably colder than the corresponding parts of the northern hemisphere. Mr. Kirwan has shown that this holds with respect to the summer of the southern hemisphere, but that the winter in the same latitudes is milder than in the north- ern hemisphere. Small seas surrounded with land, at least in temperate and cold climates, are generally warmer in summer and colder in winter than the standard ocean, because they are a good deal influenced by the temperature of the land. The gulf of Bothnia, for instance, is for the most part frozen in winter; but in summer it is sometimes heated to 70°, a degree of heat never to be found in the opposite part of the Atlantic. The German Sea is above three degrees colder in winter, and five degrees warmer in summer, than the Atlantic. The Mediterranean Sea is, for the greater part of its extent, warmer both in sum- mer and winter than the Atlantic, which therefore flows into it. The Black Sea is colder than the Mediterranean, and flows into it. The eastern parts of North America are much colder than the opposite coast of Europe, and fall short ofthe standard by about 10° or 12°, as appears from American meteorological tables. The causes of this remarkable difference are many. The highest part of North America lies between the 40th and 50th degree of north latitude, and the 100th and 110th degree of longitude west from London; for there the greatest rivers originate. The very height, therefore, makes this spot colder than it otherwise would.be. It is covered with immense forests, and abounds with large swamps and morasses, whicli render it incapable of receiving any great degree of heat; so that the rigour of winter is much less tempered by the beat ofthe earth than in the old continent. To the east lie a number of very large lakes; and farther north, Hudson's-Bay; about 50 miles on the south of which there is a range of mountains, whicli prevent its receiv- ing any heat from that quarter. This bay is bounded on the east by the mountainous country of Labrador, and by a number of islands. Hence the coldness of the north- west winds, and the lowness of the temperature. But as the cultivated parts of North America are now much warmer than formerly, there is reason to expect that the climate will become still milder when the country is better cleared of woods, though perhaps it will never equal the temperature of the old continent. Islands arc warmer than continents inthe same degree of latitude; and countries lying to the windward of ex- tensive mountains or forests are warmer than those lying to the leeward. Stones or sand have a less capacity for heat than earth has, wiiich is always somewhat moist; they heat or cool, therefore, more rapidly and to a greater degree. Hence the violent heat of Arabia and Africa, and the intense cold of Terra del Fuego. Living vege- tables alter their temperature very slowly, but their eva- poration is great; and if they are tall and close, as in forests, they exclude the sun's rays from the earth, and shelter the winter snow from the wind and the sun. Woody countries, therefore, arc much colder than those which are cultivated. Air is one of those bodies "*h:< ! J ive receive ' *' ■: name of electric, because they are capaiik* «.f being - *i- tively or negatively cLarg.'dVitheleclrv matter. It not only contains that portion of electricity whir'' -eiu "~ cessary to the constit in, -fall terrestrial !• >:i; ;. .. it is liable also to be c!\ :ged negatively ovpo«o h ••■;-• when electricity is abstracted or introduced by means of con- ducting bodies. These different states must occasion a variety of phenomena, and in all probability contribute very considerably to the various combinations and de- compositions which are continually going on in air. Tho electrical state of the atmosphere, then, is a point of con- siderable importance, and has with great propriety occu- pied the attention of philosophers ever since Dr. Franklin demonstrated that thunder is occasioned by the agency of electricity. 1. The most complete set of observations on the elec- tricity of tlie atmosphere were made by professor Becca- riaof Turin. He found the air almost always positively electrical, especially in the day-time aud in dry weather. When dark or wet weather clears up, the electricity is always negative. Low thick fogs rising into dry air carry up a great deal of electric matter. 2. In the morning, when the hygrometer indicates dryness equal to that of the preceding day, positive elec- tricity obtains even before sunrise. As the sun gets up, this electricity increases more remarkably if the dryness increases. It diminishes in the evening. 5. The mid-day electricity of days equally dry is pro- portional to the heat. 4. Winds always lessen the electricity of a clear day, especially if damp. 5. For the most part, when there is a clear sky with little wind, a considerable electricity arises after sunset at dew-falling. 6. Considerable light has been thrown upon the sour- ces of atmospherical electricity by the experiments of Saussure and other philosophers. Air is not only electri- fied by friction, like other electric bodies, but the state of its electricity is changed by various chemical opera- tions which often go on in the atmosphere. Evaporation seems in all cases to convey electric matter into the at- mosphere. On the other hand, when steam is condensed into water, the air becomes negatively electric. Farther, Mr. Canton has ascertained that dry air, when heated, becomes negatively electric, and positive when cooled, even when it is not permitted to expand or contract: and the expansion and contraction of air also occasion changes in its electric state. Thus there are four sources of atmospheric electricity known: 1. Friction; 2. Evaporation; 5. Heat and cold; 4. Expansion and contraction: not to mention the elec- tricity evolved by the melting, freezing, solution, &c. of various bodies in contact with air* 7. As air is an electric, the matter of electricity, when accumulated in any particular strata, will not immedi- ately make its way to the neighbouring strata, but will induce in them changes similar to what is induced upon plates of glass or similar bodies piled upon each other. Therefore, if a stratum of air is electrified positively, tho stratum immediately above it will be negative, the stratum above that positive, and so on. Suppose now that an imperfect conductor was to come into contact with each METEOROLOGY. of these strata: we know from the principles of electri- city that the equilibrium would be restored, and that this would be attended with a loud noise, and with a flash of light. Clouds are imperfect conductors; if a cloud, therefore, comes into contact with two such strata, a thunderclap will follow. If a positive stratum is situ- ated near the earth, the intervention of a cloud will, by serving as a stepping-stone,bring the stratum within the striking distance, and a thunderclap will be heard while the electrical fluid is discharging itself into the earth. If the stratum is negative, the contrary effects will take place. It does not appear, however, that thunder is often occa- sioned by a discharge of electric matter from the earth into the atmosphere. The accidents, most of them at least, which were formerly ascribed to this cause, are now- much more satisfactorily accounted for by lord Stan- hope's theory of the returning stroke. The discharge from the clouds directly into the earth is also probably less frequent than from cloud to cloud. The far greater part of the visible phenomena of the atmosphere are due to the water which, being raised by evaporation, is transported from place to place in va- pour, and which, physically speaking, is a proper com- ponent part of the air. When by any means a portion of this is deprived of its constituent caloric, it reappears in minute drops, whicli are at first uniformly diffused, and lessen the transparency of the air in proportion to their abundance. By the report of those who have ascended the highest mountains, or performed serostatic voyages, there is usually a sufficient quantity of this diffused wa- ter, especially towards evening, to become visible from above as a sea of haze. It should seem that this is, in fact, the veil which, being drawn over the sable of the sky, converts it to a blue of various degrees of intensity; or at least that it shares with the transparent air in this effect. The next stage is dew, or rather haze, for the latter term seems more appropriate to the appearance of dew while it is falling. Here the drops have so far become collected as to form an aggregate faintly defined in the air. To this succeed various definite aggregates, under the general term cloud. Out of the latter are formed rain, snow, and hail, by whicli the product of evaporation is finally restored to the earth. The excess for any giv- en time, of the falling water over that which is evaporat- ed, passes off by the springs and rivers to that grand reservoir which forms the far greater part of the surface of the globe. Tracts of forests, especially if mountainous, invite the rain, and protect the springs; while the accumulated heat on cultivated plains often causes the clouds to pass over them, or to be dissipated. Clearing of land and culture, therefore, tend to lessen the rain and the rivers; but it is for the interest of agriculture to leave a certain quantity of timber growing, especially in springy lands, and to re- pair the waste of^it by planting; for it is not impossible, that in a series of ages, the axe and the plough too freely applied might convert a tract of fruitful country into one little better than an African desert. The mean annual quantity of rain is greatest at the equator, and decreases gradually as we approach the poles. Thus at Granada, Antillis, 12° N. lat. it is 12G inches Cape Francois, St. Domingo - 19° 46' - 120 Calcutta - 22 25 - 81 Rome 41 54 39 England - - S3 - 32 Petersburgb - 59 16 - 16 On the contrary, the number of any days is smallest at the equator, and increases in proportion to the distance from it. From north latitude 12° to 43°, the mean num- ber of rainy days is 78; from 43° to 46° the mean num- ber is 103; from 46° to 50° it is 134; from 50° to 60°, 161. The number of rainy days is often greater in winter than in summer; but the quantity of rain is greater in summer than in winter. At Petersburgh the number of rainy or snowy days during winter is 84, and the quan- tity which falls is only about five inches; during summer the number of rainy days is nearly the same, but the quantity which falls is about 11 inches. More rain falls in mountainous countries than in plains. Among the Andes it is said to rain almost per- petually; while in Egypt it hardly ever rains at all. If a rain-guage is placed on the ground, and another at some height perpendicularly above it, more rain will be collected into the lower than into the higher; a proof that the quantity of rain increases as it descends, owing perhaps to the drops attracting vapour during their pas- sage through the lower strata of the atmosphere where the greatest quantity resides. This, however, is not al- ways the case, as Mr. Copland of Dumfries discovered in the course of his experiments. He observed also, that when the quantity of rain collected into the lower gague was greatest, the rain commonly continued for some time; and that the greatest quantity was collected in the higher gauge only either at the end of great rains, or during rains which did not last long. These observations are important; and may, if followed out, give us new knowledge of the cause of rain. They seem to show, that during rain the atmosphere is somehow or other brought into a state which induces it to part with its moisture; and that the rain continues as long as this state contin- ues. Were a sufficient number of observations made on this subject in different places, and was the atmosphere carefully analysed during dry weather, during rain, and immediately after rain, we might soon perhaps discover the true theory of rain. Rain falls in all seasons of the year, at all times of the day, and during the night as well as the day; though, according to M. Toaldo, a greater quantity falls during the day than the night. The cause of rain then, whatev- er it may be, must be something whicli operates at all times and seasons. Rain falls also during the continu- ance of every wind, but oftenest when the wind blows from the south. Falls of rain often happen likewise during perfect calms. It appears from a paper published by M. Cotte in the Journal de Physique for Oct. 1791, containing the mean quantity of rain falling at 147 places situated between north lat. 11° and 60°, deduced from tables kept at these places, that the mean annual quantity of rain fall- ing in all these places is 34.7 inches. Let us suppose then (which cannot be very far from tbe truth) that the METEOROLOGY. mean annual quantity of rain for the whole globe is thir- ty four inches. The superficies of the globe consists of 1*70,981,012 square miles, or 68G,401,498,471,475,200, square inches. The quantity of rain therefore falling annually will amount to 23,537,650,812,030,156,800 cu- bic inches, or somewhat more than 91,751 cubic miles of water. The dry land amounts to 52,745,253 square miles; the quantity of rain falling on it annually therefore will amount to 30,960 cubic miles. The quantity of water running annually into the sea is 13,140 cubic miles; a quantity of water equal to which must be supplied by evaporation from the sea, otherwise the land would soon be completely drained of its moisture. The quantity of rain falling annually in Great Britain may be seen from the following table: which is proba- bly the most extensive of the kind; and as accurate as the use of instruments, not constructed by one person and adjusted to a common standard, will allow. It is mostly compiled from the Transactions of different learn- ed societies. Counties Mean ann . depth (maritime). Places. in inches. Cumberland. Keswick, 7 years - 67. 5 Carlisle, 1 year - 20. 2 Westmoreland. Kendal, 11 years - 59. 8 Fell-foot, 3 years - 55. 7 Waith Sutton, 5 years - 46 Lancashire. Lancaster, 10 years - 45 Liverpool, 18 years - 34. 4 Manchester, 9 years - 35 Townley - 41 Crawshawbooth, near Haslingden, 2 years - 60 Gloucestershire. Bristol, S years - - 29. 2 Somersetshire. Bridge water, 3 years - 29.5 Cornwall. Ludguan, near Mount's Bay, 5 years 41 Another place, 1 year - 29. 9 Devonshire. Plymouth, 2 years - - 46. 5 Hampshire. Selbourne, 9 years - - 37. 2 Fyfield, 7 years - - 25. 9 Kent. Dover, 5 years - - 57. 5 Essex. VJpminster - - 19. 5 Norfolk. ISorwich, 15 years - - 25.5 Yorkshire. Barrowby, near Leeds, 6 years 27. 5 Garsdale, near Sedbergh, S years 52. 5 Northumberland Widdrington, 1 year - 21. 2 Counties (inland). Places. Means. Middlesex. London, 7 years - - 23. Surry. South Lambeth, 9 years - 22. 7 Hertfordshire. Near Ware, 5 years - - 25 Huntingdonsh. Kimbolton, 7 years 25 Derbyshire. Chatsworth, 15 years - 27. 8 Rutlandshire. Lyndon, 21 years - 24. 3 Northamptonsh. Near Oundle, 14 years - -sS General mean - 35.2 As the places subject to much rain predominate con- siderably in this list, it will probably be nearer the truth, if we take the mean annual rain in England and Wales at a quantity not exceeding 32 iuches. In this country it generally rains less ,'.i March than in November, in the proportion at a medium of 7 to 12. It generally rains less in April than October in the pro- portion of 1 to 2 nearly at a medium. It generally rains less in May than September; the chances that it docs s;j are at least 4 to 3: but when it rains plentifully in May (as 1.8 inches or more), it generally rains but little in September; and when it rains one inch or less in May, it rains plentifully in September. Snow is evidently formed by a process of regular crystallization among minute frozen particles of watei floating in the air. It is remarkable, that prev ious to, and during, the fall of snow in quantity, the tempc rature continues about 32°. It should seem that the evo- lution of the constituent caloric of the water produces tho same effect when ice is formed in the atmosphere, as when it is formed in water. The structure of a crystal of snow demonstrates that a drop of rain is also formed by the union of a great number of smaller drops. When these come together in the act of freezing, and suddenly, they form a nucleus of white spongy ice, whicli, by its ex- treme coldness, becoming incrusted with clear ice from the water it collects in its descent, constitutes hail as we usually see it. Sometimes, however, tbe nucleus falls un- incrusted, which is a prognostic of sharp frosts. Hail has been likewise observed perfectly transparent, and hav- ing the form of an oblate spheroid, showing that it con- sisted of drops which had been frozen entire in falling with a rotatory motion. The forms assumed by the suspended water in the interval between the first precipitation and the descent of rain, afford a copious field of observation. These are not, as might be hastily supposed, the sport of winds, changing with every movement of the containing medi- um. Indeed the atmosphere, at the height where clouds usually appear, is undisturbed by the various obstacles which throw it into contending streams and eddies near the surface of the earth, and flows in a more direct and even current. Accordingly, the particles of water which it contains are allowed to assume a certain arrangement; and constitute a form which is often equally well defined at a distance with that of solids, although, were we to penetrate it, we should perceive only the grey mist. These forms have lately been discovered to be subject to certain laws in their production, their action on each other, and their resolution into rain. The visible course of these has been traced and described; and the ancient mode of drawing prognostics seems in consequence likely to be restored, with the advantage of a nomenclature, by whicli the learned may reason on a subject hitherto, for want.of terms, in a manner incommunicable, and confined to the adepts of experience. Before the nomenclature, it will be proper to exhibit the general principles on which its author proceeds in his explanation of the facts. Evaporation is not a process of solution in air, neither is it probable that the water is decomposed by it. It is the same procession in the great scale of nature, as in a small quantity of water placed over the fire. Vapour is formed and diffused in all directions from its source with a force proportioned to the temperature of the water, and subject to the opposing force of the vapour already in the air. The vapour thus emitted may be decomposed in dif- METEOROLOGY. ferent ways; as 1. Immediately on its passing into the atmosphere, producing a fog or mist. 2. After having mounted through the warm air, near the earth, on its arrival in a higher and colder region, in which case dense clouds are there formed. 3. After having been uniformly mixed with the mass of the atmosphere, and perhaps travelled with it to a great distance from its source; in this case it either falls in dew, or is collected into sheets or horizontal beds during a slower subsi- dence; or lastly, it becomes a conductor to the electricity, if the equilibrium ofthe latter is disturbed; and indicates by its arrangement in threads, the usual effects of that fluid on light bodies. In every case, the caloric which constituted the va- pour decomposed, appears to pass into the atmosphere, which hence becomes often sensibly warmer just before rain; and on the other hand, the evaporation of the wa- ter suspended in the air, robs it of so much as to become sensible to our feelings in its comparative coldness. The predisposing causes of these changes near the earth are probably to be found in the state of the supe- rior currents, which undoubtedly both impart and carry off great quantities of vapour; but this part ofthe sub- ject is at present imperfectly provided with such obser- vations as might serve for data to our reasoning. There are three simple and distinct modifications, in any one of which the aggregate of minute drops, called a cloud, may be formed, ihcrease to its greatest extent, and finally decrease and disappear. By modification is to be understood simply the struc- ture or manner of aggregation, not the precise form or magnitude, which indeed varies every moment in most clouds. The principal modifications are commonly as distinguishable from each other as a tree from a hill, or the latter from a lake; although clouds in the same mo- dification, considered with respect to each other, have often only the common resemblances which exist among trees, hills, or lakes, taken generally. The same aggregate, which has been formed in one modification, upon a change in the attendant circum- stances may pass into another. Or it may continue a considerable time in an interme- diate state, partaking of the characters of two modifica- tions; and it may also disappear in this stage, or return to the first modification. Lastly, aggregates, separately formed in different modifications, may unite and pass into one, exhibiting different characters in different Iparts; or a portion of a simple aggregate may pass into another modification, without separating from the re- mainder ofthe mass. Hence, together with the simple, it becomes necessary to admit intermediate and com- pound modifications, and to impose names on such of them as are worthy of notice. The simple modifications are thus named and defined: (See Plate LXXXV Meteorology.) 1. Cirrus, Dcf. Nubes cirrata, tenuissima, quse undi- que crescat. Parallel, flexuous, or diverging fibres, extensible in any or in all directions. 2. Cumulus. Def. Nubes cumulata, densa, sursum crescens. Convex or conical heaps, increasing upward from a horizontal base. 3. Stratus. Def. Nubes strata, aqua modo expansa, dcorsum crescens. A widely extended, continuous, horizontal sheet, in- creasing from below. The intermediate modifications which require to bo noticed arc: 4. Cirro-cumulus. Def. Nubecula densiores, subro- tunda, et quasi in agmine apposita. Small, well defined, roundish masses, in close hori- zontal arrangement. 5. Cirro-stratus. Def. Nubes extenuata, subconcava vel undulata. Nubecula hujusmodi apposita. Horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenuated towards a part or the whole of their circumference, con- cave downward; or undulated, separate, or in groups, consisting of small clouds, having these characters. The compound modifications are: 6. Cumulo-stratus. Def. Nubes densa, basim cumuli cum structura patente exhibens. A dense cloud with the base of the cumulus, but in its upper part extended into abroad flat structure. 7. Cumulo-cirro-stratus, vel nimbus. Def. Nubes vel nubium congeries pluviam effundens. The rain cloud. A cloud, or system of clouds, from which rain is falling. It is a horizontal sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally, and from beneath. Of the cirrus. Clouds in this modification have the least density, the greatest elevation, and the greatest variety of extent and direction. They are the earliest appearance after serene weather. They are first indicated by a few threads pencilled, as it were, on the sky. These increase in length, and new ones are in the mean time added later- ally. Often the first-formed threads serve as stems to support numerous branches, which in their turn give rise to others. The process may be compared either to vegetation or to crystallization; but it is clearly analo- gous to the delicate arrangements which ensue in the particles of coloured powders, such as chalk, vermilion, &c. when these are projected on a cake of wax, after it has been touched with the knob of a .charged Leyden phial. We may consider the particles of water as similarly placed upon or beneath a plate of charged air. Their duration is uncertain, varying from a few min- utes after the first appearance to an extent of many hours. It is long when they appear alone, and at great heights, and shorter when they are formed lower, and in the vicinity of other clouds. This modification, although in appearance almost mo- tionless, is intimately connected with the variable mo- tions of the atmosphere. Considering that clouds of this kind have long been deemed a prognostic of wind, it is extraordinary that the nature of this connection should not tiave been more studied, as the knowledge of it might have been productive of useful results. In fair weather, with light variable breezes, the sky is seldom quite clear of small groups of the oblique cirrus, which frequently come on from the leeward, and the direction of their increase is to windward. Continued wet weather is attended with horizontal sheets of this cloud, which subside quickly, and pass to the cirro-str*» METEOROLOGY. tus. The cirrus pointing upward is a distant indication of rain, and downward a more immediate one of fair weather.. Before storms they appear lower and denser, and usually in the quarter opposite to that from which the storm arises. Steady high winds are also preceded and attended by streaks running quite across the sky in tbe direction they blow in. These, by an optical decep- tion, appear to meet in the horizon. The relation of this modification with the state of the barometer, thermometor, hygrometer, and electrometer, have not yet been attended to. Of the cumulus. Clouds in this modification are commonly of the most dense structure. They are formed in the lowrer atmos- phere, and move along with the current which is next the earth. A small irregular spot first appears, and is as it were the nucleus on which they increase. The lower surface continues irregularly plane, while the upper rises into. conical or hemispherical heaps. Their appearance, increase, and disappearance, in fair weather, are often periodical, and keep pace with the temperature of the day. Thus they begin to form some hours after sunrise, arrive at the maximum in the hotest part of the afternoon, then go on diminishing, and totally disperse about sunset. But in changeable weather they partake of the vicis- situdes of the atmosphere; sometimes evaporating al- most as soon as formed, at others suddenly forming, and as quickly passing to the compound modifications. The cumulus of fair weather has a moderate elevation and extent, and a well-defined rounded surface. Pre- vious to rain it increases more rapidly, appears lower in the atmosphere, and with its surface full of loose fleeces or protuberances. The formation of large cumuli to leeward in a strong wind, indicates the approach of a calm with rain. When they do not disappear or subside about sunset, but con- tinue to rise, thunder is to be expected in the night. Independently of the beauty and magnificence it adds to the face of nature, the cumulus serves to screen the carth from the direct rays of the sun; by its multiplied reflections to diffuse, and, as it were, economise the light; and also to convey the product of evaporation to a distance from the place of its origin. The relations of the cumu- lus, with the state of the barometer, &c. have not yet been enough attended to. It appears that there is a continual evaporation from the base of this cloud, in consequence of its tendency to subside into lower and warmer air. This evaporation is more than compensated during its increase by the depo- sition from above: wyiile the two effects balance each other, the cloud remains stationary as to bulk; when the supply from above fails, it sinks into the lower air, and totally dissappears. This happens usually before sunset, because the inequality in the temperatures of the higlicr and lower air, by virtue of which it subsisted, gives place at that time to the tendency to equal diffusion of the ca- loric. Ofthe stratus. This modification has a mean degree of density. It is the lowest of clouds, since its inferior surface commonly rests on the earth or water. Contrary to the last, which may be considered as be- longing to the day, this is properly the cloud of night; the time of its first appearance being about sunset. It comprehends all those creeping mists which in calm even- ings ascend in spreading sheets, like an inundation of wa- ter, from the bottom of valleys, and«the surface of lakes, rivers, &c. Its tluration is frequently through the night. On the return of the sun, the level surface of this cloud begins to put on the appearance of cumulus, the whole at the same time separating from the ground. The contin- uity is next destroyed, and the cloud ascends and evapo- rates, or passes off with the appearance of the nascent cumulus. This has been long experienced as a prognostic of fair weather; At nebula magis ima petunt, campoque rccumbunt:—* Yirgil. Georg. lib. i. and, indeed, there is none more serene than that wiiich is ushered in by it. The relation of the stratus to the state of the atmosphere as indicated by the barometer, &c. ap- pears, notwithstanding, to have passed hitherto without due attention. Of the cirro-cumulus. The cirrus having continued for some time increasing, or stationary, usually passes either to the cirro-cumulus, or the cirro-stratus; at the same time descending to a low- er station in the atmosphere. The cirro-cumulus is formed from a cirrus, or from a number of small separate cirri, by the fibres collapsing, as it were, and passing into small roundish masses, in which the texture of the cirrus is no longer discernible, although they still retain somewhat of the same relative arrangement. This change takes place, either through- out the whole mass at once, or progressively from one extremity to the other. In eitlier case, the same effect is produced on a number of adjacent ci».«ri at the same time, and in the same order. It appears in some instances to be accelerated by the approach of other clouds; and is probably due to the equilibrium of the electric fluid be- tween the cloud and the surrounding atmosphere. This modification forms a very beautiful sky, some- times exhibiting numerous distinct beds of these small connected clouds floating at different altitudes. The cirro-cumulus is frequent in summer, and is at- tendant on warm and dry weather. It is also occasion- ally, and more sparingly, seen in the intervals of showers, and in winter. This cloud is a sure.prognostic of increas- ed temperature. It may either evaporate, or pass to tliQ cirrus or cirro-stratus. Of the cirro-stratus. This cloud appears to result from the subsidence ofthe fibres of the cirrus to a horizontal position, at the same time that they approach towards each other laterally. The form and relative position, when seen in the distance, frequently give the idea of shoals of fish. Yet iu this, as in other instances, the structure must be* attended to, rather than the form, which varies much; presenting at other times the appearance of parallel bars, interwoven streaks like the grain of polished wood, kc It is alwavs METEOROLOGY. thickest in the middle, or at one extremity, and extenu- ated towards the edge. The distinct appearance of a cir- rus does not always precede the production of this and the last modifications. The cirro-stratus precedes wind and rain, the near or distant approach of which may sometimes be estimated from its greater or less abundance and permanence. It is almost alw ays to be seen in the intervals of storms. Sometimes this and the cirro-cumulus appear together in the sky, and even alternate with each other in the same cloud, when the different evolutions which ensue are a curious spectacle; and a judgment may be formed ofthe weather likely to ensue, by observing which modification prevails at last. The cirro-stratus is the modification which most frequently and completely exhibits the phe- nomena of the solar and lunar halo, and (as supposed from a few observations) the parhelion and paraselene also. Hence the reason of the prognostic for foul wea- ther commonly drawn from the appearance of halo. This cloud is among those natural indications which may be trusted in confirmation ofthe indications ofthe barome- ter and hydrometer for rain. It may be reasonably thought to originate from a supervening cold and moist current, occasioning precipitation in the atmosphere be- low, before it is itself to be perceived. Its appearance often indicates the simple act of subsidence, as in common cases of precipitation in fluids at rest. Ofthe cumulo-stratus. The different modifications which have been just treat- ed of, sometimes give place to each other: at other times two or more appear in the same sky; but in this case the clouds in the same modification lie mostly in the same plane of elevation, those which are more elevated appearing through the intervals of the lower, or the latter showing dark against the lighter ones above them. When the cu- mulus increases rapidly, a cirro-stratus is frequently seen tcVform around its summit, reposing thereon as on a mountain; while the former cloud continues discernible in some degree through it. This state continues but a short time. The cirro-stratus speedily becomes denser, and spreads; while the superior part of the cumulus ex- tends itself, and passes into it, the base continuing as be- fore, and the convex protuberances changing their posi- tion till they present themselves laterally and downward. More rarely the cumulus alone performs this evolution, by the movement or mode of increase of its superior part. In either case, a large lofty dense cloud is formed, whicli may be compared to a mushroom with a very thick short stem. But when a whole sky is crowded with this modification, the appearances are more indistinct. The cumulus rises through the interstices of the supe- rior clouds; and the whole, seen as it passes off in the dis- tanthorizon, presents to the fancy mountains covered with snow, intersected with dark ridges and lakes of water, rocks and towers, &c. the distinct cumulo-stratus is form- ed in the interval between the first appearance of the fleecy cumulus and the commencement of rain; also during the approach of thunder-storms. The indistinct appearance oiit is chiefly in the longer or shorter inter- val of showers of rain, snow, or hail. TUe cumulo-stratus chiefly affects a mean state of the atmosphere, as to pressure and temperature, but is not peculiar to any season; and it may be seen before a fall of snow, as well as before a thunder-storm. Of the nimbus, or cumuld-cirro-stratus. Clouds in any one of the preceding modifications, at the same degree of elevation, 01* two or more of them, at different elevations, may increase so as completely to ob- scure the sky, and at times put on an appearance of den- sity, which to the inexperienced observer indicates the speedy commencement of rain. It is nevertheless ex- tremely probable, as well from attentive observation, as from a consideration of the several modes of their pro- duction, that the clouds, while in any one of these states, do not at any time let fall rain. Before this effect takes place, they have been uniform- ly found to undergo a change, attended with appearances sufficiently remarkable to constitute a distinct modifica- tion. These appearances, when the rain happens over our heads,, are but imperfectly seen. We can then only observe, before the arrival ofthe denser and lower clouds, or through their interstices, that there exists at a greater altitude a thin light veil, or at least a hazy turbidness. When this has considerably increased, we see the lower clouds spread themselves till they unite in all points, and form one uniform sheet. The rain then commences; and the lower clouds, arriving from the windward, move un- der this sheet, and are successively lost in it. When the latter cease to arrive, or when the sheet breaks, every one's experience teaches him to expect an abatement or cessation of rain. But there often follows, what seems hitherto to have been unnoticed, an immediate and great addition to the quantity of cloud. For on the cessation of rain, the lower broken clouds which remain rise into cu- muli, and the superior sheet puts on the various forms of the cirro-stratus, sometimes passing to the cirro-cumu- lus. If the interval is long before the next shower, the cumulo-stratus usually makes its appearance, which it also does sometimes very suddenly after the first ces- sation. But we see the nature of this process moVe perfectly, in viewing a distant shower in profile. If the cumulus be the only cloud present at such a time, we may observe its superior part to become tufted with cirri. Several adjacent clouds also approach, and unite laterally by subsidence. The cirri increase, extending themselves upward and laterally; after which the shower is seen to commence. At other times the converse takes place of what has been described relative to the cessation of rain. The cirro- stratus is previously formed above the cumulus; and their sudden union is attended with the production of cirri and rain. In either case the cirri vegetate, as it were, in propor- tion to the quantity of rain falling; and give the cloud a character by which it is easily known at great distances, and to which, in the language of meteorology, we may ap- propriate the nimbus of the Latins: Qualis ubi ad terras abrupto sidere nimbus It mare per medium; miseris, heu! prescia longe Horrescunt corda agricolis—Virgil. Wben one of these arrives hastily with the wind, it M E Z M I C brings but little rain, and frequently some hail or driven snow. In heavy showers the central sheet, once formed, increases to windward, the cirri being propagated above and against the lower current, while the cumuli, arriving with the latter, are successively arrested in their course, and contribute to reinforce the shower. In continued gentle rains it does not appear necessary, for the resolution of clouds, that the different modifica- tions should come into actual contact. It is sufficient, that there exist two strata of clouds, one passing beneath the other, and each continually tending to horizontal uni- form diffusion. It will rain during this state of the two strata, although they should be separated by an interval of many hundred feet in elevation. As the masses of cloud are always blended, and their arrangement destroyed, before rain comes on, so the re- appearance of those is the signal for its cessation. The thin sheets of cloud which pass over during a wet day, certainly receive from the humid atmosphere a supply proportionate to their consumption; while the latter pre- vents their increase in bulk. Hence a seeming paradox, which yet accords strictly with observation; that for any given hour of a wet day, or any given day of a wet sea- son, the more cloud the less rain. Hence also arise some further reflections on the purpose answered by clouds in tbe economy of nature. Since rain may be produced by, and continue to fall from, the slightest obscuration of the sky, by the nimbus, that is, by two sheets in differ- ent states, while the cumulus, or cumulo-stratus, with the most dark and threatening aspect, passes over with- out letting fall a drop, until their change of state commen- ces; it should seem that the latter are the reservoirs, in which the water is collected from a large space of atmos- phere, for occasional and local irrigation in dry seasons, and by means of which it is also arrested at times in its descent, in the midst of wet-ones. In this so evident provision for the sustenance of all animal and vegetable life, as well as for tbe success of mankind in that pursuit so essential to their welfare, in temperate climates, of cultivating the earth, we may discover the wisdom and goodness ofthe Creator and Preserver of all things. The nimbus, although in itself one of the least beauti- ful clouds, is yet now and then superbly decorated with its attendant, the rainbow, whicli can only he seen in perfection when backed by the widely extended uniform gloom of this modification. METHOD in logic, &c. the arrangement of our ideas in such a regular order, that their mutual connection and dependance may be readily comprehended. METONYMY, in rhetoric, is a trope in which one name is put for another, on account of the near relation there is between them. By this trope any of the most significant circumstances of a thing arc put for the thing itself. See Rhetoric. METOPE. See Architecture. METRE, in poetry. See Hexameter, Pentame- ter, kc. METROSIDEROS, a genus of the class and order icosandria monogynia. The Calyx is five-cleft, half-su- perior; petals five; stamina very long, standing out; stig- . ma simple; capsule three-celled. There are 13 species, of New Holland, &c MEZEREON. See Daphne. vol. II. 89 MEZ20TINT0. See Engraving. MIASMA, among physicians, denotes the contagions effluvia of pestilential diseases, whereby they are com- municated to people at a distance. MICA. This stone forms an essential part of many mountains, and has been long known under the names »f glacies Maria, and Muscovy glass. It consists of a great number of thin lamina adhering to each other, sometimes of a very large size. Specimens have been found in Si- beria nearly 2| yards square. It is sometimes crystallized; its primitive form is a rec- tangular prism, whose bases are rhombs with angles of 120° and 60<>: its integrant molecule has the same form. Sometimes it occurs in rectangular prisms, whose base* also are rectangles, and sometimes also in short six-sided prisms; but it is much more frequent in plates or scales of no determinate figure or size. Its texture is foliated. Its fragments flat. The lamel- la flexible, and somewhat elastic. Very tough. Often absorbs water. Specific gravity from 2.6546 to 2.9342. Feels smooth but not greasy. Powder feels greasy. Colour, when purest, silver white or grey; but it occurs also yellow, greenish, reddish, brown, and black. Mica is fusible by the blowpipe into a white, grey, green, or black enamel; and this last is attracted by the magnet. Spanish wax rubbed by it becomes negatively electric. A specimen of mica, analysed by Vauquelin, con- tained 50.00 silica 55.00 alumina 7.00 oxide of iron 1.55 magnesia l.SS lime. 94.68 Mica has long been employed as a substiute for glass. A great quantity of it is said to be used in the Russian marine for panes to the cabin-widows of ships; it is pre- ferred, because it is not so liable as glass to be broken by the agitation of the ship. It is also used in our navy for lantherns, for the use of the powder-rooms. MICHELIA, a genus of the octandriapolygynia class of plants, the flower of which consists of eight petals; the fruit consists of a number of globose unilocular ber- ries disposed in a cluster; in each of which there are four seeds, convex on one side, and angular on the other. There are two species, trees of the East Indies. MICHAUXIA, a genus ofthe class and order octan- dria monogynia. The calyx is 16 parted; corolla wheel- shaped, 8-parted; nect. 8-valveii, stauiinio ions; caps. 8-celled, many-seeded. There is one species, a biennial of Aleppo, resembling the campanula. MICROMETER, an astronomical machine, which, by means of a screw serves to measure extrenn !y small distances in the heavens, kc. and that to a gitai degree of accuracy. The micrometer consists of a graduated cirri<- (Plate XCIV. Miscel. fig. 162), of a si rew gc. and its index qr. The threads of the screw are such, that 5c make th; ! ;ic !e Anatomy; and the physiology of the gene- rative functions, with the subject of conception, will be found treated of under the head of Physiology. We shall, in the present article, commence by tracing the progressive changes which take place in the uterine system, consequent upon, and immediately after, impreg- nation; we shall then notice, in a general manner, the subject of spurious pregnancy, with that of superfoetation; treat of the morbid affections which, under some circ urn-" stances of predisposition, uterine gestation induces; give an account of tbethreekinds of labours, natural, difficult, and preternatural; and conclude with describing the re- quisite treatment ofthe female after delivery. Of Vie changes which impregnation induces in the uterine system.—The ovum is constituted in early uterine gesta- tion, by the embryo or unformed foetus, the umbilical chord or navel string, the membranes, and the waters. It at first appears as an unformed mass, the component parts not being capable of separation, or even distinction. Soon after conception, tbe external lamella grows thin- ner, the rudiments of the foetus become more apparent, and at length a thick vascular substance (the placenta) is developed, distinct from the membranous portion of the ovum. This membranous portion is formed originally of two coats; that next the foetus is named amnion; and the ex- ternal, the true chorion. These are decidedly organized membranes; but beyond these there is an external lamel- la, which is at first loosely spread over t..e ovum, but afterwards comes into actual contact with the true chorion. This external lamella is much thicker than the other membranes, and in early conception composes a very large part of the ovum; it was denominated by Ruyscb, tunica filamentosa, it has been since termed, the false or spongy choroin; more recently, however, two layers have been detected in it, one covering the ovum, and the other lining the uterus. This last, Dr. Hunter has called membrana decidua, on account of its being cast off after delivery; while to that portion which immediately covers the ovum, he has given the name of decidua reflexa, be- cause it is reflected from the womb upon the ovum, and forms the connecting medium between them. Thus the ovum, on its first formation, and afterwards, when it receiv es the appellation of fetus, is enveloped by four membranes; tbe decidua, the decidua reflexa (these two eventually come to be blended), the true chorion, and the amnion. We have already said, that the chorion and the amniou MIDWIFERY. are decidedly organized, and composed of fibrous layers: the decidua has been generally supposed to be formed of extravasated blood, or coagulable lymph; it has recently, however, been argued, and we think justly, that the de- cidual is likewise a truly organized membrane. Dr. Denman calls the decidua, the connecting mem- brane of the ovum: its formation is contemporary with conception, and precedes the time at which we have com- menced our description; viz. when the ovum has passed from the ovarium into the uterus: as a proof of this uterine and prior formation of the decidual membrane, we may mention that it is found in the case of an extra-uterine foetus. Between the chorion and the amnion, we find in the early months of pregnancy, a quantity of gelatinous fluid, and near the insertion of the umbilical chord, a small white speck is seen on the latter membrane, which is a sac filled with a white milky kind of liquor; it is called the vesicula lacteaorumbilicalis; this communicates with the navel-string by a small chord, which, however, with the sac to which it leads, are only observable in the early months of gestation; their use has not been ascertained. In the first instance, the involucra ofthe embryo con- stitute by far the largest part of the ovum; the propor- tions afterwards come to be reversed: an ovum, for example, at the end of eight weeks, is about the size of a hen's egg, while the embryo itself weighs very little more than a scruple; in eight months from conception, tlie foetus, on the contrary, weighs somewhat more than five pounds, while the secundines do not much exceed one pound. Contents of the uterus in advanced pregnancy.—In ad* vanced pregnancy, the contents of the gravid uterus are the foetus, with the navel-string, the placenta, mem- branes, and contained fluid. The placenta is the medium of communication between the fatal and maternal part of the gravid uterus; this is a thick vascular mass, attached to the foetus by the navel string or chord, and to the womb by means of the spongy chorion or decidua; the chord invariably pro- ceeds from the navel ofthe foetus, but its attachment to the placenta is not always in the same place; it is com- posed of two arteries, and a vein enveloped with tunics, and distended with a quantity of gelatinous viscid sub- stance. The umbilical chord is without nerves, as then there is no sentient communication between the foetus and the mother: the naivi materia, or marks as they are called, on children, cannot originate from the causes to which they are vulgarly attributed; longings, kc. on the part of the parent. It is about the fifth month that the connection, of which we have already spoken, is formed between the two layers of the decidua, or between the membrana decidua and the decidua reflexa; the double decidua thus formed, is, in omparison with the other membranes, opa'jue. ^ i he trti' chorion is the firmest, smoothest, and most transparent of all the foetal involucra, with the excep- .011 ol the amnion; with this last it is united, through Kt-he intervention of a gelatinous substance. The. amnion 'he thinnest and most transparent of the membranes, .tired, in the human subject: no vessels have hitherto ts«'cn traced in this membrane; while, however, it is thin- ner, it is stronger, than the chorion, and when the membranes are about to break, gives the greatest resis- tance. In addition to these coverings, we find in the quadru- ped an oblong membranous sac or pouch (the allantois) situated between the chorion and the amnion; tbis mem- brane communicates with the urachus, which in brutes is open, and transmits the urine hither from tbe bladder (See Comparitive Anatomy.) Now that small sac which we have described, as placed in the earlier months of gestation between the chorion and amnion, has been thought by some anatomists to be the urachus; in the human subject, however, there is no allantois, and no communication of this kind. The waters of the gravid uterus are enclosed within the amnion, and are called liquor amnii; in the first months, they are purer and clearer than in more advan- ced pregnancy, at which time they become more opaque and gelatinous. After a certain period, the waters di- minish proportionally to the advance of impregnation; they are composed of a saline fluid, and appear to be altogether excrementitious. Sometimes water is collected between the lamellae of the chorion, or between the chorion and amnion; this constitutes the false water: it is generally in much smaller quantity than the true water, and may be discharged at any period of pregnancy without injury. Progressive increase of the uterine organs.—The ute- rus, although gradually augmenting in capacity from the first moment of conception, is never completely disten- ded; in early gestation, its contents are confined to the fundus; and even when the foetus has arrived at its full growth, the finger may be introduced some way within the uterine orifice, without interfering with the mem- branes. The increasing size of the uterus does not depend upon the parts being mechanically stretched, but upon a gradual evolution in the manner of organic growth, in general. It is not easy to determine on pregnancy, from the appearances in the early months; during tbe three first months succeeding to conception, the os tinea; feels smooth, and its orifice does not undergo any sensible enlargement; between the third and fifth month, a dila- tation commences in the cervix and orifice; the latter begins to assume a different appearance and to project more into the vaginal cavity. More decisive marks of the existence and period of pregnancy are furnished by the progressive augmenta- tion of the abdominal tumour. Between the fourth and fifth month, the fundus uteri begins to rise above the brim ofthe pelvis, and its cervix comes now to be dis- tended. In the filth month, the abdomen enlarges consi- derably, the fundus uteri extends about midway, between the pubis and the umbilicus, and its cervix is sensibly shortened. In the seventh month, the fundus reaches the navel, and the cervix is now distended nearly three- fourths. In the eighth, it has advanced abo-.tt ball-way between the umbilicus and scrobiculus cordis; and in the ninth, it has reached the scrobiculus; the cervix uteri is now completely distended. The womb, then, in the hutf period of pregnancy, occupies all the umbilical and hyj- pogastric regions: its shape is nearly pyriform. During the progress of pregnancy," the substance qf MIDWIFERY. is retained, if this membrane is not discharged; if the blood evacuated is pure and free from clots, and is unat- tended with pain or the feeling of pressure, abortion from bamorrhage is less to be apprehended. The causes disposing to abortion, are much weakness and irritability of the frame; the more immediately ex- citing causes are, violent passions of the mind, excessive bodily agitation, or njechanical injuries. The position or motion of the foetus itself may likewise dispose to mis- carriage. The size of the abortive ovum, about six weeks suc- ceeding to conception, is nearly about that of a pigeon's egg; in two months its bulk is that of a.common hen's egg, and in three months it equals the size of a goose's egg. Where wc have reason to apprehend abortion, every attention is to be given to avoid the exciting causes. On the first appearance of menacing symptoms, the patient should be principally confined to a horizontal position, the diet should be nourishing but not irritating; the mind should be kept as free as possible from agitation; and crowded irregujarly heated apartments shunned. When the haemorrhage has come on, and the abortion followed, vegetable astringents are to be given, with opiates and bark; the bowels are at the same time to be kept evacuated, and in cases of great debility, port wine is to be copiously taken; sometimes cold or astringent applications to the vagina are necessary'. (See Menor- rhagia, in the article Meuicine.) Natural labours.—That increase of the uterus, by which it adapts itself to the increasing size of its contents, in pregnancy, has certain limits. In the course of thirty- nine weeks from conception, it refuses to undergo any further enlargement, hence contraction ensues, by which those sensations are excited which constitute labour- pains. These, at first, are comparatively trivial, and only recur after a considerable interval; afterwards, however, they become more frequent and forcible; till at length, from the power of uterine contraction, aided by the action of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles, the membranes are ruptured, the os uteri dilated, and the child born. Approaching labour is indicated by the subsiding of the abdominal tumour; hence a relief from the sensations of weight and pressure; an excretion of mucus from the vagina, which is sometimes tinged with blood, succeeds, attended with difficulty of discharging, or total suppres- sion of, in ine; tenesmus, abdominal pains, which extend to the loins and pubes; much restlessness, alternate ri- gours and flushes of heat. What arc termed spurious labour-pains, are more ir- regular than those of genuine labours; they do not pro- duce any alteration in the orifice ofthe womb, and are not attended with any considerable discharge of mucus, by which genuine labour is sometimes preceded, and al- ways accompanied. The prognosis of labour cannot, with precision, be formed. The more ordinary limits of a natural easy labour, from its actual commencement, is, from six to twelve hours: sometimes, however, it is completed at the end of two hours, and at others is protracted for some days. The first labour is almost invariably the most tardy as well as the most paiuful. Iu natural parturition, the accoucheur has no occasion for interference until the membranes are ruptured; to this succeeds the dilatation of the os uteri, and the head of the child is forced against the perinaum; the accoucheur is now required, during every pain, gently to press with the palm of his hand against the perinaal tumour, formed by the head of the child; the perinaum itself is likewise to be lubricated. The head will be expelled through the orificium externum, in consequence of the resistance given by the pcrimeum, which must be releas- ed by cautiously passing it over the face and chin of the child; and now the female is to be suffered to rest for a minute or two, until the recurrence of a fresh labour- pain, by which the body of the child will be protruded, and the delivery effected. The child is to be removed as far as the umbilical chord will permit; which, when the infant has shown signs of life, must be tied and cut; the child is then to be wrapped in a warm receiver, washed, and dressed. See Infancy. The parts of the female are to be very gently wiped, a warm soft cloth applied, and the delivery of the pla- centa or afterbirth waited for. The approach of its ex- pulsion is usually announced by the discharge of some clotted blood, and by what are termed griping pains; its advancing is ascertained by the shifting of the abdominal tumour, and by the lengthening of the chord, which should be twisted round the finger of the right hand, while two fingers and thumb of the left hand are made to grasp that part of it within the vagina; and when a pain presents, it will in this manner be extracted without em- ploying force; if any difficulty arises from the passage of the bulky part of the placenta through the vagina, the finger and thumb of the right hand may be passed up the chord, and the edges gently loosened. But should the placenta not advance when the chord is completely extended, and the female suffer pain, the operator must desist. A soft warm cloth should be ap- plied to the uterine orifice, apd the patient allowed to rest for some minutes; and in the mean time, a gradual pressure may be made on the abdomen, to assist the ute- rine contraction, and facilitate the extraction of the pla- centa, which, in by far the majority of cases, is disen- gaged and expelled within less than an hour after the birth of the child. From want of power, however, in the uterus, from spasmodic action of this organ, or from a diseased state of the placenta itself, it may be retained in the uterus, and give rise to unpleasant symptoms. When it becomes necessary to employ force in the ex- traction, which is perhaps never the case but in instan- ces of flooding, the female should be laid on her back; the accoucheur must pass his hand well lubricated into the uterus, and search for* the convex body of the afterbirth, the adhesions of whicli must be gradually separated by the fingers; and when the whole body is loosened it must be carefully brought away. Much controversy has recently arisen with respect to the eligibility of a forcible extraction of tbe placenta; it cannot he denied, that a retension of this substance has been attended with fatal consequences; while,on the other hand, precipitate and too forcible efforts to procure its extraction, have been followed by fatal accidents. Perhaps it may be laid down as a general rule, that al- though the expulsion of the placenta is earnestly to be wished, its retention is attended with much less risk than MIDWIFERY. a forcible extraction, when the vital power is insufficient to endure much manual force. Difficult labour.—Either from a diminution ofthe ute- rine propelling powers, or an increase of the resisting ones, delivery may be protracted beyond the ordinary period, although the head of the child presents in its na- tural course. When this happens, the labour may be de- nominated difficult; difficult labours may be referred to the condition of the mother, the child, or the secundines. Thus, in the first place, they may be occasioned or at- tended by uterine haemorrhage, epileptic tits, spasms, faintings, nausea, hectic or consumptive stat^, mental agitations, and mismanagement in the time of labour: or the impediment to the progress of labour may be local, as from narrowness of the pelvis or other distortions, constriction and dryness of tlie vagina, rigidity ofthe os tinea, schirri or polypi in the uterus or vicinity, accumu- mulated faeces, calculus, prolapsus of the uterus, vagina and rectum, obliquity of the womb. In the second place, the impediment may be occasion- ed by the bulk and ossification of the child's head, t*<% manner in which it presents, and the largeness or trans- verse presentation of the shoulders. Thirdly, in the secundines there may be too great a ri- gidity of the membranes, or the contrary; too large a quantity of water; the navel-chord may be too long or too short, or it may prolapse before the child's head; and last- ly, the placenta may be attached towards the cervix or mouth ofthe womb. On each of these causes and their remedies, we shall now proceed to descant. When hamorrhage or flooding occurs with genuine la- bour pains, the membranes are to be broken, as soon as the dilatation ofthe mouth of the womb is sufficient to ad- mit the hand; the hamorrhage, upon the discharge ofthe water, will generally abate; in this case, the patient must be carefully preserved from being heated, opiates must be administered and the natural process of delivery awaited. If the hamorrhage, as has happened in some few cases, depends upon a separation of the placenta, attached to- wards the neck of the womb, the flow of blood may be im- * petuous, from the separation ofthe cake, before the uterus is sufficiently dilated to admit the passage of the child's head. In this case the membranes are to be broken, and the delivery effected by turning or extracting with the for- ceps or crochet, with as much expedition as is consistent with the safety of the mother. Upon the occurrence of epi- leptic fits, cramps in the thighs, legs, &c. faintings, and other symptoms, which are consequences as well as causes ef protracted labour, no general rules can be given. The excitement or strength should be supported in these cases of nervous irritability, heat and fatigue must be sedulously guarded against, opiates given, and the pro- gress ofthe labour waited for. In cases, however, of vio- lent epileptic attacks, the delivery of the child should be effected as soon as possible. When a febrile disposition is more than usually conspi- cuous, the bowels must be kept gently open, and a cool- ing regimen adopted. In cases of severe colic presenting immediately before the pains of labour, emollient clysters should be injected, followed by opium. Nausea and sickness must be combated by diluent li- quids, by bitters, and by small doses of opium. When labours occur in the consumptive state, they are almost invaribly lingering. Under these circumstan- s, that posture ofthe body should carefully be chosen for the female, in which respiration is best promoted; the head and breast should be elevated more than in ordina- ry cases; and the apartment preserved cool and airy, but free from currents of air. After delivery, in instances of confirmed phthisis, the symptoms, which during preg- nancy had been in some measure mitigated and suspend- ed, recur with an alarming and fatal rapidity. It scarcely requires to be observed, that all sources of mental agitation, even those which without scruple would be admitted at other times, should be sedulously prevent- ed in incipient labour; violent flooding, convulsion, and fatal dcliquia, have been induced at this period from de- ficient observance of such caution. The above-mentioned obstructions to the progress of labour are of a general nature; impediments, however, to delivery may depend upon local causes: the fust of these we have mentioned, are, narrowness and distortions of the pelvis, or other bones. In all cases indeed of defor- mity, such as.curved spine, bowed legs, much projection ofthe breast-bone, kc the labour may be difficult, iude- pendantly of actual deformity of the pelvis; but the for- mer are likewise frequently combined with the latter. The pelvis may be faulty at its upper and inferior portion, or in its cavity. In the first case, wc can only ascertain the distortion from the symptoms in pregnancy; the pelvis is known to be too small, or the head of the child disproportionate large, by the latter not advancing in proportion to the pains; and by feeling a sharp ridge on the top of the child's head occasioned by the bones riding over each other in consequence of pressure. If the patient's strength rapidly falls, if the child's head begins to swell, and the parts of the female to tu- mify and inflame, the artificial mode of delivery must now be resorted to, taking great care not to be too pre- cipitate in the application either of instruments or of force. Local obstructions may exist also in the soft parts; the vagina may be dry and constricted; in which case all stretching and mechanical force is to be avoided, and the parts lubricated by oily substances or warm applications. When a thickness and rigidity of the os tincae obstruct labour, as in women advanced in life, the parts may likewise be lubricated, and here opi- ates are often necessary. In this case no forcible at- tempts should be made to open the uterus. Polypous or other tumours sometimes, but very rarely, require extir- pation, in order to facilitate the passage ot the child through the vagina. When difficulty occurs from accu- mulated faces, emollient clysters must be had immedi- ate recourse to. Calculi, if they obstruct the passages, must, when they cannot be pushed back, be cut open and extracted. When prolapsus of the uterus occurs from the too great capacity ofthe pelvis, the womb must be support- ed in time of pain that the stretching of parts may be gradual. When the vagina or rectum prolapse, they must be reduced by gentle pressure during the intervals of tbe pains, and a rcturu obviated by very gentle pres- sure. MIDWIFERY. Obliquity of the womb never, perhaps, interferes with the progress ot labour, except in cases of a pendulous ab- domen or distorted pelvis. Labour may be protracted from peculiarities in either the form or position ofthe child's head. Natural disproportion in size may take place in the head of the infant; it may be enlarged from emphy- sema, in consequence of the death of the foetus, or this enlargement may originate from hydrocephalus: the first of these can only be detected by the tardy advances of the child, when compared with the violence of the labour- pains; the second is discovered from previous symptoms, and from the emphysematous feel of the presenting head; the last may sometimes be ascertained by a separation of the bones, and a fluctuation in the head. In these cases recourse must be had to instruments; and if by any force properly employed the head cannot be made to pass, the cranium must be pierced and the brain extracted, previous to the delivery. The mere unfavourable position of the head may be referred to two kinds. 1st. Where the open ofthe head, or fontanella, presents instead of the vertex; and 2dly, face-cases. If the former is the obstacle, the labour will general- ly terminate well without artificial aid. Face-cases, how- ever, are often extremely difficult and laborious: their varieties are constituted by the direction of the chin to the pubes, or to the sacrum, or to cither side. In these cases the labour must be permitted to proceed, till the face is protruded as far down as possible. It is often as hazardous and as difficult to thrust back the child, and bring down the vertex, as to turn it and deliver by the feet. Sometimes the attempt to alter the position may succeed; or where the face is considerably advanced, the fingers may be placed in the mouth ofthe child, and the jaw pulled down, by which the bulk of the head will be diminished; or the chin may be pressed to bring it under the arch of the pubes, by which the crown will be pushed into the hollow of the sacrum, and the passage of the head thus facilitated. Labour is seldom obstructed by the breadth of the shoulders; if the shoulders do not pass after several pains, the accoucheur may assist the delivery by passing a fin- ger on each side as far as the axilla. Lastly, the difficulty and danger of labour may have reference to the secundines. From the rigidity of the membranes the birth is not so frequently rendered tedious as from the opposite cause; and as many inconveniences arise from the prema- ture evacuation of the waters, this accident should be guarded against rather than encouraged. The impediment to delivery from too great a quanti- ty of water seldom proves dangerous; even here the mem- branes should never be broken till the soft parts are ful- ly dilated. When the navel-string is too long, the labour may be protracted from its circumvolutions passing round the chilu's neck or body. This, however, is very seldom the case, and it is almost never necessary or proper to di- vide the chord in the birth; a practice that may be at- tended with fatal consequences. When the funis is too short, a precipitate expulsion of tbe placenta may be the consequence, or the rupture of the chord and death of the child; this case, however, ve- ry rarely happens. When the funis is prolapsed before the head, it should, if possible, be thrust up above the presenting part; for the circulation of the chord, and con- sequent death ofthe child, may otherwise take place. If the head is far advanced, and the life of the child in dan- ger, delivery may be performed with the forceps. When the placenta is attached towards the neck or orifice of the uterus, the danger from hamorrhage is ve- ry considerable, and the delivery is to be accomplished as speedily as possible. By the above observationi it will be rendered evident, that the practice of manual or instrumental assistance, even in difficult labour, is very seldom requisite; as, how- ever, there are cases where the defects of nature may be in some measure remedied by art, it will be proper more particularly to speak Of tlie mode of delivery by instruments. Forceps. This is an instrument wiiich in its improved jbrm may be used without endangering the safety of ei- iner mother or child. When it is requisite to employ it with the head presenting naturally, the female must be laid on her back across the bed, and the accoucheur kneeling before her is first to lubricate the perinaum and the vagina, then gently dilate the parts by passing his hand through the vagina by the side of the child's head till it advances as far as an ear; along the hand he is to guide a blade ofthe forceps, which is to be introduced in the direction of the line of the pelvis, the handle held backwards towards the perinaum, and the clam kept closely applied to the child's head. This must be in- sinuated by degrees with a kind of wriggling motion, till the blade is applied along the side of the head over the ear: the operator must then withdraw the first hand from the pelvis, and secure the handle of the blade already introduced, till the other blade is insinuated in the same manner; the handles must then be brought exactly to an- tagonize each other, and then the blades are to be locked. Now, while one hand is engaged in defending the peri- naum, the other must be employed in moving the for- ceps from blade to blade, not straight forwards; and the accoucheur should only operate during the pains, if any, and if not he should frequently desist. When the perinaum begins to protrude, the operator must rise, elevate the handle of his instrument very gently, and by a turn bring the head round from under the arch of the pubes, carefully preserving the perinaum from being lacerated. When the vertex presents with the face laterally in the pelvis, the instrument must not be introduced till the ear of the child has passed under the pubes; the woman should now be placed on her side or knees, and when the forceps are passed, should again be placed on her hack, and the head be delivered in the manner it pre- sents. When the forceps in this case fails, it must be fix- ed over the head and occiput; if this last method does not succeed, the size of the head must be diminished. If the fontanella presents with the face to the pubes or sacrum, the forceps may be applied in the same manner as in a natural presentation; here the extraction should be made with extreme deliberation, the forceps must be released when the head is delivered, and the remainder of the delivery regulated as under ordinary circumstances. MIDWIFERY. In this case of fontanel presentation, the short diame- ter of the pelvis is intersected by the long axis of the head, and it is thus rendered impossible to bring the head along by any force we arc justified in using. In this case, the common forceps being withdrawn, the long one is to be had recourse to. An instrument has likewise been employed in these cases with a third blade. In face-presentations, the accoucheur is to pass his band with great gentleness within the pelvis, and only during the intervals of pain endeavour to push the shoulders above the brim of the pelvis; should this suc- ceed, the labour will perhaps proceed orderly; if, how- ever, every endeavour is baffled to make the crown or fontanel present, the forceps is to be applied over the ears of the child, and the extraction performed in the best manner the accoucheur is able: if this fails, re- course must be had to the crotchet. When the face pre- sents with the chin to tho pubes, previous to the intro- duction of the forceps, the chin, if possible, should be brought down below the pubes. When the chin is to the sacrum, it should be advanced to its inferior part; and when it is laterally directed, the chin should be as low as the under part of the tuber ischii before the instru- ment is employed. Embryotomy. When every method has failed of ex- tracting the head of the child, this operation must be bad recourse to; that is, the skull must be perforated, and its contents evacuated. This is a modern and im- portant improvement in the art of midwifery: the instru- ments by whicli the operation is to be accomplished, consists of a pair of long scissars, a sharp curved croch- et, and a blunt hook. It is unnecessary to say, that em- bryotomy should never be employed but in cases of ab- solute necessity; and where the demonstration is com- plete, that the dimensions of the pelvis are insufficient to admit the passing of the child's head. In the narrowest pelvis that presents, the soft parts should be fully dilated previous to perforating the cra- nium; the head of the child is to be fixed firmly in the pelvis, and advanced as far as possible; the long scissars are to be introduced into the vagina by the direction of the hand, and the points guarded till they apply to the cranium of the child, which they must be made to perfo- rate till they are inserted as far as the rests; they are then to be fully dilated, carefully closed again, half-turn- ed, and again dilated, so as to form a crucial hole in the scull. Now, they are to be thrust beyond the rests, open- ed and shut for several times, till a very large opening is made; the scissars are then to be withdrawn carefully, and the brain extracted by means ofthe fingers or blunt hook, and if any portion of bone is found loose it is to be removed by the fingers or small forceps. The teguments of the scalp should now be drawn over the cranial per- foration, and the extraction delayed for some hours; sometimes the force of natural labour-pains will suffice for the expulsion of the head; if not, it must be drawn forward by means of two fingers introduced into the ca- vity of the cranium, by the blunt hook, or by the crotch- et; which last is to be introduced in the same manner as a blade of the forceps, taking care to guard the point with the finger; the force employed must be exerted by intervals, and if there are labour-pains, only during their vol. n. 90 occurrence; sometimes it is necessary to employ conside- rable exertion in order to effect the extraction: if, after the head has passed, the body resists the extracting pow- er, the thorax must be pierced, and some of its contents likewise discharged. If, from great inattention or ignorance, the head has been severed from the body, and both remain in the ute- rus, the head, when it cannot be extracted first, must be pushed upwards; the crotchet or blunt hook must be fix- ed under the arm-pit, the arms must be brought down, and the body extracted by fixing the crotchet below the shoulder-blade, on the breast-bone or among the ribs. The head must afterwards be dra. n out with the crotchet. In face-presentations, where it is impossible to alter the position of the foetus, the double crotchet has beeu employed: this last, however, is very seldom necessary. The crotchet with a single blade is almost invariably to be preferred. Ccesarianoperation. This consists in making an open- ing into the abdomen of the mother, in order to extract the child, when delivery cannot be accomplished in any other way. The propriety of having recourse to this ope- ration in any, which in all instances is attended with considerable hazard, has been much agitated; and it must be confessed, that the unhappy event of those cases in which the expedient has recently been tried in Britain, are highly discouraging. In the city of Edinburgh, the casarian operation has been performed five times, and none of the females who were operated upon survived many days. Iu other countries, however, such has not been the universal result of the trial in question; and the following circumstances have by many been imagined to authorise the adoption of this expedient. Defective form of the pelvis. Whenever the capacity of the pelvis is so small that its larger diameter does not exceed an inch and a half, a cause of exceedingly unfre- qucnt occurrence, the casarian operation has been judg- ed an attempt attended with less danger, even to the mother, than that of embryotomy above described, and as affording a prospect of saving the child it is prefer- able. Secondly, imperforations or contracted passages in or about the vagina, have been supposed to indicate this operation;- but it has been ascertained that tumours in the vagina may be extirpated, or that imperforations from the parts of the vagina having grown together may be opened, and that therefore such accidents will not justi- fy the operation in question. When the uterus has been lacerated, and the whole foetus has escaped into the cavity of the abdomen, the casarian operation has been recommended; if, however, even in this case, incision into the abdomen is ever allow- able, it should be made at that time alone when a pros- pect remains of saving the child; as such incision imme- diately after the uterus has burst, would be almost in- evitably attended by the death of the mother. " Should, however, tbe patient recruit after the accident, and it be found impossible to extract the child through the ordi- nary passages, a simple incision througli the integu- ments of the abdomen may afford the means of saving the life of the woman." MIDWIFERY. Cases of ventral conception, or hernia of the uterus, do not afford sufficient grounds for the attempt. In the former, the event is to be trusted to nature; and in the latter, cases are on record of reduction of the rupture and the safe delivery of the child. With respect to the position or bulk of the child, the late improvements in obstetrical instruments, kc. have superseded in all cases the necessity of this hazardous expedient, when the obstacle to delivery has been on the part of the foetus merely. If then in any case the casarian operation is justifiable, it appears to be in that only where the extreme contraction of the pelvis does not ad- mit of the operai>,i of embryotomy. Operation. » First empty the intestines, the rectum, and the vesica urinaria, then lay the patient in a horizon- tal posture. In making the incision, we must avoid the large arteries in the containing parts. If it was to extend far outwards, considerable branches of the circumflex might be divided; if inwards, the epigastric: so the best place is between the recti muscles, or upon the outside of the rectus. The surgeon should first divide the skin and muscles, and leave the peritonaum entire, until the bleeding from the vessels has entirely ceased. We then open the peritonaum, making first a small incision, and observe if the uterus is contiguous; if it is we divide it with caution. The discharge of blood is smaller than we should expect. We then cut the membranes, separate the placenta to extract the foetus, discharge the waters, and as soon as the foetus and secundines are removed, the uterus contracts of itself. Then let the surgeon pass his band into the cavity of the uterus, and with one or two fingers open the os uteri, that the blood may pass readi- ly out by the vagina. We then shut the womb, sew the containing parts ofthe abdomen with the glover's stitch, or interrupted suture, at three-fourths of an inch dis- tance, making the needle pass through the skin and part of the muscles, leaving the peritonaum entire; or if there is a considerable effusion of blood and water, stitch all but the under part, introduce into it a soft tent, and cover the whole with a compress. The patient is to be kept on a strict antiphlogistic regimen during the cure." (Extracted from the directions of Dr. Monro, in Dr. Hamilton's System of Midwifery.) A further operation has been proposed and practised; that of dividing the symphisis pubis, by making an in- cision with tbe scalpel through the soft parts, in the di- rection of the commissure of the ossa pubis, separating afterwards the cartilaginous articulation; and then, by an extension of the thighs, separating the bones, and waiting for the expulsion of the foetus by natural labour- pains; if these prove insufficient to effect the expulsion, recourse is then directed to be had to extraction by the forceps or by the scissars and crotchet, to turning the child, or to the casarian section. This last, however, which has been called the Sigaul- tian operation, from its having first been proposed by M. Sigault of Paris, is in no instance to be substituted for that of embryotomy; " winch, if not too long delayed, may, in the present improved state of the art, be employ- ed in most cases of distortion, with perfect safety to the mother, who is always justly entitled to the first place in our intentions, and whose valuable life is the most inte- resting and important object of our regard." Preterichtral labours. From natural and difficult, we now pass on to consider those labours that arc denominated preternatural; which are constituted by the presentation of any part of the child excepting the head and face. The causes of these are obscure. The unnatural position has been attributed to the motions ofthe infant in the early months of preg- nancy, to agitations of the mother at that period, to the form of the child, the quantity of the waters, the too great length or shortness of the navel-string, and other circumstances. When labour is but little advanced, and before the po- sition of the child can be ascertained by the touch, a pre- ternatural presentation may be anticipated, if the pains are extremely weak, if the membranes are protruded in a form like the finger of a glove, if no part of the child can be discovered when the uterine orifice is much dilat- ed, or if the presenting part gives less resistance than or- dinary. If, lastly, when the membranes are ruptured, the meconium comes away with the waters, it is pretty certain that the breech presents, or that the child is dead. Preternatural presentations may be comprehended un- der the three following divisions: 1. The presentation of one or both feet,knees, or the breech.^. When the child lies in a transverse position, and presents with the arm, shoulder, side, back, or abdomen. 5. When one or both arms are protruded before the head. The first, and by far the most favourable, form of un- natural presentation, is called the Agrippan posture. When one or both feet present, scarcely any thing more is required than if the labour was strictly natural, until the orifice of the womb is sufficiently dilated, and the presenting parts have advanced without the os exter- num. The woman must then be laid on her side, and the operator is to take hold of one leg above the ancle, and gently endeavour to pull it down in the time of a pain; not in a straight direction, but from side to side, or from the sacrum to the pubes. Upon the remission ofthe pain, a warm cloth is to be applied to the os externum, and up- on the recurrence of a pain, the other leg is to be brought down in the same manner with the first. Now a warm cloth should be wrapped round the feet, so as to leave the toes exposed, in order to direct the turning of the body: if these are directed towards one of the sacro-iliac synchondroses, the child is to be brought along, without any alteration of its position, till it is arrested by the resistance of the shoulders; if, however, the toes should point to the back or belly, the child's body must be gradually turned, till the abdomen is applied to that sa- cro-iliac synchondrosis to wiiich it is nearest. In turning, the child's body must be firmly grasped with both bands, directing it a little upwards, and laterally, in the time of the pain, favouring that line of direction to which nature appears to incline. When the breech is entirely protruded, the child must be taken hold of, and gradually extracted, by grasping with the thumbs above the haunches, and the fingers spread upon the groins; as the belly advances, the ope- rator must slide up his hand, and gently draw down a little of the navel-string; and if, after the breech is pro- truded, the chord is compressed at the os tinea, the de- livery must be earnestly expedited. When the child has MIDWIFERY, advanced as far as the breast, it ought to be supported by one hand of the operator; the infant being then drawn gently towards one side, two or more fingers ofthe other hand may be introduced at the opposite into the pelvis, over the back ofthe shoulder as far as the elbow, to bring down the arm obliquely over the breast. The operator having now shifted hands, the opposite arm must be dis- engaged in the same manner. Now the woman is to be allowed rest till another pain or two follow; when, by gently bearing down, the head will generally pass: if, however, this is not the case, a danger ofthe infant's life will arise from the pressure of the navel-string; if the pulsation of this is extremely weak, the labour must by all means be expedited. Two fingers of the left hand are to be introduced into the mouth of the child, while its body is supported by the hand and arm, and the jaw pulled towards the breast; then pressing down the shoulders with the other hand, the accoucheur must rise from his seat; and having turned the face into the sacral hollow, pull in a direction from before," backwards, with considerable force, alternately raising and depressing the head; when the face descends from the hollow ofthe sacrum, the delivery must be ef- fected by bringing the back part ofthe head from under the pubes, by a half-round turn. During this time, pres- sure should be made by an assistant on the perinaum; caution is required not to injure the child's jaw. If the navel-string interferes, it must he disengaged as easily and expeditiously as possible. When obstacles prevent the ready advancement of the head, the operator i& to forbear bis exertion, from time to time. If the resisting bulk is occasioned by hydrocepha- lus, the teguments, if not burst, may be perforated; and indeed, if the head from any cause is still found too bulky to be protruded or extracted, the perforator and crotchet must be employed. When only one foot is protruded into the vagina, the other is sometimes prevented from following, by catch- ing on the pubes; this is to be dislodged when it can be djne with facility; if not, the attempt should not be made, but the descent of the breech must be waited for. When one or booth knees present, the delivery is nearly the 6amc as in feet-presentation. When the feet protrude along with the breech, the latter is to be thrust up, till the position is connected into a footing-case. A breech-presentation must be left to nature, till the child is advanced as far as the chest, when the delivery must be accomplished as in a feet-presentation. When, 2dly, the child lies in a transverse position, and presents with the arm, shoulder, side, back, or abdo- men, manual assistance is always requisite; the hand is to be introduced into the uterus in the gentlest manner, the feet sought for, and the delivery accomplished as in foot-presentations: to effect which, the following rules must be attended to. 1. Although the preferable posture for placing the woman is generally on her back, it will sometimes be necessary to turn her on her left side, with the breech placed over the edge of the bed, and the knees kept separate with a folded pillow. 2nd. The ex- act position of the child is to be ascertained. 5d. The orifice of the uterus should be dilated so as to allow the hand to pass freely, and strong pains are to be waited Cor. 4th. Should the waters have been discharged, and the parts remain rigid, warm oil should be injected into the uterus, and a full dose of laudanum given. 5th. The hand must be introduced only during the remission of the pain, and the ])As should be well lubricated with oil or pomatum. 6th. The expanded palm of the hand is to be employed in pushing up to come at the feet, and not the clenched fists or point of the fingers. 7th. Both feet, if easily reached, should be laid hold of; the hand, if possible, going over the anterior part of the child. 8th. When the hand is within the pelvis, it should not always- be moved in the line ofthe umbilicus, but rather towards one side. 9th. The hand should be passed as far as the middle of the child's body, before the feet are sought for. 10th. If the hand is incapable of passing the presenting part of the child, this should gently be elevated in the pelvis, and then removed to the opposite side. When the arm presents, the hand of the accoucheur, well lubricated, must be conducted into the uterus, by the course of its side, along the thorax, and towards the opposite side of the pelvis where the head lies; if any dif- ficulty occurs in coming at tbe feet, the hand must be withdrawn, and the other passed in its stead; if still a passage cannot be procured beyond the shoulder and head, the presenting part must be elevated, and gently pushed on one side, that a hold may be taken of one or both feet, to which, when they have sufficiently advanc- ed, a noose is to be applied; and thus by pulling with one hand, by the noose, and pushing the other, the feet may be brought down, and the delivery effected. When the shoulder presents, the delivery by turning will be more difficult, in proportion as the presenting part protrudes, and becomes locked in the pelvis. A side-presentation may be ascertained by feeling the ribs; when the back presents, the spine will be felt; aniKihe navel-string if the abdomen. These three last are byflfto means common occurrences. The arm-presentations are the most difficult cases in preternatural labour. In this case, the hand ofthe ac- coucheur, well lubricated, must be insinuated into the womb, by the direction of the child's arm, the feet are to be searched for and brought down in the best manner circumstances will admit of. If the arm has been long protruded, the os externum swelled and cold, the water's drained off, and the position of the child such as to ren- der the above methods of reduction impossible, the use of the crotchet must be resorted to. When both arms present, which constitutes a less difficult case than wheu only one protrudes, the delivery must be conducted upon the same principles. Complex labours.—The principal of these are constitu- ted by plurality of children, monsters, uterine hamor- rhage, convulsions, ruptured uterus, and the prolapse of the navel-string. Plurality of Children.—Two children at a birth arebv no means uncommon occurrences, triplets seldom apr pear, quadruplets still more rarely; there are, however, instances on record, even of five children from oncpre"- nancy. When there are two or more children, the size of that one whicli has been delivered is usually small, the quan- tity of the liquor ainnii inconsiderable, the umbilical chord continues to bleed ifter division, the placenta is MIDWIFERY. retained, the labour-pains recur, and the uterine tumour is not sensibly diminished betweep the stomach and um- bilicus. In twin-cases, the delivery of Qe second child ought not be precipitated, but deferred till the woman has rest- ed some time, and till the second set of membranes occu- py the situation of the former ones; no attempts ought to be made to extract the placenta till after the birth of the remaining child; a second ligature should be placed on that end of the chord next the mother immediately after the birth of the first infant, and a gentle compres- sion made on the abdoinen of the woman, which must be gradually tightened as the tumour of the uterus sub- sides. The placenta is to be managed in the ordinary man- ner. In cases of two or more children, it generally sepa- rates with much facility, if time has been given for the regular contractions of the uterus. The chord of each placenta should be very gently pulled; and when resist- ance is met with at the uterine orifice, the fingers must be introduced, in order to loosen their edges. If, from the very diminutive size of the first and se- cond child, and the remaining of the abdominal tumour, there is reason to expect a third, the accoucheur, after waiting about half an hour for the placenta to separate, without effect, is to introduce his hand; and if a third set of membranes are detected, to break them, and manage the delivery according to the presentation. Monsters*—These are of various shapes and magni- tude; iney often, unless very small, occasion much trou- ble in the delivery. Monstrous productions may be con- stituted by a preternatural conformation of single parts, such as of the chest, head, abdomen, &c. or there may be tm> heads, two bodies with one head, &c. These cases, hltvever, are of exceedingly unfrequent occurrence. Uterine haemorrhage.—The separation of the placenta is invariably attended with a greater or less discharge of blood; when, however, this exceeds a certain quantity, and symptoms of debility present themselves in rapid succession, no time is to be lost in having recourse to assistance, both internal and external: cloths are to be applied to the orifice of the uterus, dipped in some cold astringent fluid, such as vinegar and water, or red tart wine, which are likewise to be laid on the back and ab- domen; and the patient is to be supported by doses of lau- danum, port wine, and medicinal astringents. With respect to the hamorrhage that arises from the retention ofthe placenta, in such cases extraction of this substance should be immediately procured, provided the debility does not menace immediate extinction of life; in which case, opium, wine, and cordials, may be given, and the operation of extraction deferred till the strength is in some measure recruited. These are cases, however, in which it is hazardous to lay down any undeviating rule of conduct. When epileptic fits happen during labour, they are generally to be treated with venesection, immediately succeeded by proper doses of camphor; an expeditious delivery, however, can only be depended on for radical relief. The rupture of tbe uterus, which is the most alarming accident that can occur during parturition, is preceded by excessive strong and frequent labour-pains, especial- ly felt on a particular part of the uterus, and when the womb gives way tbe labour-throes immediately cease; the patient is now affected with vomiting, a discharge of blood is perceived from the vagina, the pulse becomes exceedingly quick, coldness of the extremities succeed, and the patient, seized with a sudden fainting or epilep- tic fit, sinks into the arms of death. When this dreadful accident has taken place, the only prospect that we can have of saving the life of the pa- tient, is immediate delivery. This has been had recourse to with success. When the labour is rendered complex by the prolapse of the umbilical chord, the chord must immediately be replaced, and, during the delivery, carefully retained above the presenting part. The danger in this case arises from the probability of the continued pressure on the chord interrupting the circulation between the mother and the child, before the latter has respired, and thus proving fatal to its life. When, therefore, the accoucheur has succeeded in reducing the protruding funis, delivery ought by all means to be expedited as much as possible. Management of the lying-in Female. Most of the complaints which succeed to delivery owe their origin to injudicious nursing, improper cordials, heated apartments, impure air, and a disregard of the mandates of nature, on the part of the female, in neglect- ing to suckle her offspring. Parturition, unless artificial- ly rendered so, is not usually a dangerous process. The obvious way then to prevent the occurrence of such af- fections as sometimes follow this process, is to preserve a free circulation of air in the lying-in room, guarding against the admission of partial streams or currents; to forbid the practice of keeping up large fires during the confinement; to avoid indiscriminately taking medicines, either in compliance with custom or the nurse's creed; and to present the breast, as soon as possible, to the new- born infant. In cases where the patient after delivery is exceedingly feeble, and the succeeding pains are violent, opiates are necessary. Where a tendency to deliquium is perceived, wine and other cordials are given with the utmost pro- priety; but to give eitlier the one or the other in large quantities, for successive periods, merely because the fe- male is lying-in, is highly improper, and often exceed- ingly detrimental. An inordinate quantity of bed-cloths, irritating diet, heated rooms, and deficient ventilation, are regarded by a physician of the most unquestionable authority, and who had ample opportunities for observation, as the prin- cipal sources of puerperal diseases. (Heberden.) The miliary eruptions which break out on the skin, either at this or any other period, are almost universally attribut- ed to heating irritating regimen. When inflammation of the omentum, or other parts in the vicinity of the uterus, occurs soon after delivery, a cool regimen is required, with gentle sudorifics; but in order to obviate the extraordinary tendency to exhaus- tion and gangrene, discoverable under these circum- stances, opium, wine, and bark, must be given in con- junction with diaphoretic medicinals. Puerperal fever, attended with inflammation of parts, is a highly dange- rous malady. MIDWIFERY. When febrile irritation is indirect from a retention of the milk, this fluid must be drawn off by means of glas- ses, evacuating medicines are to be given, and after- wards absorption promoted by the. application to the breast of a simple plaster. If from this cause, from ex- posure to cold, or from any other accident, actual inflam- mation is occasioned in one of the breasts, it will be re- quisite to have recourse to anodyne fomentations, or to emollient poultices. When the irritation of the nipple from the child's suckling is very troublesome, oily appli- cations should be made use of; and of these, that wiiich has been found one of the most efficacious, is the oil of wax (ol. ccra). It has been advised by some practitioners to adminis- ter drastic purgatives, such as aloes, in case of a sup- pression of the lochia and consequent fever: the propri- ety of this expedient, very soon after delivery, would ap- pear extremely problematical. The bowels, however, should by all means be kept open. With respect to the period of confinement, it has come at length to be pretty generally acknowledged, that the feelings of the patient furnish a safer directory than the patient's almanac. For the management ofthe infant, sec Infancy. Explanation of Plates. Fig. 1. presents a front view of the uterus in situ sus- pended in the vagina; the anterior parts of the ossa is- chium, with the ossa pubis, pudenda, perinaum, and anus, being removed, in order to show the internal parts. A, the last vertebra of the loins. BB, the ossa ilium. CC, tbe acetabula. DD, the inferior and posterior parts of the ossa ischium. E, the part covering the extremity of the coccyx. F, the inferior part of the rectum. GG, the vagina cut open longitudinally, and stretched on each side of the collum uteri, to show in what manner the uterus is suspended in the same. HH, part ofthe vesica urinaria stretched ongeach side of the vagina, and inferi- or parts of the fundus uteri. I, the collum uteri. K, the fundus uteri. LL, the tubi Fallopiani, and fimbria. MM, the ovaria. NN. the ligamenta lata and rotunda. OO, the superior part ofthe rectum. Fig. 2. presents a front view of the uterus in the be- ginning of the first month of pregnancy; the anterior part being removed, that the embryo may appear through the amnios, the chorion being dissected off'. A, the fundus uteri.. B, the collum uteri, with a view ofthe rugous ca- nal that leads to the cavity of the fundus. C, the os uteri. Fig. 5. the same view and section ofthe parts as in fig. 1., shows the uterus as it appears in the second or third month of pregnancy. F, the anus. G, the vagina, with its plica. HH, the posterior and inferior part of the urinary bladder extended on each side; the anterior and superior part being removed. II, the mouth and neck of the womb, as raised up when examining the same by the touch, with one of the fingers in the vagina. KK, the uterus as stretched in the second or third month, con- taining the embryo, with the placenta adhering to the fundus. Fig. 4. in the same view and section of the parts with the former figures, represents the uterus in the eighth or ninth month of pregnancy. A, the uterus as stretched to near its full extent, with the waters, and containing the fcetus entangled in the funis, flic head presenting at the upper part of the pelvis. BB, the superior part of the ossa ilium. CC, the acetabula. DD; the remaining pos- terior parts of the ossa ischium. E. the coccyx. F, the inferior part of the rectum. GGG, the vagina stretched on each side. H, the os uteri, tbe neck being stretched to its full extent, or entirely obliterated. II, part of the ve- sica urinaria. KK, the placenta, at the superior and pos- terior part of the uterus. LL, the membranes. M, the funis umbilical is. Fig. 5. presents a front view of twins in utero in the beginning of labour. A, the uterus as stretched, with the membranes and waters. BB, the superior parts of the ossa ilium. CC, the acetabula. DD, the ossa ischium. E, the coccyx. F, the lower part of the rectum. GG, the vagina. H, the os internum stretched open about a finger's breadth, with the membranes and waters in time of labour-pains. II, the inferior part of the uterus, stretched with the waters which are below the head of the child that presents. KK, the two placentas adhering to the posterior part of the uterus, the two foetuses lying before them, one with its head in a proper position at the inferior part of the uterus, and the other situated preternaturally with the head to the fundus; the bodies of both are here entangled in their proper funis, which frequently happens in the natural as well as preternatural positions. LLL, the membranes belonging to each pla- centa. Fig. 6. exhibits, in a lateral view and longitudinal di- vision of the parts, the gravid uterus when labour is somewhat advanced. A, the lowest vertebra of the back; the distance from which to the last-mentioned vertebra is here shown by dotted lines. CC, the usual thickness and figure of the uterus when extended by the waters at the latter part of pregnancy. D, the same contracted and grown thicker after the waters are evacuated. EE, the figure of the uterus when pendulous. FF, the figure of the uterus when stretched higher than usual, wiiich generally occasions vomitings and difficulty of breathing. G, the os pubis of the left side. HH,the os internum. I, the vagina. »K, the left nympha. L, the labium puden- di of the same side. M, the remaining portion of the bladder. N. the anus. OP, the left hip and thigh. Fig. 7. exhibits tbe forehead of the foetus turning backwards to the os sacrum, and the occiput below the pubes; by which means the narrow part of the head is to the narrow part of the pelvis, that is, between the infe- rior parts of the ossa ischium. A, the uterus contracted closely to the foetus after the waters are evacuated. BCD, the vertebra of the loins, os sacrum, and coccyx. E, the anus. F, the left hip. G, the perinaum. H, the os externum beginning to dilate. I, the os pubis of the left side. K, the remaining portion of the bladder. L, the posterior part of theos uteri. Fig. 8. presents a lateral internal view of a dist* r-d pelvis, divided longitudinally, with the bead of a for is of the seventh month passing the same. A^C, tbe os sa- crum and coccyx. D, the os pubis ofthe left the faster will the mill bear to be fed, and consequently it will grind the more: and, on the contrary, the lighter the stone, and the less the quantity of water, so much the slower must the feeding be. But when the stone is considerably worn, and become light, the mill must be fed slowly at any rate- - otherwise the stone will be too much borne up by the corn under it, which will make the meal coarse? The quantity of power sufficient to turn a heavy mill- stone, is but very little more than what is necessary to turn a light one; for as it is supported upon the spindle by the bridge-tree, and the end of the spindle that turns in the brass foot therein being but small, the difference arising from the weight is but very inconsiderable in its action against the power or force of the water; and, be- sides, a heavy stone has the same advantage as a heavy fly, namely, that it regulates the motion much better than a light one. The centrifugal force carrying the corn towards the circumference, it is natural it should be crushed, when it comes to a place where the interval between the two mill- stones is le.ss than its thickness; yet the upper mill stone being supported on a point which it can never quit, it does not so clearly appear why it should produce a greater effect when it is heavy than when it is light; since, if it were equally distant from the nether mill-stone, it could only be capable of a limited impression. But as expe- rience proves that this is really the case, it is necessary to discover the cause. The spindle of the mill-stone be- ing supported by a horizontal piece of timber, about nine or ten feet long, resting only on both its ends, by the elasticity of this piece, the upper mill-stone is allowed a vertical motion, playing up and down; by which move- ment, the heavier the stones are, the more forcibly is the corn wedged in between them. In order to cut and grind the corn, both the upper and under mill-stones have channels or furrows cut into them, proceeding obliquely from the centre to the circum- ference. And these furrows arc cut perpendicularly on one side, and obliquely on the other, which gives each furrow a sharp edge; and in the two stones they come against one another, like the edges of a pair of scissars; and so cut the corn, to make it grind the easier, when it falls upon the places between the furrows. These are cut the same way in both stones, when they lie upon their backs, which makes them run cross ways to each other when the upper stone is inverted, by turning its furrowed surface towards that of the lower; for if the furrows of both stones lay the same way, a great deal of the corn would be driven onward in the lower furrows, and so come out from between the stones, without being either cut or bruised. The grinding surface of the under stone is a little con- vex from the edge to the centre, and that of the upper stone a little concave; so that they are farthest from one another in the middle, and approach gradually nearer to- wards the edges. By this means the corn, at its first entrance between the stones, is only bruised; but as it goes farther on towards the circumference or edge, it is cut smaller and smaller; and, at last, finely.ground, just before it comes out from between them. When the furrows become blunt and shallow by wear- ing, the running-stone must be taken up, and both stones new drest with a chisel and hammer; and every time the MILL. stone is taken up there must be some tallow put round the spindle upon the bush, which will soon be melted by the heat of the spindle acquires from its turning and rub- bing against the bush, and so will get in betwixt themj otherwise the bush would take fire in a very little time. The bush must embrace the spindle quite close, to pre- vent any shake in the motion, which would make some parts of the stones grate and fire against each other; whilst the other parts of them would be too far asunder, and by that means spoil the meal. Whenever the spindle wears the bush, so as to begin to shake in it, the stone must be taken up, and a chisel dri- ven into several parts of the bush; and when it is taken out, wooden wedges must be forced into the holes; by which means the bush will be made to embrace the spindle again, close all round. In doing this, great care must he taken to drive equal wedges into the bush on opposite sides of the spindle; otherwise it will be thrown out of the perpendicular, and so hinder the upper stone from be- ing set parallel to the under one, whicli is absolutely ne- cessary for making good work. When any accident of*, this kind happens, the perpendicular position of the spin* die must be restored, by adjusting the bridge-tree with proper wedges put between it and the brayer. It often happens that the rynd is a little wrenched in laying down the upper stone upon it, oris made to sink a little lower on one side of the spindle than on the other; and this will cause one edge of the upper stone to drag all round upon the other, while the opposite edge will not touch. But this is easily set to rights, by raising the stone a little with the lever, and putting bits of paper, cards, or thin chips, between the rynd and the stone. A less quantity of water will turn an overshot-mill ("where the wheel has buckets instead of float-boards) tban a breast-mill, where the fall of water seldom ex- ceeds half the height of the wheel; so that where there is but a small quantity of water, and a fall great enough for the wheel to lie under it, the bucket, or overshot, wheel, is always used: but where there is a large body of water with a little fall, the breast, or float-board, wheel must be used. Where the water runs only upon a small decli- vity, it can act but slowly upon the under part of the wheel; in which case the motion of the wheel will be slow: and therefore the floats ought to be very long, though not high, that a large body of water may act upon them; so that what is wanting in velocity may be made up in power; and then the cog-wheel may have a greater num- ber of cogs, in proportion to the rounds in the trundle, in order to give the mill-stone a sufficient degree of ve- locity. It was the opinion of Smeaton, that the powers neces- sary to produce the same effect on an undershot-wheel, a breast-wheel, and an overshot-wheel, must be to each other as the numbers 2.4, 1.75, and 1. Practical rules for the construction of mills.—1. Mea- sure the perpendicular height of the fall of water, in feet, above that part of the wheel on which the water begins to act, and call that the height of the fall. 2. Multiply this constant number 64.2882 by the height of the fall in feet, and the square root of the product will be the velocity of the water at the bottom of the fall, or the number of feet that the water there moves per se- cond. 3. Divide the velocity of the water by three, and the quotient will be the velocity of the float-boards of the wheel, or the number of feet they must each go through in a second, when the water acts upon them so as to have the greatest power to turn the mill.- 4. Divide the circumference ofthe wheel in feet by the velocity of its floats in feet per second, and the quotient will be the number of seconds in which the wheel turns round. 5. By this last number of seconds divide 60, and the quotient will be the number of turns of the wheel in a minute. 6. Divide 120 (the number of revolutions a mill-stone four feet and a half diameter ought to have in a minute) by the number of turns ofthe wheel in a minute, and the quotient will be the number of turns the mill-stone ought to have for one turn of the wheel. 7. Then, as the number of turns of the wheel in a mi- nute, is to the number of turns of the mill-stone in a mi- nute, so must the number of staves in the trundle, be to the number of cogs in the wheel, in the nearest whole numbers that can be found. By these rules the following table is calculated to a water-wheel 18 feet diameter, which may be a good sizs in general. VOL, If, 92 MILL. THE MILL-WRIGHT'S TABLE. Height ofthe fal'. of water. Velocity of the fall of water per second. Velocity of the wheel per second. Revolutions of the wheel per minute. Revolutions ofthe mill-stone for one of the wheel. Cogs in the wheel, and staves in the trundle. "Revolutions of the mill-stone per minute, by these staves and cogs. Feet. 01 «J • "E 2 r-< O "a. fe. o ™ M o «*. — o 3 t. * °* h • t. > Cogs. Staves. r by the least touch the leaves instantly recede, correct, close, and, together with the footstalk, quirk I v decline downward, as if asham- ed at the approach of tlie hand. 3. The pernambuca, or pernambuca slothful mimosa, recedes very slowly from the touch, only contracting its pinnse a little when smartly touched: hence the name slothful mimosa. 4. The asperata, or Panama sensitive plant, seldom rises above three feet in height; but its slender branches extend considerably on the neighbouring bushes. It is armed with crooked sharp spines, so thickly set on the trunk, branches, and leaves, that there is no touching it with safety. But the plant has a beautiful appearance, the flowers are yellow and globular, growing at the ex- tremity of the branches. The pods are hairy/brown, and jointed; each containing a small, flat, and brown seed. The leaves are numerous, small, and winged: next to those of the mimosa pudica they are the most irritable; contracting with the least touch, and remaining so for several minutes after. This species would form a good hedge or fence round a garden. 5. The punctata, or punctated sensitive mimosa, rises with a shrubby, upright, taper, spotted, unarmed stem, branching erectly five or six feet high; bipinnated leaves, of four or fire pair of long winged folioles, having each about 20 pair of pinnse; and atthe axillas and termina- tion of the branches oblong spikes of yellowish decandru- ous flowers, the inferior ones castrated; succeeded above by oblong seed-pods. This sort, though naturally shrub- by and perennial in its native soil, yet in this country sometimes decays in winter. It is only sensitive in the foliola, but quick in the motion. 6. The viva, lively mimosa, or smallest sensitive weed, has many creeping roots, and spreads itself so as to cov- er large spots of ground. It rises at most to two inches, and has winged leaves, with numerous small pinnse. The flower is globular, of a blueish colour, and grows in clus- ters from the axillae: these are followed by little, short, hairy pods, containing smooth shining seeds. This is the most sensible of all the mimosas, the pudica not ex- cepted. By running a stick over the plant, a person may write his name, and it will remain visible for ten minutes. * 7. The quadrivalvis humble mimosa, has herbaceous, slender, quadrangular, prickly stems, branching and spreading all around, armed with recurved spines: bi- pinnated leaves of two or three pair of winged lobes, hav- ing each many pinnse; and at the axillas globular heads of purple flowers, succeeded by quadrivalvular pod». This is of the humble sensitive kind, both leaves and footstalks receding from the touch. 8. The plena, annual, or double-flowered sensitive mi- mosa, rises with an herbaceous, erect, round, unarmed stem, closely branching and spreading * very way, three or four feet high; bipinnated leaves of four or five pair of winged lobes, of many pairs of pinnae; and at the axil- las and termination of the branches, spikes of yellow pen- tandrous flowers, the lower ones double, succeeded by short broad pods. This annual is only sensitive in the foliola, but extremely sensible of the touch or air. 9. The cornigera, or horned Mexican mimosa, com- monly called great horned acacia, has a shrubby, upright, deformed stem, branching irregularly, armed with very large horn-like white spines, by pairs, connected at the base; bipinnated leaves thinly placed; and flowers grow- ing in spikes. This species is esteemed a curiosity for the oddity of its large spines, resembling the horns of animals, and which are often variously wreathed, twist- ed, and contorted. 10. The farncsiana, or fragrant acacia, growrs in wood- lands and waste, lands in most parts of Jamaica; rising to 25 or 30 feet, with suitable thickness. Formerly the flowers of this tree were used as an ingredient in the thcriaca andromachi of the old dispensatories. This tree is sometimes planted for a hedge or fence round inci- sures; and the timber, though small, is useful in rural economy. 11. The arborea, or wild tamarind-tree, is common in all the woodlands, and especially near where settlements have been made, in Jamaica. It rises to a considerable height, and is proportionably thick. The timber is ex- cellent, and serves many purposes in rural economy: it is ofthe colour of cedar, pretty hard, and takes a good polish. The leaves are numerous; the flowers globular and white. The pods are about a foot in length, of a fine scarlet colour, when they are ripe they open and become twisted. The seeds then appear. 12. The latifolia, shag-bark, or white wild tamarind. This excellent timber-tree is very common in Jamaica, and rises to a moderate height and good thickness. The trunk is rough and scaly: the leaves arc numerous, of a rhomboidal figure, and yellowish cast. The flow cr-spikes are from the axillae; their colour is yellow. The seed- vessels are flat, jointed, and twisted. The seeds are of the bigness of a vetch, white, and finely streaked with blue. IS. The Iebeck, or ebony-tree. This is a native of the East Indies, but raised from seeds in Jamaica and St. Vincent's. 14. The scandens, cacoons, or mafootoo wyth, is fre- quent in all the upland valleys and woodlands on the north side of Jamaica. It climbs up the tallest trees, and spreads itself in every direction by means of its cirrhi, or claspers, so as to form a complete arbour, and to cover the space of an English acre from one root. This cir- cumstance has a bad effect on the trees or bushes so shad- ed; light, air, and rain, (so necessary for all plants,) be- ing shut out, the leaves drop off, the tree gradually rots, and the limbs fall down by the weight of this parasite. The roots of this plant run superficially under the ground or herbage. The trunk is seldom thicker than a man's thigh; and sends off many branches, with nume- rous shining green leaves, each of which terminates in a tendril or claspcr, that serves to fasten it to trees or bush- es. The flower-spikes are from the axillae: they are slen- der, and the florets on them small and numerous. The pod is perhaps the largest and longest in the world; being sometimes 8 or 9 feet in length, five inches broad, joint- ed, and containing 10 or 15 seeds. These seeds are brown, shining, flattened, and very hard, and called cacoons. M I M M I N They arc the same as mentioned in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 222, page 298, by sir Hans Sloane, as being thrown ashore on the Hebrides and Orkneys. This bean, after being long soaked in water, is boiled and eaten by some negroes; but, in general, there seems to be no other use made of it than as a sort of snuff-box. 15. The catechu, according to Mr. Ker (Med. Obs. and Inquir. vol. v. p. 151, &c), grows only to 12 feet in height, and to one foot in diameter; it is covered with a thick, rough, brown bark, and towards the top divides into many close branches: the leaves are bipinnated, or doubly winged, and are placed alternately upon the younger branches: the partial pinnse are nearly two inches long, and are commonly from 15 to 30 pair, having full glands inserted between the pinnse: eaclrwing is usually furnished with about 40 pair of pinnulse, or linear lobes, beset with short hairs: the spines are short. From this tree, which grows plentifully on the mountainous parts of Indostan, where it flowers in June, is produced the officinal drug long known in Europe by the name of terra japonica. 16. The nilotica, or true Egyptian acacia, rises to a greater height than the preceding. The fruit is a long pod, resembling that of the lupin, and contains many flattish brown seeds. It is a native of Arabia and Egypt, and flowers in July. Although the mimosa nilotica grows in great abundance over the vast extent of Africa, yet gum arabic is produced chiefly by those trees which are situ- ated near the equatorial regions; and we are told that in Lower Egypt the solar heat is never sufficiently intense for this purpose. The gum exudes in a liquid state from the bark of the trunk and branches of the tree, in a simi- lar manner to the gum which is often produced upon the cherry-trees, kc. in this country; and by exposure to the air it soon acquires solidity and hardness. In Sene- gal the gum begins to flow when the tree first opens its flowers; and continues during the rainy season till the month of December, when it is collected for the first time. Another collection of the gum is made in the! month of March, from incisions in tbe bark, which the extreme dryness of the air at that time is said to render necessary. Gum arabic is now usually imported into England from Barbary, in large casks or hogsheads. The common ap- pearance of this gum is well known; and the various figures which it assumes seem to depend upon a variety of accidental circumstances attending its transudation and concretion. Gum arabic of a pale yellowish colour is most esteemed; on the contrary, thosej pieces which are large, rough, of a roundish figure, and of a brownish or reddish hue, are found to be less pure, and are said to be produced from a different species of mimosa; but the Arabian and Egyptian gum is commonly intermixed with pieces of this kind, similar to that which comes from the coast of Africa near the river Senegal. Gum arabic does not admit of solution by spirit or oil; but in twice its quantity of water it dissolves into a mu- cilaginous fluid, ofthe consistence of a thick syrup; and in this state answers many useful pharmaceutical pur- poses, by rendering oily, resinous, and pinguious substan- ces, misrible with water. The glutinous quality of gum. arabic is pnierred to most other gums and mucilaginous- substances, as a demulcent in coughs, hoarsnesses, and other catarrhal affections, in order to obtund irritating acrimonious humours, and to supply the loss of abraded mucus. It has been very generally employed in cases of ardor urinse and strangury; but it is the "opinion of Dr. Cullen, " that even this mucilage, as an internal demul- cent, can be of no service beyond the alimentary canal." 17. The Senegal is a native of Guinea, and was some time ago introduced into Jamaica. The flowers are glo- bular, yellow and fragrant. The pods are brown, and of the size of a goose-quill. The tree, on being wounded, exudes gum arabic, though in less quantity, and less transparent, than that of the shops, whicli is obtained from the nilotica above described. There are above 40 other species characterised in the Systema Vegetabilium. MIMLTLUS, monkey flower, a genus ofthe didynamia angiospermia class of plants, with double stigmata, and a ringent monopetalous flower; tlie fruit is a bilocular capsule, with several seeds in each cell. There are three species. MIMUSOPS, a genus of the octandria monogynia class of plants, the corolla of whicli consists of eight pe- tals; and its fruit is a drupe. There are three species, trees of the East Indies. MINA, in Grecian antiquity, a money of account, equal to a hundred drachms. MINE, a deep pit underground, whence various kinds of minerals are dug out; but the term is more particularly applied to those which yield metals. Where stones only are procured, the appellation of quarries is universally bestowed upon the places from which they are dug out, however deep they may be. The internal parts of the earth, as far as they have been yet investigated, do not consist of one uniform substance, but of various strata or beds of substances, ex- tremely different in their appearances, specific gravities,, and chemical qualities, from one another. Neither are these strata similar to one another, either in their nature or appearance, in different countries; so that, even in the short extent of half a mile, the strata will be found quite different from what they are in another place. As little are they the same eitlier in depth or solidity. Innumera- ble cracks and fissures, by the miners called lodes, are found in every one of them; but these are so entirely dif- ferent in size and shape,.it is impossible to form any in- ference from their size in one place to that in another. In these lodes or fissures the metallic ore is met with; and, considering the great uncertainty of the dimensions of the lodes, it is evident that the business of mining, which depends on that size, must in like manner be quite uncer- tain and precarious. The insides of the fissures are commonly coated over with a hard,, crystalline, earthy substance or rind, which very often, in the breaking of hard ore, comes off along. with it; and is commonly called the capels or walls of the lode. The breadth of a lode is easily known by the distance betwixt the two incrusted sides-of the stones-of ore; and if a lode yields any kind of ore, it is a better sign that the walls are regular and smooth, or at least that one of them is.so, than otherwise; but there are not many of these fissures which have regular walls until.they hayc been sunk down some fathoms. MtN'E. Thus the iriiK-r part of the fissure in which the ore lies is all the way bounded by two walls of stone, which are generally parallel to one another, and include the breadth of the vein or lode. Whatever angle of inclination some fissures make in the solid strata at their beginning, they generally continue to do the same all along. Some are very uncertain iu their breadth, as they may be small at their upper part and widor underneath; and vice versa. Their regular breadth, as well as their depth, is subject to great variation; for though a fissure may be many fathoms wide in one particular place, yet a little farther east or west it may not perhaps be one inch wide. This excessive variation happens generally in very compact strata, when the vein or fissure is squeezed, in a manner, through hard rocks which seem to compress and straiten it. A true vein or fissure, however, is never entirely obliterated, but always shows a string of metallic ore, or of a veiny substance; which often serves as a leader for the miners to follow, until it sometimes leads them to a large and richly impregnated part. Their length is, in a great measure, unlimited, though not the space best fitted for yielding metal. The richest state for copper is from 40 to 80 fathoms deep; for tin, from 20 to 60; and though a great quantity of either may be raised at 80 or 100 fathoms, yet "the quality is often too much decayed and dry for mctaL" The fissures of veins of the Cornish mines extend from E. to W.; or, more properly, one end of the fissure points W. and by S., or W. and by N., while the other tends E. and by S. or E. and by N. Thus they frequently pass through a considerable tract of country with very few variations in their directions, unless they are interrupted by some intervening cause. But, besides this east and west direction, we are to consider what the miners call the underlying, or hade, of the vein or lode, viz. the de- flection or deviation of the fissure from its perpendicular line, as it is followed in depth like the slope of the roof of a house, or the descent of the steep side of a hill. This slope is generally to the north or south; but varies much in different veins, or sometimes even in the same vein: for it will frequently slope or underlie a small space iu different ways, as it may appear to be forced by hard strata on either side. Some of the fissures do not vary much from a perpendicular, while some deviate more than a fathom; that is, for every fathom they descend in per- pendicular height, they deviate likewise as much to the south or north. Others differ so much from the perpen- dicular that they assume a position almost horizontal; whence they are also called horizontal or flat lodes, and sometimes lode-plots. Another kind of these has an ir- regular position with regard to the rest, widening hori- zontally for a little way, and then descending perpendicu- larly almost like stains with only a small string or leader to follow after; and'euus they alternately vary, and yield ore in several flat or horizontal fissures. This, by the Cornish tinners, is called a floor or squat; which, properly speaking, is a hole or chasm impregnated with metal, making no continued line of direction or regular walls. Neither docs a floor of ore descend to any considerable depth; for underneath it there appears no sign of a vein or fissure, either leading directly down, or any other way. This kind of vein is very rare in Britain. The fissures most common in Britain are the perpendicular and inclined, whetlter their direction is north or soulh, east or west. Tlie perpendicular and horizontal fissures probably remain little altered from their fij-s*. position, when they were formed at the induration of the strataimmedi- ately after the waters left the land. The perpcndicula fis- sures are found more commonly situated in level ground, at a distance from hills, and from the sea-shore; but with regard to the latter, we find that the upper and under masses of strata differ in their solidity and other properties. " Hence it is very plain that inclined fis- sures owe their deflection or underlie to some secondary cause, violence, or subsidence of the earth; for though perpendicular fissures are seldom to be seen, yet such as are inclined at very considerable depths become more and more perpendicular, as the more central strata, from the vast superincumbent weight, do not seem so likely to be driven out of their position as those which lie nearer the surface." The fissures are often met with fractured as well as in- cliued: the reason of which lias probably been a subsi- dence of the earth from some extraordinary cause. Though the metallic veins generally run from cast to west, tliey are frequently intersected by veins or lodes of other matters, which run from north to south. Some of these cross veins contain lead or antimony, but never tin or copper. Sometimes one of these unmetailic veins inter- sects the true one at right angles; sometimes obliquely; and sometimes the mixture of both is so intimate, that the most expert miners are at a loss to discover the se- parated part of a true vein. When this last is intercepted at right angles, it is moved, either north or south, a ve- ry little way, perhaps not more than one fathom; in which case the miners having worked to a small distance in one of these directions, if they find themselves disap- pointed, turn to the other hand, and seldom fail of meet- ing with what they expected. Sometimes they are direct- ed in their search by the pointing of a rib or string of tbe true vein; but when the interruption happens in an ob- lique direction, the difficulty of finding the vein again is much greater. When two metallic veins in the neighbourhood of each other run in an oblique direction, and of consequence meet together, they commonly produce a body of ore at the place where they intersect; and if both are rich, the quantity will be considerable; but if one is poor and the other rich, then both are either enriched or impoverished by tbe meeting. After some time they separate again, and each will continue its former direction near to tlie other; but sometimes, though rarely, they continue united. It is a sign of a poor vein when it separates or diver- ges into strings; but, on the contrary, when several of them are found running into one, it is accounted a pro- mising sign. Sometimes there are branches without the walls ofthe vein in the adjacent strata, which often come either obliquely or transversely into it. If these bran- ches are impregnated with ore, or if they underlie i'^ier than the true vein (that is, if they dip deeper into the ground), then they are said to overtake or conn- into the lode, and to enrich it; or if they do not, then they aro said to go off from it, and to impoverish it. But neither these, nor any other, marks, cithev ofthe richnessor po- verty of a mine, are entirely to be depended upon; f M I M MIN They arc tlie same as mentioned in the Philosophical Transactions, No. 222, page 298, by sir Hans Sloane, as being thrown ashore on the Hebrides and Orkneys. This bean, after being long soaked in water, is boiled and eaten by sonic negroes; but, in general, there seems to be no other use made of it than as a sort of snuff-box. 15. The catechu, according to Mr. Ker (Med. Obs. and Inquir. vol. v. p. 151, kc), grows only to 12 feet in height, and to one foot in diameter; it is covered with a thick, rough, brown bark, and towards the top divides into many close branches: the leaves are bipinnated, or doubly winged, and are placed alternately upon the younger branches: the partial pinnae are nearly two inches long, and are commonly from 15 to 30 pair, having full glands inserted between the pinnse: eaclrwing is usually furnished with about 40 pair of pinnulae, or linear lobes, beset with short hairs: the spines are short. From this tree, which grows plentifully on the mountainous parts of Indostan, where it flowers in June, is produced the officinal drug long known in Europe by the name of terra japonica. 16. The nilotica, or true Egyptian acacia, rises to a greater height than the preceding. The fruit is a long pod, resembling that of the lupin, and contains many flattish brown seeds. It is a native of Arabia and Egypt, and flowers in July. Although the mimosa nilotica grows in great abundance over the vast extent of Africa, yet gum arabic is produced chiefly by those trees which are situ- ated near the equatorial regions; and we are told that in Lower Egypt the solar heat is never sufficiently intense for this purpose. The gum exudes in a liquid state from the bark of the trunk and branches of the tree, in a simi- lar manner to the gum whicli is often produced upon the cherry-trees, kc. in this country; and by exposure to the air it soon acquires solidity and hardness. In Sene- gal the gum begins to flow w hen the tree first opens its flowers; and continues during the rainy season till the month of December, when it is collected for the first time. Another collection of the gum is made in the month of March, from incisions in tbe bark, which the extreme dryness of the air at that time is said to render necessary. Gum arabic is now usually imported into England from Barbary, in large casks or hogsheads. The common ap- pearance of this gum is well known; and the various figures which it assumes seem to depend upon a variety of accidental circumstances attending its transudation and concretion. Gum arabic of a pale yellowish colour is most esteemed; on the contrary, those, pieces whicli are large, rough, of a roundish figure, and of a brownish or reddish hue, are found to be less pure, and are said to be produced from a different species of mimosa; but the Arabian and Egyptian gum is commonly intermixed with pieces of this kind, similar to that which comes from the coast of Africa near the river Senegal. Gum arabic does not admit of solution by spirit or oil; but in twice its quantity of water it dissolves into a mu- cilaginous fluid, ofthe consistence of a thick syrup; and in this state answers many useful pharmaceutical pur- poses, ': y rendering oily, resinous, and pinguious substanr ces, miscible with water. The glutinous quality of gum arabic is preferred to most other gums and mucilaginous substances, as a demulcent in coughs, hoarsnesscs, and other catarrhal affections, in order to obtund irritating acrimonious humours, and to supply the loss of abraded mucus. It has been very generally employed in cases of ardor urinse and strangury; but it is the opinion of Dr. Cullen, « that even this mucilage, as an internal demul- cent, can be of no service beyond the alimentary canal." 17. The Senegal is a native of Guinea, and was some time ago introduced into Jamaica. The flowers are glo- bular, yellow and fragrant. The pods are brown, and of the size of a goosc-quijl. The tree, on being wounded, exudes gum arabic, though in less quantity, and less transparent, than that of the shops, whicli is obtained from the nilotica above described. There are above 40 other species characterised in the Systema Vegetabilium. MIMULUS, monkey flower, a genus ofthe didynamia angiospermia class of plants, with double stigmata, and a ringent monopetalous flower; tlie fruit is a bilocular capsule, with several seeds in each cell. There are three species. MIMUSOPS, a genus of the octandria monogynia class of plants, the corolla of which consists of eight pe- tals; and its fruit is a drupe. There are three species, trees of the East Indies. MINA, in Grecian antiquity, a money of account, equal to a hundred drachms. MINE, a deep pit underground, whence various kinds of minerals are dug out; but the term is more particularly applied to those which yield metals. Where stones only are procured, the appellation of quarries is universally bestowed upon the places from which tliey are dug out, how ever deep they may be. The internal parts of the earth, as far as they have been yet investigated, do not consist of one uniform- substance, but of various strata or beds of substances, ex- tremely different in their appearances, specific gravities, and chemical qualities, from one another. Neither are these strata similar to one another, either in their nature or appearance, in different countries; so that, even in the short extent of half a mile, the strata will be found quite different from what they are in another place. As little are they the same either in depth or solidity. Innumera- ble cracks and fissures, by the miners called lodes, are found in every one of them; but these are so entirely dif- ferent in size and sliape,.it is impossible to form any in- ference from their size in one place to that in another. In these lodes or fissures the metallic ore is met with; and, considering the great uncertainty of the dimensions of the lodes, it is evident that the business of mining, which depends on that size, must in like manner be quite uncer- tain and precarious. The insides of the fissures are commonly coated over with a hard,, crystalline, earthy substance or rind, which very often, in the breaking of hard ore, comes off along with it; and is commonly called the capels or walls of the lode. The breadth of a lode is easily known by the distance betwixt the two incrusted sides-of the stones of ore; and if a lode yields any kind of ore, it is a better sign that the walls are regular and smooth, or at least that one of them is.so, than otherwise; but there are not many of these fissures which have regular walls until.they hayc been sunk down some fathoms. MD*E. Thus the inner part of the fissure in which the ore lies is all the way bounded by two walls of stone, which are generally parallel to one another, and include the breadth of the vein or lode. Whatever angle of inclination some fissures make in the solid strata at their beginning, they generally continue to do the same all along. Some are very uncertain in their breadth, as they may be small at their upper part and wider underneath; and vice versa. Their regular breadth, as well as their depth, is subject to great variation; for though a fissure may be many fathoms wide in one particular place, yet a little farther east or west it may not perhaps be one inch wide. This excessive variation happens generally in very compact strata, when the vein or fissure is squeezed, in a manner, through hard rocks which seem to compress and straiten it. A true vein or fissure, however, is never entirely obliterated, but always sliows a string of metallic ore, or of a veiny substance; which often serves as a leader for the miners to follow, until it sometimes leads them to a large and richly impregnated part. Their length is, in a great measure, unlimited, though not the space best fitted for yielding metal. The richest state for copper is from 40 to 80 fathoms deep; for tin, from 20 to 60; and though a great quantity of either may be raised at 80 or 100 fathoms,yet "the quality is often too much decayed and dry for mctaL" The fissures of veins of the Cornish mines extend from E. to W.; or, more properly, one end of the fissure points W. and by S., or W. and by N., while the other tends E. and by S. or E. and by N. Thus they frequently pass through a considerable tract of country with very few variations in their directions, unless they are interrupted by some intervening cause. But, besides this east and west direction, we are to consider what the miners call the underlying, or hade, of the vein or lode, viz. the de- flection or deviation of the fissure from its perpendicular line, as it is followed in depth like the slope of the roof of a house, or the descent of the steep side of a hill. This slope is generally to the north or south; but varies much in different veins, or sometimes even in the same vein: for it will frequently slope or underlie a small space in different ways, as it may appear to be forced by hard strata on either side. Some of the fissures do not vary much from a perpendicular, while some deviate more than a fathom; that is, for every fathom they descend in per- pendicular height, they deviate likewise as much to the south or north. Others differ so much from the perpen- dicular that they assume a position almost horizontal; whence they are also called horizontal or flat lodes, and sometimes lode-plots. Another kind of these has an ir- regular position with regard to the rest, widening hori- zontally for a little way, and then descending perpendicu- larly almost like staffs with only a small string or leader to follow after; and cuus they alternately vary, and yield ore in several flat or horizontal fissures. This, by the Cornish tinners, is called a floor or squat; which, properly speaking, is a hole or chasm impregnated with metal, making no continued line of direction or regular walls. Neither does a floor of ore descend to any considerable depth; for underneath it there appears no sign of a vein or fissure, either leading directly down, or any other way. This kind of vein is very rare in Britain. The fissures most common in Britain are the perpendicular and inclined, whetlier their direction is .lorth or south, east or west. The perpendicular and horizontal fissures probably remain little altered from their first position, when they were formed at the induration of the strata immedi- ately after the waters left the laud. Tiie pr-rpcndicula fis- sures are found more commonly situated in level ground, at a distance from hills, and from the sea-shore; but with regard to the latter, we find that the upper and under masses of strata differ in their solidity and other properties. " Hence it is very plain that inclined fis- sures owe their deflection or underlie to some secondary cause, violence, or subsidence of the earth; for though perpendicular fissures are seldom to be seen, yet such as are inclined at very considerable depths become more and more perpendicular, as the more central strata, from the vast superincumbent weight, do not seem so likely to be driven out of their position as those which lie nearer the surface." The fissures are often met with fractured as well as in- clined: the reason of which has probably been a subsi- dence of the earth from some extraordinary cause. Though the metallic veins generally run from east to west, they are frequently intersected by veins or lodes of other matters, which run from north to south. Some of these cross veins contain lead or antimony, but never tin or copper. Sometimes one of these unmetallic \ eins inter- sects the true one at right angles; sometimes obliquely; and sometimes the mixture of both is so intimate, that the most expert miners are at a loss to discover the se- parated part of a true vein. When this last is intercepted at right angles, it is moved, either north or south, a ve- ry little way, perhaps not more than one fathom; in which case the miners having worked to a small distance in one of these directions, if they find themselves disap- pointed, turn to the other hand, and seldom fail of meet- ing with what they expected. Sometimes they are direct- ed in their search by the pointing of a rib or string of the true vein; but when the interruption happens in an ob- lique direction, the difficulty of finding the vein again is much greater. When two metallic veins in the neighbourhood of each other run in an oblique direction, and of consequence meet together, they commonly produce a body of ore at the place where they intersect; and if both are rich, the quantity will be considerable; but if one is poor and tlie other rich, then both are either enriched or impoverished by the meeting. After some time they separate again, and each will continue its former direction near to the other; but sometimes, though rarely, they continue united. It is a sign of a poor vein when it separates or diver- ges into strings; but. on tlie contrary, when several of them are found running into one, it i.-, accounted a pro- mising sign. Sometimes there are branches without the walls ofthe vein in the adjacent strata, whirl* often come either obliquely or transversely into it. If these bran- ches are impregnated with ore, or if they underlie faster than the true vein (that is, if they dip deeper into the ground), then they are said to overtake or conn- into the lode, and to enrich it: or if they i;-» not, then they aro said to go off from it, and to impoverish it. But neither these, nor any other, marks, either ofthe richness or po- verty of a mine, are entirely to be depended upon; foe MINE. many mines, which have a vry had appearance at first, do nevertheless turn out extremely well afterwards; while others, which in the beginning seemed very rich, turn gradually worse and worse: but, in general, where a vein has had a bad appearance at first, it will be 'imprudent to be at much expense with it. Veins of metal, as has been already observed, are fre- quently so compressed betwixt hard strata that they are not an inch w ide; nevertheless, if they have a string of good ore, it will generally be worth while to pursue them; and they frequently turn out well at last, after they have come into softer ground. In like manner, it is an encour- agement to go on if the branches or leaders of ore en- large citherin width or depth as they are worked; but it is a bad sign if they continue horizontal without inclining downwards; though it is not proper always to discon- tinue the working of a vein w Inch has an unfavourable aspect at first. Veins of tin are worth working when on- ly three inches w ide, provided the ore is good; and cop- per ores when six inches wide will pay very well for the working. Some of the great mines, however, have very large veins, with a number of other small ones very near each other. There are also veins crossing one ano- ther sometimes met with: which are called contras, vul- garly caunters. Sometimes two veins run down into the ground in such a manner that they meet in the direction of their depth; in which case the same observations ap- Sly to them as are applicable to those that meet in an orizontal direction. Sometimes a vein will suddenly disappear without giving any warning, by becoming narrower, or of worse quality; whicli by the miners is call- ed a start or leap, and is very common in the mines of Cornwall. In one day's time they may thus be disap- pointed in the working a rich vein of tin, and have no further sign of any thing to work upon: at the fractured extremity of their vein they perceive a body of clay or other matter; and the method of recovering their vein is to drive on their work in the direction of the former part, so that their new work shall make the same angle with the clay that the other part of the vein does. Sometimes they sink a shaft down from the surface; but it is gene- rally a matter of difficulty to recover a vein when thus lost. The method of discovering mines is a matter of so much difficulty, that it seems surprising how those who were totally unacquainted with the nature of metals first came to think of digging them out of the earth. In mo- dern times we know'that mines have been frequently dis- covered by accident; as in sea-clifls, among broken crag- gy rocks, by the washing of the tides or floods; also by irruptions and torrents of water issuing out of hills and mountains, and sometimes by the wearing of high roads. Mines, however, are now most commonly discovered by investigating the nature of such veins, ores, and stones, as may seem most likely to turn to account: but there is a particular sagacity, or habit of judging from particular signs, which can be acquired only by long prac- tice. Mines, especially those of copper, may be also dis- covered by the harsh and disagreeable taste ofthe waters which issue from them; though it is probable that this •nly happens when the ore lies above the level of the water which breaks out; for it does not seem likely that tfce, taste of tbe ore could ascend, unless we were to sup- pose a pond or lake of water standing above it. Tlie presence of copper in any water is easily discovered by immerging in it a bit of polished iron, which will thus instantly be turned of a copper colour, from the precipi- tation of the metal upon it. A candle, or a piece of tallow, put into w ater of this kind, will in a short time be ting- ed of a green colour. After the mine is found, the next thing to be*consider- ed is, wiiether it may be dug to advantage. In order to determine this, we are duly to weigh the nature of the place, and its situation, as to wood, water, carriage, healthiness, and the like; and compare the result with the richness ofthe ore, the charge of digging, stamping, washing, and smelting. The form and situation of the spot should be particu- larly well considered. A mine must either happen, 1. in a mountain; 2. in a hill; 3. in a valley; or, 4. in a flat. But mountains and hills are dug with much greater ease and convenience, chiefly because the drains and burrows, that is, the adits or avenues, may be here readily cut, both to drain the water, and to form gangways for bring- ing out the lead, kc. In all the four cases, we are to look out for the veins which the rains or other accidental cir- cumstances may have laid bare; and if such a vein is found, it may often be proper to open- the mine at that place, especially if the vein proves tolerably large and rich: otherwise the most commodious place for situation is to be chosen for the purpose, viz_ neither on a flat, nor on the top of mountains, but on the sides. The best situ- ation for a mine is a mountainous, woody, wholesome spot; of a safe easy ascent, and bordering on a navigable river. The places abounding with mines are generally healthy, as standing high, and every where exposed to the air; yet some places where mines are found prove poisonous, and can upon no account be dug- Devonshire and Cornwall, where there are agreat ma- ny mines of copper and tin, are a very mountainous country, which gives an opportunity in many places to make adits or subterraneous drains to some valley at a distance, by which to carry off* the water from the mine, which otherwise would drown them out from getting the ore. These adits are sometimes carried a mile or two, and dug at a vast expense, as from 20002. to 40002. es- pecially where the ground is rocky; and yet they find this cheaper than to draw up the water out of the mine quite to the top, when the water runs in plenty, and the mine is deep* Sometimes, indeed, they cannot find a le- vel near enough to which an adit may be carried from the very bottom of the mine; yet they find it worth while to make an adit at half the height to which the water is to be raised, thereby saving half the expense. The late Mr. Costar, considering that sometimes from small streams, and sometime'* •'om little springs or collections of rain-water, one might have a good deal of water above ground, though not a sufiicient quantity to turn an overshot-wheel, thought, that if a sufficient fall might be had, this collection of water might be made useful in raising the water in a mine to the adit, where it might be carried off*. But now the most general method of draining mines is by the steam-engine. A Mine (in military aftairs) is also a subterraneoua cavity made according to the rules of art, in which ace*- M I X M i N # tain quanfity of powder is lodged, which by iis explo- sion blows up the earth above it. It has been found by experiment that the figure pro- duced by the explosion is a paraboloid; and that, the cen- tre of the powder, or charge, occupies the foe us. Tlie place where the powder is lodged is called the chamber ofthe mine, or forneau. The passage leading to the powder is called the gal- lery. The line draWn frem the centre ofthe chamber; per- pendicular to the nearest surface of the ground, is called the line of least resistance. The pit or hole, made by springing the mine, is called the excavation. The fire is communicated to the mine by a pipe or hose, made of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about one inch and a half, called a saucission (for the filling of which near half a pound of powder is allowed to every foot), extending from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery; to the end of which is fixed a match, that the miner who sets fire to it may have time to retire before it reaches the chamber. To prevent the powder from contracting any damp- ness, the saucission is laid in a small trough, called an auget, made of boards, three inches and a half broad, joinedtogctherlengthwi.se, with straw in it, and round the saucission, with a wooden cover nailed upon it. Galleries and chambers of mines.—Galleries made with- in the fortification, before tbe place is attacked, and from which several branches are carried to different pla- ces, are generally four feet or four and a half wide, and five or five and a half high. The earth is supported from failing in by arches and walls, if they are to remain for a considerable time; but when mines are made to be used in a short time, then the galleries are but three feet or three and a half wide, and five feet high, and the earth is supported by wooden frames or props. The gallery being carried on to the place where the powder is to be lodged, the miners make the chamber. This is generally of a cubical form, large enough to hold the wooden box, which contains the powder neces- sary for the charge: the box is lined with straw and sand- bags, to prevent the powder from contracting dampness. The chamber is sunk sometimes lower than the gal- lery, if the soil permits; but where • water is to be ap- prehended, it must be made higher than the gallery; oth- erwise the besieged will let in the water, and spoil the mine. Quantities of powder to charge mines.—Before any cal- culationcanbe made of the proper charge for a mine, the density and tenacity of the soil in which it is to be made must be ascertained, either by experiment, or otherwise; for in soils of the same density, that which has the great- est tenacity will require the greatest force to separate its parts. The density is determined by weighing a $ cubic foot (or any certain quantity) of the soil; but the tenacity can only be determined by making amine. The following table contains experiments in six different soils, which may be of some assistance to form a judgment of the nature of the soil, when an actual experiment cannot . be had: voi. «. 93 Nature of the Soil. Density. Tenacity. V Wight of one cubic foot. Quantity of powder to raise one cub. fash. 1. Loose earth or sand 95 pds. 8 pds. - 2. Common light soil 124 10 3. Loam, or strong soil 127 12* 4. Potter's clay, or stiff soil 135 13| 5. Clay, mixed with stones 160 16 6. Masonry 205 2I| • Loading and stopping of mines.—The gallery and chamber being ready to be loaded, a strong box <.f wood is made of the size and figure of the chamber, being about one-third or one-fourth bigger tban is required for containing the necessary quantity of powder: against the sides and bottom of the box is put some straw: and this straw is covered over with empty sand-bags, i.o prevent the powder from contracting any dampness: a hole is made in the side next the gallery, near (he bottom, for the sauci^son to pass through; wiiich is fixed to the mid- dle of the bottom, by means of a wooden peg, to prevent its loosening from the powder: or that, if the enemy should get to the entrance, he may not be able to tear it out. This done, the powder is brought in sand bags, and thrown loose in the box, and covered also with straw and sand-bags; upon this is put the cover ofthe box, pressed down very fight with strong props; and, to render them more secure, planks are also put above thcro, against the earth, and wedged iu as fast as possible. This done, the vacant spaces between the props are filled up with stones and dung, and rammed in the strongest manner: the least neglect in this work will considerably alter the effect of the mine. The auget is then laid from the chamber to the en- trance of the gallery, with some straw at the bottom; and the saucission laid in it, with straw over it: lastly, it must be shut with a wooden cover nailed upon it. Great care must be taken, in stopping up the gallery, not to press too hard upon the auget, for fear of spoiling the saucisson; wThich may hinder the powder from tak- ing fire, and so prevent the mine from springing. The gallery is stopped up with stones, earth, and dung, well rammed, six or seven feet further from the chamber than the length of the line of least resistance. MINERAL WATERS. See Waters. MINERALOGY, is that science which treats of the solid and inanimate materials of which our globe con- sists; and these are usually arranged under four classes- the earthy, the saline, the inflammable, and the metallic, which are thus distinguished: 1. The earthy minerals compose the greater part of the crust of the earth, and generally form a covering to the rest. They are not remarkable for being heavy, brit- tle, or light-coloured. They are little disposed to'chrya- MINERALOGY. fallize, are uninflammable in a low temperature, insipid, and without much smell. 2. The saline minerals are commonly moderately hea- vy, soft, sapid, and possess some degree of transpa- rency. 3. The inflammable class of minerals is light, brittle, mostly opaque, of a yellow, brown, or black colour, sel- dom chrystallize, and never feel cold. 4. Metallic minerals are characterized by being hea- vy, generally opaque, tough, malleable, cold, not easily inflamed, and by exhibiting a great variety of colours, of a peculiar lustre. Under each of these classes are various genera, species, sub-species and kinds,which will be noticed in order. Some- times, as in the vegetable kingdom, we find a strict affi- nity between different species of minerals, and in that case they are said to belong to the same family; but in mineralogy, one class does not always blend with anoth- er in a chemical point of* view, or furnish that beautiful gradation and almost imperceptible union which is to be traced in the other kingdoms of nature. As the external characters are of the first importance in facilitating our acquaintance with minerals, we shall briefly explain this subject, before we proceed to the clas- sification of the different substances. Ofthe external characters of Minerals. The external characters of minerals are either generic or specific. The generic characters are certain proper- tics of minerals, without any reference to their differen- ces, as colour, lustre, weight, kc; and the differences be- tween these properties form the specific characters. Generic characters may be general or particular. In the first division are comprehended those that occur in all minerals, in the last those that arc found only in par- ticular classes of minerals. The particular generic external characters are thus advantageously arranged: 1. Colour. 2. Cohesion of particles; distinguished into solid, fria- ble, and fluid. In solid minerals are to be regarded the external shape, the external surface, and the external lustre. When bro- ken, the lustre of the fracture, the fracture itself, and the shape of the fragments, are to be noticed. In distinct concretions, regard must be paid to the shape ofthe con- cretions, their surface, their lustre, transparency, streak, and soiling. All these may be ascertained by the eye. By the touch, we may discover the hardness of minerals, their tenacity, frangibility, flexibility, their unctuosity, coldness, weight, and their adhesion to the tongue. By the ear we distinguish their sound, and by the smell and taste the qualities which these two senses indicate. In friable minerals, external shape, lustre, aspect of particles, soiling, and degree of friability, are to be at- tended to. In fluid minerals the lustre, transparency, and fluidity, are principal objects to be regarded. The specific external characters of minerals are found- ed on the distinctions and varieties of the two great gen- eric divisions. And first, of colours, the names of which arc derived from certain bodies in which they most gen- erally occur, either in a natural or artificial state, or from different mixtures and compositions of both. I. Colour. 1. White. This may be snow-white, reddish-white, yellow ish-white, silver-white, grey ish-white, greenish- white, milk-white, or tin-white. 2. Grey. Lead-grey, blueish-grey, pearl-grey, red- dish-grey, smoke-grey, greenish-grey, yellowish-grey, steel-grey, and ash-grey. 3. Black. Greyish-black, brownish-black, dark-black, iron-black, greenish-black, and blueish-black. 4. Blue. Indigo-blue, Prussian-blue, lavender-blue, smalt-blue, sky-blue. 5. Green. Verdigris-green, eeladen-green, mountain- green, emerald-green, leek-green, apple-green, grass- green, pistachio-green, asparagus-green, olive-green, blackish-green, canary-green. 6. Yellow. Sulphur-yellow, lemon-yellow, gold-yel- low, bell-metal-yellow, straw-yellow, wine-yellow, Isabel- la-yellow, ochre-yellow, orange-yellow, honey-yellow, wax-yellow, brass-yellow. 7. Red. Morning-red, hyacinth-red, brick-red, scar- let-red, copper-red, blood-red, carmine-red, cochineal- red, crimson-red, columbine-red, flesh-red, rose-red, peach-blossom-red, cherry-red, brownish-red. 8. Brown. Reddish-brown, clove-brown, hair-brown, yellowish-brown, tombac-brown, wood-brown, liver- brown, blackish-brown. Besides these distinctions, colour may be clear, dark, light, or pale; they may have a tarnished appearance, a play, a changeability, an iridescence, an opalescence, a permanent alteration, and delineation of figure or pat- tern, such as dotted, spotted, clouded, flamed, striped, veined, dendritic, orruiniform. II. Cohesion of Particles. Minerals are divided into, 1. Solid, or such as have their parts coherent, and not easily moveable; 2. Fri- able, or that state of aggregation in which the particles may be overcome by simple pressure of the finger; and, 3. Fluid, or such as consist of particles which al- ter their place in regard to each other by their own weight. 1. Solid minerals. External aspect has three things to be regarded, 1. The shape; 2. The surface; and 3. The lustre. The exter- nal shape again may be common, particular, regular, or extraneous; and-hence arise the specific differences. 1. The common external shape may be massive; dis- seminated coarsely, minutely, or finely; in angular pieces, sharp-cornered or blunt-cornered; in grains, large, coarse, small, fine, angular, flat, round; in plates, thick or thin; in membranes or flakes, thick, thin, or very thin. The particular external shape may be longish, as den- tiform, filiform, capillary, reticulated, dendritic, coralli- form, stalactitic, cylindrical, tubiform, claviform, or fru- ticose; roundish, as globular, spherical, ovoidal, spheroi- dal, amygdaloidal, botryoidal, reniform, tuberose, or fus- ed-like; flat, as specular, or in leaves; cavernous, as cel- lular in various forms, with impressions, perforated, corroded, amorphous, or vesicular; entangled, as ra- mose, &c. In the regular external shape or crystallization are to be regarded its genuineness, according to which it may be either true or suppositious; its shape, made up of planes,, edges, angles, in which are to be observed the MINERALOGY. fundamental figure and its parts, the kind of fundamental figure, the varieties of each kind of fundamental figure, with their accidents and distinctions, and the alterations which the fundamental figure undergoes by truncation, by bevelment, by acumination, or by adivision ofthe planes. There are a variety of figures uuder each of these subdi- visions. It must be remarked also that the external shape may be extraneous, or derived from the animal and vegetable kingdoms, as in fossils and petrifications. 2. The external surface contains several varieties of distinctions. It may be uneven, granulated, rough, smooth, or streaked in various ways and directions. 3. The external lustre is the third generic external character, and is of much importance to he attended to. In this we have to consider the intensity of the lustre, whether it is splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, or dull; next the sort of lustre, whether metallic or com- mon. The latter is distinguished into semimetallic, ada- mantine, pearly, resinous, and vitreous. Aspect ofthe fracture of solid Minerals* After the external aspect, the fracture forms no incon- siderable character in minerals. Its lustre may be de- termined as in the external lustre: but the fracture itself admits of great varieties. It may be compact, splintery, coarsely splintery, finely splintery, even, conchoidal, uneven, earthy, hackly. If the fracture is fibrous, we are to consider the thickness of the fibres, if coarse or delicate; the direction of the fibres, if straight or curved; and the position of the fibres, if parallel or di- verging. In the radiated fracture we are- to regard the breadth of the rays, their direction, their position, their passage or cleavage. In the foliated fracture, the size of the fo- lia, their degree of perfection, their direction, position, aspect of their surface, passage or cleavage, and the num- ber of cleavages, are to be noted. The shape of the fragments may also be very various- regular, as cubic, rhomboidal, trapezoidal, kc or irregu- . lar, as cuneiform, splintery, tabular, indeterminately an- gular. Aspect ofthe distinct Concretions. The shape of the distinct concretions forms very pro- minent external characters. They may be granular, dif- ferent in shape, or in magnitude; they maybe lamellar, dis- tinct, concrctious, differing in the direction of the lamel- la, in the thickness, with regard to shape, and in the position. The surface ofthe distinct concretions may be smooth, rough, streaked, or uneven; as for their lustre, it may be determined in the same manner as the external lustre. General Aspect as to Transparency. Minerals, as is well known, have different degrees of transparency, which may be considered among their ex- ternal characters. They may be transparent, semitrans- parent, translucent, translucent at the edges, or opaque. The Streak. The colour of this external character may be either similar or different. It is presented to us when a mine- ral is scraped with the point of a knife: and is similar, when the powder that is formed is of the same colour with the mineral, as in chalk; or dissimilar or different, as in cinnabar, orpiment, kc. The Soiling or Colouring Is ascertained by taking any mineral substance be- tween the fingers, or drawing it across some oilier body. It may soil strongly, as in chalk, slightly, as in molyb- dena, or not all, which is a quality belonging to most of the solid minerals. All the preceding external charac- ters are recognized by the eye. External Characters from the Touch. These are eight in number, and are not destitute of utility to the mincraAogical student. 1. Hardness; 2. Tenacity; 3. Frangibility; 4. Flexibility; 5. Adhesion to the tongue; 6. Unctuosity; 7. Coldness; 8. Weight. Hardness may be tried by a capacity to resist the file* yielding a little to it, by being semi-hard, soft, or very soft. Tenacity has different degrees, in substances being brittle, sectile or mild, or ductile. The frangibility con- sists in minerals being very difficultly frangible, difficultly frangible, easily frangible, or very easily frangible. The flexibility is proved by being simply flexible, elasticly flexible, commonly flexible, or inflexible. The adhesion to the tongue may be strongly adhesive, pretty strongly, weakly, very weakly, or not at all. Unctuosity may be meagre, rather greasy, or very greasy. Coldness is sub- divided into cold, 'pretty cold, rather cold. Weight may be distinguished into swimming or supernatant, light, rather light, heavy, very heavy. The three last divisions from the touch, are in the Wernerian system regarded as anomalous; but they seem properly to be classed under this head. External Characters from the Sound or Hearing. The different kinds of sound which occur in the mine- ral kingdom are, I. A ringing sound, as in native arsenic and thin splinters of horn-stone; 2, A grating sound, as in fresh-burnt clay; 3. A creaking sound, as that of na- tural amalgam. 2. Friable Minerals. The external characters drawn from minerals of this class are derived, first, from the external shape, which may be massive, disseminated, thinly coating, spumous, or dendritic: secondly, from the lustre, regarded under its intensity, whether glimmering or dull, and its sort, whether common glimmering or metallic glimmering: thirdly, from the aspect of the particles, as being dusty or scaly: fourthly, from soiling or colouring, as strongly or lightly: and lastly,-from the friability, which may be loose or ccthering. 3.' Fluid Minerals. Of external characters drawn from fluid minerals, there are only two kinds, which include three varieties: 1. Tlie lustre, which is either metallic, as in mercury, or resin- ous, as in rock oil. 2. The transparency, which is tran- sparent, as in naphtha; turbid, as in mineral oil; or opaque, as in mercury. 3. The fluidity, which may be fluid, as in mercury, or viscid, as in mountain tar. External Characters from the Smell. These may be spontaneously emitted and described, as bituminous, faintly sulphureous, or faintly bitter; or they may be produced by breathing on, and yield a clav-ljfce smell; or they may be excited by friction, and smeil uri- nous, sulphureous, garlick-like, or empyreumatic. External Character from the Taste. This character prevails chiefly in the saline class, and it contains the following varieties: a sweetish taste, MINERALOGY. sweetish astringent, siypik, saitiy bitter, sallly cooling, alkaline, or urinous. Having now given a synoptical view of the external characters of minerals, we shall proceed to their classifi- cation, and in this we shall chiefly follow the names and arrangement of professor Jameson. CLASS I. EARTHY FOSSILS. First Genus. Diamond. Diamond. This precious stone has great variety of shades, exhi- biting a beautiful play of colours. It occurs in indeter- minately angular and completely spherical grains, which present planes of chrystallization, or are actually chry- stallized. Its fundamental chrystal is the octahedron, which passes into various forms. It is hard in the highest degree, brittle, not very difficulty frangible, and has a specific gravity of 3.600. The diamond has, by modern experiments, been proved to be nearly pure carbon, and begins to burn at 14° or 15° of Wedgewood. See Plate LXXXIX. Mineralogy, figs. 1. and 2. Second Genus. Zircon. First Species. Zircon. The prevailing colour is grey, but it occurs likewise green, blue, red, yellow, and brown, with various inter- mediate tints. It is found most commonly in roundish angular pieces, with rounded angles and edges. When crystallized, the figure is generally a rectangular four-sided prism, some- what flatly acuminated by four planes, set on lateral planes; but of tbis figure there are several-varieties. The chrystals are almost always very small, have a smooth surface, bordering on strongly splendent. Internally, the lustre is strongly splendent, passing into adamantine. Fig. 3. Zircon is hard in a very high degree, brittle, frangible without great difficulty. Specific gravity 4.700. It forms a colourless transparent mass with borax, but is infusible by the blowpipe without addition. Found in the island of Ceylon, where it was first dis- covered, and lately in Norway, imbedded in a rock com- posed of hornblende and felspar. [It occurs also in pri- mitive rocks near Trenton in New-Jersey. J3ee Bruce's Journal, page 127.] Frequently cut as a precious stone, and used as an in- ferior kind of diamond, of which it was once considered as a variety. Its play of colours very considerable. Second Species. Hyacinth. The chief colour is red, passing to reddish-brown, and to orange-yellow. The figure a rectangular four-sided prism, flatly acuminated by four planes, which are set in the lateral edges. Of this figure, however, several va- rieties occur. The chrystals are generally small, and always imbed- ded. The lateral planes smooth, and externally shining. Internally it is splendent and glassy, inclining somewhat to resinous. Fig. 4. The hyacinth is transparent, very hard, frangible without particular difficulty, feels a little greasy when cut, and has a specific gravity of about 4.000. Is fusible with borax. Exposed to the blowpipe it loses its colour, but not its transparency. Occurs in rocks of the newest floetz trap formation, and sometimes in sand. Is a native of Ceylon, the coun- try of gems; of Spain, of Portugal, France, Italy, Saxo- ny, and probably Scotland. It takes a fine polish, and when the colours are good, it is highly valued. A third species, called cinnamon stone, has lately been discovered at Columbo, in Ceylon. Third Genus. Flint. First Species. Chrysoberyl. The prevailing or general colour is asparagus-green, passing into a variety of allied shades. It exhibits a milk-white light; occurs in roundish and angular grains, which sometimes approach in shape to the cube. It is sel- dom chrystallized; but when in this state, it commonly presents a longish six-sided table, having truncated late- ral edges, and longitudinally streaked lateral.planes. The chrystals are small, externally shining, and inter- nally splendent. Fig. 5. It is hard, brittle, not very easily frangible, with a specific gravity of 3.600. Without addition, it is infusi- ble. The chrysoberyl is found in Brazil, and in the sand of Ceylon. It is sometimes set in rings with a yellow foil, hut is rarely in the possession of our jewellers. Second Species. Chrysolite. The chief colour is pistachio-green, of all degrees of intensity. It occurs in original angular sharp-edged pieces, with a rough, scaly, splintery surface, and when chrystallized, exhibits a broad rectangular four-sided prism, with its lateral edges sometimes truncated, some- times bevilled, and acuminated by six planes. Fig. 6. The external surface of the chrystals is splendent, in- ternally splendent, and vitreous. Third Species. • Olivine. The colour is generally asparagus-green, of various degrees of intensity. It is found imbedded also in round- ish pieces and grains; and when chrystallized, which is rare, in rectangular four-sided prisms. Internally, it is shining, varying between glistening and splendent. It is semitranspareht, very easy frangible; in a low degree hard, and not particularly heavy. It is nearly infusible without addition. Occurs imbedded in basalt; is frequently found in Bohemia, and also in Hun- gary, Austria, France, England, Ireland, Scotland, Sweden, Iceland, and Norway. Pieces as large as a man's head have been found in some parts of Germany. Fourth Species. Augite. The general colour is blackish-green. It occurs chiefly in indeterminate angular pieces and roundish grains. Occasionally it is chrystallized, and presents broad rec- tangular six-sided prisms. The chrystals are mostly small. Internally the lustre is shining, approaching sometimes to splendent. The augite is only translucent, and but faintly trans- parent. It is hard, not very easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. It is found in basalt, either singly or accompanied with olivine, in Bohemia, Hungary; at ArthurVseat, near Edinburgh; in some of the Hebrides, and in Norway. From olivine it is distinguished by its darker colours, tho form of its chrystallization, and its greater hardness, MINERALOGY. Fifth Species. Vesuviane. Its principal colour is dark olive-green, passing into other allied shades. It occurs massive, and often chry- stallized in rectangular four-sided prisms. The chrystals are mostly 6hort, and placed on one another. Externally their surface alternates between glistening and splendent. Internally they are glistening, with a lustre between vi- treous and resinous. The vesuviane is translucent, hard in a moderate de- gree, and approaching to heavy. Before the blowpipe it nielts without addition. It is found among the exuviae of Vesuvius, from whence it derives its name, in Siberia and Kamtschatka. At Naples, it is cut into ring-stones, and sold under various names. Sixth Species. Lcuzite. The colours are yellowish and greyish-white. It oc- curs mostly in original round and angular grains. When chrystallized, it exhibits acute double eight-sided pyra- mids. Internally it is shining, and approaching to glist- ening, with a vitreous lustre, inclining somewhat to re- sinous. The leuzite is translucent and semitransparent. It is hard in a low degree, brittle, easily frangible, and not very heavy. It is infusible without addition. With borax, it forms a brownish transparent glass. It is found in rocks of the newestfloetz trap formation, particularly in basalt, near Naples, and in the vicinity of Rome. Bergman gave it the name of white garnet; but Werner has ascertained it to be a distinct species of itself. Seventh Specws. Melanite. The general colour is velvet-black. It occurs crys- tallized in a six-sided prism. The^hrystals are middle- sized or small. Externally they are smooth and shining, approaching to splendent; internally shining, inclining to glistening. The melanite is opaque, hard, pretty easily frangible, and not very heavy. It occurs imbedded in rocks of the newest tloetz trap formation, and hitherto has been found only at Frcscati and St. Albano, near Rome. Eighth Species. Garnet. This is divided into two sub-species, the precious gar- net ahd the common garnet. See Garnet, and fig. 7. Ninth Species. Pyrope. " Tbe colour is dark blood-red. It occurs in small and middle-sized roundish and angular grains; but never crystallized. Its lustre is splendent and vitreous. It is completely transparent, hard so as to scratch quartz, and not particularly heavy. The pyrope is found imbedded in serpentine in Saxo- ny and Bohemia. In Fifeshire, Scotlamd, it is found in the sand on the sea shore. It is employed in various kinds of jewellery, and is generally set in a good foil. Tenth Species. Grenatite. The colour is a dark reddish-brown. It is always crys- tallized in broad six-sided prisms. The crystals ^re small and middle-sized, internally glistening, with alus- tre between vitreous and resinous. • The grenatite varies from opaque to translucent, is hard, brittle, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. It is found imbedded in mica ilate, in St. Gothard, Switzerland; and is also met with in Britanny and in Spain. Eleventh Species. Spinelle. The predominant colour is red, which passes on into blue, green, yellow, and brown. It occurs in grains, ami likewise chrystallized in octahedrons with several varia- tions. The crystals are very rarely middle-sized. Ex- ternally and internally the lustre is splendent and vitre- ous. The spinelle alternates from transparent to vitreous: it is hard in a pretty high degree, and approaches to heavy. It is fusible with borax: occurs in rocks belong- ing to the newest floetz trap formation; and is found in Pegu and Ceylon. It is used as a precious stone, and considerably valued, though possessing neither the hard- ness nor the fire of the oriental ruby. Twelfth Species. Sapphire. The principal colour Berlin blue: but it is found also red, with all the intermediate shades between these two colours. It occurs in small rolled pieces, and crystallized in double three-sided pyramids, of which there are seve- ral varieties in figure. The chrystals are small and middle-sized. Internally * the lustre is splendent and vitreous. It is more or less transparent in different specimens. Some varieties, when cut, exhibit a star of six rays. Fig. 8. The sapphire is hard in the highest degree, but yields to the diamond; it is easily frangible, and rather heavy, having a specific gravity of about 4.000. It is infusible without addition: occurs in rocks ofthe newest floetz trap formation, and is supposed to be an inmate of granite, syenite, and other primitive rocks. This precious stone is found in the utmost beauty in Pegu and Ceylon. It is also a native of Portugal, of France, and of Bohemia. Next to the diamond, it is the most valuable of gems, and is used in the finest kind of jewellery. It should be observed, that the violet-coloured sap- phire is the oriental amethyst; that the yellow is the ori. ental chrysolite and topaz; and that the green is the ori- ental emerald. Thirteenth Species. Corundum. The principal colour is a greenish-white, of various degrees of intensity. It occurs massive, disseminated, in rolled pieces, and chrystallized. The chrystallizations resemble those of the sapphire, aud the chrystals aro middle-sized and imbedded. The corundum is duplicating translucent, hard in a" high degree, pretty easily frangible, and approaches to heavy. It is supposed to occur imbedded in granite, sye- nite, .or green-stone, and is found in the Carnatic and on the coast of Malabar. See Cokunoum. Fourteenth Species. Diamond Spar. The colour is a dark hair-brown. It occurs massive, disseminated, in rolled pieces, and chrystallized in si.v- sided prisms, or very acute six-sided pyramids. In- ternally, its lustre is splendent, approaching in a slight degree to adamantine. It may be cut so as to present an opalescent star of six rays, of a peculiar pearly light. It is translucent on the edges, hard in a high degree, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. The diamond spar probably occurs in granite. It has hitherto been found only in China, Botb tbis stone and MINERALOGY. carimdum arc employed in cutting and polishing hard minerals, and they seem to be nearly allied to each other. Fifteenth Species. Emery. Emery is hard in the highest degree, not very easily frangible, and is heavy, it occurs in beds of talc and steatite, and is frequently accompanied with calcspar and blende. It is found in Saxony, in the islands of the Ar- chipelago, in Spain, Normandy, and is said also to be a native of the isles of Guernsey and Jersey. It is of great use in cutting and polishing hard bodies. Sixteenth Species. Topaz,. The chief colour is a wine-yellow, of all degrees of intensity. It is found massive, disseminated, and some- times rolled, but most commonly chrystallized in oblique eight-sided or four-sided prisms, which exhibit several varieties. The chrystals are small and middle-sized, ex- ternally splendent; internally splendent, and shining; lustre vitreous. The topaz alternates from translucent to transparent, and is duplicating transparent. It is hard in a high de- gree, easily frangible, and is not particularly heavy. It is fusible with borax; and some kinds in a gentle heat turn white, and are sometimes sold for diamonds. It is commonly found in veins that traverse primitive rocks in Brazil, Siberia, in Pegu, and Ceylon; in Bo- hemia, Saxony, and in Cornwall. Exhibiting various forms and tints, it has often been confounded with other precious stones. It is much used in seals and rings. Seventeenth Species. Emerald. The green called emerald is the characteristic colour of this species, but it has all degrees of intensity from deep to pale. It is said to occur massive and in rolled pieces, but most commonly chrystallized in low equian- gular six-sided prisms. The chrystals are middle sized and small. Internally the lustre is intermediate between shining and splendent, and is vitreous. It alternates from transparent to translucent, and is duplicating transpa- rent. The emerald is hard, not particularly heavy, melts easily with borax, butjs scarcely fusible before the blow- .pipe. It occurs in veins that traverse clay-slate, and at present is only found in South America, particularly in Peru, though the Romans are said to have procured it from Egypt and Ethiopia. From the beauty and vivacity of its colour, the charm- ing emblem of the vegetable kingdom, this precious stone is much admired, and employed in the most expensive kinds of jewellery. See Emerald. Eighteenth Species. Beryl. This is divided into two sub-species, the precious and the schorlous beryl. See Beryl, and fig. 9. Ninteenth Species. Schorl. This is divided into two sub-species, common schorl and tourmaline. Fig. 10. *k Twentieth Species. Thumerstone. The colour is commonly clove-brown, of various de- grees of intensity. It is occasionally found massive, more frequently disseminated; but generally chrystalliz- ed in very flat and oblique rhombs. Externally, its lus- tre is generally splendent; internally, it alternates from glistening to shining, and is vitreous. This species alternates from perfectly transparent to weakly translucent. It is pretty hard, very easily fran- gible, and not particularly heavy. It appears to be pe- culiar to the primitive mountains, and is found imbed- ded m limestone in Saxony, Dauphiny, Norway, Sibe- ria, and Cornwall. Fig. ll. Twenty-first Species. Iron-Flint. The colour a yellowish-brown, bordering on liver- brown. It occurs commonly massive, but also chrystal- lized in small equiangular six sided prisms. Externally, its lustre is splendent; internally, shining, and is inter- mediate between vitreous and resinous. Iron-flint is opaque, and slightly translucent on the edges. It is pretty hard, somewhat difficultly fran- gible, and approaching to heavy. It occurs in iron-stone veins, and is found in Saxony, and, according to Kar- sten, at Bristol. It renders the iron ore, along with whicli it is dug, very difficult of fusion. Twenty second Species. Quarfa. Werner divides this into five sub-species, amethyst rock chrystal ( fig. 12), milk-quartz, common quartz, and prase. The first sub-species is again subdivided into com- mon amethyst and thick fibrous amethyst. See Quartz, Amethyst, kc Twenty.third Species. Horn-Stone. Horn-stone is divided into three sub-species, splintery horn-stone, conchoidal horn-stone, and wood-stone. First Sub-species. Splintery Horn-Stone. The common colour grey, but often red, with various shades of each. It is usually found massive, or in large balls. Internally its lustre is dull; but glimmering, when it approaches to the nature of quartz. It is more or less translucent on the edges, hard, brittle, very difficultly frangible, and not particularly heavy. The substance is infusible without addition; and is found in the shape of balls in limestone, and sometimes forming the basis of porphyry. It is a native of Bavaria, Sweden, and the Shetland islands; and appears to differ from quartz in containing a larger proportion of alu- mina. Second Sub-species. Conchoidal Horn-Stone. The colour runs from greyish white to yellowish and greenish-white. It occurs massive. Internally, it is a lit- tle glistening, strongly translucent on the edges, hard, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. Conchoidal horn-stone is found in beds or in veins, ac- companied with agate, at Goldberg, in Saxony. Third Sub-species, IFood-Stone. The prevailing colour is ash-grey, but with many dif- ferent shades. Its shape is exactly conformable to its former woody form, whether trunk, branches, or roots. Internally, it is sometimes dull, and sometimes glimmer- ing and glistening; slightly translucent on the edges, pretty hard, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. It is found insulated in sandy loam in Saxony, Bohe- mia, Russia, Hungary, and at Loch Neagh in Ireland. 14 receives a good polish, and is applied to the same pur- poses as agate. Twenty fourth Species. Flint* The general colour is grey, but with many varieties It occurs massive, in regular plates, in angular grains and species, in globular and elliptical rolled pieces, in the form of sand, and tuberose and perforated. Some- MINERALOGY. times it is chrystallized, when it exhibits double six- sided prisms, or flat double three-sided pyramids. In- ternally," the lustre is glimmering; translucent on the edges, hard, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. Twenty-fifth Species. Chalcedony. This is divided into two sub-species, chalcedony and carnelian. First Sub-species. Common Chalcedony. The most common colour is grey. The external shape is various, being massive, in blunt-edged grains and roll- ed pieces, in original round balls, &c. kc Internally, the chalcedony is almost always dull, commonly semitrans- parent, hart!, brittle, rather difficultly frangible, and not particularly heavy. It occurs in amygdaloid, and in por- phyry; and is found in Transylvania, in Iceland, Sibe- ria, Cornwall, Scotland, and the Hebrides. Being sus- ceptible of a fine polish, it is employed as an article of jewellery. Second Sub-species. Carnelian. The principal colour is a blood-red, of all degrees of intensity. It commonly occurs in roundish pieces, and also in layers: the lustre is glistening, bordering on glim- mering, and is semitransparent. See Carnelian. Agate. The fossils known under this name are all compound substances; and hence cannot have a particular place in any systematic arrangement. Werner therefore has pla- ced them as a supplement to the species chalcedony, which forms a principal constituent part of them, and disposes them according to their colour-delineations, thus: 1. Fortification agate; 2. Landscape agate; 3. Rib- bon agate; 4. Moss agate; 5. Tube agate; 6. Clouded agate; 7. Land agate; 8. Star agate; 9. Fragment agate; 10. Punctated agate; 11. Petrifaction agate; 12. Coal agate; 13. Jasper agate. They are all compounded of chalcedony, carnelian, jasper, horn-stone, quartz, helio- trope, amethyst, indurated lithomarge, and opal, in dif- ferent quantities and proportion; and arc found in great abundance in Germany, France, England, Scotland, Ire- land, and the East Indies. The uses of agate are various. It is cut into vases, mortars, snuff-boxes, seals, handles to knives, and for many other useful purposes. See Agate. Twenty-sixth Species. Heliotrope. The principal colour is intermediate between leek and dark celadon green, or mountain green. It occurs mas- sive, and in angular as well as rolled pieces. Internally the lustre is glistening, and is always resinous. It is commonly translucent in the edges; is easily frangible, hard, and not particularly heavy. Heliotrope is found in rocks belonging to the floetz trap formation, in Asia, Persia, Siberia, Saxony, and Iceland. .. . , i •■ l j On account of its beautiful colour and its hardness, it is employed for nearly the same purposes as agate. See Heliotrope. Twenty-seventh Species. Plasma. The usual colour is intermediate between grass and leek-grcen, and of different degrees of intensity. It oc- curs in indeterminably angular pieces, which have a rough earthy crust. Internally its lustre is glistening. It is intermediate between seautrwisparent and strongly translucent, hard, brittle, frangible without great difficul- ty, and not particularly heavy. Hitherto it has only been found among the ruins of Rome, and constituted a part of the ornamental dress of the ancient Romans. Twenty-eighth Species. Chrysopras. Its characteristic colour is apple-green, of all degrees of intensity. It is found massive in angular pieces, and in thick plates. Internally it is dull; tbe lustre interme- diate between translucent and semitransparent. It is hard, not very difficultly frangible, nor particularly heavy; and is found along with quartz, opal, chalcedony, &c. at Ko- semuctz, in Lower Silesia. Chrysopras is principally used for ring-stones, and some varieties are highly esteemed; but it is difficult to cut and polish. Twenty-ninth Species. Flinty Slate. This has been divided into two sub-species, common flinty slate, and Lydian stone. First Sub-species. Common Flinty Slate. The principal colour is grey, but there are many va- rieties of shades. It occurs massive in whole beds, and frequently in blunt-angled pieces, with a smooth and glimmering surface. Internally, it is faintly glimmer- ing; more or less translucent on the edges; hard, brittle, difficultly frangible, and not particularly heavy. It occurs in beds in transitive mountains in Saxony, at the lead-hills in Scotland, and other places. Second Sub-species. Lydian Stone. The colour is greyish-black, passing into velvet-black- It occurs massive, and is frequently found in trapezoi- dal-shaped rolled pieces. Internally, it is glimmering; opaque, hard, pretty easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. It is found in similar formations with the pre- ceding, near Prague and Carlsbad in Bohemia, in Saxo- ny, and in the Moorfoot and Pentland hills, near Edin- burgh. When polished, it is used as a test-stone for determin- ing the purity of gold and silver; but is less suited for tbis purpose than basalt, and some kind of clay slate. Thirtieth Species. Cat's Eye. The principal colour is grey, of whicli it presents ma- ny varieties. It occurs in blunt-edged pieces, in rolled pieces, and likewise massive. Internally, it is shining, usually translucent, and sometimes also semitransparent. It is hard, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. Its geognostic situation is unknown. It is imported from Ceylon and the coast of Malabar; and is usually cut for ring-stones. Some of the varieties are highly valued. Thirty-first Species. Prehnite. .The colours are various shades of green, white, and yellow. It is sometimes massive, and sometimes crystal- lized in oblique four-sided tables. Externally, the crys- tals are smooth and shining; internally, inclining to glis- tening and pearly. Prehnite is translucent, sometimes passing into semi- transparent and transparent: it is hard, easily frangible, and not very heavy. It occurs in Dauphiny in veins of the oldest formation; in Scotland in rocks belonging to the newest floetz trap formation; and was first discovered in AMca by colonel Prchn, from whom it receives its ap- pellation. MINERALOGY. Thirty-second Species. Zeolite. This species*is divided by Werner into five sub-spe- cis, 1. Mealy zeolite; 2. Fibrous zeolite; 3. Radiated zeolite; 4. Foliated zeolite; 5. Cubcc zeolite. As they are principally distinguished from each other by fracture, hardness, and lustre, we shall only observe, that the chief colours of all are yellowish, whitish, and reddish, with a variety of indeterminate shades; that zeolite occurs mas- sive, in angular pieces, in balls, and sometimes chrystal- lized in short and oblique four-sided prisms, and in per- fect smooth planed cubes; that it is accordingto the sub- species opaque, translucent, or even transparent; and that it is semi-hard, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. Zeolite occurs in rocks belonging to the newest forma- tion, but is sometimes, though rarely, found in primitive green stone, either disseminated, in coteinporaneous balls, or lining or filling up air cavities or veins. All the dif- ferent sub-species are natives of Scotland. The mealy zeolite is found in the Isle of Sky; the fibrous and radiated in the isles of Canary and Sky; the foliated in Staffa, and the cubic inthe same isle, and likewise in Sky. They are likewise met with in Iceland, in Sweden, iu Germany, and the East Indies. Figs. 13 and 14. Thirty-third Species. Cross-Stone. The colour is a greyish-white. It occurs chrystallized, either in broad rectangular four-sided prisms, or in twin chrystals. The chrystals are mostly small, and aggre- gated on one another. Both the internal and the external lustre is shining, inclining to splendent or glistening. The cross-stone is translucent passing to transparent, semi-hard, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. It has hitherto been found only in mineral veins, and in agate-balls, at Strontian, in Argyleshire, and at AnJre- asberg, in Hartz, as well as some other places. Tliffty fourth Species. Agate-Stone. The colour is a perfect azure blue, of different shades. It is found massive, disseminated, and in rolled pieces. The lustre is glistening and glimmering. It is translu- cent on the edges, pretty hard, brittle, easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. The geognostic situation is not correctly ascertained. It is saiil to have been found near the lake of Baikal, in Siberia, in a vein accompanied with garnet, felspar, and pyrites. It occurs in Persia, *China, Tartary, and Sibe- ria; in South America; but in Europe has only been found among the ruins of Rome. Its beautiful colour renders it an object of attraction, and being capable of receiving a high polish, itis applied to various useful purposes, and enters into the composi- tion of many different ornaments. It is the lapis lazuli of painters. Werner is constantly making additions to his species under every genus. Of those belonging to the flint genus, which are less known, and have been described with less precision than the preceding, are coccolite, found in Sweden and Nor- way; pistazite, found in Norway, Bavaria and France; ceylanite, in Ceylon; enclase, in Peru; hyalite, near Franckfort; menilite, near Paris; lomonite, in Lower Britanny; natrolite, in Suabia; azurite, in Stiria, &c; andalusite, or hardspar, in Saxony, France, and Spain; chiastolite, or hollow spar, in France and Spain, and probably in Cumberland; scapolite, in Norway; and arctizife, or wernerite,in Sweden, Norway, Switze rland, and lazulite. fourth genus. Clay Genus. First Species. Jasper. This is divided into six sub species; Egyptian jasper, striped jasper, porcelain jasper, common jasper, agate jasper, and opal jasper. Second Species. Opal. Werner divides this into four sub-species, p-ecious opal, common opal, semi-opal, and wood opal. Third Species. Pitch-Stone. The colours are black, green, brovv*n, red. and occa- sionally grey. It occurs always massive in great beds and rocks. Internally its lustre is shining. It is com- monly translucent in a small degree, brittle, and pretty easily frangible. Pitch-stone is fusible without addition: occurs in beds in the newest porphyry and floetz trap formation; and is found in Saxony, Hungary, in several of the Hebrides, and in Dumfriesshire. Some of its varieties bear a striking resemblance to pitch, from whence it receives its appellation. Fourth Species. Obsidian. The principal colour is velvet-black. If always occurs in angularly roundish pieces. Internally itis splendent. Some ofthe varieties are translucent, others semi-trans- parent. Itis hard, easily frangible, and not very heavy. Obsidian occurs insular in the newer porphyry forma- tion, and is found in Hungary, Iceland, in Peru, and va- rious other countries. When cut and polished, it is some- times used for ornamental purposes, and mirrors for telescopes have been formed of it. It probably owes its origin to fire. Fifth Species. Pearl Stone. Its colour is generally grey, sometimes black and red. It occurs vesicular, and tlie vesicles are long and round- ish, with a shining pearly lustre. It is translucent on the edges, not very brittle, very easily frangible, and rather light. Pearl stone is found in beds of porphyry near Toka, in Hungary, in the north of Ireland, and the Hebrides. Sixth Species. Pumice Stone. Its usual colour is a light yellowish-grey passing into different neighbouring shades. It is small, and lengthen- ed vesicular: its internal lustre glistening, generally translucent in the edges, soft, and seldom semi-hard, very brittle, easily frangible, and swims in fluids. It occurs in various situations, generally accompanied by rocks that belong to the floetz trap formation; and though usually classed among volcanic productions, in some situations it evidently is of aquatic origin. It i* found in the Lipari islands, in Hungary, Iceland, and on the banks of the Rhine; and is used for polishing stones, metals, glass, and ivory; and also for preparirtg; parchment. Seventh Species. Felspar Is divided into four sub-species; compact felspar, common felspar, adularia, and Labradore stone. Fig. 15.' Eighth Species. Pure Clay Is snow white, with occasionally a yellowish tinge, and occurs in kidney-shaped pieces, which have no lustre. It MJNERALOGY. js opaque, soils very little, adheres slightly to the tongue, Is light, and intermediate between soft and friable. Pure clay is found immediately under the soil, accom- panied with foliated gypsum and selenke, at Halle, in Saxony, only. Ninth species. Porcelain Earth. The colour is generally a reddish-white, of various degrees of intensity. It occurs massive and dissemi- nated; its particles are fine and dusty, slightly cohering, and feeling fine and light. It is found in beds in gneiss, accompanied with quartz and other substances, in Saxony, at Passau, Limoges, and in Cornwall. In China and Japan, where it is called kaolin, it is very abundant. It forms the basis of china ware. Tenth species. Common Clay. This is divided into six sub-species, as follow: 1. Loam, of a yellowish-grey colour, frequently spotted with yellow and brown, and occurring massiye. It is dull and weakly glimmering, colours a little, adheres pretty strongly to the tongue, and feels slightly greasy. It is often mixed with sand, gravel, and iron ochre. 2. Potter's clay is of two kinds, earthy and slaty. The earthy is of a yellowish and greyish-white colour in ge- neral; occurs massive; is opaque, colours a little, feels somewhat greasy, and adheres strongly to the tongue. Slaty potter's clay is generally of a dark ash-grey colour, and feels more greasy than the preceding. It occurs in great rock masses, and in alluvial land. Both kinds are universally distributed, and are of great importance in tbe arts and in domestic economy. 3. Pipe clay is greyish-white, passing into yellowish- white, occuring massive, of a glimmering lustre, and having its particles pretty coherent. It feels rather greasy, is easily frangible, and adheres pretty strongly to the tongue. 4. Variegated clay is commonly white, red, and yel- low, striped, veined, and spotted. It occurs massive, is soft, passing into friable, feels a little greasy, and ad- heres somewhat to the tongue. It is found in Upper Lusatia. 5. Clay-stone is commonly grey, or red, with various intermediate tints. It occurs massive, is dull, opaque, soft, pretty easily frangible, feels rather meagre, and does not adhere to the tongue. It forms vast rock mas- ses, occurs in beds and veins, and is found in Saxony, in Scotland, and in Shetland. 6. Slate clay is of a grey colour, presenting several varieties. It is massive, internally dull, opaque, pretty soft, mild, easily frangible, adheres a little to the tongue, and feels meagre. It is generally found wherever the oval, floetz trap, and alluvial formations occur. Eleventh species. Polier, or Polishing-Stbne, Is of a yellowish-grey colour, striped, and the colours alternate in layers. It occurs massive, is dull, very soft, adheres to the tongue, feels fine but meagre, and is nearly swimming. Itis found in the vicinity of pseudo- volca- noes, though hitherto it has only been discovered in Bo- hemia. Twelfth species. Tripoli Is of a yellowish-grey colour, passing into ash-grey; occurs massive, is internally dull, very soft, feels meagre and rough, does not adhere to the tongue, and is rather VOT II 94 , light. It is found in vciiis and bedtf in floetz rocks in Saxony, in Derbyshire, and many other countries besides Tripoli, from whence it was first brought, its use in polishing metals and minerals is well known. Thirteenth species. Alum-Stove Is of a greyish-white colour, occurs massive, shows a tendency to chrystallization, is soft, passing to friable, and light. It is found at Tolfa, near Rome, from whence the famous Roman alum is manufactured. Fourteenth species. Alum-Earth. The colour is a blackish-brown, and brownish-black; it is massive, dull, f els a little meagre, and somewhat greasy; is intermediate between soft and (liable, and light. It is found in beds of great magnitude in alluvial land, and in floetz trap formation in several parts of Germany, in Naples, and in France. It is lixiviated to obtain the alum it contains. Fifteenth species. Alum-Slate Is divided into two sub-species, as follow: 1. Common alum-slate is between a greyish and blueish- black colour, occurs massive? and in balls, is soft, not very brittle, easily frangible, and not very heavy. 2. Glossy alum-slate is of an intermediate colour, be- tween blueish and iron-black; occurs massive, with a shining semi-metallic lustre, and in other respects re- sembles the former. It is found in beds and strata in Saxony, France, Scotland, and Hungary; and affords. considerable quantities of alum. Sixteenth species. Bituminous Shale Is of a brownish-black colour, and occurs massive. Internally, its lustre is glimmering; it is very soft, ra- ther mild, feels rather greasy, is easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. It is found with clay-slate in the coal formation, in Bor hernia, England, Scotland and other coal countries. Seventeenth species. Drawing Slate, or Black Chalk. Its colour is a greyish-black, with a tinge of blue; it occurs massive, is opaque, colours and writes, is soft, mild, easily frangible, feels meagre but fine, and is ra- ther light. It is found in primitive mountains in France, Germany, Iceland, Scotland, and the Hebrides. When of a mid- dling degree of hardness, it is used for drawing. Eighteenth species. Whet-Slate. The common colour is greenish-grey; it is massive; in- ternally, weakly glimmering, semi-hard, feels rather greasy, and is not particularly brittle or heavy. It oc- curs in primitive mountains in Saxony, Bohemia, and the Levant. WJien cut and polished, it is used for sharp- ening knives and tools. Nineteenth species. Clay-Slate. Its principal colour is grey, of winch there are many varieties. It occurs massive; internally, its colour is glistening, the substance opaque, soft, pretty easily fran- gible. It is found in vast strata in primitive and transi- tion mountains in many different countries, but particu- larly in Scotland. When split into thin and firm table's* it is used for roofing houses, and other purposes. Twentieth species. Lepidoldte. Its colour is a kind of peach-blossom, red, verging on lilac-blue, and occurs massive. Its internal lustre, is glistening; it is translucent, soft, easily frangible* ant) MINERALOGY. easily melts before the blowpipe. Hitherto it has only been found in Moravia, where it lies in gneiss. Twenty-first species. Mica, or Glimmer. Its common colour is grey, of great variety of shades. It occurs massive, disseminated in thin tables and layers in other stones, and chrystallized either in equilateral six-sided tables, or in six-sided prisms. The surface of the chrystals is splendent; internally, shining and splen- dent. In thin plates, it is transparent; but in larger mas- ses only translucent on the edges. It is semi-hard, feels smooth, but not greasy, elastically flexible, and more or less easily frangible. It forms one of the constituent parts of granite, gneiss, and mica slate, and is almost peculiar to the primitive mountains. It was formerly used instead of glass, for windows and lanterns. Fig. 16. Twenty-second species. Tot-Stone. Its colour is a greenish-grey, of different degrees of intensity; is massive; lustre, internally, glistening and pearly, translucent on the edges; soft, feels greasy, and is very difficultly frangible. It occurs in beds, or is indular; and is found in the Country of the Grisons, in Saxony, and probably in Hud- son's-bay, and is nearly allied to indurated talc. Twenty-third species. Chlorite, Which see. Twenty-fourth species. Hornblende, Which see. See also fig. 17. Twenty-fifth species. Basalt. The usual colour is greyish-black, of various degrees of intensity. It occurs massive, in blunt and rolled pieces, and sometimes vesicular. Internally, itis commonly dull. It is usually found in distinct concretions, which are ge- nerally columnar, and sometimes upwards of 100 feet in length. Commonly opaque, semi-hard, brittle, very difficultly frangible, melts without addition, and is almost exclusively confined to the floetz trap formation. It oc- curs in strata, beds, and veins, in almost every quarter of the globe, and is very abundant in Scotland, Ireland, and in other parts of the British European dominions. It is useful for building, as a touch-stone, as a flux, and in glass manufactures. Twenty-sixth species. Wacee. The colour is a greenish-grey, of various degrees of intensity. It occurs massive and vesicular, is dull, some- what glimmering, opaque, usually soft, more or less easi- ly frangible, and not particularly heavy. It is said to belong exclusively to the floetz trap for- mation, where it occurs in beds and above clay, and also irt veins. It is found in Saxony, Bohemia, and Sweden. "Twenty-seventh species. Clink-Stone Is coinmonly of a dark greenish-grey colour, always massive, and occurring in irregular columns, and tabu- lar distinct concretions. It is usually translucent on the edges, brittle, easily frangible, and when struck with a hammer sounds like a piece of metal. It is said to belong to the floetz trap formation, and generally rests on basalt. It is found in Lusatia, Bohe- mia, South America, and in the isle of Lambash, in the frith of Clyde. Twenty-eighth species. Lava Js divided into two sub-species. U Slag lava is of a greyish-black colour, passing into other shades. Externally, it is spotted, occurs vesicular and knotty, is generally opaque, semi-Vard, brittle, easi- ly frangible, and not particularly heavy. 2. Foam lava is of a dark greenish-grey colour, oc- curs small and fine, vesicular; externally, glimmering, slightly translucent on the edges, brittle, easily frangi- ble, and light. It has often been confounded with pum- ice-stone, from which, however, it differs very much. On account of its lightness, it is used with advantage in arch- ing vaults, and other kinds of building. Twenty-ninth species. Green Earth. Its colour is a celaden green, of various degrees of in- tensity. It occurs massive, in angular and globular pie- ces, and also disseminated. Internally, it is dull, streak glistening, very soft, easily frangible, and light. It is principally found in an amygdaloid, in Saxony, Bohemia, Scotland, and other places, and is used by painters. Thirtieth species. Lithomage Is divided into two sub-species. 1. Friable lithomage, or rockmarrow, is snow-white, or yellowish-white, occurs massive, as a crust, and dis- seminated; is generally coherent, feels greasy and ad- heres to the tongue. Is found in tin veins, in Saxony. 2. Indurated lithomage is most commonly white, ol which it presents several varieties; is massive, internal- ly, dull; streak shining, very soft, easily frangible, feels greasy, and adheres strongly to the tongue. It occurs in veins of phorphyry, &c. in Saxony, Bohemia, Bava- ria, kc Thirty-first species. Rock Soap Is of a brownish or pitch-black colour, massive and disseminated, dull, opaque, i >es not soil, writes like draw- ing-slate,, is easily frangible, and adheres strongly to the tongue. It is found imbedded in rocks of the floetz trap forma- tion, in Poland, and in the isle of Sky, but is very rare, and found only in small quantities. y Thirty-second species. Fellow Earth. \ / The colour is ochre-yellow, of different degrees or in- tensity; it is massive, streak somewhat shining, soils, writes, is very soft, adheres pretty strongly to the tongue, and feels somewhat greasy. It occurs in beds with iron- stone, in Upper Saxony, and is employed as a pigment. To the clay genus, likewise, belong adhesive slate, float-stone, pinite, and umber, which may be considered as recent discoveries. fifth genus. Talc Genus. First species. Bole. Its colour is cream-yellow, passing into various other shades; is commonly massive, very soft, easily frangible, feels greasy, gives a shining streak, adheres to the tongue, and is light. It occurs in rocks belonging to the newest floetz trap formation, and is found in beds of wacce or basalt, in Silesia, Italy, kc It was formerly employed in medicine, but is now used only as a pig- ment. Second species. Native Talc Earth. The colour is yellowish-grey, passing into cream-yel- low. It occurs massive, tuberose, and of other shapes; is internally dull, almost opaque, soft, frangible without much difficulty, and adheres a little to the tongue. MINERALOGY. It is found in beds of serpentine, but only hitherto in Moravia. Third species. Meerschaum. The usual colour is yellowish-white. It occurs mas- sive, is internally dull, opaque, streak shining, is soft, adheres strongly to the tongue, feels a little greasy, and is nearly swimming. It is principally fouhd in Natolia, in Samos, Hungary, Moravia, Spain, and America. It is much used in the manufacture of heads of tobacco-pipes. It is said that the Turks eat it as a medicine. Fourth species. Fuller's Earth. The colours are greenish white, grey, olive, and oil- green. It is massive; internally dull, usually opaque, gives a shining streak, is very soft, feels greasy, and is not particularly heavy. It is found in different situations in England, Saxony, Alsace, and Sweden; and is of essential use in cleansing woflen cloth, from which property it receives its name. Fifth species. Neaphrite, Which see. Sixth species* Steatite. The principal colour is white, of which it presents many varieties. It occurs massive, disseminated, in crusts, and chrystallized in six-sided prisms. Internally it is dull, streak shining, very soft, rather difficultly frangible, and feels greasy. It is found in beds and veins in serpentine in Norway, Sweden, Saxony, England, Scotland, and China. It is used in the manufacture of porcelain, and for other pur- poses. Seventh species* Serpentine, Which see. Eighth species. Schiller-Stone. Its colour is olive-green, usually disseminated and massive; lustre shining, is soft, slightly brittle, and easi- ly frangible. It occurs imbedded in serpentine, and is found in the Harz, in Saxony, Cornwall, and Ayrshire. It is often confourided with Labradore hornblende. Ninth species. Talc. Tbis is divided into three sub-species. 1. Earthy talc is of an intermediate colour between greenish-white and light greenish-greyj fi iable, strong- ly glimmering, soils a little, feels rather greasy, and oc- curs in tin veins near Freyberg in Saxony. 2. Common, or Venetian talc, is principally of an apple- green colour, massive and disseminated, and in delicate and small tabular chrystals. It is almost always splendent and shining, translucent, in thin leaves transparent, flexible, but not elastic; soft, easily frangible, feels very greasy, and approaches to light. It is almost wholly confined to the primitive moun- tains, where it is found imbedded in serpentine, and also in veins. It is found in the Tyrolese Alps, in Switzer- land, and iu Saxony. 3. Indurated talc is of a greenish-grey colour, of va- rious degrees of intensity, occurs massive, is shining, passing to glistening, strongly translucent on the edges, soft, feels rather greasy, and is frangible without parti- cular difficulty. It is found in primitive mountains in Ty- rol, Austria, Scotland, and the Shetland isles. Tenth species. Asbe*t- See Asbestcs. Eleventh species, Cyanite, Which see. Twelfth species. Actynolite Is divided into the following sub-species: 1. Asbestous actynolite is of a greenish-grey colour, occurs massive, disseminated, and in capillary chrystals; is internally glistening, translucent on the edges, soft, brittle, not easily frangible, nor particularly heavy. It is found in mineral beds in Saxony, and other parts of Germany. 2. Common actynolite is generally of a green leek- colour, passing into other shades of the same; it occurs massive, and likewise chrystallized in very oblique six- sided prisms, is splendent externally, semi-hard, rather brittle, and not easily frangible. It is found in beds in primitive mountains, in Saxony, Switzerland, Norway, and Scotland. 3. Glassy actynolite is principally of a mountain- green colour, of various degrees of intensity; occurs mas- sive, or in thin six-sided acicular chrystals, is shining and vitreous, strongly translucent, brittle, easily frangi- ble, semi-hard, and is found in similar situations with the preceding. Thirteenth species. Tremolitc. This is divided into the following sub-species: 1. Asbestous tremolite is of a whitish colour with a tinge of yellow, grey, red, or green: it occurs massive, and in capillary and acicular chrystals; internally glis- tening, very soft, easily frangible, and translucent on the edges. 2. Common tremolite is nearly of the same colour as the preceding, occurs massive, and in long and very ob- lique four-sided prisms: internally, is shining and glis- tening, translucent and semi-transparent, semi-hard, and pretty easily frangible. 3. Glassy tremolite is yellowish, reddish, greyish, and greenish-white; occurs massive, and chrystallized. In- ternally, is shining and pearly; is composed of very thin prismatic concretions, which are again collected into very thick prismatic concretions. It is translucent, brit- tle, and pretty easily frangible, and is said to emit a phosphoric light when rubbed in the dark. Tremolite is principally found imbedded in primitive mountains, particularly the mountains of Tremola, in Switzerland. It is also found in different parts of Ger- many, and in Scotland. Sahlite, lately discovered in Sweden, likewise belongs to the talc genus. sixth genus. Calc Genus. First species. Rock Milk. Its colour is yellowish-white; it is composed of dully, dusty particles generally weakly cohering, feels meagre yet fine, soils very much, and is very light. It is found in fissures and holes of mountains composed of floetz lime-stone, in Switzerland. Second species. Chalk. Its colour is principally all yellow ish-white: it occurs massive, disseminated, and as crust over flint. Internally, is dull, opaque, soils, writes, soft, sometimes very soft, very easily frangible, feels meagre, and rather reuirh; effervesses strongly wi:b acids, and is found principally ou the sea-coast, though the Chiltem range in Ev:,!.,nd MINER ALOGY\ is wholly composed of it. It is used for polishing and cleansing metals, glass, kc and in some places as a ma- nure, and cement in building. TAird species. Lime-Stone Is divided into several sub-species: 1. Compact lime-stone is of two varieties, common •compact limestone, and roe-stone. The former is gene- rally of a grey colour, but is frequently veined, zoned, striped, or clouded; occurs massive, and in rolled pieces; is translucent on the edges, semi-hard, brittle, pretty ea- sily frangible; is almost entirely confined, like lime in general, to the floetz mountains; occurs in sand, stone, and coal formations, in England, Scotland, and many other countries; and is frequently used for building or making roads, or, when burnt, for manure and cement. The latter, or roe-stone, is of a chesnut brown colour, is massive; internally dull, composed of small and fine- grained globular distinct concretions; semi-hard, brittle, not very easily frangible; occurs in beds in considerable quantities in Saxony, and is solely used for manure, for which its admixture with marl admirably fits it. 2. Foliated limestone is likewise of two kinds, granular limestone, and calc spar (figs. 18. and 19.). The former is commonly whitish, but presents many varieties of that colour; is massive, occurs almost always in granular dis- tinct concretions, is more or less translucent, semi-hard, brittle, easily frangible, is peculiar to tbe primitive and transitive mountains, and is chiefly found in Italy, whence it is distributed over Europe, for the purpose of statuary. The white marble of Pares, or granular limestone, has long been celebrated. Scotland furnishes some beautiful varieties of marbles, whose uses are well known. The latter, or calc spar, is principally white, but lias many shades. It occurs massive, disseminated, and chrystallized, either in six-sided prisms, or three-sided prisms. The lustre alternates from splendent to shining and glistening, and is most commonly vitreous. The massive varieties are translucent, and sometimes even transparent. It is found veinigenous in almost every rock from granite to the newest floetz trap, occurs in a great variety of mineral veins, and is very universally disseminated, but is found particularly beautiful in Der- byshire, in Ireland, Saxony, France, and Spain. 3. Fibrous limestone, is of two varieties, common fibrous limestone, and fibrous limestone, or calc sinter. The former is commonly greyish, reddish, or yellowish- white; massive, lustre glistening, fragments splintery, more or less translucent, semi-hard, and occurs only in small veins. The latter, or calc sinter, is principally white, of wiiich it exhibits several beautiful varieties; occurs mas- sive, and also in many particular external forms; inter- nally is glimmering and pearly, It is commonly found in curved lamellar distinct concretions, is more or less translucent, semi-hard, brittle, and easily frangible; it is discovered in almost every limestone country. The grot- to of Antiparos, and similar situations, afford striking instances of calc sinter. It is the alabaster of the an- cients, and is still used in statuary. 4. Pea-stone is commonly yellowish-white, massive, in- ternally dull, opaque ortranslucent ontheedges; soft, ve- ry easily frangible; and is found in great masses in the vicinity- pf tbe hot springs at Carls'.ad in Bohemia. It is composed of spherically round distinct concretions. All the varieties of limestone effervesce with acids. Fourth species. Schaum, or foaming earth, Is principally of a light yellowish colour; occurs mas. sive and disseminated; is intermediate between shining and glistening; presents large, coarse, small, and fine- grained distinct concretions; is generally opaque, soft, completely friable, feels fine, but not greasy, and cracks a little. It is found in cavities of the oldest floetz limestone in Thuringia, and in the north of Ireland. Fifth species. Slate spar. Its colour milky, and greenish or reddish-white; oc- curs massive; lustre intermediate between shining and glistening, and completely pearly; fragments slaty, stranslucent, soft, and pretty easily frangible. It is found in limestone-beds in primitive mountains, and is produc- ed in Norway, Saxony, and Cornwall. Sixth species. Brown spar. This is divided into the following sub-species: 1. Foliated brown spar, is principally white and red, with several varieties of each. It occurs massive, globu- lar, with tabular impressions, and frequently chrystalliz- ed, externally shining, internally alternating from : .n- ing to splendent. It is found in granular distinct concre- tions of all magnitudes; is more or less transli cent, semi- hard; a little difficultly frangible, and occurs in veins generally accompanied with calc spar, kc in the mines of Norway, France, Germany, England, and other coun- tries. 2. Fibrous brown spar is of a flesh-red, passing into rose-red; occurs massive, lustre glistening, fragments splintery, in other respects resembling the preceding. Hitherto it has been found only in Hungary and Tran- sylvania. Seventh species. Rhomb spar. Its colours are yellowish and greyish-white; occurs only in regular middle-sized rhombs; lustre splendent, generally intermediate between translucent and semi- transparent; is semihard, brittle, easily frangible, and is found imbedded in rocks belonging to the talc genus in Switzerland, Sweden, and ou the banks of Loch-lomond m Scotland. Eighth species. Schaalstane. The most common colour is greyish-white; it occurs massive, is shining and nearly pearly, translucent, pret- ty hard, brittle, easily frangible, and has been hitherto found only in the Bannat of Tameswar, accompanied by copper ore. Ninth species. Stink-stont. Its colour is wood-brown, passing into various other shades. It occurs massive, and sometimes disseminated through gyps, is dull or glimmering internally, translu- cent on the edges, rather soft, easily frangible, and vvlien rubbed, emits an urinous smell. It is found in considerable quantities in the district of Mansfield in Thuringia, Tenth species, Marie, Which see. Eleventh species. Bituminous marie slate. Its colour is intermediate between greyish and brown- ish-black; it is massive, from glimmering to shining, fragments slaty, unusually soft, not very brittle, easily frangible, and streak shining. It is found in beds along with the oldest floetz lime-stone, and contains much cop* MINERALOGY. per intermixed with it, on account of which it is usually smelted in Thuringia. Twelfth species. Calc tuff. The colour is yellowish-grey; it is generally perforat- ed or marked with the impressions of other substances, also amorphous, ramose, and corroded. Internally dull, substance opaque, soft, easily frangible, and approach- ing to swimming. It occurs in alluvial land, and is found in Thuringia, at Gotha, and other places in Germany. Thirteenth species. Arragone. The principal colours are greenish-grey, and iron- grey. It occurs chrystallized in perfect equiangular six- sided prisms; the luster is glistening, passing into shin- ing, and is vitreous; it is semi-hard, brittle, not particu- larly heavy, and plurpluresces a little. It was first dis- covered in the province of Arragon, whence its name, imbedded in gyps, but has since been found in some oth- er countries of the continent. Fourteenth species. A2)patite. The usual colours are white, green, blue, and red; it generally occurs chrystallized, the radical form of which is the equiangular six-sided prism. Externally itis splen- dent, internally shining and resinous. It is commonly transparent, semi-hard, brittle, easily frangible, and oc- curs in tin veins in Saxony, Bohemia, and in Cornwall. It has been confounded with schorl, kc. Fig. 20. Fifteenth species. Asparagus or spargel stone. The principal colour is asparagus-green; it occurs on- ly chrystallized in equiangular six-sided prisms, is in- ternally shining, most frequently translucent, semi-hard, easily frangible, and brittle. Hitherto it has been found only in Murcia in Spain, though supposed to be produc- ed in Norway. It is nearly allied to appatite. Fig. 21. Sixteenth species. Boracite. Its colours are yellowish, smoke and grey ish-white, passing to asparagus-green; it occurs in chrystallized cubes, with the edges and angles truncated, internally shining, commonly semi-transparent, semi-hard, brittle, and easily frangible. Hitherto it has been discovered on- ly at Luneburg in Hanover. Fig. 22. Seventeenth species. Fluor, Which sec, also fig. 23. Eighteenth species. Gyps. This Is divided into the following sub-species: 1. Gyps earth is of a yellowish-white colour, passing into some allied shades, is intermediate between fine sca- ly and dusky, dull and feebly glimmering, soils a little, feels meagre but soft and fine, and is light. It is found, though rarely, in gyps countries, and is formed in the same manner as rock milk. It is used as a manure. 2. Compact gyps, is commonly ash-grey, passing into smoke and yellowish-grey, is massive, internally dull, feebly translucent on the edges, very soft, frangible without great difficulty, and is employed in architecture and sculpture, under the name of alabaster. 3. Foliated gyps is commonly w hite, grey, or red, pre- senting spotted, striped, and veined colour delineations. It occurs massive, and in blunt-edged pieces, but seldom in chrystals. Internally it alternates from shining and glistening to glimmering, is translucent and duplicating, -very soft, and not particularly difficultly frangible. It has been confounded with granular limestone. 4, Fibrous gvps is principally white, grey, and red, with various shades of each. It occurs massive and den- tiform, the internal lustre is usually glistening and pear- ly, commonly semi-transparent and translucent, very soft, and easily frangible. Fossils belonging to the gyps formation, occupy dif- ferent situations. They are found in Switzerland, Thu- ringia, Derbyshire, Cornwall, Moffat in Scotland, and other places. Gyps, when burnt, forms an excellent cement, and is used for many ornamental purposes. Nineteenth species. Selenite. Its principal colour is snow-white, passing into other neighbouring shades: is generally massive, but not un- frequently chrystallized in pretty oblique six-sided. prisms, the chrystals seldom large, but internally shin- ing and splendent. Fig. 24. Selenite is completely transparent, soft, somewhat flexible, not very frangible, and is found in the oldest gyps formation, in single chrystals in clay beds in the newest formation, and in other situations. It is common in Thu- ringia, at Montmartre near Paris, Shotover near Oxford, and in the isle of Sheppy. It is employed in taking the most delicate impressions, for crayons and other pur- poses. Twentieth species. Cube spar. The colour is milk-white with various allied shades. Itis massive, occurring in large, coarse, and small ground distinct concretions. The lustre is shining, passing into splendent, translucent, softish, very easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. It is found in salt rocks in Salz- bourg. To the calc genus are also referred phosphorite, which forms a great bed in the Estremadura in Spain; and the anhydrite, found in the duchy of Wirtemberg. Seventh genus. Baryte Genus. First species. Witherite'. Is commonly of a light yellowish-grey colour, general- ly massive, but sometimes chrystallized in six-sided prisms, or double six-sided pyramids. The lustre of the principal fracture is shining; the fragments gene- rally wedge-shaped. It is translucent, somewhat semi- hard, brittle, easily frangible, and pretty heavy. Figs* 25 and 26. It melts, without addition, before the blowpipe, into a white enamel, and occurs in veins along with heavy spar, lead-glance, &c. at Anglesark in Lancashire. Combined with muriatic acid, it may be used in medicine, though a very active poison of itself. Second species. Heavy spar or baryte. See Barytes. Eighth genus. Strontian genus. First species. Strontian. The usual colour is intermediate between asparagus and apple-green; it occurs most commonly massive, but sometimes chrystallized in a circular six-sided prism. The crystals are scopiformly and manipularly aggregat- ed. The lustre of the principal fracture is shining, of the cross fracture glistening. It is translucent in a greater or less degree, soft and semi-hard, brittle, easily frangible, dissolves in acids with effwycsccncc, and occurs along MINERALOGY. with lead-glartce, heavy spar, &c. at Strontian in Argyle- shire, the only place where it has yet been found. Second species. Celestine Is divided into two sub-species: 1. Fibrous celestine, is of an intermediate colour, be- tween indiga-blue and blueish-grey; it occurs massive and in plates, and also chrystallized, showing a tendency to prismatic distinct concretions; is translucent, soft or semi-hard, easily frangible, and pretty heavy. It is found in Pennsylvania and in France. 2. Foliated celestine, is of a milky-white colour, falling into blue; it occurs massive, and also chrystallized in eix-sided tables intersecting each other. It has a glisten- ing lustre, is strongly translucent, softish, not particu- larly brittle, easily frangible, and hard. It occurs some- times in sulphur beds, and is found very finely chrystal- lized in Sicily, and likewise near Bristol. Fig. 27. CLASS II. Fossil Salts. The substances included in this class are confined to those which are found in a natural state only; and the greater part of them appear to be formed by the agency of water, air, &c. The distinguishing characters of fossil salts are, their taste and easy solution. They resemble each other so closely, that the term saline consistence is used to express whatever relates to hardness, tenacity, and frangibility. First species. Natron, or Natural Soda. It may be divided into the two following sub-species: 1. Common natron, is of a yellowish or greyish-white colour, occurs in fine flakes or in dusty particles, has a sharp alkaline taste, effervesces with nitric acid, is easi- ly soluble in water, and strikes blue vegetable tinctures green. It occurs as an efflorescence in the surface of the soil, or on the sides and bottoms of lakes that occasional- ly become dry. It is found in very large quantities in Hungary, Bohemia, and Egypt; and in many other coun- tries of the Old World. 2. Radiated natron, or natural soda, is of a greyish or yellowish-white colour, occurs in crusts or chrystallized in capillary or acicular crystals, is glistening and translu- cent, and is found in large quantities in the province of Sukana in Barbary, and Southern Africa. Natron is principally employed in the manufacture of glass, soap, and for washing. It is also used as a flux after being purified. Second species. Natural nitre. The colour is greyish or yellowish-white, approaching to snow-white; it is flaky, sometimes verges to solid and massive, is of a saline consistence, and tastessaltly cool- ing. Placed on hot iron, it hisses and detonates; is usu- ally found in thin crusts on the surface ofthe soil at par- ticular seasons of the year, particularly in hot climates. It is also met with in various countries of Europe, and is much used in making gunpowder, in medicine, and the arts. The greatest part, however, employed for those purposes, is an artificial preparation from the refuse of animal and vegetable bodies undergoing putrefaction, and mixed with calcareous and other earth. Third species. Natural Rock-salt Is divided into two sub-species: 1. Rock or stone salt, which is of two kinds, foliated or fibrous. The former is commonly of a white or grey colour, occurs massive and disseminated; and also cryt- tallizcd in cubes; in general is trongly translucent, rather hard, easily frangible, and feels somewhat greasy. The latter is greyish, yellowish, and snow-white; occurs mas- sive, is strongly translucent, verging to semitransparent, decrepitates when laid on burning coals, and is found in beds lying over the first or oldest floetz trap formation. It forms whole hills at Codova in Spain, is found also in Germany, and almost every country in the world. At Nantwich in Cheshire it has long been dug. Its use ig as general as its dissemination. It is employed as a dai- ly seasoning for our food, as a manure, in various manu- factures, and for purposes too numerous to mention. 2. Lake-salt occurs eitlier in thin plates, which are formed on the surface of salt-lakes, or in grains at their bottom. It is translucent, and of a saline consistence. It is found in Cyprus, near the Caspian sea, and in various parts of Africa. Fourth species. Natural sal ammoniac The colour is commonly greyish or yellowish-white, It is of a saline consistence, and is flaky, with an urinous taste. It is sometimes found massive, stalactitic, tube- rose, botryoidal, and chrystallized. It is the product of volcanoes and pseudo-volcanoes, and is found in Italy, Sicily, in the vicinity of inflamed beds of coal both in England and Scotland, and in several countries of Asia. Fifth species. Natural Epsom salt. Colour a greyish-white. It occurs iu capillary ef- florescences, and is mealy or flaky, of a saline consis- tence, and tastes saltly bitter. It is found as an efflorescence on clayey stones or gyps rocks, at Sena, at Solfatara, in Hungary, and Bohemia. It is also contained in many mineral springs, particularly those of Epsom, whence it derives its name. Epsom salts are much used as an easy purgative. Considerable quantities of magnesia may be obtained from them. Sixth species. Natural Glauber salt. The colour is usually greyish and yellow ish-white. It occurs in the form of mealy efflorescences, in crusts, and sometimes crystallized in acicular and six-sided prisma- tic chrystals. Internally it is shining, with a vitreous lustre, is soft, brittle, easily frangible, and has a cooling but saltly bitter taste. It is found on the borders of salt-lakes, on moorish ground, on old and new-built walls in different countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is used as a purgative medicine, and in some places as a substitute for soda in the manufacture of white glass. Seventh species. Natural alum Is of a yellowish or greyish-white colour; occurs as a mealy efflorescence, or in delicate capillary crystals; has a sweetish astringent taste, and is produced in various situations in Scotland, Germany, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and in Egypt. Alum is employed as a mordant in dyeing, and in the manufacture of leather, as a medicine, for preventing wood from catching fire, and for preserving animal sub- stances frem putrefaction. Eighth species. Hair s(dt. The principal colours are snow, yellowish, and grey- ish-white. It occurs in delicate capillary crystals, has a saline consistence, and a sweetish astringent taste. Hair salt is found in different mine countries on tbe con- MINERALOGY. tinent, at Whitehaven in England, and near Paisley in Scotland, and bears a striking resemblance to fibrous Ninth species. Rock butter. The colour is light-yellow or greyish-white. It occurs massive and tuberose, is translucent, has a saline consis- tence, or sweetish-sour astringent taste, and feels a little greasy. It oozes out of fissures of rocks of alum slate, and is found in Lusatia, Thuringia, Denmark, Siberia, and near Paisley in Scotland. Tenth species. Natural vitriol Is divided into the three following sub-species: I. Iron vitriol, is commonly of an emerald and verdi- gris green. It occurs massive, tuberose, stalactitic, and chrystallized in different figures; is splendent and vitre- ous, has a saline consistence, and a sourish astringent taste. It is found usually along with iron pyrites, by the decomposition of which it is formed, in different countries of continental Europe, in many of the English mines, and in America. It is employed to dye linen yellow, and wool and silk black, in the preparation of ink, as a paint, kc. 2. Copper vitriol, is usually of a dark sky-blue colour. It occurs massive, disseminated, stalactitic, dentiform, and chrystallized; is translucent, soft, very brittle, and has a styptic taste. It is found in various mining coun- tries, in Wicklow, and in Anglesea. It is used in cotton and linen printing, and when prepared is employed by painters. 3. Zinc vitriol, is of a greyish, yellowish, reddish, and greenish-white colour. It occurs tuberose, stalactitic, and coralloidal, is translucent, of a saline consistence, and a styptic taste. It is produced most abundantly where much blend occurs, and is found in Austria, Hungary, and Sweden. Here it must be remarked, that borax, though so well known by name, is without a place in the Wernerian sys- tem, as it is uncertain whether or not it occurs in a solid state. It is most probable that it occurs only in solution in certain lakes. See Borax. The new genus stallite, of which only one species, cry- olite, has been found in Greenland, seems properly to come under this head. CLASS III. Inflammable Fossils. Fossils belonging to this class are light, brittle, most- ly opaque, yellow, brown, or black, seldom chrystalliz- fd, and never feel cold. They are more nearly al- lied to the metallic than to the earthy or saline classes. First Genus. Sulphur Genus. First species. Natural sulphur. It contains the two following sub-species: 1. Common natural, sulphur, is ofthe colour the name expresses, but of different degrees of intensity. It occurs massive, disseminated, and.chrystallized in^octahedrons or double six-sided pyramids, is internally between shin- ing and glistening, translucent, in chrystals frequently transparent, very soft, easily frangible, and hght. It is found in masses in gyps, in veins that traverse primitive rocks, in nests of lime-stone, and in other situ- ations, and is produced in every quarter of the world, though in the British dominions it seems to be confine" to Ireland. 2. Volcanic natural sulphur is of the colour the name imports, but with a considerable tinge of green. ltocui.s corroded, vesicular, perforated, amorphous, and some- times as a sublimate in flowers, is glistening and resinous, and translucent in a slight degree. It is found only in volcanic countries and among lava, but is produced in great abundance; and is employed in medicine, in the composition of gunpowder, and as a vapour in whitening wool and silk. Second Genus. Bituminous Genus. See Bitumens. First species. Brown Coal. See Coal. Fourth Genus. Graphite Genus. First species. Glance coal. This is divided into two sub-species. 1. Conchoidal glance coal, is of an iron-black col«ur, of different degrees of intensity, occurs massive and ve- sicular, internally shining, bordering sometimes on semi- hard, brittle, easily frangible, and light. It burns with- out flame or smell, and has hitherto been found only in the newest floetz mass formation, accompanied with oth- er kinds of coal, at Meissner in Hessia. The fracture is conchoidal. 2. Slaty glance coal, is of a dark iron-black colour, oc- curs massive, is shining and glistening, soft, very essily frangible, light, and intermediate between scctile and brittle. It is found imbeded in masses, beds, and veins, in primitive, transitive, and floetz rocks, and is produced in Spain, Savoy, Saxony, Bohemia, and in the isle of Arran in Scotland. Its principal fracture is more or less slaty. Second species. Graphite. This contains two sub-species: 1. Scaly graphite, is commonly of a dark steel-grey colour. It occurs massive and disseminated, is usually glistening, fracture scaly-foliated, is very soft, perfectly seetile, writes and soils, feels very greasy, and is rather difficultly frangible. 2. Compact graphite, is rather blacker than the pre- ceding, is internally glimmering with a metallic lustre, fracture fine-grained, in other respects agreeing with the preceding. It usually occurs in beds, and is found near Keswick in England, in Ayrshire in Scotland, and in va- rious other parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The finer kinds are first boiled in oil, and then cut into pencils. The coarser parts and sawings are melted with sulphur, and then cast into coarse pencils for the use of artificers. It is likewise applied to various other purposes, under the vulgor name of black lead. Third species. Mineral charcoal. The colour is a greyish-black. It occurs in small an- gular and somewhat cubical-shaped, pieces, is glimmer- ing, with a silky lustre, soils strongly, is soft, and light. It is found in thin layers in different kinds of coal, and is widely disseminated. Fifth Genus. Resin Genus. See Resins. First species. Amber. This is divided into the two following sub-species: 1. White amber, is of a straw-yellowish colour If uc MINERALOGY. curs massive, and sometimes associated with the follow- ing sub-species, is glistening with a resinous lustre, fracture conchoidal, and simply translucent. 2. Yellow amber, is of a wax-yellow colour, passing into several neighbouring shades. It occurs always in in- determinately angular blunt-edged pieces, is externally dull, internally splendent, with a vitreous and resinous lustre. It is transparent, soft, rather brittle, pretty ea- sily frangible, light, and swimming. It burns with a yel- low-coloured flame, cmiting an agreeable odour; when rubbed, it acquires a strong negative electrical virtue; is found in layers of bituminous wood, and in moor coal, on sandy sea-shores, and frequently floating on the sea. It is chiefly produced on the coast of Prussia, fn Swe- den, Norway, &c. and accordingto some, has been found in the alluvial land near London, [It is also frequently met with in the alluvial soil of New Jersey.] It admits •of^ fine polish, and is cut into necklaces, bracelets, snuff-boxes, and various other articles. The oil and acid obtained from it are used in medicine. Second species. Honey-stone. See Mellite. CLASS IV. Metallic Foffils. First, Platina Genus. First species. Native platina. The colour is very light steel-grey, approaching to .silver-white. It occurs in flat, smooth, and smallish grains, externally shining, lustre metallic, intermediate between semi-hard and soft, completely malleable, pretty flexible, and very heavy, its specific gravity being about 15.6. Platina is the least fusible of metals, and does not amalgamate with mercury. It has hitherto been found only in sand accompanied with other metals, and is produced in South America, and probably also in St. Domingo and Barbadoes. From the peculiar qualities it possesses of resisting the action of many salts, of remaining unal- tered in the air, and of receiving a fine polish, it has been rendered subservient to several purposes in chemis- try and the arts. See Platina. Second Genus. Gold. First species. Native gold. This is divided into three sub-species: 1. Gold-yellow native gold, is of a perfect colour, cor- responding to its name. It seldom occurs massive, often disseminated in membranes, in roundish and flatfish pieces, in grains, and also chrystallized in cubes, octa- hedrons, simple three-sided pyramids, garnet dodecahe- drons, and acute double eight-sided pyramids. External lustre of the chrystals is splendent; internally it is glim- mering, passing into glistening. It is soft, completely malleable, flexWe, and uncommonly heavy. It is found in veins, beds, disseminated in rocks, and in grains, in almost every country of the world, but commonly in too small quantities to he collected for use. America and Africa supply the largest quantities. 2. Brass-yellow native gold, is principally of the co- lour of brass, occurs disseminated, capillary, moss-like, reticulated, and in leaves, also chrystallized in thin six- sided cubes, and is rather lighter than the preceding. It is found in different situations in Bohemia, Transylva- nia, and Norway. 3. Greyish-yellow native gold, is of a brass-yellow colour falling into steel-grey, occurs in very small flattish grains like platina, and is found with that metal. Third Genus. Mercury, which see. First species. Native mercury, or quicksilver. The colour is tin-white; it occurs perfectly fluid in globules, is splendent, ami has a metallic lustre, does net wet, feels very cold, and is uncommonly heavy. Before the blow-pipe it is volatilized, without any smell. It [3 usually found in cinnabar at Idria. It occurs in a com- pact limestone, and here it is very abundant. It is like- wise produced in different parts of Germany, France, Spain, and in very large quantities in Peru. The uses «f quicksilver are multifarious, and cannot be enumerated in this place. Second species. Native amalgam. Fluid or semi-fluid amalgam is of an intermediate co- lour between tin and silver-white. It occurs in small massive pieces and in balls, also disseminated and chrys- tallized in different forms. Externally it is shining and splendent, is soft and somewhat fluid; when cut or press- ed, it emits a creaking sound like common amalgam, and is uncommonly heavy. Third species. Mercurial horn-ore, or corneous mercury, Is of an ash-grey colour, of various degrees of inten- sity; occurs very rarely massive, but commonly in small vesicles, internally chrystallized and splendent. It is soft, sectile, easily frangible, and heavy. It is usually found with the other species of mercury, and is produced in the same countries. It was first discovered in the mines of the Palatinate. Fourth species. Mercurial liver-ore, or mercurial hepatic-ore. Compact mercurial liver-ore, is of an intermediate co- lour between dark-red and lead-grey, occurs massive, is glistening and glimmering internally, opaque, soft, sec- tile, easily frangible, and uncommonly heavy. It is the most common ore of mercury at Friaul in Idria. Fifth species. Cinnabar. Dark-red cinnabar, is principally of a perfect cochineal red, occurs massive, disseminated, in blunt-cornered pieces, in membranes, amorphous, dendritic, fruticose, and chrystallized. The chrystals are small, splendent externally, and shining internally. The massive cinna- bar is opaque or translucent on the edges, very soft, sec- tile, easily frangible, and uncommonly heavy. Bright-red cinnabar is of a lively scarlet-red colour. It occurs massive and disseminated, is internally glim- mering, substance opaque, streak shining, soils, is very soft, sectile, very easily frangible, and very heavy. Both belong to the same countries with quicksilver. In Idria, Spain, and Peru, this genus is most abundant. It does not occur in Norway, Sweden, Great Britain, or Ireland. From the ore of cinnabar the greatest part of the mercury used in commerce is obtained. Fourth Genus. Silver. First species. Native Silver* Common native silver is of the colour the name expres- ses. It occurs massive, disseminated, in pieces, plates, and membranes, as well as in other forms, besides being chrystallized in cubes, octahedrons, four-sided rectangu- MINERALOGY, Iar prisms, double six-sided pyramids, double three- sided pyramids, and hollow four-sided pyramids. It is soft, perfectly malleable, common flexible, and very heavy when pure. It appears to belong to the newer primitive rocks, where it occurs in veins, and is usually accompa- nied with heavy spar and quartz. Second species. Antimonial silver. The colour is intermediate between tin-white and sil- ver-white. It occurs massive, disseminated, and chrys- tallized, is externally glistening, internally shining and splendent with a metallic lustre. It is found in coarse, small, and fine granular distinct concretions, is sectile, not very difficultly frangible, soft, and uncommonly hea- vy. It contains upwards of 80 parts of silver. It occurs in veins composed of calx, spar, &c. in Spain, Germany, and other countries. Third species. Arsenical silver. The colour is tin-white, passing into silver-white. It occurs massive, disseminated, globular, and chrystallized; is softish, sectile, and very heavy. It contains about 12 parts of silver, much arsenic and iron, and is usually found with native arsenic and other minerals in Germa- ny and Spain, but is a rare mineral. Fourth species. Corneous silver-ore, or horn-ore. The colour is most frequently a pearl-grey, of all de- grees of intensity. It occurs massive, disseminated, in membranes, balls, and also chrystallized in cubes and in acicular and capillary chrystals. It is more or less trans- lucent, soft, perfectly malleable, and heavy. It contains upwards of 60 parts of silver, and is found always in veins. It is widely distributed over the globe, but is most abundant in South America. It is sometimes found in Cornwall, and receives its name from cutting like horn. Fifth species. Silver-black. The colour is a blueish-black, whence its name. It occurs massive, disseminated, and in various other forms, of all degrees of consistence, from friable to solid. It gives a shining metallic streak, soils very little, is easi- ly frangible, sectile, and heavy. It is found with silver- glance and horn-ore in Hungary, Bohemia, Norway, and Siberia. Sixth species. Silver-glance Is of a dark-blackish lead-grey colour, occurs usually massive, disseminated, in membranes, &c. and also chrys- tallized in cubes, octahedrons, garnet dodecahedrons, and double eight-sided pyramids. Externally it is shining and glistening; internally it alternates from shining to glistening, and has a metallic lustre. It is soft, com- pletely malleable, pretty flexible, and uncommonly hea- vy, containing upwards of 80 parts of pure silver; and is found in veins, along with native silver and other mi- nerals, in Hungary, Austria, and other countries of Eu- rope, but more particularly in Mexico and Peru. Seventh species. Brittle silver-glance. The colour is intermediate between iron-black and dark lead-grey. It occurs massive, disseminated, in membranes, and frequently chrystallized in equiangular six-sided prisms, and rectangular four-sided tables. Ex- ternally it is highly splendent, internally shining and glistening. It is soft, brittle, easily frangible, and un- commonly heavy, containing upwards of 60 parts of sil- ver. It is found always in veins, accompanied with other minerals, and principally in Hungary and Saxony. VOL. II. 95 Eighth species. Red silver-ore. Dark-red silver-ore is intermediate between cochineal red and lead-grey. It occurs massive, disseminated, dendritic, iu membranes, and chrystallized in equiangu- lar six-sided prisms. It is externally splendent; inter- nally it alternates from shining to glimmering. Tbe massive varieties are opaque; the chrystallized passing from semi to transparent. It is soft, sectile, easily frau gible, and heavy. This species occurs always in veins, accompanied with other minerals, and is found in Bohemia, Hungary, Nor- way, and other countries. Ninth species. White silver-ore. The colour is a very light lead-grey. It occurs mas- sive and disseminated, has a metallic lustre, a shining streak, is soft, slightly flexible, easily frangible, and hea- vy. It contains large quantities of lead, sulphur, and antimony, and scarcely 10 parts of silver. It is always found in veins, and chiefly near Freybcrg. Tenth species. Black silver-ore. The principal colour is iron-black, inclining to steel- grey. It occurs massive, disseminated, and chrystallized in three-sided pyramids. Internally it is shining with a metallic lustre. It is semi-hard, sectile, easily frangible^ and heavy. Fifth Genus. Copper, which see. First species. Native copper. The colour is copper-red, but frequently tarnished. It occurs massive, disseminated, and in various other forms, besides being chrystallized in cubes, dodecahedrons, &c. It is intermediate between semi-hard and soft, completely malleable, common flexible, difficultly frangible, and very heavy. It is usually found in veins and sometimes in beds, and is produced in Cornwall, Anglesea, the Shetland islands, and many other countries of Europe, Asia, and America. Copper may be applied to a vast number of useful purposes, aud is next to iron the most necessary of metals. Second species. Copper-glance. Compact copper-glance is usually of a dark lead-co- lour, passing into blackish-grey. It occurs massive, disseminated, in membranes, and occasionally chrystal- lized; externally shining, internally between shining and glistening. It is soft, perfectly sectile, easily frangible} and heavy. Third species. Variegated copper-ore. Its colour, when dug, is intermediate between copper- red and pinchbeck-brown, but it soon becomes tarnished. It occurs massive, disseminated in plates, membranes, and chrystallized in octahedrons. It is soft, slightly sectile, easily frangible, and heavy; and is found in beds, veins, and rocks of different formations, in Cornwall, and various parts of continental Europe. It yields about 70 parts of pure copper. Fourth species. Copper-pyrites. When fresh, its colour is brass-yellow, of different shades according to its richness. It occurs massive, disseminated in membranes, kc. and also chrystallized in various figures. Externally it is intermediate between glistening and shining, internally soft; is between semi- hard and soft, brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. Fifth species. White cop] r-ore Is of an intermediate colour between ailver-wlute and MINERALOGY. bronze-yelloXv: ocrurs massive and disseminated; is in- ternally glistening, with a metallic lustre; rather soft, brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. It is found in veins and mineral beds in primitive mountains, and is produced in Cornwall, in different parts of Germany, in Siberia, and in South America; but it is one of the rarest species of copper-ore. Sixth species. Grey copper-ore, or Fahl-ore. The most common colour is steel-grey: it occurs mas- sive, disseminated, and also chrystallized in tetrahedrons. octahedrons, and garnet dodecahedrons. It is more or less semi-hard, brittle, easily frangible, and heavy; and is found in the newer primitive rocks, and likewise in transitive and floetz rocks, in several mines of Cornwall, in Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway, Siberia, and Chili. Itis usually smelted on account of the copper it contains. Seventh species. Copper-black. The colour is usually intermediate between blueish and brownish-black: it occurs massive, or disseminated, and as a coating, to other ores of copper; is always more or less cohering, and heavy, containing from 40 to 50 parts of copper. It is usually found with copper pyrites, &c. and is produced in Silesia, Germany, France, Sweden, Norway, and Siberia. Sometimes it is very beautiful. Eighth species. Red copper-ore. Compact red copper is usually of a dark cochineal-red colour: occurs massive, in membranes, crowded, amor- phous, and also disseminated. Internally it is glimmer- ing, inclining to glistening, with a semi-metallic lustre: it is opaque, semi-hard, brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. Ninth species. Tile-ore. Earthy tile ore is usually of a red hyacinth colour; massive, disseminated, and incrusting copper pyrites; is intermediate between friable and solid, soils slightly, is almost always coherent, and is heavy. It is found in veins, commonly accompanied with native copper ore and malachite. Tenth species. Copper azure. Earthy copper azure is of a smalt-blue colour; usually friable, and disseminated; is composed of dusty particles, does not soil, is chiefly cohering, and approaches to heavy. It is found in small quantities, usually accom- panied with malachite and copper green, in different parts of Germany, in Norway, and Siberia. Eleventh species. Malachite, which see. Twelfth species. Copper green. The principal colour is verdigris-green, of different degrees of intensity: it usually occurs massive, dissemi- nated, and coating malachite; is internally shining; more or less translucent, soft, not very brittle, easily frangi- ble, and intermediate between heavy and not particularly heavy. It is found in the same geognostic situation with malachite, in Cornwall and other countries, but is rare. Thirteenth species. Iron-shot copper green. Earthy iron-shot copper green is usually of an olive- green colour: occurs massive, and disseminated; is dull, soils a little, soft, passing into friable, not very brittle* easily frangible, and not particularly heavy. Fourteenth species. Copper emerald. The colour is an emerald-green.. It occurs in chrystal- Kzed six-sided prisms, which are externally and inter- nally shining, with a vitreous lustre, and translucent. It Tta semi-hard^ brittle; and not particularly heavy,* and ii found in the remoter parts of the Russian dominions, anil on the Chinese frontiers. Fifteenth species. Copper mka Is usally of an emerald-green colour: it occurs mas- sive, disseminated, and occasionally chrystallized in very thin six-sided tables. Externally it is smooth and splendent, internally splendent with a pearly lustre. The massive varieties are translucent; the chrystallized transparent. It is soft, sectile, not very brittle, nor particularly heavy; and has hitherto been found only in veins in Cornwall, where it passes under the unscientific name of foliatic arseniat of copper. Sixteenth species. Lenticular-ore. The colour is sky-blue, sometimes passing into verdi- gris-green. It occurs chrystallized in small, flat, double, four-sided pyramids; is externally shining; translucent, soft, rather brittle, and very easily frangible, Hitherto it has been found only in Cornwall. Seventeenth species. Oliven-ore. Foliated oliven ore is of a perfect olive-green: seldom occurs massive, usually in drusy crusts, and in small chrystals, presenting acute rhomboids, and oblique four- sided prisms. Internally it is glistening, with an adaman- tine lustre. It is very soft, sectile, and heavy in a low degree; and has hitherto been found only in Cornwall. Sixth Genus. Iron. First species. Native iron . Is of a light steel-grey colour, inclining to silver white: it has hitherto been found only ramose; internally it is intermediate between glimmering and glistening, with a perfect metallic lustre, and a hackly fracture. It is be- tween soft and semi-hard, perfectly malleable, common flexible, difficulty frangible, and uncommonly heavy. Hitherto it has been found only in loose masses on the- surface of the earth, and is a rare production. Second species. Iron pyrites. Common iron pyrites is usually of a perfect bronze-- yellow colour: it occurs massive, disseminated, in mem- branes, and also chrystallized in cubes, octahedrons, do- decahedrons, icosahedrons, and leuzite chrystals. It is hard, brittle, and heavy, and when rubbed or struck with steel, emits a strong sulphureous smell. It occurs in almost every kind of mineral repository, but most com- monly in granite: its geographic distribution is equally extensive, but it is principally valued on account ofthe sulphur which may be extracted from it by sublimation. Third species. Magnetic pyrites Is of an intermediate colour between bronze-yellow and copper-red: it occurs massive and disseminated; is internally shining, with a metallic lustre, passes from hard to semi-hard, is brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. It is attracted by the magnet; is found only in primitive mountains, in Caernarvonshire, in several parts of Ger- many, in Norway, and Siberia; and is used for the same purposes as common pyrites. Fourth species Magnetic iron stone. Common magnetic iron-stone is of an iron-black co- lour: is massive, disseminated, and also chrystallized in cubes, octahedrons, and garnet dodecahedrons, and rec- tangular four-sided prisms. It is externally shining; internally between splendent and glistening, with a me- tallic lustre: is intermediate between hard and semi-hard, brittle, and heavy. It occurs most frequently in primi- tive mountains, and is found in the Shetiands, many parts MINERALOGY. of Germany, and other countries particularly Sweden. When pure it affords excellent bar iron. Fifth species. Iron glance. Common iron glance is usually of a dark steel-grey colour, with several different shades. It commonly occurs massive and disseminated, and also chrystallized in flat, double, three-sided pyramids, and in double three-sided pyramids. Externally it alternates from splendent to glistening; internally it is most commonly glistening. It is hard, brittle, heavy, and rather difficultly frangible. It occurs in beds and veins in primitive and transitive mountains, and is found in considerable quantities in Sweden and other countries, and affords, when smelted, an excellent malleable iron. Sixth species. Red iron-stone. Red iron froth. The colour is intermediate between clierry-red and brownish-red. It occurs commonly fria- ble, massive, sometimes coating and disseminated, and is composed of scaly particles, which arc glimmering, and have a semi-metallic lustre. It soils strongly, feels greasy, and is pretty heavy. It is found usually in veins, and I'hiefly in primitive mountains in Lancashire, Cornwall, Norway, Germany, and Chili, and produces good iron. Seventh species. Brown iron-stone. Brown iron froth is of an intermediate colour between steel-grey and clove-brown, and is between friable and .solid. It occurs massive, coating, spumous, &c. and is composed of scaly particles, shining and glistening, with a metallic lustre. It soils strongly, feels greasy, and is very light. It is commonly found lining drusy cavities, in brown hematite, in the Shetland isles, in various parts of Germany, and in Chili. Eighth species. Sparry iron-stone. The principal colour is a light yellowish-grey, which, on exposure to the air or heat, changes into brown or black. It occurs massive, disseminated, with pyramidal impressions, in plates, and chrystallized. It is found in granular distinct concretions, commonly translucent on the edges, semi-hard, not very brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. It is chiefly confined to the primitive and floetz mountains, and is produced in small quantities in England, Scotland, and Ireland; but on the continent it is in some places very abundant, and affords an iron which is excellently adapted for steel-making. Ninth species. Black-stone. Compact black iron-stone, is of an intermediate co- lour between blueish-black, and dark steel-grey: it oc- curs massive, tuberose, reniform, &c. is semi-hard, brit- tle, easily frangible, and heavy. Tenth species. Clay iron-stone. Reddle is of a light brownish-red, passing into cherry- red: it occurs only massive; soils strongly, and writes, is sectile, easily frangible, and rather heavy. It is chiefly found in the newer clay-slate, and is produced pretty abundantly in Germany and Siberia. The coarser varie- ties are used by the carpenter, the finer by the painter, under the name of red-chalk. Eleventh species. Bog iron-ore. Morass ore is of a yellow-brown colour, sometimes friable, sometimes coherent, and occurs massive, corrod- ed, in grains, and tuberose. It soils pretty strongly, feels ineagre but fine, and is lightish. Twelfth species. Blue iron- arth. When fresh it is whitish, but soon becomes of an indi- go-blnc colour, of different degrees of intensity; it oc- curs massive, disseminated, and thinly coating; the par- ticles are dull and dusty; it soils slightly, feeis fine, and is lightish. It is found in nests in clay-beds, and other situations, in the Shetland isles, Iceland, Sweden, and Siberia. [This mineral is found in indurated masses, some of which are susceptible of a very fine polish, in tho neighbourhood of Ailenstown, New Jersey.] Thirteenth species. Green iron-earth. Friable green iron-earth is of a siskin-green colour, occurs massive and disseminated, is more or h-ss coher- ing, soft, fine, easily frangible, and intermediate between particularly heavy and heavy. Fourteenth species. Cube-ore. The colour is olive-green, of different degrees of in- tensity', it occurs massive, and chrystallized in s,%>all cubes, is translucent, soft, brittle, and not particului heavy. It is found in veins, but hitherto only in Corn wall. Seventh Genus. Lead. First species. Lead glance. Common lead glance is of a fresh lead-grey colour, of different degrees of intensity; it occurs massive, dissemi nated, in membranes, kc and also chrystallized in cubes, octahedrons, four-sided prisms, six-sided prisms, an i three-sided tables. It is soft, sectile, externally easily frangible, and uncommonly heavy; and is found in veins and beds in primitive, transitive, and floetz mountains, at lead-hills in Lanarkshire, Derbyshire, and several other counties of England, Scotland, and Wales; be- sides being widely diffused over other parts of the globe. It is most frequently worked as an ore of lead, but some- times as an ore of silver. Second species. Blue lead-ore. It is of an intermediate colour between dark indigo- blue and lead-grey; it occurs massive, and chrystallized in perfect siz-sided prisms, is soft, sectile, easily frangi- ble, and heavy, and is found in veins with other minerals ofthe same class, but is altogether a rare fossil, nor has it hitherto been discovered in Britain. Third species. Brown lead-ore Is of a hair-brown colour of different degrees of inten- sity, it occurs massive, and chrystallized in six-sided prisms, is feebly translucent, soft, not very brittle, easily frangible, and intermediate between heavy and uncom- monly heavy. It is found in veins, accompanied with other minerals, in Bohemia, Hungary, Erittany, and Saxony. Fourth species. Black lead-ore. The colour is greyish-black, of different degrees of intensity; it occurs massive, disseminated, and chrys- tallized in six-sided prisms; externally is usually splen- dent, internally shining with an adamantine lustre, isra» ther brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. It is found in veins, and almost always accompanied with other kinds of lead-ore, at lead-hills in Scotland, in Bohemia, Saxo- ny, and other mineral countries. Fifth species. White lead-ore. The colour is white, but has various shades; it oc- curs massive, disseminated, in membranes, but most com- monly chrystallized in prisms and pyramids, of different MINERALOGY. figures. Externally, it is specular splendent; internally between splendent and glistening, with an adamantine lus- tre. It is soft, brittle, very easily frangible, and heavy, and is found in most places where the other species occur, in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, kc Next to lead glance it is the most common of the lead ores, but is sel- dom in sufficient abundance to become an object to the metallurgist. Sixth species. Green lead-ore. Its colour is grass-green, of various shades; it gene- rally occurs chrystallized, in six-sided prisms, is always translucent, soft, rather brittle, very easily frangible, and heavy. It is produced in Scotland and otlier coun- tries, and is sometimes confounded with the preceding species. Seventh species. Red lead-ore. Its general colour is a hyacinth-red; it occurs massive but rarely, sometimes in membranes, but most common- ly chrystallized in broad oblique four-sided prisms, is both externally and internally splendent, very soft, be- tween brittle and sectile, easily frangible, and heavy. It Is found in veins in gneiss and mica slate, accompanied with other fossils of the same kind, in Austria, Savoy, and Siberia, and on account of its beautiful colour is chiefly used as a pigment. Eighth species. Fellow lead-ore. Its principal colour is wax-yellow; it is generally chrystallized in rectangular four-sided tables, cubes, oc- tahedrons, equiangular eight-sided tables, and double eight-sided pyramids. Externally, it is shining and smooth, internally glistening, with a resinous lustre; it is translucent, soft, between brittle and sectile, easily fran- gible, and heavy. It is found in compact lime-stone in Carinthia, and some other countries of the continent. Ninth species. Lead vitriol, or vitriol of lead. The colour is yellowish-grey and greyish-white; it oc- curs only chrystallized in octahedrons of different figures. Externally it is shining, internally splendent, with an adamantine lustre. It is often semi-transparent; rather brittle, and heavy, and is found in Scotland, An- gleseaj and Spain. Tenth species. Lead earth. Coherent lead earth is usually of a yellowish-grey co- lour; it occurs massive, is internally glimmering, usually opaque, soft, inclining to sectile, easily frangible, and heavy. It is found in primitive lime-stone in Derbyshire. Scotland, and many other countries. Eighth Genus. Tin. First species. Tin pyrites. The colour is intermediate between steel-grey and brass-yellow; it occurs massive and disseminated. In- ternally is glistening, and has a metallic lustre, is semi- hard, brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. It melts easi- ly, and has hitherto been found only in Cornwall, Second species. Tin-stone. The most common colour is blackish-brown; it occurs massive, disseminated, in rolled pieces, and grains, like sand, but most frequently chrystallized in prisms and pyramids of different figures. Internally it is shining and glistening, it yields a greyish-white streak, is hard, easily frangible, brittle, and very heavy. It is found on- ly in primitive rocks, and is confined to a few situations, like all the tin genus, Third species. Cornish tin-ore, or wood tin. The most usual colour is hair-brown, of different de- grees of intensity; it occurs usually in rolled pieces, sometimes reniform with impressions. It is found usually in large and coarse granular distinct concretions, is opaque, hard, brittle, easily frangible, and uncommonly heavy. It is infusible, and hitherto has only been found in Cornwall in alluvial land, accompanied with tin stone. Ninth Genus. Bismuth. First species. Native bismuth. Its colour is silver-white, with an inclination to red; it occurs massive, disseminated in leaves, reticulated, and chrystallized in small four-sided tables, and in small and indistinct cubes, and three-sided pyramids. It is soft, sectile, and rather difficultly frangible, and uncommonly heavy; and is found in veins in primitive mountains in Saxony, and other parts ofthe continent; but is, doubtful if produced in Britain. [It has been recently discovered in Connecticut.] Second species. Bismuth-glance. The colour is a light lead-grey; it occurs massive, dis- seminated, and in circular and capillary chrystals; it soils, inclines to sectile, is easily frangible, and heavy. It is found always in veins, and is usually accompanied with native bismuth, chiefly in Saxony, Bohemia, and * Hungary. Third species. Bismuth-ochre. The colour is a straw-yellow, passing into other neigh- bouring shades; it is massive and disseminated, opaque, soft, not very brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. This mineral is rare, and seems to be confined to a few places in Saxony and Bohemia. Tenth genus. Zinc. First species. Blende. Yellow blende is of a dark wax and sulphur-yellow colour; it usually occurs massive and disseminated, but is sometimes chrystallized in rectangular four-sided prisms; it is shining and splendent both externally and internal- ly, with an adamantine lustre; is found in large and coarse granular distinct concretions, is usually translu- cent, semi-hard, brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. It phosphoresces when rubbed in the dark; occurs most fre- quently in transitive mountains in Bohemia, and other parts of Germany. Second species. Calamine. The general colour is yellowish-grey, which passes in- to other neighbouring shades; it occurs, massive, dissem- inated, cellular, corroded, kc and chrystallized in ta- bles, cubes, pyramids, and prisms. Externally the chrys- tals are splendent and shining; internally, between shin- ing and glimmering. It is usually found in small and fine granular distinct concretions, is semi-hard, not very brit- tle, rather difficulty frangible, and heavy; and is produc- ed in beds in a floetz limestone formation, accompanied with iron-ochre, lead^glance, &c. It is met with in all the mine countries of England and Scotland, in Germany, and other parts ofthe continent; and when purified and roasted, is used for the fabrication of brass, which is a compound of zinc and copper. [A red oxyd of zinc has been lately discovered in Sus- sex county, New-Jersey, by Dr. Archibald Bruce. It oc- curs abundantly in several of the iron mines of Sussex; and in the manufacture of brass possesses advantages MINERALOGY. over the "ores generally used for that purpose. See Bbuce's Journal, p. 96.] Eleventh Genus. Antimony. First species. Native antimony. The colour is perfect tin-white: it occurs massive, dis- leminated, reniform, and probably chrystallized; in the fresh fracture it is splendent, and has a metallic lustre. It is found usually in coarse, small, and fine granular distinct concretions, is soft, sectile, easily frangible, and heavy in a low degree. It is produced in veins in Dau- phiny and in the Harz, and disseminated in calx-spar in Westermanriland, in Sweden; but is a rare mineral. Second species. Grey antimony-ore. Compact grey antimony-ore is usually of a light lead- grey colour, occurs massive, disseminated, and occasion- ally in membranes; internally is shining and glistening with a metallic lustre, is soft, not very heavy, easily frangible,.soils, and becomes more shining in the streak. It is found in Sweden and some other countries, but is the rarest sub-species. Third species. Black antimony-ore ' Is of an iron-black colour, occurs only chrystallized in rectangular four-sided tables, is internally shining with a metallic lustre; is soft, rather sectile, and heavy. In Cornwall itis found of peculiar beauty. Fourth species. Red antimony-ore. Its colour is cherry-red; it occurs massive, often in membranes, but most frequently in delicate capillary chrystals; both externally and internally it is shining, and has an adamantine lustre. It is found in coarse, small, and longish granular distinct concretions, is opaque, not very brittle, and easily frangible; but is a very rare species. Fifth species. White antimony-ore. It passes in colour from snow-white to several neigh- bouring shades; occurs massive and in membranes oc- casionally, but most commonly chrystallized in rectangu- lar four-sided tables, cubes, and acicular and capillary chrystals. It is found in coarse and small granular dis- tinct concretions, is translucent, soft, rather sectile and heavy. Before the blowpipe, it becomes wholly volatil- ized. It is found in veins in Bohemia, Hungary, and Sax- ony. Sixth species. Antimony-ochre. The colour is a straw yellow, of various degrees of intensity; it seldom occurs massive and disseminated, but usually as a coating on chrystals of grey antimony ore. It is dull, soft, not very brittle, nor particularly heavy. It is found always in veins, in different parts of Germany, and is evidently found by the decomposition of grey antimony ore. Twelfth Genus. Cobalt. First species. White cobalt-ore.- When fresh fractured the colour is usually tin-white; it occurs massive, disseminated, &c. and also chrystal- lized in cubes and double four-sided pyramids. It is found in coarse, small, and fine granular distinct con- cretions; is semi-hard, brittle, not very difficultly frangi- ble, and heavy. It easily melts before the blowpipe, emits a strong arsenical smell, and yields a white metal- lie globule. It usually occurs in beds in primitive moun- tains, and is found in Sweden, Norway, and Silesia. Second species. Grey eobali-ore. On the fresh fracture its colour is light steel-grey in- clining to white, but it becomes tarnished by exposure; it occurs only massive, disseminated, tubiform aud spe- cular; internally it is glimmering or glistening, with a metallic lustre, is found in thick and curved lamellar dis- tinct concretions, and is produced in Cornwall, Norway, and various other countries. Third species. Cobalt-glance. The colour is a silver-white, slightly inclining to red- dish: it is commonly massive and disseminated, some- times chrystallized in different forms; is externally splendent, internally between shining and glistening, and has a metallic lustre. It is semi-hard, brittle, not very easily frangible; and when struck with steel, emits an arsenical smell. It is found in veins in various forma- tions, in the different mine countries of the continent of Europe; and from it the greatest part of the cobalt in commerce is obtained, which is highly useful in the manufacture of glass, and as a paint. Fourth species. Black cobalt-ore. Earthy black cobalt ore is of an intermediate colour between brownish and blueish-black, is composed of dull, dusky particles, which soil a little, usually cohering, streak shining, and very light. Fifth species. Brown cobalt-ochre Is of a liver-brown colour, passing sometimes into other neighbouring shades; it occurs massive and dis- seminated, is internally dull, soft, sectile, easily frangi- ble, and light; and appears to be peculiar to the floetz mountains in some parts of Germany and Spain. Sixth species. Yellow cobalt-ochre. Is usually of a dirty straw-yellow, occurs massive, fre- quently much bursten and corroded; it is internally dull, streak shining, soft, and rather friable, sectile, oasily frangible, and light. It is the rarest species of cobalt ore, but most valued on account of its purity. Seventh species. Red cpbalt-ochrc. Cobalt crust is of a peach blossom-red colour, of dif- ferent degrees of intensity, occurs most frequently in velvety drusy coatings, and disseminated, is feebly glimmering, bordering on dull, scarcely soils, has a shining streak, and is very soft and light. Thirteenth Genus. Nickel. First species. Copper-nickel. Is of a red copper-colour of different degrees of inten- sity; it occurs usually massive and disseminated, is in- ternally glistening, and has a metallic lustre. It is usual- ly unseparatcd; sometimes, however, it is found in coarse and small granular distinct concretions, is semi-hard in a high degree, brittle, not very easily frangible, and heavy. Before the blowpipe it emits an arsenical smell and odour, and afterwards melts, though with difficulty. It is found in Cornwall, Norway, and many other coun- tries, and is nearly allied to cobalt. Second species. Nickel-ochre Is of an apple-green colour, occurs always as a coating or efflorescence, is composed of dull dusty particles, loose, or little cohering, feels meagre, and is light. It is found in the same situations with the preceding specie i. It is not certain that native nickel has yet been discovered, though it is mentioned by some mineralogists. MINERALOGY. Fourteenth Gkjtos. Manganese. First species. Grey manganese-ore. Radiated grey manganese ore is of a dark steel-grey colour, occurs massive, disseminated, and chrystallized iu prisms of different varieties. It is found in coarse, large, and small granular, distinct concretions; soils strongly when rubbed, is soft, brittle, rather difficultly frangible, and not particularly heavy. It is produced in several counties of England and Scotland, and in differ- ent parts of Germany. Second species. Black mangancse-oi'e. Is of an intermediate colour between brownish-black and dark greyish-black, occurs massive, disseminated, and in octahedral chrystals. It is found in small and fine granular concretions; is opaque, semi-hard, brittle, and heavy; but is a rare mineral, and hitherto found only in a few places of Germany and Spain. Third species. Red manganese-ore Is of a light rose-red colour, occurs massive and dis- seminated, is internally dull', translucent in a slight de- gree, hard, brittle, easily frangible, and heavy. It is found in veins in Norway, France, and some other countries. Fifteenth Genus. Molybdena. First species. Molybdena. Its colour is a fresh burning lead-grey; it occurs usu- ally massive and disseminated, but also chrystallized in six-sided tables, and short six-sided prisms; internally it is splendent, the fracture perfectly foliated, and is found in large and coarse granular distinct concretions. It soils a little, is very soft, easily frangible, its thin leaves common flexible, sectile, feels greasy, and is hea- vy. It is one of the oldest of metals, and occurs only in primitive mountains, disseminated, or in veins; and is produced in Norway, Sweden, Bohemia, and other coun- tries. Sixteenth Genus. Arsenic. t First species. Native arsenic. When fresh broken it is of a light whitish lead-grey colour, but it speedily tarnishes: it occurs" massive, dis- seminated, reniform in plates, with various impressions. It is found in thin, curved, lamellar, distinct concretions; in the streak it becomes shining aud metallic, semi-hard in a high degree, very easily frangible, and between sec- tile anil malleable. It occurs only in primitive moun- tains, and in veins of a newer formation, and is found in various parts of Germany, in France, and in Chili. Second species. Arsenic pyrites. Common arsenic pyrites is, when fresh, of a silver- white colour, hut soon acquires a yellowish tarnish; it occurs massive, disseminated, and also in chrystals of various figures. Internally, it is shining, with a metal- lic lustre; and is found usually unseparated, is hard, brittle, not easily frangible, and heavy. It occurs only in primitive mountains and in beds, and is produced in Norway, Germany, and Siberia. From this ore the white oxide of arsenic is principally obtained. Third species. Orpiment. Red orpiment is of an aurora-colour, of different de- grees of intensity: it occurs massive, disseminated in membranes, and also chrystallized in oblique four-sided and six-sided prisms. It is translucent, but the chrystals are transparent, is very soft, yields a lemon or orange- col u red streak, and is easily frangible. It is found bofli in primitive and floetz montains, and is produced in Ocr many, France, Italy, and the West Indies. It is used as a pigment. Yellow orpiment is of a perfect lemon-yellow colour, occurs massive, and in very minute chrystals, is found in large, coarse, and small angular granulated distinct con- cretions, is translucent, very soft, sectile, and common flexible. It occurs principally in floetz mountains, and in several parts of Germany and the East. Fourth species. Arsenic-bloom. The colour is a reddish-white and snow-white: it oc- curs as a coating, in small balls, &c. and in very deli- cate capillary shining chrystals, is translucent on the edges, very soft, easily frangible, and soils. It is pro- duced in rents of a granite rock, and hitherto has only been discovered in«Swabia. Seventeenth Genus. Scheele.* First species. Tungsten. The colour is usually yellowish a||d greyish-white, whicli pass into several other neighbouring shades; it oc- curs massive, disseminated, and frequently chrystallized. Internally it is shining, with a vitreous lustre; is more or less translucent, soft, not very brittle, and uncommon. ly heavy. It is found in primitive mountains, and be* longs to the oldest metalliferous formations, and is pro- duced in Cornwall, Sweden, Saxony, and Bohemia. Second species. Wolfram Is of an intermediate colour between dark greyish- black, and brownish-black; it occurs massive, and also chrystallized in broad six-sided prisms, and rectangular four-sided tables; and is found in fortification-wise curved lamellar distinct concretions. Itis opaque, yields a red- dish-brown streak, is soft, brittle, and uncommonly heavy. It is produced in the primitive mountains, almost always accompanied with tin, in Cornwall, and some other coun- tries. Eighteenth Genus. Mcnachine. First species. Menachanite Is of a greyish-black colour, inclining to iron-black, occurs only in small flattish angular grains. Internally is glistening, with an adamantine lustre, is perfectly opaque, soft, brittle, retains its colour in the streak, is easily frangible, and moderately heavy. It is attractable by the magnet, and is found in Cornwall, accompanied by fine quartz-sand, in the isle of Providence in America, and at Botany Bay. Second species. Octrahcdrite. Its colour passes from indigo-blue to many other shades; it occurs only chrystallized, and that in very acute octa- hedrons. It is chiefly translucent, and semi-transparent, semi-hard, brittle, and borders on heavy. It is found in Dauphiny, and appears from accurate experiments to be an oxide of nienachine mixed with silica. Third species. Rutile Is of a dark blood-red colour, of various degrees of in- tensity; it occurs always chrystallized in four-sided and six-sided prisms, and also in compressed acicular and capillary chrystals. Externally it is shining, internally splendent, translucent in a slight degree, hardish, easily frangible, and not very heavy. It is found imbedded in dru- sy cavities of granite, kc in different parts of Germany, * So called in honour ofthe illustrious Scheele. MINERALOGY. France, Spain, Siberia, and South Carolina, [and imbed- ded in primitive limestone in Chester county, Pennsyl- vania.] Fourth species. Nigrine Is of a dark brownish-black colour, passing to velvet- black; it occurs in larger and smaller angular grains, and iu rolled pieces. Externally moderately glittering, internally the same, with an adamantine lustre, is opaque, ^emi-bard, brittle, and yields a yellowish-brown streak. It is found in alluvial hills in several parts of Germany, and also in Ceylon. Fifth species. Iserine Is of an iron-black colotr, somewhat inclining to brown- ish-black; it occurs usually in small obtuse angular grains, and in rolled pieces, internally glistening, with a semi- metallic lustre, is completely opaque, hard, brittle, and retains its colour in the streak. Hitherto it has been found only in the stream called Iser in Germany, from which it receives its appellation. It bears a great re- semblance to iron-sand. Nineteenth Genus. Uran. First species. Pitch-ore Is usually of a velvet-black colour; it occurs almost al- ways massive and disseminated. Internally is shining, soft, brittle, uncommonly heavy, and completely infusible without addition. It is found in veins of primitive moun- tains along with lead and silver ores, and is produced in Saxony and Norwray. Second species. Uran miea. The principal colour is a grass-green, passing into va- rious allied shades; it occurs sometimes in membranes, but commonly chrystallized in rectangular four-sided tables. Tlfe fracture is foliated, the fragments and dis- tint concretions are too minute to be determined. It is more or less translucent, soft, sectile, easily frangible, and is found in iron-stone veins in Corvvall, Saxony, and France. Third species* Uran Ochre. Friable uran ochre is usually of a straw-yellow colour: it generally occurs as a coating or efflorescence on pitch- ore; is friable, and composed of dull dusty particles, which feel meagre, and are not particularly heavy. Indurated uran-ore is of the same colour as the pre- ceding: occurs massive and disseminated, is generally dull, internally opaque, soft, brittle, and soils a little, and is found along with tbe other ores of uran. Twentieth Genus. Sylvan. First species. Native Sylvan Is of an intermediate colour between white and silver- white: occurs massive and disseminated, and also chrys- tallized in four and six-sided prisms, and in small three- sided pyramids, in cubes, and in short acicular chrystals. It is soft, not very brittle, easily frangible, and heavy; and before the blowpipe melts as easily as lead, burning with alight green colour, and emitting a sharp, disagree- able odour. Hitherto it has only been found at Face-bay, ui Transvlvania. Second species. Graphic-ore. Its colour is a light steel-grey: it occurs massive and chrystallized; externally is splendent, internally glisten- ing. When massive, it shows a tendency to fine granu- lar concretions: it is soft, brittle, sectile, and heavy, and is worked as an ore of gold in Transylvania, where alone it has yet been found. Third species. Fellow Sylvan-Ore Is of a silver-white colour, inclining to brass-yellow. it occurs disseminated and chrystallized in very small and rather broad four-sided prisms; is soft, rather sectile, arid uncommonly heavy. It is found along w ith the other species ofthe genus, and contains a considerable portion both of gold and silver. Fourth species. Black Sylvan-Ore Is an intermediate colour between iron-black and blackish lead-grey: it occurs massive, and in small, thin, and longish six-sided tables, which are usually imbedded. Externally it is splendent; internally shining, soils a lit- tle, is very soft, sectile, splits easily, and in thin leaves is common flexible. It melts easily before the blowpipe; occurs in veins along with other minerals, but is qnly found in Transylvania, where it is worked for the gold and silver it contains. Twenty-first Genus. Chrome. First Species. Acicular or Needle-owe. Its colour is dark steel-grey: occurs in imbedded acicu- lar chrystals: internally shines with a metallic lustre, is soft, not very brittle, heavy, and is alw ays accompanied with chrome ochre, and sometimes with native gold. It is found in Siberia. Second Species. Chrome Ochre Is of a verdigris-green, passing thro ugh several neigh- bouring shades: it occurs massive, disseminated, and in membranes; is dull, soft, not very heavy, and is found with the preceding species. Having already extended this article to a greater length than was intended, in order that we might be able to give a satisfactory view of the beautiful system of Werner, we shall only subjoin the names of some other minerals, which either have not been regularly classed, or are but recently discovered, and therefore have nut been accu- rately investigated: these are Earthy fossils, foliated prehnite, schmelzstein, spodu- mene, meionite, somnite, glassy felspar, spinthere, metal- lic fossils, pitchy iron ore, gadolinite, copper sand or muriate of copper, phosphat of copper, corneous lead ore, rcniform lead ore, bournonite, columbite, tantalitc,ytter- tantalite. To which may be added loisite, needle or acicular- stone, fisfl eye-stone, iron-clay, figure-stone, granular ac- tynolite, dolomite, foliated celestine and it varieties, sil- ver black with its sub-species. explanation of PLATE II. Fig. 1. The Icosahedron. 2. The Dodecahedron. The Hexahedron, as S. Cube. 4. Rhomb, 5. Rectangular tetrahedral prism. 6. Oblique-angular tetrahedral prism. 7. Oblique-angular tetrahedral prism, in which the terminal planes are set obliquely on the lateral planes. 8. Equiangular hexahcdral prism. 9. Tetrahedron, or simple three-sided pyramid. 10. Double three-sided pyramid, in wh'n li the late- ral plains of the one pvramid are set ou the lateral edges of the other., M I N M I R It. Octahedron. 12. Simple six-sided pyramid. 13. Double six-sided pyramid, in. which the lateral planes of the one pyramid are set on the late- ral planes of the other. 14. Double six-sided pyramid, in which the planes of the one pyramid are set obliquely on those of the other, so that the common base forms a zig-zag line. 15. Rectangular four-sided table. 16. Oblique-angular four-sided table. 17. Equiagular six-sided table. 18. Lengthened six-sided table. 19. and 20. Common lens. Alteration of the Fundamental Figures by Trunca- tion. .21. Cube truncated on all its angles. 22. Cube truncated on all its edges. By Bevelment. 23. The cube bevelled on all its edges. 24. Three-sided prism having its lateral edges be- velled. 25. Oblique-angular four-sided prism bevelled on its extremities. 26. Six-sided table, with bevelled terminal planes. 27. Octahedron, with bevelled angles. By Acumination. 28. Cube, with the angles acuminated by three planes which are set on the lateral plates. 29. Cube, with the angles acuminated by three planes which are set on the lateral edges. 50. Rectangular four-sided prism acuminated by . four planes, which are set on the lateral - planes. 31. Equiangular six-sided prism, acuminated on both extremities by six planes, which are Set on the lateral planes. 32. Four-sided prism, acuminated on both extremi- ties by four planes, which are set on the late- ral edges. 33. Six-sided prism, acuminated on both extremi- ties by three planes, which are set on the alter- nate lateral planes. ■ 34. Six-sided prism, acuminated on both extremities by three planes, which are set on thealternate lateral edges. 35. Double eight-sided pyramid, accuminated on both extremities by four planes, which are set on the alternate lateral edges. MINIMUM, in the higher geometry, the leastquanti- lv attainable in a given case. " MINOR, in law, is an heir, either male or female, be- fore they arrive at the age of twenty-one; during the mi- nority of such, they are usually incapable of acting for themselves. . Minor, in logic, the second proposition of a regular syllogism. Minor, iu music, signifies less, and is applied to cer- tain concords or intervals which differ from others of the same denomination by half a tone: thus we say a third minor, meaning a less third; a sixth major and minor. MINT, the place in which the public money is coined. See Coining. The officers of the mint arc, 1. The warden of the mint, who is chief; he oversees the other officers, and re- ceives the. bullion. 2. The master worker; who receives the bullion from the warden, causes it to be melted, de- livers it to the moneyers, and when it is coined receives it again. 3. The comptroller; who is the overseer of all the inferior officers, and sees that all the money is made to the just assize. 4. The assay-master; who weighs the gold and silver, and sees that it is according to the stan- dard. 5. The auditor; who takes the accounts. 6. The surveyor ofthe melting; who, after the assay-master lias made trial of the bullion, sees that it is cast out, and not altered after it is delivered to the melter. 7. The engra- ver; who engraves the stamps and dyes for the coinage of the money. 8. The clerk ofthe irons; who sees thatthe irons are clean and fit to work with. 9. The melter; whs melts the bullion before it is coined. 10. The provost of the mint; who provides for, and oversees all the money- ers. 11. The blanchers; who anneal and clease the money. 12. The moneyers; some of whom forge the money, some shear it, some round and mill it, and some stamp or coin it. 13. The porters; who keep the gate of the mint. Mint. See Mentha. MINUASTIA, a genus ofthe triandria trigynia class and order. The cal. is 5-leaved; cor. none; caps. 1-celled, 3-valved. There are three species, herbs of Spain. MINUTE, in geometry, the sixtieth part of a degree of a circle. Minutes are denoted by one acute accent, thus ('); as the second, or sixtieth, part of a minute, is by two such accents, thus ("); and the third by three ('")t &c. Minute of time, the sixtieth part of an hour. MIRABILIS, marvel of Peru; a genus of the mono- gynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and inthe natural method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is funnel shaped above; the ca- lyx inferior; the nectarium globular, containing the ger- men. The most remarkable species are, l.Thejalapa, or common marvel of Peru. Of this there are varieties, with white flowers, with yellow flowers, with purple flow- ers, with red flowers, with white and yellow flowers, white and purple flowers, porple and yellow flowers, red and yellow flowers. 2. The longiflora, or long-flower- ed mirabilis, with all the branches and shoots terminated by white flowers in clusters, having very long tubes, nod- ding downward. 3. The dichotoma, dichotomous, or forked mirabilis, with smallish red flowers at the axillas, singly and close-sitting. The roots of all these plants are purgative; but require to be given in a great quantity to operate equal to the true jalap, which is a species of convolvulus. See Convol- vulus. MIRROR, a speculum, looking-glass, or any polish- ed body, whose use is to form the images of distinct ob- jects by reflection ofthe rays of light. Mirrors are either plane, convex, or concave. The first sort reflects the rays of light in a direction exactly similar to that in which they fall upon it, and therefore represents bodies of their natural magnitude. But the convex ones make the rays diverge much more than be- fore reflexion, and therefore greatly diminish the images M I S M N A of those objects whicli they exhibit; while the concave ones, by collecting the rays into a focus, not only magnify the objects they show, but will also burn very fiercely when exposed to the rays ofthe sun, and hence they are commonly known by the name of burning mirrors. In ancient times the mirrors were made of some kind of metal; and from a passage in the Mosaic writings wc learn, that the mirrors used by the Jewish women, were made of brass; a practice doubtless learned from the Egyptians. Any kind of metal, when well polished, will reflect very powerfully; but of all others, silver reflects the most, though it has always been too expensive a material for common use. Gold is also very powerful; and all metals, or even wood, gilt and polished, will act very powerfully as burning mirrors. Even polished ivory, gr straw nicely plaited together, will form mirrors capable of burn- ing, if on a large scale. Some of the more remarkable laws and phenomena of plane mirrors are as follow: 1. A spectator will see his image of thesamesize, and erect, but reversed as to right and left, and as far beyond the speculum as lie is before it. As he moves to or from the speculum, his image will, at the same time, move to- wards or from the speculum also on the other side. In like manner if, while ihe spectator is at rest, an object be in motion, its image behind the speculum will be seen to move at the same rate. Also when the spectator moves, the images of objects that are at rest will appear to ap- proach or recede from him, after the same manner as when he moves towards real objects. 2. If several mirrors, or several fragments or pieces of mirrors, be all disposed in the same plane, they will only exhibit an object once. 3. If two plane mirrors, or speculums, meet in any angle, tlie eye, placed within that angle, will see the image of an object placed within the same, as often repeated as there may be perpendiculars drawn deter- mining the places of the images, and terminated without the angle. See Optics. M1SCHNA, or Misna, the code or collection of the civil law of the Jews. The Jews pretend, that when God gave the written law to Moses, he gave him also another not written, which was preserved by tradition among the doctors of the synagogue, till rabbi Juda, surnamed the Holy, seeing the danger they were in, through their dispersion, or departing from the tradi- tions of their fathers, judged it proper to reduce them to writing. The misna is divided into six parts: the first relates to the distinction of seeds in a field, to trees, fruits, tytbes, &c. The second regulates the manner of observing festivals: the third treats of women, and matrimonial cases: the fourth of losses in trade, kc the fifth is on obligations, sacrifices, kc. and the sivth treats of the several sorts of purification. See Talmud. MISDEMEANOUR. A crime or misdemeanour is an act committed or omitted, in violation of a public law, cither forbidding or commanding it. MISLETOE. See Viscum. MISNOMER, the using of one name for another. Where a person is described so that he may not be certainly distinguished and known from other persons, vol. i*. 96 the omission, or in some cases the mi:-take of the name shall not avoid the grant. It Rep. 20. If the christian name is wholly mistaken, this is regu- larly fatal to all legal instruments, as well declarations and pleadings as grants aud obligations. The mistake of the surname does not vitiate, because there is no repugnancy that a person shall have different surnames; and therefore, if a man enter into an obliga- tion by a particular name, he may be impleaded by that name in the deed, and his real name brought in by an alias; and then the name in the deed he cannot deny, be- cause he is estopped to say any thing contrary to his own deed. 2 Rol. Abr. 146. MISPRISON, is generally understood to be of all such high offences as are under the degree of capital, but bor- dering thereon, and it is said that a misprison is contained in every treason and felony whatsoever; and, that if the king please, the offender may be proceeded against for the misprison only. 4 Black. 119. MIS-RECITAL, in deeds, is sometimes injurious, and sometimes not; if a thing be referred to time, place, and number, and that is mistaken, all is void. MITCHELLA, a genus ofthe tetrandria monogynia class and order. The cor. is 1-pt-talled; stigmas 4; berry trifid, 2-seedcd. There is 1 species, an herb of N. Ame- rica. MITE, a small coin formerly current, equal to about one third part of a farthing. It also denotes a small weight used by the moneyers. It is equal to the twentieth part of a grain, and is divided into twenty-four doits. Mite. See Acarus. M1TELLA, bastard American sanicle; a genus of the digynia order, in the decandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 13th order, suc- culentse. The calyx is quinquefid; the corolla pentape- talous, and inserted into the calyx; the petals pinnatifid; the capsule unilocular and bivalved, with the valves equal. There are two species, both natives of North America, rising with annual herbaceous stalks from five or six to eight or nine inches in height, and producing spikes of small whitish flowers, whose petals are fringed on their edges. M1THRIDATEA, a genus of the monandria mono- gynia class and order. The cal. is four-cleft; cor. none; fruit globular, depressed. There is one species, a tree of Madagascar. MITTIMUS, a writ by which records are transferred from one court to another. This word is also used fer the precept directed to a gaoler, under the hand and seal of a justice ofthe peace, for the receiving and safe keep- ing a felon, or other offender, by him committed to goal. MIZEN, in the sea-language, is a particular mast or sail. The inizen-inast stands iu the sternmost pint ofthe ship. Its length is by some accounted the same with the height of the main-top-mast, from the quarter-deck; or half the length of the mainmast, and half as thick. Tlie sail whicli belongs to the mizen-mast, is called the mizen- sail: and when the word mizen is used aJL sea, it alwavs means the sail. MNASILM, a genus of the hexandria monogynia class and order. The cal. is l-lcarcd, 3-parud; cur. i. MOD MOD petulled, 3-partcd; antherse 4-cornered; germ 3-lobed; stigmas 3. There is l species, an aquatic of Guiana. MNIARUM, a genus ofthe monandria digynia class and order. The cal. is 4-parted, superior; cor. none; seed 1. There is one species, an herb of New Zealand. MNIUM, marsh-moss; a genus of the natural order of musci, belonging to the cryptogamia class of plants. The anthera is operculated; the calyptra smooth; the female capitulum naked and powdery, remote. There are 24 British species, but none have any remarkable property except the following: 1. The fontanum is an elegant moss, frequent in bogs, and on the borders of cold springs. It is from two to four inches high: the stalks are simple at the base, and covered with a rusty down; but higher up arc red, and divided into several round, single, taper branches, which proceed nearly from the same point. The leaves are not more than -Jrth of an inch long, lanceolate and acute, of a whitish-green colour, and so thinly set, that the red stalk appears between them. This moss, as it may be seen at a considerable distance, is a good mark to lead to the discovery of clear and cold springs. Dr. Withering informs us, that wherever this moss grows, a spring of fresh water may be found without much digging. 2. The hygrometricuin grows in woods, heaths, garden-walks, walls, old trees, decayed wood, and where coals or cinders have been laid. It is stemless, has tips inversely egg-shaped, nodding, and bright yellow. If the fruit-stalk is moistened at the base with a little water or steam, the head makes three or four revolutions; if the head is moistened, it turns back again. MOAT, or Ditch, in fortification, a deep trench dug round the rampart of a fortified place, to prevent sur- prizes. The brink of the moat, next the rampart, is called the scarpe; and the opposite one, the counterscarpe. A dry moat round a large place, with a strong garri- son, is preferable to one full of water, because the pas- sage may be disputed inch by inch; and the besiegers, when lodged in it, are continually exposed to the bombs, grenades, and other fire-works, which are thrown inces- santly from the rampart into their works. In the middle of dry moats there is sometimes another small one, called r.unette; which is generally dug so deep, till they find water to fill it. The deepest and broadest moats are accounted the best, but a deep one is preferable to a broad one: the ordinary breadth is about twenty fathoms, and the depth about sixteen. To drain a moat that is full of water, they dig a trench deeper than the level of the water, to let it run off; and then throw hurdles upon the mud and slime, covering them with earth or bundles of rushes, to make a sure and firm passage. MODE, in logic, called also syllogistic mood, aproper disposition of the several propositions of a syllogism, in respect of quantity and quality. As in all the several dispositions of the middle term, the propositions of whicli a syllogism consists may be either universal or particular, affirmative or negative; the due determination of these, and putting them toge- ther as the laws of argumentation require, constitute what logicians call the moods of syllogisms. Of these moods there are a determinate number to every figure, including all the possible ways in which propositions, differing in quantity or quality, can be combined, according to any disposition of the middle term, in order to arrive at a just conclusion. There are two kinds of moods, the one direct, the other indirect. The direct mood is that wherein the conclusion is drawn from the premises directly and immediately, as, « Every animal is a living thing, every man is a living animal; therefore every man is a living thing." There are fourteen of these direct moods, four whereof belong to the first figure, four to the second and six to the third. They are denoted by so many artificial words framed for that purpose, viz. 1. Barbara, celarant, darii, ferioque. 4. Baralip, celantes, dabitis, fapesmo, frisesom. 2. Cesare, camestres, festino, baroco. 3. Darapti, felapton, disamis, datisi, bocardo, ferison. The use and effect of which words lie wholly in the syllables, and the letters of which the syllables consist; each word, for instance, consists of three syllables, denoting the three propositions of a syllogism, viz. major, minor, and conclusion: add, thatthe letters of each syllable are either vowels or consonants; the vowels are A, which denotes an universal affirmative; E, an universal negative; I, a particular affirmative; aud 0, a particular negative: thus, Barbara is a syllogism or mood of the first figure, con- sisting of three universal affirmative propositions: Ba- ralip, one of the fourth figure, consisting of two univer- sal affirmative premises, and a particular affirmative conclusion. The consonants are chiefly of use in the re- duction of syllogisms. The indirect mood, is that wherein the conclusion is not inferred immediately from the premises, but follows from them by means of a con- version; as, "Every animal is a living thing, every man is an animal; therefore some living thing is a man." Mode, in music, a particular system, or constitution of sounds, by which the octave is divided into certain inter- vals, according to the genus. The doctrine of the ancients respecting modes is rendered somewhat obscure, by the difference among their authors as to the definitions, di- visions, and names of their modes. Some place the spe- cific variations of tones, or modes, in the manner of division, or order of the concinnous parts; and others merely in the different tension of the whole: i. e. as the whole series of notes are more acute or grave, or as they stand higher or lower in the great scale of sounds. MODEL, in a general sense, an original pattern, pro- posed for any one to copy or imitate. This word is par- ticularly used in building, for an artificial pattern made in wood, stone, plaster, or other matter, with all its parts and proportions, in order for the better conducting and executing some great work, and to give an idea of the effect it will have in large. In all great buildings, it is much the surest way to make a model in relievo, and not to trust to a bare design or draught. There are also models for the building of ships, &c. and for extra- ordinary staircases, &c. They also use models in painting and sculpture; whence, in the academies, they give the term model to a naked man or woman, disposed in several postures, to afford an opportunity to the scholars to design hirn in various views and attitudes. Models in imitation of any natural or artificial sub- MODEL, s'ance, are most usually made by means of moulds com- posed of plaster of Paris. For the purpose of making these moulds, this kind of plaster is much more fit than any other substance, on account of the power it has of absorbing water, and soon condensing into an hard sub- stance, even after it has been rendered so thin as to be of the consistence of cream. This happens in a shorter or longer time, as the plaster is of a better or worse quality; and its good or bad properties depend very much upon its age, to which, therefore, particular regard oucht to be had. It is sold in the shops at very different prices; the finest being made use of for casts, and the middling sort for moulds. It may be very easily colour- ed by means of almost any kind of powder excepting what contains an alkaline salt; for this would chemically de- compose the substance of it, and render it unfit for use, the gypsum or plaster being a sulphat of lime, which would be decomposed by the alkali precipitating the lime. Avery considerable quantity of chalk would also render it soft and useless, but lime hardens it to a great degree. The addition of common size will likewise render it much harder than if mere water is made use of. In making either moulds or models, however, we must be careful not to make a mixture too thick at first; for if this is done, and more water added to thin it, the composition must always prove brittle, and of a bad quality. The particular manner of making models (or casts, as they are also called) depends on the form of the subject to be taken. The process is easy where the parts arc elevated only in a slight degree, or where they form only a right or obtuse angle with the principal surface from which they project; but where the parts project in smal- ler angles, or form curves inclined towards the principal surface, the work is more difficult. This observation, however, holds good only with regard to hard and in- flexible bodies; for such as are soft may often be freed from the mould, even though they have the shape last mentioned. But though this is the case with the soft original substance, it is not so with the inflexible model when once it is cast. m . The moulds are to be made of various degrees ot thick- ness, according to the size of the model to be cast; and may be from half an inch to an inch, or, if very large, an inch and an half. Where a number of models are to be taken from one mould, it will likewise be necessary to have it of a stronger contexture than where only a few are required, for very obvious reasons. It is much more easy to make a mould for any soft substance than a rigid one, as in any of the viscera of the animal body: for the fluidity of the mixture makes it easily accommodate itself to the projecting parts ofthe substance; and as itis necessary to inflate these sub- stances, they may be very readily extracted again, by letting out the air which distended them. When a model is to be taken, the surface of the origi- nal is first to be greased, in order to prevent the plaster from sticking to it; but if the substance itsel is slippery, as s the casf with the internal parts of the human body. Ibis need not be done: when necessary, it may be laid over with linseed oil by means of a painter's brush. The original is then to be laid on a smooth table, previously Son ml with a cloth, to prevent the paster Peking to it; then surround the original with a frame or ridge of glazier's putty, at such a distance from itas will admit the plaster to rest upon the table on all sides of the subject for about an inch, or as much as is suf- ficient to give the proper degree of strength to the mould, A sufficient quantity of plaster is then to be poured as uniformly as possible over the whole substance, until it is every where covered to such a thickness as to give a proper substance to the mould, whicli may vary in pro- portion to the size. The whole must then be suffered to remain in this condition till the plaster has attained its hardness: when the frame is taken away, the mould may be inverted, and the subject removed from it; and when the plaster is thoroughly dry, let it be well seasoned. Having formed and seasoned the moulds, they must next be prepared for the casts by greasing the inside of them with a mixture of olive oil and lard in equal parts, and then filled with fine fluid plaster, and the plane ofthe mould formed by its resting on the surface of the table, covered to a sufficient thickness with coarse plaster, to form a strong basis or support for the cast where this support is requisite, as is particularly the case where the, thin and membranous parts of the body are to be repre- sented. After the plaster is poured into the mould, it must be suffered to stand until it has acquired the great- est degree of hardness it will receive; after which the mould must be removed: but this is attended with some difficulty when the shape of the subject is unfavourable; and in some cases the mould must be separated by means of a small mallet and chisel. If by these instruments any parts of the model should be broken off, they may be cemented bv making the two surfaces to be applied to each other "quite wet; then interposing betwixt them a little liquid plaster: and lastly, the joint smoothed, after being thoroughly dry. Any small holes that may be made in the mould can be filled up with liquid plaster, after the sides of them have been thoroughly wetted, and smoothed over with the edge of a knife. In many cases it is altogether impracticable to prepare a mould of one piece for a whole subject; and therefore it must be considered how this can be done in such a man- ner as to divide the mould into the fewest pieces. Tliis may be effected by making every piece cover as much of the pattern as possible, without surrounding such project- ing parts, or running into such hollows as would not admit a separation of the mould. Where any internal pieces are required, they are first to be made; and then the outer pieces, after the former have become hard. Besides the models which are taken from inanimate bodies, it has been frequently attempted to take the exact resemblance of people while living, by using their face as the original of a model, whence to take a mould; and the operation, however disagreeable, has been submitted toby persons ofthe highest ranks in life. A considerable difficulty occurs in this, however, from the person's being apt to shrink and distort his features when the liquid is poured upon him; neither is he altogether without danger of suffocation, unless the operator well understands his business. ...,,, To avoid the former inconvenience, it will be proper to mix the plaster with warm instead of cold water, by which means the person will be under no temptation to shrinkj and to prevent any danger of a fatal accident, the follow- ing method is to be practised: Having laid the person MOD M O L horizontally on his back, the head must first be raised by means of a pillow to the exact position in which it is na- turally carried when the body is erect; then the parts to be represented must be very thinly covered over with fine ■oil of almonds, by means of a painter's brush: the face is then to be first covered with fine fluid plaster, beginning at the upper part of the forehead, and spreading it over the eyes, which are to be kept close, thatthe plaster may not come in contact with the globe; yet not closed so strongly as to cause any unnatural wrinkles. Cover then the nose and cars, plugging first up the meatus auditorii with cotton, and the nostrils with a small quantity of tow rolled up, of a proper size to exclude tlie plaster. During the time that the nose is thus stopped, the person is to breathe through the mouth: in this state the fluid plaster is to be brought down low enough to cover the upper lip, observing, to leave the rolls of tow projecting out of the plaster. When the operation is thus far carried on, the plaster must be suffered to harden; after which the tow may be withdrawn, and the nostrils left free and open for breathing. The mouth is then to be closed in its natural position, and the plaster brought down to the extremity of the chin. Begin then to cover that part of the breast which is to be represented, and spread the plaster to tha outsides ofthe arms and upwards, in such a manner as to meet and join that which is previously laid on the face: when the whole of the mass has acquired its due hardness, it is to be cautiously lifted, without break- ing or giving pain to the person. After the mould is constructed, it must be seasoned iu the manner already directed; and when the mould is cast, it is to be sepa- rated from the model by means of a small mallet and chisel. The eyes, which arc necessarily shown closed, are to be carved, so that the eyelids may be represented in an elevated posture; the nostrils hollowed out, and the back part ofthe head, from w hich, on account of the hair, no mould can be taken, must be finished according to the skill of the artist. The edges of the model are then to be neatly smoothed off, and the bust fixed on its pedestal. MODULATION, in music, the art of conducting har- mony, in composition, ort extemporary performance, through those keys and modes which have a due relation to the fundamental, or original key. Though every piece, as is well known, has its principal or governing key, yet, for the sake of contrast and relief, it is not only al- lowable but necessary to pass from key to key, and from mode to mode; to assume different sharps or flats, and lead the ear through those transitions of tone and har- mony which interest the feelings and delight the ear. But though in grand compositions there is no quality of a greater importance than that of a masterly modulation, it is not easy to lay down rules for its accomplishment. Sometimes a gradual and almost insensible evolution of harmony is requisite to the composer's object; at other times, a bold and sudden change can alone produce the necessary effect. MODULE. See Architecture. MODUS DEC1MANDI, in Jaw, is where money, land, or other valuable consideration, has been given, time out of mind, to the minister or parson of any cer- tain place, in the room of tithes. A clergyman may sue in a spiritual court for a modus decimandi; yet if the modus is denied there, or a custom is to be tried, the trial thereof belongs to the courts of common law. When lands are converted to other uses, as in the case of hay-ground turned into tillage, the modes may be discharged, and the tithes paid again in kind. MOERHINGIA, mossy chickweed, in botany, a ge- nus of the octandria digynia class of plants, the flower of which is composed of four short, undivided petals; and its fruit is a subglobose capsule, with one cell, in which are contained numerous roundish seeds. There is one species. MOLE. See Zalpa. MOLLUGO, African chickweed; a genus of the tir- gynia order, in the triandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 22d order, caryophyl- lei. The calyx is pentaphyllous; there is no corolla; the capsule is trilocular, and trivalved. There are six spe- cies, annuals ofthe Cape, and ofthe E. and W. Indies. MOLUCCELLA, in botany, a genus of the didyna- mia-gymnospermia class of plants, the flower of whicli is monopetalous and labiated; the upper lip being entire, and the lower one trifid: "the eeeds are turbinated, and contained in the bottom ofthe cup. One annual species. MOLYBDATS. These salts, composed of molybdic acid combined with the alkalies and earths, were formed by Scheele; but their properties are still almost com- pletely unknown. The supermolybdat of potass alone has been described with some detail. It is formed by detonating one part of sulphuret of molybdenum and three parts of nitre in a crucible. By dissolv ing the red- dish mass which remains after this operation, and filter- ing, a solution of sulphat of potass and molybdat of pot- ass is obtained. By evaporating the solution, the sulphat of potass is separated; when sulphuric acid is dropt into the remaining liquid, supermolybdat of potass is precipi- tated. This salt is soluble in water. Its solution chrys- tallizes by evaporation in small rhomboidal plates insert- ed into each other. They are bright, and have a metallic taste. When exposed to the blow-pipe upon charcoal, they melt without swelling, and are converted into small globules, which are quickly absorbed by the charcoal. When melted with a mixture of phosphat of soda and of ammonia^(or microscomicsalt), they communicate a green tinge. Hot water dissolves them completely, and prussi- at of potass occasions in this solution a reddish brown precipitate. When a solution of muriat of tin is poured upon them, they acquire a blue colour. MOLYBDENUM. The Greek word peXvgtxtvx, and its Latin translation plumbago, seem to have been employ- ed by the ancients to denote various oxides of lead; but by the moderns they were applied indiscriminately to all substances possessed of the following properties: light, friable, and soft, of a dark colour and greasy feel, and whicli leaves a stain upon the fingers. Scheele first ex- amined these minerals with attention. He found that two very different substances had been confounded together. To one of these, which is composed of carbon and iron, he appropriated the word plumbago; the other he called molybdena. Molybdena is composed of scaly particles adhering slightly to each other. Its colour is blueish, very much resembling that of lead. Scheele analysed it in 1778, and obtained sulphur and a whitish powder, which posses- ses the properties of an acid, and which, therefore, he M 0 L MOM called acid of molybdena. Bergman suspected this acid, from its properties, to be a metallic oxide; and at his re- quest, Hielm, in 1782, undertook the laborious course of experiments by which he succeeded in obtaining a metal from this acid. His method was to form it into a paste with linseed oil, and then to apply a very strong heat. This process he repeated several times successively. To tbe metal whicli he obtained he gave the name of molyb- denum. The experiments of Scheele were afterwards re- peated by Pelletier, Ilseman, and Heyer; and not only fully confirmed, but discovered many new facts, and the metallic nature of inolybdic acid was put beyond a doubt: though, in consequence of the very violent heat necessa- ry to fuse molybdenum, only very minute grains of it have been hitherto obtained in the state of a metal. Still more lately, Mr. Hatchett has published a very valua- ble set of experiments, whicli throw much new light up- on the nature of this metal. Molybdenum is externally of a whitish-yellow colour, but its fracture is a whitish-grey. Hitherto it has only been procured in small grains agglutinated together in brittle masses. Its specific gravity is 7.500. It is almost infusible in our fires. When exposed to heat in an open vessel, it gradually combines with oxygen, and is converted into a white ox- ide, which is volatilized in small brilliant needle-form crystals. This oxide, having the properties of an acid, is known by the name of molybdic acid. From the experiments of Mr. Hatchet, it follows that molybdenum is capable of combining with four different proportions of oxygen, and of forming four oxides; name- ly, 1. The black; 2. The blue; 3. The green, to which Mr. Hatchet has given the name of molyhdous acid; and, 4. The yellow or white, or the molybdic acid. 1. The protoxide, or black oxide, may be obtained by mixing molybdic acid with charcoal powder iu a crucible, and applying heat. A black mass remains, which is the black oxide. It seems to contain only a very minute quan- tity of oxygen. 2. The blue oxide may be obtained by the same pro- cess not carried so far: it is formed also whenever a plate of tin is plunged into a solution of molybdic acid. 3. The pcroxide,\ir molybdic acid, is obtained by dis- tilling six parts of diluted nitric acid repeatedly off native molybdena in powder. A white mass is left behind, com- posed of sulphuric and inolybdic acids. A little pure water washes away the sulphuric acid, and molybdic acid remains behind. This acid has at first a white colour; but when melted and sublimed, it becomes yellow. Molybdenum combines readily with sulphur; and the compound has exactly the properties of molybdena, the substance which Scheele decompounded. Molybdena is therefore sulphuret of molybdenum. The reason that Scheele obtained from it molybdic acid was, that the me- tal combined with oxygen during his process. Sulphuret of molybdenum may be formed also by distilling together one part of molybdic acid and five parts of sulphur. Mo- lybdenum is also capable of combining with phosphorus. Few of the alloys of this metal have been hitherto ex- amined. 11 rr-l 1, It seems capable of uniting with gold. Ihe alloy is probably of a white colour. It combines readily with pla- tinum in the state of an oxide. The compound is fusible. Its specific gravity is 20.000. The alloys of molybdenum with silver, iron, and cop- per are metallic and friable; those with lead and tin are powders which cannot be fused. Several other combina- tions have been made both by Hielm and Richter: but as the metals which they tried were alloyed not with molyb- denum, but with molybdic acid, they cannot be consi- dered as by any means the same with the alloys formed by molybdenum itself. Molybdenum, Ores of. These are very scarce, hav- ing been found only in Sweden, Germany, Corniola, among the Alps, near Inverness, and in the island of Lewis, in Scotland. The only species known is molybde- na, which is found commonly massive: sometimes, how- ever, itis chrystallized in hexaedral tables. Colour light leady-grey; sometimes with a shade of red. Streak blue- ish grey, metallic. Powder blueish texture, foliated la- mella^, slightly flexible. Specific gravity 4.5 to 4.7& Marks blueish-black. A piece of resin rubbed with this mineral becomes positively electric. Insoluble in sulphu- ric and muriatic acids. Composed of about 60 molybdenum 40 sulphur 100 MOMENT, in the doctrine of infinites, denotes the same with infinitesimal. Moment, momentum, in mechanics, signifies tho same with^mpetus, or the quantity of motion in a mov- ing body; which is always equal to the quantity of mat- ter, multiplied into the velocity; or, which is*the same thing, it may be considered as a rectangle under the quantity of matter and velocity. MOMORDICA, male balsam apple; a genus ofthe syngenesia order, in the moneecia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 34th order, cucur- bLacese. The male calyz is quinquefid; the corolla sex- partite; the filaments are three in number. The female calyx istrifid; the corolla quinquepartite; the style trifid, the fruit is an apple parting asunder with a spring. There are eight speeies, the most remarkable of which are, 1. This is a native of Asia; and has a trailing stalk like those of tlie cucumber or melon, with smooth leaves cut into several segments, and spread open like a hand. The fruit is oval, ending in acute points, having several deep angles, with sharp tubercles placed on their od^es. It changes to a red or purlish colour when ripe, opci'iimr with elasticity, and throwing out its seeds. 2. The da- terium, wild or spurting cucumber, has a large fleshy root, somewhat like briony, whence come forth, every spring, several thick, rough, trailing stalks. The flow- ers come out from the wings of the stalks: these are malo and female, growing at different plaees on the same plant like those ot the common cucumber: but they are much less, of a pale yellow colour, with a greenish V,tt.,i; • the male flowers stand upon thick, short, foot st.w.. ' the female flowers ^it upon the youn$ fruit; wh:, h. '. the flower is faded, grows of an oval form, an h\c\\ . ■•< a half long, swelling like a cucumber, of a grey i ■ like the leaves, and covered over with sh'vt'ri This species has one of iis names from the p;- casting out its seeds, together with the viciu >, \ MON M 0 N ] it bason, 2 pound weight, three; a barrel of gun- powder, three, Ace. For the piece, it serves in like man- ner to estimate the value of goods, duties, kc on eitlier side; thus the natives require 10 pieces for a slave; and the Europeans put, for instance, a fusee at 1 piece, a piece of salampours at 4 pieces, &c. The cities of Barbary and Egypt, whither the Europeans traffic, reckon much alter the same manner as in the Levant and the domin- ions of the grand seignor? for the rest, through that vast extent of coast where wo trade for negroes, gold- dust, elephant's teeth, wax, leather, Kc. either tlie mise- rable inhabitants do not know what money of account is, or, if they have any, it is only what strangers, settled among them, have introduced. MONKEY. See Simia. MONOCHORD, a musical instrument composed of one string, used to try the variety and proportiou of sounds. It is formed of a rule, divided and sub-divided into several parts, on which there is a moveable string stretched upon two bridges at each extreme, hi the middle between these is a moveable bridge, by means of which, in applying it to the different division of the line, the sounds are found to bear the same proportion to each other as the division of the line, cut by the bridge. There are also mnnochords with forty -eight fixed bridges. The following is the account of a mouochord invented by earl Stanhope: 1. The wire is not made either of brass or of iron, but of steel, which is very far superior. For, steel wire does not keep continually lengthening, as brass and iron wires do when they are stretched considerably. 2. The wire in this monochord does not, as usual, pull down- wards on the bridges, but the whole wire forms one straight and horizontal line, by which means the movea- ble bridge, which determines the exact length of the wire, can be moved without altering the tension of the wire. This is not the case when the wire pulls downwards on the bridges. 3. The ends of the wire are not twisted round the two stout steel pins which keep it stretched; but each end of the wire is soft-soldered in along groove formed in a piece of steel which goes over its correspond- ing pin. This is a great improvement. 4. One of those two steel pins is strongly fastened on a brass slider, which is moved by means of a screw with very fine threads, which screw has a large micrometer head mi- nutely divided on its edge, and a corresponding no- nius; so that the tension of the wire may be adjusted with the greatest precision, in order to obtain its exact pitch. 5. A slider is fixed across the top of the movea- ble bridge, and is moved by means of another screw with very fine threads; so that the length of the wire may be regulated with the greatest nicety in all cases. 6. The above-mentioned slider, which is on the top of the movea- ble bridge, is adjusted to the steel rod or scale, not by sight, or by the coincidence of lines, but by means of me- chanical contact against projecting pieces of steel firmly fixed on that steel scale, which method is incomparably more correct. 7. Each bridge carries a metallic finger, which keeps the wire close to the top of the bridge, whilst the wire is made to vibrate. 8. The vibrations of the wire are produced by touching it with a piece of cork, with the same elastic force, and on the very same spot each time, namely, at the distance of one inch from the immoveable bridge. MONNIESIA, a genus of the class and order, dia- delpbia pentandria. The calyx is five-parted; corolla stringent; stamina 3, capsules 5, 1 -seeded. There is one species, an American annual. MONOCULUS. Monocuius, a genus of the order aptera: the.generic character is, feet formed for swim- M 0 ^ M 0 N ruing; body covered by a crustaceous tegument; eyes, in most species, approximated, and imbedded in the shell. Of the monoculi, by far the major part are very small water-insects, requiring tbe assistance of a microscope f,r the investigation of their particular organs: some however are so large as to require no very minute in- spection; and one species in particular, (if, indeed, it can be allowed to stand with propriety in the genus) is of a size so gigantic, that it is generally considered as the largest ofthe crustaceous tribe. This animal is the monoculus polyphemus of Linnseus, commonly distin- guished by the title molucca or king-crab. Specimens are sometimes seen of two feet in length, exclusive of the tail. It is a native of the Indian ocean, and is said to be generally found in pairs, or male and female swim- ming together. The colour ofthe whole animal is a yel- lowish-brown: the shell is very convex, rounded in front, and lunated behind, where it joins the lower part of the body: this, which is of the same crustaceous nature, is marked on each side into several spiny incisions; the legs, which are seven on each side, are situated beneath the concavity of the large or rounded part of the shell, and are each terminated by a double claw, those of the lowest pair having some additional processes: the branchiae, or respiratory, organs are disposed in the form of several flat, rounded, imbricated lamellae on each side the lower part of the body: the tail, which is strait, triangular, and ofthe same crustaceous nature with the rest of the shell, is equal in length to the whole body, and gradually tapers to a sharp point. The eyes in this species, instead of being approximated, as required in the Linnsean generic character, are extremely distant from each other, being situated towards the sides of the shell: tliey are of a semi-lunar form, and the surface is divided into a great number of minute conical convexities: this part however should be considered as only constituting the cornea or exterior covering of each eye; the organs themselves being, according to the observations of Mr. Petiver, in the Philosophical Transactions, placed on a pcdirle beneath each of the above-mentioned semi-lunar cornese. Petiver's words are these. "The whole struc- ture of this animal is very remarkable, and particularly his eyes, viz. between the fourth and last pair of claws on each side, reckoning from his mouth, and excluding the small pair there placed, are inserted the rudiments of another pair, or a claw broken off on each side at the second joint or elbow; on these extremities are the eyes, like those of the horns of snails, but under the covert of a tliick and opaque shell. Nature in that place has won- derfully contrived a transparent lantern, through which the light is conveyed, whose superficies very exactly re- sembles the great eyes of our large libellae or adderbolts, which to the naked eye are plainly perceived to be com- posed of innumerable globuli: these, like them, are ob- long, and guarded by a testaceous supercilium." Of the European monoculi, by far the largest is the monoculus apus, which, when full-grown, measures nearly an inch and three quarters from the front to the end of tlie body, exclusive ofthe forked divisions ofthe tail. It |s found in muddy stagnant waters, but is a rare species in this country, having been only observed in a few par- ticular situations. In its general shape, it is considera- bly allied to the large exotic species before described, bHt the body is of a more lengthened form in proportion, with the hinder part naked, and divided into numerous joints: the branchiae, or respiratory organs, are large, and are distributed into numerous imbricated rows on the under part of the body: beneath the front is a pair of jointed, trifid arms, extending on each side to a considerable dis- tance; the eyes are placed near each other in front of tho shell: the tail is terminated by a pair of long forks or cetaceous processes. The colour of the whole insect is a pale greenish-brown above, and reddish beneath. We are informed in vol. 40 of the Philosophical Transactions that this insect has been found in great plenty in a pond on Bexley's common, in Kent. It is also added that the same pond, having been perfectly dried, and being sud- denly filled during a heavy thunder-storm, swarms of tho same animal were again observed in it within the space of two days after. Monoculus pulex, called, from its peculiar starting or springing motion, the water-flea, is an almost universal inhabitant of stagnant waters, appearing sometimes in such vast swarms as to cause an apparent discoloration of the water itself. It is an insect of a highly singular and elegant appearance, exhibiting, when magnified, a beautiful distribution of internal organs. Its general length is about the tenth of an inch, but it is sometimes seen considerably larger: its shape is oval, somewhat truncated in front, and sharply pointed behind: the body is inclosed in a bivalve, transparent shell, which, when examined by the microscope, appears finely reticulated: on each side the head is a strong transparent jointed arm, forking into two divisions, and terminating in se- veral cetaceous branches: the tail, which is generally in- closed within the shell, is occasionally protruded in the form of a strong curved and pointed process: the eyes of this animal are of a singular construction; they are large in proportion to the insect, placed very near each other, appear to consist of many separate globules, of a black colour united under a common skin. MONODON MONOCEROS, unicorn narwhal, is a native ofthe northern seas, where it is sometimes seen of the length of more than twenty feet from the mouth to the tail; and is at once distinguishable from every other kind of whale by its very long, ivory-like tooth, which is perfectly straight, of a white or yellowish-white colour, spirally wreathed throughout its whole length, and gra- dually tapering to a sharp point. It measures from six to nine or ten feet in length, and proceeds from a socket on the one side ofthe upper jaw, having a large cavity at its base or root, running through the greater part of the whole length. In the young animals and occasion- ally even in the full grown ones, more especially in the males, there are two of these teeth, sometimes nearly of equal length, and sometimes very uequal in this respect: tliey are seated very close to each other at the base, and as their direction is nearly in a straight line, they di- verge but little in their progress towards the extremities. The head of the narwhal is short, and convex above; the mouth small; the spiracle or breathing hole duplicated within; the tongue long; the pectoral fins small; the back, finless, widish, convex, becoming gradually accumulated towards the tail, which, as in other whales, is horizontal. The general form of the animal b rather laog than tbicj|' M ON MOO in proportion to its size. The colour, when young, is said to be nearly black, but lighter on the belly: but as the animal advances in age, it becomes marbled or vari- egated with black and white on the back and sides, while the belly is nearly white. The skin is smooth, and there is a considerable depth of oil or blubber beneath it. The narwhal chiefly inhabits the northern parts of Da- vis's Streights. Its food is said to consist ofthe smaller kind of flat-fish, as well as of actiniae, medusse, and many other marine animals. It is principally seen in the small open or unfrozen spots towards the coasts ofthe northern seas. To such places it resorts in multitudes, for the convenience of breathing, while at the same time it is sure of finding near the shores a due supply of food, and is very rarely seen in the open sea. It is taken by means of harpoons, and its flesh is eaten by the Greenlanders, both raw, boiled, and dried: the intestines and oil are al- so used as a food; the tendons make a good thread, and the teeth serve the purpose of hunting-horns as well as the more important ones of building tents and houses: but before this animal became distinctly known to the na- turalists of Europe, they were held in high estimation, as the supposed horns of unicorns. Various medical vir- tues were also attributed to them, and they were even numbered among the articles of magnificence. A throne made for the Danish monarchs is said to be still preserv- ed in the castle of Rosenberg, composed entirely of nar- whals' teeth; the material being antieiitly considered as more valuable than gold. A specimen of this whale, measuring about eighteen feet, exclusive of the horn or tooth, was some time ago stranded on the coast of Lincolnshire, at no great distance from Boston, and was said to have been taken alive. 2. Monodon spurius, spurious narwhal. A species most allied to the narwhal, but not perhaps, strictly speaking, ofthe same genus: no teeth in the mouth, but from the extremity of the upper mandible project two minute, conic, obtuse teeth, alike curved at the tips, weak, and not above an inch long: body elongated, cy- lindric, black. Besides the pectoral fins, and horizontal tail, is also a minute dorsal fin. It must be numbered among the rarest of the whales. Its flesh and oil are considered as very purgative: inhabits the main ocean, seldom coming towards shore: feeds on the loligo: has a spiracle like other whales. Both flesh and oil are eaten, but not without apprehension, for the reason already men- tioned. Monodon narwhal, a genus of mammalia of the order cete, the generic character is, teeth two in the upper jaw, extending straight forward, long, spiral: spiracle on the fore and upper part of the head. It inhabits the Atlan- tic, swims rapidly, and is from 18 to 40 feet long and 12 broad. Skin white, spotted on the back with black: dor- sal fins: pectoral, two small: head small: eyes very mi- nute: what are commonly exhibited as the unicorns horns. See Plate XCI. Nat. Hist. fig. 269. MONOECIA, from pom, alone, and oikix, a house; the name of the 21st class of Linnjcus's sexual method. See Botany. MONOGYNIA, from pom, alone,and y«», a woman; the name ofthe first order or subdivision in the first 13 clas- ses of Linnseus's sexual method^ consisting of plants* which, besides their agreement in their classic character, generally derived from the number of their stamina, have only one style, or female organ. See Botany. MONOGRAM, a character or cypher, composed of one, two, or more letters interwoven; being a kind of ab^ brcviation of a name, anciently used as a seal, badge, arms, &c. MONOPOLY, is an allowance by the king, by his grant, commission, or otherwise, to any person or per- sons, bodies politic or corporate; or of, or for, the sole buying, selling, making, working, or using of any thing, whereby any person or persons, bodies politic or corpo- rate, are sought to be restrained of any freedom or liber- ty they had before, or hindered in their lawful trade. 3 Inst. 181. But it seems that the king's charter, impowTering par- ticular persons to trade to and from such place is void, so far as it gives such persons an exclusive right of trading and debarring all others; and it seems now agreed, that nothing can exclude a subject from trade, but an act of parliament. Raym. 489. MONOPTERUS. Monopterc, a genus of the fishes ofthe order apodal; the generic character is, body anguil- liform; nostrils placed between the eyes; fin caudel. 1. The monopterous Javanicus, the only animal of this genus hitherto discovered, is thus described by the count de la Cepede, from the manuscripts of Commerson, by whom it was considered as a species of Mursena. Tlie- body is serpentiform, viscous, and destitute of conspicu- ous scales: the head thick, compressed, enlarging towards the back part, and terminated in front by a rounded muz- zle: the gape is rather wide; the upper jaw scarcely pro- jecting beyond the lower; both being furnished with close teeth: the gilt membrane has only three rays, and the branchiae are only three in number on each side; the la- teral line, which is nearer the back than the belly, extends from the gills to the extremity of the tail, and is almost of a gold-colour: the back is of a livid brown or blackish colour. This fish is a native of the Indian seas and is very common about the coasts of Java, where it is con- sidered as an excellent food. MONSONIA, a genus ofthe dodecandria order, in the polyadelphia class of plants. The calyx is pentrophyl- lous; the corolla pentapetalous and irregular; the stamina are 15 in number, and coalited into five filaments; the style bifid; the capsule pentacoccous. There arc three species. MONSOON. See Wind. MONTH, the twelfth part of a year. See Chrono- logy. MONTIA, water chickweed, a genus of the trigynia order, in the triandria class of plants; and in the natu- ral method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is dyphyllous; the corolla monope- talous and irregular; the capsule unilocular, and trivalv- ed. There is one species. Mood, or Mode, in grammar, the different manner of conjugating verbs, serving to denote the different affec- tions of the mind. MOON. See Astronomy. MOONSTONE. This is the purest felspar hitherto found. It occurs in Ceylon and Switzerland; and was first mentioned by Mr. Pini. Specific gravity, 2.559/. M 0 R M 0 11 Colour white; sometimes with a shade of veilovv, green, or red. Its surface is sometimes irridescent. A specimen of it analysed by Vauquelin, yielded 64 silica 20 alumina 14 potass 2 lime 100 The whitisb felspar, called petunze, yielded to the same chemist 74.0 silica 14.5 alumina 5.5 lime 94.0 MOORING, in the sea-language, is the laying out the anchors of a ship in a place where she can ride secure. Mooring across, is laying out on each side; and mooring along, is to have an anchor in a river and a hawser «n shore. When ships are laid up in ordinary, or are under orders of fitting for sea, the moorings are laid out in harbours, and consist of claws, pendant chains, cables, bridles, anchors, swivels, jews-harps, buoys, and chains. MORDELLA, a genus of insects ofthe order coleop- tera. The antenna; are thread-shaped and serrated; the head is deflected under the neck: the pappi are ele- vated, compressed, and obliquely blunted; and the ely- tra are bent backwards near the apex. There are six species. MORMA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the triandria class of plants; and in the natural method rank- ing under the 6th order, ensata;. The corolla is hexa- petalous: the three interior petals, patent; the rest like those of the iris. There are 17 species, beautiful exotics, resembling the iris. MORINA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the tri- andria class of plants; and in the natural method rank- ing under the 48th order, aggregate. The corolla is unequal; the calyx of the fruit is monophyllous and dent- ed; the calyx of the flower bifid; there is one seed under the calvx of the flower. There is one species. MORTNDA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 48th order, aggregate. The flowers are aggregate and monopetalous; the stigmata bifid; the fruit pi urn's aggregate or in clusters. There are 3 species, trees of the East Indies. . MORISONIA, a genus of the polyandria order, in the monadelphia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 25th order, putaminea. The calyx is single and bifid; the corolla tctrapetalous; there is one pistil; the berry has a hard bark, is unilocular, polysper- mous, and pedceellated. There is one species, a tree of South America. „ „ , „,, , .. , MORMYRUS, a genus of fishes of the branchiostege- ons order, the generic character is. head smooth; teeth numerous, notched: aperture of the gills linear, without a cover; gill membrane with one ray; body scaly. There are three sneeies. The kannume has the tail bifid, ob- tose; doi^rfin with 63 rays. It inhabits the Nile; Ijody whitish and much compressed. MOROC CO, maroquin, in commerce, a fine kind of leather prepared of the skin of an animal ofthe goat-kind, and imported from the Levant, Barbary, &c. The name was probably taken from" the kingdom of Morocco, whence the manner of preparing it was bor- rowed, which is this: the skins being first dried in tbe hair, are steeped in water three days and nights; then stretched on a tanner's horse, beaten with a large knife, and steeped afresh in water every day: they are then thrown into a large vat in the ground, full of water, where quicklime has been slacked, and there lie fifteen days; whence they are taken, and again returned every night and morning. They arc next thrown into a fresh. vat of lime and water, and shifted tughtand momingfor fifteen days longer: then rinsed in clear water, and the hair taken off on the leg with a knife, returned into a third vat, and shifted as before for eighteen days; steep- ed twelve hours in a river, taken out, rinsed, put in pails, where they are pounded with wooden pestles, changing the water twice; then laid on the horse, and the flesh ta- ken off; returned into pails of new water, taken out, and the hair-side scraped; returned into fresh pails, taken out, and thrown into a pail of a particular form, having hobs at bottom: here they are beaten for the space of an hour, and fresh water poured on from time to time; then be- ing stretched on the leg, and scraped on either side, they are returned into pails of fresh water, taken out, stretch- ed and sewed up all around in the manner of bags, leav- ing out the hinder legs as an aperture for the conveyance of a certain mixure. The skins thus sewed are. put in lukewarm water, where dogs excrements have been dissolved. Here they are stirred with long poles for half an hour, left at rest a dozen, taken out, rinsed in fresh water, and filled by a tunnel, with a preparation of water and sumac, mixed and heated over the fire till ready to boil; and, as they are filled, the bind legs are sewed up to stop the passage. In this state they are let down into the vessel of water and sumac, and kept stirring for four hours successively; taken out and heaped on one another; after a little time their sides are changed, and thus they continue an hour and a half till drained. This done, they are loosened, and filled a second time with the same preparation, sew- ed up again, and kept stirring two hours, piled up and drained as before. This process is again repeated, with this difference, that they are then only stirred a quarter of an hour; after which they are left till next morning, when they are taken out, drained on a rack, unsieved, the sumac taken out, folded in two from head to tail, the hair side outwards, laid over each other on the leg, to perfect their draining, stretched out and dried: then tram- pled under foot by two and two, stretched on a wooden table, what flesh and sumac remains scraped off, the hair- side rubbed over with oil, and that again with water. They are then wrung with the hands, stretched, and pressed tight on the table vvith an iron-instrument like that of a currier, the flesh side uppermost; then turned, and the hair-side rubbed strongly over with a handful of rushes, to squeeze out as much of the oil remaining as possible. The first course of black is now laid on the h-iir-side. by means of a lock of hair twisted and steeped in a kind of black dye, prepared of sour beer, wherein pieces of old rusty iron have been thrown. When half-dried in the MOH M 0 R air, they are stretched on a table, rubbed over every way with a paumelle, or wooden-toothed instrument, to raise the grain, overwhichis passed a light couch of water, then sleeked by rubbing them with rushes prepared for the purpose. Thus sleeked, they have a second course of black, then dried, laid on the table, rubbed over with a paumelle of cork, to raise the grain again; and, after a light couch of water, sleeked over anew; and to raise ihe grain a third time, a paumelle of wood is used. After the hair-side has received all its preparations, the flesh-side is pared with a sharp knife for the purpose: the hair-side is strongly rubbed with a woollen cap, hav- ing before given it a gloss with barberries, citron, or orange. The whole is finished by raising the grain light- ly, for the last time, with the paumelle of cork; so that they are now fit for the market. Manner of preparing red Morocco: after steeping, stretching, scraping, beating, and rinsing the skins, as before, they are at length wrung, stretched on the leg, and passed after each other into water where alum has been dissolved. Thus alumed, they are left to drain till morning, then wrung out, pulled on the leg, and folded from head to tail, the flesh inwards. In this state they receive their first dye, by passing them after one another into a red liquor prepared with laque, and some other ingredients, whicli the marowqui- neers keep a secret. This they repeat again and again, till the skins have got their first colour; then they are rinsed in clear water, stretched on the leg, and left to drain twelve hours; thrown into water through a sieve, and stirred incessantly for a day with long poles; taken out, hung on a bar across the water all night, white against red, and red against white, and inthe morning the water stirred up, and the skins returned into it for twenty-four hours. MORTALITY, Bills of, accounts of the numbers of deaths or burials in any parish or district. The esta- blishment of registers of this kind iu Great Britain, was occasioned by the plague, and an abstract of them was published weekly, to show the increase or decrease of the disorder, that individuals might judge of the necessity of removal, or of taking other precautions against it, and go- vernment be informed ofthe propriety or success of any public measures relating to the disorder. The first di- rections for keeping registers of births and burials were contained in the injunctions to the clergy, issued in the year 1538, which not being properly attended to, were enforced in 1547, and again in the beginning ofthe reign of Elizabeth, who also appointed a protestation to be made by the clergy, in which among other things, they promise to keep the register-book in a proper manner. One ofthe canons of the church prescribes very minute- ly in what manner entries are to be made in the parish- registers, and orders an attested copy of the register of each successive year to be annually transmitted to the bishop of the diocese or his chancellor, and to be preserv- ed in the bishop's registry. These registers have only been occasionally communicated to the public, and that without sufficient particulars to supply much information; but in London, and the surrounding parishes, the parish- clerks are required to make a weekly return of burials, with the age and disease of which the person died; a sum- mary of which account is published weekly; and on tbe Thursday before Christmas-day, a general account is made up for the whole year. These accounts of christen- ings and burials, taken by the company of parish clerks of London, were began 21st Dec. 1592, but were not made public till 1594; and towards the end of the follow- ing year, upon the ceasing of the plague, they wore dis- continued; at this time the London bills of mortality com- prehended but 109 parishes. In 1603, the weekly bills of mortality were resumed, and have been regularly con- tinued ever since; the number of parishes included in them has been increased at different times, and at present is 146. Bills of mortality, especially such as give the ages of the dead and the disorders of which they died, furnish mnch useful information; they show the different de- grees of healthiness of seasons or districts, the progress of population, and the probabilities of the duration of human life in any part of the usual term of existence; they are the foundations on which all tables of the value of annuities on lives, or depending on survivorsbip, have been constructed. In 1662, Mr. John Graunt published some ingenious observations on the London Bills of Mortality, which were much enlarged in subsequent editions. Sir William Petty, in 1683, made considerable use ofthe information afforded by them, in his Political Arithmetic. In 1742, Mr. T. Simpson published his Treatise on Annuities, in which he inserted a table formed by Mr. Smart from the London bills of mortality, with some corrections which appeared necessary: in 1746, Mr. De Parcieux, in an Es- sai sur les Probabilites, de la Vic humaine, made some objections to Mr. Simpson's alterations in the London bills, hut without sufficient foundation; and in 1752, Mr. Simpson, in a supplement to his Treatise on Annuities,. made use of the same table from the London bills, but adapted to a different radix. In 1769, Dr. Price pub- lished his treatise on Reversionary Payments, in which, particularly in the subsequent editions, many valuable observations are to be found on the bills of mortality of different places, and very accurate tables are given ofthe expectation of life, and the value of annuities, according to these bills. Dr. Price remarks, that in every place which just sup- ports itself in the number of its inhabitants, without any recruits from other places; or where, for a course of years, there has been no increase or decrease, the num- ber of persons dying every year at any particular age, aud above it, must be equal to the number of the living at that age. The number, for example, dying every year, at all ages, from the beginning to the utmost extremity of life, must, in such situation, be just equal to the whoft number born every year. And for the same reason, the number dying every year at one year of age and up- wards, at two years of age and upwards, at three and upwards, and so on, must be equal to the numbers that attain to those ages every year; or, which is the same, to the numbers of the living at those ages. It is obvious, that unless this happens, the number of inhabitants can- not remain the same; it follows, therefore, that in a town or country, where there is no increase or decrease, bills of mortality which give the ages at which all die, will show the exact number of inhabitants; and also the exact law, according to which human life wastes iu that town \ M 0 R or country. In order to find the number of inhabitants, tbe mean numbers dying annually at every particular age and upwards, must be taken as given by the bills, and placed under one another in the order of the second column: see Table 1, article Expectation. These num- bers will be the numbers of the living at l, 2, 3, &c. years of age; and, consequently, the sum, diminished by half the number born annually, will be the whole num- ber of inhabitants. The bills of mortality, in some parts of Great Britain, are known to be materially defective; the deficiencies may chiefly be ascribed to the following circumstances: l.Many congregations of dissenters, inhabiting towns, have their own peculiar biirying-grounds; as have the Jews, and the Roman Catholics, who reside in London. 2. Some persons, from motives of poverty or conveni- ence, inter their dead without any religious ceremony; this is known to happen in the metropolis, in Bristol, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and may happen in a few otberlarge towns. 3. Children who die before baptism are interred without any religious ceremony, and consequent- ly are not registered. 4. Negligence may be supposed to caiisc some omissions in the registers, especially in those small benefices, where the officiating minister is not re- sident. 5. Many persons employed in the army and in navigation die abroad, and consequently their burials re- main unregistered. Whatever may be the total number of deaths and burials, which from these several circum- stances are not brought to account, it has been comput- ed that about 5000 of them may be attributed to the me- tropolis, and a large portion of the rest may be ascribed to the other great towns, and to Wales, where tlie regis- ters arc less carefully kept than in England. The annual amount of the burials, as collected con- formably to the population act, authorizes a satisfactory inference of diminishing mortality in England since the year 1780; the number of marriages and baptisms, indi- cates that the existing population in 1801, was to that of 1780, as 117 to 100, while the amount of registered burials remained stationary during the same period; the first five years of which, as well as the last five years, and all the 21 years taken together, equally averaged about 186,000 per annum. The whole number of baptisms, collected for the pur- poses of the population act, was 6,436,110; of these 3,285,188 were males, and 3,150,922 females; so that the baptisms of males were 10,426 to 10,000 baptism of fe- males. The whole number of the burials appeared to be 5,165,844; of whicli 2,575,762 were males, and 2,590,082 females, so thatthe burials of males were 9,944 to 10,000 burials of females. It may be inferred hence, that of 10,426 males born in England, only 9,944 die at home; therefore, about one in twenty-two dies abroad in the employments of war and commerce; a pioportion which stongly marks the enterprising character ofthe nation. MORTAR-piece, a short piece of ordnance, conside- rably thick and wide; serving to throw bombs, carcases, fire-pots, &c. See Gunnery. MORTGAGE, signifies a pawn of land or tenement, or any thing immoveable, laid or bound for money bor- rowed, to be the creditor's for ever, if the money is not paid at the day agreed upon; and the creditor holding land and tenement upon this bargain, is called tenant in M O R the mortgage. He who pledges the pawn, or gage, is call- ed the mortgager, and he who takes it, the mortgagee. The last and best improvement of mortgages seems to be, that in the mortgage-deed of a term for years, or in the assignment thereof, the mortgagor should covenant for himself and his heirs, that if default is made in the payment of the money at the day, then he and his heirs will, at the costs of the mortgagee and his heirs, convey the freehold and inheritance of the mortgaged lands to the mortgagee and his heirs, or to such person or per- sons (to prevent merger of the term) as he or they shall direct and appoint: for the reversion, after the term of fifty or a hundred years, being little worth, and yet the mortgagee for want thereof continuing but a termer, and subject to a forfeiture, &c. and not capable of the privi- leges of a freholder; therefore when the mortgagor can- not redeem the land, it is but reasonable the mortgagee should have the whole interest and inheritance of it to dispose of it as absolute owner. 3 Bac. Abr. 633. Although after breach of the condition, an absolute fee- simple is vested at common law in the mortgagee; yet a right of redemption being still inherent in the land, till the equity of redemption is foreclosed, the same right shall descend to, and is invested in, such persons as had a right to the land, in case there had been no mortgagee or incumbrance whatsoever; and as an equitable perform- ance as effectually defeats the interests of the mortgage, as the legal performance does at common law, the con- dition still hanging over the estate till the equity is total- ly foreclosed; on this foundation it has been held that a person who comes in under a voluntary conveyance, may redeem a mortgage; and though such right of redemp- tion is inherent in the land, yet the party claiming the benefit of it, must not only set forth such right, but also show that he is the person entitled to it. Hard. 465. But if a mortgage is forfeited, and thereby the estate absolutely vested in the mortgagee at common law, yet a court of equity will consider the real value ofthe tene- ments, compared with the sum borrowed. And if the es- tate is of greater value than the sum lent thereon, thejj will allow the mortgagor, at any reasonable time, to recal or redeem the estate, paying to the mortgagee Ids principal, interest, and costs. This reasonable advantage, allowed to the mortgagors, is called the equity of redemp- tion. 2 Black. 159. It is a ^rule established in equity, analogous to the sta- tute of limitation, that after twenty years possession of five mortgagee, he shall not be disturbed, unless there are ex- traordinary circumstances; as in the case of femes covert, infants, and the like. 3 Atk. 313. MORTISE, or Mortoise, in carpentry, kc. a kind of joint, wherein a hole of a certain depth is made in apiece of timber, which is to receive another piece called a te- non. MORTMAIN, signifies an alienation of lands and tenements, to any guild, corporation, or fraternity, and their successors, as bishops, parsons, vicars, kc which may not be done without the king's licence, and the lord ofthe manor; or of the king alone, if it is immediately holden of him. But in order to prevent any imposition in respect to the disposal of lands to charitable uses, which might arise in a testator's last hours, and in some measure, i'rom po* MORUS. litical principles, to restrain devises in mortmain, or tlie too great accumulation of land in hands where it lies dead, and not subject to change possession, it is provided by stat. 9 G. II. c. 36, (called the statute of mortmain), that no manors, lands, tenements, rents, advowsons, or other hereditements, corporeal or incorporeal, whatsoev- er, nor any sum or sums of money, goods, chattels, stocks in the public funds, securities for money, or other personal estate whatsoever, to be laid out or disposed of ii the pur- chase of any lands, tenements, or hereditaments, shall be given, limited, or appointed by will, to any person or per- sons, bodies politic or corporate, or otherwise for any estate or interest whatsoever; or any ways charged or in- cumbered by any person or persons whatsoever, in trust, or for the benefit of any charitable use whatsoever; but such gift shall be by deed indented, sealed and delivered in the presence of two or more credible witnesses, twelve calender months at least before the death of such donor, and be enrolled in the high court of chancery within six calender months after execution for the charitable use intended; and be without any power of revocation, reser- vation, or trust, for benefit of the donor. And all gifts and appointments whatsoever, of any lands, tenements, or other hereditaments, or of any estate or interest there- in, or of any charge or incumbrance affecting <>r to af- fect any lands, tenements, or hereditaments, or any per- son;)! estate to be laid out in tbe purchase of any lands, tenements, or hereditaments, or any estate or interest therein, or of any charge or incumbrance affecting or to affect the same, to or in trust for any charitable use whatsoever, made in any other manner than is directed by this act, shall be absolutely null and void. But the two universities, their colleges, and the scholars upon the foundation of the colleges at Eton, Westminster, and Winchester, are excepted out of this act; but with this proviso, that no college shall be at liberty to purchase more advowsons than are equal in number to one moiety of the fellows or students upon the respective founda- tions. MORUS, the mulberry-tree, a genus ofthe tretran- dria order, in the moneecia class of plants; and in the na- tural method ranking under the 53d order, scabridse. The male calyx is quadripartite; and there is no corolla: the female calyx is tetraphyllous; there is no corolla; two style*; the calyx like a berry, with one seed. There are seven species, viz. 1. The nigi'a, or common black- fruited mulberry-tree, rises with an upright, large, rough trunk, dividing into a branchy and very spreading head, rising 20 feet high, or more. 2. The alba, or white mul- ben y-tree, rises with an upright trunk, branching 20 or 30 feet high. There is a variety with purplish fruit. 3. The papyrifera, or paper mulberry-tree of Japan, grows 20 or 30*feet high; having large palmated leaves, some trilobate, others quinquelobed; and monoecious flowers, succeeded by small black fruit. 4. The rubra, or red Vir- ginia mulberry-tree, grows 30 feet high; and has large reddish berries. 5. The tinctoria, dyer's mulberry, or fustic, has oblong leaves more extended on one side at the base, with axillary thorns. It is a native of Brasil and Jamaica. 6. The tartarica, or Tartarian mulberry, has ovate oblong leaves, equal on both sides, and equal- ly serrated. It abounds on the banks of the Wolga and tlie Tauais. 7. The Indica, or India;1, mulberry, has ovate oblong leaves, equal on both sides, but unequally ser- rated. The last three species arc tender plants in this coun- try; but the four first are very hardy, and succeed in any common soil and situation. The leaves are generally late before they come out, the buds seldom beginning to fill till the middle or towards the latter end of May, accor- ding to the temperature of the season; and when these trees, in particular, begin to expand their foliage, it is a good sign ofthe near approach of fine warm settled wea- ther; the white mulberry, however, is generally forward- er in leafing than the black. Considered as fruit-trees, the nigra is the only pro- per sort to cultivate here; the trees being not only the most plentiful bearers, but the fruit is larger and much finer-flavoured than that of the white kind, which is the only other sort that bears in this country. The three next species are chiefly employed to form variety in our ornamental plantations; though abroad they are adapted to more useful purposes. The wood ofthe mulberry-tree is yellow, tolerably hard, and may be applied to various uses in turnery and carving: but in order to separate the bark, which is rough, thick, thready, and fit for being made into ropes, it is proper to steep the wood in water. Mulberry-trees are noted for their leaves affording the principal food of that valuable insect the silkworm. The leaves of the alba, or white species, are preferred for this purpose in Europe; but in China where the best silk is made the worms are said to be fed with those of the moms tartarica. The advantages of white mulberry- trees are not confined to the nourishment of worms: they may be cut every three or four years like sallows and poplar trees, to make faggots; and the sheep eat their leaves in winter, before they are burnt. This kind of food, of which they are extremely fond, is very nour- ishing; it gives a delicacy to the flesh, and a fineness and beauty to the wool. The papyrifera, or paper-mulberry, is so called from the paper chiefly used by the Japanese being made of the bark of its branches. The leaves of this species also serve for food to the silkworm, and it is now cultivated with success in France. It thrives best in sandy soils, grows faster than the common mulberry, and at the same time is not injured by the cold. M. de la Bouviere affirms that he procured a beautiful vegetable silk from the bark of the young branches of this species of mulberry, which he cut while the tree was in sap, and afterwards beat and steepod. The women of Louisiana procure the same kind of production from the shoots which issue from the stock of the mulberry, and which are four or five feet high. After taking off the bark, they dry it in the sun, and then beat it that the external part may fall off; and the internal part, which is fine bark, remains entire. This is again beaten, to make it still finer: after which they bleach it with dew. It is then spun, and various fa- brics are made from it, such as nets and fringes: they even sometimes weave it and make it into cloth. The finest sort of cloth among the inhabitants of Otaheite and others of the South Sea islands, is made of the bark of this tree. The tinctoria is a fine timber-tree, and a principal in- gredient in most of our yellow dyes, for which it is ehief- ly imported into Europe. The" berries are sweet and M 0 S MOT wholesome; but not much used, except by the winged tribe, by whose care it is chiefly planted. MOSAIC, or mosaic-work, an assemblage of little pieces of glass, marble, precious stones, &c. of various colours, cut square and cemented on a ground of stucco, in such a manner as to imitate the colours of painting. MOSCHUS, musk, a genus of quadrupeds ofthe order pecora: the generic character is, horns none; front teeth in the lower jaw eight, tusks solitary, in the upper jaw exserted. 1. Moschus moschiferus, Tibetian musk. The musk is one of those quadrupeds whose true form and natural his- tory appear to have continued in great obscurity long after the introduction and general use of the celebrated perfume which it produces. To the ancients it was un- known, and was first mentioned by the Arabians, whose physicians used the drug in their practice. The animal was by some considered as a kind of goat, by others as a species of deer or antelope, and was, of course, supposed to be a horned animal; nor was ittill about the decline of the seventeenth century that a tolerably accurate des- cription or figure was to be found. The size and general appearance of this animal resemble those of a small roebuck. It measures about three feet three inches in length, about two feet three inches in height from the top of the shoulders to the bottom of the fore- feet, and two feet nine inches from the top ofthe haun- ches to the bottom of the hind feet. The upper jaw is considerably longer than the lower, and is furnished on each side with a curved tusk about two inches long. These tusks are of a different form from those of any other quadruped; being sharp-edged on their inner or lower side, so as to resemble, in some degree, a pair of small crooked knives: their substance is a kind of ivory, as in the tusks of the babyrussa and some other animals. The general colour ofthe whole body is a kind of deep iron-grey; the tips of the hairs being of a feruginous cast, the remainder blackish, growing much paler or whitish towards the roots. See Plate XCl. Nat. Hist. fig. 270. The female is smaller than the male, and wants the tusks; it has also two small teats. They are hunted for the sake of their well-known per- fume: which is contained in an oval receptacle about the size of a small egg, hanging from the middle ofthe ab- domen, and peculiar to the animal. This receptacle is found constantly filled with a soft, unctuous, brownish substance, of the most powerful and penetrating smell; and which is no other than the perfume in its natural state. As soon as the animal is killed, the hunters cut off the receptacle or musk-bag, and tie it up ready for sale. The animals must of necessity be extremely numerous in some parts, since we are assured by Tavernier, the cele- brated merchant and traveller, that he purchased, in one of his Eastern journeys, no less than seven thousand six hundred and seventy-three musk-bags. So violent is the smell of musk, when fresh-taken from the animal, or from quantities put up by the merchants for sale, that it has been known to force the blood from the nose, eyes, and ears, of those who have imprudently in- haled its vapours. As musk is an expensive drug, it h frequently adulte- rated by various substances; and we arc assured that pieces of lead has been found in some of the receptacles, inserted in order to increase the weight. The smell of musk is so remarkably diffusive, that every thing in its neighbourhood becomes strongly infected with it; even a silver cup that has had musk in it does not part with the scent, though other odours are in general very readi- ly discharged from metallic substances. As a medicine it is held in high estimation inthe Eas- tern countries, and has now been introduced into pretty general use among ourselves, especially in those disor- ders which are commonly termed nervous; and in con- vulsive and other cases, it is often exhibited in pretty large doses with great success. 2. Moschus Indicus, or the Indian musk. This spe- cies is said to be rather larger than the common or Tibe- tian musk, of the colour mentioned in the specific char- acter, with the head shaped like that of a horse, upright oblong ears, and slender legs. It is a native of India. 3. Moschus pygmaeus, or the pygmy musk, is conside- rably smaller than a domestic cat, measuring little more than nine inches from the nose to the tail. Its colour is bright bay, white beneath and on the insides of the thighs. Its shape is beautiful, and the legs are so slender as not to exceed the diameter of a swan-quill; the head is rather large, and the aspect mild. It is a native of ma- ny parts of the East Indies and the Indian islands, and is said to be most common in Java, where the natives catch great numbers in snares, and carry them to the markets in their cages for sale. According to Mr. Pen- nant they may be purchased at so low a rate as two pence halfpenny a piece. There are three other species. MOSQUE, a temple or place of religious worship among the Mahometans. All mosques are square buildings,generally built with stone; before the chief gate there is a square court, paved with white marble, and low galleries round it, whose roof is supported by marble pillars. In these galleries tho Turks wash themselves before they go into the mosque. In each mosque there are a great number of lamps; and between these hang many crystal rings, ostriches' eggs, and other curiosities, which, when the lamps are lighted, make a fine show. As it is not lawful to enter the mosques with shoes or stockings on, the pavements are covered with pieces of stuff sewed together, each being wide enough to hold a row of men kneeling, sitting, or pros- trate. The women are not allowed to enter the mosques, but stay in the porches without. About every mosque there are six high towers,called minarets, each of which has three little open galleries, one above another: these towers, as well as the mosques, are covered with lead, and adorned with gilding and other ornaments; and from thence, instead of a bell, the people are called to prayer by certain officers appointed for that purpose. .Most of the mosques have a kind of hospital belonging to them, in which travellers, of what religion soever, are enter- tained during three days. Each mosque has also a place called tarbe, which is the burying-place of its founders; within whicli is a tomb six or seven feet long, ccm-red with green velvet or sattin, at the ends of which are two tapers, and round it several seats for those who read the koran, and pray for the souls of the deceased. MOSS. See Musco. MOTACILLA, the wagtail and warbler, a genus of birds ofthe order of passcres, distinguished by a straight MOTACILLA. weak bill of a snbulated figure, a tongue lacerated at the end, and very slender legs. 1. The alba, or white wagtail, frequents the sides of ponds and small streams, and feeds on insects and worms. The head, back, and upper and lower side of the neck as far as the breast, are black; in s; me the chin is white, and the throat marked with a black crescent; the breast and belly are white. The tail is very long, and always in motion. Mr. Willughby observed, that this species shifts its quarters in the winter, moving from the north to the south of England during that season. In spring and autumn it is a constant attendant on the plough, for the sake of the worms thrown up by that instrument. 2. The ^ava, or yellow wagtail, migrates in the north of England, but in Hampshire continues the whole yeaw The male is a bird of great beauty; the breast, belly, thighs, and vent-feathers, being of a most vivid and lovely yellow. The colours of the female are far more obscure than those of the male: it wants also those black spots on the throat. 3. The regulus, or gold-crested wren, is a native of Europe, and of the correspondent latitudes of Asia and America. It is the least of all the European birds, weigh- ing only a single drachm. Its length is about four inches and a half, and the wings when spread out measure little more than six inches. On the top of its head is a beauti- ful orange-coloured spot, called its crest, which it can hide at pleasure; the margins of the crest are yellow, and it ends in a pretty broad black line; the sides of the neck are of a beautiful yeilowish-green; the eyes sur- rounded with a white circle; the neck and back of a dark green mixed with yellow. In America it associates with the titmice, running up and down the bark of lofty oaks with them, and collecting its food in their company, as if they were all of one brood. It feeds on insects lodged in the winter dormitories in a torpid state. It is said to sing very melodiously. 4. The sutoria, or taylor-bird, is a native of the East Indies. It is remarkable for the art with which it makes its nest, seemingly in order to secure itself and its young, in the roost perfect manner possible, against all danger from voracious animals. It picks up a dead leaf, and sews it to the side of a living one: its slender bill is the needle, and its thread is formed of some fine fibres; the lining is composed of feathers, gossamer, and down. The colour of the bird is light, yellow; its length three inches, and its weight only three-sixteenths of an ounce; so that the materials of the nest and its own size are not likely to draw down a habitation depending on so slight a te- nure. 5. The iucinia, or nightingale, exceeds in size the hedge-sparrow. The bill is brown; the irides are hazel; the head and back pale tawny, dashed with olive; the tail is of a deep tawny red; the under parts pale ash-colour, growing white towards the vent; the quills are cinereous brown. The male and female are very similar. This bird, the most famed of the feathered tribe for the va- riety, length, and sweetness of its notes, is supposed to be migratory. It is met with in Siberia, Sweden, Ger- many, France, Italy, and Greece. Hasselquist speaks of it as being in Palestine, and Fryer ascertains its being found about Chulminor in Persia; it is also spo- ken of as a bird of China, Kamtschatka, and Japan; at whicli last place they are much esteemed, and sell dear; as they are also at Aleppo, where they are " in great abundance kept tame in houses, and let out at a small rate to such as choose it in the city, so that no en- tertainment is made in the spring without a concert of these birds." They are solitary birds, never uniting into even small flocks; and in respect to the nests, it is very seldom that two are found near each other. The female builds in some low bush or quickset edge, well covered with foliage, for such only this bird frequents; and lays four or five eggs of a greenish-brown. The nest is composed of dry leaves on the outside, mixed with grass and fibres, lined with hair or down within, though not always alike. The female alone sits on and hatches the eggs, while the male not far off regales her with his delightful song; but as soon as the young are hatched, he commonly leaves off singing, and joins with the female in the task of provid- ing for and feeding them. After the young can provide for themselves, the old female provides for a second brood, and the song of tiie male recommences. They have been known to have three broods in a year, and in the hot countries even four. These birds are often brought up from the nest for the sake of their song. They are like- wise caught at their first coming over; and though old birds yet by management can be made to bear confine- ment, and to sing equally with those brought up from the nest. None but the vilest epicure, as Mr. Latham re- marks, would think of eating these charming songsters; yet we are told that their flesh is equal to that of the or- tolan, and they are fatted in Gascony for the table. 6. The modularis, or hedge-sparrow, a well-known bird, has the back and wing-coverts of a dusky hue, edged with reddish-brown; rump of a greenish-brown; threat and breast of a dull ash-colour; the belly a dirty white; and the legs of a dull flesh-colour. The note of this bird would be thought pleasant, did it not remind us of the approach of winter; beginning with the first frosts, and continuing till a little time in spring. Its often re- peating the word tit, tit, tit, has occasioned its being called titling; a name it is known by in many places. 7. The phcenicurus, or redstart, is somewhat less than the redbreast; the forehead is white; the crown of the head, hind part of the neck, and back, are deep blue-grey; the checks and throat black; the breast, rump, and sides, red; and the belly is white; the two middle tail-feathers are brown; the rest red; and the legs are black. The wings are brown in both sexes. This bird is migratory; coming hither in spring, and departing in autumn about October. Itis not so shy as many birds in respect to itself; for it approaches habita- tions, and frequently makes its nest in some hole of a wall where numbers of people pass by frequently; yet it is content, if no one meddles with the nest. This bird frequently wags its tail; but docs it sideways, like a dog, when he is pleased, and not up and down like the wagtail. It is with difficulty that these birds arc kept in a cage; nor will they submit to it by any means if caught old. Their song has no great strength; yet it is agreeable enough; and they wiil, if taught young, imitate tbe notes of other birds, and sing by night frequently as well as in the day-time. 8- The rubecula, or redbreast is universally known. MOT* M O T It abounds in Burgundy and Lorraine, Avhere numbers are taken for the table, and thnught uxcollont. It builds w>t far i'rom tbe ground if in a bush; though sometimes it lirvcs on an out-house, or retired part of some old build- ing. The nest is composed of dried leaves, mixed with hair and moss, and lined with feathers. The eggs are of a dusky white, marked with irregular reddish spots; and are from three to seven in number. The young, when full-feathered, may be taken for a different bird, being spotted all over. The first rudiments of the red break forth on the breast about the end of August, but itis quite the end of September before they come to the full colour. Insects are their general food; but in defect of these they will cat many other things. No bird is so tame and fa- miliar as this; closely attending the heels of the gardener when he is using his spade, for the sake of worms; and frequently in winter entering houses where windows are open, when they will pick up the crumbs from the table while the family is at dinner. Its familiarity has caused a petty name to be given it in several countries. The people about Boruholm call it Tommi-liden: in .Norway, i'etcr-ronsmad; the Germans, Thomas-gierdet; and we, the Robin-rcd-breast. 9. The ocnanthe, or wheatear, is in length five inches and a half. The top of the head, hind part of the neck, and back, are of a blueish grey; and ovgr the eye a streak of white; the under parts of the body yellowish-white: the breast is tinged with red; and the legs are black. This bird is met with in most parts of Europe, even as far as Greenland: and specimens have also been received from the East Indies. It visits England annually in the middle of March, and leaves us in September. It chiefly frequents heaths. The nest is usually placed under shel- ter of some turf, clod, stone, or the like, always on the ground, and not unfrequently in some deserted rabbit- burrow. Itis composed of dry grass or moss, mixed with wool, fur of the rabbit, &c. or lined with hair and fea- thers. The eggs arc from five to eight in number, of a li.^ht blue, with a deeper-blue circle at the large end. The young arc hatched the middle of May. In some parts of England these birds are in vast plenty. About East- bourn in Sussex they are taken in snares made of horse- hair placed beneath a long turf: being very timid birds, the motion of a cloud, or the appearance of a hawk, will drive them for shelter into these traps, and so they are taken. The numbers annually ensnared in that district alone amount to about 1840 dozen, wiiich usually sell at sixpence per dozen. Quantities of these are eaten on the spot by the neighbouring inhabitants; others are picked, and sent up to the London poulterers; and many are potted, being as much esteemed in England as the ortolan on the continent. Their food is insects only; though in rainy summers they feed much on earth-worms, ^In-nee they are fattest in such seasons. 10. The cyanea, or superb warbler, a most beautiful species, is five inches and a half long. The bill is black; Hie feathers of the head are long, and stand erect like a bill crest; from the forehead to the crown they are of a Mght blue; thence to the nape, black like velvet; through tlie eyes from the bill there runs a line of black; and be- neath the eye springs a tuft of the same blue feathers; beneath which, and on the chin, it is of a deep blue, al- most black, and feeling like velvet. The hind part of the VOL. II. 98 neck, and Upper parts of the body ami tail, arc of a deep blue-black, the under pure white; the wings are dusky; the shafts of the quills chesnut; the legs are dusky brown; the claws black. It inhabits Van Dicim-n's Land, the most southern part of New Holland. The female of this species, is discovered to be entirely destitute of all the fine blue colours, both pale and dark, by which the male is adorned, except that there is a very narrow circle of azure round each eye, apparently on the skin only. 11. The troglodytes, or wren, is a very small specie, in [length only three inches and three quarters, thot gh some have measured four inches. It generally carries ine tail erect. This minute bird is found throughout Eu- rope; and in England it defies our severest winters. Its song is much esteemed, being, though short, a pleasing warble, and much louder than could be expected from the size of the bird; it continues throughout the year. The sylvia builds in low buslies, and lays five pale- green eggs, sprinkled with reddish spots. Sec Plato XCl. Nat. Hist. fig. 271. Above 150 other species, besides varieties, are enume- rated by ornithologists. MOTE, in law-books, signifies court, meeting, or convention, as award-mote, burgh-mote,swain-mote, &c. MOTH. See Phal.eka. • MOTION, has been defined to be " a change of place," or the act by which a body corresponds with different parts of space at different times. We are principally acquainted with two sorts of mo- tion inthe beings that surround us; one is the motion bv which an entire body is transferred from one place to another, as that of a stone when it falls, or of a ship un- der sail. It is this species of motion which most frequently comes under our observation, and with which wc are be-t acquainted. But besides this, there is another kind of motion, which, though not so obvious, is yet not less com- mon nor important. This is a motion of tbe parts of bodies among themselves, which though sometimes the object of our senses, yet in other cases we require the aid of reflection to be convinced of its existence. It is by this imperceptible motion that plants and animals grow, and by which the greatest number of the compositions and decompositions throughout the globe take place. We may form some idea of this, by observing the continual motion of the light particles which sometimes float about in water,-when it is held in the rays of the sun, vvlii.h. proves, that the parts ofthe water themselves are incon- stant motion. But if we reflect a little, we shall discover that the particles of the most solid bodies are also con- tinually changing their situations. Heat expands, and cold contracts, the size of all bodies; now, we know from experience, that tho temperature of bodies is constantly varying, consequently, the particles must he in continual agitation, in order to adapt themselves to the size of the body. The communication of motion from one body to another though a fact with whicli we are well acquainted, we are equally incapable of accounting for. It is, however! of tlie utmost importance in mechanics, which is indeed'en art derived from the study of its laws. Iu considering motion, several circumstances must be attended to: I. The force which impresses the motion. 2. The MOTION. j quantity of matter in the moving body. 5. The velocity and direction ot the motion. 4. 'Tiie spare j.r.^cd over by the moving body. 5. The time employed in going over this space. 6. The force with which it strikes another body that is opposed to it. In a mechanical sense, every body, by its inertia, re- sists all change of state. If at rest, it will not begin to move of itself; and if motion is communicated to it by another body, it will continue to move forever uniformly, except it is stopped by an external agent. It is true, wc do not see any instances of bodies continuing to move for ever, after being once put in motion; but the reason of this is, that all the bodies which we see are acted upon in such a manner, as to have their motion gradually destroyed by friction, or the rubbing of other bodies upon them. For if you diminish the friction by any means, the motion will continue much longer; but as it is impossible to destroy itentirely, it diminishes, and at last destroys, all motions on the surface of the earth. To put a body in motion, therefore, there must be a sufficient cause. These causes arc called motive powers, and the following are those generally used in mechanics; the actioii of men and other animals, wind, water, gravity, the pressure of the at- mosphere, and the elasticity of fluids and other bodies. The velocity of motion is estimated by the time em- ployed in moving over a certain space, or by the space moved over in acertain time. To ascertain the degree of this swiftness or velocity, the space run over must be di- vided by the time. For example: suppose a body moves over 1000 yards in 10 minutes, its velocity will be 100 yards per minute. If we would compare the velocity of iwo bodies A and B, of which A moves over 54 yards in 9 minutes, and B 96 yards in 6 minutes, the velocity of A will be to that of B, in the proportion of 6 (the quotient of 54 divided by 9) to 16 (the quotient of 96 divided by 6)- To know the space run over, the velocity must be mul- tiplied by the time; for it is evident, that if eitlier the velocity or the time is increased, the space run over will be greater. If the velocity is doubled, then the body will move over twice the space in the same time; or if the time is twice as great, then the space will be doubled; but if the velocity and time are both doubled, then will the space be four times as great. It follows from this, that when two bodies move over unequal spaces in unequal times, their velocities are to each other as the quotients arising from dividing the spaces run over by the times. If two bodies move over unequal spaces inthe same time, their velocities will be in proportion to the spaces passed over. And if two bodies move over equal spaces in unequal times, then their re- spective velocities will be inversely as the time employed; that is, if A in one minute, and B in two minutes, run over 100 yards, the velocity of A will be to that of B as 2 to 1. A body in motion must every instant tend to some par- ticular point. It may either tend always to the same point, in which case the motion will he in a straight line; or it may be continually changing the point to which its motion is directed, and this will produce a curvilinear motion. If a body is acted upon only by one force, or by seve- ral in the same direction; its motion will be in the same direction in which the moving-force acts; as the motion of a boat which a man draws to him with a rope. But if se- veral powers, differently directed, art ny.v.v. it at the same time, as it cannot obey them all, it will move in a direc- tion somewhere between them. This is what is called the composition and resolution of motion, and is of the utmost importance in mecha- nics. Suppose a body A (Plate XCIV. Miscel. fig. 163) to be acted upon by another body in the direction A B, while at the same time it is impelled by another in the direction AC, then it will move in the direction AD; and if the lines AB, AC, are made of lengths proportionate to the forces, and the lines CD, DB, drawn parallel to them, so as to complete the parallelogram ABDC, then the line whicli the body A will describe, will be the diagonal AD; and the length of this line will represent the force with which the body will move. It is evident, that if a body is impelled by equal forces acting at right angles to each other, that it will move in the diagonal of a square; but whatever may be the direction, or degree of force by which the two powers act, the above method will always give the direction and force of the moving body. It follows from this, that if we know the effect which the joint actioii of two powers has upon a body, and the force and direction of one of them, it is easy to find that ofthe other. Frfr, suppose AD to be the direction and force with which the body moves, and AB to be one of the impelling forces, then, by completing the parallelo- gram, the other power AC is found. Instances in nature of motion produced by several pow- ers acting at the same time, are innumerable. A ship impelled by the wind and tide is one well known. A pa- per kite, acted upon by the wind and the string, is an- other. Motion is said to be accelerated, if its velocity contin- ually increases; to be uniformly accelerated, if its veloci- ty increase equally in equal times. Motion is said to be retarded, if its velocity continual- ly decreases: and to be uniformly retarded, if its veloci- ty decreases equally in equal times. If you suppose a body to be put in motion by a single impulse, and moving uniformly, to receive a new impulse in the same direction, its velocity will be augmented, and it will go on with the augmented velocity. If at each instant of its motion it receives a new im- pulse, the velocity will be continually increasing; and if this impulse is always equal, the velocity will be uniform- ly accelerated. The regularly increasing velocity with which a body falls to the carth, is an instance of accelerated motion, which is caused by the constant action of gravity. To illustrate this, let us suppose the time of descent of a fal- ling body to be divided into a number of very small equal parts; the impression of gravity, in the first small instant, would make the body descend with a proportionate and uniform velocity; but in the second instant, the body re- ceiving a new impulse from gravity, in addition to the first, would move with twice the velocity as before; in the third instant, it would have three times the velocity, and so on. To illustrate the doctrine of accelerated motion, let us suppose that, in the triangle ABC (fig. 164)» MOTION. AB expresses the time whicli a body takes to fall, and BC the velocity acquired at the end of tiie fall. Let AB be divided into a number of equal parts, indefinitely small, and from each of these divisions suppose lines, as DE, drawn parallel to BC; it is evident from what has been said, that those lines will express the velocities of the fall- ing body in the several respective points of time, each being greater than the other, by a certain quantity of in- crease, which fiMows from the nature of the triangle. Now, the spaces described in the same time, are in pro- portion to the velocities; and the sum of the spaces des- cribed in all the small portions of time, is equal to the space described from the beginning of the fall. But the sum of all the lines parallel to BC, taken indefinitely near to each other, constitutes the area of the triangle. Therefore the space described by a falling body, in the time expressed by AB, with an uniformly accelerated ve- locity, of which the last degree is expressed by BC, will be represented by the area ofthe triangle ABC. Let us now suppose that gravity ceased to act, and that the body moved during another portion of time, BB", equal to AB, with the acquired velocity represented by BC. As the space moved over is found by multiplying the velocity by the time, the rectangle CF will represent the space moved over in this second portion of time, which is twice the triangle ABC, and consequently twice the space is moved over with the accelerating velocity in the same time. But if we suppose gravity still to act, besides the space CF, which it would have moved over by its acquired ve- locity, we must add the triangle CGH, for the effect of the constant action of gravity; therefore, in this second portion of time, .the body moves over three times the space as in the first. In like manner it may be easily seen by the figure, that in the next portion it would move over five times the space; in the next seven times, and so on, in arithmetical progression. And as the velocities of falling bodies are in proportion to the spaces run over, it follows, that the velocities in each instant increase, as the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, kc. It follows from this, that the space run over is as the smiare ofthe time; that is, in twice the time, a body will fall with four times the velocity; in thrice the time, with nine times the velocity, &c. for, in the first time, there was but one space run over; the square of 1 is 1: at the end ofthe second time there are four spaces run over, one in flic first, and'three in the second; the square of 2 is 4; at the end ofthe third time there are nine spaces run over; the square of 3 is 9: and so on. This may be seen in the figure. It is found by experiment, that a body falling from a height, moves at the rate of 16^ feet in the first second; and, as has been shown above, acquires a velocity of twice that, or 321 feet in a second. At the end of the next second, it will have fallen 641 feet, the space being as the square of the time; the square of 2 is 4, and 4 times )6TV is 644. By the same rule you may find, that in the third second it will fall 144 feet; and in the next 256 feet, and so on. It is to be understood, however, that by this velocity is meant what bodies would acquire, if they were to fall through a space where there was no air; for its resistance considerably diminishes their velocity in falling. It has been already shown, that if two forces art uni- formly upon a body, they will cause it to move in a straight line; but if one of tUe forces is not uniform, but either accelerating or retarding, tlie moving body will describe a curve line. If a ball is projected from a can- non, it receives from it an impulse, which, if there was no resistance from the air, and if it was not acted upon by gravity, would cause it to move always in a straight line; but as soon as it leaves the mouth of the cannon,, gravity acts upon it, and makes it change its direction. It then describes a curve, called a parabola. This is tho foundation ofthe theory of projectiles, and the art of gun- nery; but it is not now considered to be of so much im- portance as it formerly was, as it is found that the re- sistance ofthe air, and other causes, have so much effect upon projected bodies, that they describe curves very dif- ferent from what they ought to do according to this the- ory; and therefore it is much less applicable to practise than otherwise it would be. The force with which a body moves, or whicli it would exert upon another body opposed to it, is always in pro- portion to its velocity, multiplied by its weight, or quan- tity of matter. This force is called the momentum of the body: for if two equal bodies move with differ- ent velocities, it is evident that their forces, or mo-. menta, are as their velocities; and if two bodies move with the same velocity, their momenta are as the quan* titics of matter; therefore, in all cases, their momenta must be as the products of their quantities of matter, and their velocities. This rule is the foundation of me- chanics. In consequence of the vis inertias of matter, all motion produced by one force only acting upon a body, must be rectilinear; for it must receive some particular direction from the power that impressed it, and must retain that direction until it is changed by some other power. Whenever, therefore, we sec a body moving in a curvi- linear direction, we may be certain that it is acted upon by two forces at least. When one of the two forces ceases to act, the body will move again in a straight line. Thus a stone in a sling is moved round by the hand, while it is pulled towards the centre of the circle, which it describes, by the string: but when the string is let go, the stone flies off in a tangent to the circle. Every body moved in a circle has a tendency to fly off from its centre, whicli endeavour of receding is called the centrifugal force: and it is opposed to the centripetal force; or that which, by drawing bodies towards the cen- tre,' makes them revolve in a curve. These two forces are called together central forces. The centre of gravity of a body is that point about which all the parts of a body do in any situation exactly balance each other. Hence, if a body is suspended or supported by this point, the body will rest in any position in which it is put. Also, whatever supports that point bears the weight ofthe. whole body; and while it is supported, the body can- not fall. We may therefore consider the whole weight of a body as centred in this point. The common centre of gravity of two or more bodies is the point about which they would equiponderate, or r-yt, in any position. If the centre of gravity of two bodies, A and B, (Plate \ CIV. Mis- el. fig. \eh) ;■, con- MOTION. nee ted by the right line AB, the distances AC and BC, from the common centre of gravity C, arc reciprocally as the weights ofthe bodies A and B, that is, AC : BC: B : A. If a tine is drawn from the centre of gravity of a body, perpendicular to the horizon, it is called the line of direc- tion; because itis the line thatthe centre of gravity would describe if the body fell freely. It is the property of this line, that while it falls with- in the base upon which the body stands, the body cannot fall; but if it fall without the base, the body will tumble. Thus the inclining body ABCD, (fig. 166) whose centre of gravity is E, stands firmly on its base CDIK, because the line of direction EF falls within the base. But if a weight, as ABGH, is laid upon the top of (he body, the cen- tre of gravity of the whole body aud weight together is raised to L; and then, as the line of direction LD falls without the base at D, the centre of gravity is not sup- ported, and the whole body and weight will tumble down together. Hence appears the absurdity of people's rising hastily in a coach or boat, when it is likely to overset; for by that means they raise the centre of gravity so far as to endanger throwing it quite out ofthe base, and if they do, they overset the vehicle effectually. Whereas, had they clapped down to the bottom, they would have brought the line of direction, and consequently the centre of gra- vity, farther within the base, and by that means might have saved themselves. The broader the base, and the nearer the line of direction is to the middle or rentrc of it, the more firmly does the body stand. On the contrary, the narrower the base, and the nearer the line of direction is to the side of it, the more easily may the body be overthrown, a less change of position being sufficient to remove the line of direction out of the base in the latter case than in the former. And hence it is, that a sphere is so easily rolled upon a horizontal plane; and*Jiat it is so difficult, if not impos- sible, to make things which are sharp pointed to stand upright on the point. From what has been said, it plainly appears, that if a plai;e Cl> on which a heavy body is placed, was elevated at C, the body would slide dowp upon the plane, whilst the line of direction falls within the base; but it would tumble or roll down when that line falls without the base. Thus the body E (fig. 167) would only slide down, whilst the body II would roll down upon it. When the line of direction falls within the base of our feet, we stand, and most firmly when it is in the middle; but when it is out of that base, we immediately fall. And it is not only pleasing, but even surprising, to reflect upon the various' methods and postures wiiich we use, to retain this position, or to recover it when lost, without our be- ing sensible of it. Thus we bend our bodies when we rise from a chair, or when we go up stairs; and for this pur- pose a man leans forvyard when he carries a burden up- on his back, and backward when he carries it on his breast, and to the right or left side as he carries it on tlie opposite side. If a body is suspended freely from different centres, its centre of gravity will be in the intersection formed by lines drawn from those centres perpendicular to ihe horizon. Hence we obtain au easy practical melhod-'uf finding the centre of gravity of any irregular plane figure. Suspend it by any point, with the plane per- pendicular to the horizon, and from tbe point of suspen- sion hang a plumb line, and draw a line upon the body where the string passes over; do the same for any other point of suspension, and where the two lines meet must be the centre of gravity; for the centre of gravity be- ing in each line, it must be at the point where they in- tersect. • • Motion, spontaneous or muscular, is that performed by the muscles at the command of the will. Motion, natural or involuntary, that effected, without any such command, by the mere mechanism ofthe parts, such as the motion of the heart, pulse, 6cc. Motion, intestine, the agitation of the particles of which a body consists*. Motion, in music, tbe manner of beating the mea- sure, to hasten manner it may be calculated, whatever is tlie height ofthe barometer. When this matter is ascertained, the height is easily found by comparing the two barometers, and calculating the density of the air in the higher rcr gions accordingto the principles of geometrical progres- sion. The highest mountains are those which arc situated at or near the equator; and the Andes are generally al- lowed to be the highest of these. Catopaxi, one of tho Andes, which was measured by Ulloa and the French academicians, was found to be some miles above the le- vel oftlic sea; whereas the highest point of the Alps is not above a mile and a half. Mount Caucasus approaches nearest to the height ofthe Andes, of any of the Asiatic mountains. The Peak of Teneriff, which has been so much celebrated, is about a mile and a half in height. It is an extraordinary circumstance, that the moon, which is a body so much smaller than our carth, should have been thought to exceed it in the irregularities of its sur- face; some ofthe mountains in that planet being former- ly supposed to exceed nine miles in height: but Dr. Hcr- schel has proved that the highest of them is not equal to one mile. The line of congelation, or of perpetual frost, on mountains, is calculated at 15,400 feet, at or near tho equator; at the entrance of the temperate zone, at 13,428; on Teneriff, at 10,000; in Anvergne(lat. 45) 6,740; with us (lat. 52) 5,740. On the Andes, vegetation ceases at 14,697 feet; and on the Alps, at 9,585. The air is so dry in these elevated situations, that M. d'Arcet observed, that on the Pic de Midi, one of the Pyrenees, salt of tar- tar remained dry for an hour and a half, though it im- mediately moistened in the same temperature at the bot- tom of the mountain. MOUNTING, in military affairs, signifies going up- on duty. Thus, mounting a breach, is running up to it; mounting the guard, is going upon guard; and mounting Ur3 trenches, is going upon duty in the trenches; but M U C M U C mounting tlie cannon, mortar, &c. is the setting it on its carriage, or the raising its mouth. MOUSE. Sec Mus. MOUTH. Sec Anatomy. MUCILAGE, a glutinous matter obtained from vegetables, transparent and tasteless, soluble in water, but not in spirit of wine. It chiefly consists of carbon, hydrogen, and a small quantity of oxygen. See Glu- TJiN. MUCILAGINOUS GLANDS. See Anatomy. MUCOR, ir>. botany, a genus of the order of fungi, in the cryptogamia cla.ss of plants. The fungus has vesicu- lar heads supported by footstalks. There are 17 British species; the most remarkable of which are: l.Thcsplise- rocephalus, or grey round-headed mucor, growing upon rotten wood, and sometimes upon decayed plants and mosses. The stalks of this are generally black, about a line in height, bearing each at the top a spherical ball about the size of a pin's head; its coat or rind is covered with a grey powder, and containing within a black or fuscous spongy down. The coat bursts with a ragged, ir- regular margin. 2. The lichenoides, or little, black, pin- headed mucor. This species grows in groups near to each other, in chasms of the barks of old trees, and upon old park-pales. The stalks are black, about two lines in height, bearing each a single head, sometimes a double or treble one, of the size of mustard or poppy seeds, of a roundish figure at first, but when burst, often flatfish or truncated, and of a black colour. The internal pow- dered down is black, with a tinge of green. 3. The mu- cedo, or common grey mould, grows on bread, fruits, plants, and other substances, in a putrid state. It grows iu clusters; the stalks a quarter of an inch high, pellucid, hollow, and cylindrical; supporting each a single globu- lar head, at first transparent, afterwards dark-grey; which bursts with elastic force, and ejects small round seeds discoverable by the microscope. 4. The glaucus, or grey cluster-headed mould, is found on rotten apples, melons, and other fruits; as also upon decayed wood, and the stalks of wheat. These are of a pellucid grey colour; the stalks are generally single, supporting a spherical ball, whicli, when magnified, appears to be compound- ed of numerous, fine, moniliform, necklace-like radii. 5. The crustaceus, or fingered mould, is frequent upon cor- rupted food of various kinds. It is of a white aqueous colour; the stalks single, each supporting at the top four or five necklace-like radii, diverging from the same point or centre. 6. The septicus, or yellow frothy mucor, is found on the leaves of plants, such as ivy and beech, &c. sometimes upon dry sticks, and frequently upon the tan or bark in hot-houses. It is of no certain size or figure, but of a fine yellow colour, and a substance resembling at first cream beaten up into froth. Iu the space of 24 hours it acquires a thin filmy coat, becomes dry, and full of a sooty powder adhering to downy threads. The seeds under the microscope appear to be globular. Haller ranks it under a new genus, which he terms fuligo; the characters of which are, that the plants contained under it are soft, and like butter at first, but soon change into a black sooty powder. MUCOUS ACID. See Salactic acid. Mucous gland. See Anatomy. MUCUS, a fluid secreted by certain glands, and serv- ing to lubricate many of the internal cavities of the body' In its natural state it is generally limpid and colourless* but from certain causes, will often assume a thick con- sistence and whitish colour like pus. As it is, sometimes of very great importance in medicine to distinguish these two fluids from each other, this was lately propos- ed as the subject of a prize disputation by the JEscnlapian Society of Edinburgh. The prize was gained by Mr. Charles Darwin, student of medicine from Litchfield. The conclusions drawn from his experiments were, l. Pus and mucus are both soluble in the vitriolic aeid, though in very different proportions, pus being by far least soluble. 2. The addition of water to either of these compounds decomposes it. The mucus thus separated either swims in the mixture, or forms large floccuii in itj whereas the pus falls to the bottom, and forms, on agita- tion, an uniform turbid mixture. 3. Pus is diffusible through a diluted vitriolic acid, though mucus is not. The same also occurs with water, or with a solution of sea- salt. 4. Nitrous acid dissolves both pus and mucus. Water added to the solution of pus produces a precipitate, and the fluid above becomes clear and green, while wa- ter and the solution of mucus form a turbid dirty-colour- ed fluid. 5. Alkaline lixivium dissolves, though some- times with difficulty, mucus, and generally pus. 6. Wa- ter precipitates pus from such a mixture, but docs not mucus. 7. Where alkaline lixivium does not dissolve pus, it still distinguishes it from mucus, as it then pre- vents its diffusion through water. 8. Coagulable lymph is neither soluble in concentrated nor diluted vitriolic acid. 9, Water produces no change on a solution of se- rum in alkaline lixivium, until after long standing, and then only a very slight sediment appears. 10. Corrosive sublimate coagulates mucus, but does not pus. From the above experiments, it appears that strong sulphuric acid, and water, diluted sulphuric acid, and caustic alkaline lixivium and water, will serve to dis- tinguish pus from mucus; thatthe vitriolic acid can sepa- rate it from coagulable lymph, and alkaline lixivium from serum. Hence, when a person has any expectorated mat- ter, the decomposition of which he wishes to ascertain, let him dissolve it in vitriolic acid, and in caustic alkaline lixivium; and let him add pure water to both solutions. If there is a fair precipitation in each, he may be assur- ed that some pus is present. But if there is a precipita- tion in neither, it is a certain test that the mixture is en- tirely mucus. If the matter cannot be made to dissolve in alkaline lixivium by time and trituration, we have al- so reason to believe that it is pus. Mucus, nasal: this name is given to a liquid- which is secreted in the cavities of the nose, and is discharged outwardly, eitlier by the nostrils in the form of drops, or in that of masses more or less thick; or by the fauces when it descends by the posterior part of the nasal cavi- ties, in which it is thrown out by spitting. This liquid is separated from the blood by the arteries, and appeal s to be formed in particular crypts, which we find abun- dantly disseminated in the nostrils: it is collected also from all the frontal sinuses. It is also mixed with the lachrymal juice, which descends by the channel which passes through the os unguis, and dilutes the thickened nasal mucus. We must particularly consider both the abundance MUCUS. aad the characters of this liquid in the catarrh, improper- ly called catarrh of the brain, in which the usual mucus is separated in large quantity, and remains a longer time in its ducts. « It is," says M. Fourcroy, " especial- ly under this circumstance, that citizen Vauquelin and myself have examined it, as we then procured it with great facility. We have also availed ourselves of the considerable discharge of mucus which is produced by the contact of the oxygenated muriatic acid gas, in order to obtain a sufficient quantity of it for the experiments adapted for making us well acquainted with its nature. It has several times happened to citizen Vauquelin, who is very sensible to the actioii of the oxigenated muriatic acid gas, that he has collected by its effect 64 grammes of this liquid in less than an hour. By means of these circumstances we have been enabled to determine its na- ture in a considerably exact manner. It is known that this liquid is very abundant in children, that it is a little heavier than water, and adheres to most bodies, even the most polished." The nasal mucus is at first liquid, clear and limpid, a little viscid and adhesive, without smell, of a saline and acrid taste, which irritates the most delicate part of the skin* it is then really the pituita vitrea of the ancients. When exposed to the air and to the fire, it comports it- self in the same manner as the tears, from which it dif- fers only by the abundance of its residuum, which is thicker, and frequently more coloured. It affords chrys- tals of muriate of soda, of soda in the state of carbonate, and of phosphates of lime and of soda: the last are much more abundant than the others. It turns paper stained with mallow-flowers green, by its salts: we also find in it an animal matter wiiich is not albuminous, but quick- ly becomes tliick and concrete by the oxigen of the air and of the oxigenated muriatic acid; it then acquires opacity, and a yellow or greenish colour, swells Con- siderably, and becomes filled with bubbles by the action of fire, leaving but little residuum upon the ignited coals. This animal mucilage, which is more abundant than m the tears, appears to be ofthe same nature in both. This liquid, being always exposed to the air, which continually passes through fnc# nostrils, is constantly thicker, more viscid, and more adhesive, than the tears; and the carbonate of soda which it contains, whilst tlie latter contains only soda, announces that the air depos- its in it a part of the carbonic acid which it contains, es- pecially as it is expired out of the lungs. Consequently, it then renders the solutions of barytes, of strontian, and of lime, very sensibly turbid. In the nostrils, the heat of the plant, especially in catarrhs, and the current which incessantly acts upon it, contribute also to thicken it. The mucilage of the nasal humour, when it becomes thick in the air, frequently assumes in it the form of .small, dry, brilliant, and, as it were, micaceous plates. 'if it las dryed in very thin layers it nearly resembles those brilliant and light marks which snails leave belaud them upon the substances over which they crawl. The n»Q» mums exneriences no real putrefaction m the air; we m, I almTt Cinduced to say that it was unaltera- ble and imputrescible, when we see it remain without contracting any bad smell, even in the midst of water, and at? "5i2ferably elevated temperature. However, tins property of preservation does not extend so far as to communicate itself to other bodiis that arc immersed in it. Water does not dissolve the mucus of the nose. It is known that this matter remains viscid in that fluid, and that it cannot be diluted in water without much difficulty, even by agitation. Hot water and ebullition do not ren- der this singular mixture more miscible or more soluble. In boiling water, it appears at first to form one body with the water; nevertheless, we see it separate and fall to the bottom of this liquid by cooling. It is probable that this insolubility is owing to the fixation of the oxigen. Neither has it the property of rendering oils miscible with water, nor of affecting their suspension by tritura- tion, as a vegetable mucilage does. It is on this account that when we wash, or even boil, this tliick humour in water, the salts which it contains are dissolved and se- parated, without affecting the mucilage whicli constitutes its base. The acids thicken the nasal mucus when they are con- centrated and employed in small proportions; but when we add a larger quantity, they redissolve and give it dif- ferent shades of colour. The sulphuric acid tinges it pur- ple, and renders it very liquid, forming however some flakes in it which sink' to the bottom. The nitric acid, when rather strong, dissolves it of a yellow colour. The muriatic acid is that which effects its solution the most easily and the most completely of all, giving it a violet- colour. The alkaline, or earthy salts, do not cause it to undergo any alteration, nor do they dissolve it. The mucus of the nostrils being especially distinguish- ed from all the other animal liquids by the viscid muci- lage which it contains in considerable abundance, it is evidently from the presence of this principle that we ought to seek its uses, and the function whicli it performs in the animal economy. Besides the kind of evacuation, semetimes very abundant, which it procures; and the proportion of the evacuated matter compared with that of the other excretory organs, which it carries out ofthe body; tbis liquid maintains the softness of the membra- nous sides of the nasal cavities, and prevents that dry- ness which the air passing in continual streams through these cavities tends to produce in them. It moderates the too great sensibility of the nervous papilla? which are spread out upon the olfactory membrane; it stops and fixes the odorous bodies, it blunts their too great activity; it purifies the air that is respired, by taking from it the pulverulent particles which it carries along with it, and which would be more hurtful in the lungs. Being always contained in a hot, humid, and arid place, three circum- stances which would so eminently promote putrefaction, provident nature has given it a property which opposes the septicity which would have exposed man and the ani- mals to a multitude of dangerous vitiations and mala- dies. It is known that the mucus of the nostrils is capable of changing its nature, and assuming various proper- ties, in the nasal affections. It thickens, becomes yellow, orange-coloured, or greenish, frequently tinges linen with a very lively green cast by drying upon it; it some- times produces the sensation of the presence of copper; and sometimes it exhales a nauseus or fetid smell. In some, affecti »us it bci me so acrid that it seems to cor- rode the muubranc vf f'.e nostrils, and produces excoria* M U F M U L (ions round their orihVes, as well as upon the upper lip. Lastly, it is sometimes liquid like water, at others ropy like oil: in several cases thick, viscid, and always trans- parent, like jelly; in other circumstances, semiconcretc, and white, yellow, or green, like a purulent humour. None of these changes have yet been chemically examin- ed, and hardly even has the attention wiiich they deserve been bestowed upon them. MUFTI, or Muphti, the chief of the ecclesiastical or- der, or primate, of the mussulman religion. The authori- ty of the mufti is very great in the Ottoman empire; for even the sultan himself, if he would preserve any appear- ance of religion, cannot, without hearing his opinion, put any person to death, or so much as inflict any corpo- ral punishment. In all actions, especially criminal ones, his opinion is required by giving him a writing, in which Hie case is stated under feigned names, which lie subscribes with the words, He shall, or sliull not, be pun- ished. Such outward honour is paid to the mufti, that the grand seignior himself rises up to him, and advances se- ven steps to meet him, when be comes into his presence. The election of the mufti is solely in the grand seignior, who presents him with a vest of rich sables, kc. If he is convicted of treason, or any great crime, he is put into a mortar, kept for that purpose in the Seven lowers at Constantinople, and pounded to death. M UGGLETON1 AN S, a religious sect, which arose in England about the year 1657; so denominated from their leader Lodowick Muggleton, a journeyman tay lor, who, with his associate Reeves, asserted, that tliey were the two last witnesses of God that should appear before the end of the world. ML GIL, mullet, a genus of fishes of the order abdo- minales. The generic character is, lips membranaceous; the inferior carinated within: teeth none; a. the corners of the mouth an inflicted callus: gill-membrane with six curved rays: body fleshy; scales large; dorsal fins two. 1. Mugil ccphalus, common mullet. This fish, the mu- gil and mugilis of the ancient Romans, is a very com- mon inhabitant of the Mediterranean and northern seas, frequenting chiefly the shallow parts near the shorts, and feeding on the smaller kind of worms, sca-iusetts, and vegetables. Its general length is from 12 to 15 or 16 inches, and its colour blueish-grey, darker on the back, and silvery on the abdomen; the sides are marked, like those of the grayling, with several dusky stripes, accor- ding to the rows of scales, which are large and rounded; the fins are blueish; the first dorsal fin, which is situated on the middle of the back, consists of four very strong rays; the second dorsal fin is placed opposite the anal, and has only soft rays; the base of the dorsal and anal fin, as well as that of the tail, is scaly, and the tail is forked or lunated. The mullet is found not only in the European seas, but in the Indian and Atlantic oceans. It is observed to assemble frequently in small shoals near the shore, in quest of food, burrowing into the soft mud, and leaving the trace of its head in the form of a round hole. In the spring and early summer months, this fish, like tlie salmon, ascends rivers to a considerable distance; and when preparing for these expeditions, is observed in #hoals near the surface of the water, at which time the fishermen endeavour to avail themselves of the opportu- nity ^ mirrQUfiding them with their nets, which the fish are said to show great address m escaping from. The mullet is considered as an excellent fish for the table, though not a fashionable one in our own counter. Dc. Bloch informs us, that it is gem rally eaten with tiie addition of oil and lemon-juice. The spawn is often pre- pared into an inferior kind of caviar, called butaigo, by drying and salting it; in which manner also the fish it- self, in plentiful seasons, is occasionally preserved. See Plate XCI. Nat. Hist. fig. 272. 2. Mugil creiiilabis, crenated mullet. Size of the common mullet; length about twelve inches; colour whitish; scales rather large, and marked by a dusky streak; upper'lip gaping, lower bicarinated within, and both lips crcnulated on the edges; fins glaucous white, the pectoral marked at the base by a round black spot- tail forked: native of the Red Sea. There are seven other species. MUG-WORT, in botany. See Artemesia. MUHLENBERGIA, a genus ofthe class and order triandria digynia. The calyx is one-leaved, minute, la- teral; corolla two-valved. There is one species, a grass of America. MU1D, a large measure in use among the French, for things dry. The muid is no real vessel used as a mea- sure, but an estimation of several other measures, as the septier, mine, minot, bushel, kc Muid is also one ofthe nine casks, or regular vessels, used in France, to put wine and other liquors in. The muid of wine is divided into two demi-muids, four quar- ter-muids, and eight half-quarter mnids, containing 36 septals. MULBERRY. See Morus. MULE, in zoology, a mongrel kind of quadruped, usually generated between an ass and a mare, and some- times between a horse and a she-ass; but the significa- tion of the word is commonly extended to every kind of animal produced by a mixture of two different species. rl here arc two kinds of these animals: one from the hc- ass and mare, the other from the horse and the she-ass. We call them indifferently mules, but the Romans distin- guished them by proper appellations. The first kind are the best and most esteemed, as being larger, stronger, and having least of the ass iu their disposition. The largest and stoutest asses, and the fairest and finest mares, are chosen in those countries where these crea- tures are most in use; as in Spain, Italv, and Financier* In the last especially, they succeed in having very statelv mules lrom tlie size of their mares, some of them 16 and some 17 hands high, which are very serviceable as sump- ter-tnules, in the army. But since tbe Low-countries are no longer under the dominion of Spain, they breed fewer mules. These creatures are very much commended for their being stronger, surer-footed, going easier, being more cheaply maintained, and lasting longer, than horses. They are commonly of a black brown, or quite black, with that shining list along the back and across the shoulders which distinguishes asses. In former times they were much more common in this country than at present, being often brought over in the days of popery by the Italian princes. They continued longest in the service of millers, and are yet in use among them in some places, on account of the great loads they carry on their M U L M U L back. As they are capable of being trained for riding, bearing burdens, and for draught, there is no doubt that they might be usefully employed in many different ser- vices. But they are commonly found to be vicious, stubborn, and obstinate to a proverb; which whether it occasions or is produced by the ill usage they meet with, is a point not easily settled. Whatever may be the case of asses, it is allowed that mules are larger, fairer, and more serviceable, in mild than in warm climates. Inthe British American colonies, both on the continent and in the islands, but especially in the latter, they are much used and esteemed; so that they are frequently sent to them from hence; suffer less in the passage, and die much scldomer, than horses; and commonly yield, when they arrive, no inconsiderable profit. It has commonly been asserted, that animals produced by the mixture of two heterogeneous species, are inca- pable of generating, and thus perpetuating the monstrous breed: but this, we are informed by M. Buffon, is now discovered to be a mistake. MULES, among gardeners, denote a sort of vegetable monsters produced by putting the farina fecundans of one species of plant into the pistil or utricle of another. The carnation and sweet-william being somewhat alike in their parts, particularly their flowers, tbe farina of the one will impregnate the other, and the seed so enlivened will pro- duce a plant differing from either. An instance pf this we first had in Mr. Fairchild's garden at Hoxtori, where a plant is seen neither sweet-william nor carnation, but resembling both equally: this was raised from the seed of a carnation that had been impregnated by the farina of the sweet-william. These couplings being not unlike those ofthe mare with the ass, which produce the mule, the same name is given them; and they are, like the others, incapable of multiplying their species. This fur- nishes a hint for altering the property and taste of any fruit, by impregnating one tree with the farina of another of the same class, e. g. a codlin with a pearmain, which will occasion the codlin so impregnated to last a longer time than usual, and to be of a sharper taste. Or if the winter fruits are fecundated with the dust of the summer kinds, they will ripen before their usual time. And from the accidental coupling of the farina of one with another, it may possibly be, that in an orchard where there is va- riety of apples, even the fruit gathered from the same tree differ in their flavour, and in the season of maturity. It is also from the same accidental coupling that the num- berless varieties of fruits and flowers raised every day from seed* proceed. MULLER, or Mullar, denotes a stone flat and even at the bottom, but round at top, used for grinding of mat- ters on a marble. The apothecaries use mullers to pre- pare some of their testaceous powders; and painters for their colours, either dry or in oil. MULLERIA, a genus of the class and order diadel* phia decandria. The pericarp is elongated, fleshy, neck- lace-form,.with one-seeded globules. There is onespecies, a tree of Surinam. MULLET, or Mollet, in heraldry, a bearing inform or a flat, or rather of the rowel of a spur, which it orig- inally represented. MULLUS, surmullet, a genus of fishes of tbe order thoracici. The generic character is, head compressed, VOL. ii. 99 scaly; inoutii bearded; gill-membrane three-rayed; body covered with large subdeciduous scales. 1. Mullus ruber, the red surmullet, is principally found in the Mediterranean and northern seas, where it arrives at the length of 12 or 15 inches: its colour is an elegant rose-red, tinged with olive-colour on the back, and of a silvery cast towards the abdomen. The surmullet is a fish of a strong and active nature, swimming briskly, and feeding principally on the smaller fishes, worms, and sea-insects. It is generally considered as a very delicate fish, and is celebrated for having been the fashionable object of Roman luxury, and for which such enormous sums are reported to have been sometimes given; though it is probable that the high estimation in which it was held by the ancient Greeks and Romans was more owing to a prejudice entertained on account-of its elegant ap- pearance, than to its real merit as a food. The Romans practised a singular refinement-in luxury, by first bring- ing the fish alive to the table in a glass vessel, in order that the guests might enjoy the pleasure of contemplating the beautiful changes of its evanescent colours during the time of its gradual expiration; after which it was prepared for their repast. 2. Mullus surmuletus, striped surmullet, of similar size and general appearance with the preceding, but marked on each side by two and sometimes three longitudinal yellow stripes: native of the Mediterranean, but found occasionally in the Atlantic and other seas: in equal esteem as a food with the former, of which it has even been considered by some authors as a variety. 3. Mullus Indicus, Indian surmullet. Size and habit ofthe common or red mullet; colour extremely beautiful in the living fish, but fading very soon after death; up- per part of the head and back dark changeable purple, growing faint on the sides, which are marked by a few longitudinal azure and golden lines, and by two oblong spots on each side; the first situated about the middle of the body, smallish, and of an opaline or changeable golden and white colour; the second situated near the tail, larger, and of a dark purple; abdomen white; dor- sal fin purple, streaked with light blue; pectoral and anal pink-colour: native of the Indian seas: observed by Dr. Russel near Visgapatam: inferior as a food to the red mullet, and not much esteemed. 4. Mullus barbatus, inhabits the European, Mediter- ranean, and Pacific seas: body, when deprived of its scales, red. Nothing can be more beautiful than the colours of this fish, when in the act of dying; and nothing more de- licious than its flesh. The Romans held it in such re- pute, that prodigious sums were given for them: they were frequently bought at their weight in pure silver. See Plate XCI. Nat. Hist. fig. 273. There are two other species. MULTILATERAL, in geometry, is applied to those figures which have more than four sides or angles, more usually called polygons. MULTINOMIAL, or Multinomial-roots, in mathe- matics, such roots as are composed of many names, parts, or members; as, a -4- b 4- d -f- c, 6tc. See Root. MULTIPLE, in arithmetic, a number which com- prehends some other several times, thus 6 is a multiple of 2. M U R M V R Multiple ratio, or PTiororiTroN, is that which is between multiples. If the less term of the rati-..- is an ali- qnot part of the greater ihe ratio of the gr a er to the less is called multiple, and that of the less to the great- er submultiple. A submultiple number is that contained in the multiple; thus, the numbers 1, 2, and 3, are sub- multiples of 9. Duple, triple, &c. ratios, as also subdu- ples, subtriples, kc. are so many species of multiple and Submultiple ratios. See Ratio. MULTIPLICAND. See Arithmetic MULTIPLICATION. Sec Arithmetic, and Al- geura. MULTIPLYING GLASS. See Optics. MUM, a kind of malt liquor, much drunk in Germany, and chiefly brought from Brunswick, which is the place of most note for making it. MUMMY. See Embalming. MUNCHAUSIA, a genus ofthe class and order poly- adelphia polyandria. The calyx is six-cleft; petals claw- ed; stamina in six bodies; pistils superior. There is one species, a tree of Java. MUNICIPAL, in the Roman civil law, an epithet which signifies invested with the rights and privileges of Roman citizens. Thus the municipal cities were those whose inhabitants were capable of enjoying civil offices in the city of Rome. Municipal, among us, is applied to the laws that ob- tain in any particular city or province: and those are cal- led municipal officers who are elected to defend the inte- rest of cities, to maintain their rights and privileges, and to preserve order and harmony among the citizens; such as mayors, sheriffs, kc MUNTINGIA, a genus ofthe class and order polyan- dria monogynia. The calyx is five-parted; corolla five- petalled; berry five-celled: seeds many. There is one species, a shrub of Jamaica. MURAENA, a genus of fishes of the order apodal. The generic character is, body eel-shaped; pectoral fins none; spiracle on each side the neck. 1. Muraena Helena, Roman mursena. This fish the cel- ebrated favourite ofthe ancient Romans, who considered it as one ofthe most luxurious articles of the table, is found in considerable plenty about several of the Medi- terranean coasts, where it arrives at a size at least equal if not superior, to that of an eel. Its colour is*a dusky greenish-brown, pretty thickly variegated on all parts with dull yellow subangular marles or patches, which are disposed in a somewhat different manner in different in- dividuals, and are generally scattered over with smaller specklings of brown, the whole forming a kind of ob- scurely reticular pattern. The muraena is capable of living with equal facility both in fresh and salt water, though principally found at sea. In its manners it much resembles the eel and the conger, being extremely vora- cious, and preying on a variety of smaller animals. The ancients, who kept it in reservoirs appropriated for the purpose, are said to have sometimes tamed it to such a degree as to coine at the signal of its master in order to receive its food. Pliny records a most disgusting and barbarous instance of tyranny practised by one Vedius Pollio, who was in the habit of causing his offending slaves to be thrown into the reservoirs in which he kept his muranaej expressing a savage delight in thus being able to taste in an improved state their altered remains. The emperor Augustus, according to Seneca, honoured this man with his presence at one of his entertainments; when a slave happening to break a valuable crystal vase, was immediately ordered to be thrown to the muranias; but the poor boy flying to the feet of Augustus, requested rather to die any death than thus to be made the food of fishes. The emperor being informed of this extraordina- ry mode of punishment, immediately ordered all the chrys- tal vessels in the house to be broken before his face, and the ponds of the barbarous owner to be completely filh'd up; at the f:ame time giving the slave his freedom, but sparing the life of the offender in consideration of for- mer friendship. See Plate XCI. Nat. Hist. fig. 276. 2. Mursena ophis, spotted muraena. Observed by Forskal; native of the Red Sea; has a rising callus be- tween the eyes, gold-coloured irides, upper lip shorter than the lower, and the dorsal and anal fins united at the tail. See Plate XCI. Nat. Hist. fig. 275. 3. Mursena catenata, chain-striped mursena. This spe- cies, of which the individuals hitherto described appear to be of the size of a smallish eel, is of a brown colour, crossed by large chain-like white bands, somewhat irre- gular in their form on different parts ofthe animal, anil marked by numerous brown spots and freckles. This fish is a native of Surinam. 4. Mursena reticulata, reticulated muraena. In size and general form, this resembles the preceding species, but differs in colours and in the disposition ofthe dorsal fin, which commences immediately at the back of the head, and is continued round the tail, where it unites with tbe vent-fin. Native ofthe Indian seas. 5. Muraena conger, conger eel; inhabits the European seas and rivers; is extremely voracious, feeding on other fish, crabs in their soft state, and particularly carcases. It grow.s to a vast syze. See Plate XCI. Nat. Hist. fig. 274. There are four other species. MURDER, or Murther. See Homicide. MUREX, in natural history, a genus of univalve or simple shells, without any hinge, formed of a single piece, and beset with tubercles or spines. The mouth is large and oblong, and has an expanded lip, and the clavicle is rough. The clavicle of the murex is in some species ele- vated, in others depressed; and the mouth is some- times dentated, and at others smooth; the lip also in some is digitated, in others elated, and in some lacin- iated; and the columella is in some smootli, in others rugose. Murex, in zoology, a genus of insects belonging to the order of vermes testaeea. This animal is of the snail kind: the shell consists of one spiral valve, rough, with membranaceous furrows; and the aperture terminates in an entire canal, either staight, or somewhat ascending. There are 60 species, particularly distinguished by pe- culiarities in their shells, &c. See Plate XCI. Nat. Hist. figs. 277, 278. In the accounts of a Spanish philosopher it is mention- ed, that on the coasts of Guayaquil and Guatimala in Pe- ru, the murex is also found. The shell wiiich contains it adheres to the rocks that are washed by the sea. It is of the size of a large walnut. The liquor may be extract- ed two ways: some kill the animal after they have drawn M U R M U R it out of the shell, then press it with a knife from head to tail, separate from the body'the part where the li- quor is collected, and throw away the rest. When this operation, after being repeated on several snails, has afforded a certain quantity of fluid, the thread intended to be dyed is dipped in it, and the process is finished. The colour, which is at first of the whiteness of milk, becomes afterwards green, and is not purple till the thread is dry. Those who disapprove of this method draw the fish partly out of the shell, and, squeezing it, make it yield a fluid whicli serves for dyeing: they repeat this operation several times at different intervals, but al- ways with less success. If they continue it, the fish dies. No colour at present known, says the Abbe-Raynal, can be compared to this, either as to lustre, liveliness, or dura- tion. It succeeds better on cotton than wool, linen, or silk. • MURIAT, green sand of Peru. This ore, which was brought from Peru by Dombcy, is a grass-green powder, mixed with grains of quartz. When thrown on burning coals, it communicates a green colour to tbe flame. It is soluble both in nitric and muriatic acids without efferves- cence. The solution is green. This mineral was first proved to contain muriatic acid by Berthollet. After- wards Proust analyzed it. But Vauquelin announced that he considered it merely as an oxide of copper mixed with common salt. However, a subsequent examination convinced him that his opinion was unfounded; and that the mineral was really a carbonat, as had been affirmed by Berthollet and Proust. This conclusion has been con- firmed by Klaproth, who found the green sand of Peru composed of 73.0 oxide of copper 10.1 muriatic acid 16.9 water. 100.0 MURIATIC ACID. This substance may be pro- cured by the following process: Let a small pneumatic trough be procured, 'hollowed out of a single block of wood, about 14 inches long, seven broad, and six deep. After it has been hollowed out to the depth of an inch, leave three inches by way of shelf on one. side, and cut out the rest to the proper depth, giving the inside of the liottom a circular form. Two inches from each end cut a slit in the shelf to the depth of an inch, and broad enough to admit the end of small glass tubes, or the points of small retorts. This trough is to be filled with mercury to the height of one quarter of an inch above the surface of the shelf. Small glass jars are to be pro- cured of considerable thickness and strength, and suita- ble to the size of the trough. One of them, being filled with mercury by plunging it into the trough, is to be placed on the shelf over one of the slits, it ought to be supported in its position; and the most convenient me- thod of doing that is to have a brass cylinder two inches high screwed into the edge of the trough, just opposite to the border of the shelf. On the top of it are fixed two flat pieces of brass, terminating each m a semicircle, moveable freely upon the brass cylinder, and forming together a brass arm terminating in a circle, the centre of which is just above the. middle of the slit inthe shelf, when turned so as to be parallel to the edge of the shelf. This circle is made to embrace the jar; being formed of two distinct pieces, its size may be increased or diminish- ed at pleasure; and by means of a brass slider it is made to catch the jar firmly. The apparatus being thus disposed, two or three ounces of common salt are to be put into a small retort, and an equal quantity of sulphuric acid added; the beak of the retort plunged below the surface of the mercury inthe trough, and the heat of a lamp applied to tlie salt in its bosom. A violent effervescence takes place; and air- bubbles rush in great numbers from its beak, and rise to the surface of the mercury in a visible white smoke, which has a peculiar odour. After allowing a number of them to escape, till it is supposed that the common air which previously existed in the retort has been displaced, plunge its beak into the slit in the shelf over which the glass jar has been placed. The air-bubbles soon displace the mercury and fill the jar. The gas thus obtained is called muriatic acid gas. This substance, in a state of solution in water, was known even to the alchemists; but in a gaseous state it was first examined by Dr. Priestley, in an early part of that illustrious career in which he added so much to our knowledge of gaseous bodies. 1. Muriatic acid gas in an invisible elastic fluid, re- sembling common air in its mechanical properties. Its specific gravity, according to the experiments of Mr. Kirwan, is 0.002315, or nearly double that of common air. Its smell is pungent and peculiar; and whenever it comes in contact with common air, it forms with it a visible white smoke. If a bottle of it is drawn into the mouth, it is found to taste excessively acid; much more so than vinegar. 2. Animals are incapable of breathing it, and when plunged into jars filled with it, they die instantaneously in convulsions. Neither will any combustible burn in it. It is remarkable, however, that it has a considerable ef- fect upon the flame of combustible bodies; for if a burn- ing taper is plunged into it, the flame, just before it goes out, may be observed to assume a green colour, and the same tinge appears next time the taper is lighted. 3. If a little water is let up into ajar filled with this gas, the whole gas disappears in an instant, the mercury ascends, fills the jar, and pushes the water to the very top. The reason of this is, that there exists a strong affinity between muriatic acid gas and water; and when- ever they come in contact, they combine and form a li- quid, or, which is the same thing, the water absorbs the gas. Hence the necessity of making experiments with this gas over mercury, in the water cistern not a par- ticle of gas would be procured. Nay,« the water of tlie trough would rush into the retort and fill it completely. It is this affinity between muriatic acid gas and water which occasions the white smoke that appears when the gas is mixed with common air. It absorbs the vapour of water which always exists in common air. The solu- tion of muriatic acid gas in water is usually denominated simply muriatic acid by chemists. 4. If a little of the blue-coloured liquid which is ob- tained by boiling red cabbage-leaves and wa-er, is h-t up fnto ajarYilled with muriatic acid gas, the usual absorp- tion of the gas takes place, but the liquid at the same time assumes a fine red colour. This change is r.msi. dered by chemists as a characteristic property of acijfs." M U S M US 5. Muriatic acid gas is capable of combining with oxygen. To obtain the combination, we have only to put a quantity ofthe black oxide of manganese in powder into a retort, and pour over it liquid muriatic acid. Heat is then to be applied to the mixture, and the beak of the retort plunged under water. An effervescence takes place, and a green-coloured gas comes out at the beak of the retort, which may be received inthe usual manner in jars. This gas has been ascertained to be a compound of muriatic acid and oxygen. It is called oxy-muriatic acid, and will come under our consideration hereafter. 6. It does not appear from any experiments that have been hitherto made, that any of the simple combustibles are capable of combining with muriatic acid gas. Dr. Priestley found, that sulphur absorbed slowly about the fifth part of it. What remained was inflammable air, burning with a blue flame, and not absorbed by water. He found that phosphorus scarcely absorbed any sensible quantity of it, and that charcoal absorbed it very fast. Hydrogen gas does not produce any sensible change in it. Neither does it seem capable of being affected by azotic gas. Muriatic acid is capable of combining with two doses of oxygen only. With the first dose, it forms oxymuri- atic acid; with the second, hyperoxyinuriatic acid. The first of thein ought, in strict propriety, to be termed an oxide rather than an acid. 'MURIATS. The muriats are a genus of salts which have been long known, and from wiiich indeed the whole of the class have borrowed their name; for to them be- longs common salt, the most important and the most in- dispensably necessary of all the salts. They may be dis- tinguished by the following properties: When heated, they melt, and are volatilized, at least in part, without undergoing decomposition. The first portions which fly off contain an excess of acid. Not in the least altered by combustibles, even when assisted by heat. Soluble in water. For the most part they raise the boiling-point of water. Effervesce with sulphuric acid, and white acrid fumes of muriatic acid are disengaged. When mixed with nitric acid, they exhale the odour of oxymuriatic acid. MURRAIN, or Gargle, a contagious disease among cattle, principally caused by a hot dry season, or rather by a general putrefaction of the air, which begets an in- flammation of the blood, and a swelling in the throat, that soon proves mortal, and is communicated from one to another, though it generally goes no farther than to those of the same kind. The symptoms of this disease are, a hanging down and swelling of the head, abundance of gum in the eyes,' rattling in the throat, a short breath, palpitation of the heart, staggering, hot breath, and a shining tongue. MURRAY A, a genus ofthe class and order decandria monogyniif. The calyx is five-parted; corolla bell-sha- ped, with a nectarium encircling the germ; berry one- seeded. There is one species, a tree of the East Indies. MUS, tlie rat, a genus of quadrupeds of tHfe order glires. The generic character is, upper front-teeth wedge-shaped; grinders on each side three, sometimes only two: clavicles or collar-bones in the skeleton. This numerous tribe constitutes a formidable phalanx against which mankind find it necessary to employ the various artifices of extirpation, in order to lessen the ra- vages occasionally suffered by its depredations. In our own island, the black and brown rats, the Held and do- mestic mice, are the principal destroyers; but in other parts of Europe, as well as the hotter regions of Asia, Africa, and America, many other species, still more nox- ions and formidable, are found. The different kinds vary considerably in their manner of life, some confining themselves entirely.to vegetable food, while others are polyphagous, destroying with indiscriminate avidity al- rifbst any animal or vegetable substance to which they can gain access. Their pace is, in general, rather quick, and their most usual residence is in obscure subterrane- ous retreats, from which they principally emerge by night. They are of a prolific nature, and the females are- furnished with numerous teats. Some species are migra- tory; others local or attached to the same residence. Lastly, some' are of an uncouth form and disagreeable appearance, while others are remarkable for the elegance of their colours. In the 12th edition of the Systcma Na- turae, Linnseus included in this genus the jerboas, the cavys, and several other animals which are now formed into distinct genera. This mode of distribution might perhaps be carried still farther, the habit or appearance of some species differing very considerably from that of the major part of the tribe. 1. Mus zibethicus, musk rat. In the Memoirs of the French Academy of Sciences for the year 1725, there is a complete and excellent description of this animal byM. Sarrazin, at that time king's physician at Quebec. It is from the above description that the count de Buffon has drawn up the major part of his own account, and indeed it does not appear possible to add any thing material to what Mons. Sarrazin has delivered. This animal is of the size of a small rabbit, and is extremely common in Canada. Its head is short, like that of a water-rat; the eyes large; the ears very short, rounded, and covered internally as well as externally with hair. It has, like the rest of this tribe, four very strong cutting teeth, of which those in the lower jaw are near an inch long; those in the upper somewhat shorter: the fur on the whole body is soft aud glossy, and beneath is a fine fur, or tliick down, as in the beaver; the toes on all the feet are simple, or without membranes, and are covered with hair; the tail is nearly as long as the body, and is of the same form with that of the sorex moschatiis or musk shrew, being laterally com- pressed; it is nearly naked, and covered with small scales intermixed with scattered hairs. The general colour of the animal is a reddish brown; of the tail ash-colour. In its general appearance this animal greatly resembles the ' heaver, except in size, and in the form of its tail. It has also similar instincts and dispositions; living in a social state in the winter, in curiously-constructed huts or ca- bins, built near the edge opsonic lake or river. These huts are about two feet and a half or three feet in diame- ter, plaistered with great neatness in the inside, and co- vered externally with a kind of basket-work, of rushes, &c. interlaced together so as to form a compact and se- cure guard impermeable by water. During the winter these receptacles sfre generally covered by several feet of snow, and the animals reside iu them without being in- MUS. commodcd by it, several families commonly inhabiting each cabin. It is added that the insides of the receptacles are furnished with a series of steps, to prevent them from being injured by inundations. These animals do not lay up a stock of provisions like the beaver, but form subter- raneous passages beneath and round their cabins, to give themselves an opportunity of procuring occasional sup- plies of roots, herbage, kc. According to Mons. Sarra- zin the animal is particularly calculated^ by nature for its subterraneous habits, having a great muscular force in its skin, wiiich enables it to contract its body^occa- sionally into a small volume: it has also a great supple- ness in the false ribs, whicli easily admit of contraction, so that it is enabled to pass through holes impervious to much smaller animals than itself. During the summer these creatures wander about in pairs, feeding voraciously on herbs and roots. Their odour, which resembles that of musk, is so strong as to be perceived at a considerable distance; and the skin, when taken from the body, still retains the scent: this musky odour is owing to a whitish fluid deposited in cer- tain glands situated near the origin of the tail. It has been supposed that the calamus aromaticus, or swTcet flag (acorns calamus, Lin.), whicli these animals select as a favourite food, may contribute to their fragrant smell. They walk and run in an awkward manner, like the beaver, and they cannot swim so readily as that animal, their feet being unfurnished with webs. Their voice is said to resemble a groan. The females produce their young towards the beginning of summer, and have five or six at a time; and these, if taken early, are easily tam- ed, and become very sportive; and it is remarkable that the tail, wiiich in the full-grown animal is as long as the body, is at that period very short. The fur of this species is greatly esteemed as a com- mercial article, resembling that of the beaver. Linnseus, iu the twelfth edition ofthe Systema Naturae, ranked the animal under the genus castor; and Mr. Pennant has fol- lowed his example. Mr. Schreber, however, considers it as belonging in strict propriety to the present genus. See Plate XCII. Nat. Hist. fig. 279. 2. Mus decumanus, Norway rat. This domestic spe- cies, which is now become the common rat of our own island, and is popularly knowm by the name of the Nor- way rat, is supposed to be a native of India and Persia, from which countries it has been imported into Europe. In England it seems to have made a national conquest over the black rat, which is now become rare in compa- rison. The brown rat is larger than the black rat, mea- suring nine inches from the nose to the tail, which is of the same length, and marked into about 200 rings or cir- cular spaces; the colour of the animal is a pale taw ney- grey, whitish beneath; the fore feet have four toes, with a claw in place of a fifth. It is a bold and voracious ani- mal, and commits great havoc in granaries, &c. Some- times it takes up its residence in thebanksof waters, and swims occasionally with almost as much facility as the water rat, or mus amphibius. In its general manner of life it agrees with the black rat; and not only devours grain and fruits, but preys on poultry, rabbits, and va- rious other animals. It is a very prolific species, and pro- duces from ten to twelve or fourteen, or even sometimes eighteen, young at a time. When closely pursued, it wiil sometimes turn upon its adversary, and bite with great severity. It seems to have made its first appearance in England about eighty years ago, and is still much less frequent in France and some other parts of the continent than the black rat. 3. Mus ratttis, black rat. This species, like the former, though now so common in most parts of Europe, is sup- posed to have been originally introduced from India and Persia. Its general length from nose to tail is seven inches, and ofthe tail eight inches; the colour of the head and whole upper part of the body is a dark iron or black- ish grey; the belly is of a dull ash-colour; the legs are dusky, and very slightly covered with hair; the fore feet, as in the brown rat, have only four toes, with a small claw in place of a fifth; the tail is nearly naked, coated with a scaly skin, and marked into numerous divisions or rings. Like the former species, this animal breeds frequently, and commonly brings about six or seven young at a time. Sometimes they increase so fast as to overstock the place of their abode, in which case they fight and devour each other. It is said that this is the reason why these ani- mals, after being extremely troublesome, sometimes dis- appear suddenly. Various are tbe methods made use of for the expulsion of rats from the places they frequent; among which none is more singular than that mentioned by Gesner, who tells us lie had been informed that if a rat is caught and a bell tied round its neck, and then set at liberty, it will drive away the rest wherever it goes. This expedient appears to be occasionally practised in modern times with success. A gentleman travelling through Mecklenburgh, about 30 years ago, was witness to the following curious circumstance in the post-house in New Stargard. After dinner the landlord placed on the floor a large dish of soup, and gave a loud whistle. Im- mediately there came into the room a mastiff, a fine An- gora cat, art old raven, and a remarkably large rat, with a bell about its neck. The four animals went to the dish, and without disturbing each other, fed together; after which the dog, cat, and rat, lay before the fire, while the raven hopped about the room. The landlord, after ac- counting for the familiarity which existed among the animals, informed his guest that the rat was the most useful of the four, for the noise he made had completely freed the house from the rats and mice with which it was before infested. 4. Mus musciilus, common mouse. The manners and appearance of this little animal are so universally known, that it seems almost unnecessary to particularise it by a formal description. It is a general inhabitant of almost every part ofthe Old Continent, but it is doubtful whether it is originally a native of America, though now suf- ficiently common in many parts of the New World, as well as in many of its scattered islands. The mouse, though wild and extremely timid, is not of a ferocious disposition, but may be easily tamed, and soon after it has been taken, will begin to feed without fear, in the immediate presence of its captors. The white variety is frequently kept in a tame state, and receives an additional beauty from the bright red colour of its eyes; a particularity which generally accompanies the white varieties, not only of this tribe, but of many other quad- rupeds. The mouse, is a prolific animal: the experiment of MUS. Awstofle is well known, and often quoted. He placed a pregnant mouse in a vessel of grain, and after a short space found in it no less than the number of 120, all which he concluded, were the descendants of the mouse he had inclosed. The fur of the mouse is remarkably soft and elegant, and the structure of the hair in this animal, as well as in the rat, and probably in many others of this genus, is singularly curious; each hair, when microscopically ex- amined, appearing internally divided into a kind of trans- verse partitions, as if by the continuation of a spiral fibre; a structure very different from that of the hair of most other animals, and of which the particular nature seems not very distinctly understood. Derham, in his Physico-Theology, conceives that this mechanism of a spiral fibre may serve for the " gentle evacuation of some humour out of the body;" and adds, that " perhaps the hair serves as well for the insensible perspiration of hairy animals as to fence against cold and wet." Whatever is the real nature or use of the above structure, its appearance cannot fail to excite astonish- ment in those who take the pains of examining it with a good microscope, by which they will obtain a clear idea of this curious appearance. In Aldrovandus, who relates the circumstance from Gesner, we meet with a direction for changing, as it were, a mouse into a cat, by making it the incessant per- secutor and enemy of the rest of its species. This is to be effected by placing several mice together in a vessel without food, when, after a certain space, they will be so stimulated by hunger as to destroy each other: the sur- viving animal being then liberated, will, according to this author, become the most destructive enemy of his own tribe, and will kill every one he meets. Another singular and most cruel experiment is quoted by Aldro* vandus from Mizaldus, who tells us, that if two or three mice are shut up in an earthen pot, and placed over a fire, the shrill cries which they utter will attract the mice in the other part ofthe house, and cause them to precip- itate themselves into the fire. Whatever truth there may be in this experiment, itis certain that, on the shrill cry of distress uttered by one of these animals kept with several others in a cage, the rest will frequently attack and destroy it. 5. Mus syivaticus, wood mouse. This animal chiefly frequents dry and elevated grounds, and is found in woods and fields in great plenty. It appears to be com- mon in all the temperate parts of Europe, and even in Russia. It sometimes varies in size, individuals being occasionally met with which exceed the rest in magni- tude, though different in no other respect. Its general length is about four inches and a half from nose to tail, and the tail, which is slightly covered with hair, mea- sures four inches. The colour of the animal is a yellow- ish brown above and whitish beneath, the colours being pretty distinctly marked or separated; the eyes are full and black, and the snout rather blunt. These animals retire into holes among brush-wood, and under the trunks of trees, where they amass great quantities of acorns, nuts, and beech-mast. According to Buffon, a whole bushel has sometimes been found in a single hole. These holes are about a foot or more under ground, and are •(ten divided into two apartments; the one for living in along with their young, the other for a magazine of pro- visions. Considerable damage is often done to planta- tions by these animals, whicli carry off new-sown acorns, &c. The count de Buffon affirms, that in France more mischief is done by these creatures than by all the birds and other animals put together; and adds, that the only way to prevent this is by laying traps, at ten paces asunder, through the whole extent of the sown ground. No other apparatus, he says, is necessary than a roast- ed walnut, placed under a stone supported by a stick: the animals come to cat the walnut, which they prefer to acorns; and as the walnut is fixed to the stick, when- ever they touch it, the stone falls and kills them. The same expedient may be as successfully used for the des- truction of the short-tailed field mouse, which likewise commits great havoc in fields and plantations. When the count de Buffon first practised this experiment, he desir- ed that all the field mice thus taken in traps might be brought to him, and found with astonishment, that above 100 were taken each day from a piece of ground consist- ing only of about 40 of our acres. From the 15th of No- vember to the 8th of December, above 2000 were de- stroyed in this manner. When the frost becomes severe, they retire into their holes, and feed on the stores tliey have collected. They abound, like many other animals of this genus, chiefly in autumn, and arc far less common in the spring; for ifprovisions happen to fail them inthe winter, it is thought that they destroy each other; a cir- cumstance which is known occasionally tojake place in many other species. The long-tailed field mouse is a very prolific animal, breeding more than once a year, and often producing litters of ten at a time. In one of their holes have been found two females, with 20 young. Specimens have some- times been seen perfectly white, with red eyes. 6. Mus messorius, harvest mouse. This small species seems to have escaped the notice of British naturalists till it was observed by the late Mr. Gilbert White, of Selburnc in Hampshire, in which county it is frequent. Mr. White, in the year 1767, communicated the animal to Mr. Pennant, who introduced it into the British Zo- ology. " These mice," says Mr. White, " are much smaller and more slender than the mus domesticus medius of Ray, and have more ofthe squirrel or dormouse colour; their belly is wiiite; a straight line along their sides divides the shades of their hack and belly. They never enter in- to houses, are carried into ricks and barns with the sheaves, abound in harvest, and build their nest amidst the straws of corn above ground, and sometimes in this- tles. They breed as many as eight at a litter, in a little round nest composed of the blades of grass or wheat. One of these nests was procured inthe autumn of 1767, most artificially platted, and composed of the blades of wheat, perfectly round, and about the size of a cricket- ball, with the aperture so ingeniously closed, that there was no discovering to what part it belonged. It was so compact and well filled, that it would roll across the ta- ble without being discomposed, though it contained eight little mice that were naked and blind. As this nest was perfectly full, how could the dam come at her litter respecr tively, so as to administer a teat to each? Perhaps she opens different places for that purpose, adjusting them again MUS. when the business is over; but she could not possibly be contained herself iu the ball with her young, which more- over would be daily increasing in bulk. This wonderful procreant cradle, an elegant instance of the effect of in- stinct, was found in a wheat-field, suspended iu the head of a thistle." Mr. White adds, that ky scent. The female produces heryoung in April, and gene- rally brings about five or six at a time. Tbe measures of this species, as given by Mr. Scbreber, are as follow, viz. from nose to tail six inches and a half, and ofthe tail three inches. 9. Mus Icmmus, lemming rat. The wonderful migra- tions of this species have long rendered it celebrated in the annals of natural history. It is remarkable, howev- er, that no accurate figure of it was published till Dr. Pallas caused it to be engraved in his excellent work on the Glires. The first describer of the lemming seems to have been Olaus Magnus, from whom several of the older natural- ists have copied their accounts. Afterwards Wormius gave a more particular description; since which, Ricaut, in the Philosophical Transactions, Linnseus, in the Acta Holmiensia, and Dr. Pallas, in his publication before mentioned, have still farther elucidated its history and manners. See Plate XCII. Nat. Hist. iig. 280. The lemming differs in size and colour according to the regions it inhabits: those which are found in Norway being almost as large as a water rat, while those of Lap- land and Siberia are scarce larger than a field mousy; the Norwegian measuring more, than five inches from nose to tail, while those of Lapland and Siberia scarce exceed three. The colour of the Norway kind is an ele- gant variegation of black and tawny on the upper parts, disposed in patches and clouded markings; the sides of the head and the under parts of the body being white, the legs and tail greyish. In the Lapland kind the colour is chiefly a tawny brown above, with some indistinct' dusky variegations, and beneath of a dull white; the claws are also smaller than in the Norwegian animal. The head of the lemming is large, short, thick, and well furred; the snout very obtuse; the ears very small, round- ed, and hid in the fur; the eyes small; the neck short and broad; the body thick; and the limbs short and stout, es- pecially the fore legs; the fore-feet are broad, furnished with five toes, which have strong, compressed, and some- what crooked claws, of which the three middle ones are longer than the rest; on the hind-feet are also five toes, with smaller claws than those ofthe fore-feet; the tail is very short, thick, cylindric, obtuse, and covered with strong hail's, disposed like those of a pencil at the tip. The natural or general residence of the lemming is in the Alpine or mountainous parts of Lapland and Nor- way, from which tracts, at particular but uncertain pe- riods, it descends into tbe plains below in immense troops, and by its incredible numbers becomes a tempo- rary scourge to the country, devouring the grain and herbage, and committing devastations equal to those' caused by an army of locusts. These migrations of the lemming seldom happen oftener than once in ten years, and in some districts still less frequently, and are sup- posed to arise from an unusual multiplication of the ani- mals in the mountainous parts they inhabit, together with a defect of food; and, perhaps, a kind of instinctive prescience of unfavourable seasons, for it is observable that their chief migrations are made in the autumn of such years as are followed by a very severe winter. Tiie MUS. inclination or instinctive faculty which induces them, with one consent, to assemble from a whole region, col- lect themselves into an army, and descend from the moun- tains into the neighbouring plains, in the form of a firm phalanx, moving on in a straight line, resolutely sur- mounting every obstacle, and undismayed by every dan- ger, cannot be contemplated without astonishment. All who have written on the subject agree that they proceed in a direct course, so that the ground along which they have passed appears at a distance as if it had been ploughed; the grass being devoured to the very roots, in numerous stripes, or parallel paths, of one or two spans broad, and at the distance of some ells from each other. This army ef mice moves chiefly by night, or early in the morning, devouring the herbage as it passes, in such a manner that the surface appears as if burnt. No obstacles which they happen to meet in their way have any effect in altering their route; neither fires, nor deep ravines, nor torrents, nor marshes or lakes: they proceed obstinately in a straight line; and hence it happens that many thousands perish in the waters, and are found dead by the shores. If a rick of hay or corn occurs in their passage, they eat through it; but if rocks intervene which they cannot pass, they go round, and then resume their former straight direction. If disturbed or pursued while swimming over a lake, and their phalanx separa- ted by oars or poles, they will not recede, but keep swim-; ming directly on, and soon get into regular order again; and have even been sometimes known to endeavour to board or pass over a vessel. On their passage over land, if attacked by men, they will raise themselves up, utter- ing a kind of barking sound, and fly at the legs of their invaders, and will fasten so fiercely at the end of a stick, as to suffer themselves to be swung about before they will quit their hold; and are with great difficulty put to flight. It is said that an intestine war sometimes takes place in these armies during their migrations, and that the animals thus destroy each other. Tbe major part, however, of these hosts, is destroyed by various enemies, and particularly by owls, hawks, and weazels, exclusive of the numbers which perish in the waters; so that but a small number survive to return, which they are sometimes observed to do, to their native mountains. In their general manner of life they are not observed to be of a social disposition, but to reside iu a kind of scattered manner, in holes beneath the surface, without laying up any regular provision, like some other animals of this tribe. They are supposed to breed several times in a year, and to produce five or six at once. It has been observed that the females have sometimes brought forth during their migrations, and have been seen carrying some in their mouths, and others on their backs. In some parts of Lapland they are eaten, and are said to resemble squirrels in taste. It was once believed that these animals fell from the clouds at particular seasons, and some have affirmed that they have seen a lemming in its descent; but an accident of this kind is easily accounted for, on the supposition of a lemming escaping now and then from the claws of some bird whicli had seized it, and thus falling to the ground; a circumstance which is said not unfrequently to take t>lace when the animals are seised by crows; gulls* $c. 10. Mus ceconomicus, ©economic rat. The ceconomic rat, so named from its provident disposition, and the skill with which it collects its provisions, is a native of Siberia, inhabiting that country in vast abundance, and even extending as far as Kamtschatka. Its curious his- tory has been given with great exactness by Dr. Pallas: who informs us that these little animals make their bur- rows with wonderful skill, immediately below the sur- face, in soft turfy soils; forming a chamber, of a flatfish arched form, of a small height, and about a foot in di- ameter, to which they sometimes add as many as thirty small pipes or entrances, and near the chamber they fre- quently form other caverns, in which they deposit their winter stores; these are said to consist of various kinds of plants, even of some species which are poisonous to mankind. They gather them in summer, harvest them with great care, and even sometimes bring thein out of their cells in order to give them a more thorough drying in the sun. The chief labour rests on the females; the males during the summer wandering about in a solitary state, inhabiting some old nests occasionally, and living during that period on berries, without touching the hoards, which are reserved for winter, when the male and female reside together in the same nest. They are said to breed several times in the year, the female pro- ducing two or three young at a time. The migrations of this little species are not less extra- ordinary than those of the lemming, and take place at uncertain periods. Dr. Pallas imagines that the migra- tions of those inhabiting Kamtschatka may arise from some sensations of internal fire in that volcanic country,or from a prescience of some unusual anufbad season. What- ever is the cause, the fact is certain. At such periods they gather together, during the spring season, in sur- prising numbers, except the few that reside about villa- ges, where they can pick up some subsistence; and this makes it probable that their migrations, like those of the lemming, are rather owing to want of food. The mighty host proceeds in a direct course westward, occasionally swimming with the utmost intrepidity over rivers, lakes, and even arms ofthe sea. During these perilous adven- tures, some are drowned, and others destroyed by water- fowl, fish, &c: those which escape rest a while to bask, dry their fur, and refresh themselves, and then again set out on their migration. It is said that the inhabitants of Kamtschatka, when they happen to find them in this fa- tigued situation, treat them with the utmost tenderness, and endeavour by every possible method to refresh and restore them to life and vigour. Indeed none of the small- er animals are so much esteemed by the Kamtschadalcs as these, since to their labours they owe many a delicious repast, robbing their hoards in autumn, and leaving there some kind of provision in return, accompanied by some ridiculous presents by way of amends for the theft. As soon as the migrating host of these animals has cros- sed the rtver Penshim, at the head of the gulph of that name, it turns southward, and reaches the rivers Judoma and Ochot about the middle of July: the space thus tra- versed appears astonishing, on consulting the map of the country. The flocks during this time are so numerous, that an observer has waited two hours to sec them all pass. Their return into Kamtschatka is in October, and is attended with the utmost festivity and welcome on the MUS. part of the natives, who consider their arrival as a sure prognostic of a successful chace and fishery; and they are said equally to lament their migrations, which are usually succeeded by rainy and tempestuous weather. This curious species is generally of a tawny colour, darker on the back, and lighter or more approaching to an ash-coloured whiteness beneath: its usual length is about four inches and a quarter, and the tail one inch; its limbs are strong; its eyes small, its ears naked, very short and round, and almost hid beneath the fur of the head. This animal is also supposed to be an inhabitant of Iceland; at least a species which must be greatly allied to it is found in that country, and is said to be particu- larly plentiful iu the wood of Husafels. In that coun- try, where berries are but thinly dispersed, the little ani- mals are obliged to cross rivers to make their distant foraging excursions, and in their return are obliged to repass tbe stream; their manner of performing which is thus related by Mr. Olaffen, from the accounts of others, communicated to himself: " The party, consisting of from six to ten, select a flat piece of dried cow-dung, on which they place the berries they have collected in a heap, on the middle; and then, by their united force, drawing it to the water's edge, launch it, and embark, placing themselves round the heap, with their heads joined over it, and their backs to the water; their tales pendant in the stream, and serving the purpose of rudders." 11. Mus socialis, social mouse. The social mouse is a native of the Caspian deserts between the Volga and the Yaik, and the country of Hircauia. It lives in low sandy situations, in large societies; the ground in many places being covered with the little hillocks formed by the earth cast out in forming the burrows, which are said to be about a span deep, with eight or more pas- sages. The animals are always observed to live in pairs, or with a family; they are fond of tulip-roots, which form a principal article of their food. They appear chiefly in the spring, when they are very numerous, but are rarely seen in autumn, and arc supposed either to migrate in autumn or to conceal themselves among the bushes, &c. and in the winter to shelter themselves in hay- ricks. The head in this species is thick, and the nose blunt; the whiskers white; the ears oval and naked; the limbs short and strong, and the tail slender. The up- per parts are of a light grey, and the under vyhite. 12. Mus cricetus, hamster rat. Of the pouched rats the hamster is the most remarkable,^ and indeed is the only European species provided witli those peculiar re- ceptacles, whicli are situated on each side the mouth, and when empty are so far contracted as not to appear externally, but when filled resemble a pair of tumid bladders, having a smooth veiny surface, concealed, how- ever, under the fur or skin of the cheeks, which bulge out extremely in this state. They are so large as to hold the quantity of a quarter of a pint, English mea- sure. The general size of the hamster is nearly that of a brown or Norway rat, but it is of a much thicker form, and has a short tail. Its colour is a pale reddish brown above, and black beneath. The muzzle is whitish, the cheeks reddish, and on each side the body are three moderately large oval white spots, of which those on the shoulders are the largest; the ears are moderately large and rounded, and the tail almost bare, and about three inches long; on the fore-feet are four toes, with a claw in place of a fifth, and on the hind-feet are five toes. Sometimes the hamster varies in colour, being found either black with a white muzzle, or of a pale yellow ish white. The male is always much larger than the female. On each side the lower part of the back is an almost bare spot, covered only with very short down. The hamster inhabits Siberia and the south of Russia. It is also found in Poland, as well as in many parts of Germany. They are very destructive in some districts, devouring great quantities of grain, which they carry off in their cheek-pouches, and deposite in their holes, in order to devour during the autumn. Their habita- tions, wiiich they dig to the depth of three or four feet, consist of more or fewer apartments, according to tbe age of the animal: a young hamster makes them hardly a foot deep; an old one sinks them to the depth of four or five feet, and the whole diameter of the residence, taking in all its habitations, is sometimes eight or ten feet. The principal chamber is lined with dried grass, and serves for a lodging; the others are destined for the •preservation of provisions, of wiiich he amasses a great quantity during the autumn. Each hole has two aper-i tures; the one descending obliquely, and the other in a perpendicular direction; and it, is through this latter that the animal goes in and out. The holes of the females, who never reside with the males, are somewhat different in their arrangement, and have more numerous passages. The female breeds two or three times a year, producing five or six, and sometimes as many as sixteen or eighteen. The growth of the young is rapid, and they are soon able to provide for themselves. The hamster feeds on all kinds of herbs and roots, as well as on grain, and even occasionally on the smaller animals. " In harvest-time (says Mr. Allamand) he makes his ex- cursions for provision, and carries every article he can find into his granary. To facilitate the transportation of his food, nature has provided him with two pouches in the inside of each cheek. On the outside these pouch- es are membranous, smooth, and shining; and in the in- side are a great many glands, which continually secrete a certain fluid, to preserve their flexibility, and to enable them to resist any accidents which may be occasioned by the roughness or sharpness of particular grains." On the approach of winter the hamster retires into his subterraneous abode, the entry of which he shuts up with great care; and thus remaining in a state of tran- quillity, feeds on his collected provision till the frost be- comes severe; at which period he falls into a profound slumber, which soon grows into a confirmed torpidity, so that the animal continues rolled up, with all its limbs inflexible, its body perfectly cold, and without the least appearance of life. In this state it may even be opened; when the heart is seen alternately contracting and dilat- ing, but with a motion so slow as to be scarce perceptible, not exceeding 15 pulsations in a minute, though in the waking state ofthe animal it beats 150 pulsations in the same time. It is added that the fat of the creature has the appearance of being coagulated, that its intestines do not exhibit the smallest symptoms of irritability on MX 3. the application of the strongest sttaiulanK and the elec- tric shock may be passed through it without effect. This lethargy of the hamster has been generally ascribed to the effect of cold alone; but late observations have proved, that unless at a certain depth beneath the surface, so as to be beyond the access of the external air, the animal does not fall into its state of torpidity, and that the severest cold ©n the surface does not affect it. On the contrary, when dug up out of its burrow, and exposed to the air, it infallibly awakes in a few hours. The wak- ing of the hamster is a gradual operation: he first loses The rigidity of his limbs; then makes profound inspira- tions, at long intervals; after this he begins to move his limbs, opens his mouth, and utters a sort of unpleasant rattling sound. After continuing these operations for some time, he at length opens his eyes, and endeavours to rise; but reels about for some time, as if in a state of intoxication, till at length, after resting a small space, he perfectly recovers his usual powers. This transition from torpidity to activity requires more or less time, ac- cording to the temperature of the air, and other circum- stances. When exposed to a cold air, he is sometimes two hours in waking; but in a wanner air the change is effected in half the time. The maimers of the hamster are generally represent- ed as far from pleasing. No society appears to exist among these animals. They are naturally very fierce, and make a desperate defence when attacked: they also pursue and destroy every animal which they are capable of conquering, not excepting even the weaker individuals of their own species. They are said to be particularly fond of- the seeds of liquorice, and to abound in the dis- tricts where that plant is cultivated. According to Mr. Sultzer, they abound to such a degree in Gotha, that in one year 11,564, in another 54,429, and in a third 80,139 of their skins were delivered in the Hotel de Ville of that capital, where the hamster is proscribed on account of the devastations it commits among the corn. 13. Mus bursarius, Canada rat. This, wiiich is a species but lately discovered, seems to be the most re- markable of all the pouched rats for the proportional size of the receptacles. It is a native of Canada, and is about the size of a brown or Norway rat, and is of a pale greyish-brown colour, rather lighter beneath; the length to the tail is about nine inches, and that of the tail, which is but slightly covered with hair, about two inches; the legs are short; the fore-feet strong, and well adapted for burrowing in the ground, having five claws, of which the three middle ones are very large and long; the interior much smaller, and the exterior very small, with a large tubercle or elbow beneath it. The claws on the hind-feet are comparatively very small, but the two middle are larger than the rest, and the interior one is scarce visible; the teeth are extremely strong, particular- ly the lower pair, whicli are much longer than the upper; the ears are very small. This species is described in the 5th volume of the Transactions of the Linnsean So- ciety; but we must observe that by some oversight in the conduct of the figure there given, the claws on tbe fore- feet are represented as only three in number, and are somewhat too long, weak, and curved. A more faithful representation is given in Dr. Shaw's excellent work, which is accompanied by an outline of the head; in ita natural jizc, iu order to show the teeth and cheek-pouches. The manners of this species are at present unknown' but it may be concluded that it lays in a stock of pro- visions, either for autumnal or winter food. The pouch- es ofthe individual specimen above described, when first brought to governor Prcscot, were filled with a kind of earthy substance: it is, therefore, not improbable that the Indians who caught the animal might have stuffed it thus, in order to preserve it in its utmost extent. 14. Mus typhlus, blind rat. This is perhaps one of the largest and most remarkable of its tribe, measuring between seven and eight inches in length, and being en* tirely destitute both of eyes and tail; the defect of the former is a very singular circumstance, and the animal perhaps affords the only instance of a truly blind or eye- less quadruped. In the mole, the eyes, however small and deeply seated, are yet perfect in their kind, and though not calculated for acute vision, still enable the animal to avoid the danger of exposure; but in the quad- ruped now under consideration, there arc merely a pair of subcutaneous rudiments of eyes, smaller than poppy- seeds, and covered with a real skin. It is probable, however, that even these minute organs arc sufficient to give an obscure perception of light, and to enable the animal to consult its safety by generally continuing be- neath the surface. The external ears are also wanting, and the foramina leading to the internal organs are very small, entirely hid by the fur, and situated at a great distance backward. There is scarce any distinction be- tween the head and neck, and the whole form of the animal, like that of the mole, is calculated for a subter- raneous life; the body being cylindric, the limbs very short, and the feet and claws, though small and weak in comparison with those of moles, yet calculated for dig- ging or burrowing in the ground. The colour of the animal is a greyish-brown; the fur, which is very thick, soft, and downy, being dusky toward the roots, and grey- ish toward the tips; the head is lighter and the abdomen darker that the other parts; the lower lip is also whitish, and sometimes a white mark extends along the forehead; the front-teeth are very large, and are naturally bare or exserted; the lower pair being much longer than the up- per. This singular species is a native ofthe southern parts of Russia, where it burrows to agreat extent beneath the surface, forming several lateral passages, by which it may pass in quest of roots, kc It is said to feed in particular on the roots of the chserophyllum bulbosum. In the morning hours it sometimes quits its hold to bask in the sunshine, and if disturbed, iqstantly takes refuge beneath the surface; burrowing with great agility, and frequently in a perpendicular direction. Its bite is very severe when attacked. It has no voice, but emits a kind of snorting sound, and gnashes its large teeth in a men- acing manner, raising its head at the same time. The female is said to produce from two to four young. 15. Mus Capensis, Cape rat. In its general shape, this animal is not unlike the great sand rat first describ- ed, and is equally common about the Cape of Good Hope; but it is far inferior in size, measuring about seven in- ches to the tail, which is very short, nearly white, and flatfish. The general colour of tbis species is a dusky rufous ash-brown, paler or more inclining to whitish be- neatbj the end or tip of the nose is naked and black, the MUS M U S remainder white, and on each side are several strong wiiite bristles; the chin, lower sides of the cheeks, and spaces round the eyes, are also white, and on the hind part of the head is an oval white spot; the teeth are naturally exserted or naked, and are similar in form to those of the great sand ret. In its manners and way of life, the animal is also similar to that species; and is very destructive to g ^dens, flinging up hillocks, and eating various kinds of roots. MUSA, the plantain tree, a genus of tbe moneecia or- der, in the polyandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under tlie 8th order, scitaminese. The calyx- of the male hermaphrodite is a spatha or sheath; the corolla is dipetaious; the one petal erect and quin- quedentate; the other nectariferous, concave aud shorter: there arc six species, five of which are perfect; one style; Uie germen inferior and abortive. The female herma- phrodite has the calyx, corolla, filaments, and pistil, of the male hermaphrodite, with only one filament perfect; the berry is oblong, and three-angled below. There are three species: 1. Musa paradisiaca, is cultivated in all the islands of the West Indies, where the fruit serves the Indians for bread; and some of the white people also prefer it to most other things, especially to the yams and cassada bread. The plant rises with a soft stalk 15 or 20 feet high; the lower part of the stalk is often as large as a man's thigh, diminishing gradually to the top, where the leaves come out on every side: these are often eight feet long, and from two to three broad, with a strong fleshy mid-rib, and a great number of tranverse veins running from the mid-rib to the borders. The leaves are thin and tender, so that where they are exposed to the open air, they are generally torn by the wind; for as they arc large, the wind has great power against them: these leaves come ©ut from the centre of the stalk, and are rolled up at their first appearance; but when they are advanced above ihe stalk, they expand and turn back- ward. As these leaves come up rolled in this manner, their advance upward is so quick, that their growth may' almost be discovered by the naked eye: and if a fine line is drawn across level with the top of the leaf, in an hour the leaf will be near an inch above it. When the plant is grown to its full height, the spikes of flowers appear in the centre, which is often near four feet long. The flowers come out in bunches, those in the lower part of the spike being the largest; the others diminish in their size up- ward. Each of these bunches is covered with a sheath of afinepurplticolour., which drops off when the flowers open. The upper part of the spike is made up of male flowers, which are not succeeded by fruit, but fall off with their covers. The fruit or plantain is about a foot long, and an inch and an half or two inches diameter: it is at first green, but when ripe pale-yellow. The skin is tough; and within is a soft pulp of a luscious sweet flavour. The spikes of the fruit are often so large as to weigh upwards of 40lb. The fruit of this sort is generally cut before it is ripe. The green skin is pulled off, and the -heart is roasted in a clear fire for a few minutes and frequently turned: it is then scraped, and served up as bread. Boiled plantains are not so palatable. This tree is cultivated on a very extensive scale in Jamaica, without the fruit of which, Dr. Wright says, thfe island would scarce be habitable, as no species of provision could supply their place. Even flour or bread itself would be less agreeable, and less able to support the laborious negro, so as to enable him to do his busi- ness, or to keep in health. Plantains also fatten horses, cattle, swine, dogs, fowls, and other domestic animus The leaves being smooth and soft, are employed as dress- ings after blisters. The water from the soft trunk is as- tringent, and employed by some to check diarrhoeas. Every other part of the tree is useful in different parts of rural economy. The leaves are used for napkins and table-cloths, and arc food for hogs. 2. Musa sapicntum, the banana tree. This species differs from the preceding in having its stalks marked with dark-purple stripes and spots. The fruit is short- er, straighter, and rounder; the pulp is softer, and of a more luscious taste. It is never eaten green; but when ripe it is very agreeable, either eaten raw or fried in slices as fritters; and is relished by all ranks of people in the West Indies. Both these plants were carried^ to tbe West Indies from the Canary Islands, whither, it is believed, they had been brought from Guinea, where they grow naturally. They are also cultivated in Egypt, and in most other hot countries, where they grow to per- fection in about ten months from their first planting to tbe ripening of their fruit. When their stalks are cut down, several suckers come up from the roots, which in six or eight months produce fruit; so that by cutting down the stalks at different times, there is a constant succession of fruit all the year. In Europe some of these plants are raised by gentlemen who have hot-houses ca- pacious enough for their reception, in many of which they have ripened their fruit very well; but as they grow very tall, and their leaves arc large, they require more room in the stove than most people are willing to allow them. They are propagated by suckers, which come from the roots of those plants that have fruited; aud many times the younger plants, when stinted in growth, also put out suckers. The fruit of this tree is four or five inch- es long, of the size and shape of a middling cucumber, and of a high, grateful flavour: tlie leaves are two yards long, and a foot broad in the middle; they join to tlie top of the body of the tree, and often contain in their cavities a great quantity of water which runs out upon a small incision being made into tbe tree, at tbe junction of the leaves. Bananis grow in great bunches, that weigh 12 lb. and upwards. The body of the tree is so porous as not to merit the name of wood; the tree ia only perennial by its roots, and dies down to the ground every autumn. When the natives of the West Indies (says Labat) undertake a voyage, they make provision of a paste of banana, wiiich, in case of need, serves them for nourishment and drink: for this purpose tliey take ripe bananas, and having squeezed them through a fine sieve, form the solid fruit into small loaves, which are dried in the sun or in hot ashes, after being previous- ly wrapped up in the leaves of Indian flowering-reed. 3. Musa troglodytarnm, has a scarlet spathe and scar- let berry, but not eatable. MUSCA, fly, a genus of insects of the order diptera. The generic character is: mouth formed into a fleshy pro- boscis, with two lateral lips; palpi, none. The vast extent of the genus niHsca makes it necessary to divide the whole into different assortments, i« orde<, to the more ready investigation of tbe species, Thcde MUSCA. divisions are instituted from the form of the antennse, which are either simple (without any lateral hair or plume), or armed (that is, furnished with a lateral hair or plume). These divisions are farther separated into others, accordingto the more or less downy or hairy ap- pearance of the insects. The first section of this genus comprehends such flies as have simple antennse. The larvse, in the different tribes of flies, differ far more in habit than the complete insects, some being ter- restrial, and others aquatic. Those of the more common kinds are emphatically distinguished by the title of mo^- gots, and spring from eggs deposited on various putrid substances. Several of the aquatic kinds are of singu- larly curious formation, and exhibit wonderful examples of the provision ordained by nature for the preservation of even the meanest and most seemingly contemptible of animals. Several are inhabitants of plants, feeding during this state on other living insects. The general form of the chrysalis or pupa is that of an oval, differently modified, according to the species, and formed by the external skin of the larva, which hardens round the chrysalis. Some species, however, cast their skin before their change into the pupa state. In this division one of the most remarkable species is the musca chamseleon, whicli is a large black fly, with a broad flattish abdomen, having the sides of each segment yellow, forming so many abrupt semibands across that part. It proceeds from an aquatic larva, of very consi- derable size, measuring two inches and a half in length, of a somewhat flattened shape, and of a brown colour, with a narrow or slender front, the body widening by degrees towards the middle, and from thence gradually tapering to the extremity or tail, which is terminated by a circle of radiating or diverging hairs. This larva is common in stagnant waters during the summer months, and passes into its chrysalis state without casting its skin, which dries over it, so as to preserve the former appear- ance of the animal in a more contracted state. In this division also stands the musca vermileo, a mid- dle-sized fly, of a somewhat lengthened form, with a dis- tant resemblance to a tipula. It is of a dull yellow co- lour, with transparent wings; the thorax marked above by two black lines, and the abdomen by a triple series of black spots. The larva of this species measures above three quarters of an inch in length, and is of a pale yel- lowish-grey colour, slender or sharpened in front, and growing gradually broader towards the tail. It is found in the southern parts of Europe, and is not uncommon in some districts of France, and is remarkable for practising a method exactly similar to that of the hemerobius for- micaleo in order to obtain its prey; excavating a circular pit or cavity in the dry sand, concealing itself beneath the centre, and thus awaiting the arrival of any small insect wiiich may happen to fall into it, and after absorb- ing its juices, throwing out the exhausted remains to a considerable distance from the verge of the cavity. This larva seems to have been first observed and described by Reaumur, in the Memoirs of the French Academy for the year 1752, It assumes the state of a chrysalis by cast- ing its skin, which rolls to the hinder part of the body: the chrysalis is of a dull reddish colour, and is rounded or clubbed at the upper part, suddenly tapering from thence to the extremity, and after lying nine or ten days, gives birth to the included insect. Of the downy or slightly haired flies with bristled an- tennse, one of the most remarkable is the musca tcnax wiiich is about the size of a drone, and of a brow n colour, with transparent wings, and the first segment of the ab- domen yellowish on each side. It proceeds from a larva of a very singular appearance, being a '*ong-tailed brown maggot, of rather slow motion, measuring about three quarters of an inch in length, exclusive of the tail, which is extensile, and consists of a double tube, the exteridr annulated into numerous segments, and the interior slender, and terminated by a circle of hairs, surrounding a spiraculum or air-hole. This maggot is seen in mud- dy stagnant waters, drains, and other places of the dirtiest description; and notwithstanding its unnleasing appearance, exhibits, when accurately examined, many particulars well worthy of admiration. The feet in par- ticular, which are seven in number on each side, are wonderfully calculated for enabling the animal to ascend w alls or other perpendicular places, in order to seek some proper situation in which it may undergo its change into chrysalis, being very broad, and beset on their under surface with numerous small hooked claws, giving it the power of clinging with security during its ascent. Of this larva a particularity is stated on the authority of Linnseus, which, if true, may indeed well be numbered among the Miracula Insectorum (the title of the paper in the Amcenitates Academicse, in wiiich itis announced), viz. that being a frequent inhabitant of the turbid pulp used in the operation of paper-making, it is often ex- posed to the action of the wooden mallets used in the process, as well as squeezed in the strongest presses, and yet survives uninjured these seemingly destructive ope- rations!!! The above larva commonly changes to a chrysalis about the end of August, the skin contracting and" dry- ing round the body, and the tail continuing in a shrivel- led state. After thus remaining about the space of a fort- night, it gives birth to the complete insect, which has so much the general appearance of a drone, that it is very frequently mistaken for such. It is extremely common during the month of September. Musca pendula, which belongs also to this division of the genus, is a moderately large and very beautiful in- sect. Its colour is black, with four bright yellow stripes down the thorax, and three broad interrupted bars across the abdomen; or, in other words, this fly might be de- scribed as of a bright yellow colour, with the thorax marked by four longitudinal black lines, and the abdo- men by three transverse ones, connected by a black stripe down the middle. Its larva, which is an inhabi- tant of stagnant waters, is of a still more remarkable appearance than that of the immediately preceding spe- cies, which it resembles in size, but is of a paler colour, and furnished with a tail of greater length, composed of a double tube, the interior of which is very slender, ex- tensile at the pleasure of the animal to a vast length, and terminated by a very small spiracle. The length of this tube is therefore varied according to the greater or smal- ler depth at which the insect chooses to continue, the tip reaching to the surface, in order to supply the requisite quantity of air. Sometimes great numbers of these mag- MCSCI. gots are found coiled or twisted together by their tails in such a manner that it is by no means easy to separate any one from the rest. The chrysalis resembles that of the musca tenax, the remains ofthe tail being visible in a dried and contracted state. The complete insect is fre- quently seen on flowers during the autumnal season. Among the hairy or bristly flies with plumed antennse stands tbe well-known species called musca carnvria, or the common large blow-fly. This, as every one knows, deposits its eggs on animal flesh, cither fresh or putrid. The larvse or maggots hatch in about the space of a few hours, and when full-grown, which happens in eight or ten days, are of a wiiite or yellowish-white colour with a slight tinge of pale red, and of a lengthened shape, with a sharpened front, in which the mouth is situated, and from whence the body gradually enlarges in size to the last or terminal segment, which is of a very broad and flattened form, surrounded by several slightly prominent tips, and furnished with a pair of dusky specks resem- bling eyes; so that an inaccurate spectator might easily mistake this part for the head, and the proper head for the tail. When the animal changes to a chrysalis, the skin dries round it, and the whole assumes a completely oval form, and a reddish colour, soon changing into a reddish-brown. In ten days more the fly itself emerges, which is too well known to require particular description. Musca vivipara greatly resembles the preceding, and is found in similar situations, but is viviparous, disclosing small ready formed larvse instead of eggs, which in this species are hatched internally. This particularity is not confined to the present species, but has been observed in some others of this genus. To this as well as the preceding has been applied the observation, Tres muscce consumunt adaver equi wqne dto ac leo; the number of larva; proceeding from the flies, and the quick evolution of the successive broods, destroying the same quantity of flesh in a given time as the predacious quadruped, who devours agreat quantity at certain intervals only, while the process of destruction continues with unremitted perseverance on the part of one or other of tbe respective races of flies. Of the hair-flies with bristled antennse, the musca grossa, the largest of European flies, affords a good ex- ample. Musca fiava, is one of the smallest but most elegant of the European flies; it is of a yellow colour, with bright gold green eyes. ML SCI, Mosses, one of the seven families or classes into which all vegetables are divided by Linnseus in the IMiilosophia Botanica, is the 2d order in the cryptogamia class, according to the sexual system. The more perfect kinds of mosses are found in the shape of small but regular plants, divided into several branches, and clothed with leaves: these are of various forms and structures; some being broad and thin, others slender as hairs; some pellucid, others opaque; some smooth, others hairy. From the ala; of these leaves in some kinds, and from the summit of the stalks in others, there arise heads or capsules of various figure and struc- ture, but all unicapsular; some of these are naked, and oth- ers covered with a calyptra or hood; some stand on bin* pedicles, and others are placed close to the stalks. These heads are usually called capsula?, which contain their seeds or farina; and their pedicles setsc, in the mnia.hyp- na, brya, and polytricha, kc These capsules in some are covered with a calyptra or land; in others they are naked. Ofthe first kind are the splachnum,polytii( hum, ionium, bryum, hypnum, fontinalis, andbuxbaiimia; and of tiie lat- ter sort lycopodium, porella, sphagnum, and phascum. Some of the mosses, it is evident, approach to the na- ture of the plants which have their male and female parts in the same flower, and others to those which have them in different ones. After all. this tribe of plants, as well as the mushrooms, ferns, and sea-weeds, is still imperfect- ly known. The characteristics of these plants, however, according to the sexual system, are 1. Tops without fila- ments or threads. 2. The male flower, constituted by the presence of the antherse or tops, placed apart from the female, either on the same or distinct roots. 3. The female roots, flowers deprived ofthe pistillum orpointal. 4. Tbe seeds devoid of both lobes (cotyledones) and pro- per coverings, so that they exhibit the naked embryo. This order is subdivided into 13 genera, from the pre- sence or absence of the calyx, which in these plants is a veil or cover like a monk's cowl, that is placed over the male organs or tops ofthe stamina, and is denominated calyptra, from the sexes of the plants, which bear male and female flowers, sometimes on the same, sometimes on distinct roots; and from the manner of growth ofthe fe- male flowers, which are sometimes produced singly, some- times in bunches or cones. The manner of seeding of mosses in general, may be more clearly understood from the description of that ge- nus of them which has been traced through all its stages, and to which most of the others, though every genus has its distinct fructification in some respects, yet bear a very general analogy. The genus already observed, is that called by Dr. Dil- lenius, the hypnum. The species of this are wr\ nume- rous and common; but that particular one which was the subject of these observations, is the short-branched silky kinds, common on old walls; and called by (hat author in his History, hypnum vulgare, scricum, rccurvum, capsu- lis erectis cuspidatis. The head of this moss appears to the naked eye a small, smooth, brownish-yellow, oblong body, of about a ninth of an inch long; this is covered at its upper end with a membranaceous calyptra or hood, in shape resem- bling an extinguisher, or a funnel inverted. When this calyptra is taken off, and the head viewed with a micros- cope, the surface of it is seen to be ridged with longitudi- nal strise. The basis of the head is of a deep orange-co- lour, and more opaque than the rest; and the top is bound- ed by an orange-coloured ring, swelling out something be- yond the surface of the contiguous parts of the head. Good glasses show that in this head there are not want- ing the parts essential to the fructification of what are usually called the more perfect plants. The ring is truly a monophyllous undulated calyx, within which arise six- teen pyramidal fimbriated stamiua; these are of a pale- greenish colour, and are loaded with a whitish oval fari- na. The stamina all bend towards each other from their bases, and almost meet in a point at the tops. This is their appearance when the head is nearly ripe; and immediate- ly under tbe arch formed by these stamina, is a cylindric hollow pistillum, tlirough which the farina makes its way, M U S M U S and is dispersed among the seeds in the head. The fruit is a large capsule, filling every part of the membrane which sliows itself on the outside of tbe head, and in most places is contiguous to it; this capsule is filled with perfect and very beautiful seeds; they arc round, trans- parent when unripe, but afterwards opaque, and of a very beautiful green, which colour they retain even when dried. When this head is first produced from, the plant, the stamina are very slender, and stand erect; the head is scarcely any thicker than the stalk, and the calyptra covers it all over, to shield the tender substance of the farina from external injuries. As the farina afterwards swells in the stamina, the seeds in the head increase also in bvilli, and by their increase the head is more extended in thickness; and the stamina are by this means separat- ed farther and farther from each other at their bases, but bend inwards toward their points, so as to form a kind of arched covering over the stigma of the pistillum, which is single, and hence the farina falls as it ripens into the head, and impregnates the seedp. The 11 principal genera are as follow: lycopodium, polvtrichum, bryum, selagines, usnese, mnium, byssi, sphagnum, hypna, confervse, and fontinales. These are found growing on the barks of trees as well as on the ground. Many ofthe mosses grow on rocks and barren places, and, rotting away, afford the first principles of vegeta- tion to othor plants, which could never else have taken root there. Others grow in bogs and marshes, and by continual increase and decay fill up and convert them either into fertile pastures, or into peat-bogs, the source of inexhaustible fuel to the polar regions. They are ap- plicable also to many domestic purposes: the lycopodiums are some of thein used in dyeing of yam, and in medicine; the sphagnum and polytrichum furnish convenient beds for the Laplanders; and the hypnums are used in tiling of Looses, stopping crevices in wails, packing up of brit- tle, wares and the roots of plants for distant convey- ance, kc. MUSCICAPA, or Fia-catcher, a genus of birds belonging to the order of passeres. The bill is flat- red at the base, almost triangular, notched at the upper mamlibie, and beset with bristles; the toes (generally) di- vided as far as their origin. There are 97 species; the most remarkable are: 1. Tiie grisola, or spotted fly-catcher, about five inches «nd three quarters long. The head is large, of a brownish hue, spotted obscurely with black: the back is of a mouse colour; the wings aud tail are dusky; the breast aud beily whjte. It is a bird of passage; appears here in the spring, tirecds with us, and departs in September. It builds its nest against any part of a tree that will support it; often in the hollow caused by the decay of some large limb, hole in a wall, kc also on old posts and beams of barns; -and is found to return to the same place season after sea- son. It lays four or five pale eggs marked with reddish, It feeds on insects, and collects them on the wing. -2. Theflabclliiera,«r fan-tailed fly-catcher, is iu length six inches and a half: the head is black, which colour de- scends on the back part lower than the nape, whence it pas- ses forward in a narrow collar to the throat; the chin, threat, and sides -of the neck, except where this collar pas- ses, arc white, and over the eye is a white streak like an eye- brow; the tail is longer than the body, the two middle lea- thers black, others wiiite; the legs arc dusky. This spe- cies inhabits the southern i.-,!c of New Zealand; where it is seen constantly hunting after insects, and hies always with its tail in shape of a fan. It is easily tamed; and will then sit on any person's shoulder, and pick offthc flies. See Plate XCII. Nat. Hist. fig. 281. 3. The carihonensis, or cat-bird, is somewhat bigger than a lark: length eight inches: bill black; the upper parts of tlse body and wings are of a deep brown; the un- der ash-coloured; the crown ofthe head is black; the tail is blackisi:; and the legs are brown. This species is common in the United States in the summer-season; where it frequents shrubs rather than tall trees, and feeds on insects; its cry resembles that of a cat, whence the English name given it by Catesby. 4. The rubicollus, purple-throated fly-catcher, is about the size of a blackbird; the whole plumage is black, ex- cept the chin, throat, and fore part ofthe neck, on whicli is a large bed of beautiful crimson, inclining to purple; the legs are black. These birds inhabit Cayenne and other parts of South America; where they arc found in flocks, and precede in general the toucans in their move- ments. They feed on fruits and insects; and are lively birds, always in action. They for the most part frequent the woods, like the toucans; and where the first arc found, the others are seldom far off. See fig. .283, MUSCLE. Sec Anatomy. Muscles, Insertion and force ofthe. The all-wise Au- thor of nature has furnished animals with limbs, movea- ble about the joints by means of muscular cords, inserted near the joint or centre of motion: the great wisdom of which will appeal', from supposing tlie insertion to be at E (Plate XC1V. Miscel. fig. 168.) near the wrist B, the muscle D K being either loose and separate, from the bone D, A, B, or bound down to it by some ligament or fascia It; in eitlier of which cases the bone A B cannot be turned up quite to the situation A H, unless the mus- cle D E is contracted or shortened to D M, which would not only be troublesome but even impossible. It would be troublesome, because the breadth and thickness ofthe arm would be vastly increased, so as to become as big as the belly of an animal. On the other hand, the structure of a muscle, being such that it cannot be contracted but a little, seldom above two or three fingcrs*-breadtli; such an insertion as that at E, which requires a contraction of a about a foot and a half, would be altogether impos- sible. Therefore, in fact, wc find the muscles inserted near the centre of motion, as at I, 169. In order to. calculate the force of any muscle, we arc to consider the bones as levers; and then the power or force of the muscle will be always to the resistance or weight it is capable of raising, as the greater distance of the'weight from the centre of motion is to the lesser dis- tance of the power. Hence, it being found by experi- ments, that a robust young man is able to suspend a weight R, equal to twenty-eight pounds, when the arm is extended in a supine and horizontal situation, we have this proportion, viz. the force ofthe muscle I D is to the -weight B, =* 281b, as the distance D C is to the distance *C But is found, that D C, tbe length ofthe cubit and M U S M U S hand, is more than twenty times greater than I C, the distance ofthe muscle from the centre of motion. There- fore the force of the muscle 1 D, must be more than-tvven- twenty times greater than tlie weight R, or more tban 28 X 20 = 560lb. Again, to find the force which the biceps and brachi- als'muscles exert, when the humerus D A, (fig. 1T0.) is perpendicular to the horizon, wc are first to consider what weight a man is capable of sustaining in this posture, viz: R = 35 pounds, and next the quantity of the dis- tances C B, C I, which in this case are as 16 to 1. There- fore the force of these muscles is to the weight R — 35 pounds, as the distance C B = 16 is to the distance I C = l; or the force is equal to 560, as before. But what appears most wonderful is, the force of the muscles that move the lower jaw; whicli, when taken al- together, do not in a man exceed the weight of 1 pound, and yet exert a force equal to 534 pounds, and in mastiff- dogs, wolves, bears, lions, &c. their force is vastly su- perior, so as to break large bones, as they practise daily in'their feeding. The motions of the far greater part of the muscles are voluntary, or dependant on our will; those of a few others, involuntary. The former are called animal, the other natural motions. Finally, the motions of some of the muscles are of a mixed kind, partly animal and partly natural. Those muscles which perform the voluntary motions, receive nerves from the brain or spiral marrow: those which perforin their motions involuntary, have their nerves from the cerebellum; and those whose motion is partly voluntary, and partly involuntary, have theirs in part from the brain, and in part from the cerebellum. And as a miiscle'can no longer act when its nerve is either cut asunder or tied up, so the same absolute dependance it has on its artefy: for from the experiments of Steno and others on living animals, it appears that in cutting or ty- ing up the artery, the muscle in the same manner loses its whole power of action, as if the nerve had been cut or tied n]>. MUSCOVY GLASS. Sec Mica. MUSHROOM. See Agvricus. MUSIC, a science which teaches the properties, depen- dences, and relations of melodious sounds; or the art of producing harmony and melody by the due combination and arrangement of those sounds. This science when em- ployed in searching the principles of this combination and succession, and the causes ofthe pleasure we receive from them,becomes very profound, and demands much patience, sagacity, and depth of thinking. It is generally suppos- ed that the word music is derived from Musa, because it is previously believed that the invention of this art is to be attributed to the muses: but Diodorus derives it from an Egyptian name, intimating that music was first esta- blished as a science in Egypt after the Deluge, and that the first idea of musical'sound was received from that produced by the reeds growing on the banks ofthe Nile, by the wind blowing into them. Others again imagine, that the first ideas of music were received from the war- Wing of birds. However this may really have been, it appears at least equally rational* to attribute its origin to mankind; since musical intonation, in tho infancy of language, must often have been the natural result of pas- sionate fre!i:!£, and since also we find th.it wherever there is speech there is song. The antient writers on this science differ greatly as to its object and extent. In general, they give t<> it a much wider latitude than that which it obtains wifii us. Under the name of music they comprehended not only the me- lodious union of voices and instruments, but also the dance, gesture, poetry, and even all the other sciences. Heroics defines music to he the general knowledge of or- der; which was also the doctrine of Plato, who taught that every tiling in the universe vvas music. Music, however, properly so called, only concerns the due order and proportion of sounds; and is divided into two parts, the theoretical and the practical. Theoretical music comprehends the knowledge of harmony and modu- lation; and the laws of that successive arrangement of sound by which air, or melody, is produced. Practical music is the art of bringing this knowledge and those laws into operation, by actually disposing of the sounds, both in combination aud succession, so as to produce the de- sired effect; and this is the art of composition: but prac- tical music may, in fact, be said to extend still further, and to include not only the production of melodious and harmonious composition, but also its performance; and to such facility in execution, and nicety of expression, has this department of practical music arrived at the present day, that its professors, generally speaking, hold a truly respectable rank in the various list of modern artists; and are highly, as well as most deservedly, esteemed by all lovers and patrons of musical taste and, ingenuity. MUSSJENDA, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class and order. The cor. is funnel-form; stigma 2^ thickish; berry oblong, inferior; seeds disposed in 4 rows. There are three species, shrubs of China. MUSK. This substance is secreted in a gland, situ- ated in the umbilical region of the quadruped called moschus moschifer (wiiich see.) Its colour is brownish- red; its feel unctuous; its taste bitter; and its smell aro- matic and intensely strong. It is partially soluble in water, which acquires its smell; and in alchohol, but that liquid does not retain the odour of musk. Nitric and sulphuric acids dissolve it, but destroy the odour. Fix- ed alkalies devclopc the odour of ammonia. Oils do not act on it. At a read heat it has the same fetid smell as urine. Its component parts have not been ascertained. MUSKET, a fire-arm borne on the shoulder, and used in war. The length of a musket is fixed at threo feet eight inches from the muzzle to the pan, and it car- ries a ball of 29 to 2 pounds. In fortification, the length of the line of defence is limited by the ordinary distance of a musket-shot, which is about 120 fathoms; and the length of almost all mili- tary architecture is regulated by this rule. See Gun- nery, Gcn-smitucry, and Rifle. MUSKETOON, a kind of short thick musket, whose bore is the thirty-eighth part of its length: it carries five ounces of iron, or seven and a half of lead, with an equal quantity of powder. This is the shortest sort of blunderbuss. MUSLIN, a fine thin sort of cotton cloth, which bears a downy nap on its surface* There are sever at MUS M U T sorts of muslins brought from the East Indies, and niore particularly from Bengal. MUSTELA, the otter, a genus of quadrupeds of the order ferae: the generic character is, foreteeth upper six, erect, acuter, distinct; lower six, obtuser, crowded, placed within; tongue smooth. M. Intra, common otter. The common otter is found in almost every part of Europe, as well as in the colder regions of Asia; inhabiting the banks of rivers, and feeding principally on fish. It occurs also in the north- ern parts of America, and particularly in Canada, where it appear to arrive at a larger §ize than in Europe. In the river Euphrates, on tbe contrary, it is found to be no larger than a common cat; but itis probable, that this is in reality a different species, viz. the M. lutreola, or smaller otter, hereafter to be described. The length ofthe otter is nearly two feet from nose to tail, and of the tail aboutsixte.cn inches. Its colour is a deep brown, with a small light-coloured patch on each side the nose, and another under the chin. " The otter, (says Mr. Pen- nant) shows great sagacity in forming its habitation: it burrows under ground on the banks of some river or lake, and always makes the entrance of its hole under water, working upwards to the surface ofthe earth; and, before it reaches the top, makes several holts or lodges, that in case of high floods it may have a retreat, for no animal aff cts lying drier; and then makes a minute ori- fice for the admission of air. It is farther observed, that this animal, the more effectually to conceal its retreat, coutrives to make even this little air-hole in the midst of some thick bush." Though the principal food of the otter consists of fish, yet it is said that, in hard weather, when this its natural prey fails, it will attack the smaller quadrupeds, as well as poultry, &c. The otter is natu- rally a very fierce animal: and when hunted with dogs, as is sometimes the practice, will inflict very severe wounds on its antagonists. The female produces four or five young at a birth; this commonly happens early in tbe spring. The young otters, if taken at a very early age, may be successfully tamed, and taught by degrees to hunt for fish, and bring thein to their master. When the otter, in its natural or uneducated state, has caught a fish, it immediately draws it ashore, aud de- vours the head and upper parts, leaving the remainder; and when inastateof captivity, will eat no fish but what is perfectly fresh, but will prefer bread, milk, kc. 2. M. lutreola, the smaller otter, very much resembles the common otter, but is smaller; the body is of a dusky colour, but with a considerable cast of tawny. In size it falls short of the common otter, measuring about a foot in length. In North America this species is known by the name of minx; and is said sometimes to leave the wator, and prey on poultry, kc. inthe manner of a pole- cat, biting off the heads and sucking the blood. It is said also to have a fetid smell. In Europe the smaller otter is chiefly found in Poland and Lithuania, living on fish, frogs, &c. Its fur is very valuable, and next in beauty to that of the sable. 3. M. lutris, the sea otter, is the largest of the otters, measuring about three feet from the nose to the tail, and the tail thirteen inches. The colour of this species is a deep., glossy, brownish black, the fur being extremely *cft and very fine; on the forehead is generally a cast of greyish or silver-colour. According to Mr. Pennant, it is one of the most local animals wc are acquainted with, being entirely confined between lat. 44° and 6o» north; and between east long, frem London, 126° to 150°- inhabiting, in great abundance, Bering's islands, Kamt- schatka, the Aluetian and Fox islands, between Asia and America. They land also in the Kurile islands, but are never seen in the channel between the north-east of Si- beria and America. It is sujiposed that they bring but one at a time. They are most extremely harmless ani- mals, and are singularly affectionate to their youu^g. They bring forth on land, and often carry the young one between their teeth; fondle them; and frequently flim- them up, and catch them again in their paws; and before they can swim, the parents take them in their fore feet, and swim about on their backs. The young continues with its parent till it takes a mate. This animal is killed for its skin, which is one of the most valuable of furs, being sold at the rate of from 14 to 25 pounds sterling each. They are said to be chiefly sold to the Chinese. The sea otter is sometimes taken with nets, but is more frequently destroyed with clubs and spears. 4. M. fero, ferret, has eyes red and fiery. It inhabits Africa. In Europe it is tamed to catch rabits, rats, kc. It procreates twice a year, and brings forth from 6 to 8 at a time. See Plate XC1I. Nat. Hist. fig. 284. M. crminea, stoat: inhabits Europe, the cold parts of Africa, Asia, and China; lives in heaps of stones, banks of rivers, hollow trees, and forests, especially of beech: preys on squirrels, mice, and small birds. Body about ten inches long; hair short, which in northern climates becomes white, except the outer half of the tail, which remains black. The fur is very valuable. • See fig. 286. There are 28 species of the mustela. MUST. See Fermentation. MUTE. If any person being arraigned on any in- dictment or appeal for felony, or any idictment for pira- cy, shall upon such arraignment stand mute, or will not answer directly to the felony or piracjr, he shall be con- victed of the offence, and the court shall thereupon award judgment and execution, in the same manner as if he had been convicted by verdict or confession; and by such judgment shall have all the same consequences as a con- viction by verdict or confession. 12 G. III. c. 20. And the law is the same with respect to an arraign- ment for petit treason or larceny; for before this act, persons standing mute in either of these cases, were to have the like judgment as if they had confessed the in- dictment. 2 Inst. 177. MUTILLA, a genus of insects, of the order hyme- noptera; the generic character is, antennas filiform; feel- ers four; the articulations obconic, seated on the tip of the lip; jaw membranaceous at the tip, lip projecting ob- conic; wings in most species obconic; body pubescent, thorax refuse behind; sting pungent, concealed. The M. helvola inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. See Plate XCI I. Nat. Hist. fig. 287. There are 38 species^ MUT1SIA, a genus of the class and order syngen- esia polygamia superflua. The cal. is cylindric, imbri- cate; cor. of the ray ,oval, oblong; of the disk, trifid, down-feathered; recept. naked. There, is one specks, a climber of Peru. M Y A M Y C MUTUAL PROMISE, is where one man promises to pay money to another, and he, in consideration there- of, promises to do a certain act, kc kc. Such promis- es must be binding, as well on one side as the other; and both made at the same time. 1 Salk. 21. MUTUS ET SURD US, a person dumb and deaf, and being a tenant of a manor, the lord shall have the wardship and custody of him. But if a man be dumb and deaf, and have understanding, he may be grantor or grantee of lands, &c. 1 Co. Inst. A prisoner deaf and dumb from his birth, may be ar- raigned for a capital offence, if intelligence can be con- veyed to him by signs or symbols. Leach's Cr. Law, 97. See Evihence. MUTULE. See AncniTECTURE. MUTUUM, in the civil law, denotes a loan simply so called; or a contract introduced by the law of nations, whereby a thing consisting in weight, as bullion; in number, as money; or iu measure, as corn, timber, wine, kc. is given to another upon condition that he shall re- turn another thing of the same quantity, nature, and value, on demand. This, therefore, is a contract with- out reward; so that where use or interest arises, there must be some particular article in the contract whereon it is founded. MUTINY, in a military sense, to rise against authori- ty. Any officer or soldier who shall presume to use traitorous or disrespectful words against the sacred per- son of his majesty, or any of the royal family, is guilty of mutiny. Any officer or soldier who shall behave himself with contempt or disrespect towards the general or other com- mander in chief of our forces, or shall speak words tending to their hurt or dishonour, is guilty of mutiny. Any officer or soldier who shall begin, excite, cause, or join in, any mutiny or sedition in the troop, company, or regiment to which he belongs, or in any other troop, or company, in our service, or on any party, post, de- tachment, or guard, on any pretence whatsoever, is guil- ty of mutiny. Any officer or soldier, who, being present at any mutiny or sedition, does not use his utmost endeavours to suppress the same, or coming to the knowledge of any mutiny, or intended mutiny, does not, without delay, give information to his commanding officer, is guilty of mutiny. Any officer or soldier, who shall strike his superior officer, or draw, or offer to draw, or shall lift up any wea- pon, or offer any violence against him, being in the execu- tion of his office, on any pretence whatsoever, or shall disobey any lawful command of his superior officer, is guilty "of mutiny. Sec the articles of war. MYA, the gaper, in zoology; a genus belonging to the order of vermes testacca, the characters of whicli are these. It has a bivalve shell gaping at one end; the hinge, for the most part, furnished with a thick, strong, and broad tooth, not inserted into the opposite valve. This animal is an ascidia. The most remarkable species are, 1. The declivis, or sloping mya, which has a brittle liuIf-transparent shell, with a hinge slightly prominent near the opening, and sloping downwards. It inhabits the rivers of Europe. It is frequent about the Hebrides, and the fish is eaten there by the gentry. vol. ii. 101 2. The mya pictorum, has an oval brittle shell, with a single longitudinal tooth like a lamina in one shell, and two in the other; the breadth is a little above two inches, the length one. It inhabits rivers. The shells are used to put water-colours in, whence the name. Otters feed on this and the other fresh-water shells. 3. The margaritifera, or pearl mya, has a very thick, coarse, opaque shell; often much decorticated; oblong, bending inward on one side, or arcuated; black on the outside; usual breadth from five to six inches, length two and a quarter. It inhabits great rivers, especially those which water tbe mountanious parts of Great Bri- tain. This shell is noted for producing quantities of pearl. There have been regular fisheries for the sake of this precious article in several of our rivers. Sixteen have been found within one shell. They are the disease of the fish, analogous to the stone in the human body. On being squeezed they will eject the pearl, and often cast it spontaneously in the sand of the stream. The river Conway was noted for them in the days of Camden. Linnseus made a remarkable discovery relating to the generation of pearls in this fish. It is a fish that will bear removal remarkably well; and it is said, that in some places they form reservoirs for the purpose of keeping it, and taking out the pearl, which, in a certain period of time, will be again renewed. Frem observations on the growth of their shells, and the number of their annular laminae or scales, it is supposed the fish will attain a ve- ry great age; 50 or 60 years arc imagined to be a mode- rate computation. The discovery turned on a method which Linnseus found, of putting these shell-fish into a state of producing pearls at his pleasure; though the final effect did not take place for several years: he says that in five or six years after the operation, the pearl would have acquired the size of a vetch. Wc are unacquainted with the means by whicli he accomplished this extraor- dinary operation. MYAGRUM, Gold of Pleasure, a genus of the silicu- losa order, in the tetradynamia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 39th order, sili- quosa;. The silicula is terminated by an oblong stylej the cell generally monospermous. There are ten species; but the most remarkable is the sativum, which grows naturally in corn-fields in the south of France and Italy, and also in some parts of Britain. It is an annual plant; and is cultivated in Germany for the sake of the expres- sed oil of the seeds, which the inhabitants use for medi- cinal, culinary and economical purposes. The seeds are a favourite food with geese. Horses, goats, sheep, and cows cat the plant. MYCTERIA, the Jabirit, a genus of birds belong- ing to the order of gralla?. The bill is long, bending up- wards, and acute; the nostrils are small and linear; there is no tongue: aud the feet have four toes. There are two species: i. The Americana, or American jabiru, is about the size of a turkey. See Plate XCI I. Nat. Hist. fig. 288. The bill is long, stout, and of a black colour; the whole plumage is white, except the head, and about two-thirds ofthe neck, whicli are bare of feathers and of a blackish colour; the remainder is also bare, and of a fine red; on the hind head are a few greyish feathers; the legs are strong, of a great length, and covered with black scales; wings and tail even at the end. This bird is found in all' M Y 0 M Y 0 the savannas of Cayenne, Guiana, and ether parts ol South America, It is migratory and gregarious. It makes its nest in great trees, which grow on tlu bor- ders; lays two egpi, and brings up the young in the nest till they can descend to the ground. The colour of the young birds h grey; the second year it changes to rose- colour, and tlie third to pure white. They are very wild and voracious, and their food is fish, which they devour in great quantities. The flesh of the young birds is said to he good eating, but that .of tlie old is bard and oily. 2. The Asiatica, or Indian jabiru,is of a large size. The bill is dusky, almost straight above, and gibbous near the forehead; the under mandible swelled beneath; .and from the base of the bill there passes through and beyond the eye a black streak. The general colour of the plu- mage is white: the lower half of the back, the prime quills, and tail, are black; the legs a pale red. This spe- cies inl.r.bits the East Indies, and feeds on snails. MYGINDA, a genus of the tetragynia order, in the tetrandria class of plants; and in the natural method rank- ing with those of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is quadripartite; the petals four; the fruit a globose plum. There are three species, shrubs ofthe West Indies. MYOSOTIS, Scorpion-grass, a genus ofthe monogy- nia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the natu- ral method ranking under the 41st order, asperifolia;. The corolla is salver-shaped, quinquefid, and emargina- ted; the throat shut up by small arches. There are seven species, of which the most remarkable is the scorpioides, or mouse-ear. This is a weed of Britain, growing natu- rally in dry fields, and margins of springs and rills. The blossoms vary from a full blue to a very pale one, and sometimes a yellow; and appear in a long spirally twist- ed spike. When it grows in the water, and its taste and smell is thereby rendered less observeablc, sheep will sometimes eat it; but it is generally fatal to them. Cows, horses, swine, and goats, refuse it. MYOSURUS, a genus of the polyginia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 26th order, multisiliqua;. The calyx is pentaphv llous, the leaves cohering at the base; there are five subulatcd nectaria resembling petals; the seeds arc numerous. There is one species, a weed. MYOXUS, dormouse, a genus of quadrupeds of the order glires: the generic character is, front teeth two, the upper cuneated, flic lower compressed; grinders four iu each jaw; vibrissa; long; tail cylindric, villose, thicker towards the end; legs of equal length, fore-feet tetradac- tylous. 1. Myoxus glis, fat dormouse; this species, the glisof Pliny and the old naturalists, is a native of France and the South of Europe. It also occurs in Russia, Austria, kc. residing on trees, and leaping from bough to bough in the manner of a squirrel, though with a less degree of agility. It feeds on nuts, acorns, fruit, &c. and during great" part ofthe winter remains torpid in its nest, whicli is prepared in the hollows of trees, with dried leaves, moss, kc During its state of torpidity, itis said to grow very fat, contrary to the nature of most of the hybcrna- ting or sleeping animals; whicli are observed, on their first emerging from that state, to he far leaner than be- fore its commencement. It is probable, however, that ti/is animal awakes at intervals, and indulges in the use of its collected stores of provision. It is but just to observe, that the count de. Buffon has very properly exposed the absurdity of the ancient no- tion; and has observed that the animal occasionally wakes and makes use of its stock of provision. The truth is, that it is at all times fat, and appears as much so in spring as in autumn. By the ancient Romans it was numbered among the articles of luxury, and was fattened in proper receptacles, called gliraria. The size of this elegant species is not very far short of that of a squirrel, measuring from nose to tail near six inches, and the tail four and a half. It is an animal of a much thicker form in proportion, than a squirrel, and is of an elegant ash colour, wiiite on the under parts and insides of the limbs; the tail is very villose or furry, and of a slightly spreading form, like that of a squirrel; the eyes are large and black; the ears thin, rounded and very slightly haired. Sometimes the upper parts ofthe body have a slight dusky, and sometimes a ferruginous tinge. Its general manners resemble those of a squirrel, but it is not easily tamed. The young are produced about the middle of summer, and are four or five in number. 2. Myoxus nitelfa, garden dormouse. The garden dormouse is a native of the temperate and warmer re- gions of Europe and Asia, and is commonly found in gardens feeding on various kinds of fruit, particularly peaches and apricots. It makes its nest, like the rest of this genus, in the hollows of trees, and sometimes in those of walls, or even in the ground about the roots of trees, &c. collecting, for this purpose, dried leaves, grass, mosses, &c. In autumn it collects a quantity of nuts, mast, kc. and deposits it in its hole; and during the great- est part of the winter remains in a state of torpidity, awaking only at distant intervals. Its general length is about four indies and a half, and the tail rather less. It is of an elegant rufous or ferruginous colour above, and yellowish-white beneath; the eyes are imbedded in a large black patch or spot, which extends to some distance be- yond each ear; the tail is somewhat wider towards the end, and sharpens at the extremity, and is marked on that part by a longitudinal black stripe, having the edges white. These animals produce their young about the mid- dle of summer, which are about five or six in number, and are said to be of a very quick growth. 3. Myoxus muscardinus, common dormouse. The size of this animal is nearly equal to that of a mouse, but it is of a more plump or rounded form, and the nose is more obtuse in proportion; the eyes are large, black, and prominent; the ears broad, thin, and semitranspa- rent; the fore-feet have four toes, and the hind-feet five, but the interior of these latter are destitute of nails; the tail is about two inches and a half long, and is closely covered on all sides with hair, which is rather longer to- wards the tip than on the other parts; the head, back, sides, belly, and tail, are of a tawny-red colour; the throat white; the fur is remarkably soft, and the whole animal has a considerable degree of elegance in its appearance. It sometimes happens that the colour is rather brown than reddish. Dormice, says Mr. Pennant, inhabit woods or very thick hedges; forming their nests in the hollows of some low tree, or near the bottom of a close shrub. As they M Y R M Y U want nui' 1< of the sprightlinessof the squirrel, they never aspire to the tops of trees, or attempt to bound from spray to spray. Like the squirrel, they form little ma- gazines of nuts, kc for their winter provision, and take their food in the same upright posture. The consump- tion of their hoard during the rigour of winter is but small, for they sleep most part oftlic time, retiring into their holes on the approach of winter, and rolling them- selves up. He torpid during the greatest part of the gloomy season. Sometimes they experience a short revival in a warm sunny day; when they take a little food, and then relapse into their former state. These animals seldom appear far from their retreats, or in any exposed situation; for which reason they seem less common in this country than they really are. They make their nests of grass, moss, and dead leaves. Ac- cording to the count de Buffon, it consists of interwoven herbs, and is six inches in diameter, open only above, and is situated between the branches of hazel and brush- wood. The number of young is generally three or four. MYRICA, Gale, or Sweet-willow, a genus of the te- trandria order, in the dicecia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 5th order, amentacea;, The scale of the male catkin is in the form of a crescent, without any corolla. The scale of the female catkin the same: there is no corolla; but two styles, and a monos- pcrmous berry. 1. The gale, Dutch myrtle, or sweet-willow, grows naturally upon bogs in many places both of Scotland and England. It rises about four feet high. The feiuale flowers or catkins are produced from the sides of the branches, growing upon separate plants from the male, which are succeeded by clusters of small berries, each having a small seed. It flowers in July, and ripens in autumn. When transplanted into shrubberies, the moist- est parts must be assigned to it. The leaves, flowers and seeds of this plant, have a strong fragrant smell, and a bitter taste. They arc said to be used among the common people for destroying moths and cutaneous insects, being accounted an enemy to insects of every kind; internally, in infusions, as a stomachic and vermifuge; and as a substitute to hops for preserving malt liquors, which they render more inebriating, and of conse- quence less salubrious; itis said that this quality is de- stroyed by boiling. 2. Tlie ecrifcra, wax-bearing myrica, or candlcberry myrtle, is a native of North America. It is a small tree, about 10 or 12 feet high, with crooked stems branching forth near the ground irregularly. The leaves grow ir- regularly on them all round; sometimes by pairs, some- times alternately, but generally at unequal distances. The branches of the old plants shed their leaves in the autumn; but the young plants raised from seeds retain them the greatest part of the winter, so as during that season to have the appearance of an evergreen. But this beauty will not be lasting, for they shed their leaves proportion- ably earlier as the plants get older. There are both male and female trees of this sort: the flowers are small, of a whitish colour, and make no figure; neither does the fruit that succeeds the female (which is a small, dry blue ber- ry), though produced in a clusters, make any show: so tiiat it is from the leaves this tree receives its beauty and raluej for these being bruised, as well as the bark of the voting slroolK, emit the most refreshing and delightful fragrance, that is exceeded by no myrtle, or any 'other aromatic shrub. Sec Plate XCII. Nat. Hist. fig. 289. There is a variety of this species of lower growth, with shorter but broader leaves, and of equal fragrance. This grows commonly in Carolina; where the inhabitants col- lect from its berries a wax of which they make candles, and which occasions its being called candlcberry tree. It delights in a moistish soil. The wax is procured in tho following manner: In November and December, when the berries are ripe, a man with his family will remove from home to some island or sand-bank near the sea, where these trees most abound, taking with them kettles to boil the berries in. He builds a hut with palmetto- leaves for the shelter of himself and family during his re- sidence there, which is commonly four or five weeks. The man cuts down the trees, while the children strip off the berries into a porridge-pot; and having put water to them, they boil them till the oil floats, which is then skimmed off into another vessel. This is repeated till no more oil appears. When cold, this hardens to the consistence of wax, and is of a dirty-green colour. They then boil it again, and clarify it in brass kettles; which gives it a transparent greenness. These candles burn a long time, and yield a grateful smell. They usually add a fourth part of tallow, which makes them burn clearer, There are seven other species. MYRIOPIIYLLUM, a genus ofthe polyandria order, in the moneecia class of plants; and iu the natural me- thod ranking under the 15th order, inundatse. The male calyx istetraphyllous; there is no corolla; the stamina are eight in number. The female calyx is tetraphyllous; tiie pistils four; there is no stile; and four naked seeds. There are two species, aquatics of Europe. MYRISTICA, the nutmeg-tree; in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the class dicecia, and order synge- nesia, and of the natural order lauri. The male calyx is monophyllous, strong, and parted into three laciuije of an oval shape, and ending in a point: it has no corolla. In the middle of the receptacle rises a column of the height ofthe calyx; to the upper part of which tic; an- theia; arc attached. They vary in number from three to twelve or thirteen. The female calyx and corolla, as in the male, on a distinct tree. The germen of an oval shape; the style short, with a bifid stigma, the lacinia; of which are oval and spreading. Tli$ fruit is of that sort called drupa. It is fleshy, rdiinnish, sometimes unilocular, sometimes bivalved, and when ripe bursts at the side. The seed is enveloped with a fleshy and fatty membraneous substance, which divides in- to filaments: this, in one of the species is the mace of the shops. The seed or nutmeg is round or oval-shaped, unilocular, aud contains a small kernel, variegated on the surface by the fibres running in the form of a screw. There arc five species of this genus according to some authors; but several of these being only varieties, may be reduced to three, viz. 1. Myristicafatua, or wild nutmrn- this grows in Tobago, and rises to the height of an ap- ple-tree; has oblong, lanceolated, downy leaves, and hairy fruit; the nutmeg of whicli is aromatic, but when given inwardly is narcotic, and occasions drunkeni;iss,deliriMn and madness for a time. 2. The myristica st bif ,u '.; tree frequent in Guiana, rising to 40 or even to cc ' • t MURISTICA. high; on wounding the trunk of which, a thick, acrid, red juice runs out. Aublet says nothing of the nutmegs being aromatic; he only observes that a yellow fat is ob- tained from them, whicli serves many economical and medical purposes, and that the natives make candles of it. 3. The mysteria aromatica, or nutmeg, attains the height of 30 feet, producing numerous branches, which rise together in stories, and covered with bark, which of the trunk is a reddish brown, but that of the young branches is of a bright green colour; the leaves are near- ly elliptical, pointed, undulated, obliquely nerved, on the upper side of a bright green, on the under whitish, and stand alternately upon footstalks; the flowers are small, and hang upon slender peduncles, proceeding from the axilla; of the leaves: they are both male and female upon separate trees. The nutmeg has been supposed to be the comacum of Theophrastus, but there seems little foundation for this opinion; nor can it with more probability be thought to be the chrysobalanos of Galen. Our first knowledge of it was evidently derived from the Arabians; by Avicen- na it was called jiausiban, or jausiband, whicli signifies nut of Banifa. There are two kinds of nutmegs, the one male and the other female. The female is that in common use; the male is longer and more cylindric, but it has less of the fine aromatic flavour than the other. Tbis is very subject to be worm-eaten, and by the Dutch it is strictly prohi- bited from being packed with the others, because it will give occasion to their being worm-eaten too, by the in- sects getting from one species to the other. An almost exclusive and very lucrative trade in nutmegs from the island of Ceylon was carried on by the Dutch, but it is now transferred to the English, who have become mas- ters of the colony. The seeds or kernels called nutmegs are well known, as they have been long used both for culinary and medi- cal purposes. Distilfed with water, they yield a large quantity of essential oil, resembling in flavour the spice itself; after the distillation, an insipid subaceous matter is found swimming on the water; the decoction inspissa- ted, gives an extract of an unctuous, very lightly bitterish taste, and with little or no astringency. Rectified spirit extracts the whole virtue of nutmegs by infusion, but elevates very little of it in distillation; hence the spiritu- ous extract possesses the flavour of the spice in an emi- nent degree. * Nutmegs, when heated, yield to the press a considera- ble quantity of limpid yellow oil, which on cooling con- cretes into a subaceous consistence. In the shops we meet with three sorts of unctuous substances, called oil of mace, though really expressed from the nutmeg. The best is brought from the East Indies in stone jars; this is of a thick consistence, of the colour of mace, and has an agreeable fragrant smell; the second sort, which is paler-coloured, and much inferior in quality, comes from Holland in solid masses, generally flat, and of a square figure: the third, which is the worst of all, and usually called common oil of mace, is an artificial com- position of sevum, palm oil, and tbe like, flavoured with a little genuine oil of nutmeg. Method of gathering and preparing nutmegs.—When the fruit is ripe, the natives ascend the trees, and gather it by pulling tlie branches to them with lung hooks. Some are employed in opening them immediately, and in tak- ing off the green shell or first rind, which is laid together in a heap in tbe woods, where in time it putrefies. As soon as the putrefaction has taken place, there spring up a kind of mushrooms, called boleti moschatyni, of a black- ish colour, and much valued by the natives, who consi- der them as delicate eating. When the nuts are stripped of their first rind, they are carried home, and the mace is carefully taken off with a small knife. The mace, which is of a beautiful red, but afterwards assumes a darkish red colour, is laid to dry in the sun for the space of a day, and is then removed to a place less exposed to his rays, where it remains for eight days that it may soften a little. They afterwards moisten it with sea- water, to prevent it from drying too much, or from losing its oil. They are careful, however, not to employ too much water, lest it should become putrid, and be de- voured by the worms. It is last of all put into small bags, and squeezed very close. The nuts, which are still covered with their ligneous shell, are for three days exposed to the sun, and after- wards dried before a fire, till they emit a sound, when they are shaken; they then beat them with small sticks in order to remove their shell, which flies off in pieces. These nuts are distributed into three parcels; the first of which contains the largest and most beautiful, which are destined to be brought to Europe ; the second con- tains such as are reserved for the use ofthe inhabitants; and the third contains the smallest, which are irregular or unripe. These are burnt; and part ofthe rest is em- ployed for procuring oil by pressure. A pound of them commonly gives three ounces of oil,, which has the con- sistence of tallow,, and has entirely the taste of nutmeg. Both the nut and mace, when distilled, afford an essen- tial, transparent, and volatile oil, of an excellent flavour. The nutmegs which have been thus selected, would soon corrupt if they were not watered, or rather pick- led with lime water made from calcined shell-fish, which they dilute with salt water till it attains the consistence of fluid pap. Into this mixture they plunge the nut- megs, contained in small baskets, two or tiiree times, till they are completely covered over with the liquor. They are afterwards laid in a heap, where they heat, and lose their superfluous moisture by evaporation. When they have sweated sufliciently, they are then pro- perly prepared, and fit for a sea-voyage. The medicinal qualities of nutmegs are supposed to be aromatic, anodyne, stomachic, and astringent; and with a view to the last mentioned effects, it has been much used in diarrhoeas and dysenteries. To many people the aromatic flavour of nutmeg is very agreeable; they however should be cautious not to use it in large quantities, as it is apt to affect the head, and even to manifest an hypnotic power in such a degree as to prove extremely dangerous. Bontius speaks of this as a frequent occurrence in India ; and Dr* Cullen relates a remarkable instance of this soporific effect of the nutmeg, which fell under his own observation, and hence con- cludes, that in apoplectic and paralytic eases this spice may be very improper. He observes that a person by mistake took two drams or a little more of powdered nutmeg; be felt it warm in his stomach, without any M Y R M Y R uneasiness; hut in about an hour after he had taken it he was seized with a drowsiness, which gradually in- creased to a complete stupor and insensibility; and not long after he was found fallen from his chair, lying on the floor of his chamber in the state mentioned. Being laid abed he fell asleep; but waking a little from time to time, he was quite delirious; and he thus continued alternately sleeping and delirious for several hours. By degrees, however, both these symptoms diminished ; so that in about six hours from the time of taking the nutmeg he was pretty well recovered from both. Al- though he still complained of head-ache, and some drowsiness, he slept naturally and quietly the following night, and next day was quite in his ordinary health. The officinal preparations of nutmeg are, a spirit and essential oil; and the nutmeg in substance roasted, to render it more astringent. Both the spice itself and its essential oil enter several compositions, as the confectio aromatica, spiritus ammoniac, com., &c. Mace pos- sesses qualities similar to those of the nutmeg, but is less astringent, and its oil is supposed to be more vola- tile and acrid. MYRMECIA, a genus ofthe class and order tetran- dria monogynia; the calyx is tubular, five-toothed; cor. one-petalled; germ five glands at the base; stigma bilamelate; caps, two-valved. There is one species, a shrub of Guiana. MYRMECOPHAGA, Ant-eater, a genus of qua- drupeds of tlie order bruta. The generic character is, teeth none ; tongue cylindric, extensile; mouth length- ened into a somewhat tubular form; body covered with hair. The animals of this genus live entirely on insects, more particularly on the various kiuds of ants; in order to obtain wiiich, they extend their tongue, which is of a very great length, and of a roundish or worm-like form, into tbe nests of those insects; and when, by means of the viscid moisture with which it is covered, a sufficient number are secured, they retract it suddenly into the mouth, and swallow them. A part of the generic cha- racter of the myrmecophaga is the total want of teeth, in which particularity it resembles no other animals ex- cept those of the genus manis, in which the same cir- cumstance takes place. There are, however, in the ant-eaters, according to the observations of Mons. Broussonet, certain bones or processes not unlike teeth, situated deep at the entrance ofthe gullet or oesophagus; or rather, according to the celebrated Camper, at the lower end of the jaws. The species of ant-caters are not numerous. 1. Myrmecophaga jubata, great ant-eater. This is by far the largest of the ant-eaters, being upwards of seven feet in length, from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail; but if measured to the origin of the tail, it is no more than about five feet and a half. It is an ani- mal of an uncouth appearance; the head is small; the snout very long ; the eyes small ; the cars short and round; the shoulders thick and muscular, from whence the body tapers towards the tail; but the thighs are tliick and stout; the colour of the animal is a deep grey, with a very broad band of black running from the neck downwards on each side the body, growing gradually narrower as it passes down ; this black band is accom- panied on the upper part by a streak of white; the fore legs are of a lighter cast than the hinder; and hare a patch or spot of black in front not much above the foot ; the tail is black, extremely long and bushy ; the hair on the whole body, but especially on the tail, is very harsh and coarse: there are four toes on the fore-feet, and five on the hind : the two middle claws of the fore feet are extremely large and strong; which render this Creature, though destitute of teeth, a very formidable adversary; since it has been known to destroy animals of much greater apparent strength than itself; fixing its claws upon them, and exerting such powerful strength as to kill thein by continued laceration and pressure. It is a native of Brasil and Guiana; it is chiefly a noctur- nal animal, and is said to sleep during the greatest part of the day in retired places. Its pace is somewhat slow, and its manners dull and heavy. It is said to swim with ease; at whicli time it flings its tail over its back. A living specimen was some years ago brought into Spain, and kept in the royal menagerie at Madrid ; in this state of confinement it would readily eat raw meat cut small, and was said to swallow four or five pounds in a day. Its length was six feet, from the nose to the end of the tail, and its height was two feet. 2. Myrmecophaga didactyla, little ant-eater. This is an animal of great elegance. It is not superior in size to a squirrel; measuring little more than seven inches from the nose to the tail, which is longer than the body and head : the head is small; the snout sharpened, and slightly bent downwards; the legs are short; the fore feet have only two claws on each, the exterior one much larger and stronger than the interior; on each of the hind feet are four claws of moderate size ; the ears are very small, and hid in the fur; the eyes are also small. The whole animal is covered with a beautiful soft, and somewhat crisped or curled fur, of a pale yellow colour, or rather yellow-brown ; the tail, which is very thick at the beginning or base, gradually tapers to the tip; and the lower surface, for about the space of four inchis from the tip, is bare; the tail in this species being pre- hensile, and the animal commonly residing on trees, and preying on ants, by means of its long tongue, in the manner of other species. It is a native of Guiana. See Plate XCII. Nat. Hist. fig. 290. S. Myrmecophaga acuieata, aculeated ant-eater. The aculeated ant-eater is one of those curious animals which have been lately discovered in the vast island, or rather continent, of Australasia or New Holland; and is a striking instance of that beautiful gradation, so fre- quently observed in tbe animal kingdom, by which creatures of one tribe or genus approach to those of a very different one. It forms a connecting link between the very distant Linnsean genera of hystrix (porcu- pine) and myrmecophaga (ant-eater), having the ex- ternal coating and general appearance of the one, with the mouth and peculiar generic characters of the other. Tbis animal, so far as may be judged from the specimens hitherto imported, is about a foot in length. In its mode of life this animal resembles the rest of the ant- eaters, being generally found in the midst of some large ant-hill: it burrows with great strength ami celerity underground when disturbed; its feet and legs bciny* most excessively strong and short, and wonderfully adapted to this purpose. It will even burrow under a M YR pretty strong pavement, removing the stones with its claws; or under the bottom of a wall. During these exertions, its body is strengthened or lengthened to an uncommon degree, and appears very different from the short or plump aspect which it bears in its undisturbed state. It cannot escape the observation of every scientific naturalist, that, in consequence of the discovery of this curious animal, the Linnaean character of myrmecopha- ga is, in part, rendered inapplicable. Since, therefore, the genera of manis and myrmecophaga differ only in the external covering (tbe former being coated with scales, and the latter with hair), it would, perhaps, be not improper to conjoin the two genera, to add this as a new species, and to give as part of the generic cha- racter, corpus pilis, squamis, vel aculcis tectum. Or it might even constitute a new genus, which would differ from those of manis and myrmecophaga, in having the body covered with spines. MYRMELEON, a genus of insects of the order neuroptera: the generic character is, mouth furnished with jaws, teeth two; feelers four, elongated ; stem- mata none ; antenna; clavated, of tbe length ofthe tho- rax ; wings deflected ; tail of the mail furnished with a forceps consisting of two straightish filaments. Of this genus the species wbose historv is best understood is tbe niyrmeleon formicalco of Linnaeus, whose larva has long been celebrated by naturalists for its wonderful in- genuity, in preparing a kind of pit fal or deceptive cavity for the destruction of such insects as happen unwarily to enter it. The myrmelcon formicaleo, in its complete or fly state, bears no inconsiderable resemblance to a small dragon-fly, from which, however, it may readily be distinguished by its antennae. It is of a predacious nature, flying chiefly by night, and pursuing the smaller insects in the manner of a libellula. It deposits its eggs in dry sandy situations; and the young larvae, when hatched, begin separately to exercise their talent of preparing, by turning themselves rapidly round, a vcry- stal 1 conical cavity in the sand. Under the centre of the cavity the little animal conceals itself, suddenly rushing forth at intervals in order to seize any small insect which, by approaching the edge ofthe cavity, has been s > unfortunate as to fall in ; and after sucking out i's juices througli its tubular forceps, throws it by a sud- den exertion to some distance from the cavity. As the creature increases in size it enlarges the cavity, which at length becomes about two inches or more in diameter. T!ieia:'va, when full-grown, is more than half an inch long, and is of a flattened figure, broad towards the upper part, and gradually tapering to an obtuse point at the extremity. It is of a brown colour, and beset with numerous tufts of dusky hair, which arc particularly conspicuous on each side the aim uli of the abdomen; the legs are slender; the head and thorax rather small: the tubular jaws long, curved, serrated internally, and very sharp-pointed. The whole animal is of an unpleas- ing aspect, and on a cursory view bears a general re- semblance to a flat-bodied spider. When magnified, its appearance is highly uncouth. The ingenious Reaumur and Roesel have given accu- rate descrip ions of this larva and its extraordinary history. It is one of those wtoose term of life, like that M Y R of the libcllulae and ephemerae, is protracted to a very considerable space, since it survives the first winter iu iis larva state, taking no nourishment during that time, and in the spring resumes its usual manner of preying. Iu preparing its pit, it begins by tracing an exterior circle ofthe intended diameter of the cavity, continuing its motion, in a spiral line, till it gets to tlie centre, thus marking several volutes in the sand, resembling the impression of a large helix or snail-shell; and after having sufliciently deepened the cavity by a repetition of this motion, it smooths the sides into a regular shape by throwing out the superfluous sand lying on the ridges; this it does by closing its forceps in such a manner, that together with the head, they form a convenient shovel, with which it throws the sand with so strong a motion out of the cavity, that the grains often fall to the dis- tance of near a foot beyond the brink. The depth of the pit is generally equal to the diameter. When full- grown and ready to change into a chrysalis, the animal envelopes itself in a round ball of sand, agglutinated and connected by very fine silk, which it draws from a tu- bular process at the extremity of the body; with this silk it also lines the internal surface of the ball, which, if opened, appears coated by a fine pearl-coloured silken tissue. It continues in the state of chrysalis about four weeks, and then gives birth to the complete insect. The iny.rmcleon barbarus has antenna; as long as tlie body; thorax spotted with yellow. Sec Plate XC1I. Nat. Hist. fig. 291. MYROBALANS, a kind of medicinal fruit brought from the Indies. See Materia Medica. MYRODENDRUM, a genus of the class and order polyandria monogynia. The cor. is five-petalled; stigma, capitate, fivc-lobed; per. five-celled. There is one species, a tree of Guiana. MYRODIA, a genus of the monadelphia polyandria class and order; the calyx is single, one-leafed; cor. five- petalled; pist. one-leafed; cor. five-petalled; pist. one co- lumn of anthers undivided, drupe dry, two nuts. There are two species, shrubs ofthe West Indies. MVROSMA, a genus of the monandria monogynia class and order; the cal, is double, outer three-leaved, inner three-parted; cor. five-parted: caps, three-corner- ed. There is one species, a shrub of Surinam. MYROXYLUM, a genus oftlic monogynia order, iu the decandria class of plants. The calyxes campanula- ted; the superior petal larger than the rest; the germ. is longer than the corolla; the lcgnmcn monospcrmous. There is but one species, the peruiferum, a native of Peru and the warmer parts of Africa. It is this shrub that yields the balsam of Peru, which is said to be ex- tracted from it by decoction in water. This balsam, as brought to us, is nearly of the consistence of thin honey, of a reddish-brown colour inclining to black, an agree- able aromatic smell, and a very hot biting taste. Distil- led with water, it yields a small quantity of a fragrant essential oil of a reddish colour; and in a strong fire, without addition, a yellowish-red oil. Balsam of Peru is a very warm aromatic medicine, considerably hotter and more acrid than copaiva. (See Balsam.) Its principal effects are to warm the habit, to strengthen the nervous system, and attenuate viscid humours. Hence its use in some kinds of asthmas, gonorrhoeas, dysenteries, and M Y ft M Y R other disorders proceeding from a debility of the solids, or sluggishness and inactivity of tlie juices. It is also employed externally, for cleansing and healing wounds and ulcers, and sometimes against palsies and iheumatic pains. There is another sort of balsam of Peru of a white colour, and considerably more fragrant than the fnioer. This is very rarely brought to us. It is said to be the pro luce of tic; same plant which yields t'ii^ common or black balsam; and to exsudc frem incisions made in the trunk, while the former is obtained by boiling. There is also a third kind, commonly called the red or dry. This is supposed to obtain a different state from the while, merely in consequence of the treatment to which it is subjected after it is got from the tree. It is aim st as fragrant as the balsam of Gilead, held in so high esteem among the eastern nations. It is very rarely in use in Britain, and almost never to be met with in our shops. MYRRH, a gummy resinous concrete juice. The plant from which this substance is obtained, is not cer- tainly known. According to Bruce, it belongs to the ge- nus mimosa, and grows in Abyssinia and Arabia. It is in the form of tears. Colour reddish-yellow, sometimes transparent, but more frequently opaque. Taste brittle and aromatic. Does not melt when heated, and burns with difficulty. With water it forms a yellow solution. The solution in alcohol becomes opaqu; when mixed with water. By distillation it yields oil. Its specific gra- vity is 1.56. It is employed in medicine, and is soluble in alkalies. The medical effects of this aromatic bitter arc, to warm and strengthen the visera; it frequently occasions a mild diaphoresis, and promotes the fluid secretions in general. Hence it proves serviceable in languid cases, diseases arising from a simple inactivity, cachectic disorders, and where the lungs and thorax arc oppressed by viscid phlegm. Rectified spirit extracts tlie fine aromatic flavour and bitterness of this drug, and does not elevate any thing of cither in evaporation; the gummy substance left by this menstruum has a disagreeable taste, with scarcely any of the peculiar flavour "of the myrrh; this part dissolves in water,except some impurities which remain. In distil- lation with water, a considerable quantity of a ponderous essential oil arises, resembling in flavourthe original drug. Myrrh is the basis of an officinal tincture. It enters the pilulae ex aloe et myrrha, the pilulse e gummi, the pilulae stomarhicse, and other formula;. MYRSINE, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under tbe ISth order, bicornes. The corolla is seiiiiquinquefid and connivent; the germen filling the co- rolla; the berry quinquclorular and pentaspermous. There are two species, herbs ofthe Cape. MYRTLE, Sec Myrtus. MYRTUS, the myrtle; a genus of the monogynia or- der in the icosandria'class of plants; aud in the natural method ranking under the 19th order, hesperidae. The calvx is quinquifid, superior; there are five petals; the berry is dispermous or trispermoos. liierc are SG species, of whicli the most remarkable are: 1 The communis, or common myrtle-tree, of which the most material varieties are: broad-leaved Roman royrtle, with oval, shining, green leaves, an inch and a half long, and one broad; and which is remarkably floi- fcrous. Gold-striped broad-leaved Roman myrtle. Broad-leaved Dutch myrtle, with spear-shaped, shaiq - pointed, dark-green leaves, an inch long, and about three quarters of one broad. Double-flowered Dutch myrtle. Broad-leaved Jew's myrtle, having tin-, leaves placed by threes at each joint; by which particular circumstance this species is in universal estimation among the Jews in their religious ceremonies, particularly in decorating their tabernacle: and for which purpose many gardeners about London cultivate this variety with particular care to sell to the above people: for the true sort, having the leaves exactly by threes, is very scarce, and is a curiosi- ty; but by care in its propagation, taking only the per- fectly teiiiate-leaved shoots for cuttings, it may be in- creased fast enough; and is worth the attention of the curious, and particularly those who raise myrtles for the London markets. Orange-leaved Spanish myrtle, with oval spear-shaped leaves, an inch aud a half long or more, and one broad, in clusters round the branches, and resembling the shape and colour of orange-tree leaves. Gold-striped-leaved orange myrtle. Common upright Italian myrtle, with its branches and leaves grow- ing more erect, the leaves oval, lanceolate-shaped, acute- pointed, and near an inch long and half one broad. Sil- ver-striped upright Italian myrtle. White-berried up- right Italian myrtle. Portugal acute-leaved myrtle, with spear-shaped, oval, acute-pointed leaves, about an inch long. Box-leaved inyrtle, with weak branches, and small, oval, obtuse, lucid-green, closely-placed leaves. Striped box-leaved myrtle. Rosemary-leaved myrtle. Silver- striped rosemary-leaved myrtle. Thyme-leaved inyrtle, with very small closely-placed leaves. Nutmeg-myrtle, with erect branches and leaves; the leaves oval, acute- pointed, aud finely scented like a nutmeg. ILoad-leavcd nutmeg-myrtle. Silver-stripcd-leaved ditto. Cristatcd or cock's-comb myrtle, frequently called bird's-nest myrtle. These are all beautiful evergreen shrubs, of ex- ceeding fragrance, exotics originally of the southern parts of Europe, and of Asia and Africa, and consequent- ly in this country require a shelter of a greenhouse in winter. 2. The pimenta, pimento, Jamaica pepper, or allspice tree, grows about thirty feet in height and two in cir- cumference; the branches near the top are much divided and thickly beset with leaves, whicli by their continual verdure always give the tree a beautiful appearance; the bark is very smooth externally, and of agrcv colour; the leaves vary in shape and in size, but are commonly about four inches long, veined, pointed, elliptical, and of a deep shining green colour; the flowers arc produced iubtinchcs or panicles, and stand upon subdividing or trktiotomous stalks, which usually terminate the branches; the calyx is cut into four roundish segments: the petals are also four, white, Mnall, reflex, oval, and placed opposite to each other between the segments of the calyx; the fila- ments arc numerous, longer than the petals, spreading, of a greenish-white colour, and rise from the calyx and upper part of the germen; the anlherae are roundish, and of a pale yellow colour; the stile is smooth, simple, and erect; the stigma is obtuse; the germen becomes a round succulent berry, containing two kidney-shaped flattish seeds. This tree is a native of New Spain and the West M Y T M Y X India islands. In Jamaica it growrs very plentifully; and in June, July, and August, puts forth its flowers, which, with every part of the tree, breathe an aromatic fragrance. The berries when ripe are of a dark purple colour, and full of a sweet pulp, which the birds devour greedily. The pimento is a most beautifel odoriferous evergreen, and exhibits a fine variety in the stove at all seasons. MYTILUS, the mussel, a genus of animals belonging to the order of vermes testacei. The animal is an asci- dia; the shell bivalve, often affixed to some substance by a beard; the hinge without a tooth, marked by a longitu- dinal-hollow line. Of tbese animals there are agreat many species, some of them inhabiting the seas, others the rivers and ponds. Several of them are remarkable for the beauty of their internal shell, and for the pearls which are sometimes found in them. 1. The cdulis, or edible mussel, has a strong shell, slightly incurvated on one side, and angulated on the other. The end near the hinge is pointed, the other round- ed. "When tjje epidermis is taken off it is of a deep-blue colour. It is found in immense beds, both in deep water and above low-water mark. This species inhabits the European and Indian seas. Between the tropics it is largest, and smaller within the polar circle. It is said to be hurtful if too often eaten, or iu too great quantities. 2. The anatinus, or duck mussel, has a shell more ob- long and less convex than the last; is very brittle and semitransparent; the space round the hinges like the last; the length about five inches, breadth two. It is found in Europe in fresh waters. Both it and the cygneus are de- voured by swans and ducks, whence their names: crows also feed on these mussels; as well as on different other shell-fish; and it is diverting to observe, that when the sioil is too hard for their bills they fly with it to a great height, drop the shell on a rock, and pick out the meat when the shell is fractured by the fall. 3. The violacea, or violet mussel, has the shell longi- tudinally furrowed, the rim very obtuse, somewhat form- ed like the mytilus cdulis, but considerably larger and more flattened, of a beautiful violet-colour. Inhabits the southern ocean. 4. The margaritc ferus produces the true mother-of- pearl, and frequently the most valuable pearls: the out- side sometimes sea-green, or chesnut, or bloom-colour with wiiite rays; when the outer coat is removed it has the same lustre as the inside: the younger shells have cars as long as the shell, and resemble scalloj.s. There are between 50 and 60 other species. Mussels not only open and shut their shells at pleasure, but they have also a progressive motion; they can fasten themselves where they please; they respire water like the fishes; and some even flutter about on its surface so as to inhale air. If they lie in shallow places a small circu- lar motion is seen above the heel of the shell, and a few moments after they cast out the water by one single stroke at the other end ofthe shell. The mouth is situated near the sharp angle ofthe animal; and is furnished with four floating fringes in the shape of mustachios, which may perhaps answer the purpose of lips. The barbs which surround the edge of almost half the mussel, are a won- derful web of hollow fibres which serve as fins or organs of respiration, as vessels for the circulation of the fluids; and probably, as some philosophers suppose, as wedges for opening their shells; for we observe two largn mus- cles or tendons for the purpose of shutting them"; but wc in vain look for their antagonists, or those which are des- tined to open them. When the mussel wishes to open itself, it relaxes the two muscles or tendons, and swells the fringes, which act as wedges, and separate the shell.*. The animal shuts up itself by the contraction of two thick fibrous muscles, which are fixed internally to each end ofthe shells; and these shells are lined all round with a membrane or epidermis, which unites them so closely to- gether when they arc soaked in water, that not the small- est drop can escape from the mussel. When mussels choose to walk they often contrive to raise themselves on the sharp edge of their shells, and put forth a fleshy sub- stance susceptible of extension, which serves thein as a leg to drag themselves along, in a kind of groovejor fur- row wiiich they form in the sand or mud, and which sup- ports the shell on both sides. In ponds these furrows arc very observable. From the same member or leg bang the threads by which the animals fasten themselves to rocks, or to one another. According to the observations of M. Mery, ofthe Paris academy, and the subsequent experiments of other natural- ists, mussels are all androgynous; and, from a peculiar generative organization, each individual is of itself capable of propagating its species, and annually does it without the intercourse of any other. This is altogether singular, and different from what takes place in snails, earth-worms, and other androgenous or hermaphroditical animals. In the spring, mussels lay their eggs; there being none found in them but in winter. The minute eggs, or embryos, are by the parent placed in due order, and in a very close arrangement on the outside of the shell; where by means of a gluey matter, they adhere very fast, and continually increase in size and in strength, till becoming perfect mussels, they fall off and shift for themselves, leaving the b des where they were placed behind them. This abundance the mussel-shells very plainly show, when examined by the microscope, and sometimes the number is 2000 or 3000 on one shell; but it is not certain that these have been all fixed there by the mussel within; for these fish usually lying in great numbers near one another, the embryos of one are often affixed to the shell of another. The fringed edge of the mussel, which Lewenhoeck calls tiie beard, has in every the minutest part of it such vari- ety of motions as is inconceivable; for being composed of longish fibres, each fibre has on both sides a vast many moving particles. The mussel is infested by several enemies in its own ele- ment; according to Reaumur it is in particular the prey of a small shell-fish of the trochus kind. This animal attaches itself to the shell of the mussel, pierces it with a round hole, and introduces a sort of tube, five or si* lines long, which it turns in a spiral direction, and with which it sucks the substance of the mussel. Mussels are also subject to certain diseases, which have been suppos- ed to be the cause of those bad effects which sometimes happen from the eating of them. MY'XINE, the hug; a genus of insects belonging to the order of vermes intestini. It has a slender body, ca- rinated beneath; mouth at the extremity, cirrated; the two jaws pinnated; an adipose or rayless fin round the tail and under the belly. The only remarkable species is the gluti- N A I X A P nosa, about eight iuches long. It inhabits the ocean; enters the mouths of fish when on the hooks of lines that remain a tide underwater; and totally devours the whole, except the skin and bones. The Scarborough fisher- men often fake it in the robbed fish, on drawing up their lines. Linn:£us attributes to it the property of turning water into glue. N. Nor n, the thirteenth letter of our alphabet; as a nu- 9 meral stands for 900; with a dash over it, thus Is", for 900,000. N, or N°, stands for numero, i. e. in number; and N. B. for nota bene, note well, or observe well. Among the ancient Romans, N. denotes Nepos, Nonnius, kc N. C. Nero Csesar, or Nero Claudius; N. L.Non liquet; N. P. Notarius Publicus; and NBL. stands for nobilis. NADIR, in astronomy, that point of the heavens which is diametrically opposite to the zenith, or point directly over our heads. NAIAS, a genus of the monandria order, in the dice- tia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking with those of whicli the order is doubtful. The male ca- lyx is cylindrical and bifid; the corolla quadrifid; there is no filament, nor is there any female calyx or corolla; there is one pistil, and the capsule is ovate and unilocu- lar. There is one species, an aquatic of the South of Europe. NAIL, unguis. See Anatomy, and Horn. NAILS, in building, kc. small spikes of iron, brass, kc. which being driven into wood, serve to bind several pieces together, or to fasten something upon them. The several sorts of nails arc very numerous: as, 1. back and bottom nails, which are made with flat shanks to hold fast, and not open the w-ood. 2. Clamp-nails, for fasten- ing the clamps in buildings, kc. 3. Clasp-nails, whose heads clasping aud sticking into the wood, render the work smooth, so as to admit a plane over it. 4. Clench- nails, used by boat and barge-builders, and proper for any boarded buildings that are to be taken down; be- cause they will drive without splitting the wood, and draw without breaking; of this there are many sorts. 5. (.'lout-nails, used for nailing on clouts to axle-trees. 6. Deck-nails, for fastening of decks in ships, doubling of shipping, and floors laid with planks. 7. Dog-nails, for fastening hinges on doors, kc 8. Flat-points, much used in shipping, and proper where there is occasion to draw and hold fast, and no conveniency of clenching. 9. Jo- bcnt-nails, for nailing thin plates of iron to w-ood, as small hinges on cupboard-doors, kc 10. Lead-nails, for nailing lead, leather, anil canvas, to bard wood. 11. Port- nails, for nailing hinges to the ports of ships. 12. Pound- nails, which are four square, and are much used in Es- sex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, and scarcely any where else, except for pail ing. 13. Ribbing-nails, principally used i« ship-building, for fastening the ribs of ships in their places. 14. Rose-nails, which are drawn four-square, in the .shank, and commonly in a round tool, as all common twopeimv nails are; in some countries all the larger sort of nails are made of this shape. 15. Rother-nails, which have a full head, and are chiefly used in fastening rother- ii'ons to ships, io. Roundhead nails, for fastening on vol. n. IOC hinges, or for any other use where a neat head is re- quired; these are of several sorts. 17. Scupper-nails, whicli have a broad head, and are used for fastening leather and canvas to wood. 18. Sharp nails; these have sharp points and flat shanks, and are much used, espe- cially in the West Indies, for nailing soft wood. 19. Sheathing-nails, for fastening sheathing-boards to ships. 20. Square nails, which arc used for hard wood, and nailing up wall-fruit. 21. Tacks, the smallest of which serve to fasten paper to wood, the middling for wool- cards, kc. and the larger for upholsterers and pumps. Nails are said to be toughened when too brittle, by heating them in a fire-shovel, and putting some tallow or grease among thein. Nail, is also a measure of length, containing the six- teenth part of a yard. NA1S, a genus of the vermes mollusca; tlie generic character is, body creeping, long, linear, pellucid, de- pressed: peduncles or feet with small bristles on each side. There are ten species: the digitata is found with single lateral bristles, tail laciniatc, in stagnant waters, or the sandy sediment of livers, with its head attached to the stalk of aquatic plants; it is about four lines long. NAMA, a genus of the digynia order, in the pentan- dria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 13th order, succulenta;. The calyx is penta- phyllous, the corolla quinquepartite, the capsule unilocu- lar and bivalved. There is ouc species, an annual of Jamaica. NAN DIN A, a genus of the class and order hexandria monogynia. The calyx is many-leaved, imbricate; corol- la six-petalled. There is one species, a herb of Japan. NAPyKA, a genus of the polyandria order, in the po- lyadelphia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the srth order, columniferje. The calyx is single and cylindric; the arilli ooalited and monospcr- mous. There are two species; both of thein with peren- nial roots. Both of them are natives of Virginia and otii- cr parts of North America; from the bark of some of the Indian kinds a sort of fine hemp might be procured, ca- pable of being w <»ven into very strong cloth. They are easily propagated by seed, whit h will thrive in any situ- ation. NAPTIIA. a name given to the most liquid Uiumen; it is light, transparent, and very inflammable. There are several varieties, found chiefly in Italy, air! particu- larly near Modena. Kenipl'er, howrvcr, >-:avs, that'giv.it quantities are collected in several parts of Pei-sia; natu- ralists attribute the formation of the liquid bitumens to the decomposition of those that are s did, by tlie action of the subterraneous fires. Napthais said to be tie- lighr. est, which the fire first disengages: naptha is very vol- atile, andsocombusti'd", that it catches fire, if anv'tiu . - N A It N A R burning be brought near it. In Persia, this and (he other bitumens are employed for the purpose of giving light in, lamps by means of wicks; they may be used also to give heat; for this purpose some naptha is poured on a few handfuls of earth, and kindled with paper, when it burns briskly, but diffuses a thick smoke, which adheres to cve'ry thing, and leaves a disagreeable smell. In India, the flame produced by it is worshipped, and the heat it emits is used for dressing victuals; and in some cases it has been successfully employed in paralytic diseases. See Bitumen. NARCISSUS, a genus of the monogynia order, in the hexandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 9th order, spathacea;. There are six petals; the nectarium is funnel-shaped and monophyllous; the stamina are within the nectarium. There arc 15 spe- cies; the most remarkable are: 1. The bastard narcissus, or common yellow English daffodil, grows wild in great plenty in many of our woods and coppices, and under hedges,.in several parts of England. Its commonness renders it of but little es- teem with many; considered, however, as an early and elegant flower, of exceeding hardiness and easy culture, it merits a place in every garden, especially the double. 2. The bicolor, or two-coloured incomparable narcis- sus; the varieties are, common single-flowered, s.emi-dou- blc-flowered, with the interior petals some white, and some yellow, with sulphur-coloured flowers. 3. The poeticus, poetic daffodil, or common white nar- cissus, is well known. Of this there are varieties with purple-cupped flowers, yellow-cupped flowers, double- flowered; all of them with entire white petals. It is the ancient celebrated narcissus of the Greek and Roman poets, which they so greatly extol for its extreme beauty and fragrance. 4. The bulbocodium. From the large spreading necta- rium of this species, which is three or four times longer than the petals, narrow at bottom, and widening gradu- ally to the brim, so as to resemble the shape of some old- fashioned hoop petticoats, it obtained the name of hoop- petticoat narcissus. 5. The serotinus, or late-flowering small autumnal nar- cissus. 6. The tazetta, or multiflorous daffodil, commonly called polyanthus narcissus. The varieties of this are ve- ry numerous, consisting of about eight or nine principal sorts; each of wiiich has .many intermediate varieties, amounting in the whole to greatly above a hundred in the Dutch florists* catalogues, each variety distinguish- ed by a name according to the fancy of the first raiser of it. They are all very pretty flowers, and make a charm- ing appearance in the flower-borders, kc; they are also finely adapted for blowing in glasses of water, or in pots, to ornament rooms in winter. 7. The jonquils,'or jonquil, sometimes called rush- leaved daffodil. The varieties are, jonquil minor with single flowers, jonquil major with single flowers, starry- flowered, yellow and white flowered, white-flowered, se- rai-doulde-flovvered, double-flowered, and large double inodorous jonquil; all of them multiflorous, the single in particular; but sometimes the doubles produce only two or three flowers from a spatha, and the singles common- 1/JS& or eight. All the sorts have so fine a shape, so soft a colour, and so sweet a scent, that they are*mong the most agreeable spring-flowers. 8. The calathinus, or multiflorous yellow narcissus. 9. The odorus, odoriferous, or sweet-cented starry- yellow narcissus. 10. The triandrus, or triandrous rushlcavcd white nar- cissus. 11. The trilobus, or trilobate yellow narcissus. 12. The minor, or yellow winter daffodil. NARCOTICS, in medicine, soporiferous medicines, which excite a stupefaction. See the next article. NARCOTIC Principle, It has been long known that the milky juiC'cs which exude from certain plants, as the poppy, lettuce, kc. and the infusions of others, as ofthe leaves of the digitalis purpurea, have the property of exciting sleep, or, if taken in doses large enough, of inducing a state resembling apoplexy, and terminating in death. How far these plants owe these properties to certain common principles which they possess, is not known, though it is exceedingly probable that they do. But as a peculiar substance has been detected in opium, the most noted of the narcotic preparations, which possesses narcotic properties in perfection, we are warranted, till further experiments elucidate the subject, to consider it as the narcotic principle, or at least as one species of the substances belonging to this genus. Opium is obtained from tbe papaver album, or white poppy, a plant which is cultivated in great abundance in India and the East. The poppies are planted in a fertile soil, and well watered. After the flowering is over, and the seed-capsules have attained nearly their full size, a lon- gitudinal incision is made in them about sun-set for three or four evenings in succession. From these inci- sions there flows a milky juice, which soon concretes, and is scraped off the plant and wrought into cakes. In this state it is brought to Europe. Opium thus prepared is a tough brown substance, has a peculiar smell, and a nauseous bitter acrid taste., It becomes softer when held in the warm hand, and burns very readily and strongly. It is a very compound sub- stance, containing sulphat of lime, sulphat of potass, an oil, a resinous body, an extractive matter, gluten, muci- lage, kc. besides the peculiar narcotic principle to which probable it owes its virtues as a narcotic. When water is digested upon opium, a considerable portion of it is dissolved, the water taking up several of its constituents. When this solution is evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, a gritty precipitate begins to ap- pear, which is considerably increased by diluting the li- quid with water. It consists chiefly of three ingredients; namely, resin, oxygenized attractive, and the peculiar narcotic principle which is crystallized. When alcohol is digested on this precipitate, the resin and narcotic sub- stances are taken up, while the oxygenized extractive remains behind. The narcotic principle falls down in crystals as the solution cools, still however coloured with resin. But it may be obtained tolerably pure by repeated solutions and crystallizations. Water is incapable of dissolving the whole of opium. What remains behind still contains a considerable por- tion of narcotic principle. When alcohol is digested on this residuum, it acquires a deep red colour^ and deposits, on cooling, crystals of narcotic principle, coloured byre- N A R N A T sin, which may be purified by repeated crystallizations, The narcotic principle obtained by either of these meth- ods possesses the following properties: Its colour is wiiite. It chrystaliizes in rectangular prisms with rhomboidal bases. It has neither taste nor smell. It is insoluble in cold water, soluble in about 400 parts of boiling water, but precipitates again as the, solution cools. The solution in boiling water does not affect vege- table blues. It is soluble in 24 parts of boiling alcohol and 100 parts of cold alcohol. When water is mixed with the so- lution, the narcotic principle precipitates in the state of a white powder. Hot ether dissolves it, but lets it fall on cooling."' When heated in a spoon it melts like wax. When dis- tilled it froths, and emits white vapours, which condense into a yellow oil. Some water and carbonat of ammonia pass into the receiver; and at last carbonic acid gas, am- monia, and carbureted hydrogen gas, are disengaged. There remains a bulky coal, which yields traces of pot- ass. The oil obtained by this process is viscid, and has a peculiar aromatic smell and an acrid taste. It is very soluble in all acids. Alkalies throw it down from these solutions in the state of a white powder. Alkalies render it rather more soluble in water. When tliey are saturated with acids, the narcotic principle falls down in the state of a white powder, wiiich is redissolv- ed by adding an excess of acid. Volatile oils, while hot, dissolve it; but, on cooling, they let it fall in an oleaginous state at first, but it gradu- ally crystallizes. When treated with nitric acid, it becomes red and dis- solves; much oxalic acid is formed, and a bitter substance remains behind. When potass is added to the aqueous solution of opi- um, the narcotic principle is thrown down; but it retains a portion of the potass. Its solubility in water and alcohol, when immediately extracted from opium, seems to be owing to the presence of resin and extractive matter, both of which render it so- luble. It possesses the properties of opium in perfection. De- rosuc tried it upon several dogs, and found it more pow- erful than opium. Its bad effects were counteracted by causing the animals to swallow vinegar. This substance is known to be of equal service in counteracting the ef- fects of opium. Derosne supposes that the efficacy of vinegar may be owing to the readiness with which it dissolves the narcotic principle. 9 Many other substances beside opium possesses narcotic virtues; but hitherto they have not been examined by chemists with much attention. The most remarkable are the following: 1. The lactuca virosa, and the sativa or garden-lettuce, and indeed all the lactucas, yield a milky juice, which, when inspissated, has very much the appearance of opi- um, and possesses the same properties. Indeed Dr. Coxe of Philadelphia affirms, that as good opium may- be obtained from the garden-lettuce as from the poppy. The milky juice is obtained by incisions at the time when the lettuce is running to seed. The resemblance between the inspissated juice of tl*c lactuca viroso and opium is striking. 2. The leaves of the afropo belladonna, or deadly nightshade, and indeed the whole plant, are remarkably narcatic; and when taken in too great doses produce blindness, convulsions, coma, and death. 3. The leaves of the digitalis purpurea, or fox-glove, are still more powerful if possible. They lower tbe pulse in a remarkable degree, and, like several other very poi- sonous narcotics, promote the discharge of urine. 4. Ilyoscyamus, niger or henbane. 5. Conitun maculatum, or hemlock. 6. Datura stramonium. 7. Ledum pal us t re. To these may perhaps be added the primus laurocera- sus, and the leaves of nicotiana tabacum or tobacco. The list, indeed, might be easily increased; almost all the plants belonging to the natural order of lurida; possess- ing narcotic properties; but as we are completely igno- rant ofthe chemical properties of these plants, it is un- necessary to be more particular. Narcotic salt. See Boracic acid. NARDUS, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in trian- dria class of plants; aud in the natural method ranking under the 4th order, gramina. There is no calyx; the co- rolla is bivalvcd. There are three spceies. This plant was highly valued by the ancients both as an article of luxury and medicine. The uiigiicntuin unrdinum was used at baths and feasts as a favourite perfume. Its value is evident from that passage of scripture, where our Sa- viour's head was anointed with a box of it, with which Judas found fault. From a passage in Horace it appears that this ointment was so valuable among the Romans, that as much as could be contained in a small box of pre- cious stone was considered as a sort of equivalent for a large vessel of wine, and a proper quota for a guest to contribute at an entertainment. The plant had a great character among the ancients as a medicine, both inter- nally taken and externally applied. Its sensible qualities, indeed, promise to be of considerable eflicat y in some ca- ses, as it has a pungency of taste superior to coutrayer- va, and little inferior to serpcutaria. NATIONAL DEBT, the sum which is owing by a government to individuals who have advanced money for public purposes, either in anticipation of the produce of particular branches of the revenue, or on credit of the general power which the government possesses of levy- ing the sums necessary to pay interest for the money bor- rowed, or to repay the principal. The practice of bor- rowing money on account ofthe state has been found so convenient, that almost every nation of modern Europe is encumbered with a considerable debt: the different manner of conducting hostilities in ancient and modern times has perhaps rendered this practice absolutely ne- cessary, as the vast expenses with which wars arc* now attended could not possibly be defrayed during the time of their continuance, without producing the greatest dis- tress, or perhaps absolute ruin, to the countries engaged in thein. In ancient times wars were not only shorter in their duration, but were conducted on principles which rendered great pecuniary supplies less necessary than at present; the w hole contest was a scene of plunder and de- vastation, the persons and property of the en inv were NATIONAL DEBT. at the entire disposal of the conqueror, and the greater part ofthe plunder was accounted for to the public. The arms made use of were much less expensive than those of modern warfare, and the extent of naval operations, the great source of national expenditure in modern times, was comparatively trifling. Sir J. Sinclair has justly observed, that had the rage of equipping numerous fleets, and building ships of great magnitude and dimensions, never existed, hardly any state in Europe would have been at this time in debt. The principal advantages arising from national debts, and the system of credit on which they are founded, are, 1. The resource they afford in great emergencies, which gives a greater permanency to states, which in former times, for want of such occasional resources, were more liable to internal derangements and to foreign subjuga- tion. 2. The equalization of taxes. If the supplies were raised within the year, and the expenses of war were considerable, every individual would be obliged, in con- sequence of the additional weight of his contributions, greatly to curtail his expenses; and the employment of the poor, and the consumption ofthe rich, would be con- siderably diminished; whereas, when taxes are nearly equal, iu time of peace and war, the value of every spe- cies of property, of industry, and the circulation of wealth, are maintained on as regular, steady, and uni- form a footing, as the uncertainty and instability of hu- man affairs will admit. 3. They retain money in the country, which would otherwise be sent out of it; public debts have more influence in this respect than all the laws against the exportation of specie that ever were made. 4. They promote circulation. The taxes which they occasion on the property of the rich, and the en- couragement they hold out to the avaricious, prevent the accumulation of private hoards, and bring the whole money and personal property of a country into employ- ment. 5. They attach the people to the government; for every individual creditor is led by his own interest to support the authority on the prosperity and existence of which the security of his property depends. The extent of this influence is so well understood, that it is not pro- bable the government of any country where a public debt has once existed, will ever permit it to be wholly paid off. 6. They encourage industry and the acquire- ment of property, by the facility with whicli individuals can lay out the surplus' of their profits, without the risk of commercial bankruptcies, or the unavoidable expen- ses and small advantage which landed estates yield, and receive interest on their capital with certainty and regu- larity. The; disadvantages attending the system of incurring na- tional debts, are, !. The facility of carrying on war being much increased: while large sums can be easily borrow- ed, it may frequently cause wars to be protracted, which would have been much sooner brought to a termination, bad the governmeiits engaged in them experienced the difficulty of defraying the whole expense by taxation. 2. The value of the property of those who have lent their money to the state, depending on the public tranquillity, inclines thein to support indiscriminately the measures of the government, whatever may be their tendency: they are interested both to preach anj practice apathy under every invasion of the constitution of theircouutry. 3. The increase of taxes to pay the interest of the debt, produces an increase in the price of all the necessaries of life, and renders it difficult for the manufacturers of a state in which this system has been carried to a great height, to maintain a successful competition with the subjects of other powers, who may be in a less embarrassed situation. 4. When a nation is encumbered with debts, a pernicious spirit of gambling is encouraged: stock-job- bing, with all its train of evil consequences, necessarily arises; and a moneyed interest is erected, the sole em- ployment of whicli is that of drawing every possible ad- vantage from the wants of individuals, or the necessities of the public. 5. Public debts have a very material in- fluence on the distribution of property. Every new loan must be procured from persons already possessing con- siderable wealth, and such persons will not lend their money without the expectation of making a profit by it; the increase ofthe debt is, therefore, to them a source of increasing wealth, to which their share of the additional taxes attendant upon it bears but a small- proportion; and if the government possesses no revenue but what is drawn from the people, whatever it pays to one descrip- tion of men must be drawn principally from others: thus the additional income acquired by moneyed men, by tak- ing advantage oftlic necessities of the state, is, in fact, a portion of the income of their less affluent fellow-citi- zens, which is transferred to them through the medium of the government, and which, in a much greater pro- portion than it increases their wealth, must render those poorer from whom it is drawn. The practice of incurring national debts on extraordi- nary occasions had been resorted to in other countries' long before it was adopted in England. The Italian re- publics seem to have begun it; Genoa and Venice had both considerable debts. Spain was deeply in debt before the end ofthe 16th century, about a hundred years before England owed a shilling. In France the funding system was introduced about the year 1678; and previously to the revolution, the. debt of that country was 142 millions sterling; two-fifths of wiiich consisted of life-annuities, which in this estimate are taken at eleven years pur- chase. The national debt of Great Britain commencenced in the reign of William III. The war which began in 1689 being very expensive, and the grants of parliament not supplying money so fast as it was wanted, the expedient of mortgaging part of the public revenue was adopted. At first the produce of particular taxes was assigned for repayment ofthe principal and interest of the money bor- rowed; large sums were also raised on life annuities, and annuities for terms of years; aud the funds established for payment of these debts being generally inadequate ti the charge upon them, occasioned great deficiencies, which, at the conclusion of the war, amounted to 5,160,459/. 14s. 9|J. and were charged on the continua- tion of various duties which had been granted for short terms. The total amount of tbe funded and unfunded debts in the year 1697, was 19.950,9451.49s. 8|rf. The frequent anticipation of the different funds, and their general deficiency from the diminution of the revenue, in consequence of which the interest due upon money lent to government was often long in arrear, reduced public credit at this period to a very low ebb, and reij- NATIONAL DEBT. dered persons who had money very raluctant in advanc- n g it to the government, though paid what would now be called an exorbitant interest: the accumulation of the public debts caused serious apprehensions among people of property of all descriptions. The great expesne ofthe war during the reign of queen Anne was chiefly defrayed by the sale of annuities for different terms, but mostly for 99 years; and money was not only borrowed to pay the interest of loans, but often to pay the interest of that interest; or, what is much the same thing, the arrears of interest were converted into principal, by which means, and from great mismanage- ment of the public finances, the debt rapidly increased, and on the 31st December 1716, amounted to 48,364,501/. 8s. 4d. This amount was considered, in the language of the king and parliament, as an " insupportable weight;" and the house of commons expressed their determination to apply themselves, with all possible diligence and at- tention, to tbe great and necessary work of reducing by degrees this heavy burthen, as the most effectual means of preserving to the public funds a real and certain se- curity. The current rate of interest having lowered conside- rably, a plan was adopted for reducing the rate of inter- est payable on such part of the public debts as carried 6 per cent, interest, which causing a surplus in the funds appropriated to the payment of the interest, the over- plus remaining, after satisfying tbe charges upon the respective funds, was formed into a separate fund, under the title of the sinking fund, for the express purpose of discharging such national debts as were incurred before December 1716, and » for no other use, intent, or pur- pose, whatsoever." This arrangement was well calculat- ed for effecting a gradual reduction of the amount of the debt, and ga>e a new confidence to the public creditors, from a persuasion that the provisions made would pre- vent the inconveniences which had formerly arisen from the interest of particular debts being frequently long in arrear; and that instead ofthe depression of the current value of their securities, which generally attends the in- crease of public debts, this value would increase in pro- portion to the progress of redemption. The publir had also a distant hope at least of being relieved from some of the many taxes which it had been necessary to im- pose for paying the interest of the debt, the pernicious effects of which, both on the foreign trade and the inter- nal state, of the country, began to be sensibly felt. Tbe expectations entertained from the sinking fund were, however, soon disappointed; as the period of its strict application to the purpose for wiiich it was estab- lished did not exceed 10 or 11 years. The famous South Sea scheme was likewise to have furnished a considera- ble sum to be cmplovcd in the reduction of the public debts; instead of which it increased their amount by an addition to the capital of 3,034,769/. lis. lid., while the annual charge was rather augmented than diminished •*y the allowance for management on the increased capi- tal: a further reductiou of a part ofthe interest was how- ever secured by this Iran-union. In 1727 the interest payable on 2*,962,!>rr7. 12*. $-»-,/. South Sea stock and anmoius. ^nd on 7,775,02./. I7.s. Hd. due to the Bank, was reduced from 5 to 4 per < cut.. *14ch produced such au important augmentation ol the sinking fund, that had it been faithfully applied fo the purpose for which it was intended, and received no oth- er increase than what would have arisen from a judicious application of it, the national debt would at this time have been wholly annihilated. During the reign of George I. the fund continued to be appropriated to the purposes for wiiich it was formed: little progress, howev- er, was made in discharging the public debts; for at the same instant that old incumbrances were thus paid off, new debts were contracted; so that, at tbe end ofthe year 1727, the total of the funded debt amounted to 51,258,939/. 4s. £.1., of which it must be remembered that upwards of three millions arose from the additional capital created by the South Sea company's subscription. The whole sum paid off by the sinking fund from its establishment to the year 1739, was only 8,328,354/. 17s. lid.; and the total amount of the debt at this pe- riod 46,954,623/. 3s. 4|d. The war with Spain and France, which began in this year, increased the debt to 78,293,313/. Is. I0sd±., the in- terest on which amounted to 3,061,004/. 11 s. l|f war: and the debt was far from being diminished even tlii> amount, as during the same period a new debt of 5.052.."Of).', was contracted, by borrowing money on 3 per cent, stock in order to redeem 4 per ccnt«. The American war was entered into with a fi-- ' v debt of 13-V!43,051/., including an estimated v-ti NATIONAL DEBT. the long annuities and exchequer annuities, and an un- funded debt of about 3,600,000/., making together 135,943,051/. the interest on which amounted to 4.476, 621/. per annum. The expenses of this war greatly ex- ceeded those wiiich had preceded it; and the increase of the debt was much greater than had ever been incurred by any country in the same space of time. The following statements will show the extent of the sums borrowed, and the additions thus made to the annual burthen of the country: Money bor. Debt created. Interest. 1776 2,000,000 2,150,000 64,500 1777 5,000,000 5,0O0,00Q 225,000 1778 6,000,000 6,000,000 330,000 1779 7,000,000 7,000,000 472,500 1780 12,000,000 12,000,000 697,500 1781 12,000,000 21,000,000 660,000 1782 13,500,000 20,250,000 793,125 *783 12,000,000 15,000,000 560,000 178-1 6,000,000 9,000,000 316,500 £75,500,000 97,400,000 4,119,125 From which it appears that a nominal capital of 21,900, 000/. was added to the sum of 75,500,000/. actually bor- rowed, and that the interest on the whole amounted to 5/. 9s. Id. per cent, on which the perpetual interest was equal to 41. 6s. per cent, on the whole sum. In addition to the above sums, a very considerable amount of navy debt was funded after the conclusion of the war, which being properly part of the expenses of it, the total debt incurred by the American war may be stated as follows: Debt created. Interest. In 3 per cents. 64,648,000 1,939,440 4 per cents. 32,750,000 1,310,000 5percents. 17,869,992 893,499 Terminable annuities 869,623 Ll 15,267,992 5,012,562 The whole amount of the funded and unfunded debts, including a valuation of the terminable annuities, was on the 5th'Jan. 1786, 268,100,379/. . 18s. 8d., aud the amount of the annual interest 9,512,232/. 7s. 9d. The magnitude ofthe public debt, and the consequent low jiicc of the funds, appear at this period to have en- gaged the serious attention of the government; in conse- quence of which some new taxes were imposed, in order to raise a surplus of revenue, as the foundation of a plan for establishing a new sinking fund. In order to ascer- tain what portion of the revenue might be appropriated to tbis purpose, a select committee of the house of com- mons was appointed to examine and state of the accounts presented to the house relating to the public income and expenditure, and to report what might be expected to be the annual amount of the income and expenditure in fu- ture. On the 21st March, 1786, the committee made their report; and conceiving that the circumstances of the times rendered any average drawn from the amount of the revenue in former periods in a great degree inapplica- ble to the situation of the country, they formed an ac- count of the public receipt and expenditure to Michael- mas 1785, and to January 1786, from which it appeared, that at the former period there was a surplus of 901,001/., and at the latter a surplus of 919,290/. As it was evident that a fund of less than one million per annum would bo very inadequate to the purpose for which it was design- ed, new taxes were imposed for raising the surplus reve- nue to this sum; and in order the more effectually to pre- vent ministers from diverting it to any other purpose, the mode was adopted which had been frequently sug- gested, of v esting the annual sum in the hands of com- missioners: some other judicious regulations were also established by the act passed for this purpose. See Sink- ing Fund. In the year 1789, it was found necessary to borrow 1,002,140/. on a tontine scheme, and 187,000/. to re- place the like sum which had been issued out ofthe civil list revenue, as a loan to the prince of Orange: the latter was raised on annuities for 18| years. The total amount of the public debt in the year 1792, being the year pre- vious to the war with the French republic, was, accor- ding to the official account, 238,231,248/.; but including the value ofthe terminable annuities, and the amount of the unfunded debt, the total was 268,267,272/. is. 7d., the annual interest and charges of management on which amounted to 9,752,673/. 14s. Sd. From this amount, how- ever, a deduction is to be made of the stock which had been redeemed by the operation of the sinking fund, With this formidable burthen on the property and indus- try of the country, a war was entered into, which from the enormous expenditure attending it, increased the amount of the national debt in a degree beyond all for- mer preccdeutor conjecture. Tbe loan of the year 1793 was raised wholly on 3 per cent, stock, and those of the subsequent years being also raised chiefly on this des- cription of stock, an unnecessary addition has been made to the capital of the debt, and the charge for man- agement has been considerably augmented, as the allow- ance to the bank on this account is computed on the capi- tal created. In the third year of the war the amount of the loan was considerably greater than had ever before been borrowed in one year; but still larger sums were raised in some ofthe succeeding years. The natural con- sequence of such a rapid accumulation of debt was a great depreciation of the current prices of the public funds, so that the government was obliged to allow a ve- ry high interest for the money borrowed; and towards the end of the year 1797, many persons seemed to enter- tain an apprehension that the funding system had been extended nearly to its limits; in consequence of this opin- ion, various expedients were successively tried for rais- ' ing a considerable part of the war expenditure within the year; none of these projects fully succeeded, but they certainly rendered the sums wiiich it was necessary to borrow, somewhat less in amount than they must other- wise have been; still, however, they were of unprecedent- ed magnitude, and in 1802, after the conclusion of the war, it was still found necessary to borrow twenty-five millions more, to make good expenses of the war re- maining unprovided for. The total amount of the na- tional debt at Midsummer 1802, including the stock cre- ated by the imperial loans, and estimating the unfund- ed debt at 15,500,000/. was 619,303,027/. 9s. 6d., the annual charge of which for interest and management amounted to 21,557,728^. 15s. 6d. From this amount is to be deducted the stock bought up by the commission- ers, and transferred to them for redemption of land-tax. NATIONAL DEBT. PROGRESS OF THE NATIONAL DEBT, FROM ITS COMMENCEMENT TO MIDSUMMER 1802. National Debt at the Revolution 1688 Increase during the reign of William Hid. Amount at the accession of Queen Anne Increase during the reign of Queen Anne Amountt at establishment of Sinking Fund, 1716 Increase during the reign of Geo. I. Decrease of annual charge Amount: at the accession of Geo. Hd. Decrease during the Peace - Amount at commencement ofthe War, 1739 Increase during the War Amount at the end of the War in 1748 Decrease during the Peace Amount at the commencement of the War 1755 Increase during the War ... Amount at the end ofthe War, 1762 Decrease during the Peace - Amount at the commencement of the American War 135,943,051 Increase during the War - Amount at the conclusion of the American War Increase in the year 1789 - Amount in 1789 - - - Redeemed during Peace Amount at the commencement of the War, 1793 Increase during the War Redeemed during the War . - Amount at conclusion ofthe War in 1802 Since the period at which the above statement terminates, another war has been entered into, which has already added many millions to the public debt; but as the sum to which it may be increased is beyond the reach even of probable estimate, we can only give the following statement of the total amount of the debt on the 5th January 1806, which will also show the different descriptions of stock and annuities of which it consists: NATIONAL DEBT OF GREAT BRITAIN. t per Cent. Consolidated Annuities 5 per Cent. Annuities, 1797 and 1802 4 per Cent. Consolidated Annuities 3 per Cent. Reduced Annuities 3 per Cent. Consolidated Annuities 3 per Cent. Deferred Annuities 3 per Cent. Annuities, 1726 Bank Stock .... South Sea Stock - Old South Sea Annuities New South Sea Annuities Capital. L. 664,363 15,730,439 Interest. 39,855 1,271,087 16,394,702 31,969,799 1,310,942 1,841,582 48,364,501 4,654,654 3,152,524 941,958 53,019,155 6,064,532 2,210,566 245,541 46,954,623 31,338,689 1,964,025 1,096,979 78,293,312 3,312,426 3,061,004 389,364 74,980,886 66,710,427 2,671,640 2,035,094 141,691,313 5,748,262 4,706,734 229,913 135,943,051 132,157,328 4,476,821 5,035,411 268,100,379 1,189,140 9,512,232 56,863 269,289,519 9,441,850 9,569,095 283,255 259,847,669 350,013,508 9,285,840 11,988,633 609,861,177 69,243,336 21,274,473 2,089,220 540,617,841 19,185,253 Interest and Capital • Management L. 41,389,136 8 4 L. 2,088,081 18 7 9,088,902 16 3 458,535 2 10 - 49,725,084 17 2 2,011,379 13 7 137,246,269 3 7 4,179,148 17 2 376,707,982 2 oi 11,470,758 0 3 1,740,625 0 0 ---- 1,000,000 0 0 30,450 0 0 . 11,686,800 0 0 356,502 3 5 3,662,784 8 61 - 11,907,470 2 7\ 735,974 13 11 8,494,830 a ioJ NAT N A .T South Sea Annuities, 1751 Imperial 3 per Cent. Annuities Value of the Long Annuities Do. of the Short Annuities Do. of Imperial Annuities Do. of the Life Annuities Annuities on Lives, with Survivorship, 1765 Tontine Annuities, 1789 Value of Exchequer Annuities Redeemed by Sinking Fund Transferred for Land Tax redeemed Total Funded Debt Navy, Victualling, and Transport Debt Army, Barracks, Ordnance, &c. Treasury Bills, kc. Exchequer Bills - Total ofthe Nat. Debt and the ann. int. thereon, For the comparative value of the different funds, and the NATRUM. See Soda. NATIVITY, in old law-books, signifies villainage or servitude. NATURAL HISTORY. The object of this branch of science may be divided into twro heads; the first teaches us the characteristics, or distinctive marks, of each indi- vidual object, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral; the second makes us acquainted with all its peculiarities, as to its habits, its qualities, and its uses. To assist in attaining the first, it is necessary to adopt some system of classification, in which individuals that agree in parti- cular points may be arranged together. In this work we have adopted the Linnsean system, as the most simple and perfect that has been presented to the public. A knowledge of the second head is only gained by a patient investigation of each particular object; for this we refeisthe reader to the several genera described in these volumes, under wiiich we have endeavoured to give a brief account of all the interesting and material facts. The study of natural history consists in the collection, arrangement, and exhibition, ofthe various productions of the earth. These arc divided into the three grand kingdoms of nature, the boundaries of which meet to- gether iu the zoophytes. See Zoophytes. Minerals inhabit the interior parts of the carth, in rude and shapeless masses. They are bodies concrete without life and sensation. Sec Mineualogy. Vegetables clothe the surface with verdure, imbibe nourishment through bibulous roots, breathe by leaves, and continue their kind by the dispersion of seed within prescribed limits. They are organized bodies, and have life and not sensation. See Botany. Animals adorn the exterior parts of the earth, respire and generate eggs; are impelled to action by hunger, .af- fections, and pain} and by preying on other animals and vegetables, restrain within proper bounds and propor- tions the numbers of both. They have organized bodies, and have life, sensation, and the po»ver of locomotion. 1,919,600 0 0 58,325 15 6 - 7,502,633 6 8 228,455 5 H 19,969,799 12 6 1,075,669 4 11 786,599 5 1 423,039 5 9 2,184,694 7 9 232,587 10 0 - 403,779 9 6 67,296 11 7 i - 18,000 0 0 540 0 0 280,452 18 0 20,032 7 0 23,668 0 0 23,668 0 0 680,739,112 0 n 23,460,444 8 2 - 104,701,999 0 0 3,170,073 19 4 581,037,113 e H 20,290,370 8 10 22,000,000 0 0 660,000 0 0 559,037,113 0 n 19,630,370 8 10 5,500,000 0 e amcnnje J ! tentacula. The following is an abstract of Linn«us's Systema Nature, by Gmelin. Class I. Mammalia. Order. Genera. Species. Primates Bruta Fera; Glires Pecora Belluse Cetc 4 7 10 10 8 4 4 83 25 186 129 90 25 14 7 47 557 Clj lSS II. Aves. Order. Genera. Species. Accipitres 4 271 Picse 26 663 Anseres 13 314 Grall» 20 326 Gallinse 10 129 Passeres 17 87 983 6 2686 Class III. Amphib [A. Order. Genera. Species. Reptilia 4 147 Serpentes 6 219 2 10 366 Class IV. Pisces , Order. Genera. Species. Apodes 10 37 Jugulares 6 52 Thoracici 19 452 Abdominales 16 202 Branchiostegi 10 81 Chondropterygii 5 65 6 66 Class V. Insect*. Order. Genera. vol. h. Coleoptera Hcmiptera Lcpidoptera Neuroptcra Hymenoptera 55 14 3 7 25 889 Species. 4048 1464 2600 174 1239 Diptoia 12 692 Aptera 15 679 7 121 10896 Class VI. Vermes. Order. Genera. Species Intestina 21 384 Mollusca 31 538 Tcstacea 36 2525 Zoophita 15 498 Infusioria 15 191 118 4036. Natural philosophy, that which considers the pow- ers and properties of natural bodies, and their actions on one another. Our knowledge of nature being now found to result entirely from well-conducted experiments, the term na- tural philosophy has been laterally confounded with that of experimental philosophy, and indeed they seem nearly to mean the same thing. See Experimental Philo- sophy. Natural philosophy is, however, obviously rather a system or aggregate of several branches of knowledge, than a simple and uniform science. These branches, therefore, it was necessary to treat of under separate ar- ticles, to which we must content ourselves with referring upon this occasion, arranging them in the order in which wc think they may be studied with most advantage, viz. Attraction, Gravitation, and Gravity, Magne- tism, Motion, Mechanics, Pneumatics, Hydrosta- tics, Hydraulics, Electricity, Galvanism, Op- tics, .Astronomy; to whicli we may add Chemistry and Mineralogy. NATURALIZATION, is when an alien-born is made the king's natural subject. Hereby an alien is put in the same state as if he had been born in the king's liegeance, except only that he is incapable of being a member of the privy council or par- liament, and of holding any office or grant. No bill for a naturalization can be received in either house of par- liament, without such disabling clause in it; nor without a clause disabling the person from obtaining any immu- nity in trade thereby, in any foreign country, unless he shall have resided in Britain seven years after the com- mencement of the session in which he is naturalized. Neither can any person be naturalized, or restored in blood, unless he has received the sacrament within one month before bringing in of the bill, and unless he also takes the oaths of allegiance and supremacy in the pre- sence of the parliament, l Black. 374. See Alien. NAVAL stores comprehend all those, particulars made use of, not only in the royal navy, but in every other kind of navigation; as timber for shipping, pitch, tar, hemp, cordage, sail-cloth, gunpowder, ordnance and fire-arms of every sort, ship-chandlery wares, &c. NAUC1JEA, a genus of the pentandria monogynia class and order. The corolla is funnel-form; seed one, inferior, two-celled; receptacle, common globular. There are four species, trees of the East Indies, kc NAVIGATOX, the art of conducting a ship from one port to another. The main end of all practical naviga- tion is, to conduct a ship in safety to her destined norV 103 * ' NAVIGATION, and for this purpose it is of the ulmoiit consequence to know in what particular part ofthe surface of the globe she is at any particular time. This can only be done by having an accurate map ofthe sea-coasts of all the coun- tries ofthe world, and, by tracing out the ship's progress along the map, to know at what time she approaches the desired haven, or how she is to direct her course in or- der to reach it. It it therefore a matter of great impor- tance for navigators to be furnished with maps, or charts, as they are called, not only very accurate in themselves, but such as are capable of having the ship's course easily traced upon them, without the trouble of laborious cal- culations, which are apt to create mistakes. The navi- gator should have a perfect knowledge of the figure and motion of the earth; the various real and imaginary lines upon it, so as to be able to ascertain the distance and sit- uation of places with respect to one another. He should also be acquainted with the several instruments employ- ed in measuring the ship's way; such as the log, half-mi- nute glass; quadrant to take the altitude of the sun and stars; compass to represent the sensible horizon; and azi- muth compass to take the azimuth and amplitude of the sun, in order to know the variation of the magnetic needle. He should have an accurate knowledge of maps and charts of the lands and seas, together with the depth of water, the times and setting in of the tides upon the coasts that he may have occasion to visit; also the currents; ofthe mould and trim Of the ship, and the sail she bears, that so a due allowance may be made for lee-way. By the help of these, he may at all times know the place the ship is in, which way he must steer, and how far he has to run to gain his intended port. The names of the two great divisions of navigation are takeu merely from the kind of charts made use of. Plane sailing is that in which the plane chart is made use of; and Mercator's sailing, or globular sailing, is that in which Mercator's chart is used. In both these methods, it is easy to find the ship's place with as great exactness as the chart will allow, either by the solution of a case in plane trigonometry, or by geometrical construction. Of plane sailing. As a necessary preliminary to our understanding this method of navigation, we shall here give the construction of the plane chart. 1. This chart supposes the earth to be a plane, and the meridians parallel to one another; and likewise the parallels of latitude at equal distances from one another, as they really are upon the globe. Though this method is in itself evidently false; yet, in a short run, and especial- ly near the equator, an account of the ship's way may be kept by it tolerably well. Having determined the limits of the chart, that is, how many degrees of latitude and longitude, or meridional distance (they being in this chart the same), itis to con- tain: suppose from the lat. of 20° N. to the lat. of 71<>N., and from the longitude of London in 0 deg. to the long, of 50° W.; then choose a scale of equal parts, by which the chart may be contained within the size of a sheet of pa- per on which it is intended to be drawn. Make a parallelogram ABCD (Plate XCIII. Naviga- tion, fig. 1), the length of which AB from north to south shall contain 51 degrees, the difference of latitude be- tween the limits of 20° and 71°; and the breadth AD from east to west shall contain the proposed 50 degrees of lon- gitude, the degrees being taken from the said scale, and this parallelogram will be the boundaries of the chart. About the boundaries of the chart make scales contain- ing the degrees, halves, and quarters of degrees (if the scale is large enough); drawing lines across the chart through every 5 or 10 degrees; let the degrees of latitude and longitude have their respective numbers annexed, and the sheet is then fitted to receive the places intended to be delineated thereon. On a straight slip of pasteboard, or stiff paper, let the scale of degrees and parts of degrees of longitude, inthe line AD, be laid close to the edge; and the divisions num- bered from the right hand towards the left, being all west longitude. Seek in a geographical table for the latitudes and lon- gitudes of the places contained within the proposed limits; and let them be written out in the order in whicli they in- crease in latitude. Then, to lay down any place, lay the edge ofthe paste- board scale to the divisions on each side the chart, show- ing the latitude of the place; so that the beginning of its divisions falls on the right-hand border AB; and against the division showing the longitude of the given place make a point, and this gives the position of the place proposed; and in like manner are all the other places to be laid down. Draw waving lines from one point to the other, where the coast is contiguous, and thus the representation of the lands within the proposed limits will be delineated. Write the names to the respective parts, and in some convenient place insert a compass, and the chart will be completed. 2. The angle formed by the meridian and rhumb that a ship sails upon, is called, as we have said, the ship's course. Thus, if a ship sails on the N.N.E. rhumb, then her course will be 22° 30'; and so of others, as is manifest from the following table of the angles which every point of the compass makes with the meridian. 2 NAVIGATION. North. South. Points. D. M. North. South. i % I z \ 2,49 5.37 8.26 N. by E. S. by E. 1 11.15 N. by W. S. by W. 1 1 1 i i z I 14. 4 16.52 19.41 N. N. E. S. S. E. 2 22.30 N. N. W. S. s. w. 2 i 25.19 2 I 28. 7 2 * 30.56 N. E. by N. S. E. by S. 3 33.45 N. W. by N. S. W. by S. 3 I 36.34 3 I 39.22 3 ! 42.11 N. E. S. E. 4 45. 0 N. W. S. w. 4 i 47.49 1* 4 i 2 50.37 4 n 53.26 N. E. by E. S. E. by E. 5 56.15 N. W. by W. S. W. by W. 5 I .3 59. 4 5 i 61.52 5 64.42 E. N. E. E. S. E. 6 67.30 W. N. \V. W. S. w. 6 I 3 70.19 6 i 73. 7 6 I 75.56 E. by N. E. by S. 7 78.45 W. by N. W. by S. 7 i 2f 81.34 7 I 84.22 7 * 87.11 East. 8 90. 0 West. S. The distance between two places lying on the same parallel counted in miles of the equator, or the distance of one place from the meridian of another counted as above on the parallel passing over that place, is called meridional distance; which, in plane sailing, goes under the name of departure. 4. Let A (fig. 2), denote a certain point on the earth s surface, AC its meridian, and AD the parallel of latitude passing though it; and suppose a ship to sail from A on the N.N.E. rhumb till she arrives at B; and tlirough B draw the meridian BD, (which, according to the princi- ples of plane sailing, must be parallel to CA,) and the par- allel of latitude BC; then the length of AB, y,z. how far the ship has sailed upon the N.N.E rhumb, is called her distance; AC or BD will be her difference oflatitude, or northing; CB will be her departure, or easting; and the angle CAB will be the course Hence it is plain, that the distance sailed will always be greater than either he difference of latitude or departure; it being the hypothe- rn.seof a right.angled triangle, whereof the other two are the legs; except the ship sails either on a meridian or a parallel of latitude: for if the ship sails on a meridian, then it is plain, that her distance will be just equal to her difference of latitude, and she will have no departure; but if she sails on a parallel, then her distance will be the same with her departure, and she will have no differ- ence of latitude. It is evident also from the figure, that if the course is less than 4 points, or 45 degrees, its com- plement, viz. the other oblique angle, will be greater than 45 degrees, and so tbe difference of latitude will be great- er than tbe departure; but if the course is greater tban four points, then the difference of latitude will be less than the departure; and lastly, if the course is juat four points, the difference of latitude will be equal to the de- parture. 5. Since the distance, difference of latitude, and de- parture, form a right-angled triangle, in which the ob- lique angle opposite to the departure is the course, and the other its complement; therefore, having any two of these given, we can (by plane trigonometry) find the NAVIGATION. rest; and hence arise the cases of plane-sailing, which are as follow: Case I. Course and distance given, to find the differ- ence of latitude and departure. Example. Suppose a ship sails from the latitude of 30° 25' north, N. NE. 32 miles (fig. 3). Required the differ- ence of latitude and departure, and the latitude come to. Then (by right-angled trigonometry) we have the follow- ing analogy for finding the departure, viz. As radus - - - 10.00000 to the distance AC - 32. 1.50515 so is the sine of the course A 22° 30' 9.58284 to the departure BC - 12.25 1.08799 so the ship has made 12.25 miles of departure easterly, or has got so far to the eastward of her meridian. Then for the difference of latitude or northing the ship has made, we have (by rectangular trigonometry) the fol- lowing analogy, viz. As radius - 10.00000 is the distance AC - 32 1.50515 so is the co-sine of course A 22° 30' 9.58284 to the difference of lat. AB 29.57 1.47077 so the ship has differed her latitude, or made of northing, 29.57 minutes. And since her former latitude was north, and her dif- ference of latitude also north; therefore, To the latitude sailed from - 30°, 25' N add the difference of latitude 00°, 29.57 and the sum is the latitude come to 30°, 54.57'N. By this case are calculated the tables of difference of latitude, and departure, to every degree, point, and quarter-point, of the compass. Case 11. Course and difference of latitude given, to find distance and departure. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 45° 25' N., sails NE6N£ easterly (PI. XCIII. Navigation, fig. 4), till she comes to the latitude of 46° 55' north: required the distance and departure made good upon that course. Since both latitudes are northerly, and the course also northerly; therefore, From the latitude come to - 46<>, 55' subtract the latitude sailed from - 45°, 25' and there remains ... 01° 30' the difference of latitude, equal to 90 miles. And (by rectangular trigonometry) we have the fol- lowing analogy for finding the departure BD, viz. As radius - 10.00000 is to the diff. of latitude AB 90 1.95424 so is the tangent of course A 39°, 22' 9.91404 to the departure BD - 73.84 1.86828 so the ship has got 73.84 miles to the eastward of her former meridian. Again, for the distance AD, we have (by rectangular trigonometry) the following proportion, viz. As'radius .... 10.00000 is to the secant ofthe course 39°, 22' 10.11176 so is the diff. of latitude AB 90 1.95424 to the-distance AD - 116.4 206600 Cas-e III. Difference of latitude and distance given, to find course and departure. Example. Suppose a ship sails from the latitude of 56° 50' north, on a rhumb between south and west, 126 miles, and she is then found by observation to be in the latitude of 55°, 40' north: required the course she sailed on, and her departure from the meridian. (Fig. 5.) Since the latitudes are both north, and the ship-sail- ing towards the equator; therefore, From the latitude sailed from - 56°, 50' subtract the observed latitude - 55°, 40' and the remainder - - 01°, 10 equal to 70 miles, is the difference of latitude. By rectangular trigonometry we have the following proportion for finding the angle of the course F, viz. As the distance sailed DF 126 2.10037 is to radius - - 10.00000 so is the diff. of latitude FE 70 1.84510 to the co-sine of the course F. 56°, 15' 9.74473 which, because she sails between south and west, will be south 56° 15' west, or SW6W. Then, for the departure, we have (by rectangular trigonometry) the following proportion, viz. As radius - 10.00000 is to the distance sailed DF 126 2.10037 so is the sine of the course F 56°, 15' 9.91985 to the departufiJ^DE 104.8 2.02022 consequently she flas made 104.8 miles of ^departure westerly. Case IV. Difference of latitude and departure given, to find course and distance. Example. Suppose a ship sails from the latitude of 44° 50' north, between south and east, till she has made 64 miles of easting, and is then found by observation to be in the latitude of 42° 56' north: required the course and distance made good. Since the latitudes are both north, and the ship sailing towards the equator; therefore, From the latitude sailed from 44°, 50'N take the latitude come to - 42°, 56' and there remains - - 01°, 54' equal to 114 miles, the difference of latitude or south- ing. In this case (by rectangular trigonometry) we have the following proportion to find the course KGL (fig. 6), viz. As the diff. of latitude GK 114 2.05690 is to radius - - 10,00000 so is the departure KL 64 1.80618 to the tangent of course G 29°, 19' 9.74928 whicli, because the ship is sailing between south and east, will be south 29c 19' east, or SSE^ east nearly. Then for the distance, we shall have (by rectangular trigonometry) the following analogy, viz. As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the diff. of latitude GK 114 2.05690 so is the secant of the course 29°, 19' 10.05952 to the distance GL - 130.8 2.11642 consequently the ship has sailed on a SSEa east course 130.8 miles. Case V. Distance and departure given, to find the course and difference of latitude. Example. Suppose a ship at sea sails from the latitude of 34° 24' north, between north and west, 124 miles, and NAVIGATION. jg foand to have made of westing 86 miles: required the course steered, and the difference of latitude or north- ing made good. In this case (by rectangular trigonometry) we have the following proportion for finding the course ADB, (fig- 7), viz. As the distance AD - 124 2.09342 is to radius - _ . 10.00000 so is the departure AB 86 1.934 50 to the sine of the course D 43° 54' 9.84108 so the ship's course is north 43°45' west, or NW&N] west nearly. Then for the difference of latitude, we have (by rect- angular trigonometry) the following analogy, viz. As radius - ' - - _ 10.00000 is to the distance AD 124 2.09342 so is the co-sine of the course 43°,54' 9.85766 to the diff. of latitude BD 89.35 1.95108 which is equal to 1 degree and 29 min. nearly. Hence, to find the latitude the ship is in, since both latitudes are north, and the ship sailing from the equa- tor; therefore, To the latitude sailed from - 34°, 24' add the difference of latitude - 1 , 29 the sum is - - - 35 ,53 the latitude the ship is in north. Case VI. Course and departure given, to find dis- tance and difference of latitude. Example. Suppose a ship at sea, in the latitude of 24° 30' south, sails SE6S, till she has made of easting 96 miles: required the distance and difference of latitude made good on that course. In this case (by rectangular trigonometry and by case 2,) we have the following proportion for finding the dis- tance (fig. 8), viz. As the sine of the course G 33°, 45' 9.74474 is to the departure IIM 96 1.98227 so is radius - - - 10.00000 to the distance GM - 172.8 2.23753 Then, for the difference of latitude, we have (by rect- angular trigonometry) the following analogy, viz. As the tangent of course 33°, 43' 9.82489 is to the departure HM 96 1.98227 so is radius - - - - 10.00000 to the difference of lat. GH 143.7 2.15738 equal to 2°, 24' nearly. Consequently, since the latitude the ship sailed from was south, and she sailing still to- wards the south, To the latitude sailed from - 24°, SO' add the difference of latitude - 2 , 24 and the sum - - - 26 , 54 is the latitude she has come to south. 6. When a ship sails on several courses in 24 hours, the reducing all these into one, and thereby finding the ionise and*distance made good upon the whole, is com- monly called the resolving of a traverse. 7. At sea they commonly begin each day's reckoning from the noon of that day, and from that time they set down all ihe different courses and distances sailed by the ship till noon next day upon the log-board; then from these several courses and distances, th«■> compute the difference of latitude and departure for each course (by Case I. of Plane Sailing); and these, together with the courses and distances, are set down in a table, called the Traverse Table, which consists of five columns: in the first of which are placed the courses and distances; in the two next, the difference of latitude belonging to these courses, a*, cording as they are north or south; and in the two last are placed the departures belonging to these courses, according as tliey are east or west. Then they sum up all the northings and all the southings; and taking the difference of these, they know the differ- ence of latitude made good by the ship in the last 24 hours, which will be north or south, according as the sum of the northings or southing is greatest: the same way, by taking the sum of all the eastings, and likewise of all the westings, and subtracting the lesser of these from the greater, the difference will be the departure made good by the ship during the last 24 hours, which will be east or west according as the sum of the eastings is greater or less than the sum of the westings; then from the difference of latitude and departure made good by the ship during the last 24 houes, found as above, they find the true conrse and distance made good upon the whole (by Case 4 of Plane Sailing), as also the course and distance to the intended port. Example. Suppose a ship at sea, in the latitude of 48° 24' north, at noon any day, is bound to a port in the lati- tude of 43° 40' north, whose departure from the ship is 144 miles cast; consequently the direct course and dis- tance ofthe ship is SSE. \ east 315 miles; but by rea- son of the shifting of the winds she is obliged to steer the following course till noon next day. viz. SE6S 56 miles, SSE 64 miles, NW6W 48 miles,' S&W | west 54 miles, and SE6S \ east 74 miles: required the course and distance made good the last 24 hours, and the bear- ing and distance ofthe ship from the intended port. The solution of this traverse depends entirely on the 1st and 4th Cases of Plane Sailing; and first wc must (by Case I.) find the difference of latitude and depar- ture for each course. Thus, 1. Course SE6S distance 56 miles. For departure. As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the distance - 56 1.T4819 so is the sine of the course 33°, 45, 9.74474 to the departure - 31.11 1.49293 For difference of latitude. As radius .... 1.00000 is to the distance - 56 1.74819 so is the co-sine of the course 3 A 45' 9.91985 to the diff. of latitude - 46.57 1.66304 2. Course SSE and distance 64 miles. For departure. As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the distance - 64 1.S061S so is tbe sine of the course 22°, 30', 2.5S2R4 to the departure - 24.5 l.o8902 For the difference of latitude. As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the distance - 64 1.80618 so is the co-sine of the course 22°, 30' 9.9ii5d:> to the difference of latitude 59.13 1-rriSO NAVIGATION. 3. Course NW6W and distance 48 miles. For departure. As radius - - - - 10.00000 is to the distance - 48 1.68124 so is the sine ofthe course 56°, 15' 9.91985 to the departure - 39.91 1.60109 For difference of latitude. As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the distance - 48 1.68124 so is the co-sine ofthe course 56°, 15' 9.74474 to the difference of latitude 26.67 1.42598 4. Coarse S6W| west and distance 54 miles. For departure. As radius - is to the distance - 54 so is the sine of the course 16°, 52' to the departure - 15.67 For difference of latitude. As radius - is to the distance - - 54 so is the co-sine ofthe course 16°, 52' to the difference of latitude 51.67 5, Course SE6S \ east and distance 74 miles. For departure. As radius - is to the distance - 74 so is the sine of the course 39°, 22' to the departure . 46,94 For difference of latitude. As radius - is to the distance - 74 so is the co-sine of the course 39° 22' to the difference of latitude 57.21 Now these several courses and distances, together with the differences of latitude and departures deduced from them, being set down in the proper columns in the traverse table, will stand as follow: The Traverse Taule. 10.00000 1.73239 9.46262 8.19501 10.00000 1.73239 9.98090 1.71329 10.00000 1.86923 9.80228 1.67151 10.00000 1.80923 9.88824 1.75747 Courses. Distances. SE&S SSE NW6W S6WiVv SE&SiE 56 64 48 54 T4 Diff. of Lat. N. 26.67 26.67 214.58 26.67 46.57 59.13 51.67 57.21 Departure. E. 31.11 24.5 46.94 102.55 55.58 w. 39.91 15.67 55.58 As the difference of latitude 18f,91 2.27393 is to the radius - - - 10.00000 so is the departure - 46.97 1.67182 to the tangent of the course 14°, 03' 9.39789 which is S6E \ east nearly. Then for the distance, it will be, As radius - - 10.00000 is to the difference of latitude 117,91 2.27393 so is the secant of the course 14°, 03' 10.01319 to the distance - 193.7 2.28712 consequently the ship has made good the last 24 hours, on a S6E \ east course, 193.7 miles: and since the ship is sailing towards the equator; therefore, From the latitude sailed from 48°, 24' N take the diff. of latitude made good 3, 08 S Diff. of Lat. 1187.91 46.97 Dep. From the above table it is plain, since the sum of the northings is 26.67. and ofthe southings 214.58, the dif- ference'between these, viz. 187.91, vviil be the southing made good by the ship the last 24 hours; also the sum of the eastings being 102.55, and of the westings 55.58, the difference 46.97 will be the easting or departure made good by the ship's last 24 hours, consequently, to find the true course and distance made good by the ship in that time, it will be (by Case 4. of Plane Sailing), there remains - - - 45, 16 N the latitude the ship is in north. And because the port the ship is bound for lies in the latitude of 43° 40' N. and consequently south ofthe ship; therefore, From the latitude the ship is in 45°, 16' N take the latitude she is bound for 43 , 40 N and there remains - - 1 , 36 or 95 miles, the difference of latitude or southings the ship has to maek. Again, the whole easting the ship had to make being 144 miles, and she having already made 46.97, or 47 miles of casting; therefore the departure or easting she still has to make will be 97 miles: consequent- ly, to find the direct course and distance between the ship and the intended port, it will be, (by Case 4. of Plane Sailing), As the difference of latitude 96 1.98227 is to radius - - - 10.00000 so is the departure - 97 1.98677 to the tangent of tbe course 45°, 19' 10.00450 And As radius - 10.00000 is to the difference of latitude 96 1.98227 so is the secant of the course 45°, 19' 10.15293 to the distance - - 136.5 2.13620 whence the true bearing and distance of the intended port is, SE 136.5 miles. Of Parallel Sailing. Since the parallels of latitude do always decrease the nearer they approach the pole, it is plain a degree on any of them must be less than a degree upon the equator. Now in order to know the length of a degree on any of them, let PB (fig. 9) represent half the earth's axis, PA a quadrant of a meridian, and con. scquently A a point on the equator, C a point on the meridian, and CD a perpendicular from that point upon the axis, which plainly will be the sine of CP the dis- tance of that point from the pole, or the co-sine of CA its distance from the equator; and CD will be to AB, as the sine of CP, or cosine of CA, is to the radius. Again, if the quadrant PAB is turned round upon the axis PB, it is plain the point A will describe the circumference of the equator whose radius is AB, and any other point C up- on the meridian will describe the circumference of a par- allel whose radius is CD. Cor. i. Hence- (because the circumference of circles are as their radii) it follows, that the circumference of NAVIGATION. any parallel is to the circumference ofthe equator, as the co-sine of its latitude is to radius. Cor. 2. And since the wholes are as their similar parts, it will be, As the length of a degree on any paral- lel, is to the length of a degree upon the equator, so is the co-sine of the latitude of that parallel, to radius. (jor. 3. Hence, As radius, is to the co-sine of any lati- tude, so are the minutes of difference of longitude between two meridians, or their distance in miles upon the equa- tor, to the distance of these two meridians on the paral- lel in miles. Cor. 4. And, As the co-sine of any parallel, is to ra- dius, so is the length of any arch on that parallel (inter- cepted between two meridians) in miles, to the length of a similar arch on the equator, or minutes of difference of longitude. Cor. 5. Also, As the co-sine of any one parallel, is to the co-sine of any other parallel, so is the length of any arch on the first in miles, to the length of the same arch on the other in miles. From what has been said, arises the solution of the several cases of parallel sailing, which are as follow: Case 1. Given the difference of longitude between two places, both lying on the same parallel; to find the dis- tance between those places. Example I. Suppose a ship in the lalituc of 54° 20' north, sails directly west on that parallel till she has differed her longitude 12° 45'; required the distance sail- ed on that parallel. First, The difference of longitude reduced into mi- nutes, or nautical miles, is 765°, which is the distance between the meridian sailed from, and the meridian come to, upon the equator; then to find the distance be- tween these meridians on the parallel of 54° 20', or the distance sailed, it will be, by Cor. 3. of the last article, As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the co-sine of the lat. 54Q 20' 9.76572 so are the minutes of diff. Ion. 765 2.18366 to the distance on the parallel 446.1 2.64938 Example 2. A degree on the equator being 60.minutes or nautical miles; required the length of a degree on the parallel of 51° 32'. By Cor. 3. of the last article, it will be As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the co-sine of the latitude 51°, 32' 9.79383 so are the min. in 1° on the equa. 60 1.77815 t0 - - - 37.32 1.57198 the miles answering to a degree on the parallel of 51° 32'. By this problem a table is constructed, showing the geographic miles answering to a degree on any paral- lel of latitude; in which you may observe, that the co- lumns marked at the top with D. L. contain the degrees of latitude belonging to each parallel: and the adjacent columns marked at the top Miles, contain the geograph- ic miles answering to a degree upon these parallels. See the table in the article Main Though the table does only show the miles answering to a degree of any parallel, whose latitude consists of a whole number of degrees; yet it may be made to servo for any parallel whose latitude is some number of de- grees and minutes, by making the following proportion, viz As 1 degree, or 60 minutes, is to the difference be- tween the miles answerin? to a degree in the next great- er and next less tabular latitude than that proposed; so is the cxecss of the proposed latitude above the next ta- bular latitude, to a proportional part; which, subtracted • from the miles answering to a degree of longitude in the next less tabular latitude, will give the miles answering to a degree in the proposed latitude. Example. Required to find the miles answering to a degree on the parallel of 56° 44'. First, Tlie next less parallel of latitude in the table than that proposed, is that of 56°, a degree of which (by the table) is equal to 33.55 miles: and the next greater parallel of latitude in the table, than that proposed, is that of 57°, a degree of which is (by the table) equal to 32.68 miles; the difference of these is 87, and the distance between these parallels is 1 degree, or 60 minutes; also the distance between the parallel of 56°, and the propos- ed parallel of 56° 44', is 44 minutes: then, by the pre- ceding proportion, it will be, As 60 is to 87, so is 44 to 638, the difference between a degree on the parallel of 56" an) a degree on the parallel of 56° 44'; which, there- fore, taken from 33.55, the miles answering to a degree on the parallel of 56<>, leaves 32.912, the miles answer- ing to a degree on the parallel of 56° 44', as was re- quired. Case II. The distance sailed in any parallel of latitude, or the distance between any two places on that parallel, being given; to find the difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 55° 36' north, sails directly cast 685.6 miles: required how much she has differed her longitude. By Cor. 4. Art. 1. of this section, it will be As the co-sine of the lat. 55° 36' 9.75202 is to radius ... 10.00000 so is the distance sailed 685.6 2.83607 to minute of difference of Ion. 1213 3.08405 which reduced into degrees, by dividing by 60, makes 20* 13', the difference of lingitude the ship has made. This also may be solved by help of the preceding ta- ble, viz. by finding from it the miles answering to a de- gree on the proposed parallel, and dividing with this the given number of miles, the quotient will be the degrees and minutes of difference of longitude required. Thus in the last example, we find, from tire foregoing table, that a degree on the parallel of 55° 36' is equal to 33.89 miles; by this wc divide the proposed number of miles 685.6, and the quotient is 20.13 degrees, i. e. 20° 13', the difference of longitude required. Case 111. The difference of longitude between two places on the same parallel, and the distance between them, being given; to find the latitude of that parallel. Example. Suppose a ship sails on a certain jiacallel directly west 624 miles, and then has differed her longi- tude 18° 46', or 1126 miles: required the latitude of the parallel she sailed upon; it will be by Cor. 3 before As the min. of diff. long. 1. 126 3.95154 is to the distance sailed 624 2.79518 so is radius .... 10.00000 to the co-sine of the Int. 56°, 21' 9.743G4 consequently the latitude of the ship, or parallel >die sail- ed up m, was 56° 21'. From what has been said, may be solved the followim- problems: NAVIGATION. Prob. I. Suppose two ships in the latitude of 46° 30' north, distant asunder 654 miles, sail both directly north 256 miles, and consequently are come to the latitude of 50° 46' north: required their distance on that parallel. By Cor. 5. Art. 1. of this section, it will be, As the co-sine of 46°, 30' 9.83781 is to the co-sine of 50°, 46' 9.80105 so is - - 654 - 2.81558 to - - - 601 2.77882 the distance between the ships w hen on the parallel of 50° 46'. Prob. II. Suppose two ships in the latitude of 45° 48' north, distant 846 miles, sail directly north ill the dis- tance between them is 624 miles: required the latitude come to, and the distance sailed. By Cor. 5. Art. 1. of this section, it will be, As their first distance 846 2.92737 is to their second distance 624 2.79518 so is the co-sine of - 45°, 48' 9.84334 to the co-sine - - 59°, 04' 9.71115 the latitude of the parallel the ships are come to. Consequently, to find their distance sailed, From the latitude come to - 59°, 04' subtract the latitude sailed from - 45 , 48 From the longitude of St. Vincent take the longitude of the Lizard and there remains - - 13, 16 equal to 796 miles, the difference of latitude or distance sailed. Of Middle-latitude Sailing.—1. When two places lie both ou the same parallel, wc have shown how, from the difference of lougitudc given, to find the miles of easting or westing between them, et e contra. But when two places lie not on the same parallel, then their difference of longitude cannot be reduced to miles of easting or westing on the parallel of either place: for if counted on the parallel of that place that has the greatest latitude, it would be too small; and if on the parallel of that place having the least latitude, it would be too great. Hence the common way of reducing the difference of longitude between two places, lying on different parallels, to miles of easting or westing, ct e contra, is by counting it on the middle parallel between the two places, which is found by adding the latitudes ofthe two places together. and taking half the sum, which will be the latitude-of the middle parallel required. And hence arises the solu- tion of the following cases: Case I. The latitudes of two places, and their differ- ence of longitude, given; to find the direct course and distance. Example. Required the direct course and distance be- tween the lizard in the latitude of 50° 0' north, and longitude 5° 14' west, and St. Vincent in the latitude of 17° 10' north, aud longitude of 24° 20' west. First, To the latitude of the Lizard 50° OO'N add the latitude of St. Vincent 17 10 The. sum is Half the sum or latitude of the middle parallel is - Also the difference of latitude is equal to 1970 miles of southing. Again, 67 10 24 20 W 5 14 16 6 9.92069 there remains equal to 1146 min. of diff. of Ion. west. Then for the miles of westing, or departure, it will be (by Case I. of Parallel Sailing), As radius .... 10.00000 is to the co-sine of the 1 middle parallel j 3o * J° so is min. diff. of Ion. 1146 3.05918 to the miles of westing 954.7 2.97987 And for the course it will be (by Case 4. of Plain Sail- ing)* As the diff. of lat. - 1970 3.29447 is to radius - 10.00000 so is the departure 954.7 2.97987 to the tang, ofthe course 25°, 51' 9.68540 which, because it is between south and west, will be SSW $ west nearly. For the distance, it will be, by the same case, As radius - 10.00000 is to the diff. of lat. 1970 3.29447 so is the secant of the course 25°, 51' 10.04579 to the distance - 2189 3.34026 whence the direct course and distance from the Lizard to St. Vincent are SSW | 2189 W. miles. Case II. One latitude, course, and distance sailed, being given; to find the other latitude, and difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 50° 00' north, sails south 50° 06' west, 150 miles; required the latitude the ship has come to, and how much she has dif- fered her longitude. First, For the difference of latitude, it will be, (by Case I. of Plane Sailing,) As radius ... 10.00000 is to the distance - 150 2.17609 so is the co-sine of thecourse 50°, 06' 9.80716 to the diff. of latitude 96.22 1.98325 equal to 1°, 36'. And since the ship is sailing towards the equator: therefore, From the latitude she was in - 50°, 00' take the difference of latitude - 1 , 36 33 35 N 50 and there remains - - - 48, 24 the latitude she has come to north. Consequently the latitude of the middle parallel will be 49° 12'. Then for departure or westing it will be, by the same Case, As radius - 10.00000 is to the distance - 150 2.17609 so is the sine of the course 50°, 06' 9.88489 to the departure - 115.1 2.06098 As for the difference of longitude, it will be, (by Case 2. of Plane Sailing,) As theco-s. of the middle par. 49° 12' 9.81519 is to radius - - - 10.00000 so is the departure - 115.1 2.06098 to the min. diff. of longitude 176.1 2.24579 equal to 2° 56', wiiich is the difference of longitude the ship has made westerly. NAVIGATION. Case III. Course and difference of latitude given; to find the distance sailed, and difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude 53° 34' north, sails SE6S, till by observation she is found to be in the latitude of 51° 12 , and consequently has differed her la- titude of 2° 22', or 142 miles: required the distance sail- ed, and the difference of longitude. First, for the departure, it will be, (by Case 2. of Plane Sailing,) As radius .... 10.00000 is to the diff. of latitude 142 2.15229 so is the tang, of course 33°, 45'~ 9.82489 to the departure - 94.88 1.97718 And for the distance it will be, (by the same Case,) As radius .... 10.00000 is to the diff. of latitude 142 2.15229 so is tbe secant ofthe course 33°, 45' 10 08015 to the distance - - 170.8 2.23244 Then, since the latitude sailed from was 53° 34' north, and the latitude come to 51° 12' north; therefore the mid- dle parallel will be 52° 23'; and consequently, for the dif- ference of longitude, it will be, (by Case 2. of Parallel Sailing.) As the eo-sine ofthe mid. par. 52°, 23' 9.78560 is to the departure - 94.88 1.97718 so is radius - 10.00000 to min. of diff. of longitude 155.5 2.19158 equal to 2° 35', the difference of longitude easterly. Case IV. Difference of latitude and distance sailed, given; to find the course and difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 43° 26' north, sails between south and east, 246 miles, and then is found by observation to be in the latitude of 41° 06' north: required the direct course and difference of lon- gitude. First, for the course, it will be, (by Case 3. of Plane Sailing,) As the distance - 246 2.30094 is to radius ... - 10.00000 so is the diff. of latitude 140 2.14613 to the co-sine of the course 55°, 19' 9.75519 which, because the ship sails between south and east, will be south 55° 19' east, or SE&E nearly. Then, for departure, it will be, by the same Case, As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the distance - 246 2.39094 so is the sine of the course 55% 19' 9.91504 to the departure - 202,3 2.30598 Lastly, For the difference of longitude, it will be, (by Case 2. of Parallel Sailing,) As the co-sine of the mid. par. 42°, 16' 9.86924 is to the departure - 303.8 2.30598 so is radius - - - 10.00000 to min. of diff. of longitude 273.3 2.43674 equal to 4° 33', the difference of longitude easterly. Case V. Course and departure giv en; to find difference of latitude, difference of longitude, and distance sailed. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 48° 23' north, sails SW6S, till she has made of westing 123 miles: required the latitude come to, the difference ot longitude, and the distance sailed. First, For the distance, it will be, (by Case 6. of Plane Sailing,) >0L& II. 104 As the sine of the course 33% 45' 6.74474 is to the departure - 123 2.08991 so is radius -.- 10.00000 to the distance - 221.4 2.34517 And for the difference of latitude, it will be, by the same Case, As the tang, of course 33°, 45' 9.82489 is to the departure - 123 2.08991 so is radius - 10.00000 to the diff. of latitude 184 2.26502 equal to 3° 04': and since the ship is sailing towards the equator, the latitude come to will be 45° 19f north; and consequently the middle parallel will be 46° 51'. Then to find the difference of longitude, it will be, (Case 2. of Parallel Sailing,) As the co-sine of mid. par. 46°, 51' 9.83500 is to the departure - 123 2.08991 so is radius ... 10.00000 to min. of diff. of longitude 180 2.25491 which is equal to 3° 00', the difference of longitude west- erly. Case VI. Difference of latitude and departure given; to find course, distance, and difference of longitude. Examjde. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 46° 37' north, sails between south and east, till she has made of easting 146 miles, and is then found by observation to be in the latitude of 43° 24' north: required the course, distance, and difference of longitude. First, by Case 4. of Plane Sailing, it will be for the course, As the diff. of latitude 193 2.28556 is to the departure - 146 2.16137 so is radius - - - 10.00000 to the tang, of the course 36°, 55' 9.87581 wiiich, because the ship is sailing between south and cast, will be south 36° 55' east, or SE6S| east nearly. For the distance, it will be, by the same Case, As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the diff. of latitude 193 2.28556 so is the secant ofthe course 36°, 55' 10.09718 to the distance - 241.4 2.38274 Then for the difference of longitude, it will be by Case 2. of Parallel Sailing, As the co-sineof the mid. par. 45°, 00' 9.84949 is to the departure - 146 2.16137 so is radius .... 10.00000 to min. of diff. of longitude 205 2.31188 equal to 3° 25', the difference of longitude easterly. Case VII. Distance and departure given; to find dif- ference of latitude, course, and difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude 33° 40' north, sails between south and east 165 miles, and has then made of easting 112.5 miles: required the difference of latitude, course, and difference of longitude. First, for the course, it will be, by Case 5. of Plane Sailing, As the distance - 165 2.21748 is to radius - - - 10.00000 so is the departure - 102.5 2.05115 to the sine of the course 42°, 59' 9.83367 which, because the ship sails between south and east, will be south 42° 59' east, or SE6E| east nearly. NAVIGATION. And for the difference of latitude, it will be, by the same Case, As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the distance - 165 2.21748 so is the co-sine of the course 42° 59' 9.86436 to the difference of latitude 120.7 2.08184 equal to 2° 00'; consequently the latitude come to will be 31° 40' north, and the latitude of the middle parallel will be 32° 40'. Hence, to find the difference of longi- tude, it will he, by Case 2. of Parallel Sailing, As the co-sine ofthe mid. par. 32°, 40' 9.92522 is to the departure - 112.5 2.05115 so is radius ... 10.00000 to min. of diff. of long. 133.6 2.12593 equal to 2° 13' nearly, the difference of longitude east- erly. Case VIII. Difference of longitude and departure given; to find difference of latitude, course, and distance sailed. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 50° 46' north, sails between south and west, till her difference of longitude is 3° 12', and is then found to have departed from her former meridian 126 miles: required the differ- ence of latitude, course, and distance sailed. First, for the latitude she has come to, it will be, by Case 3. of Parallel Sailing, As min. of diff. of long. 192 2.28330 is to the departure - 126 2.10037 so is radius - - - 10.00000 to the co-sine of mid. par. 48°, 59' 9.81707 Now, since the middle latitude is equal to half the sum ofthe two latitudes (by art. 1. of this sect.) and so the sum of the two latitudes equal to double the middle lati- tude; it follows, that if from double the middle latitude we subtract any one of the latitudes, the remainder will be the other. Hence from twice 48° 59', viz. 97° 58', tak- ing 50° 46' the latitude sailed from, there remains 47° 12' the latitude come to; consequently the difference of lati- tude is 3° 34', or 214 minutes. Then, for the course, it will be, by Case 4. of Plane Sailing, As difference of latitude 214 2.33041 is to radius .... 10.00000 so is the departure - 126 2.10037 to the tang, ofthe course 30° 29' 9.76996 which, because it is between south and west, will be south 30° 29 west, or SSWf west nearly. And for the distance, it will be, by the same Case, As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the difference of lat. 214 2.33041 so is the secant ofthe course 30°, 29' 10.06461 to the distance - - 248.4 2.39502 2. From what has been said, it will be easy to solve a traverse by the rules of Middle-latitude Sailing. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 43° 25' north, sails upon the following courses, viz. SW6S 63 miles, SSW| west 45 miles, S6E 54 miles, and SW6W 74 miles: required the latitude the ship has come to, and how far she has differed her longitude. First, By Case 2. of this sect, find the difference of lati- tude and difference of longitude belonging to each course and distance, and they will stand as in the following ta- ble: :- Courses. Distances. Diff. of Lat. Diff. of Long. 6S 45 54 74 North. South. East. West. SW6S SSW|W S6E SW&W — 52.4 39.7 53.0 41.1 — 14.75 i 47.85 28.62 81.08 157.55 15.75 Diff. of Lat. 186.2 Diff. of Long. 143.80 Hence it is plain the ship has differed her latitude 186.2 minutes, or 3° 6', and so has come to the latitude of 40" 19' north, and has made of difference of longitude 143.8 minutes, or 2° 23' 48', westerly. 3. This method of sailing, though it is not strictly true, yet comes very near the truth, as will be evident by com- paring an example wrought by this method with the same wrought by tbe method delivered in the next section, wiiich is strictly true; and it serves, without any consider- able error, in runnings of 450 miles between the equator and parallel of 30 degrees, of 300 miles between that and the parallel of 60 degrees, and of 150 miles as far as there is any occasion, and consequently must be sufliciently exact for 24 hours run. Of Mercator's Sailing. Though the meridians do all meet at the pole, and the parallels to the equator do con- tinually decrease, and that in proportion to the co-sine^ of their latitudes; yet in old sea-charts the meridians were drawn parallel to one another, and consequently the parallels of latitude made equal to the equator, and so a degree of longitude on any parallel as large as a degree on the equator; also in these charts the degrees of latitude were still represented (as they are iu themselves) equal to each other, and to those of the equator. By these means the degrees of longitude being increased be- yond their just proportion, and the more so the nearer they approach the pole, the degrees of latitude at the same time remaining the same, it is evident places must be very erroneously marked down upon these charts with respect to their latitude, and consequently their bearing from one another very false. To remedy this inconvenience, so as still to keep the meridians parallel, it is plain we must protract, or length- en, the degrees of latitude in the same proportion as those of longitude are, that so the proportion in easting and westing may be the same with that of southing and northing, and consequently the bearings of places from one another are the same upon the chart as upon the globe itself. Let ABD (fig. 10.) be a quadrant of a meridian, A the pole, D a point on the cquator,AC half the axis, B any point upon the meridian, from wiiich draw BF perpen- dicular to AC, and BG perpendicular to DC; then BG will be the sine, and BF or CG the co-sine, of BD the latitude of the point B; draw DE the tangent and CE the secant ofthe arch CD. It has been demonstrated, that any arch of a parallel is to the like arch of the equator, as the co-sine ofthe latitude of that parallel is to radius. Thus any arch, as a minute on the parallel described by the point B, will be a minute on the equator, as BF or CG is to CD; NAVIGATION but since the triangles CG13, CDE, arcsimHar, therefore CG will be to CD as CB is to CE, i. e. the co-sine of any parallel is to radius as radius is to the secant ofthe latitude of that parallel. But it has been just now shown, that the co-sine of any parallel is to radius, as the length of any arch (as a minute) on that parallel is to the length of the like arch on the equator; therefore the length of any arch (as a minute) ou any parallel, is to the length of the like arch on the equator, as radius is to the secant of the latitude of that parallel; and so the length of any arch (as a minute) on the equator, is longer than the like arch of any parallel, in the same proportion as the secant of the latitude of that parallel is to radius. But since in this projection the meridians are parallel, and consequently each parallel of latitude equal to the equator, it is plain the length of any arch (as a minute) on any parallel, is increased beyond its just proportion, at such rate as the secant of the lati- tude of that parallel is greater than radius; and there- fore, to keep up the proportion of northing and southing to that of casting and westing, upon this chart, as it is upon the globe itself, the length of a minute upon the meridian at any parallel must also be increased beyond its just proportion at the same rate, i. e. as the secant of the latitude of that parallel is greater than radius. Thus to find the length of a minute upon the meridian at the latitude of 75 degrees, since a minute of a meridian is every where equal on the globe, and also equal to a minute upon the equator, let it be represented by unity; then making it as radius to the secant of 75 degrees, so is unity to a fourth number, which is 3.864 nearly; and consequently, by whatever line you represent one minute on the equator of this chart, the length of one minute on the enlarged meridian at the latitude of 75 degrees, or the distance between the parallel of 75° 00' and the pa- rallel of 75° 01', will be equal to 3 of these lines, and ^*v of one of them. By making the same proportion, it will be found that the length of a minute on the me- ridian of this chart at the parallel of 60?, or the distance between the parallel of 60° 00' and that of 60° 01', is equal to two of these lines. After the same manner, the length of a minute on the enlarged meridian may be found at any latitude; and consequently beginning at the equator, and computing the length of every inter- mediate minute between that and any parallel, the sum of all these shall be'the length of a meridian intercepted between the equator and that parallel; and the distance of each degree and minute of latitude from the equator upon the meridian of this chart, computed in minutes of the equator, forms what is commonly called a table of meridional parts. If the arch BD (fig. 10.) represents the latitude of any point B, then (CD being radius) CE will be the se- cant of that latitude; but it has been shown above, that radius is to secant of any latitude, as the length of a minute upon the equator is to the length of a minute on the meridian of this chart at that latitude; therefore CD is to CE, as the length of a minute on the equator is to the length of a minute upon the meridian at the latitude of the point B. Consequently, if the radius CD is taken equal to the length of a minute upon the equator, CE, or the secant of the latitude, will be equal to the length of a minute upon the meridian at that latitude. Therefore, in general, if the Iengih of a minute upon the equator is made radius, the length of a minute upon the enlarged meridian will be every where equal to the secant of the arch contained between it and the equator. Hence it follows, since the length of everv interme- diate minute between the equator aud any parallel is equal to the secant of the latitude, (the radius being equal to a minute upon the equator), the sum of all these lengths, or the distance of that parallel on the enlarged meridian from the equator, will be equal to the sum of all the secants to every minute contained between it and the equator. Consequently, the distance between any two parallels on the same side ofthe equator, is equal to the difference of the sums of all the secants contained between the equator and each parallel; and the distance between any two parallels on contrary sides of the equator, is equal to the sum ofthe sums of all the secants contained be- tween the equator and each parallel. By the tables of meridional parts given by all the writers on this subject, may be constructed the nautical chart, commonly called Mercator's chart. See Maps. In fig. 11, let A and E represent two places upon Mercator's chart, AC the meridian of A, and CE tbe parallel of latitude passing througli E; draw AE, and set off upon AC the length AB equal to the number of minutes contained in tbe difference of latitude between the two places, and taken from the same scale of equal parts the chart was made by, or from the equator, or any graduated parallel of the chart, and through B draw BD parallel to CE meeting AE in D. Then AC will be the enlarged difference of latitude, AB the proper difference of latitude, CE the difference of longitude, BD the departure, AE the enlarged distance, and AD the proper distance, between the two places A and E* also the angle BAD will be the course, and AE the rhumb-line between them. Now, since in the triangle ACE, BD is parallel to one of its sides CE; it is plain the triangles ACE, ABD, will be similar, and consequently the sides proportional. Hence arise the solutions of the several cases in this sailing, which are as follow: Case I. The latitudes of two places given, to find the meridional or enlarged difference of latitude between. them. Of this case there are three varieties, viz. cither one of the places lies on the equator; or both on the same side of it; or lastly, on different sides. 1. If one of the proposed places lies on the equator, then the meridional difference of latitude is the same with the latitude of the other place, taken from the table of meridional parts. Example. Required the meridional difference of la- titude between St. Thomas, lying on the equator, and St. Antonio, in the latitude of 17u 20' north. We look inthe tables for the meridional part answering to 17° 20', and find it to be 1056.2, the enlarged difference of latitude required. 2. if the two proposed places are on the same side of the equator, then the meridional difference of latitude is found by subtracting the meridional parts answerin- to the hast latitude from those answering to the greatest, and the difference is that required. NAVIGATION. Example. Required the meridional difference of la- titude between the Lizard in the latitude of 50° 00' north, and Antigua in the latitude of 17q 30' north. From the meridional parts of 50°,00' 3474.5 subtract the mcrid. parts of 17 30 1066.7 there remains - - 2407.8 the meridional difference of latitude required. 3. If the places lie on different sides ofthe equator, then-the meridional difference of latitude is found by adding together the meridional parts answering to each latitude, and the sum is that required. Example. Required the meridional difference of la- titude between Antigua in the latitude of 17° 30' north, and Lima in Peru in the latitude of 12° 30' south. To the merid. parts answering to 17° 30' 1066.7 add these answering to - 12 30 756.1 the sum is 1822.8 the meridional difference of latitude required. Case II. The latitudes and longitudes of two places given; to find the direct course and distance between them. Example. Required to find the direct course and distance between the Lizard in the latitude of 50° 00' north, and Port Royal in Jamaica, in the latitude of 17° 40'; differing in longitude 70° 46', Port Royal lying so far to the westward of the Lizard. Preparation. From the latitude ofthe Lizard 50° 00' subtract the latitude of Port Royal 17 40 and there remains - - - 32 20 equal to 1940 minutes, the proper difference of latitude. Then from the merid. parts of 50° 00' 3474.5 subtract those of - 17 40 1057.2 and there remains ... 2397.3 the meridional or enlarged difference of longitude. Geometrically. Draw the line AC, fig. 12, repre- senting the meridian of the Lizard at A; and set off from A, upon that line, AE equal to 1940 (from any scale of equal parts) the proper difference of latitude, also AC equal to 2397.3 (from the same scale) the meri- * dionalor enlarged difference of latitude. Upon the point C raise CB perpendicular to AC, and make CB equal to 4246, the minutes of difference of longitude. Join AB, and through E draw ED parallel to BC: so the case is constructed; and AD applied to the same scale of equal parts the other legs were taken from, will give the direct distance, and the angle EAD measured by the line of chords will give the course. By Calculation. For the angle of the course EAD, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry.) AC :CB ::R: T. BAC, i. e. As the merid. diff. of lat. 2397.3 3.37970 is to the difference of long. 4246.0 3.62798 so is radius - 10.00000 to the tang, of the direct course 60° 33' 10.34828 which, because Port Royal is southward of the Lizard, and the difference of longitude westerly, will be south 60° 33* west, or SW&W \ west nearly. Then for the distance AD, it will be (by rectangular trigonometry), R : AE : : Sec. A : AD, i. e. As the radius - - 10.00000 is to the proper diff. of lat. 1940 3.28780 so is the secant of the course 60° 33' 10.30833 to the distance 3945.6 3.59613 consequently the direct course and distance between the Lizard and Port Royal in Jamaica, is south 60° 33' 3945.6 miles. Case III. Course and distance sailed, given; to find difference of latitude, and difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship from the Lizard in the lati- tude of 50° 0y north, sails south 35° 40' west 156 miles: required the latitude come to, and how much she has al- tered her longitude. Geometrically. 1. Draw the line BK (fig. 13), re- presenting the meridian of the Lizard at B; from B draw the line BM, making with BK an angle equal to 35°40'; and upon this line set off BM equal to 56 the given dis- tance, and from M let fall the perpendicular MK upon BK. Then for BK the proper difference of latitude, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) R : MB : : S. BMK : BK, i. e. As radius - - - 10.00000 is to the distance 156 2.19312 so is the co-sinc of the course 35° 40' 9.90978 to the proper diff. of lat. 127 2.10290 equal to 2° 7'; and since the ship is sailing from a north latitude towards the south, therefore the latitude come to will be 47° 53' north. Hence the meridional differ- ence of latitude will be 193.4. 2. Produce BK to D, till BD is equal to 193.4; through D draw DL parallel to MK, meeting BM produced in L; then DL will be the difference of longitude: to find wiiich by calculation, it will he, (by rectangular trigo- nometry,) R : BD : : T. LBD : DL, i. e. As radius - - 10.00000 is to the meridional diff. of lat. 193.4 2.28646 so is the tang, of the course 35° 40' 9.85594 to minutes of diff. of long. 138.8 2.14240 equal to 2° 18' 48", the difference of longitude the ship has made westerly. Case IV. Given course and both latitudes, viz. tbe latitude sailed from, and the latitude come to; to find the distance sailed, and the difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 50° 20' north, sails south 33° 45' east, until by observation she is found to be in the latitude of 51° 45' north: required the distance sailed, and the difference of longitude. Geometrically. Draw AB (fig 14), to represent the meridian of a ship in the first latitude; and set off from A to B 155 the minutes of the proper difference of latitude, also AG equal to 257.9 the minutes of tbe en- larged difference of latitude. Through B and G, draw the lines BC and GK perpendicular to AG; also draw AK, making with AG an angle of 33° 45', which will meet the two former lines in the points C and K; so the case is constructed, and AC and GK may be found from the line of equal parts: to find which, NAVIGATION. By Calculation; First, For the difference of longitude, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) R : AG : : T. GAK : GK, i. e. As radius - . 10.00000 is to the enlarged diff. of lat. 257.2 2:41145 so is the tang, of the course 33° 45' 9.84289 to min. of diff. of longitude 172.3 2.23634 equal to 2° 52' 18", the difference of longitude the ship has made easterly. Tbis might also have been found, by first finding the departure BC (by Case 2. of Plane Sailing), and then it would be AB : BC : : AG : GK, the difference of longitude required. Then, for the direct distance AC, it will be, (by rec- tangular trigonometry,) R : AB :: Sec. A : AC, i. e. As radius - - 10.00000 is to the proper diff. of lat. 155 2.19033 so is the secant ofthe course 33° 45' 10.08015 to the direct distance 186.4 2.27048 consequently the ship has sailed south 33' 45° east 186.4 miles, and has differed her longitude 2° 52' 18" easterly. Case V. Both latitudes and distances sailed, given; to find the direct course, and difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship from the latitude of 45c 26' north, sails between north and east 195 miles, and then by observation she is found to be in the latitude of 48° 6' north: required the direct course, and difference of longitude. Geometrically. Draw AB (fig. 15), equal to 160, the proper difference of latitude, and from the point B raise the perpendicular BD; then take 195 in your com- passes, and setting one foot of them in A, with the other cross the line BD in D. Produce AB, till AC is equal to 233.6 the enlarged difference of latitude. Through C draw CK parallel to BD, meeting AD produced in K: so the case is constructed; and the angle A may be mea- sured by the line of chords, and CK by the line of equal parts: to find which, By Calculation; First, For the angle of the course BAD, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) AB : ft :: AD : Sec. A. i. e. As the proper diff. of lat. 160 2.20412 is to radius - - - 10.00000 so is the distance - 195 2.29003 to the secant of the course 34° 52' 10.08591 which, because the ship is sailing between north and east, will be north 34<> 52' east, or NE6N 1° 7' easterly. Then, for the difference of longitude, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) R : AC :: T. A : CK, i.e. As radius - - 10.00000 is to the merid. diff. of lat. 233.6 2.36847 so is the tang, ofthe course 34° 52' 9.84307 to min. of diff. of longitude 162.8 2.21154 equal to 2° 42' 48", the difference of longitude easterly. Case VI. One latitude, course, and difference of longitude, given; to find the other latitude and distance sau,ed. „ it , ... , Example. Suppose a ship from the lat.tijde of 48- 50' north, sails south 34° 40' west, till her difference of longitude is 2° 42': required the latitude come to, and the distance sailed. Geometrically, l. Draw AE (fig. 16), to represent the meridian ofthe ship in the first latitude, and make the angle E AC equal to 34° 40', the angle of the course; then draw FC parallel to AE, at the distance of 164 the minutes of difference of longitude, which will meet AC in the point C. From C let fall upon AE the perpendic- ular CE; then AE will be the enlarged difference of latitude. To find which, by calculation, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) T. A : R : : CE : AE, i. e. As the tang, of the course 34° 40' 9.83984 is to the radius - - 10.00000 so is min. of diff. longitude 164 2.21484 to the enlarged diff. of latitude 237.2 2.37500 and because the ship is sailing from a north lati- tude southerly, therefore From the merid. parts of 1 the latitude sailed from j 48 50 S566'9 0 take the merid. difference of latitude 237.2 and there remains - - 3129.7 the meridional parts ofthe latitude come to, viz. 46° 09'. Hence, for the proper difference of latitude, From the latitude sailed from 48°. 50' N take the latitude come to 46 09 N and there remains - - 2 41 equal to 161, the minutes of difference of latitude. 2. Set off upon AE the length AD equal to 161 the proper difference of latitude, and through D draw DH parallel to CE: then AB will be the direct distance. To find which, by calculation, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) R : AD : : Sec. A : AB. f. e. As radius - 10.00000 is to the proper diff. of lat. 161 2.20683 so is the secant ofthe course 34° 40' 10.08488 to the direct distance - 195.8 2.29171 Case VII. One latitude, course, and departure, given; to find the other latitude, distance sailed, and difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship sails from the latitude of 54, 36' north, south 42° 33' east, until she has made of de- parture 116 miles: required the latitude she is in, her direct distance sailed, and how much she has altered her longitude. Geometrically. 1. Having drawn the meridian AB (fig. 17), make the angle BAD equal to 42° 33'. Draw FD parallel to AB at the distance of 116, which will meet AD in D. Let fall upon AB the perpendicular DB. Then AB will be the proper difference of latitude, and AD the direct distance: to find which by calculation, first, for the distance AD it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) S. A : BD : : R : AD. i. e. As tbe sine ofthe course 42° 53' 9.83010 is to the departure - 116 2.06446 so is radius - - - 10.00000 to the direct distance 171.5 2.23436 Then, for the proper difference of latitude, it will be (by rectangular trigonometry,) ' NAVIGATION. T. A : BD :: R: AB. i. e. As the tang, oftlic course 42° 33' 9.96281 is to the departure - 116 2.06446 so is radius ... 10.00000 to the proper diff. of latitude 126.4 2.10165 equal to 2° 6': consequently the ship has come to the lati- tude of 52° 30' north; and so the meridional difference of lititude will be 212.2. 2. Produce AB to E, till AE be equal to 212.2; and through E draw EC parallel to BD, meeting AD pro- duced in C; then EC will be the difference of ^longitude; to find which by calculation, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) R : AE :: T. A : EC. i. e. As radius - - 10.00000 is to the merid. diff. of lat. 212.2 2.32675 so is the tang, of the course 42° 33' 9-96281 to the min. of diff. of long. 194.3 2.28956 equal to 3° 14' 48", the difference of longitude easterly. This might have been found otherwise, thus: because the triangles ACE, ADB, are similar; therefore iUw ill be * AB : BD :: AE : EC. t. c. As the proper diff. of lat. 126.4 2.10165 is to the departure - 116 2.06446 so is the enlarged diff. of lat. 212*2 2.32675 to min. of diff. of longitude 194.8 2.28956 Case VIII. Both latitudes and departure given; to find course, distance, and difference of longitude. Example. Suppose a ship from the I atitude of 46° 20' N. sails between south and west, till she has made of de- parture 126.4 miles; and is then found by observation to be in the latitude of 43° 35' north: required the course and distance sailed, and difference of longitude. Geometrically. Draw AK (fig. 18), to represent the meridian of the ship in her first latitude; set off upon it AC, equal to 165, the proper difference of lati- tude. Draw BC perpendicular to AC, equal to 126.4 the departure, and join AB. Set off from A, AK equal to 233.3, the enlarged difference of latitude; and through K draw KD parallel to BC, meeting AB pro- duced in D; so tlie case is constructed, and DK will bo the difference of longitude, AB the distance, and the angle A the course; to find which, By Calculation; First, For DK the difference of longitude, it will be, AC : CB :: AK : KD. .. e. As the proper diff. of lat. 165 2.21748 is to the departure - 126.4 2.10175 so is the enlarged diff. of lat. 233.3 2.36791 to min. of diff. of longitude 178.7 2.25218 equal to 2° 58' 42" the difference of longitude westerly. Then, for the course it will be, (by rectangular tri- gonometry.) AC : BC :: R c. As the proper diff. of lat. T. A. 165 446.1 2.21748 2.10175 10.00000 9.88427 which, because the ship sails between south and west, will be south 37° 27' west, or SW6S 6° 30' westerly. Lastly, For the distance AB, it will be, (by rectangu- lar trigonometry,) is to the departure so is radius to the tang, of the course 37° 27' S, A : BC : : R : AB. i. e, As the sine of the course S7° 27' 9.78595 is to the departure - 126.4 2.10175 so is radius - 10.00000 to the direct distance - .207.9 2.31780 Case IX. One latitude, distance sailed? and departure, given; to find the other latitude, difference of longitude, and course. Exampilc. Suppose a ship in the latitude of 48° 53' north, sails between south and east 138 miles, and has then made of departure 112.6: required the latitude come to, the direct course, and difference c'longitude. Geometrically. 1. Draw BD (fig. 19) for the meri- dian of the ship at B; and parallel to it draw FE, at the distance of 112.6, the departure. Take 138, the distance, in your compasses, and fixing one point of them in B, with the other cross the line FE in the point E; then join B and E, and from E let fall upon BD the perpen- dicular ED; so BD will be the proper difference of lati- tude, and the angle B will be the course; to find which by calculation, First, For the course it will be, (by rectangular tri- gonometry,) ' BE : R : : DE : S. B. i. e. As the distance - 138 2.13988 is to radius - 10.00000 so is the departure - 112.6 2.05154 to the sine of the course 54° 41' 9.91166 which, because the ship sails between south and cast, will be south 54° 41' east, or SE 0° 41' easterly. Then, for the difference of latitude, it will be, (by rectangular trigonometry,) R : BE : : Co. S. B : BD. i. e. As radius - - 10.00000 is to the distance - 138 2.13988 so is the co-sine of the course 54° 41' 9.76200 to the difference of latitude 79.8 1.90188 equal to 1° 19'. Consequently the ship has come to the latitude of 475 13. Hence the meridional difference of latitude will be 117.7. 2dly. Produce B to A, till BA is equal to 117.7; and through A draw AC parallel to DE, meeting BE pro- duced in C; then AC will be the difference oflongitudc; to find which by calculation, it will bci, BD : DE :: BA : AC. i. e. As the proper diff. of lat. 79.8 1.90180 is to the departure - 112.6 2.05154 so is the enlarged diff. of lat. 117.7 2.07078 to the diff. of longitude I66.t 2.22044 equal to 2° 46' 06", the difference of longitude easterly. Having shown under the article Maps how to con- struct a Mercator's chart, we shall now proceed to point out in several uses. Prob I. Let it be required to lay down a place upon the chart, its latitude, and the difference of longitude be- tween it and some known place upon the chart being given. Example. Let the known place be the Lizard, lying on the parallel of 50° 00' north, and the place to be laid down St. Katherine's on the east coast of America, dif- fering in longitude from the Lizard 42° 36', lying so much to the westward of it. Let L represent the Lizard on the chart, (fig. 20,) NAVIGATION. lying on the parallel of 50° 00' north, its meridian. Set off AE from E upon the equator EQ 42° 36', towards Q, which will reach from E to F. Through F draw the me- ridian FG, and this will be the meridian of St. Katha- rine's; then setoff from Q to II upon the graduated meri- dian QB, 28 degrees; and througli H draw the parallel of latitude HM, which will meet the former meridian in K, the place upon the chart required. Prob. II. Given two places upon the chart, to find their difference of latitude and difference of longitude. Through the two places draw parallels of latitude; then the distance between these parallels, numbered in degrees and minutes upon the graduated meridian, will be the difference of latitude required; and through the two places drawing meridians, the distance between these, counted in degrees and minutes on the equator, or any graduated parallel, will be the difference of lon- gitude required. Prob. III. To find the bearing of one place from an- other, upon the chart. Example. Required the bearing of St. Katherine's at K, fronrtiie Lizard at L. Draw the meridian of the Lizard AE, and join K and L with the right line KL; then, by the line of chords, mea- suring the angle KLE, and with that entering the tables, we shall have the thing required. This may also be done, by having compasses drawn on the chart (suppose at two of its corners); then lay the edge of a ruler over the two places, and let fall a perpen- dicular, or take the nearest distance from the centre of the compass next the first place, to the ruler's edge; then, with this distance in your compasses, slide them along by the ruler's edge, keeping one foot of them close to the ruler, and the other as near as you can judge perpendicu- lar to it, which will describe the rhumb requred. Prob. IV. To find the distance between two given pla- ces upon the chart. Tbis problem admits of four cases, according to the situation of the two places with respect to one another. Case 1. When the given places lie both upon the equator. In this case their distance is found by converting the degrees of difference of longitude intercepted between thein into minutes. Case II. When the two places lie both on the same meridian. Draw the parallels of those places; and the degrees upon the graduated meridian, intercepted between those parallels, reduced to minutes, give the distance required. CaseUl. When the two places lie on the same parallel. Example. Required to find the distance between the points K and N, both lying on the parallel of 28° 00' north. Take from your scale the chord of 60°, or radius, in your compasses, and with that extent on KN as a base make the isosceles triangle KPN: then take from the line of sines the co-sine of the latitude, or sine of 72° and set that off from P to S and T. Join S and T with the right line ST, and that applied to the graduated ' equator will give the degrees and minutes upon it equal to the distance; which, converted into minutes, will be the distance required. The reason of this is evident from the method of Par- allel Sailine; for it has been there demonstrated, that ra- dius is to the co-sine of any parallel, as the length of any arch on the equator, to the length of the same arch on that parallel. Now, in this chart KN is the distance of the meridians of the two places K and N upon the equa- tor; and since, in the triangle PNK, ST is the parallel to KN, therefore PN : PT : : NK : TS. Consequently TS will be the distance of the two places K and N upon the parallel of 28. If the parallel the two places lie on is not far from tlie equator, and they not far asunder; then their distance may be found thus: Take the distance between them in your compasses and apply that to the graduated meridi- an, so that one foot may be as many minutes above as the other is below the given parallel; and the degrees and minutes intercepted, reduced to minutes, will give the distance. Or it may also be found thus: Take the length of a de- gree on the meridian at the given parallel, and turn that over on the parallel from the one place to the other, as oft as you can; then, as often as that extent is contained between the places, so many times 60 miles will be con- tained in the distance between them. Case IV. When the places differ both in longitude and latitude. Example. Suppose it was required to find the distance between the two places a and e upon the chart. By Prob. II. find the difference of latitude between them; and take that in your compasses from the graduated equator, which set off on the meridian of a, from a to b; then through 6 draw be parallel to de; and taking ac in your compasses, apply it to the graduated equator, and it will show the degrees and minutes contained in the distance required, which multiplied by 60 will give the miles of distance. The reason of this is evident; for it is plain ad is the enlarged difference of latitude, and ab the proper; con- sequently ae is the enlarged distance, and ac the proper. Prob. V. To lay down a place upon the chart, its lati- tude and bearing from some known place upon the chart being known; or, (which is the same) having the course and difference of latitude that a ship has made, to lay down the running of the ship, and find her place upon the chart. Example. A ship from the Lizard in the latitude of 50° 00' north, sails SSW till she has differed her latitude 36° 40': required her place upon the chart. Count from the Lizard at L, on the graduated meri- dian downwards, (because the course is southerly) 36° 40' to g; through which draw a parallel of latitude, which will be the parallel the ship is in; then from L draw a SSW line If, cutting the former parallel in /, and this will be the ship's place upon the chart. Prob. VI. One latitude, course, and distance sailed, given; to lay down the running of the ship, and find her place upon the chart. Example. Suppose a ship at a in the latitude of 20° 00' north, sails north 37° 20', cast 191 miles: required the ship's place upon the chart. Having drawn the meridian and parallel of the place a, set off the rhumb-line ae. making with ab an angle of 37° 20'; and upon it set off 191 from a to c; through c draw the parallel ch; and taking ab in your compasses, apply it to the graduated equator, and observe the num- ber of degrees it contains; then count the same number NAVIGATION. of degrees on the graduated meridian from C to ft, and through ft draw the parallel he, which will cut ac pro- duced in the point e, the ship's place required. Prob. VII. Both latitudes and distance sailed given; to find the ship's place upon the chart. Example. Suppose a ship sails from a, in the latitude of 20° 00' north, between north and east 191 miles, and is then in the latitude of 45° 00' north: required the ship's place upon the chart. Draw de the parallel of 45°, and set off upon the me- ridian of a upwards, ab equal to the proper difference of latitude taken from the equator or graduated parallel. Through b draw be parallel to de; then, with 191 in your compasses, fixing one foot of them in a, with the other cross be in c. Join a in c with the right line ac; which produced will meet de in e, the ship's place required. Prob. VIII. One latitude, course, and difference of longitude, given; to find the ship's place upon the chart. Example. Suppose a ship from the Lizard in the lati- tude of 50° 00' north, sails SW6W, till her difference of longitude is 42° 36'; required the ship's place upon the chart. Having drawn AE the meridian of the Lizard at L, count from E to F upon the equator 42° 36'; and through F draw the meridian EG; then from L draw the SWoW like LK, and where this meets FG, as at K, will be the ship's place required. Prob. IX. One latitude, course, and departure, given; to find the ship's place upon the chart. Example. Suppose a ship at a in the latitude of 20° 00' north, sails north 37° 20' east, till she has made of departure 116 miles: required the ship's place upon the chart. Having drawn the meridian of a, at the distance of 116 draw parallel to it the meridian kl. Draw the rhumb-line ac which will meet kl in some point c; then through c draw the parallel cb, and itb will be the proper difference of latitude, and be the departure. Take aft in your compasses, and apply it to the equator or gra- duated parallel; then observe the number of degrees it contains, and count so many on the graduated meridian from C upwards to h. Through ft draw the parallel he, which will meet ac produced in some point as e, which is the ship*s place upon the chart. Prob. X. One latitude, distance, and departure, given; to find the ship's place upon the chart. Example. Suppose a ship at a in the latitude of 20° 00' north, sails 191 miles between north and east, and then is found to have made of departure 116 miles: re- quired the ship's place upon the chart. Having drawn the meridian and parallel of the place a, set off'upon the parallel am equal to 116, and through m draw the meridian kl. Take the given distance 191 in your compasses; setting one foot of them in a, with the other cross kl in c. Join ac, and through c draw the parallel cb; so eft will be the departure, and ab the proper difference of latitude; then proceeding with this as in the foregoing problem, you will find the ship's place to be e. Prob. XI. The latitude sailed from, difference of latitude, and departure, given; to find the ship's place upon the chart. Example. Suppose a ship from a in the latitude of 20° 00' north, sails between north and east, till she is in the latitude of 45° 00' north, and is then found to have made of departure 116 miles: required the ship's place upon the chart. Having drawn the meridian of a, set off upon it, from a to b, 25 degrees, (taken from the equator or graduated parallel) the proper difference of latitude; then through b draw the parallel be, and make be aqual to 116 the de- parture, and join ac. Count from the parallel of a on the graduated meridian upwards to d 25 degrees, and through d draw the parallel dc, wiiich will meet ac pro- duced in some point e, and this will be the place of the ship required. In the article of Plane Sailing, it is evident that the terms meridional distance, departure, and difference of longitude, were synonimous, constantly signifying the same thing; wiiich evidently followed from the sup- position of the earth's surface being projected on a plane in which the meridians were made parallel, and the de- grees of latitude equal to one another and to those of the equator. But since it has been demonstrated, that if, in the projection of the earth's surface upon a plane, the meridians are made parallel, the degrees of latitude must be unequal, still increasing the nearer they come to the pole; it follows, that these terms must denote lines really different from one another. Of Oblique Sailing. The questions that may be pro- posed on this bead being innumerable, we shall only give one as a specimen. Coasting along the shore, I saw a cape bear from me NNE: then I stood away NW6W 20 miles, and I ob- served the same cape to bear from me NEftE: required the distance of the ship from the cape at each station. Geometrically. Draw the circle NW SE (figure 21,) to represent the compass, NS the meridian, and WE the east and west line, and letC be the place ofthe ship in her first station; then from C set off upon the NW6W line, CA 20 miles, and A will be the place of the ship in her second station. From C draw the NNE, line CB, and from A draw AB parallel to the NE6E line CD, which will meet CB in B, the place ofthe cape, and CB will be the distance of it from the ship in its first station, and AB the dis- tance in the second: to find which, By Calculation; In the triangle ABC are given AC, equal to 20 miles; the angle ACB, equal to 78° 45', the distance between the NNE and NW6W lines; also the angle ABC equal to BCD, equal to 33° 45', the distance between the NNE and NE6E lines; and consequently the angle A, equal to 67c 30'. Hence, for CB, the distance of the cape from the ship in her first station, it will be, (by oblique tri- gonometry,) S. ABC : AC :: S. BAC : CB. i. e. As the sine of the angle B 33° 45' 9.74473 is to the distance run AC 20 — 1.30163 so is the sine of BAC - 67 SO 9.96562 to CB - - - 33. 26 1.52191 the distance of the cape from the ship at the first sta- tion. Then for AB, it will be, (by oblique trigono- metry,) NAVIGATION. S. ABC : AC :: S. ACB . AB. i. c. As the sine of B - 33° 45' 9.74474 is to AC - - 20 — 1.30103 so is the sine of C - 78 45 9.99157 tpAB - - - 35.31 1.54786 the distance of the ship from the cape at her second station. Of Vie Log-line and Compass. The method commonly made use of for measuring a ship's way at sea, or how far she runs in a given space of time, is by the log-line and half-minute glass. See the article Log. The log is generally about a quarter of an inch thick, and five or six inches from the angular point to the cir- cumference. It is balanced by a thin plate of lead, nailed upon the arch, so as to swim perpendicularly in the water, with about § impressed under the surface. The line is fastened to tbe log by means of two legs, one of which passes through a hole at the corner and is knotted on the opposite side; while the other leg is attached to the arch by a pin fixed in another hole, so as to draw out occasionally. By these legs the log is hung in equi- librio; and the line which is united to it, is divided into certain spaces, which arc in proportion to an equal num- ber of geographical miles, as a half-minute or quarter- minute is to an hour of time. These spaces are called knots, because at the end of each of them there is a piece of twine with knots in it, inreeved between the strands of the line, which shows how many of these spaces or knots arc run out during the half-minute. They commonly begin to be counted at the distance of about 10 fathoms or 60 feet from the log, so that the log when it is hove overboard may be out of the eddy of the ship's wake before they begin to count; and for the more ready discovery of this point of com- mencement, there is commonly fastened at it a piece of red rag. The log being thus prepared, and hove overboard from ihe poop, and the line veered out by help of a reel that turns easily, and about which it is wound as fast as the log will carry it away, or rather as the ship sails from it, will show, according to the time of veering, how far the ship has run in a given time, and consequently her rate of sailing. A degree of a meridian accordingto the exactest mea- sures contains about 69.^45 English miles: and each mile by the statute being 5280 feet, therefore a degree of the meridian vviil be about 7200 feet; whence the ^ of that, viz. a minute or nautical mile, must contain 6120 stan- dard feet; consequently, since £ is the Ti7 part of an hour, and each knot is the same part of a nautical mile, it follows, that each knot will contain theTiff of 6120 feet, viz. 51 feet. Hence it is evident, that whatever number of knots the ship runs in half a minute, the same number of miles she uill run in an hour, supposing her to run with the same degree of velocity during that time; and therefore it is the general way to heave the log every hour, to know her late of sailing: but if the force or direction of the wind varies, and docs not continue the same during the whole liour; or if there has been more sail set. or any sail handed, so that the ship has run swifter or slower in any part of the hour than she did at the time of heaving the log; then there must be an allowance made accordingly vol. ii. 105 for it, and this must be according to the discretion ot the artist. Sometimes, when the ship is before the wind, and there is a great sea setting after her, it will bring home tire log, and consequently tiie ship will sail faster ih.in is given by the 1 >g. In this case it is usual, if there is it very great sea, to allow one mile in ten; and less in pro- portion, if the sea is not so great. But for the generality, the ship's way is really greater than that given by t ie log; and therefore, in order to have the reckoning rathiM* before than behind the ship (wiiich is the safest way), ii will be proper to make the space on the log-line between knot and knot to consist of 50 feet instead of 51. If the space between knot and knot on the log-lin > should happen to be too great in proportion to the half- minute glass, viz. greater than 50 feet, then the distance given by the log will be too short; and if that space is too small, then the distance run (given by the log) will be too great: therefore, to find the true distance in either case, having measured the distance between knot and knot, we have the following proportion, viz. As the true distance, 50 feet, is to the measured dis- tance; so are the miles of distance given by the log, to the true distance in miles that the ship has run. Example I. Suppose a ship runs at the rate of 0A knots in half a minute; but measuring the space between knot and knot, 1 lind it to be 56 feet: required the true distance in miles. Making it, As 50 feet, are to 56 feet, so are 6.25 knot-, to seven knots; I find that the true rate of sailing is 7 miles in the hour. Example II. Suppose a ship runs at the rate of 6> knots in half a minute; but measuring the space between knot and knot, 1 find it to be only 44 feet: required tiio true rate the ship is sailing. Making it, As 50 feet are to 44 feet, so are 6.5 kuois to 5.72 knots, I find that the true rate of sailing is 5.72 miles in the hour. Again, supposing the distance between knot and knot on tiie log-line to be exactly 50 feet, but that the glass is not SO seconds; then, if the glass requires longer tiim: than 30 seconds, the distance given will be too great, if estimated by allow ing one mile for every knot run in the. time the glass runs; and, on the contrary, if the g!;;>s requires less time to run than 30 seconds, it will give the distance sailed too small. Consequently, to find tb<*. true distance in either case, we must measure the tinu the glass requires to run out (by the method iu the fal- lowing article); then we have the following prop.»rti ,n, viz. As the number of seconds the glass runs, is to half a minute, or 30 seconds; so is the distance given by the log, to the true distance. Example I. Suppose a ship runs at the rate of 71 knots in the time the glass runs; but measuring the glass, I find it runs 34 seconds; required the true dis- tance sailed. Making it, As 3 4 seconds are to SO seconds, so are 7.5 to 6.6; I find thatthe ship sails at the rate of 6.6 miles an hour. Example, ll. Suppose a ship runs at the rate of C» knots; but measuring- the glass, I lind it runs onlv-'. seconds; required the true rate of s.iiling. NAVIGATION. Make it, as 25 seconds are to 30 seconds, so are 6.5 knots to 7.8 knots; I find that the true rate of sailing is 7.8 miles an hour. In order to know how many seconds the glass runs, you may try it by a watch or clock that vibrates seconds; but if neither of these is at hand, then take a line, and to the one end fastening a plummet, hang the other upon a nail or peg so that the distance from the peg to the cen- tre of the plummet is 39J- inches; then this put into mo- tion will vibrate seconds; i. e. every time it passes the perpendicular, you are to count one second; consequent- ly, by observing the number of vibrations that it makes during the time the glass is running, we know how many seconds the glass runs. If there is an error both in the log-line and half- minute glass, viz. if the distance between knot and knot and the log-line is either greater or less than 50 feet, and the glass runs either more or less than SO seconds; then the finding out the ship's true distance will be somewhat more complicate, and admit of three cases, viz. Case I. If the glass runs more than 30 seconds, and the distance between knot and knot is less than 50 feet, then the distance given by the log-line, viz. by allowing 1 mile for each knot the ship sails while the glass is run- ning, will always be greater than the true distance, since eitlier of these errors gives the distance too great. Con- sequently, to find the true rate of sailing in this case, we must first find the distance on the supposition that the Io" line only is wrong, and then with this wc shall find the true distance. Examvle. Suppose a ship is found to run at the rate of 6 knots; but examining the glass, I find it runs 35 seconds; and measuring the log-linr, I find the distance iietwve-i knot and knot to be but 46 feet: required the true distance run. First, wc have the following proportion, viz. As 50 feet : 46 : : 6 knots : 5.52 knots. Then, As 35 seconds: 30 seconds : : 5.52 knots : 4.73 knots. Consequently the true rate of sailing is 4.73 miles an hour. Cuse II. If the glass is less than 30 seconds, and the space between knot and knot is more than 50 feet; then the distance given by the log will always be less than the lrue distance, since either of these errors lessens that true distance. Example. Suppose a ship is found to run at the rate of 7 knots; but examining the glass, 1 find it runs only <\5 s< c >uds; and measuring the space between knot and knot on the log-line, I find it is 54 feet: required the true rate of sailing. First, \.s 25 seconds : 30 seconds : : 7 knots: 8 knots. Then, as 50 feet : 54 feet: : 8.4 knots : 9.072 knots. Consequently the true rate of sailing is 9.072 miles an '^Case HI. If the glass runs more than 30 seconds, and the space between knot and knot is greater than 50 feet; or if the glass runs less than 30 seconds, and the space between knot and knot is greater than 50 feet: then, since in cither of these two cases the effects of the errors are contrarv, it is plain the distance will sometimes be too great, "and sometimes too little, according as the greater quantity of the error lies; as will be evident "from the follow ing examples: Example I. Suppose A ship is found to run at the rate of 9* knots per glass; but examining the glass, it is found to run 36 seconds; and by measuring the space between knot and knot, it is found to be 58 feet; required the true rate of sailing. First, As 50 feet : 58 feet : : 9.5 knots : 11.20 knots. Then, As 38 seconds : 30 seconds : : 11.02 knots : 8.7 knots. Consequently the ship's true rate of sailing is 8.7 miles an hour. Example II. Suppose a ship runs at the rate of 6 knots per glass; but examining the glass, it is found to run only 20 seconds; and by measuring the log-line, the dis- tance between knot and knot is found to be but 38 feet: required the true rate of sailing. First, As 50 feet : 38 feet :: 6 knots : 4.56 knots. Then, As 20 seconds : 30 seconds : : 4.56 knots : 6.84 knots. Consequently the true rate of sailing is 6.83 miles an hour. But if in tbis case it happens, that the time the glass takes to run, is to the distance between knot and knot, as 30, tlie seconds in half a minute, is to 50, the true dis- tance between knot and knot; then it is plain, that what- ever number of seconds the glass consists of, and what- ever number of feet is contained between knot and knot, yet the distance given by the log-line will be the true distance in miles. The meridian and prime vertical of any place cuts the horizon in four points, at 90 degrees distance from one another, viz. North, South, East, and West: that part of the meridian which extends itself from the place to the north point of the horizon is called the north line; that which tends to the south point of the horizon is call- ed the south line; and that, part of the prime vertical wiiich extends towards the right hand of the observer when his face is turned to the north, is called the east- line; and lastly, that part of the prime vertical which tends towards the left hand is called the west line; the four points in which these lines meet the horizon are call- ed the cardinal points. Iu order to determine the course of the wind and to discover the various alterations or sliiftings, each quad- rant of the horizon, intercepted between the meridian and prime vertical, is usually divided into eight equal parts, and consequently the whole horizon into thirty- two; and the lines drawn from the place on which tho observer stands, to the points of division in his horizon, are called rhumb-lines; the four principal of which are those described in the preceding paragraph, each of them having its name from the cardinal point in the horizon towards which it tends: the rest ofthe rhumb-lines have their names compounded of the principal lines on each side of them, as in the figure; and over whichsoever of these lines the course of the wind is directed, that wind takes its name accordingly. See Magnetism. Hence it follows, that all rhumbs, except the four car- dinals, must be curves or hemispherical lines, always tending towards the pole, and approaching it by infinite gvrations or turnings, but never falling into it. Thus let V, Plate XCIV. Miscel. fig. 172, be the pole, EQ an arch of the equator, PE, PA, Ate. meridians, and EFG HKL any rhumb: then because the angles PEF, PFU, kc are by the nature of the rhumb-line equal, it is evi- dent that it will form a curve-line on the surface of the NAVIGATION globe always approaching the pole P, but never falling into it; for if it were possible for it to fall into the pole, then it would follow, that the same line could cut an infi- nite number of other lines at equal angles, in the same point; which is absurd. Because there are 32 rhumbs or points in the compass equally distant from one another, therefore the angle contained between any two of them adjacent will be 11° 15', viz. TV Part of 360°; and so the angle contained be- tween the meridian and the N6E will be 11° 15' and be- tween the meridian and the NNE will be 22° 30'; and so of the rest. See Table of the angles, &c. at the begin- ning of the article. Concerning currents, and how to make proper allow- ances. 1. Currents are certain settings of the stream, by whicli all bodies (as ships, &c.) moving therein, are com- pelled to alter their course or velocity, ©r both; and submit to the motion impressed upon them by the current. Case I. If the current sets just the course of the ship, i.e. moves on the same rhumb with it; then the motion of the ship is increased, by as much as is the drift or velocity of the current. Example. Suppose a ship sails SE6S at the rate of 6 miles an hour, in a current that sets SE6S 2 miles an hour: required her true rate of sailing. Here it is evident that the ship's true rate of sailing will be 8 miles an hour. . Case II. If the current sets directly against the ship's course, then the motion of the ship is lessened by as much as is the velocity of the current. Example. Suppose a ship sails SSW at the rate of 10 miles an hour, in a current that sets NNE 6 miles an hour, required the ship's true rate of sailing. Here it is evident, that the ship's true rate of sailing will be 4 miles an hour. Hence it is plain, 1. If the velocity of the current is less than the velo- city of the ship, then the ship will get so much ahead as is the difference of these velocities. 2. If the velocity of tlie current is greater than that of tbe ship, then the ship will fall so much astern as is the difference of these velocities. 3. Lastly, if the velocity of the current is equal to that of the ship, then the ship will stand still, the one velocity destroying the other. Case HI. If the current thwarts the course of the ship, then it not only lessens or augments her velocity, but gives her a new direction, compounded of the course she steers and the setting of the current. The method of keeping a journal at sea, and how to cor- rect it; by making proper allowance for the lee-way, va- riation, &c. 1. Lee-way is the angle that the rhuinb- line, upon which the ship endeavours to sail, makes with tbe rhumb she really sails upon. This is occasioned by the force of the wind or surge of the sea, when she lies to the windward, or is close hauled, which causes her to fall off and glide sideways from the point of the compass she capes at. Thus let NESW (fig. 22.) represent tbe com- pass; and suppose a ship at C capes at, or endeavours to sail upon, the rhumb C«; but by the force of the wind, and surge of the sea, she is obliged to fall off, and make her way good upon the rhumb t'b; then the angle aCb is the lee-Way; and if that angle is equal to one point, the hip is said to make one point lee-way: and if equal Io two points, the ship is said to make two points lee- way, kc. 2. The quantity of this angle is very uncertain, be- cause some ships,, with the same quantity of sail, and ivith the same gale, will make more lee-way than others: Mt depending much upon the mould and trim of the ship, and the quantity of vv ater that she draws. The common allowances that are generally made for the lee-way, are as follow: (I.) If a ship is close hauled, has all her sails set, the water smooth, and a moderate gale of wind, she is then supposed to make little or no lee-way. (2.) If it blows so fresh as to cause the small sails to be handed, it is usual to ailovv one point. (3.) If it blows so hard that the top-sails imist be close-reefed, then the common al- lowance is two points for lee-way. (4.) If one top-sail must be handed, then the ship is supposed to make be- tween two and three points lee-way. (5.) When botii top-sails must be handed, then the allowance is about four points for lee-way. (6.) If it blows so hard as to occasion the fore-course to be handed, the allowance is between 5\ and 6 points. (7.) When both main and fore- courses must be handed, then 6 or 6± points are com- monly allowed for lee-way. (8.) When the mizen is handed, and the ship is trying ahull, she is then com- monly allowed about 7 points for lee-way. 3. Though these rules are such as are generally made use of, yet since the lee-way depends much upon the mould and trim of the ship, it is evident that they can- not exactly serve to every ship; and therefore the best way is to find it by observation. Thus, let the ship's wake be set by a compass in the poop, and tbe opposite rhumb is the true course made good by the ship; then the difference between this and the course given by the com- pass in the binnacle, is the lee-way required. If the. ship is within sight of land, then the lee-way may be exactly found by observing a point on the land which continues to bear the same way; and the distance be- tween the point of the compass it lies upon, and the point the ship capes at, will be the lee-way. Thus, sup- pose a ship at C is lying up X&W (fig. 23.) towards A; but instead of keeping that course, she is carried on the NNE line CB, and consequently the point B continues to bear the same way from the ship; here it is evident that tlie angle ACB (or the distance between the NiW line that the ship capes at, and the NNE line that the ship really sails upon) will be the lee-way. 4. Having the course steered and the lee-way given, we may from thence find the true course by the followin"* method, viz. Let your face be turned directly to the windward; and if the ship has her larboard tacks on board, count the lce-vvay from the course steered to- wards the right band; but if the starboard tacks are on board, then count it from the course steered towards the left hand. Thus, suppose the wind at north, and the ship lies up within six points of the wind, with her lar- board tacks on board, making one point lee-wav here it Ls plain that the course steered is ENE. and the true course E6N: also suppose the wind is at NXW, and the ship lies up within 6] points of the wind, with her star board tack on board, making i» p„jnt lee-wav it' is evident that the true course, iu this case, is WSW ' NAVIGATION. >. We have this general rule for finding the ship's true course, having the course steered and the variation given, viz. Let your face be turned towards the point of the compass upon wiiich the ship is steered; and if the varia- tion is easterly, count the quantity of it from the course sleered towards the right hand, but if westerly towards the left hand; and the course thus found is the true cours^ fiteercd. Thus, suppose the course steered is N6E, and the variation one point easterly, then the true course steered will be NNE; also suppose the course steered is NEftE, and the variation one point westerly, then in this case the true course will be NE: and so of others. Hence, by knowing the lee-way, variation, and course steered, we may from thence find the ship's true course; but if there is a current under foot, then that must be tried, and proper allowances made for it, as has been shown in the section concerning currents, from thence to find the true course. 6. After making all the proper allowances for finding the ship's true course, and making as just an estimate of the distance as we can; yet by reason of the many acci- dents that attend a ship in a day's running, such as dif- ferent rates of sailing between the times of heaving the log, the wrant of due care at the helm by not keeping her steady but suffering her to yaw and fall off, sudden storms when no account can be kept, &c the latitude by account frequently differs from the latitude by observa- tion; and when that happens, itis evident there must be somceiror in the reckoning: to discover which, and where it lies, and also how to correct the reckoning, you may observe the following rules: 1st. If the ship sails near the meridian, or within 2 or 2-V points thereof, then if the latitude by account disagrees with the latitude by observation, it is most likely that the error lies in the distance run; for it is plain, that in this case it will require a very sensible error in the course to make any considerable error in the difference of lati- tude, which cannot well happen if due care is taken at the helm, and proper allowances arc made for the ice- way, variation, and currents. Consequently, if the course is pretty near the truth, and the error in the dis- tance runs regularly through the whole, we may, from the latitude obtained by observation, correct the distance and departure by account, by the follow ing analogies, viz. As the difference of latitude by account is to the true difference of latitude, So is the departure by account to the true departure, And so is the direct distance by account to the true direct distance. The reason of this is plain; for let AB, fig. 24, denote the meridian ofthe ship at A: and suppose the ship sails upon the rhumb AE near the meridian, till by account she is found in C, and consequently her difference of la- titude by account is AB; but by observation she is found in the parallel ED, and so her true difference of latitude is A I), her true distance AE, and her true departure DE: then, since the triangles ABC, ADE, are similar, it will be AB : AD :: BC : DE, and AB : AD :: AC : AE. Example. Suppose a ship from the latitude of 45° 20' north, after having sailed upon several courses near the meridian for 24 hours, her difference of latitude is com- puted to be upon the whole 95 miles southerly, and her departure 34 miles easterly; but by observation she is found to be in the latitude of 43° lb' north, and conse- quently her true difference of latitude is 130 miles south- erly; then for the true departure, it will be, As the dif- ference of latitude by account 95, is to the true difference of latitude 130, so is the departure by account 34, to tbe true departure 46.52, and so is the distance by account 100.9, to the true distance 138. 2dly, If the courses are for the most part near the pa- rallel of east and west, and the direct course is within 5| or 6 points ofthe meridian; then if the latitude by account differs from the observed latitude, it is most probable that the error lies in the course or distance, or perhaps both; for in this case it is evident, the departure by ac- count will be very nearly true; and thence by the help of this, and the true difference of latitude, may the true course and direct distance be readily found by case 4. of plane sailing. The form of the log-book and journal, together with an example of a day's work, are here subjoined. To express the days of the week, we commonly use the characters by wiiich the sun and planets are expres- sed, viz. O denotes Sunday, 5 Monday, I Tuesday, $ Wednesday, if. Thursday, ? Friday, ^ Saturday. The Form of the Log-Book, with the Manner of work- ing Days' Works at Sea. Tin ; Loot iOOK. H. K. iK Courses. Winds Observations and Acci-dents, c ---- Day of l 2 3 North Fair weather: at four this afternoon I took my departure from the Li- 4 5 6 7 SW6W N6E 5° 00' north, it bearing NNE, distance five leagues. 7 8 9 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 8 8 8 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 10 11 12 SSW E6S The gale increasing and being under all our 1 2 3 S W b w NNE After three this morn-ing, frequent showers with tliick weather till near noon. 4 5 6 "7 8 9 sw ENE The variation I reck-on to be one point west-erly. 10 11 12 9 8 8 1 SW|W NE6E N A U N E C The Log-Book. ■ses Correct. Dist. Did N. f. Lat. Diff. E. Long. S. W. S SW 50 46.2 29.4 S6W 19 18.6 5.5 SW 49 29.7 45.5 SW6 S 24.5 20.2 20.0 SW |S 25.5 19.5 19.5 144.2 125.0 Hence the ship, by account, has come to the latitude of 47° 46' north, and has differed her longitude 2° 5' westerly; so this day I have made my way good S. 31° Si' W. distance 157.4 miles. At noon the Lizard bore from me N. 31° 31' E. dis- tance 157.4 miles: and having observed the latitude, I found it agreed with the latitude by account. We have under the article Longitude shown the method of finding the longitude at sea by means of time- keepers. For the method of doing the same by lunar observations, we refer to the Nautical Almanac, and the tables that accompany it. NAUTILUS, in zoology, a genus belonging to the order of vermes testaceje. The shell consists of one spiral valve, divided into several apartments by parti- tions. There are 17 species, chiefly distinguished by particularities in their shells. The most remarkable division of the nautili is into the thin and thick-shelled kinds. The first is called nautilus papyraceus; and its shell is indeed no thicker than a piece of paper wiien out of the water. This spe- cies is not at all fastened to its shell; but there is an opinion, as old as the days of Pliny, that this creature creeps out of its shell, and goes on shore to feed. When this species is to sail, it expands two of its arms on high, and between these supports a membrane which it throws out on this occasion; this serves for is sail: and the two other arms it hangs out of its shell, to serve occasionally either as oars or as a steerage; but this last office is generally served by the tail. When the sea is calm, it is common to see numbers of these creatures diverting themselves in this manner; but as soon as a storm rises, or any thing gives them disturbance, they draw in their legs, and take in as much water as makes them specifi- cally heavier than that in which they float; and they sink to the bottom. When they rise again, they void this water by a number of holes, of which their legs are full. The other nautilus, whose shell is tliick, never quits that habitation. This shell is divided into 40 or more parti- titions, which grow smaller and smaller as they approach the extremity or centre of the shell; between every one of these cells and the adjoining ones, there is a commu- nication by means of a hole in'tlic centre of every one of the partitions. Through this hole there runs a pipe ofthe whole length ofthe shell. It is supposed by many, that by means of this pipe tb<5 fish occasionally passes from one cell to another; but this seems by no means proba- ble, as the fish must undoubtedly be crushed to death by passing througli it. It is much more likely that the fish always occupies the largest chamber in its shell,- that is, that it lives in the cavity between the mouth and the first partition, and that it never removes out of this. but that all the apparatus of cells and a pipe of commu- nication, which we so much admire, serves only to admit occasionally air or water into the shell, in such propor tions as may serve the creature in its intentions of swim- ming. Some authors call this shell the concha margaritifera; but this can be only on account of the fine colour on its inside, which is more beautiful than any other mother- of-pearl; for it has not been observed that this species of fish ever produced pearls. It must be observed, that the polypus is by no means to be confounded with the paper- shelled nautilus, notwithstanding the great resemblance in the arms and body of the inclosed fish; nor is the cornu ammonis, so frequently found fossil, to be con- founded with the thick-shelled nautilus, though the con- camerations and general structure of the shell are alike in both; for there are great and essential differences be- tween all these genera. NAZARITES, among the Jews, persons who either of themselves, or by their parents, were dedicated to tbe observation of Nazariteship. They were of two sorts, namely, such as were bound to this observance for only a short time, as a week or month; and those who were bound to it all their lives. All that we find peculiar in the latter's way of life is, that they were to abstain from wine and all intoxicating liquors, and never to shave or cut off the hairs of their heads. The first sort of Naza- rites were moreover to avoid all defilement; and if they chanced to contract any pollution before the term was expired, they were obliged to begin afresh. Women as well as men might bind themselves to this vow. NE ADMITTAS, in law, a writ directed to the bishop, at the suit of one that is patron of a church, where, on a quare impedit, kc depending, he is doubt- ful that the bishop will collate his clerk, or admit the other's clerk, during the suit between them. NEAT, or Net-weight, the weight of a commodity alone, clear of the cask, bag, case, or even filth. NEBULOUS, cloudy, in astronomy, a term applied to certain of the fixed stars, which show a dim hazy light, being less than those of the sixth magnitude, and therefore scarce visible to the naked eye. NECESSITY. The law charges no man with default where the act is compulsory, and not voluntary, and where there are not a consent and election; and there- fore if either there is an impossibility for a man to do otherwise, or so great a perturbation of the judgment and reason as in presumption of law man's nature cannot overcome, such necessity carries a privilege in itself. Necessity is of three sorts; necessity of conservation of life, necessity of obedience, and necessity of the act of God, or of a stranger. And first, of conservation of life; if a man steals viands to satisfy his present hunger, this is no felony nor larceny. The second necessity is of obedience; and therefore where baron and feme commit a felony the feme can neither be principal nor accessary, because the law in- tends her to have no will in regard ofthe subjection and obedience she owes her husband. NEE X E V The third necessity is of the act of God, or of a stran- ger; as if a man is particular tenant for years of a house, and it should be overthrown by thunder, lightning, and tempest, in this case, he is excused of waste. Bac.Elem. 25,26,27. NECK. See Anatomy. NECKERIA, a genus ofthe class and order crypto- gamia inusci, but little known. NECTARIUM. See Botany, vol. i. p. 254. NECTRIS, a genus of the hexandria digynia class and order: the calyx is one-leafed, six-parted, coloured; corolla none; styles permanent; caps, two; superior ovate, one-ceiled, many-seeded; there is one species, a native of Guiana. NECYDALIS, a genus of insects belonging to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are setaceous; the elytra are shorter and narrower than the wings; the tail is simple. There arc 11 species, chiefly distinguished by the size and figure of the elytra. NEEDLE, a very common small instrument or uten- sil, made of steel, pointed at one end, and pierced at the other, used in sewing, embroidery, tapestry, kc. Needles make a very considerable article in commerce, though there is scarcely any commodity cheaper, the consumption of them being almost incredible. Tbe sizes are from No. 1. the largest, to No. 25. the smallest. In the manufacture of needles, German and Hungarian steel are of most repute. In the making of them, the first thing is to pass the steel through a coal-fire, and under a hammer, to bring it out of its square figure into a cylindrical one. This done, it is drawn through a large hole of a wiredrawing-iron, and returned into the fire, and dcawn through a second hole of the iron, smaller thau the first, and thus successively, from hole to hole, till it has acquired the degree of fineness re- quired for that species of needles, observing every time it is to be drawn that it is greased over with lard, to ren- der it more manageable. The steel thus reduced to a fine wire, is cut in pieces of the length of the needles intend- ed. These pieces are flatted at one end on the anvil, in order to form the head and eye: they arc then put into the fire to soften them farther, and thence taken out and pierced at each extreme of the flat part on the anvil, by force of a puncheon of well-tempered steel; and laid on a leaden block to bring out, with another puncheon, the little piece of steel remaining in the eye. The comers are then filed oft'the square of the heads, and a little ca- vity filed on each side of the flat of the head; this done, the point is formed with a file, and the whole filed over; they are then laid to heat red-hot on a long flat narrow icon, crooked at one end, in a charcoal-fire, and when taken out, are thrown into a bason of cold water to har- den. On this operation a good deal depends; too much heat burns them, and too little leaves them soft: the me- dium is learned by experience. When they are thus hardened, they are laid in an iron shovel on a fire, more or less brisk in proportion to the thickness of the needles; taking care to move them from time to time. This serves to temper them, and take off their buittleness: great care here too must be taken of the degree of heat. They are then straightened one after another with a hammer, the coldness of the water used in hardening them having twisted the greatest part of them. Tke next process is the polishing them. To do this they take twelve or fifteen thousand needles, and range them in little heaps against each other in a piece of new buckram sprinkled with emery-dust. The needles thus disposed, emery-dust is thrown over them, whicli is again sprinkled with oil of olives: at last the whole is made up into a roll, well bound at both ends. This roll is then laid on a polishing-table; and over it a thick plank loaden with stones, which two men work backwards and forwards a day and a half, or two days, successively; by which means the roll being continually agitated by the weight and motion of the plank over it, the needles withinside being rubbed against each other with oil and emery, are insensibly polished. After polishing they are taken out, and tbe filth washed off them with hot water and soap; they are then wiped in hot bran, a little moistened, placed with the needles in a round box, and suspended in the air by a cord, which is kept stirring till the bran and needles are dry. The needles thus wiped in two or three different brans are taken out and put in wooden vessels, to have the good separated from those whose points or eyes have been broken, either in polishing or wiping; the points are then all turned the same way, and smoothed with an emery-stone turned with a wheel. This operation finishes them, and there remains nothing but to make them into packets of two hundred and fifty each. NE EXEAT REGNO, is a writ to restrain a per- son from going out of the kingdom without the king's licence. Within the realm, the king may command the attend- ance and service of all his liegemen; but he cannot send any man out of the realm, or even upon the public ser- vice, except seamen and soldiers, the nature of whose employment necessarily implies an exception. 1 Black. 138. This writ is now mostly used where a suit is commenc- ed in the court of chancery against a man, and he intend- ing to defeat the other of his just demand, or to avoid the justice and equity ofthe court, is about to go beyond sea, or however, that the duty will be endangered if he goes. If the writ is granted on behalf of a subject, and the party is taken, he cither gives security by bond in such sum as is demanded, or he satisfies the court by answer- ing (where the answer is not already in) or by affidavit, that he intends not to go out of the realm, and gives such reasonable security as the court directs, and then he is discharged. P. R. C. 252. NEGLIGENCE, is where a person neglects or omits to do a thing which he is obliged by law to do. Thus where one has goods of another to keep till such a time, and he has a certain recompence or reward for the keep- ing, he shall stand charged for injury by negligence, &c. NEPA, a genus of insects ofthe order hemeptcra; the generic character is snout inflected; wings four, cross- complicate, coriaceous on the upper part; fore-feet cheli- form, the rest formed for walking. This genus is aqua- tic, inhabiting stagnant waters, and preying on the smal- ler water-insects, &c. The largest species yet known, and which very far surpasses in size all the European animals of the genus, is the nepa«grandis, which is a na- tive of Surinam and other parts of South America, of- ten measuring more than three inches in length. Its colour is a dull yellowish-brown, with a few darker shades N E P of variegations; the under wings are of a semitranspa- rent white colour, and the abdomen is terminated by a short tubular process. Nepa cinerea, or the common water-scorpion, is a very frequent inhabitant of stagnant waters in our own coun- try, measuring about an inch in length, and appearing, when the wings are closed, entirely of a dull brown co- lour; but w hen the wings are expanded, the body appears of a bright red colour above, with a black longitudinal band down the middle; and the lower wings, which are of a fine transparent white, are decorated with red veins: from the tail proceeds a tubular bifid process or style, nearly of the length of the body, and which appears sin- gle on a general view, the two valves of which it consists being generally applied close to each other throughout their whole length. The animal is of slow motion, and is often found creeping about the shallow parts of ponds, kc. In the month of May it deposits its eggs on the soft surface of the mud at the bottom of the water; they are of a singular shape, resembling some of the crowned seeds, having an oval body, and upper part surrounded by seven radiating processes or curved spines; the young, when first batched, are not more than the eighth of an inch in length. The water-scorpion flies only by night, when it wanders about the fields in the neighbourhood of its na- tive waters. The larvae and pupae differ in appearance from the complete insect, in having only the rudiments of wings, and being of a paler or yellower colour. See Plate C: Nat. Hist fig 292. Nepa cimicoides of Linnseus differs materially from the preceding species, and has at first view more the aspect of a notonecta than a nepa, the hind legs being formed for swimming briskly, and furnished with an edging of hairs on the inner side. This insect is less common than the preceding, but is found in similar sit- uations. Nepa linearis is an insect of a highly singular aspect, hearing a distant resemblance to some of the smaller yfisects of the genera mantis and phasma. It measures about an inch and a half from the tip of the snout to the beginning of the abdominal style or process, which is itself of equal length to the former part, and the whole animal is extrenviy slender in proportion to its length; tlie legs also arc long and slender, and the chela? or fore-legs much longer in proportion than those of the second species or nepa (inera; the colour of the animal is dull yellowish-brown; the back, when the wings are expanded, appearing of a brownish-red, and the un- der wings white and transparent. It inhabits the larger kind of stagnant waters, frequenting the shallower parts during tlie middle ofthe day, when it may be observed to prey on the smaller water-insects, kc. Its motions are singular, often striking out all its legs in a kind of starting manner at intervals, and continuing this exer- cise for a considerable time. The eggs are smaller than those ofthe nepa i inerea, of an oval shape, and furnished with two processes or bristles divaricating from the top of each. See Plate C. Nat. Hist. fig. 293. There are 14 species. NEPENTHES, a genus of the tetrandria order, in the gy.utndria cla«s of plants, and in the natural met1... d ranking among those of which the order is doubt..]. The calyx is quadripartite; there is no corolla; the ca;- N E V sule is quadrilocular. There is one species, a plant ol' Ceylon. NEPER's RODS, or Bones, an instrument invented by J. Neper, baron of Merchiston, in Scotland, whereby the multiplication and division of large numbers are much facilitated. Neper's rod, the construction of. Suppose the com- mon table of multiplication to be made upon a plate oi metal, ivory, or pasteboard, and then conceive tbe se- veral columns (standing downwards from the digits on the head) to be cut asunder; and these are what we call Neper's rods for multiplication. But then there must be a good number of each; for as many times as any figure is in the multiplicand, so many rods of that species (£. e. with that figure on the top of it) must we have; though six rods of each species will be sufficient for any exam- ple in common affairs; there must be also as many rods of O's. But before we explain the way of using these rods, there is another thing to be known, viz. that the figures on every rod are written in an order different from that in the table. Thus, the little square space or division in which the several products of every column are written, is divided into two parts by a line across from the upper angle on the right to the lower on the left; and if the product is a digit, it is set in the lower division: if it has two places, the first is set in the lower, and the second in the upper division; but the spaces on the top are not divided. Also there is a rod of digits, not divided, which is called the index-rod; and of this we need but one sin- gle rod. See the figure of all the different rods, and the index, separate from one another, in plate XC1Y. Mis; el. fig. 174. Nupeti's rod, multiplication by. First lay down the index-rod; then on the right of it set the rod whose top is the figure in the highest place of the multiplicand; next to this again set the rod whose top is next the figure of the multiplicand; and so on in order to the first figure. Then is your multiplicand tabulated for all the nine digits; for in the same line of squares standing against every figure ofthe index rod, you have the pro- duct of that figure, and therefore you have no more to do than to transfer the products and sum them. But in taking out these products from the rods, the order in which the figures stand obliges you to a very easy and small addition; thus, begin to take out the figure in the lower part, or unit's place, of the square ofthe first rod on the right; add the figure in the upper part of this rod to that in the lower part of the next, and so on, which may be done as fast as you can look on them. To make this practice as clear as possible, take the following ex- ample. Example: To multiply 4768 by 385. Having set the rods together for the number 4768. against 5 iu the ii•- dex I find this number, by adding according to the rele......- 23840 Against 8 this number - - . 8bIH Against 3 this number' - - 14304 Total product 18356*0 To make the use of the rods vet more regular and ea- sy, they arc kept in a flat squure box. whose breaillu is that of ten rods, and tlie length Unit of one >• h! us ir i U N E P as to hold six (or a; many as you please): the capacity of the box being divided into ten cells, for the different species of rods. When the rods are put up in the box (each species in its own cell distinguished by the first figure of the rod sel before it on the face of the box near the top), as much of every rod stands without the box as shows the first figure of that rod; also upon one of the flat sides without and near the c,(]ge, upon the left hand the index-rod is fixed; and along the foot there is a small ledge, so that the rods when applied are laid upon this side, and supported by tbe ledge, which makes the practice very easy; but in case the multiplicand should have more than 9 places, the upper face of the box may be made broader. Some make the rods with four different faces and figures on each for different purposes. Neper's rods, division by. First tabulate your divi- sor; then you have it multiplied by all the digits, out of which you may choose such convenient divisors as will be next less to the figures in the dividend, and write the index answering in the quotient, and so continually till the work is done. Thus 2179788 divided by 6123, gives in the quotient 356. Having tabulated the divisor, 6123, you sec that 6123 cannot be had in 2179; therefore take five places, and on the rods find a number that is equal, or next less, to 21797, which is 18369; that is 3 times the divisor, where- fore set 3 in the quotient, and subtract 18369 from the figures above, and there will remain 3428; to which add 8, the next figure ofthe dividend, and seek again on the rods for it, or the next less, which you will find to be five times; therefore set 5 in the quotient, and subtract, 50615 from 34288, and there will remain 3673; to which add 8,. ihe last figure in the dividend, and finding it to be just 6 times the divisor, set 6 in the quotient. NEPETA, Catmint, or Nkp, a genus of the gym- nospcrmia order, in the didynamia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 42d order, ver- licilla'.se. The under lip of the corolla has a small mid- dle segment crenated; the margin of the throat is reflect- ed; the stamina approach one another. There are 20 species; the most remarkable is thecataria, common nep, or catmint. This is a native of many parts of Britain, growing about hedges and in waste places. The plant has a bitUrtaste, and strong smell, not unlike pennyroyal. An infusion of this plant is reckoned a good cephalic and emmenagogue; being found very efficacious in chlorotic rases. Two ounces of the expressed juice may be given for a dose. Itis called catmint, because cats arc very fond of it, especially when it is withered; for then they will roll themselves on it, and tear it to pieces, chewing it in their mouths with great pleasure. NEPHELIUM, a genus of the pentandria order, in the moneecia class of plants. The male calyx is quinque- dentate; thcte is no corolla: the female calyx is quadiiiid; there is no corolla. There are two germens and two styles on each: the fruit are two dry plumbs, muricated, and monospcrmous. There is one species, a herb of the East Indies. NEPHRITIC WOOD, lignum nephriticum, a wood of a very dense and compact texture, and of a fine grain, brought i.s from New Spain,, in small blocks, in its natu- ral state, and covered with its bark. It is to be chosen of a pale colour, sound and. firm, and such as has not N E R lost its acrid taste; but the surest test of it is the infus- ing it in water; for a piece of it infused only half an hour iu cold water, gives it a changeable colour, which is blue or yellow, as variously held to the light. If the phial it is in is held between the eye and the light, the tincture appears yellow; but if the eye is placed between the light and the phial, it appears blue. This wood is a very good diuretic, and is said to be of great use with the Indians in all diseases of the kidneys and bladder, and in suppressions of urine from whatever cause. Itis also commended in fevers and obstructions of the viscera. The way of taking it, among the Indians, is only an infusion in cold water. NEPHRITIS. See Medicine. NEREIS, in zoology, a genus of animals belonging totheorder of vermes inollusca. The body is oblong, li- near, and fitted for creeping; it is furnished with lateral pencilled tentacula. There are 11 species, of which the most remarkable are the five following: l. Thenoctiluca, or noctilucous nereis, which inhabits almost every sea, and is one of the causes ofthe lumiiiousnessof the water. These creatures shine like glow-worms, but with a brighter splendour, so as at night to make the element appear as if on fire all around. Their bodies are so mi- nute as to elude examination by the naked eye. It is sometimes called nereis phosphorans; and is thus described by Griseline. The head is roundish and flat, and the mouth acuminated. The two horns or feelers are short and subulated. The eyes are prominent, and placed on each side of the bead. Tiie body i.s composed of about twenty-three segments or joints; which are much less nearer the tail than at the head. These seg- ments on both sides the animal all end in a short conical apex, out of which proceeds a little bundle of hairs; from under these bundles the feet grow in the form of small flexile subulated figments destitute of any thing like claws. It is scarcely two lines long, and is quite pellucid, and its colour is that of water, green. They are found upon all kinds of marine plants; but they of- ten leave them, and are found upon the surface of the water: they are frequent at all seasons, but especially in summer before stormy weather, when they are more agitated and more luminous. Their numbers, and won- derful agility, added to their pellucid and^hining quality, do not a little contribute to their illuminating tbe sea, for myriads of those auiinalculse may be contained in the portion of a small cup of sea-water, innumerable quan- tities of them lodge in the cavities of the scales of fishes, and to them probably do the fishes owe their noctilucous quality. 2. Nereis lacustris, or bog nereis (fig. 2.) The body of the size of a-hog's short brislle, transparent, articulated, and on eitlier side at every articulation provided with &■ short setaceous foot; interiorly it seems to consist in a manner of oval-shaped articulations, an I aback formed by two lines bent backwards. It inhabits marshes abounding in clay, where it remains under ground, pushing out its other extremity by reason of its continu- al motion. When taken out it twists itself up. Is frequent in Sweden. 3. Nereis cirrosa, or waving nereis. The body is red, lumbricifonn, with sixty-five notches, furnisned on both sides with two rows of bristles. At each side tf the head N E T N E \\ ten filaments, at the sides of the mouth many, twice a^. long as the former. It dwells in Norway, on rocks at the bottom of the sea. It vomits a red liquor, with which it tinges the water. See Plate C. Nat. Hist. fig. 294. 4. Nereis cierulea, or blue nereis. It inhabits the ocean, where 'it destroys the serpulse and teredines. Fig. 295. 5. Nereis gigantsea, or giant nereis, is a peculiar spe- cies of those large worms that make their way into de- caved piles driven down into the sea, which they bore through and feed upon, whence they are called sea- worms, or nereis. From head to tail they are beset on either side with small tufts terminating in three points, which are like the fine hair-pencils used by painters, and composed of shining bristles of various colours. The upper part ofthe body in this worm is all over covered with small hairs. The rings of whicli it is formed are closely pressed together, and yield to the touch. The three rows of small tufts we have been describing, serve this nereis instead of feet, which it uses to go forwards as fishes do their fins. Fig. 296. NERITA, a genus of verms testacea: the generic character is; animal alimax; shell univalve, spiral, gib- bous, flatfish at bottom; aperture semiorbicular or semi- lunar; pillarliptransversely truncate, flattish. There are about 80 species of this genus. NERIUM, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in tbe natural method ranking under the 30th order, contortse. There are two erect follicles; the seeds plumy; the tube of the corolla terminated by a lacerated crown. There are nine species, all of them natives of the warmer climates; the most re- markable of which are, 1. The oleander, South Sea rose; this is a beautiful shrub, cultivated in gardens on ac- count of its flower, which are of a fine red, and in clus- ters, but of an indifferent smell; the whole plant is poi- sonous, and especially the bark ofthe roots. The double variety is beautiful, but it should be kept in a stove. 2. The antidysiutericum, a native of Ceylon; the bark of which is an article of the matcrica medica, under the uame ofconessi. 3. The linctorium, a new species, with beautiful blue flowers, discovered by Dr. Roxburgh at Madras. A decoction of the leaves, with an addition of lime-water, makes an indigo of fine quality. The whole plant in all the neriums is of a poisonous quality, in that respect resembling apocynum. NERTER1A, a genus of the class and order tetran- dria digynia: the corolla is funnel-shaped, four cleft; superior berry two-celled; seeds solitary. There is one species, an annual of New Zealand. NERVES. See Anatomy. m NESTORIANS, a christian sect, the followers of Ncstorius, bishop and patriarch of Constantinople; who, about the year 429, taught that there were two persons in Jesus Christ, the divine and the human, wiiich are united, not hypostatically or substantially, but in a mys- tical manner- whence he concluded, that Mary was the mother of Christ, and not the mother of God. For this opinion Nestorius was condemned and deposed by the council of Ephesus; and the decree of this council was confirmed by the emperor Thcodosius, who banished the bishop to a monastery. NETTING, in a Ship, a sort of grates made of small ropes, seized together with rope-yarn or twine, and fix- ed on Ihe quartets and in the tops; tliey are sometimes stretched upon ihe ledges from tin* ws.ste-trees to the roof-trees, Irom the top ot the forecastle to the poop; and sometimes are laid in the waste of a ship to serve instead of gv.itings. NETTLE. See Urtica. Nettle, dead. Sec 1 ami cm. Ni.LRADA, a genus of the decagynia order, in the decandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 13th order, succulents. The calyx is quinquepartite; there are five petals; the capsule inferi- or, decemlocular, decaspermous, and aculeated. There is only one species, the procuinbcns. The whole plant is white and woolly; and is a nativeof the warm climates, anil found on dry parched grounds. NEUTRAL SALTS, among chemists, a sort of salts neither acid nor alkaline, but partaking of the nature of both. See Acid, Alkali, Chemistry, <\r. N EUTRALIZ ATTON. When two or more substances mutually destroy each other's properties, they are said to neutralize one another. Thus, in a proper combina- tion of acid and alkaline substances, the acid and alka- line properties are destroyed. NE»EL. SeeAuchitecture. NEWT. See Lacerta. NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doctrine of the universe, or the properties, laws, affections, actions, for- ces, motions, &c. of bodies, both celestial and terrestrial, as delivered by Newton. The chief parts of the Newtonian philosophy, as deliv- ered by the author, except his Optical Discoveries, kc. are contained in his Principia, or Mathematical Princi- ples of'Natural Philosophy. He founds his system on the following definitions. 1. Quantity of matter is the measure of the same, arising from its density and bulk conjointly. Thus, air of a double density, in the same space, is double in quan- tity; in a double space, is quadruple in quantity; in a triple space, is sextuple in quantity, kc 2. Quantity of motion i.s the measure of the same, arising from the velocity and quantity of matter con- junctly. This is evident, because the motion of the whole is the motion of all its parts; and therefore in a body double in quantity, with equal velocity, the motion is double, kc. 3. The vis insitn, vis inertae, or innate force of matter, is a power of resisting, by which every body, as much as in it lies, endeavours to persevere in its present state, whether it is of rest, or moving uniformly forward in a right line. This definition is proved to he just, by expe- rience, from observing the difficulty with wiiich any body is moved out of its place, upwards or obliquely; or even downwards, when acted on by a body endeavour- ing to urge it quicker than the velocity given it bv gravi- ty, and any how to change its state of motion or rest And therefore this force is the same, whether the body has gravity .or not; and a cannon-ball, void of gravity if it could be, being discharged horizontally, will* o-0 J|ie same distance in that direction, in the same time as if it were endued with gravity. 4. An impressed force is an action exerted upon a bo dy, iu order to change its state, whether of rest oj- mo^ NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY. tion. i'hi-i force consists in the action only; and remains no longer in the body wh' n the action is over. For a bo- dy maintains every new state it acquires, by its vis incr- tiae only. 5. A* centripetal force is that by whicli bodies are drawn, impelled, or any way tend, towards a point, i».s to a centre. This may be considered ofthrce kinds, abso- lute, accelcrative, and motive. 6. The absolute quantity of a centripetal force is a measure ofthe same, proportional to the efiicacy of the cause that, urges it to the centre. 7. The accelcrative quantity of a centripetal force, is the measure of the same proportional to the velocity which it generates in a given time. 8. The motive quantity of a centripetal force, is a measure of the same, proportional to the motion which it generates in a given time. This is always known by the quantity of force equal and contrary to it, that is j;;st sufficient to hinder the descent ofthe body. After these definitions, follow certain scholia, treating of the nature and distinctions of time, space, place, and motion, absolute, relative, apparent, true, real, &c. Af- ter which, the author proposes to show how we are to collect the true motions from their causes, effects, and apparent differencis; and vice versa, how, from the mo- i'v)'<\r,, either true or apparent, we may come to the know- ledge of their causes and effects. In order to this, he lays down the following axioms or laws of motion. 1st iaw. Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in aright line; unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it. Thus, " projectilis persevere in their motions, so far as they are not retarded by the resistance of the air, or impelled downwards by the force of gravity. A top, whose parts, ! y their cohesion, are perpetually drawn aside from rectilinear motions, docs not cease its rotation otherwise than as it is retarded by the are. The greater bodies of the planets and comets, meeting with less resistance iu lor.-re i'rve spaces, preserve their motion, both progres- sive and circular, Cc a much longer time." 2i\ law. The alteration of motion is always propor- tional to the motive force impressed, and is made in the direction of tlie right line in which that force is impress- ed. Thus, if any force generates a certain quantity of motion, a double force will generate a double quantity, whether Unit f>rco is impressed all at once or in succes- sive moment'?. 3d law. T.i every action there is alwavs opposed an equal re-action; or the mutual actions of two bodies up- on each other, arealvvaysequal, and directed to contrary parts. Thus, wliatcver draws or presses another, is as much drawn or pressed by that other. If you press a stone with jour finger, the finger is also pressed by the stone, kc. From this axiom, or law, Newton deduces the follow- ing corollaries: 1. A body by two forces conjoined will describe the diagonal of a parallelogram, in the same time that it would describe the sides by those forces apart. 2. Hence is explained the composition of any one di- rect force out of any two oblique ones, viz. by making the two ablique forces the sides of a parallelogram, and the diagonal the direct one. . 3. The quantity of motion, which is collected by tak- ing the sum of the motions directed towards the same parts, and the difference of those that are directed to contrary parts, suffers no charge from the actioii of bo- dies among themselves; because the motion which one body loses is communicated to another. . , 4. The common centre of gravity of two or more bo- dies does not alter its state of motion or rest by the ac- tions of the bodies among themselves; and therefore the common centre of gravity of ail bodies, acting upon each other, (excluding external actions and impediments) is either at rest, or moves uniformly in a right line. 5. The motions of bodies included in a given space are the same among themselves, whether that space is at rest, or moves uniformly forward in a right line without any circular motion. The truth of this is evident from the experiment of a ship; where all motions are just the same, whether the ship is at rest, or proceeds uniformly forward in a straight line. 6. If bodies, any how moved among themselves, are urged in the direction of parallel lines by equal accelcra- tive forces, they will all continue to move among them- selves, after the same manner as if they had not been urged by such forces. The mathematical part of the Newtonian Philosophy depends chiefly on the following lemmas, especially the first, containing the doctrine of prime and ultimate ratios. Lem. 1. Quantities, and the ratios of quantities, which in any finite time converge continually to equality, and before the end of that time approach nearer* the one to the other than by any given difference, become ulti- timately equal. Lem. 2. shows, that in a space bounded by two right lines and a curve, if an infinite number of parallelo- grams are inscribed, all of equal breadth; then the ulti- mate ratio ofthe curve space, and the sum of the parallel- ograms, will be a ratio of equality. Lem. 3. shows, that the same thing is true when the breadths ofthe parallelograms are unequal. In the succeeding lemmas it is shown, in like manner, that the ultimate raties of the sine, chord, and tangent, of arcs infinit'ly diminished, are ratios of equality; and therefore that in all our reasonings about these, we may safely use the one for the other: that the ultimate form of evanescent triangles,made by the arc, chord, or tangent, is that of similitude, and their ultimate ratio is that of equality; and hence, in reasonings about ultimate ratios, these triangles may safely be used one for another,'wIiether tliey are made with the sine, the arc, or the tangent. He then demonstrates some properties of the ordinates of cuivilinear figures, and sliows that the spaces which a body describes by any*finite force urging it, whether that force is determined and immutable, or continually va- ried, are to each other, in the very beginning ofthe mo- tion, in the duplicate ratio ofthe forces; and lastly, hav- ing added some demonstrations concerning the evanes- cence of angles of contact, he proceeds to lay down the mathematical part of his system, whicli depends on the following theorems. Theor. 1. The areas which revolving bodies describe by radii drawn to an immoveable centre of force, lie in the same immoveable -:lanes, and are proportional to the times in wiiich they are described. To this proposition NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY. are annexed several corollaries respecting the velocities of bodies revolving by centripetal forces, the directions and proportions of their forces, kc such as, that the ve- locity of such a revolving body is reciprocally as the per- pendicular let fall from the centre of force upon the line touching the orbit in the place of the body, &c. Tbcor. 2. Every body that moves in any curve line described in a plane, and by a radius drawn to a point either immoveable or moving forward with an uniform rectilinear motion, describes about that point areas pro- portional to the times, is urged by a centripetal force directed to that point. With corollaries relating to such motions in resisting mediums, and to the direction of the forces when the areas are not proportional to the times. Theor. 3. Every body that, by a radius drawn to the centre of another body, any how moved, describes areas about that centre proportional to the times, is urged by a force compounded of the centripetal forces tending to that other body, and of the whole accelcrative force by which that other body is impelled. With several corol- laries. Theor. 4. The centripetal forces of bodies which by equal,motions describe different circles, tend to the cen- tres ofthe same circles; and are one to the other as the squares of the arcs described in equal times, applied to the radii of the circles. -With many corollaries relating to tbe velocities, times, periodic forces, kc. And, in a scho- lium, the author farther adds, moreover, by means of the foregoing proposition and its corollaries, we may discover the proportion of a centripetal force to any other known force, such as that of gravity. For if a body, by means of its gravity, revolves in a circle concentric to the earth, this gravity is the centripetal force of that body. But from the descent of heavy bodies, the time of one entire revo- lution, as well as the arc described in any .given time, is given by a corollary to this proposition. On these and such-like principles depends the Newto- nian matematical philosophy. The author farther sliows liow to find the centre to which the forces impelling any body are directed, having the velocity ofthe body given; and finds that the centrifugal foive is always as the vers- ed sine ofthe nascent arc directly, and as the square of the time inversely; or directly as the square of the velocity, and inversely as the chord of the nascent arc. From these premies, he deduces the method of finding the centripetal force directed to any given point when the body revolves in a circle; and this, whether the cen- tral point is near hand, or at immense distance; so that all the lines drawn from it may be taken fur parallels. And he shows the same thing with regard to bodies re- volving in spirals, ellipses, hyperbolas, or parabolas. He shows also, having the figures of the orbits given, how to find the velocities and moving powers; and indeed resdves the most difficult problems relating to the celes- tial bodies with a surprising degree of ni.themalical ski'!. These probhms and demonstrations are all contained in tlie first book of the Primi; ia; but an account of tbeni here Would neither be generally understood, nor easily com- prised in the limits of this work. Inthe second hoo\. Newton treats of the properties and motion of fluids, nnd their powers of resistance, wiiii the motion of bodies through such renting mediums, those resistances being in the ratio of any powers t the velocities; and the motions being cither made in right lin^s or curves, or vibrating like pendulums. On entering upon the third book ofthe IVincipia. New- ton briefly recapitulates the contents of ihe two former books in these words: « In the preceding books I have laid down the principles of philosophy, principles not philosophical, but mathematical; such, to wit, as wc te.ay build our reasonings upon in philosophical inquiries. These principles are, the laws and conditions of certain motions, and powers or forces, which chiefly have respect to philosophy. Hut lest they should have ajipeared of themselves dry and barren, I have illustrated them here and there with some philosophical scholiums, giving an account of such things are of a more general nature, and which philosophy seems chiefly to be founded on; such as the density and the resistance of bodies, spaces void of all matter, and the motion of light and sounds. It remains, he adds, that from the same principles I now demonstrate the frame ofthe system ofthe world. Upon this subject I had indeed composed the third book in a popular me- thod, that it might be read by many. But afterwards considering that such as had not sufliciently entered into the princples could not easily discern the strength of the? consequences, nor lay aside the prejudices to which they had been many years accustomed; therefore to prevent the disputes which might be raised upon such accounts. I chose to reduce the substance of that book into the form of propositions, in the mathematical-way, which should he read by those only who had first made themselves masters ofthe principles established in the preceding books." As a necessary preliminary to this third part, Newton lays down rules for reasoning in natural philosophy. The phenomena first considered are, I. That the sa- tellites of Jupiter, by radii drawn to his ccn'.iv, describe areas proportional to the times of description; ami that their periodic times, the fixed stars being at rest, are in tlie sesquiplicate ratio of their distances from that cen- tre. 2. The same thing i.s likewise observed of the phe- nomena of Saturn. 5. The five primary planets, .Mercu- ry, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, with their siveral orbits, encompass the sun. 4. The fixed stars being sup- posed at rest, the periodic times ofthe said five primary planets, and of the earth, about the sun, are in Ihe ses- quiplicate proportion of their mean distances it\,iu the sun. 5. The primary plauets, by radii drawn to the earth, describe areas no ways proportional to the time*; but the areas which they d- scene by radii iIiumi to tin- sun are proportion;;! to the times of description. C. The moon, by a radius drawn to the mitre ofthe earth, des- cribes an area proportional to the time of description. All which phenomena are clearly evinced by astronomi- cal observations. The mr-th< rnaiical demonstrations aie next a].plied l:y Newton in the f< ilowing propositions. Prop. I. Tlie for' es by wiiich the satellites of Jupiter are continually drawn off from rectilinear motions, and retained in their proper orbits, tend to the centre of that planet, and are rcciptv ally as the squares ofthe distan- ces of those satellites from that centre. Prop. 2. The same thing is true of the primary plan- ets, with respect to the sun's cent:e. Prop. 3. The same thing is also true of the moon, in respect of the earth's centre. N I C N I C Prop. 4. The moon gravitates towards- the carth; and by the force of gravity is continually drawn off from a rectilinear motion, and retained in her orbit. Prop. 5. Tbe same thing is true of all the other planets, both primary and secondary, each with respect to the centre of its motion. , Prop. 6. All bodies gravitate towards every planet, and the weights of bodies towards anyone and the same plan- et, at equal distances from its centre, are proportional to the quantities of matter they contain. Prop. 7. There is a power of gravity tending to all bodies, proportional to the several quantities of matter which they contain. Prop. 8. In two spheres mutually gravitating each towards the other, if the matter in places on all sides, round about and equidistant from the centres, is similar, the weight of either sphere towards the other, will be re- ciprocally as the square of the distance between their centres. Hence are compared together the weights of bo- dies towards different planets; hence also are discovered the quantities of matter in the several planets; and hence likew ise are found the densities from those planets. Prop. 9. The force of gravity, in parts downwards from the surface of the planets towards their centres, decreases nearly in the proportions of the distances Irom those centres. These, and many other propositions and corollaries, are proved or illustrated by a great variety of experi- ments, iu all the great points of physical astronomy. See Gil A V IT V, Gl: A VITA TION, &C. NICANDRA, a genus ofthe monogynia order in the decaudria class of plants, and in the natural method lanking under the 13th order, contorts:. The calyx is nioiiophv llous and quadripartite; the corolla is monope- talous. tubulated, and parted into ten lacinirc; the fruit is an cval berry, which is grooved longitudinally, and con- tains many small angular seeds. Of this there is only one species, the amara, a native of Guiana. The leaves and stalks are bitter, and used by the natives as an eme- tic and purge. NICHE. See Ai:chitkctiti:e. NICKEL, in mineralogy. There is found in different parts of Germany a heavy mineral of a reddish-brown colour, not unlike copper. When exposed to the air, it gradually loses its lustre, becomes at first brownish, and i.s at last cov ercd with green spots, it was at first taken for an ore of copper; but as none of that metal can be ex- tracted from it, the German miners give it the name of kupfernickel, or false copper. Hierne, who may be con- sidered as the father of the Swedish chemists, is the first person who mentions this mineral. He gives a des- cription of it in a book published by him in 1694 on the art of detecting metals. It was generally considered by wineral'gists as an ore of ci-pper, till it was examined ny the celebrated Cronstedt. He concluded from his ex- periments, which were published in tin- Stockholm Transactions for 1751 and 1754, that it contained a new metal, to which lie give the name of nickel. This opinion was embraced by all the Swedes, and in- deed by the greater number of chemical philosophers. Some, however, particularly Sage and Monuet, affirmed, that it contained no new metal, but merely a compound of various known metals, which could be separated from each other by the usual processes. These assertions induced Bergman to undertake a very laborious course of experiments, in order, if possible, to obtain nickel in a state of purity; for Cronstejjt had not been able to sepa- rate a quantity of arsenic, cobalt, and iron, which ad- hered to it with much obstinacy. These experiments, which were published in 1775, fully confirmed the con- clusions of Cronstedt. Nickel, when perfectly pure, is of a fine white colour, resembling silver; and like that metal it leaves a white trace when rubbed upon the polished surface of a bard stone. It is rather softer than iron. Its specific gravity is 9. Its malleability, while cold, is rather greater than that of iron, but it cannot be heated without being oxi- dated, and in consequence rendered brittle. It is attract- ed by the magnet as strongly as iron. Like that metal, it may be converted into a magnet; and in that state points to the north when freely suspended, precisely as a common magnetic needle. It requires for fusion a temperature at least equal to 150° Wedgewood. It has not hitherto been chrystallized. When heated in an open vessel, it combines with oxy- gen, and assumes a green colour; and if the heat is con- tinued, acquires a tinge of purple. The oxide of nickel, according fo Klaproth, is composed of 77 parts of nickel and 23 of oxygen. Nickel has not been combined with carbon nor hydro- gen, but it combines readily with sulphur and phospho- rus. Cronstedt found that sulphuret of neckel mav be ea- sily formed by fusion. The sulphuret which he obtained was yellow and hard, with small sparkling facets; buj the nickel which he employed was impure. Phosphuret of nickel may be formed eitlier by fusing nickel along with phosphoric glass, or by dropping phos- phorus into it while red-hot. It is of a white colour, and when broke, it exhibits the appearance of very slender prisms collected together. When heated the phosphorus burns, and the metal is oxidated. It is composed of 83 parts of nickel and ! 7 of phosphorus. The nickel howev- er on which this experiment was made, was not pure. Nickel is not acted upon by azote, nor does it com- bine with muriatic acid. The alloys of this metal are but very imperfectly known. With gold it forms a white and brittle allov; with copper a white, hard, brittle alloy, easily oxidized when exposed to the air; with iron it combines very readily, and forms an alloy whose properties have not been sufficiently examined; with tin it forms a white, hard, brittle mass, which swells up when heated; with lead it does not combine without difficulty; with silver and mercury it refuses to unite; its combination with platinum has not been tried. The affinities of nickel, and its oxides, are, according to Bergman, as follows: Ni-.'kel Oxide of Nickel. li'on, Oxalic acid, Cobalt, Muriatic, Arsenic, Sulphuric, Copper, Tartaric, Gold, Nitric, Tin, Phosphoric, Antimony, Fluoric, Platinum, Sadactic, N I C N I C Bismuth, Succinic, Lead, Citric, Silver, Lactic, Zinc, Acetic, Sulphur, Arsenic, Phosphorus. Boracic, Prussic, Carbonic. Nickel, ores of. Hitherto nickel has been found in too small quantities to be applied to any use; of course there are no mines of nickel. It usually occurs in secon- dary mountains, and commonly accompanies cobalt. It lias been found in different parts of Germany, in Swe- den, Siberia, Spain, France, and Britain. NTCOLAITANS, in church history, christian heretics who assumed this name from Nicolas of Antioch; who, being a gentile by birth, first embraced Judaism, and then Christianity; when his zeal and devotion recom- mended him to the church of Jerusalem, by whom he was chosen one of the first deacons. NICOTIAN A, tobacco,0ii genus of the inonog'ynia or- der, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 28th order, 1 utilise. The co- rolla is funnel-shaped, with a plaited limb; the stamina inclined; the capsule bivalved and bilocular. There are seven species, of which the most remarkable is the taba- cum (see Plate C. Nat. Hist. fig. 297), or common tobacco-plant. This was first discovered in America by the Spaniards about the year 1560, and by them im- ported into Europe. It had been used by the inhabitants of America long before; and was called by those ofthe islands yoli, and psetun by the inhabitants of the conti- nent. It was sent into Spain from Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, where it was first discovered, and whence it takes its common name. There are two varieties of that species of nicotiana which is cultivated for common use; and which arc dis- tinguished by the names of Oronokoe, and sweet-scented tobacco. They differ from each other in the figure of their leaves; those of the former being longer and nar- rower than the latter. They are tall herbaceous plants, growing erect with fine foliage, and rising with a strong stem from six to nine feet high. The stalk, near the root, is upward of an inch diameter, and surrounded with a kind of hairy or velvet clammy substance, of a yellowish- ,siecn colour. The leaves are rather of a deeper green, and grow alternately at the distance of two or three inches from each other. They are oblong, of a spear- shaped oval, and simple; the largest about twenty inches long, but decreasing in size as they ascend, till they come to be only ten inches long, and about half as broad. The face oftlic leaves is much corrugated, like those of spinach when full-ripe. Before they come to maturity, when they are about five or six inches long, the leaves aro generally of a full green, and rather smooth; but as they increase in size, tliey become rough, and arrjuire a yellowish cast. The stein and branches are terminated by iarge bunches of flowers collected into clusters, of a de- licate red; the edges, when full-blown, inclining to a pale purple. They continue in succession till the end of the sun.mer; when they are succeeded by seeds of a brown colour, and kidnev-shaped. These are very small, each capsule containing" about 1000; and the whole produce of a single plant is reckoned at about 350,000. The seeds ripen in the month of September. Mr. Carver informs us, that the Oronokoe, or, as it is called, the long Virginian tobacco, is the kind best suit- ed for bearing the rigour of a northern climate; the strength, as well as the scent, of the leaves, being great- er than that of the other. The sweet-scented sort flour- ishes most in a sandy soil, and in a warm climate, where it greatly exceeds the former in the celerity of its growth; and is likewise, as its name intimates, much more mild and pleasant. Culture—Tobacco thrives best in a warm, kindly. rich soil, that is not subject to be overrun by weeds, in Virginia, the soil in which it thrives best is warm, light, and inclining to be sandy; and therefore if the plant is to be cultivated in Britain, it ought to be planted in a soil as nearly of the same kind as possible. Other kinds of soil might probably be brought to suit it, by a mixture of proper manure; but we must remember, that whatever manureis made use of must be thoroughly incorporated with thPsoil. The best situation for a tobacco-plantation is the southern declivity of a hill rather gradual than abrupt, or a spot that is sheltered from the north winds: but at the same time it is necessary that the plants en- joy a free air; for without that they will not prosper. Having sown the seed, on the least apprehension of a frost after the plants appear, it will be necessary to spread mats over tbe beds, a little elevated from the ground by poles laid across, that they may not he crushed. When the tobacco has risen to the height of more than two feet, it commonly begins to put forth the branches on which the flowers and seeds are produced; but as this expan- sion, if suffered to take place, would drain the nutri- ment from the leaves, whichare the most valuable part, and thereby lessen their size and efficacy, it becomes needful at this stage to nip off the extremity ofthe stalk to prevent its growing higher. In some climates the top is commonly cut off when the plant has 15 leaves: but if the tobacco is intended to be a little stronger than usual, this is done when it has only 13. The apparent signs of maturity are these: the leaves, as they approach a state of ripeness, become more cor- rugated or rough; and when fully iipe appear mottled, vviih yellowish spots on the raised parts; whilst the cavi- ties retain their usual green colour. Tobacco is subject to be destroyed by a worm; and without proper care to exterminate this enemy, a whole field of plants may soon be lost. This anima'l is of (he horned species, and appears to be peculiar to the tobac- co-plant; so that in many parts of America it is distin- guished by the name of the tobacco-worm. In what man- ner it is first produced, or how propagated, is unknown: but it is not discernible till the plants have attained about half their height; and then appears to be ncarlv as large as a gnat. Soon after this it lengthens into a worm; and by degrees increases in magnitude to the big- ness of a man's finger. In shape it is regular from i7s head to its toil, without anv diminution at v.ther extrem- ity. The colour of its skin is. in gen'ral. green, inter- spersed with several spots of yellowish white; and the whole covered with a short hair scarcely to he discerned These worms are found the most predominant during the end of July and the beginning of August; at w»,U h N I C N I G time the plants must be particularly attended to, and every leaf carefully searched. As soon as a wound is discovered (and it will not be long before it is percepti- ble), care must be taken to destroy the cause of it, which will be found near it, and from its unsubstantial texture may easily be crushed. When the tobacco i.s fit for being gathered, on the first morning that promises a fair day, before the sun is ri- sen, take an axe or a long knife, and holding the stalk near the top with one hand, sever it from its root with the other, as low as possible. Lay it gently on the ground, taking care not to break off the leaves, and there let it remain exposed to the rays of the sun throughout the day, or until the leaves, according to the American expression, are entirely wilted; that is, till they become limber, and will bend any way without breaking. But if the weather should prove rainy without any intervals of sunshine, and the plants appear to be fully ripe, they must be housed immediately. This must be done, howev- er, with great care that the leaves, which are in this state very brittle, may not be broken. Tliey are ueifc to be placed under proper shelter, eitlier in a barn or covered hovel, where they cannot be affected by rain or too much air, thin scattered on the floor; and if the sun does not appear for several days, they must be left to wilt in that manner; but in this case the quality of the tobacco will not be quite so good. When the leaves .have acquired the above-mentioned flexibility, the plants must be laid in heaps, or rather in one heap if the quantity is not too great, and in about 24 hours they will be found to sweat. But during this time, when they have lain for a little while, and begin to ferment, it will be necessary to turn them; bringing those whicli are in the middle to the surface, and placing those which are at the surface in the middle. The long- er they lie in this siuation, the darker coloured is the tobacco. After they have lain for three or four days, for a longer continuance might make the plants turn mouldy, they may he fastened together in pairs with cords or wooden pegs, near tlie button of the stalk, and hung across a pole, with the leaves suspended iu the name covered place, a proper interval being left between each pair. In about a mounth the leaves will be thorough- ly dried, and of a proper temperature to betaken down. This state may be ascertained by their appearing of the same colour with those imported from America. But this can be done ci.lv in wet weather. The tobacco is exceed- ingly apt to attract the humidity of tiie atmosphere, which five's it a pliability that is absolutely necessary for its preservation; for if tiie plants are removed in a very dry season, the external parts ofthe leaves will crumble into dust, and a considerable waste will ensue. Cure.—As soon as the plants are taken down, they r.iust again be laid in a heap, and pressed with heavy l«"'gs of wood for about a week: but this climate may pos- s'bly require a longer time. While tliey remain in this state it will be necessary to introduce your hand fre- quently into the heap, to discover whether the heat is not too intense; for iu large quantities this will some- times be the case, and considerable damage will be occa- sioned by it. When they are found to heat too much, that i.s, when the heat exceeds a moderate glowing vsarmth. part oi" tbe weight by which they are pressed must be taken away; and the cause being removed, the effect will cease. This is called the second or last sweat- ing; and, when completed, which it generally will be about the time just mentioned, the leaves may be strip- ped from the stalks for use. Many, however, omit this last sweating. When the leaves are stripped from the stalks, they are to be tied up in bunches or hands, and kept in a cellar or other damp place; though if not handled in dry weather, but only during a rainy season, it is of but lit- tle consequence in what part of the house or barn they are laid up. At this period the tobacco is thoroughly cured, and as proper for manufacturing as that import- ed from the colonies. Tobacco is made up into rolls by the inhabitants of the interior parts of America, by means of a machine called a tobacco-wheel. With this machine they spin the leaves after they are cured, into a twist of any'size they think fit; and having folded it into rolls of about 20 pounds each, they lay it by for use. In this state it will keep for several years, an(J be continually improv- ing, as it always grows milder. The Illinois usually form it into carrots; which is done by laying a number of leaves, when cured, on each other after the ribs have been taken out, and rolling them round with packthread till they become cemented together. These rolls com- monly measure about 18 or 30 inches in length, and nine round in the middle part. NICTITATING Membrane. Sec Comparative Anatomy. 1SIGELL A, fennel flower, or devil in a bush, a genus of the pcntagynia order, belonging to the pentandria class of plants. There is no calyx; the petals are five, and five trifid nectaria within the corolla; there are five connected capsules. There are five species, all of them annuals, and natives of the warm parts of Europe: and rising from a foot to a foot and a half high, adorned with blue or wiiite flowers. They are propagated by seeds, which in a dry and warm situation will thrive ve- ry well; and the plants ripen seeds in this country. NIGHT-MARE. See Medicine. NIGRINA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria class of plants. The corolla is funnel-shaped; the calyx inflated; the stigma obtuse; the capsule bilocular. NIGRINE. This ore has hitherto been found only near Passau in Bavaria, and at Arendaal in Norway, and near St. Gothard. It was discovered by professor Hunger. It is sometimes disseminated, but more com- monly crystallized, in four-sided prisms, not longer than one-fourth of an inch. Primitive form a rhomboidal prism. Colour reddish, yellowish, or blackish-brown; some- times whitish-grey. Powder whitish-grey. Lustre waxy, or nearly metallic. Texture foliated. Brittle. Spe ific gravity 3.510. Muriatic acid, by repeated digestion, dis- solves one-third of it. Ammonia precipitates from this so- lution a clammy yellowish substance. Infusible by the blow-pipe, and also in a clay crucible; but iu charcoal is converted into a black opaque, porous slag. According to the analysis of Klaproth it is composed of N I T N I T 33 oxide of titanium 35 silica 33 lime 101 The mineral called sphcne by Hauy belongs to this species. According to the analysis of Cordicr it is com- posed of 33.3 oxide of titanium 28.0 silica 32.2 lime. 93^5 NIHIL DIGIT, a failure in the defendant to put in an answer to the plaintiff's declaration, &c. by the day assigned for that purpose, by which omission judgment of course is bad against him. NIMBUS, in atiquity, a circle observed on certain me- dals, or round the head of some emperors, answering to the circles of light drawn around the images of saints. The nimbus is seen on the medals of Maurice, Phocas, and others, even of the upper empire. See also Meteo- rology. MPA, a genus ofthe natural order of palms. The male has a spathe; the corolla is six petalled. The fe- male has a spathe; corolla none; drupes angular. There is one species, a native of the E. Indies. The leaves are used in making mats. NIPPERS, in a ship, arc small ropes about a fathom or two long, with a little truck at one end, and some- times only a wale-knot. Their use is to help holding off the cable from the main or jeer-capstan, where the ca- ble is so slimy, so wet, and so great, that they cannot strain it, to hold it off with their bare hands. NISI PRIUS, in law, a commission directed to the judges of assize; empowering them to try all questions of fact issuing out ofthe courts at Westminster that are then ready for trial by jury. The original of which name is this: art causes commenced in the courts of Westmin- ster-hall are, by course of the co'urts, appointed to be tried on a day fixed in some Easter or Michaelmas term, by a jury returned from the county wherein tlie cause of action arises; but with this proviso, nisi prius jiisticiarii ad assisas eapiendas veneriut: that is, unless before the day prefixed the judges of assize come into the county in question, which they always do in the va- cation preceding each Easter and Michaelmas term, and there try the cause. And then, upon the return of the verdict given by the jury to the court above, the judges there give judgment for the party to whom the verdict is found. 3. Black. 59. See Assize's. N1SSOLIA, a genus of the decandria order, in the diadelpbia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 32d order, papilionacese. The calyx is quinquedentate: the capsule monospcrmous, and ter- minated by a ligulated wing. There arc two species, trees of Cauthagcna. NTTI HULA, a genus of insects of the coleoptera or- der. The generic character is, antenna; clavate, the club solid; shells margined; head prominent: thorax a 1-tie flattened, margined. There are upward., f 30 spe ies of this genus. , . NITRARIA, a genus of the monogynn, r, in tbe dodecandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The corolla is pentapetalous, with the petals arched at the top; the calyx quinquefid; the stamina 1.": the fruit a mo- nospcrmous plum. There is one species, a shrub of Siberia. NTTRATS, salts formed by the nitric acid. The most important of the nitrats have been long known; and in consequence of the singular properties which they possess, no class of bodies has Cxcited greater attention, or been examined with more unwearied industry. Sec Nitke. They may be distinguished by the. following properties: 1. Soluble in water, and capable of crystallizing by cooling. 2. When heated to redness, along with combus- tible bodies, a violent combustion and detonation are produced. 3. Sulphuric acid disengages from them fumes, which have the odour of nitric acid. 4. When heated along with muriatic acid, oxymuriatic acid is exhaled. 5. Decomposed by heat, and yield at first oxygen gas. The nitrats at present known are 12 in number. Vow of them combine with an excess of acid or of base, so that there are hardly any supcrnitrats, or subnitrats. NITRE, or nitrat of potass. As this salt, known also by the name of saltpetre, is produced naturally in con- siderable quantities, particularly in Egypt, it is highly probable that the ancients were acquainted with it; but scarcely any thing certain can be collected from their writings. If Pliny mentions it at all, he confounds it with soda, which was known by the names of nitron and nitruin. Itis certain, however, that it has been known In the East from time immemorial. Roger Bacon mentions this salt in the 13th century under tiie name of nitre. No phenomenon has excited the attention of chemical philosophers more than the continual reproduction of ni- tre in certain places after it had b'ecn extracted from them. Prodigious quantities of this salt are necessary for the purposes of war; and as nature has not laid up great magazines of it, as she has of some other salts, this annual reproduction is the only source from which it can be procured. It became therefore of the utmost consequence, if possible, to discover the means which na- ture employed informing it, in order to enable us to imi- tate her processes by art, or at least to accelerate and facilitate them at pleasure. Numerous attempts accor- dingly have been made to explain and to imitate these processes. Lemery the younger advanced, that all the nitre ob- tained exists previously in animals and vegetables; and that it is formed in these substances by the processes of vegetation and animalization. But it was soon discover- ed that nitre exists, and is actually formed, in many places where no animal nor vegetable substance had been decomposed; and consequently this theory was as untenable as the former. So far indeed is it from heim- true that nitre is formed by these processes alone, that the quantity of nitre iu plants has been found to de- pend entirely on the soil in which they grow. At last, by the numerous experements of several French philosophers, particularly by those of Thouvenel, it was discovered that nothing i Ise is necessary for the production of nil re than a b:-is of lime, heat, and an open but not too free communication with dry atmos- pheric air. When these circumstances combine the acid N I T N I T is first formed, and afterwards the alkali makes its ap- pearance. How the air furnishes metcrials for this pro- duction is easily explained, now that the component parts of the nitric acid are known to be oxygen and azote: but how lime contributes to their union it is not so easy to see. The appearance oftlic potass is equally extraordinary. If any thing can give countenance to the hypothesis that potass is composed of lime and azote, it is this singular fact. Nitre is found abundantly on the surface of the earth in India, South America, and even in some parts of Spain. Iii Germany and France it is obtained by means of artificial nitre-beds. These consist of the refuse of animal and vegetable bodies undergoing puterfaction, mixed with calcareous and other earths. It has been as- certained that if oxygen gas is presented to azote at the instant of its disengagement, nitric acid is formed. This seems to explain the origin ofthe acid in these beds. The azote disengaged from these putrefying animal substan- ces combines with the oxygen ofthe air. The potass is probably furnished, partly at least, by the vegetables and the soil. The nitre is extracted from these beds by lixiviating the earthy matters with water. This water, when sufli- ciently impregnated, is evaporated, and a brown-colour- ed salt obtained, known by the name of crude nitre. It consists of nitre, common salt, nitrat of lime, and vari- ous other salts. The foreign salts are either separated by repeated chrystallizations, or by washing the salts repeatedly with small quantities of water; for the for- eign salts being more soluble are taken up first. Nitre, when slowly evaporated, is obtained in six- sided prisms, terminated by six-sided pyramids; but for most purposes it is preferred in an irregular mass, be- cause in that state ft contains less water. The primitive form of its crystals, according to Hauy, is a rectangular octahedron, composed of two four-sided pyramids appli- ed base to base; two of the sides are inclined to the other pyramid at an angle of 120°; the other two at an angle »f 1110. The form of its integrant particles is the tetrahe- dron. The six-sided prisms is the most common form which it assumes. Sometimes, instead of six-sided pyra- mids, these prisms are terminated by 18 facets, disposed in three ranges of six, as if three truncated pyramids were piled on each other; sometimes it crystallizes in cables. The specific gravity of nitre is 1,936/9. Its taste is ,,'narp, bitterish, and cooling. It is very brittle. It isso- i-ible in seven times its weight of water at the tempera- ture of 60°, and in nearly its own weight of boiling wa- ter. It is not altered by exposure to the air. When the solution ot nitre is exposed to a boiling heat, part of the salt is evaporated along with the water, as Wallcrius, Kirwan, and Lovoisicr, observed successively. When exposed to a strong heat it melts, and congeals by cooling into an opaque mass, which has been called .mineral crystal. Whenever it melts it begins to disen- gage oxvgen; and by keeping it in a red heat about the third of its weight of that gas may be obtained: towards the end of the process azotic gas is disengaged. If the heat is continued long enough the salt is completely de- composed, and pure potass remains behind. ii detona.tes more violently with combustible bodies than any of the other,nitrats. When mixed with one- third part of its weight of charcoal, and thrown into a red-hot crucible, or when charcoal is thrown into red-hot nitre, detonation takes place, and one of the most bril- liant combustions that can be exhibited. The residuum is carbonat of potass. It was formerly called nitre fixed by charcoal. A still more violent detonation i.s produced by using phosphorus instead of charcoal. When a mix- ture of nitre and phosphorus is struck smartly with a hot hammer a very violent detonation is produced. Nitre oxidizes all the#metals at a red heat, even gold and platinum. Nitre, according to Bergman, is composed of 31 acid 61 potass 8 water. 100 According to the last experiments of Kirwan, after being dried in the temperature of 70°, it is composed of 44.0 acid 51.8 potass 4.2 water. 100.0 Nitre is decomposed by the following salts: 1. Sulphats of soda, ammonia, magnesia, alumina. 2. Muriat and acetat of barytes. One of the most important compounds formed by means of nitre is gunpowder, which has completely changed the modern art of war. See Gunpowder. NITRIC ACID seems to have been first obtained in a separate state by Raymond Lully, who was born at Ma- jorca in 1235. He procured it by distilling a mixture of nitre and clay. It was afterwards denominated aquafor- tis, and spirit of nitre. The name nitric acid was first given it in 1787 by the French chemists; it was immedi- ately before called nitrous acid. 1, It is generally obtained in large manufactories by distilling a mixture of nitre and clay; but the acid pro- cured by this process is weak and impure. Chemists generally prepare it by distilling three parts of nitre and one of sulphuric acid in a, glass retort. The neck of the retort must be luted into a receiver, from which there passes a glass tube into a bottle with two mouths, con- taining a little water, and furnished with a tube of safe- ty; which is a tube open at its upper end, and having its lower end plunged in water. The water prevents any communication between the external air and the inside of the apparatus. If a vacuum happens to be formed within the vessels, the external air reaches down througli tbe tube, and prevents any injury to the vessels. On tbe other hand, if air'is generated in the vessels it forces the water up the tube, the height of'which becomes thus the measure of the elasticity of the air in the vessels. By this contrivance the apparatus is in no danger of being broken, which otherwise might happen. Fr«»m the other mouth.of this bottle there passes a tube into a pneuma- tic apparatus, to collect the gas which is evolved during the process. The retort is to be heated gradually almost to redness. The nitric acid comes over, and is condens- ed in the receiver; while the common air of the vessels* and a quantity of oxygen gas which is evolved, esnecial- NITRIC ACID. jy towards the end of the process, passes into the pneu- matic apparatus, and the water in the bottles is impreg- nated with some acid which is not condensed in the re- ceiver. The acid thus obtained is of a yellow colour, and al- most alw a) s contains muriatic and sometimes sulphu- rous acid. These maybe removed by distilling it over again with a moderate heat, and changing the receiver after the first portion, which contains all the foreign acids, has passed. It still contains a quantity of nitrous gas, to which it owes its colour and the red fumes which it exhales. This gas may also be expelled by the appli- cation of heat. Pure nitric acid remains behind, transpa- rent and eolourless, like water. When newly prepared in this manner it is a liquid as transparent and colourless as water; but the affinity be- tween its component parts is so weak, that the actioii of light is sufficient to drive off a part of its oxygen in the form of gas; and thus, by converting it partly into ni- trous gas, to make it assume a yellow colour, its taste is exceedingly acid and peculiar. It is very corrosive, and tinges the skin of a yellow colour, which does not disap- pear till the epidermis comes off. It is constantly emit- ting white fumes which have an acrid disagreeable odour. It has a strong affinity for water, and has never yet been obtained except mixed with that liquid. When con- centrated it attracts moisture from the atmosphere, but not so powerfully as sulphuric acid. It also produces heat when mixed with water, owing evidently to the con- centration of the water. The specific gravity of the strongest nitric acid that can be procured is 1.583; but at the temperature of 60°, Mr. Kirwan could not procure it stronger than 1.5543, As this liquid acid is a compound of two ingredients, namely, pure nitric acid and water, it becomes an ob- ject of the greatest consequence to ascertain the propor- tion of each of these parts. This problem has lately oc- cupied the attention of Mr. Kirwan, who has endeavour- ed to solve it in the following manner: He dried a quantity of crystallized carbonat of soda in a red heat, and dissolved it in water, in such a pro- portion that 367 grains of the solution contained 50.05 of alkali. He saturated 367 grains of this solution with 147 grains of nitric acid, the specific gravity of which was 1.2754; and which he ascertained to contain 45.7 per cent, of acid, of the specific gravity 1.5543, chosen by him as a standard. The carbonic acid driven off amounted to 14 grains. On adding 939 grains of water the specific gravity ofthe solution, at the temperature of 58.5°, was 1.0401. By comparing this with a solution of nitrat of soda, of the same density, he found that the 1 salt contained in it amounted to l6>901 °f the whole. There was an excess of acid of about two grains. The weight of the whole was 1439 grains: the quantity of 1439 . „,, salt consequently was -j-eTooT = 85,142 Srains. The quantity of alkali was 50.05 — 14 = 36.05. The quanti- ty of standard acid employed was 60.7. The whole there- fore amounted to 102.75 grains; but as only 85.142 grains entered into the composition ot the salt, the re- maining 17.608 must have been pure water mixed with VOL. II. 107 the nitric acid. But if 66.7 of standard acid contain 17.608 of water, 100 parts ofthe same acid must contain 26.38. One hundred parts of standard nitric acid, there- fore, are composed of 73.62 parts of pure nitric acid and 26.38 of water. Mr. Davy considers as pure acid the permanently clastic vapour or gas formed by saturating nitrous gas w ith oxygen gas. This gas is of a pale-yellow colour, and a specific gravity 2.44 times that of air. It is not pure acid, containing undoubtedly a portion of nitrous gas. The following table exhibits the proportion of this acid contained in nitric acid of different densities, ac- cording to the experiments of that ingenious chemist: 100 Parts Nitric Acid, True Acid. of Sp. Gr. 1.5040 91.55 1.4475 80.39 1.4285 71.65 1.3906 62.96 1.3551 56.88 1.3186 52.03 1.3042 49.04 1.2831 46.03 1.2090 45.27 When nitric acid is exposed to the action of heat it boils at the temperature of 24 8, and evaporates com- pletely without alteration; but when made to pass through a red-hot porcelain tube it is decomposed, and converted into oxygen and azotic gas. When cooled down to —66 it begins to congeal; and when agitated it is converted into a mass of the consistence of butter. Oxygen gas has no action whatever on nitric acid; but all the simple combustibles decompose it, unless wc are to except the diamond. When poured upon sulphur or phosphorus at a high temperature it sets them on fire; but at a moderate temperature it converts them slowly into acids, while nitrous gas is exhaled. It inflames char- coal also at a high temperature; and even at the com- mon temperature, provided the charcoal is perfectly dry and minutely divided. Hydrogen gas produces no change on it at the temperature of the atmosphere; but when passed along with it tlirough a red-hot porcelain tube it detonates with great violence; water is formed, and azotic gas evolved. When this acid is poured upon oils it sets them on fire. This is occasioned by a decomposition both of the acid and oil. The oxygen of the acid combines with the carbon and with the hydrogen of the oils, and at the same time lets go a quantity of caloric. Hence we see that the oxygen which enters into the composition of the nitric acid still contains a great deal of caloric; -a fact which is confirmed by a great number of other phenome- na. The combustion of oils by this acid was first taken notice of by Borrichius and Slare; but it is probable that Homberg communicated it to Slare. In order to set fire to the fixed oils it must be mixed with some sulphuric acid; the reason of which seems to be, that these oils con- tain vvatfr, which must be previously removed. The sul- phuric acid combines with this water, and allows the ni- tric acid, or rather the oil and nitric acid together, to act. The drying oils do not require any sulphuric acid: NIT A NIT they have been boiled, and consequently deprived of all moisture. Azote has no action on nitric acid; but muriatic acid decomposes it by combining with a portion of its oxygen nitrous gas and oxymuriatic gas being evolved. It is capable of oxidizing all the metals, except gold, platinum, and titanium. It appears from the experiments of Sclieffer, Bergman, Sage, and Tillet, that nitric acid is capable of dissolving (and consequently of oxidizing) a very minute quantity even of gold. It even sets fire to zinc, bismuth, and tin, if it is pour- ed on them in fusion, and to filings of iron if they are perfectly dry. Nitric acid combines with alkalies, earths, and the ox- ides of metals, and forms compounds, which are called nitrats. The order of its affinities is as follows: Barytes, Potass, Soda, Strontian, Lime, Magnesia, Ammonia, Glucina, Alumina., Zircouia. Nitric acid is one of the most important instruments of, analysis which the chemist possesses: nor is it of inferi- or consequence when considered in a political or com- mercial view, as it forms one of the most essential ingre- dients of gunpowder. Its nature and composition accor- dingly have long occupied the attention of philosophers; and from their experiments it appears, that nitric acid is composed of azote and oxygen; consequently nitrous gas is also composed of the same ingredients. And as nitrous gas absorbs oxygen, even from common air, and forms with it nitric acid, it is evident that nitric acid contains more oxygen than nitrous gas. But it is exceed- ingly difficult to ascertain the exact proportions of the component parts of this acid. Lavoisier concluded, from his experiments on the decomposition of nitre by char- coal, that nitric acid is composed of one part of azote and four parts of oxygen. But Davy has shown that this decomposition is more complicated than had been sup- posed; and that Lavoisier's experiments by no means warrant the conclusion which he drew from them. Ca- >endish, on the other hand, concluded, from his experi- ments, that the acid which he formed, by combining to- gether azote and oxygen by means of electricity, is com- posed of one part of azote and 2.346 of oxygen. With this result the late experiments of Mr. Davy correspond- ed very nearly. He formed his standard acid by com- bining together known quantities of nitrous gas and ox- ygen. According to him 100 parts of pure nitric acid are composed of 29.5 azote 70.5 oxygen 100.0; or one part of azote, and 2.39 of oxygen. Nitric acid is seldom in a state of absolute purity, bolding usually a certain portion of nitrous gas in solu- tion. In this state it is distinguished by the name of ni- trous acid; a compound of considerable importance. See Nitrous Acid. NITRITES, are salts formed from nitrats, saturat- ed with nitrous gas. See Nitrats. The existence of these salts was first pointed out by Bergman and Scheele; the two philosophers to whom we are indebted for the first precise notions concerning the difference between nitric and nitrous acids. They can- not be formed by combining directly nitrous acid with the different earthy and alkaline bases; nor have any ex- periments made to combine nitrous gas with the nitrats been attended with success. The only method of obtaining these salts at present known, is that which was long ago pointed out by Berg- man and Scheele. It consists in exposing a nitrat to a pretty strong heat till a quantity of oxygen gas is dis- engaged from it. What remains in the retort after this process is a nitrite: but the length of time necessary for producing this change has not yet been ascertained with any degree of precision. If the heat is applied too long the nitrat will be totally decomposed, and nothing but the base will remain, as happened to some of the French chemists on attempting to repeat the process of Bergman and Scheele. Nitrite of potass is the only salt formed by this pro- cess, of which an account has been given. Scheele's pro- cess for obtaining it is as follows: Fill a small retort with nitre, and keep it red-hot for half an hour. When it is allowed to cool it is found in the state of a nitrite. It deliquesces when exposed to the air; and red vapours of nitrous acid are exhaled when any other acid is pour- ed upon it. As the nitrites have never been examined by chemists, and as it has not even been determined whether any con- siderable number of the nitrats can be converted into these salts, it would be in vain, in the present state of our knowledge, to attempt a particular description of them. It may, however, be considered as exceedingly probable that no such salts as the nitrites of ammonia, glucina, yttria, alumina, and zircouia, exist or can be formed, at least by the process of Scheele and Bergman; for the nitrats with these bases are decomposed com- pletely by the action of a heat too moderate to hope for the previous emission of oxygen gas. From the few observations that have been made, it may be concluded that the nitrites are in general deli- quescent, very soluble in water, dccomposib'le by heat as well as nitrates; that their taste is cooling like that of the nitrats, but more acrid and nitrous: that by expo- sure to the air they are gradually converted into nitrats by absorbing oxygen; but this change takes place ex- ceedingly slowly. NTTRO-MURIATIC acid. When muriatic acid is mixed with nitric acid, the mixture is nitro-muriatic acid, which was formerly known by the name of aqua- regia. NITROUS ACID. The liquid at present called ni- trous acid by chemists, may be formed by causing ni- trous gas to pass through nitric acid. The gas is absorb- ed, and the acid assumes a yellow colour; and its speci- fic gravity is diminished. It is then denominated nitrous acid, Jt is always in tbis state that it is obtained by dis- N I T N 0 C tilling a mixture of sulphuric acid and nitre. The acid of commerce is always nitrous acid. The nitric and ni- trous acids were first distinguished with accuracy by Scheele. The nature of nitrous acid was first investigated by Dr. Priestley, who demonstrated, by very decisive expe- riments, that it is a compound of nitric acid and nitrous gas. This opinion was embraced, or rather it was first fully developed, by Morveau. But the theory of Lavoi- sier, which supposed the difference between nitric and nitrous acids to depend merely on the first containing a greater proportion of oxygen than the second, for some time drew the attention of chemists from the real nature of nitrous acid. Raymond published a dissertation in 1796, to demonstrate the truth oftlic theory of Priestley and Morveau; and the same thing has been done still more lately by Messrs. Thomson and Davy. At present it is allowed by every one, that nitrous acid is merely nitric acid more or less impregnated with nitrous gas. This being the case, and nitric acid being capable of absorbing very different proportions of nitrous gas, it is evident that there must be a great variety of nitrous acids, differing from each other in the proportion of ni- trous gas which they contain; unless we choose to con- fine the term nitrous acid to the compound formed by sa- turating nitric acid completely with nitrous gas. When nitrous gas is placed in contact with nitric acid, the acid absorbs it slowly, and acquires first a pale-yel- low colour, then a bright, yellow. When a considerable portion more of nitrous gas is absorbed, the acid becomes dark orange, then olive, which increases in intensity with the gas absorbed; then it becomes of a bright green; and, lastly, when fully saturated, it becomes blue-green. Its volume and its volatility also increase with the quan- tity of gas absorbed; and when fully saturated it as- sumes the form of a dense vapour, of an exceedingly suffocating odour, and difficultly condensible by water. In this state of saturation it is distinguished by Dr. Priestley by the name of nitrous acid vapour. It is of a dark-red colour, and passes through water partly with- out being absorbed. The quantity of nitrous gas absorb- ed by nitric acid is very great. Dr. Priestley found, that a quantity of acid, equal in bulk to four pennyweights of water, absorbed ISO ounce-measures of gas without being saturated. The component parts of nitrous acid, of different colours and densities, may be seen inthe following table, drawn up by Mr. Davy, from experi- riments made by him on purpose, with much preci- sion: 100 Parts. Solid nitric acid Yellow nitrous Bright yellow Dark orange Light olive Dark olive Bright green Blue green Sp. Grav. 1.504 1.502 1.500 1.480 1.479 1.478 1.476 1.475 Component Parts. Nitric Nitrous Acid. Water. Gas. 91.55 8.45 . 90.5 8.3 2 88.94 8.10 2.96 86.84 7.6 5.56 86.00 7,55 6.45 85.4 7.5 7.1 84.8 7.44 7.76 84.6 7.4 8.00 The colour of nitrous acid depend-., in some measure. also on the proportion of water which it contains. When to yellow nitrous acid concentrated, a fourth part by- weight of water is added, the colour is changed to a fine green; and when equal parts of water are added, it be- comes blue. Dr. Priestley observed, that water impreg nated with this acid in the state of vapour, became fir-C blue, then green, and lastly yellow. A green nitrous acid became orange-coloured while hot, and retained a yellow tinge when cold. A blue acid became yellow on being heated iua tube hermetically sealed. An orange-colour- ed acid, by long keeping, became green, and afterwards of a deep blue; and when exposed to air resumed its ori- ginal colour. When nitrous acid is exposed to heat the nitrous gas is expelled, and nitric acid remains behind. The gas, however, carries along with it a quantity of acid, especially if the acid is concentrated. But nitrous acid vapour is not altered in the least by exposure to heat. It is not altered by oxygen gas, common air, nor by azotic, gas. The simple combustibles and metals act upon it pre- cisely as on nitric acid. It answers much better than nitric acid for inflaming oils and other similar bodies. It converts sulphurous and phosphorous acids into sulphuric and phosphoric. Nitrous acid vapour is absorbed by sulphuric acid, but seemingly without producing any change; for when water is poured into the mixture, the heat produced ex- pels it in the usual form of red fumes. The only sin- gular circumstance attending this impregnation is, that it disposes the sulphuric acid to crystallize. NOBILITY, a quality that ennobles, and raises a per- son possessed of it above the rank of a commoner. The civil state of England consists of the nobility and commonalty. The nobility are all those who are above the degree of knight, under which term is included that of a baronet; namely, dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons. 1 Black. 396. NOCTURNAL, Nocturlabium, an instrument chief- ly used at sea, to take the altitude or depression of some stars about the pole, in order to find the latitude, and hour of the night. Some nocturnals are hemispheres, or planispheres, on the plane of the equinoctial. Those commonly in use among seamen are two; the one adapted to the polar star, and the first of the guards of the little bear; the other to the pole-star, and the pointers ofthe great bear. This instrument consists of two circular plates (see Plate XCIV. Miscel. figure 173), applied to each other. The greater, which has a handle to hold the instrument, is about two inches and a half in diameter, and is divid- ed into twelve parts, agreeing to the twelve months, and each month subdivided into every fifth day; and so that the middle of the handle corresponds to that day of the year wherein the star here regarded has the same right ascension with the sun. If the instrument is fitted for two stars, the handle is made moveable. The upper left circle is divided into twenty-four equal parts for the twenty-four hours of the day, and each hour subdivided into quarters. These twenty-four hours are noted by twenty-four teeth, to be told in the night. Those at the hours 12 are distinguished by their length. In the cen- NON N 0 T trc ofthe two circular plates is adjusted a long index, A, moveable upon the upper plate; and the three pieces, viz. the two circles and index, are joined by a rivet wiiich is pierced through the centre with a hole, through which the star is to be observed. To use the Nocturnal.—Turn the upper plate till the long tooth, marked 12, is against the day of the month on the under plate: then, bringing the instrument near the eye, suspend it by the handle with the plane nearly parallel to the equinoctial; and viewing the pole-star through the hole of the centre, turn the index about till, by the edge coming fro in the centre, you see the bright star, or guard, ofthe little bear (if the instrument is fit- ted to that star): then that tooth ofthe upper circle, under the edge of the index, is at the hour of the night on the edge of the hour-circle: which may be known without a light, by counting the teeth from the longest, which is for the hour 12. NODE. See Surgery. NODES. See Astronomy. NOETTANS, in church history, christian heretics in the third century, followers of Noetius, a philosopher of Ephesus, who it is said pretended that he was another Moses, sent by God, and his brother was a new Aaron; his doctrine consisted in affirming that there was but one person in the Godhead, and that the Word aud the Ho- ly Spirit were but external denominations given to God in consequence of different operations; that as creator he is called Father; as incarnate, Son; and as descending on the apostles, Holy Ghost. NOLAN A, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 41st order, asperifolipe. The corolla is campanulatcd; the style situated betwixt the germens; the seeds are bilocular, and resemble berries. There is one species, an annual of Peru. NOLLE PROSEQUI, is used where the plaintiff pro- ceeds no farther in his action, and may be as well before as after a verdict, and is stronger against a plaintiff than a nonsuit, which is only a default in appearance; but this is a voluntary acknowledgment that he has no cause of action. Impey'sB. It. NOMBRIL POINT, in heraldry, is the next below the fess-point, or the very centre ofthe escutcheon. NOME, or Name, in algebra, denotes any quantity with a sign prefixed or added to it, whereby it is connec- ted with some other quantity, upon which the whole be- comes a binomial, trinomial, or the like: thus a -f b is a binomial, a -f 6 4- c is a trinomial, whose respective names or nomes are a and 6 for the first, and a, b, and c, for the second. See Algebra. NOMINATIVE, in grammar, the first case in nouns which are declinable. NON-APPEARANCE, a default in not appearing in a court of judicature. Attorneys subscribing warrants for appearing in court are liable to attachment and fine for non-appearance. If a defendant does not appear and find bail upon a scire facias and rule given, judgment may be had against him. Non compos mentis, in law, is used to denote a per- son's not being of sound memory and understanding. Of these persons there are four different kinds, an ideot, a madman, a lunatic who has lucid intervals, and a drunk- ard who deprives himself of reason by his own act and deed. In all these cases except the last, one that is non compos mentis shall not loose his life for felony or mur- der: but the drunkard can have no indulgence on account of the loss of his reason, for, in the eye of the law, his drunkenness does not extenuate but aggravate his offence. Non est inventus, is a sheriff's return to a writ, that the defendant is not to be found. Non-naturals, in medicine, so called because by their abuse they become the causes of diseases. See Medicine. The old physicians have divided the non- naturals into 6 classes, viz. the air, meats and drinks, sleep and watching, motion and rest, the passions of tho mind, the retentions, and excretions. Non-pros. If the plaintiff neglects to deliver a decla- ration for two terms after the defendant appears, or is guilty of other delays or defaults against the rules of law in any subsequent stage of the action, he is adjudged not to pursue his remedy as he ought; and thereupon a non- suit or non prosequitur is entered, and he is then said to be non-pros'd. 3 Black. 395. Non-residence. See Residence. NONAGES1MAL, or nonagesimal degree, called also the midheaven, is the highest point, or 90th degree, of the ecliptic, reckoned from its intersection with the ho- rizon at any time; and its altitude is equal to the angle thatthe ecliptic makes with the horizon at their intersec- tion, or equal to the distance ofthe zenith from the pole of the ecliptic. It is much used in the calculation of so- lar eclipses. NON AGON, a figure having nine sides and angles. In a regular nonagon, or that whose angles and sides are all equal, if each side is 1, its area will be 6.1818242 4-| of 70°, to the radius 1. NONIUS. See Vernier. NONSUIT, in law, is where a person has commenced an action, and at the trial fails in his evidence to support it, or has brought a wrong action. There i.s this advan- tage attending a nonsuit, that the plaintiff, though he pays costs, may afterwards bring another action for the same cause, whicli he cannot do after a verdict against him. Tidd's K. B. Practice. NONES, nonce, in the Roman calender, the fifth day of the months January, February, April, June, August, Sep- tember, November, and December; and the seventh of March, July, and October. March, May, July, and Oc- tober, had six days in their nones; because these alone, in the ancient constitution ofthe year by Numa, had 51 days apiece, the rest having only 29, and February 30: but when Csesar reformed the year, and made other months containing 31 days, he did not allot them six days of nones. NORROY, the title of the third of the three kings at arms. See Heraldry. NORMAL, a perpendicular forming with anothcr»linc a right angle. NORWAY RAT. See Mus. NOSE. See Anatomy. NOTARIAL ACTS, are those acts, in the civil law, which require to be done under the seal of a notary, and which are admitted as evidence in foreign courts. NOTARY, is a person duly appointed to attest deeds and writings; he also protests and notes foreign aud in- NOT N 0 U land bills of exchange and promissory notes, translates languages and attests the same, enters and extends ship's protests, &c. NOTATION, in arithmetic and algebra, the method of expressing numbers or quantities by signs or charac- ters appropriated for that purpose. Sec Aluebka, Arithmetic, Character, kc Notation, in music, the manner of expressing, or re- presenting by characters, all the different sounds used in music. The ancient notation was very different from that ofthe moderns. The Greeks employed for this purpose the letters of their alphabet, sometimes placihg them erect, and sometimes inverting, mutilating, and com- pounding them in various manners, so as to represent by them all the different tones or chords used in their system. By a treatise of Alypius, professedly written to explain the Greek characters, we find that they amount- ed to no less a number than 1240. These were, however, rejected afterwards by the Latins, who introduced letters from their own alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, 0, P, fifteen in number, and by which they expressed the sounds contained in the bisdiapason. For the great improvement upon this notation, which at length took place, and which is in part adopted at the present day, we are indebted to St. Gregory, the first pope of that name; who reflecting that in the bisdiapason, the sounds after Lichanos Meson, or the middle tone, were but a repetition of those which precceded, and that every septenary in progression was precisely the same, reduced the number of letters to seven, viz. A, B, C, D, E, F, G: but to distinguish the second septenary from tlie first, the second was denoted by the small, and not the capital, Roman letters^ and when it became necessa- ry to extend the system farther, the small letters were doubled thus, aa, bb, cc, dd, ee, ff, gg. The stave, con- sisting of a variable number of parallel lines, the appli- cation of which some attribute to Guido, was afterwards introduced; and this was again meant to be improved up- on by the adoption of small points, commas, accents, and certain little oblique strokes, occasionally interspersed in the stave, while also two colours, yellow and red, were used, a yellow line signifying the letter ornotcC, and a red line denoting that of F. Two methods of notation were long after employed for the viol and other stringed instru- ments, which were distinguished by the terms lyra-vvay and gamut-way; with this exception, that the literal no- tation for the lute is constantly called the tablaturc; con- cerning which, as also the notation by letters in general, it may be observed that they are a very inartificial prac- tice, as was also the old method of notation for the flute and flageolet by dots. NOTE is a minute, or short writing, containing some article of business; in which sense we say, promissory note, note of hand, bank note. See Bills of Exchange. NOTES, in music, characters which by their various forms and situations on the staves, indicate the duration as well as the gravity or acuteness of the several sounds of a composition. NOTICE, in law. is the making something known that a man was or might be ignorant of before, and it produces divers effects; for by it the party that gives the r same shall have some benefit, which otherwise he should flut have had: and by this means the party to whom the notice is given is mad subject to some actioii or charge, that otherwise he would not have been liable to, and his estate in danger of prejudice. Co. Lit. 309. The plaintiff and defendant are both bound at their pe- ril to take notice of the general rules of the practice of the court; but if there is a special partieular rule of court made for the plaintiff, or for the defendant, hr f.o whom the rule is made ought to give noti e of this ru'i to the other; or else he is not bound generally to take no- tice of it, nor shall be in contempt ofthe court although he does not obey it. 2 L. P. R. 204. NOTONECTA, a genus of insects ofthe order hem- iptera. The generic character is, snout inflected: an- tennse shorter than thorax; wings coriaceous on the up- per part, and crossed over each otiicr; hind feet edged with hairs, and formed for swimming. Tbe principal spe- cies of this are, 1. The notonecta glauca, a very common aquatic in- sect, inhabiting stagnant waters; and generally measur- ing about three parts of an inch in length. Its colour is grey-brown, and the upper wings are marked along the edges by a rowr of minute black specks. This insect is usually seen swimming on its back, iu which situation it bears a most striking resemblance to a boat in miniature, the hind legs acting like a pair of oars, and impelling the animal at intervals through the water, it preys on the- smaller inhabitants ofthe water, and dies only by niglit. 2. Notonecta striata, is much smaller than the prece- ding, not measuring more than a quarter of an inch in length, and is of a yellowish-grey colour, with numerous transverse undulated black lines or streaks: it is found in stagnant waters. 3. Notonecta minutissima, is an extremely small spe- cies, with grey wings, marked by longitudinal dusky spots: like the two former it is an inhabitant of stagnant waters, but is far less frequently observed than the rest, on account of its very small size. There are 17 species. NOTOXUS, a genus of insects of the coleoptera or- der. The generic character is, antennse filiform; feelers four, hatchet-shaped,jaw one toothed; thorax a little nar- rowed behind. There are 13 species, found iu Europe and Asia. NOVATIANS, a christian sect which sprang up in the third century, so called from Novatian, a priest of Rome, or Novatus, an African bishop, who separated from the communion of pope Cornelius, whom Novatian charged with a criminal lenity towards those who had apostatised during the persecution of Decius. He deni- ed the church's power of remitting mortal sins. NOVEL, in the civil law, a term used for the constitu- tions of several emperors, as of Justin, Tiberius. Eco and more particularly for those of Justinian. The con- stitutions of Justinian were called novels, either from their producing a great alteration in the face of the an- cient law, or because they were made on new cases, and after the revisal ofthe ancient code, compiled by the or- der of that emperor. Thus the constitutions of the em- perors Theodosius, Valentinian, Marcian, &c. were also called novels, on account of their being published after the Theodosian code. NOUN, in grammar, a part of speech, which signifies things without any relation to time; as a man, a house swrcl, bi'l'T, &C ' N U M N U M NUCLEI'S, in general, denotes the kernel of a nut, or even any seed inclosed within a husk. The term nu- cleus is also used for the body of a comet, otherwise call- ed its head. NUDE CONTRACT, a bare promise, without any consideration, and therefore void. NUISANCE, signifies generally anything that works hurt, inconvenience, or damage, to the property or person of another. Nuisances arc of two "kinds, public or private nuisance, and either affect the public or the individual. The remedy for a nuisance is by action on the case for damages. Every continuance of a nuisance is a fresh nui- sance, and afresh action will lie. NUMBER, kinds and distinctions of. Mathematicians, considering number under a great many relations, have established the following distinctions. Broken numbers are the same with fractions. Cardinal numbers are those wiiich express the quantity of units, as 1, 2, 3, &c. whereas ordinal numbers are those which express order, as 1st, 2d, 3d, kc. Compound number, one divisible by some other number besides unity; as 12, which is divisi- ble by 2. 3,4. and 6. Numbers, as 12 and 15, wiiich have some common measure besides unity, and are said to be compound numbers among themselves. Cubic number is the product of a square number by its root: such as 27. as being the product of the square number 9, by its root 3. All cubic numbers whose root is less than 6, being divided by 6, the remainder is the root itself: thus 27 -^ 6 leaves the remainder 3, its root; 216, the cube of 6, being divided by 6, leaves no remainder; 343, the cube of 7, leaves a remainder 1. which added to 6, i.s the cube root; and 512, the cuocof 8.divided by 6, leaves a remainder 2, which added to 6, is the cube root. Hence the remainders of. the divisions of the cubes above 216, divided by 6, being added to 6, always give the root of the cube so divided, till that remainder is 5, and consequently 11 the cube root of the number divided. But the cube num- ber above this being divided by 6, there remains nothing, the cube-root being 12. Thus the remainders of the higher cubes are to be added to 12, and not to 6, till you come to 18, when the remainder of the division must be added to 18; and so on ad infinitum. Determinate number, is that referred to some given unit, as a ternary or three: whereas an indeterminate one, is that referred to unity in general, and is called quan- iiomogencal numbers, are those referred to the same unit- as those referred to different units are termed he- tcrogencal. Whole numbers, arc otherwise called integers. See In- teger. Rational number, is one commensurable with unity; as a number incommensurable with unity, is termed irra- tional or a surd. See Surd. In the same manner a rational whole number, is that whereof unity is an aliquot part; a rational broken num- ber, that equal to some aliquot part of unity; and a ra- tional mixed number, that consisting of a whole number and a broken one. . Even number, that which may be divided into two equal parts without any fraction, as 6, 12, kc The sum, difference, and product, of any number of even numbers, is always an even number. An evenly even number, is that which may be vr.e. isur- cd, or divided, without any remainder, by another even number, as 4 by 2. Am unevenly even number, when a number may be equally divided by an uneven number, 20 by 5. Uneven number, that which exceeds an even number, at least by unity, or wiiich cannot be divided hit > two equal parts, as 3, 5, kc The sum or difference of two uneven numbers makes an even number; but the factum of two uneven ones makes an uneven number. If an even number is added to an uneven one, or if the one is subtracted from the other, in the former case the sum, in the latter the difference, is an uneven number; but the factum of an even and uneven number is even. The sum of any even number of uneven numbers is an even number,' and tbe sum of any uneven number of un- even numbers is an uneven number. Primitive or prime numbers, are those only divisible by unity, as 5, 7, &c. And prime numbers among them- selves, are those which have no common measure besides unity, as 12 and 19. Perfect number, that whose aliquot parts, added toge- ther, make the whole number, as 6, 28; the aliquot parts of 6 being 3, 2, and 1=6; and those of 28, being 14, 7, 4, 2, 1,=28. Imperfect numbers, those wiiose aliquot parts, added together, make cither more or less tban the whole. And these are distinguished into abundant and defective; an instance in the former case is 12, whose aliquot parts 6, 4, 3, 2, 1 make sixteen; and in the latter case 16, whose aliquot parts 8, 4, 2, and 1, make but 15. Plain number, that arising from the multiplication of two numbers, 6, wiiich is the product of 3 by 2; and these numbers are called the sides of the plane. Square number, is the product of any number multipli- ed by itself; thus 4, wiiich is the factum of 2 by 2, is" a square number. Every square number added to its root makes an even number. Polygonal, or polygonmis numbers, the sums of arith- metical progressions beginning with unity; ihese, where the common difference is 1, are called triangular num- bers: where 2. square numbers; where 3, pentagonal numbers; where 4, hexagonal numbers; where 5, hepta- goual numbers, kc. See Polygonal. Pyramidal numbers: the sums of polygonous numbers, collected after the same manner as the. polygons them- selves, and not gathered out of arithmetical progres- sions, are called first pyramidal numbers; the^sums ofthe first pyramidals are called second pyramidals, &c. If they arise out of triangular numbers, they are cal- led triangular, pyramidal numbers; if out of pentagons, first pentagonal pyramidals. From the manner of summing up polygonal numbers, it is easy to conceive how the prime pyramidal numbers are found, viz. (a—2 in + 3 n2 — (a — 5) n expresses all the prime pyramidals. Number, in grammar, a modification of nouns, verbs, &c. to accommodate them to the varities in their objects, considered with regard to number. NUMERAL letters, those letters of the alphabet N UR N U R NUMERALS, in grammar, those words wiiich ex- press numbers; as six, eight, ten, &c. NUMERATION. See Arithmetic, Character, &c. NUMIDA, in ornithology, a genus belonging to the order of gallinse. On each side of the head there is a kind of coloured fleshy horn; and the beak is furnished with cere near the nostrils. The species called nuieagris, or Guinea hen, is a native of Africa. See Plate C. Nat. Hist. fig. 298. It is larger than a common hen. its bo- dy is sloped like that of a partridge; and its colour is all over a dark grey, very beautifully spotted with small white specks; there is a black ring round the neck; its head is reddish, and it is blue under the eyes. They na- turally herd together in large numbers, and breed up their young hi common; the females taking care of the broods of others, as well as of their own. Barbut in- forms us, that in Guinea they go in flocks of 200 or 300, perch on trees, and feed on worms and grasshoppers; that they are run down and taken by dogs; and that their flesh is tender and sweet, generally white, though sometimes black. They breed very well with us. The white-breasted one is a mere variety, of which there are many; it is mostly found in Jamaica. The mi- tred, or numida mitrata, is a different and not a com- mon species; it inhabits Madagascar and Guinea. The third species which Mr. Latham mentions is the cres- ted, or numida cristata. This species likewise inhabits Africa. Buffon, who describes it at great length, calls it la peiutade. Linnaeus and Gmelin call it Numida melea- gris, kc Ray and Willughby call it gallus and gallina Guineensis, kc. Mr. Pennant contends, and seems to prove, that the pintados had been early introduced into Britain, at least prior to the year 1277. But they seem to have been much neglected on account of the difficulty of rearing thein; for they occur not in our ancient bills of fare. They have a double caruncle at the chaps, and no fold at the throat. NUNCIO, or *Vuntio, an ambassador from the pope to some catholic prince or state; or a person who attends on the pope's behalf at a congress, or an assembly of se- veral ambassadors. The nuncio has a jurisdiction and may delegate judges in all the states where he re- sides, except in France, where he has no authority but that of a simple ambassador. See Ambassador. NUNCUPATIVE will, denotes, a last will or testa- ment, only made verbally, and not put in writing. Sec Will and Testament. NURSERY, in gardening, is a piece of land set apart for raising and propagating all sorts of trees and plants, to supply'the garden and other plantations. In a nursery for fruit-trees, the following rules are to be observed: i. That the soil should not be better than that in which the trees are to be planted out for good. 2. That it ought to be fresh, and not such as has been already worn out by trees, or other large growing plants. 3. It ought neither to be too wet, nor too dry, hut rather of a middling nature; though, of the two ex- tremes, dry is to be preferred; because, though trees in such a soil do not make so great a progress, yet they are generally sound -r, and more disposed to fruitfulness. 4. It must be inclosed in audi a manner that neither cattle nor vermin may come in; and sm as particularly to ex- d«de Lares and rabbits, which, wbeu the gi-ouud i* co- vered with snow, are great destroyers of young trees. 5. The ground being inTosed should be carefully trench- ed about two feet deep; this should be done in August, that it may be ready for receiving young stocks at the season for planting, which is commonly about the be- ginning of October: in trenching the ground, you must be careful to cleanse it from the roots of all noxious weeds. 6. The season being come for planting, level down the trenehes as equal as possible; and then lay out the ground into quarters, wiiich may be laid out in beds for a seminary, in which you may sow the seeds or stones of fruit. 7. And having provided yourself with stocks, the next year proceed to transplant them, in the follow- ing manner: draw a line across the ground intended to be planted, and open a number of trenches exactly straight; then take the stocks out of the seed-beds; in doing which, you should raise the ground with a spade, in order to preserve the roots as entire as possible; prune off the very small fibres, and if there are any that have a tendency to root directly downwards, such roots should be shortened. Then plant them in the trenches, if they are designed for standards, in rows three feet and a half, or four feet, from each other, and a foot and a half distant in the rows; but if for dwarfs, three .feet row from row, and one foot in the row, will be a sufficient distance. These plants should by no means beheaded, or pruned at top, which will weaken them, and cause them to produce lateral branches. If the winter should prove very cold, lay some mulch on the surface ofthe ground near their roots, taking care not to let it lie too tliick near the stems ofthe plants, and to remove it as soon as the frost is over. In the summer season destroy the weeds, and dig up the ground every spring between the rows. The second year after planting, such of the stocks as are designed for dwarfs will be fit to bud; but those th:-it are designed for standards should be suffered to grow five or six feet high before they are budded or grafted: for the manner of doing wiiich, see Grafting. As to timber trees, Mr. Miller advises those gentle- men who would have plantations in park-, wooos, kc. to make nurseries upon the ground intended for planting, where a sufiicient number of the trees may be left stand- ing, after the others have been drawn out to plant iu other places. The ground intended foi* the flower-nursery should be well situated to the sun; and defended from strong winds by plantations of trees, or by buildings. Tiie soil also should be light and dry, especially for bulbous-rooted flowers; for in this nursery the offsets of all bulbous- rooted flowers should be planted, an J remain there till they become blowing roots, when they should be remov- ed into the pleasure-garden, and planted either in beds or borders, according to the goodness of the flowers. These flowers may also be raised in the nursery from seed. The seedling auriculas, polyanthuses, ranunculuses, anemonies, carnations, ^c. should be raised iu this nur- sery, where they should be preserved till they have. flowered, when all t!u>e should be marked that are wor thy of being transplanted into the flower-garden; thv should be done in their proper seasons; for all thes, seedling flowers ought not indiscriminately to be expos ed to public view iu the pleasure-garden, "because it al N Y M N Y S ways happens, that there are great numbers of ordinary flowers produced among them, which will there make but an indifferent appearance. NUT. See Corylus. Nut-galls. See Gallic Acid. NUTATION, in astronomy, a kind of tremulous mo- tion ofthe axis ofthe earth, whereby, in each annual re- volution, it is twice inclined to the ecliptic, and as often returns to its former position. Sir Isaac Newton ob- serves, that the moon has the like motion, only very small, and scarcely sensible. NUTMEG. Sec Myristica. NUTRITION. See Digestion, Materia Medica, and Physiology. MUX VOMICA, aflat, compressed, round fruit, about the breadth of a shilling, brought from India. See Stryjv- cms. NYCTANTHES, Arabian Jasmine, a genus of the monogynia order, in the diandria cla.ss of plants; and in the natural method ranking with the44th order, sepi- aria?. The corolla and calyx are octofid: the periantliium dicoecous. There are seven species, the most remark- able of which are: 1. The arbor tristis, or sorrowful tree. This tree, or shrub, the pariaticu of the Bramins, grows naturally in sandy places in India, particularly iu the islands of Ceylon and Java, where it is procured in great abundance, and attains the height of 18 or 20 feet. It rises with a four-cornered stem, bearing leaves that are oval, and taper to a point. The flowers, whicli are white and highly odoriferous, having a sweet delec- table smell emulating the best honey, consist of one petal deeply divided into eight parts, which are narrower to- wards the stalks, and dilated towards the summit. The fruit is dry, capsular, membranaceous, and compressed. It is generally asserted of this plant, thatthe flowers open in the evening, and fall off the succeeding day. • Fabricius and Paludanus, however, restrict the asser- tion, by affirming, from actual observation, that this ef- fect is found to take place only in such flowers as are im- mediately under the influence of the solar ravs. Grim- niius remarks in his Laboratoiium Ceyionicum, that the flowers of this tree afibrd a fragrant water, which is cordial, refreshing, and frequently employed with suc- cess in inflammations ofthe eyes. The tube of the flow- er, when dried, has the smell of saffron; and being poun- ded and mixed with sanders-wood, is used by the natives of the Malabar coast for imparting a grateful fragrancy to their bodies, vjhich they rub or anoint With the mix- ture. \ , r. °.« The angustfblia, of whicli the flowers are white, inexpressibly fragrant, and generally appear in the warm summer-months. Strong loam is its proper soil. NYMPH, among naturalists, that stale of winged in- sects between their living in the form of a worm, and their appearing in the winged or most perfect state. See Entomology. NYMPH E A. Sec Anatomy. Kymphsa, the water lily, a genus of the monogynia order, in the polyandria class of plants; and in the na- tural method ranking under the 54th order, miscellanea. The corolla is polypetalous; the calyx tetraphyllous or pentaphyllous; the berry multiloeular and truncated. There are six species, of wiiich the most remarkable are: 1. and 2. The Iutcaand alba, or yellow and white water- lilies; both of which are natives of Britain, growing in lakes and ditches. Linnseus tells us, that swine are fond ofthe leaves and roots ofthe former; and that the smoke of it will drive away crickets and blatta?, or cock-roa- ches, out of houses. The root of the second has an as- stringent and bitter taste, like those of most aquatic plants that run deep into the mud. 3. The lotus, with heart-shaped toothed leaves, a plant thought to be pecu- liar to Egypt, is mentioned by Herodotus. M. Savary metions it as growing in the rivulets and on the sides of the lakes; and that there are two sorts or varieties of the plant, the one with a wiiite, the other with a blueish flower. « The calyx (he says) blows like a large tulip, and diffuses «a sweet smell, resembling that of the lilv. The first species produces a round root like that of a po- tatoe; and the inhabitants of the banks of the lake Mcn- zall feed upon it. The rivulets in the environs of Dami- etta are covered with this majestic flower, which rises upwards of two feet above the water. 4. Inthe East and West Indies grows a species of this plant, named nelum- bo by the inhabitants of Ceylon. The flowers are large, flesh-coloured, and consist of numerous petals, disposed as in the other species of water-lily, in two or more rows. The seed-vessel is shaped like a top, being broad and circular above, narrow and almost pointed below. It is divided into several distinct cells, whicli form so many large round holes upon the surface ofthe fruit, each con- taining a single seed. With the flower of this plant, which is sacred among the heathens, they adorn the alters of their temples. The stalks, which are used as a pot- herb, are of a wonderful length. The root is very long, extends itself transversely, is of the the size of a man's arm, jointed and fibrous, with long intervals between the joints. The fibres surround the joints in verticilli or whorls. NYSSA, a genus ofthe order of dieecia, in the poly- gamia class of plants; and in the natural method rank- ing under the 12th order, holoraccse. The hermaphro- dite calyx is quinquepartite; there is no corolla; the stamina are five; there is one pistil: the fruit a plum in- ferior. The calyx is quinquepartite, no corolla, and ten stamina. There are two species: 1. The integrifolia,en- tire-leaved; and, 2. The denticulata, or serrated-leaved tupelo. The entire-leaved tupelo-trce, in its native soil and climate, grows to near 20 feet high; in this country its size varies according to the nature ofthe soil or situa- tion. In a moist rich earth, well sheltered, it comes to near 20 feet; in others, that are less so, it makes slower progress, and in the end is proportionally lower. The branches are not very numerous; and it rises with a re- gular trunk, at the top of which they generally grow. In England they seldom produce fruit. The serrated-leaved tuptio-tree grows usually nearly 30 feet in height; and divides into branches near the top like the other. The leaves are oblong, pointed, of a light green colour, and come out without order on long foot- stalks. The flowers come out from the wings of the leaves on long footstalks. They are small, of a greenish-colour; and are succeeded by oval drupes, containing sharp-poin- ted nuts, about the size of a French olive. OBI. 0 B S O. Othe fourteenth letter of our alphabet. As a nume- J ral, it is sometimes used for eleven; and with a dash over it thus, O, for eleven thousand. In the notes of the ancients, O. CON. is read opus conductum; 0. C. Q. opere consilioque; O. D. M. opera, donum, mu- nus; and 0. L. O. opus locatum. In music, the O, or rather a circle, or double C3, is a note of time called by us a semi-breve; and by the Ital- ians circolo. The O is also used as a mark of triple time, as being the most perfect of all figures. OAK. See Quercus. OAKAM, old ropes untwisted, and pulled out into loose hemp, in order to be used in caulking the seams, tree-nails, and bends of a ship, for stopping or prevent- ing leaks. OAR, in navigation, a long piece of wood, for moving a vessel by rowing. Oars for ships are generally cut out of fir-timber, those for barges are made out of New Eng- land or Dantzic-rafters, and those for boats, either out of English ash, or fir rafters from Norway. OAT. See Avena. OATH, an affirmation or denial of any thing before one or more persons, who have the authority to adminis- ter the same, for the discovery and advancement of truth and right. See Affidavit. OBELISK, a truncated quadrangular, and slender pyramid, raised as an ornament, and frequently charged either with inscriptions or hieroglyphics. Obelisks appear to be of very great antiquity, and to be first raised to transmit to posterity precepts of philosophy, which were cut in hieroglyhical characters: afterwards they were used to immortalize the great actions of heroes, and the memory of persons beloved. The first obelisk mentioned in history wras that of Rameses king of Egypt, in the time of the Trojan war, which was forty cubits high. Phius, another king of Egypt, raised one of forty- five cubits; and Ptolomy Philadelphia, another of eigh- ty-eight cubits, in memory of Arsinoe. Augustus erect- ed one at Rome in the Campus Martius, which served to mark the hours on an horizontal dial, drawn on the pavement. They were called by the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun, because they were made in Egypt also, to serve as styles or gnomons to mark the hours on the ground. The Arabs still call them Pharoah's need- les, whence the Italians call them aguglia, and the French aiguilles. The proportions in the height and thickness are near- ly the same in all obelisks; their height being nine or nine and a half, and sometimes ten times, their thickness; and their diameter at the top never less than half, and never greater than three-fourths, of that at the bottom. OBLATE, flatted, or shortened; as an oblate spheroid, having its axis shorter than its middle diameter, being formed by the rotation of an ellipse about the shorter ax»s. _ „ OBLATENESS. See Earth, figure of. OBLIGATION, a bond containing a penalty, with a condition annexed, either for payment of money, per- formance of covenants, or the like. This security is cal- led a specialty. Co. Lit. 172. See Bond, and Deed. OBLIQUE, in geometry, something aslant, or that deviates from the perpendicular. Thus, an oblique an- gle, is cither an acute or obtuse one; that is, any angle except a right one. Obliojoe Planes. See Dialling. OBLONGATA Medulla. See Anatomy. OBOLUS, in antiquity, an ancient Athenian coin, worth a penny farthing. Among ancient physicians, obo- lus likewise denoted a weight, equal to ten grains. OBOLARIA, a genus of the angiospermia order, in the didynamia class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 40th order, personatae. The calyx is bifid; the corolla campanulated and quadrifid; the cap- sule unilocular, bivalved, and polyspermous; the stamina rising from the divisions of the corolla. There is one species, a herb of Virginia. OBSERVATORY, a place destined for observing the heavenly bodies; being generally a building erected on some eminence, covered with a terrace for making as- tronomical observations. The principal instruments for a fixed observatory are, a large fixed quadrant, or a circular divided instrument, chiefly for measuring vertical angles; a transit instru- ment; an equatorial instrument; a chronometer, or regu- lator; one or more powerful telescopes; a fixed zenith telescope, and a night telescope. The quadrant, or quarter of a circle, divided into 90°, and each degree subdivided into minutes or smaller parts, lias been made of various sizes; some of them having a radius even of eight or nine or more feet in length. When those quadrants do not exceed one or two, or at most three feet, in radius, they are generally fixed upon their particular stands, wiiich are furnished with vari- ous mechanical contrivances, that are necessary to place the plane of the quadrant perpendicular to the horizon, and for all the other necessary adjustments. But large quadrants are fixed upon a strong wall by means of pro- per clamps; hence they have been commonly callekl mu- ral quadrants, and are situated in the plane of the meri- dian of the observatory. In either of those quadrants.an index, which reaches from the centre to the edge of the arch, moves round that centre, or round a short axis whicli passes through that centre so as to be moveable with its extremity all round that arc, and thus point out on the divisions ofthe arch, the angle which it forms with the horizon, or with the vertical line, in any given situa- tion. This index carries a telescope, through whicli the observer looks at any particular object, whose altitude he wishes to determine. Plate XC V. Observatory, kc fig. 1. represents a simple construction of a small moveable quadrant, and fig.2. re- presents a mural quadrant. Of the quadrant fig. i. CE B is tbe arch divided into 90°, and generally subdivided into smaller divisions, such as half degrees, or third parts of each degree, kc. The centre of the arch is at A, and the whole is connected together by means of strong me- OBSERVATORY. tallic bars, as is shown between the letters ABC in the figure: in the centre A, a short axis is fixed perpendicu- lar to the plane of the instrument, and to the upper part of this axis is fastened the index AD, which carries the telescope. Tbis index generally has a small lateral pro- jection, as at E, upon which the nonius or vernier is marked, by which means the minutes or smaller parts of each degree may be discerned. (See Vernier.) The screw P, commonly called the tangent screw, with a nut that may be fastened to any part of the arch BC, screws likewise into the extremity ofthe index, and is useful for moving the index gently, or more accurately than by the immediate application ofthe hand to the index itself. Since the index is suspended at one end, viz. at A, if the other end D happens to be disengaged from the screw P, the lower end D of the index will naturally come down to C, on account of its own weight, and that of the tele- scope. Now, in order to avoid this tendency downwards, an arm Yr of brass or iron, is frequently affixed to the up- per part ofthe index, which carries the leaden weight Z, sufficient to balance the weight ofthe index and telescope; so that by this means, even when disengaged from the screw P, the index will remain in any situation in which it maybe left. 'The whole frame ABC is supported up- on a strong vertical axis FS, the lower part of which turns into the pedestal Okm, and carries an index SX, which moves upon the divided horizontal circle 0, fixed to the pedestal. This serves to fix the plane of the quad- rant in any azimuth that may be required. The lower part of the pedestal has three claws, with a screw m in each; by whicli means the axis FS may be set truly per- pendicular. The plummet AO, suspended at A, serves to show when the edge AC of the instrument is truly per- pendicular, or when the first division ofthe arch at C is exactly in the vertical which passes through the centre A of the quadrantal arc BC. The weight of the plum- met generally moves in a glass of water, which is fixed upon the arm GR; the object of whicli is to check the vi- brations ofthe pendulum; which otherwise would be easi- ly moved by every breath of air, aud would continue to move for a considerable time after. We do not mention the lenses or microscopes that are applied to read off the divisions at E and at X, or to see the coincidence ofthe plummet line with a dot marked upon the arc at C, as matters that need no particular description. In the eye-tube of the telescope AD, there are certain slejider wires, placed in the focus of the eye-lens, and perpendicular to the axis ofthe telescope, which enable the observer to distinguish more accurately when an ob- ject, that is seen through the telescope, reaches the axis ofthe telescope, or, as it is more commonly called, the line of collimation, kc Now when the stars or planets are observed at night, those wires in the eye-tube cannot be seen; therefore,"to render them visible, an arm or wire is fixed occasion];, at tiie end of the telescope, which arm holds a small piece of ivory or card x, set aslant to the axis ofthe telescope; for when a lighted candle or lan- tern is situated at'a little distance, and is directed so as to shine upon the above-mentioned ivory or card, the re- flection of the light from it into the tube of the telescope will enable the observer to distinguish the wires at the same time that he beholds the celestial object. The mural quadrant, fig. 2, is a larger instrument like the above, excepting that it has no stand; and its index i.s prevented from bending on account of its great length, by means of metallic bars, d.f, b, c. This in- strument is firmly fixed upon a wall exactly in the plane of the meridian of the observatory, for which purpose it has clamps, screws, and other adjustments. It has like- wise a plulinnet, This undoubtedly is the principal instrument of an observatory; for by observing the times by the clock, of the arrival of any celestial object to the meridian, the right ascension of that object is had immediately; and its declination is shown at the same time by the index of the quadrant upon the divided arch; deducting the inclina- tion ofthe equator, which is given by the latitude once ascertained of the observatory. It is by this means that exact catalogues of the places of the fixed stars have been made. The transit instrument consists of a telescope of any convenient length, fixed at right angles to a horizontal axis, which axis is supported at its twro extremities; and tbe instrument is generally situated so that the line of collimation ofthe telescope may move in the plane ofthe meridian. The use of this instrument is to observe the precise time of the celestial bodies' passage across the meridian of the observatory. Fig. 3. exhibits a transit instrument. NM is the tele- scope; in the eye-tube of which a system of parallel wires, is situated in tbe focus of the eye-lens. FE is the hori- zontal axis, in the middle of wiiich the telescope is stea- dily fixed; so that by moving the telescope, the axis is forced to turn round its two extremities E and F, which rest in the notches of two thick pieces, T, S, of bell-me- tal, such as are delineated separately and magnified at X and Z. Those pieces are generally fixed upon two pillars, either of cast iron, or, whicli is better, of stone, as are shown in the figure; and they are constructed so as to be susceptible of a small motion by means cT slides and screws, viz. the piece T backwards and forwards, and the piece S upwards and downwards; by w hich means the axis EF of the instrument may be set exactly hori- zontal, and caused to move perpendicular to the plane of the meridian. In order to verify the first of those requi- sites, viz. to see whether the axis is truly horizontal, the long spirit-level P Q is suspended upon it by means of the metallic branches PO and QR; and the situation of the bubble in it will immediately show whether the axis is truly horizontal, or which way it inclines, and of course where it must be raised or depressed. The other requisite, viz. whether the axis is perpendicular to the plane of the meridian, or not, may be verified by vari- ous means, the best of which is by observations on those circumpolar stars which never go below the horizon of the observatory. Thus, observe the times by the clock, when a circumpolar star, seen through the telescope NM, crossess the meridian both above and below the pole; and if the times of describing the eastern and western parts of its circuit are equal, the telescope is then in the plane of the meridian, consequently the axis EF is perpendicu- lar to that plane; otherwise the notched pieces T and S, which support the extremities E, F, of the axis, must be moved accordingly, or until upon observation it is found OBSERVATORY. that the above-mentioned times of the stars* semi-revo- lutions are equal. When the instrument has been once so adjusted, a mark may be made upon a house, or rock, or post, at some distance from the observatory, so that when view- ed through the telescope, this mark may appear to be in the direction ofthe axis ofthe telescope; by wiiich means the correct situation of the instrument may afteivvards be readily verified. The cylindric extremity F is perforated, and the per- foration passes through the half of the axis, and reaches the inside of the telescope; that side of the telescope tube which is exactly facing F, being also perforated. With- in the said tube, and directly opposite to the perforation ofthe end F, a plane reflector, or a flat piece of ivory, is fixed, making an angle of 45° with the axis ofthe tele- scope, and having a hole througli it large enough to ad- mit all the rays passing from the object-glass to the eye- glass of the telescope. ' When stars or other celestial objects are to be observ- ed in the night-time, a small lantern \T is set upon a stand just before the perforation of the extremity F, so as to throw the light within the axis, and upon me slant reflector within the tube of the telescope, whence it is reflected upon the wires in the eye-tube M, and renders thein visible. By placing the lantern nearer to, or far- ther from, the extremity F, the observer may illuminate the wires sufficiently for the purpose, and not too much. To the other extremity E of the axis, a divided circle, or sometimes a semicircle, is fixed, which turns with the axis; the index being fixed to the pillar which supports the axis. Sometimes the situation of those parts is re- versed, viz. the circle is fastened to the pillar, or to the brass piece which supports the axis, aud the index is fas- tened to the extremity E of the axis. The use of this circle, is to place the telescope in the direction of any particular celestial body, when that body crosses the meridian; which inclination is equal to the co-latitude of the place, more or les. the declination of the celestial bo- dy, according as that declination is north or south. To adjust the clock by the sun's transit over the meridian.—.Note the times' by the clock when the prece- ding and following edges ofthe sun's limb touch the cross wires. The difference between the middle time and 12 hours, shows how much the mean, or time by the clock, is faster or slower than the apparent, or solar time, for that day; to which the equation of time being applied, will show the time of mean noon for that day, by which the clock may be adjusted. Astronomical or equatorial sector, an instrument for finding the difference in right ascension and declination between two objects, the distance of which is too great to be observed by the micrometer, was invented by Graham. Let AB ("fig 4.) represent an arch of a circle, contain- ing io or 12 degress well divided, waving a strong plate (T) for its radius, fixed to the middle ofthe arch at D: let this radius be applied to the sue of an axis HFI arid be moveable about a joint fixed to it a F, so that the plane of the sector may be always parallel to the axis H I-which I cin- parallel to the axis of the earth, the plane f li to °wm always be parallel to the p amj of some hour circle Let a telescope CE be moveable about the c^tre C ohhe arch AB, frem one end of it tothe other, by turning a screw at G; and let the line of sight be pa- rallel to the plane of the sector. Now, by turning tho whole iustruineiit about ihe axis ill, till the plane of ii i-> sir eessively dincteJ. first to one of the stars and then to another, it is ea-.y to move the sector about the join* F, into such a posiiion, thatthe arch AB. when fixed1 shall take in botii the stars in their passage, by the plan- of it, provided the difference of their declinations does not exceed the arch AB. Then, having fixed the plane of the sector a little to the westward of both the stars. move tlie telescope CE by the screw G; and observe by a clock the time of each transit over the cross hairs, and also the degrees and minutes upon the arch All cut by the imli'X at each transit; then in the difference of th arches, the difference of the declinations, and by the dif- ference of the times, we have the difference of the right ascensions ofthe stars. Tbe dimensions of this instrument are these: The length of the telescope, or the radius of the sector, is 2% feet; the breadth of the radius, near the end C, is 1 \ inch; and at the end D two inches. The breadth of the limb AB is l\ inch: and its length six inches, containing ten degrees divided into quarters, and numbered from each end to the other. The telescope carriis a nonius or sub- dividing plate, whose length, being equal to sixteen quar- ters of a degree, is divided into fifteen equal parts; wiiich, in effect, divides the limb into minutes, and, by estima- tion, into smaller parts. The length of the square axis HFI is eighteen inches, and its thickness is about a quar- ter of an inch: the diameters of the circles arc each 5 inches; the thickness of the plates, and the other mea- sures, may betaken at the direction of a workman. This instrument may be rectified, for making obser- vations, in this manner: By placing tlie intersection of the cross hairs at the same distance from the plane of the sector, as the centre of the object-class, the plane described by the line of sight during the circular motion ofthe telescope upon the limb will be sufficiently true, or free from conical curvily. which may be examined by suspending a long plumb-line at a convenient distance from the instrument; and by fixing the plane of the sec- tor in a vertical position, and then by observing, while the telescope is moved by the screw along the limb, whether the cross hairs appear to move along the plumb- line. The axis hfo (see figure below) may be elevated near- ly parallel to the axis of the earth, by means of a small common quadrant; and its error may be corrected by making the line of sight follow the circular motion of any of the circumpolar stars, while the whole instrument is moved about its axis hfo, the. telescope being fixed to the limb; for this purpose, let the telescope k I be d.rected to the star a, when it passes over the highest point of its diurnal circle, and let the division cut by the nonius be then noted: then after twelve hours, when the star conies to the lowest point of its circle, having turned the instru- ment half-round its axis to bring the telescope into the position m n; if the cross hairs cover the same star sup- posed at b, the elevation ofthe axis hfo is exactly right; but if it is necessary to move the telescope into the posi- tion u v, in order to point to this star ate, the arch mi a, which measures the angle mf u or bf c, will be known' and then tt>»axi< fifo musi be depressed half tbe quanM- OBSERVATORY. rv of this given angle if the star passed below b, or must be raised so much higher if above it; and thus the trial must be repeated till the true elevation of the axis is obtained. By making the like observations upon the same star on each side the pole, in the sijt o'clock hour- circle, the error of the axis, towards the cast or west, may also be found and corrected, till the cross-hairs fol- low the star quite round the pole: for supposing ao pb c to be an arch of the meridian, make the angle afp equal to half the angle afc, and the line/ p will point to the pole; and the angle ofp, which is the error of the axis, will be equal to half the angle bfc, or mfu, found by the observation; because the difference of the two angles afb, afc, is double the difference of their halves afo and afp. Unless the star is very near the pole, allow- ance must be made for refractions. Equatorial or portable observatory: an instrument de- signed to answer a number of useful purposes in practi- cal astronomy, independantly of any particular observa- tory; it may be made use of in any steady room and per- forins most of the useful problems in the science. The principal parts of this instrument (fig. 5.) are, 1. The azimuth or horizontal circle A, which represents the horizon of the place, and moves on an axis B, called the vertical axis. 2. The equatorial or hour circle C, re- presenting the equator, placed at right angles to the po- lar axis D, or the axis of the earth, upon which it moves. 3. The semicircle of declination E, on which the telescope is placed, and moving on the axis of declination, or the axis of motion of the line of collimation F. These cir- cles are measured and divided as in the following table: Divided on j Divided by limb into jnonius into parts of inc. |parts of inc. 1350th 1350th 1260th 45th 45th 45th Nonius of 30 gives seconds. © © i © n no) co Limb divided to 0> 1 - . .5 v ►O ir; .. W .2 2 1 <-• +-* •« ~s -o | to 1 m io w oi 2 1 ___ Measures of the several circles, and division* on them. Azimuth, or hori-") zontal circle J Equatorial, or 1 hour circle j Vertical semi-eir-"l cle, for declina-1 tion or latitude, j 4. The telescope in this equatorial may be brought par- allel to the polar axis, as in the figure, so as to point to the pole-star in any part of its diurnal revolution; and thus it has been observed near noon, when the sun has shone very bright. 5. The apparatus for correcting the error|in[altitude occasioned by refraction, which is applied to the eye-end of tlie telescope, and consists of a slide G moving in a groove or dovetail, and carrying the several eye-tubes of the telescope, on which slide there is an in- dex corresponding to 5 small divisions engraved on the dovetail; a small circle called the refraction circle, II, moveable by a finger-screw at the extremity of the eye- end of the telescope; which circle is divided into half- minutes, one entire revolution of it being equal to 3' 18", and by its motion raises the centre of the cross hairs oh a circle of altitude, and likewise a quadrant I of an inch and a half radius, with divisions on each side, one ex- pressing the degree of altitude of the object viewed, and the other expressing the minutes and seconds of error oc- casioned by refraction, corresponding to that degree of altitude: to this quadrant is joined a small round level K, whicli is adjusted partly by the pinion that turns the whole of this apparatus, and partly by the index of the quadrant; for which purpose the refraction-circle is set to the same minute, kc. which the index points to on the limb of the quadrant; and if the minute, &c. given by the quadrant exceeds the 3' 18" contained in one entire revo- lution ofthe refraction-circle, this must be set to the ex- cess above one or more of its entire revolutions; then the centre of the cross hairs will appear to be raised on a cir- cle of altitude to the additional height which the error of refraction will occasion at that altitude. The principal adjustment in this instrument is that of making the line of collimation to describe the portion of an hour-circle in the heavens; in order to which, the azimuth-circle must be truly level; the line of collimation, or some corresponding line represented by the small brass rod M parallel to it, must be perpendicular to the axis of its own proper motion; and this last axis must be perpendicular to the polar axis. On the brass rod M there is occasionally placed a hanging level N, the use of which will appear in the following adjustments. The azimuth-circle may be made level by turning the instrument till one of the levels is parallel to an imagina- ry line joining two of the feet-screws; then adjust that level with these two feet-screws; turn the circle half round, that is, 180°; and if the bubble is not then right, correct half the error by the screw belonging to the level, and the other half error by the two feet-screws; repeat this till the bubble comes right; then turn the circle 90° from the two former positions, and set the bubble right; if it is wrong, by the foot-screw at the end of tbe level; when this is done, adjust the other level by its own screw, and the azimuth-circle will be truly level. The hanging le- vel must then be fixed to the brass rod by two hooks of equal length, and made truly parallel to it: for this purpose make the polar axis perpendicular, or nearly perpendicular, to the horizon; then adjust the level by the pinion ofthe decli- nation-semicircle, reverse the level, and if it is wrong, correct half the error by a small steel screw that lies un- der one end of the level, and the Other half error by the pinion of the declination-semicircle; repeat this till the bubble is right in both positions. In order to make OBSERVATORY. the brass rod on which the level is suspended, at right angles to the axis of motion of the telescope or line of collimation, make the polar axis horizontal, or nearly so; set the declination-semicircle to 0°, turn the hour-circle till the bubble comes right; then turn the declination- circle to 90°; adjust the bubble by raising or depressing the polar axis, (first by hand till it is nearly right, af- terwards tighten with an ivory-key the socket which runs on the arch with the polar axis, and then apply the same ivory key to the adjusting-screw at the end of the said arch till the bubble comes quite right); then turn the declination-circle to the opposite 90°; if the level is not then right, correct half tiie error by the aforesaid adjusting screw at the end of the arch, and the other half error by the two screws which raise or depress the end of the brass rod. The polar axis remaining nearly horizontal as before, and the declination-semicircle at 0°, adjust the bubble by the hour-circle; then turn the decli- nation-semicircle to 90°, and adjust the bubble by rais- ing or depressing the polar axis; then turn the hour-cir- cle 12 hours; and if the bubble is wrong, correct half the error by the polar axis, and the other half-error by the two pair of capstan-screws at the feet of the two sup- ports on one side of the axis of motion of the telescope; and thus this axis will be at right angles to the polar ax- is. The next adjustment is to make the centre of cross hairs remain on the same object, while you turn the eye- tube quite round by the pinion of the refraction appara- tus: for this adjustment, set the index on the slide to the first division of the dovetail; and set the division mark- ed 18" on the refraction-circle to its index; then look tlirough the telescope, and with the pinion turn the eye- tube quite round; and if the centre of the hairs does not remain on the same spot during that revolution, it must be corrected by the four small screws, two and two at a a time (which you will find upon unscrewing the nearest end ofthe eye-tube that contains the first eye-glass); re- peat this correction till the centre of the hairs remains on the spot you are looking at during an entire revolu- tion. In order to make the line of collimation parallel to the brass rod on which the level hangs, set the polar axis horizontal, and the declination-circle to 90°; adjust the level by the polar axis; look through the telescope on some distant horizontal object covered by the centre of the cross hairs; then invert the telescope: which is done by turning the hour circle half-round; and if the centre of the cross hairs does not cover the same object as before, correct half the error by the uppermost and lowermost of the four small screws at the eye-end of the large tube of the telescope: this correction will give a se- cond object now covered by the centre of the hairs, whicli must be adopted instead of the first object: then invert the telescope as before; and if the second object is not covered by the centre of the hairs, correct half the error by the same two screws whicli were used before: this correction will give a third object, now covered by the centre ofthe hairs, which must be adopted instead of I the second object; repeat this operation till no error re- mains; then set the hour-circle exactly to 12 hours (the declination-circle remaining at 90 degrees as before); and if the centre of the cross hairs does not cover the last object fixed on, set it to thaf object by the two re- maining small screws at the eye-end ol the large tinje, and then the line of collimation will be parallel to the brass rod. For rectifying the nonius of the declination and equatorial circles, lower the telescope as many de grees, minutes, and seconds, below 0° or M on the de- clination-semicircle, as are equal to the complement of the latitude, then elevate the polar axis till the bubble is horizontal, and thus the equatorial circle will be elevat- ed to the co-latitude of the place; set this circle to 6 hours; adjust the level by the pinion of the declination-circle; then turn the equatorial circle exactly 12 hours from the last position; and if the level is not right, correct one half of the error by the equatorial circle, and the other half by the declination-circle; then turn the equatorial circle back again exactly 12 hours from the last position; and if the level is still wrong, repeat the correction as be- fore till it is right when turned to either position; that being done, set the nonius of the equatorial circle exact- ly to 6 hours, and the nonius of the declination circle ex- actly to 0°. The principal uses of this equatorial are, 1. To find the meridian by one observation only: for this purpose elevate the equatorial circle to the co-lati- tude of the place, and set tlie declination-semicircle to the sun's declination for the day and hour of the day re- quired; then move the azimuth and hour circle both at the same time, either in the same or contrary directions, till you bring the centre of the cross hairs in tbe tele- scope exactly to cover the centre of the sun; wiien that is done, the index of the hour-circle will give the appa- rent or solar time at the instant of observation; and thus the time is gained, though the sun is at a distance from the meridian; then turn the hour-circle till the index points precisely at 12 o'clock, and lower the telescope to the horizon, in order to observe.some point there in the centre of your glass, and that point is your meridian mark found by one observation only; the best time for this operation is three hours before or three hours after 12 at noon. 2. To point the telescope on a star, though not on the meridian, in full day-light. Having elevated the equato- rial circle to the co-latitude of the place, and set the de- clination-semicircle to the star's declination, move the index of the hour-circle till it shall point to the precise time at which the star is then distant from the meridian, found in tables of the right ascension of the stars, and the star will then appear in the glass. Besides these uses peculiar to this instrument, it is also applicable to all the purposes to which the principal astronomical in- struments, viz. a transit, a quadrant, and an equal-alti- tude instrument, are applied. Of all the different sorts of chronometers or timekeep- ers, a pendulum-clock, when properly constructed, is un- doubtedly capable of the greatest accuracy, it being lia- ble to fewer causes of obstruction or irregularity; there- fore such machines are most recommendable for an ob- servatory. The situation of this clock must be near the quadrant, and near the transit instrument; so 'that the observer, whilst looking through the telescope of any of those instruments, may hear the beats of the clock and count the seconds. Wcnecd hardly observe with respect to the telescopes, that they arc of very great use in an observatorv. In- deed u telescope for tbe same can never be too good or 0 c c too large; and it should be furnished with micrometers, with different eye-pieces, kc; but as a large instrument of that sort is not easily managed, nor is always requir- ed, so there should be two or three telescopes of different sizes and different powers in every observaton*. One at least ought to be fixed upon an axis which may move par- allel to the axis of the earth; for in this construction the celestial bodies may, with the telescope, be easily follow- ed in their movements; as the hand of the observer is, in that case, obliged to move the telescope in one direction only. A pretty good telescope placed truly vertically in an observatory, is likewise a very useful instrument; as the aberration of the stars, latitude of the place, kc may be observed and determined by the use of such an in- strument, with great ease and accuracy. The night telescope is a short telescope, which mag- nifies very little; but it collects a considerable quantity of light, and has a very great field of view; it therefore renders visible several dim objects, which cannot be dis- covered with telescopes of considerably greater magni- fying powers; and hence it is very useful for finding out nebulie, or small comets, or to see the arrangement of a great number of stars in one view. The principal instruments that are at present used for marine astronomy, or for the purposes of navigation, are that incomparably useful instrument called Had ley's sextant, or quadrant, or octant; a portable chronometer; and a pretty good telescope. With these few instruments, the latitudes, longitudes, hours of the day or night, and several other problems useful to navigators, may be ac- curately solved. See Optics, and Quadrants. OBSIDIAN, in mineralogy, called also the Iceland agate, is found either in detached masses, or forming a part of rocks. It has the appearance of black glass, it is usually invested with a grey or opaque crust. Its frac- ture is conchoidal. Specific gravity 2.35 nearly. Colour black, or grey:sh-black; when in very thin pieces green. Very brittle, "it melts into an opaque grey mass, it is composed of 69 silica 22 alumina 9 iron 100. OBTURATOR. See Anatomy. OCCllTl ALES. See Anatomy. OCCULT, in geometry, i.s used for a line that is scarcely perceptible, drawn with the point of the com- pass, or a leaden pencil. These lines are used in several operations, as the raising of plans, designs of buildings, pieces of perspective, kc. 'I hey are to be effaced when the work is finished. OCCULTATION, circle of perpetual, is a parallel in an oblique sphere, as far distant from the depressed pole, as the elevated pole is from the horizon. All the stars between this parallel and the depressed pole, never rise, but lie constantly hid under the horizon of the place. OCCUPATION, or Occupancy. The law of occu- pancy is founded upon the law of nature, and is simply the taking possession of those things, which before be- longed to nobody; tand this is the true ground and foun- dation of all property. In the civil law it denotes the pos- 0 C II session ef such things as at present properly belong i» no private person, but are capable of being made so; as by seizing or takingof spoils in war, by catching thing* wild by nature, as birds and beasts oi game, kc, or by finding tilings before undiscovered, c- lost by their pro- per owners. CCCLTTERS of walling, a term in the salt-works fM- the persons who are the sworn officers that allot, in par- ticular places, what quantity of salt is to be made, that the markets may not be overstocked, and see that all i.s carried fairly and equally between the lord and the tenant. OCEAN, in geography, that vast collection of salt and navigable waters, in which the two continents, the first including Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the last America, are inclosed like islands. The ocean is distin- guished into three grand divisions: 1. The Atlantic ocean, wiiich divides Europe and Africa from America, which is generally about three thousand miles wide; 2. The Pacific ocean, or South-sea, which divides America from Asia, and is generally about ten thousand miles over; and, 3. The Indian ocean, which separates the East In- dies from Africa, which is three thousand miles over. The other seas which are called oceans, arc only parts or branches of these, and usually receive their names from the countries they border upon. OC11NA, a genus ofthe monogynia order, in the po- lyandria class of plants; and in tlie natural method rank- ing with those of which the order is doubtful. The co- rolla is pentapetalous; the calyx pentaphyllous; the ber- ries monospermous, and affixed to a large roundish re- ceptacle. There are three species, trees of the East Indies and South America. OCHRE, in natural history, a genus of earths, slight- ly coherent, and composed of fine, smooth/soft, argilla- ceous particles, rough to the touch, and readily diffusi- ble iu water. It is a combination of alumina and red oxide of iron. Ochres are of various colours, as red, blue, yellow, brown, green, kc OCHROMA, a genus ofthe pentandria order, in the monadelphia class of plan's; and in the natural method ranking under the 37th'idee, columnifcrae. The corolla consists of six petals, three of which are external, and the other three internal; the antherae unite, and form a spiral pillar round the stvle; the capsule is long, and has five loculauients, which contain a number of black round seeds. Of this there is only one species, viz. the ochro- mo lagopus, the down-tree, or cork-wood. This tree is frequent in Jamaica, is of speedy growth, and rises to about 25 or 30 feet. The flowers are large and yellow. The capsules are about five inches long, rounded, and covered with a thin skin; which when dry falls off in five longitudinal segments, and leaves the fruit greatly re- sembling a hare's foot. The down is short, soft, and silky; it is used sometimes to stuff beds and pillows; but, like other vegetable downs, is apt to get into clots: an insi- pid clear gum exudes from the tree when wounded. The bark is tough, and its fibres are in a reticulated form; it might be made into ropes. The dried wood is so very light and buoyant, as to be used by the fishermen in Ja- maica for their nets instead of pieces of cork. OCHROXYLUM, a genus of the class and order pen- tandria trigynia. The calyx is five-cleft; petals five; nect. OCT O E X angular, three-lobed, gland.; capsules three, approxi- mately, one-celled, two-seeded. OC1MUM, or Ocymum, basil, a genus ofthe didyna- mia gymnospermia class of plants, with a bilabiat d cup; its flower is monopetalous and ringent; and its seeds, wiiich are four in number, are contained in the cup, which closes for that purpose. There are 25 species. Both the herbs and seed of basil are used in medicine, and are said to be good in disorders ol the lungs, and to promote tbe menses. OCTAGON, or Octocn, in geometry, is a figure of eight sides and angles; and this, when all the sides and angles are equal, is called a regular octagon, orone which may be inscribed in acinic, if the radius of a circle circumscribing a regular octagon is = r. and the side of the octagon = y; then y = */2r3 — r ,/2*. Octagon, in fortification, denotes a place that has eight bastions. OCTAHEDRON, or Octaedron, in geometry, one ofthe five regular bodies, consisting of eight equal and equilateral triangles. The square ofthe side of die oc- tahedron is to the square ofthe diameter ofthe circum- scribing sphere, as 1 to 2. If the diameter of the sphere is 2, the solidity ofthe octahedron inscribed in it will be 1,33333 nearly. The octahedron is two pyramids put to- gether at their bases; therefore its solidity may be found by multiplying the quadrangular base of either of them, by one-third of tbe perpendicular height of one of them, and then doubling the product. OCTANDRIA, the eighth class in Linnoeus's sexual system; consisting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, which are furnished with eight stamina, or male organs of generation. See Botany. OCTANT, or Octile, in astronomy, that aspect of two planets, wherein they are distant an eighth part of a circle, or 45°, from each other. OCTAVE, in music, an interval containing seven de- grees, or twelve semitones, and which is the first ofthe consonances, in the.order of generation. The most sim- ple perception that we can have of two sounds is that of unisons, which, resulting from equal vibrations, are as one to one; the next to this in simplicity is the octave, which is in double computation as one to two. The har- monies of these sounds have a perfect agreement, which distinguishes them from any other interval, and contri- butes to give them that unisonous effect whicli induces the common ear to confound them, and take them indiffe- rently one for the other. This interval is called an oc- tave, because moving diatonically from one term to the other, we produce eight different sounds. The octave comprehends all the primitive and original sounds; so . that having established a system, or series of sounds, in the extent of an octave, we can only prolong that series by repeating the same order in a second octave, and again in a third, and so on, in all which we shall not find any sound that is not the replicate of some sound in the adjoining octave. The complete and rigorous system of the octave re- quires three major tones, two minor, and two major se- mitones. The temperaicd system is of five equal tones, and two semitones, forming together seven diatonic de- grees. ODE. See Poetry. ODONTOGNATDUS, a genus of fishes of the order apodes. The generic character is, mouth furnished with a strong moveable lamina or process on each side the upper jaw; gill-membrane fivc-rr.yed. Aculeated edonrognathus. The genus odontognathus consists of a single species, of which the following is the description. The head, b'»dy and tail, are very compres- sed; the lower jaw, which is longer than the upper, is very much elevated towards the other when the mouth is closed, insomuch as to appear almost vertical; and is lowered somewhat in the manner of a drawbridge when the mouth is opened, when it appears like a small scaly boat, wry transparent, furrowed beneath, and finely denticulated on the margins; this lower jaw. in the act of depression, draws forwards two flat, irregular lamina;, of a scaly substance, a little bent at their posterior end, and larger at their origin than at their tips, denticulated on their anterior margin, and attached, one on one side and the other on the opposite, to the most prominent part of the upper jaw; when the mouth is closed again, these pieces apply themselves on each side to one of the oper- cula, of which they represent the exterior denticulated border; in the middle of these jaws is placed the tongue, which is pointed and free in its movements; the gill-co- vers, which are composed of several pieces, are very transparent at the hind part, but scaly and of a bright silver-colour in front; the gill-membrane is also silvery, and has five rays; the breast is terminated below by a sharp carina furnished with eight crooked spines; the carina of the belly is also furnished with twenty-eight spines, disposed in two longitudinal ranges; the anal fin is very long, and extends almost as far as the base of the tail-fin, which is of a forked shape; the dorsal fin is placed on the tail, properly speaking, at about three quarters of the whole length ofthe animal, but itis ex- tremely small. The general length of this fish is three decimetres, and its colour, so far as may be conjectured from specimens preserved for some time in spirits, is a bright silver. It is a native of the American seas, and is common about the coasts of Cayenne, where it ranks in the number of edible fishes. OECONOMY, animal, comprehends the various ope- rations of nature, in the generation, nutrition, and pre- servation of animals. See Anatomy, Physiology, Com- parative Anatomy, Digestion, &c. OEDEMA. See Surgery. OEDERA, a genus of the syngenesia polygamia se- gregata class and order; the calyx many-flowered; co- rollets tubular, hermaphrodite, with one or two female ligulale florets: recep. chaffy, down of several chaffs. . There are two species, herbs of the Cape. ".OENANTHE, water (or hemlock) drop-wort: a ge- nus of the digynia order, in the pentandria class of plants; and in tiie natural method ranking under the 45th order, umbcllatae. The florets are ditfoun; these of ihe disc sessile and barren; the fruit crowned with the ca- lyx. There arc 11 species, of which the most remarkable is thecrocata, or hemlock dropvvort, growing frequently on the banks of ditches, rivers, and lakes, iu many parts of Britain. The roots and leaves of this plant are a strong poison; several persons have peris lied by eating it through mistake, either for water-parsnips oi* for cc- 0 E S 0 E S lery, which last it touch resembles in its leaves. So ex- ceedingly deleterious is this plant, that Mr. Lightfoot tells us he has heard the late Mr. Christopher d'Ehret, the celebrated botanic painter say, that while he was drawing it, the smell or effluvia rendered him so giddy, that he was several times obliged to quit the room, and walk out in the fresh air to recover himself; but recol- lecting at last what might be the probable cause of his repeated illness, he opened the door and windows of the room, and the free air then enabled him to finish his work without any more returns of the giddiness. Mr. Lightfoot informs us, that he has given a spoonful of the nice of this plant to a dog, but without any other ef- fect than that of making him very sick and stupid. In about an hour he recovered; and our author has seen a goat eat it with impunity. To such of the human species as have unfortunately eaten any part of this plant, a vomit is the best remedy. Lobel, Ray, and others, call this vegetable oenanthe aquatica cicutse facie. It grows in great plenty all over Pembrokeshire, and is called by the inhabitants five- fingered root; itis much used by them in cataplasms for the felon or worst kind of whitlow. They eat some parts of it, but carefully avoid the roots or stalks. These in- deed are of a most pernicious nature, and never fail to prove instantly fatal unless a proper remedy is applied. OENOTHERA, tree-primrose: a genus of the monogynia order, in the octandria class of plants; and iu the natural method ranking under the 17th order, ca- lycantheniie. The calyx is quadriful; the petals four; the capsule cylindric beneath; the seeds naked. There are 11 species; the most remarkable of wiiich are: 1. The biennis, or common biennial tree-primrose, with large bright-yellow flowers. 2. Octnalvis, or octovalved, smooth, biennial tree-primrose, with large bright-yellow flowers. 3. The fruticosa, or shrubby narrow-leaved perennial tree primrose, with clusters of yellow flowers, succeeded by pcdicellated acute-angled capsules. 4. Tbe pumila, or low perennial tree-primrose, with bright yel- low dowers, succeeded by acute-angled capsules. These plants are exotics from America; but arc all very hardy, prosper in any common soil and situation, and have been long in the English gardens, especially the three first sorts; but the Oenothera bienis is the most coimnoniv known. OESOPHAGUS. See Anotomy. OESTRUS, a genus of insects of the order diptera: the generic character is, antennae trialticulate, very short, sunk; face broad, depressed, vesicular; mouth, a simple orifice; feelers two, Particulate, sunk; tail in- flected. The genus oestrus or gad-fly is remarkable, like that of ichneumon, for the singular residence of its larvae, viz. beneath the skin, or in different parts ofthe bodies of quadrupeds. The principal European species is the oestrus bovis, or ox-gadfly. This is about the size of a common bee, and is of a pale yellowish-brown colour, with the thorax marked by four longitudinal dusky streaks, and the ab- domen by a black bar across the middle, the tip being covered with tawny or orange-coloured hairs; the wings arc pale brown and unspotted. The female of this species, when ready to deposit her eggs, fastens on the back of a heifer or cow, and piercing the skin with the tube situated at the tip of the abdomen, deposits an egg in the puncture; she then proceeds to another spot at some distance from the former, repeatin0" the same operation at intervals on many parts ofthe animal's back. This operation is not performed without severe pain to the animal on which it is practised; and it is for this reason that cattle are observed to be seized with such violent horror when apprehensive of the ap- proaches of the female oestrus; flying with uncontrolable rapidity, and endeavouring to escape their tormen'orby taking refuge in the nearest pond; it being observed that this insect rarely attacks cattle when standing in water. In the punctures of the skin thus formed by the gadfly, the several eggs hatch; and the larva;, by their motion and suction, cause so many small swellings or abscesses beneath the skin, which growing gradually larger, be- come externally visible, exhibiting so many tubercles an inch or more in diameter, with an opening at the top of each, tlirough which may be observed the larva, imbed- ded in a purulent fluid; its appearance is that of an oval maggot, of a yellowish-white colour while young, but growing gradually darker as it advances in age, till at the time of its lull growth it is entirely brown. It is chiefly iu the months of August and September that the eggs are laid, and the larvae remain through the ensuing winter, and till the latter part of the next June, before they are ready to undergo their change into chrysalis. At this period they force themselves out from their res- pective cells, and falling to the ground, each creeps be- neath the first convenient shelter, and laying in an inert state becomes contracted into an oval form, but without casting the larva skin, which dries and hardens round it. When the included insect is ready for exclusion, it forces open the top of the pupa or chrysalis coat, and emerges in its perfect form, having remained within the chrysalis somewhat more than a month. Though the history of this insect in its larva state has long ago been detailed with sufficient accuracy by Valli- sneri, Reaumur, and others, yet the fly itself appears to have been very generally confounded, and that even by Linnaeus himself, with a very different species, resemb- ling it in size, but which is bred in the stomach and in- testines of horses, the larvae being no other than the whitish rough maggots whh h farriers call by the title of bots. This insect is the oestrus equi; it i.s a trifle smaller than the oestrus bovis, and is of a yellowish-brown co- lour, with a dusky band across the thorax, and the tip of the abdomen of similar colour; the wings are whitish, with a pale dusky bar across the middle of each, and two dusky spots at the tip. The manner iu which the young larvae or bots are in- troduced into the stomach and bowels of the animal they infest is singularly curious. When the female has been impregnated, and the eggs are sufliciently matured, she seeks among the horses a subject for her purpose, and approaching it on the wing, she holds her body nearly uptight in the air, and her tail, which is lengthened for the purpose, curved inwards and upwards; in this way she approaches the part where she designs to deposit her egg; and suspending herself for a few seconds before it, suddenly darts upon it, and leaves her egg adhering to the hair; she hardly appears to settle, but merely touches the hair with the egg held out on the projected point of OESTRUS. Ihe abdomen. The egg is made to adhere by means of a glutinous liquor secreted with it. She then leaves the horse at a small distance, and prepares a second egg, and, poising herself before the part, deposits it in the same way. The liq.tor dries, and the egg becomes firm- ly glued to the hair, this is repeated by various Hies till four or five hundred eggs are sometimes placed on one horse. The horses, vvlien they become used to this fly, and find that it does them no injury (as the tabani and (ouopes, by sucking their blood), hardly regard it, and do not appear at all aware of its insidious object. The skin of the horse is always thrown into a tremulous mo- tion on the touch of this insect; which merely arises from the very great irritability ofthe skin and cutane- ous muscles at this season ofthe year, occasioned by the continued teasing ofthe flies, till at length these muscles act involuntarily on the slightest touch of any body whatever. The inside ofthe knee is the part on which these flies are most fond of depositing their eggs, and next to this on the side and back part of the shoulder, and less frequently on the extreme ends ofthe mane. But it is a fact worthy of attention, that the fly does not place thein promiscuously about the body, but constant- ly on thus;1 parts which are most liable to be licked with tlie tongue: and the ova therefore arc always scrupulous- ly placed within its reach; for when they have remained on the hairs four or five days, they become ripe, after which time the slightest application of warmth and mois- ture is sufiicient to bring forth in an instant the latent larva. At this time, if the tongue of the horse touches the egg, its operculum i.s thrown open, and a small ac- tive worm is produced, which readily adheres to the moist surface of the tongue, and is thence conveyed with the food to the stomach. These larvae attach themselves to every part ofthe stomach, but are generally most numerous about the py- lorus, and are sometimes, though much less frequently, found in the intestines. Their numbers in the stomach are very various, often not more than half a dozen, at other times more than a hundred, and if some accounts might be relied on, even a much greater number than this. They hang most commonly in clusters, being fixed by the small end to the inner membrane ofthe stomach, which they adhere to by means of two small hooks or tentacula. When they are removed from the stomach tliey will attach themselves to any loose membrane, and even to the skin of the hand. The body ofthe larva is composed of eleven segments, all of which, except the two last, are surrounded with a double row of horny bristles directed towards the trim- rated end, and are of a reddish colour, except the points, which arc black. These larvae evidently receive their food at the small end, by a longitudinal aperture, which is situated between two hooks or tentacula. Their food is probably the chyle, which, being nearly pure aliment, may go wholly to the composition of their bodies without any excrcmentitions residue; though on dissection the intestine is found to contain a yellow or greenish matter, which is derived from the colour of the food, and shows that the chyle, as thev receive it, is not perfectly pure They attain their full growth about the latter end of May, and are coming from the horse from this time to the latter end of June, or sometimes later. On dropping to the ground they find m:f .some icr.vcniciit retreat. and change to the chiysalis; and in about six or seven weeks the fly appears. Oestrus ovis, or the sheep gadfly, is so namid from its larva inhabiting the nostrils and frontal sinuses of sheep in particular, tin ugh it is also found in simihir situations in deer and some other quadrupeds. It i-> a smaller species than either of the two preceding, and is of a Whitish-grey colour, with the thorav marked bv four longitudinal black streaks, and the abdomen speck- led with black. The larva; are nearly as large as those of the oestrus equi, and, according to the observations of Mr. Clark, are of a delicate wiiite colour, flat on the under side, and convex en the upper; having no spines at the divisions of the segments, though they are pro- vided with tentacula at the miij.11 end. The other is truncated, with a prominent ring or margin. When young these larvae are perfectly white and transparent: but as they increase in size the upper side becomes marked with two transverse brown lines on each seg- ment, and some spots are seen on the sides. They move with considerable quickness, holding with their tcnta- cula as a fixed point, and drawing up the body towards them. When full-grown they f.;ll tlirough the nostrils, and change to the pupa or chiysalis state, lying on the ground, or adhering to some blade of grass. The fly proceeds from the chrysalis in the space of about two months. The other British oestri are the oestrus hsemorrhoi- dalis of Linnaeus, whose larva, like that of the oestrus equi, resides in tbe stomal lis of horses; and the oestrus veterinus of Mr. Clark, the larva of which i.s also found in similar situations. The oestrus haemoriiioidalis is about the size of a common window-fly, with pale dusky wings, brown thorax, abdomen white at the base, black in the middle, and red at the tip. The oestrus veterinus is nearly of similar size with the oestrus equi, and is entirely of a ferruginous colour, with the abdomen more dusky towards the tip. The oestrus tarandi inhabits Lapland, and deposits its eggs on the back of the rein- deer, and is often fatal to them. See Plate C. Nat. Hist. fig. 299. The other exotic oestri are probably numerous, but are at present very little known. Whether the formidable African fly. described by Mr. Bruce under the name of zimb or tsaltsalya, may be re- ferred to this genus or not, we shall not pretend to deter- mine; there are however some particulars in its history which would lead one to suppose it an oestrus. " This insect," says Mr. Bruce, «•' is a proof how fal- lacious it is to judge by appearances. If we consider his small size, his weakness, want of variety or beauty, nothing in the creation is more contemptible and insigni- ficant. Yet passing from these to his history, and to the account of his powers, we must confess the very great injustice we do him from want of consideration. We are obliged, with the greatest surprise, to acknowledge, that those huge animals the elejibant, the rhinoceros, the lion, and the tiger, inhabiting the same woods, are still vastly his inferiors; and that the appearance of this small insect, nay, his very sound, though he is not seen, occasions more trepidation, movement, and disorder, both in the human and brute creation, than would' w hole O F F OFF herds of these monstrous animals collected together, though their number was in a tenfold proportion greater than it really is. « This insect is called zimb; it has not been described by any naturalist. It is in size very little larger than a bee, and its wings, which are broader than those of a bee, placed separate, like those of a fly. As soon as this plague appears, and their buzzing is heard, all the cattle forsake their food, and run wildly about the plain, till they die, worn out with fatigue, fright, and hunger. No remedy remains for the residents on such spots but to leave the black earth, and hasten down to the sands of Atbara, and there they remain while the rains last, this cruel enemy never daring to pursue them farther. " What enables the shepherd to perform the long and toilsome journies across Africa is the camel, emphatically called the ship of the desert. Though his size is im- mense, as is his strength, and his body covered with a tliick skin, defended with strong hair, yet still he is not capable to sustain the violent punctures the fly makes with his proboscis. He must lose no time in removing to the sands of Atbara; for when once attacked by this fly, his body, head, and legs, break out into large bosses, which swell, break, and putrify, to the certain destruction of the creature. Even the elephant and rhinoceros, who, by reason of their enormous bulk, and the vast quantity of food and water they daily need, cannot shift to desert and dry places as the season may require, are obliged to roll themselves in mud and mire, whicli, when dry, coats them over like armour, and en- ables them to stand their ground against this winged as- sassin; yet I have found some of these tubercles upon almost every elephant and rhinoceros that I have seen, and attribute them to this cause." There are twelve species of this insect. OFFENCE, is any act committed against any law. Offences are either capital or not capital. Capital of- fences are those for whicli an offender shall lose his life; not capital, where the offender may lose his lands and goods, be fined, or suffer coporeal punishment, or both, but not lose his life. High treason, petit treason, and felony, constitute capital offences; other offences, not capital, include the remaining part of criminal offences cr pleas ofthe crown, and come under the denomination of misdemeanors. OFFERINGS. Obiations and offerings partake of Jie nature of tithes; and all persons which, by the laws <.f this real::', ought to pay their offerings, shall yearly ;>.-y to the parson, vicar, proprietary, or their deputies, vr farmers of the parishes where they dwell, at such tour offering-days as heretofore within the space of four years last past have been accustomed; and in default thereof, shall pay for the said offerings at .Easter follow- ing. 2 aud 3 Ed. VI. c 13. OFFICE, is that function, by virtue whereof a person has some em ploy ment in the affairs of another. An office is a right to exercise any public or private employ- ment, and to take the fees and emoluments thereunto belonging, whether public as those of magistrates, or jjrivate as of bailiffs, receivers, &c. The statute 5 and 6 Edward VI. c. 16, declares all securities given for the sale of offices unlawful. And if any person shall bargain or sell, or take any reward, or promise of reward, for any office, or the deputation of any office, concerning the revenue, or the keepers ofthe king's castles, or the administration and execution of justice, unless it is such an office as bad been usually granted by the justices of the king's bench or common pleas, or by justices of assize, every such person shall not only forfeit his right to such office, or to the nomi- nation thereof, but the person giving such reward, &c. shall be disabled to hold such office. But; it has been de- cided that where an office is within the statute, and tbe salary certain, if the principal makes a deputy, reserving by bond a less sum out of the salary, it is good; or, if the profits are uncertain, reserving a part as half the profits, it is good; for the fees still belong to the princi- pal, in whose name they must be sued for. Salk. 466. But where a person so appointed, gives a bond to the principal to pay him a sum certain, without reference to the profits; this is- void under the statute. Salk. 465. To offer money to any officer of state, to procure the reversion of an office in the gift of the crown, is a mis- demeanor at common law, and punishable by information; and even the attempt to induce him under tbe influence of a bribe, is criminal, though never carried into execu- tion. Any contract to procure the nomination to an office, not within the stat. 6 Ed. VI. is defective on the ground of public policy, and the money agreed to be given is not recoverable. Office, in the canon-law, is used for a benefice that has no jurisdiction annexed to it. It is also used for divine service celebrated in public; and in the Romish church it is applied to a particular prayer preferred in honour of some saint; thus, when any saint is can- onized, a particular office is at the same time assigned him, out of the common office of the confessors, the Vir- gin, &c. We say the office of the Holy Spirit, of the Virgin, of the passion, ofthe holy sacrament, of the dead, &c. OFFICER, a person possessed of a post or office. See the preceding article. The great officers of the crown, or state, arc the lord high steward, the lord high chancellor, the lord high treasurer, the lord president of the council, the lord privy seal, the lord chamberlain, the lord high constable, the earl marshal; each of which see under its proper article. Officers, commission, are those appointed by the king's commission? such are all from the general to the cornet inclusive, who are thus denominated in contradis- tinction to warrant-officers, who arc appointed by the colonel's or captain's warrant, as quarter-masters, Ser- jeants, corporals, and even chaplains and surgeons. Officers, general, are those whose command is not limited to a single company, troop, or regiment; but ex- tends to a body of forces, composed of several regiments; such are the general, lieutenant-general, major generals, and brigadiers. Officers, staff, are such as, in the king's presence, bear a wiiite staff or wand; and at other times, on their going abroad, have it carried before them by a footman bareheaded; such are the lord steward, lord chamberlain, lord treasurer, &c. The white staff is taken for a commission, and at the king's death each of these officers breaks his staff over 0 IL 0 IL the hearse nin.de for the king's body, and by this means lays down his commission, and discharges all his inferior officers. Officers, subaltern, are all who administer justice in the name of subjects; as those who act under the earl marshal, admiral, kc. In the army, the subaltern offi- cers are the lieutenants, cornets, ensigns, Serjeants, and corporals. OFFICIAL, inthe canon law, an ecclesiastical judge, appointed by a bishop, chapter, abbot, kc with charge of the spiritual jurisdiction of the diocese. Of these there are two kinds; the one is in a manner the vicar- general ofthe diocese, and is called by the canonists of- ficials principalis, and in our statute-law, the bishop's chancellor. There is no appeal from his court to the bishop, his being esteemed the bishop's court. The other called officialis foraneus, and is appointed by the bishop when the diocese is very large; he has but a limited jurisdiction, and has a certain extent of territory assigned him, wherein he resides. OFFING, or Offin, in the sea-language, that part of the sea a good distance from shore, where there is deep water, and no need of a pilot to conduct the ship; thus, if a ship from shore is seen sailing out to sea-ward, they say, she stands for the offing; and if a ship, having the shore near her, has another a good way without her, or towards the sea, they say, that ship is in the offing. OIL, which is of such extensive utility in the arts' was known at a very remote period. It is mentioned in Genesis, and during the time of Abraham was even used in lamps. The olive was very early cultivated, and oil extracted from it in Egypt. Cccrops brought it from Sais, a town in Lower Egypt, where it had been culti- vated from time immemorial, and taught the Athenians to extract oil from it. In this manner the use of oil became known in Europe. But the Greeks seem to have been ignorant of the method of procuring light by means of lamps till after the siege of Troy; at least Homer never mentions them, and constantly describes his heroes as lighted by torches of wood. There are two classes of oils exceedingly different from each other; namely, fixed oils and volatile oils. Fixed oils are distinguished by the following charac- ters: 1. Liquid, or easily becoming so when exposed to a gentle heat. 2. An unctuous feel. 3. Very combusti- ble. 4. A mild taste. 5. Boiling point not under 600°. 6. Insoluble in. water and alcohol. 7. Leave a greasy stain upon paper. Those oils which are called also fat or expressed oils, are numerous; and are obtained, partly from animals and partly from vegetables, by simple expression. As instances may he mentioned, whale-oil or train-oil, ob- tained from the blubber ofthe whale; olive-oil, obtained from the fruit of the olive; linseed-oil and almond-oil, obtained from linseed and almond-kernels. Fixed oils may also be extracted from poppy-seeds, hemp-seeds, beech-mast, and many other vegetable substances. It deserves attention, that the only part of vegetables in which fixed oils are found is the seeds of bicotyledi- nous plants. In animals they arc most usually deposit- ed in the liver, though they are found also in the eggs of fowls. All these oils differ from each other in several parti- culars, but they also possess mnny particulars in com- mon. Whether the oily principle in all the fixed oils i* the same, and whether they owe their differences to acci- dental ingredients, is not yet completely ascertained, as no proper analysis has hitherto been made; but it is not improbable, as all the oils hitherto tried have been found to yield the same products. In the present state of ou: knowledge, it would be useless to give a particular des- cription of all the fixed oils, as even the differences between them have not been accurately ascertained. Fixed oils are considered at present as composed of hydrogen and carbon. Lavoisier analysed olive-oil by burning a given portion of it iu oxygen gas, by means of a particular apparatus. During the combustion there was consumed Of oil - - 15.79 grain troy Of oxygen gas 50.86 Total 66.65 The products were carbonic acid and water. Th - carbonic acid obtained amounted to 44.50 grains; the weight of the water could not be accurately ascertained; but as the whole of the substances consumed were con verted into carbonic acid gas and water, it is evident, that if the weight ofthe carbonic acid is subtracted from the weight of these substances, there must remain pre- cisely the weight of the water. Mr. Lavoisier accord- ingly concluded, by calculation, that, the weight of the water was 22.15 grains. Now the quantity of oxygen in 44.50 grains of carbonic acid gas is 32.04 grains, and the oxygen iu 22.15 grains of water is 18.82 grains; both of which taken together amount to 50.86 grains, precisely the weight of the oxygen gas employed. The quantity of charcoal in 44.50 grains of carbonic acid gas is 12.47 grains; and the quantity of hydrogen in 22.15 grains of water is 3.32 grains; both of which, when taken together, amount to 15.79 grains, which is the weight of the oil consumed. It follows, therefore, from this analysis, that 15.79 grains of olive oil arecomposed of 12.47 carbon 3.32 hydrogen. Olive-oil therefore is composed of about 79 carbon 21 hydrogen 100. This however can only be considered as a very imper feet approximation towards the truth. Fixed oil is usually a liquid with a certain degree of viscidity, adhering to the sides of the glass vessels in which it is contained, and forming streaks. It is never perfectly transparent, having always a certain degree of colour; most usually it is yellowish or greenish. Its taste is sweet, or nearly insipid. When fresh, it has little or no smell. Its specific gravity varies from 0.940." (the specific gravity of linseed-oil) to 0.9153 (the speci- fic gravity of olive-oil). Fixed oil is insoluble in water. When the two liquids are agitated together, the water loses its transparency, OILS. and acquires the white colour and consistency of milk. This mixture is known by the name of emulsion. When allowed to remain at rest, the oil soon separates, and swims upon the surface ofthe water. Fixed oil does not evaporate till it is heated to about 600°. At that temperature it boils, and may be distilled over; but it is always somewhat altered by the process. Some water and sebacic acid seem to be formed, a little charcoal remains in the retort, and the oil obtained is lighter, more fluid, and has a stronger taste, than before. Oil thus distilled was formerly distinguished by the name of philosophical oil. Fixed oil, when in the state of vapour, takes fire on the approach of an ignited body, and burns with a yel- lowish-white flame. It is upon this principle that can- dles and lamps burn. The tallow or oil is first convert- ed into the state of vapour in the wick; it then takes fire, and supplies a sufficient quantity of heat to convert more oil into vapour; and this process goes on while any oil remains. The wick is necessary to present a sufficiently small quantity of oil at once for the heat to act upon. If the beat was sufficiently great to keep the whole oil at the temperature of 600°, no wick would be necessary, as is obvious from oil catching fire spontaneously when it has been raised to that temperature. When exposed to the action of cold, fixed oils lose their fluidity, and are converted into ice; but this change varies exceedingly in different oils. When fixed oils are exposed to the open air or to oxy- gen gas, they undergo different changes according to the nature of the oil: 1. Some of them dry altogether, without losing their transparency, when thin layers of them are exposed to the atmosphere. These arc distinguished by the name of drying oils, and are employed by painters. Linseed-oil, nut-oil, poppy-oil, and hempseed-oil, possess this proper- ty; but linseed-oil is almost the only one of these liquids employed in this country as a drying-oil. The cause of this peculiarity has not been completely investigated; but it is well known that these oils possess the drying quality at first but imperfectly. Before they can be em- ployed by painters, they must be, boiled with a little litharge. During this operation the litharge is partly reduced to the metallic state. Hence it has been con- jectured that drying oils owe their peculiar properties to (he action of oxygen; which is supposed either to consti- tute one of their component parts, or to convert them into drying oils by diminishing their hydrogen. 2. Other fixed oils, when exposed to tlie atmosphere, gradually become thick, opaque, and white, and assume an appearance very much resembling wax or tallow. These have been distinguished by the term fat oils. Olive-oil, oil of sweet almonds, or rape-seed, and of ben, belong to this class. When oil is poured upon water, so as to form a thin layer on its surface, and is in that manner exposed to the atmosphere; these changes are produced much sooner. Berthollet, who first examined these phenomena with attention, ascribed them to the actioii of light: but Sen- nebier observed that no such change was produced on the oil though ever so long exposed to the light, provi- ded atmospherical air was excluded; but that it took place on the admission of oxygen gas, whether the oil was exposed to the light or not. It cannot be doubted, then, that it is owing to the action of oxygen. It is sup- posed at present to be the consequence of the simple ab- sorption of oxygen and its combination with the oils. 3. Both these classes of oils, when exposed in consid- erable quantity to the action ofthe atmosphere, undergo another change, well known under the name of rancidity. But tbe fat oils become rancid much more readily than the drying oils. Rancid oils are thick, have usually a brown colour, convert vegetable blues to red, and have the smell and taste of sebacic acid. During the change which they undergo, some drops of water also appear on their surface. The rancidity of oils then is owing to the formation of a quantity of acid in them. This, together with the water, is evidently the consequence of a partial decomposition. Fixed oils readily dissolve sulphur when assisted by heat. The solution assumes a reddish colour. When dis- tilled, there comes over a great quantity of sulphureted hydrogen gas. When the solution is allowed to cool, the sulphur is deposited in chrystals. By this process Pelle- tier obtained sulphur in regular octahedrons. They likewise dissolve a small proportion of phospho- rus when assisted by heat. These oily phosphurets emit the colour of phosphuretcd hydrogen, and yield, when distilled, a portion of that gas. When rubbed inthe open air, or when spread upon the surface of other bodies, they appear luminous in consequence of the combustion ofthe phosphorus. When hot oils saturated with phos- phorus are allowed to cool, the phosphorus chrystallizes in octahedrons, as Pelletier ascertained. Charcoal has no sensible action on fixed oils; but when they are filtered tlirough charcoal-powder, they are ren- dered purer, the charcoal retaining their impurities. Neither hydrogen nor azotic gas has any action on fixed oils. Fixed oils have scarcely any action upon metals; but they combine with several metallic oxides, and form com- pounds known by the name of plasters. See Plaster. They combine likewise with alkalies and earths, and form with them compounds called soaps. The fat oils en- ter into these combinations much more readily than the drying oils. See Soap. Fixed oils absorb nitrous gas in considerable quanti- ties, and at the same time become much thicker and spe- cifically heavier than before. Sulphuric acid decomposes fixed oils, at least when concentrated. It renders them first tliick and of a brown colour; then water is formed, charcoal precipitat- ed, and an acid formed. Nitric acid renders them thick and viscid. When nitrons acid is poured upon the dry- ing oils, it inflames them without addition; but it does not produce that effect upon the fat oils, unless it is mix- ed with a portion of sulphuric acid. The affinities of fixed oils arc as follows: Lime Ammonia, Barv tcs Oxide of mercury, Fixed alkalies, Other metallic oxides, Magnesia, Alumina. The importance of fixed oils is well known. Some of them are employed as season ers of fool; some are burnt in lamps; some form the basis of soap; not to mention OILS. their utility in painting, and the [many other important purposes which they serve. Oils, volatile, called also essential oils, are distin- guished by the following properties: 1. Liquid; often almost as liquid as water; sometimes viscid. 2. Very combustible. 3. An acrid taste and a strong fragrant odour. 4. Boiling point not higher than 2I2C. 4. Soluble in alcohol; and imperfectly in water. 6. Evaporate without leaving any stain on paper. By this last test it is easy to discover whether they have been adulterated with any of the fixed oils. Let a drop of the volatile oil fall upon a sheet of writing-paper, and then apply a gentle heat to it. If it evaporates with- out leaving any stain upon the paper, the oil is pure; but if it leaves a stain, it has been contaminated with some fixed oil or other. Volatile oils are almost all obtained from vegetables, and they exist in every part of plants; the root, the bark, the wood, the leaves, the flower, and even the fruit: though they are never found in the substance of the cotyledons; whereas the fixed oils, on the contrary, are almost always contained in these bodies. When the volatile oils are contained in great abun- dance in plants, they arc sometimes obtained by simple expression. This is the case with the oil of oranges, of lemons, and of bergamot; but in general they can only be obtained by distillation. The part of the plant con- taining the oil is put into a still with a quantity of water, which is distilled off by the application of a moderate heat. The oil comes over along with the water, and swims upon its surface in the receiver. By this process are obtained the oils of peppermint, thyme, lavender, and a great many others, which are prepared and em- ployed by the perfumer. Others are procured by the dis- tillation of resinous bodies. This is the case in particular with oil of turpentine, which is obtained by distilling a kind of resinous juice, called turpentine, that exudes from tlie juniper. The greater number of volatile oils are liquid, aud some of them are as transparent and colourless as water. This is the case with the oil of turpentine; but for the most part they are coloured. Some of them arc yellow, as the oil of lavender; some brown, as the oil of rhodium; some blue, as the oil of camomile: but the greater num- ber of volatile oils are yellow or reddish-brown. Their odours are so various as to defy all description. It is sufficient to sav,that all the fragrance of Hie vegeta- ble kingdom resides in th- volatile oils. Their taste is alwavs' acrid, hot, and exceedingly unpleasant. Their specific gravity is for the most part less than that of water; but some volatile oils as those of canella aud sas- safras, are heavier than water. The specific gravity of the volatile oils varies from 0.869: to 1.0439. Water dissolves a small paction of volafile ods, and acquires the odour and the taste ol the oil which it holds in solution. ... , ... When heated they evaporate very readily and without alteration. Thev are much more combustible than fixed oils, owing to their greater volatility. I hey burn with a fine bright w bite flame, exhale a great deal of smoke, de- posit much soot, and consume a greater portion of the oxygen ofthe atmosphere than fixed oils. The products of ilieir combustion are water and carbonic acid gas. From these facts it has been concluded that they are composed of the same ingredients as the fixed oils, but that they contain a greater portion of hvdrogen. When exposed to the action of cold they congeal like the fixed oils; but the temperature necessary to produce this effect, varies according to the oil. Some of them, as oil of anise and of fennel, become solid at the temperature of 50°; frozen oil of bergamot and of canella become liquid at 23°; oil of turpentine at 14°. Margueron ex- posed several volatile oils to a cold of IT°. They congeal- ed or rather chrystallized partially, and at the same time emitted an elastic fluid. These chrystals consisted part- ly of the oils themselves, parly of other substances. Some of them had the properties of benzoic acid. Volatile oils, when exposed to the action of light in close vessels, and excluded from common air, undergo very singular changes.. Their colour becomes deeper, they acquire agreat deal of consistency, and their speci- fic gravity is considerably increased. The cause of these changes is but imperfectly known. Tingry, to whom we are indebted for these interesting researches, has proved that light is a necessary agent, ft was sujiposed formerly that tliey were occasioned by the absorption of oxygen; and when oxygen is present, it has been ascertained that it is absorbed; but Tingry has proved that the same changes go on when oxygen is excluded. This philoso- pher ascribes them to the fixation of light. If this is the real cause, the quantity of light fixed must be enormous; for as the specific gravity of the oils is increased conside- rably while the bulk continues the.same, ii is evident that the absolute weight must be increased proportionably. One circumstance, however, renders this conclusion somewhat doubtful, at least in its full ext.'tit; and that is, that the quantity of change was always proportional to the quantity ofthe oil and the quantity of air contained in the vessel. When exposed to the open air their colour becomes gradually deeper, and they acquire consistency, while they exhale at the same time a very strong odour. The air around, as Priestly first ascertained, is deprived of its oxygen, a quantity of water is formed, and tlie oils at last, for the most part, assume the form of resins. Volatile oils dissolve sulphur and phosphorus, and the solutions have nearly the same properties as those made by means of fixed oils. They have no action on the metals, and seem scarcely capable of combining with the metallic oxides. They combine only imperfectly, and in small quanti- ties, vviih alkali s and earths. Toe Freirii chemists have proposed to give these combinations the nam- of savonu- les, which Dr. Pearson has translated by the term sapo- nul's; but these denominations have not been adopted by chemists. Th"y absorb nitrous gas in great abundance, and with great diiiiculty, and seemingly decompose it, acquiring a thick consistent and a resinous appearance, as if tliey had absorbed oxygen. Sulphuric acid decomposes volatile oils; carbureted OILS. hydrogen gas is emitted, and charcoal is precipitated. Nitric acid inflames them, and converts them into water, carbonic acid, and charcoal. Oxymuriatic acid converts them into substances analogous to resins. Volatile oils are applied to a great number of uses. Some of them are employed in medicine; some of them, as oil of turpentine, are much used to dissolve resins, which are afterwards employed as varnishes; not to mention their employment in painting and in perfumery. Besides the oils which exist ready formed in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, there are a variety of others which are obtained when animal or vegetable bo- dies are distilled by means of a heat above that of boil- ing water. These oils have received the appellation of empyreumatic, because tliey are formed by the action of the fire. The following is a list of the plants which yield the fixed oils occurring usually in commerce: 1. Linum usitatissimum ctl Linseed oU perenne - J 2. Corytusavellanaj ' N a 3. Juglans regia J 4. Papavcr somniferum Poppy oil 5. Cannabis sativa 6. Sesamum orientale 7. Olea Europca 8. Ainygdalus communis 9. Guilandina Mohringa Hemp oil Oil of sesamum Olive oil Almond oil Oil of behen 10. Cacurbita pepo k nielapepo Cucumber oil 11. Fagus sylvatica - Beech oil 12. Sinapis nigra etarvensis Oil of mustard 13. Helianthus annuus et > ^-i ? n perennis j Oil of sunflower 14. Brassica napus& campestris Rapeseed oil 15. Ricimus communis 16. Nicotiana tabacum rustica et | 17. Primus domestica 18. Vitis vinifera 19. Theobroma cacao 20. Laurus nobilis 21. Arachis hypogaea The following Table contains a copious list of plants which yield volatile oils. The part of the plant from which it is extracted, and the English name of the oil, are added in separate columns. Castor oil Tobacco-seed oil Plum-kernel oil Grapeseed oil Butter of cacao Laurel oil Ground nut oil. Plants. l. Artemisia absyathium 2. Acorus calamus 3. Myrtus pimenta 4. Anetbum graveolens 5. Angelica archangelica 6. Pimpinella anisum 7. Illicium aiiisatum 8. Artemisia vulgaris 9. Citrus aurantiuin 10. Meloleuca leucodendra 11. Eugenia caryophyllata 12. Carum carui 13. Amomum cardamomum 14. Caiiina acaulis 15. Scandix chaerefolium 16. Matricaria chamomilla 17. Laurus ciiinamomum 18. Citrus medica 19. Cocblearia oflicinalis 20. Copaifera officinalis 21. Coriandrum sativum 22. Crocus sativus 23. Piper cubeba 24. Laurus culilaban 25. Cuminum cymium 26. Inula helenium 27. Anetbum fieniculum 28. Crotoii elcutheria 29. Maranta galanga 30. Hyssopus officinalis 31. Juniperus communis 32. Lavendulaspica 33. Laurus nobilis 34. Prunus laurocerasus 35. Levisticum logusticum 36. Myristica moschata 37. Origanum majorana Parts. Leaves Root Fruit Seeds Root Seeds Seeds Leaves Rind of the fruit Leaves Capsules Seeds Seeds Roots Leaves Petals Bark Rind of the fruit Leaves Extract Seeds Pistils Seeds Bark Seeds Roots Seeds Bark Roots Leaves Seeds Flowers Berries Leaves Roots Seeds Leaves Oil of Colour. Wormwood Sweet flag Jamaica pepper Dill Angelica Anise Stcllat. anise - Mug wort Bergamot Cajeput Cloves Caraways Card, seeds - Chervil Chamomile - Cinnamon LlHllOllS Scurvy grass - Copaiba Coriand. seed Saffron Cubeb pepper Culilaban Cum mi Elecampane - Fennel Cascarilla Galanga Hyssop - Juniper Lavender Laurel Laurocerasus Loveage Mace Marjoram Green Yellow Yellow Yellow White Brown Yellow Green Yellow Yellow Yellow White Sulph. yellow Blue Yellow Yellow Yellow White White Yellow Yellow Brown yellow Yellow Wiiite White Yellow Yellow Yellow- Green Yellow Brownish Yellow Yellow Yellow OLE OLE 38. Pistacia lentiscus 39. Matricaria parthenium 40. Melissa oflicinalis 41. Mentha crispa 42.------piperitis 43-. Achillea millefolium 44. Citrus aurantiuin 45. Origanum creticum - 46. Apium petroselinum - 47. Pinus sylvestris et abies 48. Piper nigrum 49. Rosmarinus officinalis 50. Mentha pulegium 51. Genista canadensis - 52. Rosa centifolia 53. Ruta graveolens 54. Juniperus sabina 55. Salvia officinalis 56. Santalum album 57. Laurus sassafras 58. Satureia hortensis 59. Thymus serpillutn 60. Valeriana officinalis - 61. Ksempferia rotunda - 62. Amomum Zinziber - 63. Andropogon schaenanthum Several of the gum-resins, as myrrh and zoin, kc Resin - Mastich Yellow Plant - Motherwort - Blue Leaves - Balm White Leaves - . White Leaves - Peppermint - Yellow Flowers - Millefoil Blue and green Leaves - Neroli Orange Flowers - Spanish hop - Brown Roots - Parsley Yellow Wood and resin Turpentine Colourless Seeds - Pepper Yellow Plant - Rosemary Colourless Flowers - Pennyroyal - Yellow Root - Rhodium Yellow Petals . Roses Colourless Leaves - Rue Yellow Leaves - Savine Yellow Leaves - Sage Green Wood . Santalum Yellow Root - Sassafras Yellow Leaves - Satureia Yellow Leaves & flowers Thyme Yellow Root - Valerian Green Root - Zedoary Greenish blue Root - Ginger Sira Yellow Brown. galbanum, yield an essential oilf and likewise the balsams, as ben Oil-Miii. See Olea. OLAX, a genus ofthe triandria monogynia class and order. The calyx is entire, trifid; corolla funnel-form, trifid; nect. four; berry three-celled, many-seeded. There is one species, a tree of Ceylon. OLDENLANDIA, a genus of the tetrandria mono- gynia class and order. Its character are these: the cm- palcment of tbe flower is permanent, sitting upon the germen; the flower has four oval petals, which spread open, and four stamina, terminated by small summits; it has a roundish germen, situated under the flower, crowned by an indented stigma: the germen afterwards turns to a globular capsule, with two cells filled with small seeds. There are sixteen species, herbs of the Cape, &c. OLD-WIFE, or Wkvsse. See Labuus. OLEA, the olice-tree, a genus of the monogynia or- der, in the diandria class of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the 44th order, sapierise. The co- rolla is quadrifid; with the segments nearly ovate. The fruit is a monospcrmous plum. There are seven species; the most remarkable are: l.Tlie Europea, or common olive-tree, rises with up- right solid stems, branching numerously on every side, 20 or SO feet high; spear-shaped, stiff, opposite leaves, two or three inches long, and half an inch or more broadj and at the axillas small clusters of white flowers, succeeded by »val fruit. This species is the principal sort cultivated for its fruit; the varieties of wiiich are numerous, vary- ing in size, colour, and quality. Itis a native of the southern parte of Europe, and is cultivated in great quan, tities in the south of Frame, Italy, and Portugal, for the fruit to make the olive-oil. . 2. The capmsis, or Cape box-lcavcd olive. 3. Olea odoratissima, the fiower of which is by some said to give the fine flavour to the green tea; but Thunberg attrib- utes the flavour to the cemellie seserque. Olive-trees are easily propagated by shoots, which, when care has been taken to ingraft them properly, bear fruit in the space of eight or ten years. Those kinds of olive-trees which produce the purest oil, and bear the greatest quantity of fruit, are ingrafted on the stocks of inferior kinds. Different names are assigned by the French to the different varieties ofthe olive-tree; and of these they reckon 19, whilst in Florence are cultivated no fewer than 52. Olive-shoots are ingrafted when in flower; if the operation has been delayed, and the tree bears fruit, it is thought sufficient to take off a ring of bark, two fingers' breadth in extent, above the highest graff. In that case the branches do not decay the first year; they afford nourishment to the fruit, and are not lopped off till the following spring. Olive-trees are com- monly planted in the form of a quincunx, and in rows at a considerable distance from one another. Between the rows it is usual to plant vines, or to sow some kind of grain. It is observed, that olives, like many other fruit. trees, bear well only once in two years. The whole art of dressing these trees consists in removing the superflu. ous wood; for it is remarked, that trees loaded with too much wood produce neither so much fruit nor of so good a quality. Their propagation in England is commonly by layers. Olives have an acrid, bitter, and extremely disagreea. hie taste; pickled (as we receive them from abroad) they prove less disagreeable. The Lucca olives, which are smaller than the others, have the weakest taste: the Spa- nish, or larger, the strongest; the Provence, which arc of a middling size, are generally the most esteemed, OLE ONE When (dives are intended for preservation, they are gathered before they are ripe. The art of preparing them consists in removing their bitterness, in iircserving them green, and in impregnating them with a brine of aroma- tised sea-salt, which gives them an agreeable taste. For this purpose, diifereut methods arc employed: formerly they used a mixture of a pound of quicklime, with six pounds of newly sifted woodashes; but of late, instead of the ashes, they employ nothing but a ley. This, it is al- leged, softens the olives, makes them more agreeable to the taste, and less hurtful to the constitution. In some parts of Provence, after the olives have lain some time in the brine, they remove them, take out the kernel, and put a caper in its place. These olives they preserve in excellent oil; and when thus prepared, they strongly stim- ulate the appetite iu winter. Olives perfectly ripe are soft, and of a dark red colour. They are then eaten with- out any preparation, excepting only a seasoning of pep- per, salt, and oil: for they are extremely tart, bitter, and corrosive. The oil is und uibfcdly that part ofthe produce of olive- trees which is of greatest value. The quality of it de- pends on the nature of the soil where the trees grow, on the kind of olive from which it. is expressed, on the care which is taken in the gathering and pressing ofthe fruit, and likewise on the separation ofthe part to be extract- ed. Unripe olives give an intollcrable bitterness to the oil; when they are over-ripe, the oil has an unguiiious taste; it is therefore of importance to choose the true point of maturity. When the situation is favourable, those species of olives are cultivated which vield fine oils; otherwise they cultivate surh species of trees as bear a great quantity of fruit, and they extract oil from it, for the use of soaperiis, and for lamps. They gather the oli\ es about the months of November or December. It is best to put them as soon as possible in- to baskets, or into bags made of wool or hair, and to press them immediately, in order to extract a fine oil. Those who makeoil only for soaperies, let them remain in heaps for some time in their .storehouses; when afterwards pressed, they yield a much greater quantity of oil. in order to obtain the oil, the olives are first bruised in a round trough, under a mill-stone, rolling perpendicu- larly over them; and when sufficiently mashed, put into the maye, or trough, m, of an olive-press (Plate XCIV. Miscel. fig. 177), where aa are the upright beams, or cheeks; b the female.and c the male screw; e, the bar for turning the screw:/, tbe board on which the si rcw presses; g, a cubical piece of wood, called a block; h, the peel, a cir- cular board to be put under the block. By turning the screw, all the liquor is pressed out ofthe mashed olives, and is called virgin-oil; after wiiich, hot -water being poured upon the remainder in the press, a coarser oil is obtained. Olive-oil keeps only about a year, after which it degenerates. Oil of olives is an ingredient in the composition of a great many balsams, ointments, plasters, mollifying and relaxing liniments, it is of an emollient and solvent na- ture; mitigates gripes ofthe cholic, and the pains accom- panying dysentery; and is supposed a good remedy when any person has chanced to swallow corrosive poisons. It is an effectual cure for the bite of a viper; and, as M. Bourgeois tells us, for the sting of wasps, bees, and other insects. A bandage soaked in the oil is immediately ap plied to the sting, and a cure is obtained without any in- flammation or swelling. Olive-oil is of no use in paint- ing, because it never dries completely. The best soap i-, made of it, mixed with Allicant salt-wort and quicklime. OLERON, see laws of, certain laws relating to mara- tiinc affairs, made in the time of Richard I. when he way at the island of* Oleron. These laws, being accounted the most excellent sea- laws in the world, are recorded in the black book of the admiralty. OLIBANUM, a dry resinous substance obtained from the juniperus lycia, and chifly collected in Arabia. It is the frankincense of the ancients. It is iu transparent brittle masses about the size of a chesnut. Its colour is yellow. It has little taste, and when burnt diffuses an agreeable odour. Alcohol dissolves it; and with water it forms a milky liquid. When disilled, it yields a small quantity of volatile oil. Specific gravity, 1.73. OLIVE. See Olea. OLYMPIC Games, were solemn games, famous among the ancient Greeks, so called from Olvinpian Ju- piter, to whom they were dedicated. OLTRA, a genus ofthe triandria order, in the mona;- cia class of plants, and iu the natural method ranking under the 4th order, gramina. The male calyx i.s a bi- florousand aristated glume; thecorrolla a beardless glume; the female calyx is an uuitlorous, patulous, and ovate glume: the style is bifid, and the seed cartilaginous. There ate two species, herbs of Jamaica. OMIMIK, a game at cards, played by 2, 3, or 5 per- sons; in all other respects resembling quadrille. OMENTUM. See Anatomy. OMNIUM, a term in use among stock-jobbers to ex- press all the articles included in the contract between government and the original subscribers to a loan, which of late years has generally consisted of different-propor- tions of 3 and 4 per cent, stock, with a certain quantity of terminable annuities. Those who dispose of their share soon after the agreement is concluded, generally get a premium of 2 or 3 per cent, for it, which fluctuates with the current prices of the public funds; and in a few in- stances the omnium has been at a considerable discount. Some of the subscribers pay their whole subscription at the time fixed for the first or second payment, and their shares become immediately transferable stock: others dispose of the several articles whidi make up the terms of the loan, separate!}; and in this state the 3 or 4 per cent, consols, kc are distinguished by the name of scrip, till the whole sum has been paid in upon thein. OMPIIALEA, a genus of the triandria order, in the monu'.cia (lass of plants, and in the natural method ran- king with those of which the order is doubtful. The male calyx i.s tetraphyllous; there is no corolla; the receptacle, into which the antherse are sunk, is ovate. The female calyx and corolla are as in the male; the stigma trifid; the capsule carnous and trif cular, with one seed. There arc four species, shrubs of Jamaica. ONCIUD1CM, a genus of insects of the order ver- mes mollusca: the generic character is; body oblong, creeping, Hat beneath, mouth placed before; feelers two, situated above the mouth; arms two, at tlie sides ofthe head; vent behind, and placed beneath. The onchidiyai O N O 0 P A typhse, the only species, inhabits Bengal, on the leaves of the typha elcphantina, about an inch long, and three quarters fof an inch broad, but linear and longer when creeping. In appearance it very much resembles a li- max, but differs principally in wanting the shield and lateral pore, and in being furnished with a vent behind. Body above convex, beneath flat and smooth; head small, and placed beneath, which, when the animal is in motion, is perpetually changing its form and size, and drawn in when at rest; mouth placed lengthways, and continually varying its shape from circular to linear; feelers retrac- tile, resembling those of a slug, and apparently tipt with eyes; arms dilatable, solid, compressed, and somewhat palmate when fully expanded. ONION. See Allium. ONISCUS, a genus of insects of the order aptera: the generic character is; legs fourteen; antennse setaceous; body oval. Of this genus, which consists of more than 40 species, the best known is the oniscus asellus, popu- larly known by the name of the woodlouse. It is a very common insect in gardens, fields, kc and is observed in great quantities under the barks of decayed trees, be- neath stones in damp situations, &c. Its general length is about half an inch, or rather more, and its colour livid brown, the larger specimens often exhibiting a double series of pale spots down the back: like the rest of the genus, it preys on the minuter insects. 2. Oniscus armadillo, or the medical woodlouse, is of somewhat larger size than the preceding, much darker colour, and ofa polished surface: it is equally common with the preceding species, and is found in similar situa- tions; when suddenly disturbed or handled, it rolls itself up into a completely globular form, in the manner ofthe curious quadrupeds called armadillos, frequently remain- ing in this state for a very considerable length of time, or so long as it is any ways disturbed. Swammerdam relates a ludicrous mistake ofa servant-maid, who, find- ing in the garden a great many in this globular state, imagined she had discovered some handsome materials for a necklace, and betook herself to stringing them with great care; but on suddenly perceiving them unfold, was seized with a panic, and ran shrieking into the house. Though considered as of but slight importance in the present practice of physic, these animals once maintained a very respectable station in the materia medica, under the title of millipedes. 3. Oniscus aquaticus is a native of the clearer kind of stagnant waters, and is of the general size and colour of the oniscus asellus, but of a more lengthened form, and with longer limbs in proportion; the two last legs hcing bifiil. This species is viviparous, and of a considerably prolific nature. Among the marine insects of this genus the largest is the oniscus entomon, measuring two inches in length: its general form and colour resemble that ofthe oniscus as- cellus, but the four lower pair of legs arc longer in pro- portion, the three first pair being very small and short; the tail is long and pointed. It is a native of the Euro- pean seas, and is found about rocks, kc. It is of a s rong 1 fabric, the divisions of the upper part being of an almost Lcalcareous nature. This animal is capable of living se- veral days in fresh water. ONQCLEA, a genus of the class and order cryptoga- mia filices. The capsules are under the recurved ana contracted pinnules of tbe frond, resembling pericarps. 1 here are two species. ONONIS, or Anonis, rest-harrow, in botany. See Axon is. ONOPORDUM, a genus ofthe class and order syn- genesia polygamia sequalis. The essential character is, calyx scales mncronate; recept. honey-combed. There are seven species, one of them well known under the name of cotton-thistle or pig-leaves. ONOSMA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in tbe natural method ranking under the 41st order, asperifoliae. The corolla is campannlated, with the throat pervious: there are four seeds. There are three species, rock plants of the South of Europe. ONYX, in natural history, one of the semi pellucid gems, with variously-coloured zones, but none red; be- ing composed of crystal, debased by a small admixture of earth, and made up either of a number of flat plates, or of a series of coats surrounding a central nucleus, and separated from each other by veins of a different colour, resembling zones or belts. We hare four species of this gem: 1. A blueish-whit eone, with broad white zones. 2. A very pure onyx, with snow-white veins. 3. The jasp- onyx, or horny onyx, with green zones. 4. The brown onyx, with blueish-white zones. The ancients attributed wonderful properties to the onyx, and imagined that if worn on the finger it acted as a cardiac; they have also recommended it as an astringent, but at present no re- gard is paid to it. The word in the Greek language sig- nifies nail; the poets feigningthis stone to have been form- ed by the Parcse from a piece of Venus's nails, cut off by Cupid with one of his arrows. Sec Chalcedony. OOLITE. See Pisolite. OPACITY, in philosophy, a quality of bodies which renders them impervious to the rays of light. The cause of opacity in bodies does not consist, as was formerly supposed, in the want of rectilinear pores, per- vious every way; but eitlier in the unequal density ofthe parts, in the magnitude of the pores, or in their being filled with a matter, by means of which the rays of light in their passage are arrested by innumerable refractions and reflections, become extinct, and are absorbed. OPAL, in mineralogy; this stone is found in many parts of Europe, especially in Hungary, in the Crapacks near the village of Czennizka. When first dug out of the earth it is soft, but it hardens and diminishes in bulk by exposure to the air. The substance in which it is found is a ferruginous sand-stone. The opal is always amorphous. Its fracture is con- choidal. Commonly somewhat transparent. Specific gra- vity from 1.958 to 2.540. The lowness of its specific gravity, in some cases, is to be ascribed to accidental ca- vities which the stone contains. These are sometimes filled with drops of water. Some specimens of opal have the property of emitting various-coloured rays* with a particular effulgency, when placid between the eye and the light. The opals which possess this property are dis- tinguished by lapidaries by the epithet Orieatal; and oft- en by mineralogists by the epithet nobilis. This proper- ty rendered the stone much esteemed by the ancients. Opals acquire it by exposure to the sun. Werner hai 0 P A 0 P II divided this species into five subspecies: 1. Noble opal. Lustre internal, glassy. Colour, usu- ally light blueish-wiiite. When its position is varied, it reflects the light of various bright colours. Brittle. Spe- cific gravity 2.114. Does not melt before the blow-pipe. When heated it becomes opaque, and sometimes is de- composed by the action of the atmosphere. Hence it seems to follow that water enters essentially into its com- position. A specimen of this variety, analysed by Kla- proth, contained 90 silica, 10 water 100. 2. Common opal. Fracture imperfectly conchoidal. Lustre external and internal, glassy or greasy. Its co- lours are very various; milk-white, yellows, reds,greens of different kinds. Infusible by the blowpipe. Specimens of this variety sometimes occur with rifts: these readily imbibe water, and therefore adhere to the tongue. Some opals gradually become opaque, but reco- ver their transparency when soaked in water by imbibing that fluid. They are then called hydrophanes, or oculi mundi. The constituents ofthe common opal, as ascer- tained by Klaproth, are Opal of Koscmutz. Opal of Telkobanya. 98.75 - 93.5 silica 0.1 - 1.0 oxide of iron 0.1 - 0.0 alumina 0.0 - 5.0 water. with a tinge of yellow or red. In certain positions it re- flects a splendid white, as does the eye of a cat: hence the name of this stone. Two specimens analysed by Klaproth, the first from Ceylon, the other from Malabar, were composed of 95.00 94.50 silicia 1.75 2.00 alumina 1.50 1.50 lime 0.25 0.25 oxide of iron. 98.95 99.5 3. Semi-opal. Colours, various shades of white, grey, yellow, red, brown, often mixed together. Lustre glas- sy, sometimes greasy. Fracture imperfectly conchoidal. Brittle. Sometimes adheres to the tongue. Specific gra- vity 2.540. Infusible before the blowpipe. Its constitu- ents, as ascertained by Klaproth, are, Semiopal of Telkobanya Of Menal-montant. 43.5 - 85.5 silica 47.O - 0.5 oxide of iron 7.5 - 11.0 water ____ 1.0 alumina 98.0 0.5 lime. 98.5 4 Ilotz-opal or wood-opal. Colours, various shades of white, grey, brown, yellow, red. Found in large pie- ces, which have the form of wood. Lustre glassy, some- times greasy. Fracture in one direction conchoidal, in •mother exhibiting the texture of wood. Usually opaque. Brittle. Considered as fragments of wood impregnated with semiopal. . 5 Under the opal mav be placed also the mineral known by the name of eat's-eye. It comes from Ceylon, and is seldom seen by Europcon nineralogists till it has been polished by the lapidary. Mr. Klaproth has des- cribed a specimen which he received in its natural state from Mr. Greville of London. Its figure was nearly square, with sharp edges, a rough surface, and a good deal of brilliancy. Its texture is imperfectly foliated. Lustre greasy. Specific gravity 2.625 to 2.66. Colour grey, with a tinge of green, yellow, or white; or brown, 98.5 98.25 OPATRUM, a genus of insects ofthe coleopatra or- der; the generic character is: antennae moniliform, thick- er towards the top; head projecting from a cavity in the thorax; thorax a little flattened, margined; shells immar- ginate, longer than the abdomen. There are about 28 species of this genus. OPERATION. See Surgery. OPERATIONS in chemistry. See Chemistry. OPERCULARIA, a genus of the class and order te- trandria monogynia: the flower is compound; calyx com- mon, one-leafed. There are three species, insignificant herbs of New Holland, &c. OPHICEPHALUS, a genus of fishes of the order tho- racici; the generic character is: head coated with dissimi- lar scales; body elongated. 1. Ophicephalus punctatus: length about ten inches; dorsal fin commencing at no great distance from the head, and continued nearly to the tail; it is of moderate breadth, and of a dusky colour spotted with black; anal fin of si- milar shape and colour. Native of India, inhabiting rivers and lakes, and considered as a delicate and whole- some food. 2. Ophicephalus striatus; length about 12 inches; shape rather longer than that of the preceding species. Native of India, inhabiting lakes, where it often grows to a much larger size than first mentioned. It is in equal esteem as a food with the former species, and even recommended as a proper diet for convalescents. Native nam^ wrahl. There is one other species. OPH1D1UM, a genus of fishes of the order apodes; the generic character is: head somewhat naked; teeth iu the jaws, palate, and throat; branchiostegous membrane seven-rayed, patulous; body ensiform. 1. Ophidium barbatum: the head of this fish is small; the upper jaw rather longer than the lower, and both be- set with a great many small teeth; the lips are strong and fleshy; in the throat are several small teeth; between the eyes and mouth are four small pores. It is common- ly found of the length of eight or nine inches, and some- times twelve or fourteen; and is met with in all parts of the Mediterranean sea, and in great plenty in the Adri- atic. It is often taken by nets in Provence and Langue- doc with other kinds of fish, and is most common during the summer season. It is not considered as an elegant fish for the table, the flesh being rather coarse. It feeds on small fishes, crabs, kc kc. The ophidium aculeatum, or prickly ophidium, inha- bits the fresh rivers in India, feeds on worms and a fat kind of earth, is esculent and long. See Plate C. Nat. Hist- fig. 300. There are four species. OPHIOGLOSSUM, adder's tongne, a genus of the natural order of filices, in the cryptogamia class of plants. 0 P H 0 P T The spike is articulated, flat, and turned to the two sides, with the articuli or joints opening across. There are nine species, of which the only remarkable one is the v ill— gatum,' or common adder's-tongue. wiiich is a native of several places of Britain, growing in meadows and moist pastures. The country-people make an ointment of the fresh leaves, and use it as a vulnerary to green wounds. OPHIORHIZA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the pentandria class of plants, and in the natural method ranking under the 47th order, stcllatse. The corolla is funnel-shaped; the capsule twin, bilocular, and polysper- nious. There are three species, the most remarkable of which is the Asiaticum, or true lignum colubrinum. The root of this is known in the East Indies to be a specific against the poison of that most dreadful animal called the hooded serpent. The true root is called mungus, for the following rea- son: There is a kind of weasel in the East Indies, called mungutia by the natives, mungo by the Portuguese, and muncas by the Dutch. This animal pursues the hooded serpent, as the cat docs the mouse with us. As soon as the serpent appears, the weasel attacks him; and if she chances to be bitten by him, she immediately runs to find a certain vegetable, upon eating which she returns, and renews the fight. That celebrated traveller Ksempfer, who kept one of these weasels tame, that ate with him, lived with him, and was his companion wherever he went, says he saw one of these battles between her and the ser- pent, but could not certainly find out what root the wea- sel looked out for. But whether the weasel first discov- ered this antidote or not, it is an infallible remedy against the bite of the hooded serpent. And this he un- dertakes to ascertain. OPHIOXYLUM, a genus of the moneecia order, in the polygamia class of plants, and in the natural method ranking with those of which the order is doubtful. The hermaphrodite calyx is quinquefid; the corolla quinque- fid and funnel-shaped, with a cylindrical nectarium with- in its mouth. There are two species, shrubs of the East Indies. OPHIRA, a genus of the monogynia order, in the oc- tandria class of plants. The involucrum is bivalvular and triflorous; the corolla is tetrapetalous above; the ber- ry unilocular. There is one species, a shrub of Africa. OPHITES, in church history, christian hereticks, so called both from the veneration they had for the serpent that tempted Eve,, and the worship they paid to a real serpent. They pretended that the serpent was Jesus Christ, and that lie taught men the knowledge of good and evil. They distinguished between Jesus and Christ: Jesus they said was born ofthe Virgin, but Christ came down from heaven to be united with him; Jesus was cru- cified, but Christ had left him to return to heaven. OPHRYS, twyblade, a genus of the diandria order, in the gynandria class of plants, and in the natural me- thod ranking under the 7th order, orchidese. The necta- rium is a little carinated bolow. There are 34 species; but the most remarkable are the following: 1. Theovata, oval-leaved ophrys, or common twyblade, has a bulbous fibrated root, crowned by two oval, broad, obtuse, vein- ed, opposite leaves; an erect, succulent, green stalk, six or eight inches high, naked above, and terminated by a loose spike of greenish flowers, having the lip ofthe nectarium bifid. The flowers of this species resemble the figure of gnats. 2. The Spiralis, spiral orchis, or tripple ladies" tresses, with a cluster of oval, pointed, ribbed leaves; erect simph stalks, half a foot high, ter- minated by long spikes of white odoriferous flowers, hanging to one side, having the lip ofthe nectarium en- tire, and crenated. 3. The nidus-avis, or bird's-ncst; with loose spikes of pale-brown flowers, having the lip of the nectarium bifid. 4. The anthropophora, man-shaped ophrys, or manorchis; with spikes of greenish flowers, representing the figure of a naked man; the lip of the nectarium linear, tripartite, with the middle segment longest and bifid. There is a variety with brownish flowers tinged with green. 5. The insectifera, or insect- orchis, has spikes of insect-shaped greenish flowers, ha- ving the lip of the nectarium almost five-lobed. This wonderful species exhibits flowers in different varieties, that represent singular figures of flies, bees, and other insects, and are of different colours in the varieties. 6. The monorchis, or musky ophrys, with a loose spike of yellowish musky-scented flowers. OPHTHALMIA. See Medicine. OPIUM. See Narcotic principle, Papaver, and Materia Medica. OPOBALSAMUM, or balm of Gilead, a resin ob- tained from amyris Gileadensis, a tree which grows in Arabia, especially near Mecca. It is so much valued by the turks, that it is rarely imputed into Europe. Little is therefore known of its composition. It is said to be at first turbid and white, and of a strong aromatic smell, and of a bitter, acrid, astringent taste; but by keeping, it be- comes limpid and thin, and its colours change first to green, then to yellow, and at last it assumes the colour of honey. OPOPONAX, a resin obtained from the pastinaca op- oponax, a plant which is a native ofthe countries round the Levant. The gum-resin is obtained by wounding the roots ofthe plant. The milky juice, when dried in the sun, constitues the opoponax. Itis in lumps ofa red- dish-yellow colour, and wiiite within: taste bitter and acrid. With water it forms a milky solution. Its spe- cific gravity is 1.62. OPOSSUM. See DiDELrms. OPPOSITE SECTIONS, are two hyperpolas made by cutting two opposite cones by the same plane. See Co- nic Sections. OPPOSITION, in astronomy, is that aspect or situa- ation of two stars or planets, wherein they are diamet- rically opposite to each other, or 180° asunder. Opposition, in geometry, the relation of two things, between which a line may be drawn perpendicular to both. OPTATIVE MOOD, in grammar, that which serves to express an ardent desire or wish for something. In the English language we have no optative mood. OPTICS, the science which explains the properties of light. Optical def nit ions and principles. 1. IJght is a matter, the particles of which are extreme- ly small, and by striking on our visual organs, give us the sensation of seeing. 2. The particles of light are emitted from what are cal- OPTICS. led luminous bodies, such as tbe sun, a fire, a torch, or candle, &c. &c. It is reflected or sent back by what are termed opake bodies, or those which have no power of affording light in themselves. 3. Light, whether emitted or reflected, always moves in straight or direct lines, as may easily be proved by looking into a bent tube, which evidently obstructs the progress of the light in direct lines. 4. By a ray of light, is usually meant the least parti- cle of light that can be eitlier intercepted or separated from the rest. A beam of light is generally used to ex- press something of an aggregate or mass of light greater than a single ray. 5. Parallel rays are such as proceed equally distant from each other through their whole course. The dis- tance of the sun from the earth is so immense, that rays proceeding from the body of that luminary are generally regarded as parallel. 6. Converging rays are such as, proceeding from any body, approach nearer and nearer to each other, and tend to unite in a point. The form of rays thus tending to an union in a single point has been compared to that ofa candle-extinguisher; it is in fact a perfect cone. 7. Diverging rays are those which, proceeding from a point, continue to recede from each other, and exhibit the form of an inverted cone. 8. A small object, or a small single point of an object, from whicli rays of light diverge, or indeed proceed in any direction, is sometimes called the radiant, or radi- ant point. 9. Any parcel of rays, diverging from a point, consid- ered as separate from the rest, is called a pencil of rays. 10. The focus of rays is that point to which converg- ing rays tend, and in which they unite and intersect, or cross each other. It may be considered as the apex or point of the cone; and it is called the focus (or fire-place), because it is the point at which burning-glasses burn most intensely. 11. The virtual or imaginary focus is that supposed point behind a mirror or looking-glass, where the rays would have naturally united, had they not been intercep- ted by the mirror. 12. Plane mirrors or speculums are those reflecting bo- dies, the surfaces of which are perfectly plain or even, such as our common looking-glasses. Convex and con- cave mirrors are those tbe surfaces of which arc curved. 13. An incident ray is that which comes from any bo- dy to the reflecting surface; the reflecting ray is that which is sent hack or reflected. 14. The angle of incidence is the angle whicli is formed by the line which the incident ray describes in its pro- gress, and a line drawn perpendicularly to the reflecting surface: and the angle of reflection is the angle formed by the same perpendicular and the reflected ray; thus, (Plate XCVI. Optics, fig. 1) if 6a is a reflecting surface, and d e an incident ray, then dc P is the angle of inci- dence, and ec P the angle of reflection. 15. By a medium opticians mean any thing which is transparent, such as void space, air, water, or glass, through which consequently the rays of light can pass in straight lines. 16. The refraction of the rays of light is their being bent, or attracted out of their course, in passing oblique- ly from one medium to another of a different density, and which causes objects to appear broken or distorted when part of them is seen in a different medium. It is from this property of light that a stick or an oar which is part- ly immersed in water, appears broken. 17. A lens is a transparent body ofa different density from the surrounding medium, commonly of glass, and used by opticians to collect or disperse the rays of light. They are in general either convex, that is, thicker in the middle than at the edges, which collect, and by the force of refraction converge the rays, and consequently mag- nify; or concave, that is, thinner iu the middle than at the edges, which by the refraction disperse the rays of light, and diminish the objects that arc seen through them. 18. Vision is performed by a contrivance of this kinij. The crystalline humour, whicli is seated in the fore-part ofthe human eye, immediately behind the pupil, is a per- fect convex lens. As therefore every object is rendered visible by beams or pencils of light, which proceed or di- verge from every radiant point of the object, tlie crystal- line lens collects all these divergent rays, and causes them to converge on the back part ofthe eye, where the retina or optic nerve is spread out; and the points where each pencil of rays is made to converge on the retina, arc ex- actly correspondent to the points ofthe object from wiiich they proceed. As, however, from the great degree of convergence which this contrivance will produce, the pencils of light proceeding from the extreme points ofthe object will be made to cross each other before they reach the retina, the image on the retina is always inverted. (See Plate XCVII. fig. 23.) 19. The magnitude ofthe image painted on the retina will also, it is evident, depend on the greatness orobtuse- ness of the angle under which the pencil of rays proceed ing from the extreme points of the object enters the eye. For it is plain, that the more open or obtuse the angle is, the greater is the tendency of these rays to meet in a point and cross each other; and the sooner they cross each other after passing the crystalline lens, the larger will be the inverted image painted on the retina. (See PI. XCVII. fig. 24.) The visual angle, therefore, is that which is made by two right lines drawn from the extreme points of any object to the eye; and on the measure of that angle, the apparent magnitude of every visible ob- ject will depend. 20. The prism used by opticians is a triangular piece of fine glass, which has the power of separating the rays of light. History of discoveries. The most ancient hypothesis which leads to the true theory of light and colours, is that of the Platonics, viz. that light, from whatever it proceeds, is propagated in right lines; and that when it is reflected from the surfaces of polished bodies, the an- gle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. To this may be added the opinion of Aristotle, who supposed that rainbows, haloes, and mock suns, were occasioned by the reflection of the sun's beams in different circum- stances. We have reason to believe, that the use of con- vex glasses, both as magnifiers and as burning-glasses, was not unknown to the ancients, though the theory was not understood. The magnifying power of g!as«<>s, and some other optical phenomena, were also largely treated OPTICS. of by Alhazen, an Arabic philosopher of the twelfth cen- tury. These observations were followed by those of Ro- ger Bacon, who demonstrated by actual experiment,that a small segment of a glass globe would greatly assist the sight of old persons; and from the hints afforded by these two philosophers, it is not unreasonable to conclude that the invention of spectacles proceeded. Concerning the actual author of this useful invention, we have no certain information: we only find, that it was generally known about the beginning ofthe fourteenth century. In the year 1575, Maurolycus, a teacher of mathemat- ics at Messina, published a treatise on optics, in which he demonstrates, that the crystalline humour of the eye is a lens, which collects the rays of light proceeding from external objects, and throws thein on the retina, or op- tic nerve. From this principle he was led to discover the reason of what are called short and imperfect sights. In the one case, the rays converge too soon; in the other, they do not converge soon enough. Hence short-sighted persons are relieved by a concave glass, which causes the rays to diverge in some degree before they enter the eye, and renders it more difficult for thein to converge so hist as they would have done after entering the crystal- line humour. Hence too he proves that a convex lens is of use to persons who have weak but long sight, by cau- sing the rays to converge sooner, and in a greater quan- tity, than would otherwise happen. He was the first also that solved a problem which had caused much perplexity in the ancient schools, respecting tlie sun's image appear- ing round, though the rays that form it are transmitted into a dark room through an angular aperture. He con- sidered, that as the rays of light are constantly proceed- ing in every direction, from every part of the sun's disk, " they must be crossing eacli other from the extreme part of it in every point of the aperture; so that every such point will be" the apex of two cones, of which the base of the one is the sun's disk, and that of the other his image on the opposite wall." The whole image, therefore, con- sists of a number of images, all of wiiich are circular; the image of the sun formed of those images must be cir- cular also; and it will approach the nearer a perfect cir- cle, the smaller the aperture, and the more distant the image. Nearly about the same time Johannes Baptista Porta, of Naples, invented the camera obscura; and his experi- ments upon that instrument convinced him that light is a substance, by the intermission of which into the eye, vi- sion is performed; for it is proper to mention, that before his time the opinion was almost general, that vision de- pended upon what was termed visual rays, proceeding from the eye. In this the system of Porta corresponds nearly with that of Maurolycus: but it ought to be re- marked, that the discoveries of each of these two philo- sophers were unknown to the other. He shows, more- over, that a defect of light is remedied by the dilatation ofthe pupil, which contracts involuntarily when exposed to a strong light, and opens when the light is faint and ^'"Fletcher, of Breslau, in 1571,endeavoured to ac- count for the phenomena of the rainbow, by a double re- flection and one refraction; but Antonio de Dominis, whose treatise was published in 1611, was the first who came near to the true theory. He describes tbe progress of the ray of light through each drop of the falling rain. he shows that it enters the upper part ofthe drop, where it suffers one refraction; that it is reflected once, and then refracted again, so as to come directly to the eye of the spectator: why this refraction should produce the dif- ferent colours, was reserved for Isaac Newton to explain. The latter part of the sixteenth century was illustri- ous for the invention of telescopes. It is generally allow- ed to have been casual. That effect of refraction, which causes the rays of light, in passing through a dense me- dium thicker in the middle, to converge to a point, and also that which takes place when they pass tlirough one thicker at the extremities, had been long observed; and the assistance which convex and concave glasses afforded to the sight, had brought them into common use. The inventor of the telescope is not certainly known. The most probable account is, that one Zacharias Janscn, a spectacle-maker of Middleburgh, trying the effect of a concave and convex glass united, found that, placed at a certain distance from each other, they had the property of bringing distant objects apparently nearer to the eye. An account which is very commonly received, is, that some of his children playing in his shop with spectacle- glasses, perceived that when they held two of these glas- ses between their fingers, at a certain distance from each other, the dial ofthe clock appeared greatcly magnified. but in an inverted position. From this their father adop- ted the idea of adjusting two of these glasses on a board, so as to move them at pcasure. Telescopes were greatly improved by Galileo, who constructed one which magni- fied 33 times, and with this he made all his wonderfub astronomical discoveries. The rationale of telescopes was, however, not explain- ed till Kepler, who described the nature and degree of re- fraction, when light passed through denser or rarer me- diums, the surfaces of which are convex or concave; namely, that it corresponds to the diameter of the circle of whicli the convexity or concavity are portions of ar- ches. He suggested some improvements in the construc- tion of telescopes, which, however, were left to others to put in practice. To the Jansensweare also indebted for the discovery ofthe microscope; an instrument depending upon exact- ly the same principels as the former. In fact, it is not improbable, that the double lens was first applied to the observation of near but minute objects; and afterwards, on the same principles, to objects which appeared minute on account of their distance. Much attention was given by Kepler to the investiga- tion ofthe law of refraction; but he was able to advance no nearer the truth than the observation, that when the incident ray does not make an angle of more than 30 de- grees with the perpendicular, the refracted ray proceeds in an angle which is about two-thirds of it. Many dis- putes arose about the time of Kepler (1600) upon this subject, but it appears that little was effected by them iu the cause of truth. Kepler was more successful in pursuing the discove- ries of Maurolycus and B. Porta. He demonstrated that images of external objects were formed upon the optic nerve by the foci of rays coming from every part of the object: be also observed, that these images are inverted; but this circumstance, ha cays, is rectified by the mind, OPTICS. which, when an impression is made on the lower part of the retina, considers it as made by rays proceeding from the higher parts of the object. Habit is supposed to re- concile us to this deception, and to teach us to direct our hands to those parts of objects from which the rays pro- ceed. Tycho Brahe, observing the apparent diminution ofthe moon's disc in solar eclipses, imagined that there was a real diminnlion of the disc by the force of the sun's rays; but Kepler said, that the disc of the moon does not appear less in consequence of being unenlightened, but rather that it appears at other times larger than it really is, in consequence of its being enlightened. For pencils of rays from such distant objects generally come to their foci before they reach the retina, and consequent- ly diverge and spread when they reach it. For this rea- son, he adds, different persons may imagine the disc to be of different magnitudes, according to the relative gbodness of their sight. In thesixtcenth century also many improvements were made in perspective; the ingenious device, in particular, of the reformation of distorted images by concave or convex speculums was invented, but it is uncertain by whom. f The true law of refraction was discovered by Snellius, the mathematical professor at Leyden; but not living to complete it, the discovery was published and explained by professor Hortensius. Some discoveries of lesser im- portance were made at this time, among others by Des- cartes, who very clearly explained the nature and cause ofthe figure ofthe rainbow, though he was able to give no account ofthe colours; he however considered the small portion of water, at which the ray issues, as hav- ing the effect of a prism, whicli was known to have the property of exhibiting the light, transmitted through it, colon ced. In 1625, the curious discovery of Scheiner was pub- lished at Rome, whicli ascertains the fact, that vision de- pends upon the images of external objects upon the reti- na. For taking the eye of an animal, and cutting away the coats of the back part, and presenting different ob- jects before it, he displayed their images distinctly pain- ted on the naked retina or optic nerve. The same philo- sopher demonstrated by experiment, that the pupil ofthe eye is enlarged in order to view remote objects, and con- tracted when we view those which are near. He showed, that the rays proceeding from any object, and passing through a small hole in a pasteboard, cross one another before they enter the eye; for if the edge of a knife is held on the side next the eye, and is moved along till it in part covers the hole, it will first conceal from the eye that part ofthe object which is situated on the opposite side of the hole. Towards the middle ofthe seventeenth century the ve- locity of light was discovered by some members of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, particularly Cas- sini and Roemer, by observing the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. About the same time Mr. Boyle made his ex- periments on colours. He proved that snow did not ef- fect the eye by a native, but reflected light, a circum- stance which, however, at this day, we should scarcely believe was ever necessary to be proved by experiment. By admitting also a ray of light into a dark room, and Jetting it fall on a sheet of paper, he demonstrated, that white reflected much more light than any other colour; and to prove that white bodies reflect the rays outwards, he adds, that common burning-glasses will not, for a long while, burn or discolour white paper; on the con-_ traiy, a concave mirror of black marble did not reflect the rays of the sun with near so much power as a com- mon concave mirror. The same effect was verified by a tile, one half of the surface of which was white, and the other black. Some experiments were made about this time on the difference of the refractive powers of bodies; and the first advance to the great discoveries by means ofthe prism was made by Giiinaldi, who observed that a beam of the sun's light, transmitted through a prism, instead of appearing round on the opposite wall, exhibited an ob- long image of the sun. Towards the close of this centu- ry the reflecting telescope was invented by our coun- tryman James Gregory. It was, however, only an idea conceived by him upon theory, and the first reflecting telescope was made by Newton. The reader will soon perceive how very imperfect all the preceding discoveries were in comparison with those of sir Isaac Newton. Before this time, little or no- thing was known concerning colours; even the remark of Giiinaldi respecting the oblong figure of the sun, made by transmitting the rays through a prism, was un- known to onr great philosopher, having been published only the year before. This fact, however, which he had observed himself, was, it appears, the first circumstance which directed the attention of Newton to the investiga- tion of the theory of colours. Upon measuring the co- loured image, which was made by the light admitted in- to a dark chamber through a prism, he found that its length was five times greater than its breadth. So unac- countable a circumstance induced him to try the effect of two prisms, and he found that the light, whicli by the first prism was diffused into an oblong, was by the se- cond reduced to a circular form, as regularly as if it had passed through neither of them. After many conjectures and experiments relative to the cause of these phenomena, he at length applied to them what he calls the experi- mentum crucis. He took two boards, and placed one of them close to the window, so that the light might be ad- mitted through a small hole made in it, and after pass- ing through a prism might fail on the other board, which was placed at about twelve feet distance, and in which there was also a small aperture, in order that some of the incident light might pass through it. Behind this hole, in the second board, be also placed a prism, so that the light, after passing both the boards, might suffer a second refraction before it reached the wall. He then moved the first prism in such a manner as to make the several parts of the image cast upon the second board pass successively througli the hole in it, that he might observe to what places on the wall the second prism would refract them. The consequence was, that the co- loured light, which formed one end ofthe image, suffer- ed a refraction considerably greater than that at the other end; in other wTords, rays or particles of light of one colour were found to be more refrangible than those of another. The true cause, therefore, of the length of the image was evident; since it was proved by the ex- periment, that light was not homogeneal, but consisted OPTICS. of different particles or rays, which wore capable of dif- ferent degrees of refrangibility, according to which they were transmitted through the prism to the opposite wall. It was further evident from these experiments, that as the rays of light differ in refrangibility, so they also dif- fer in exhibiting particular colours, some rays produc- ing the colour red, others that of yellow, blue, kc and of these different-coloured rays, separated by means of the prism according to their different degrees of refran- eibility, the oblong figure on the wall was composed. But to relate the great variety of experiments, by which he demonstrated these principles, or the extensive ap- plication of them, would lead us too much into detail; let it suffice to say, that he applied his principles to the satisfactory explanation of the colours of natural bodies, ofthe rainbow, and of most of the phenomena of nature where light and colour are concerned; and that almost every thing which we at present know upon these sub- jects was laid open by his experiments. llis observations on the different refractive powers of different substances are curious and profound; but che- mistry was at that period scarcely in a state sufficiently advanced to warrant all his conclusions. The general re- sult is, that all bodies seem to have their refractive pow- ers proportional to their densities, excepting so far as tliey partake more or less of inflammable or oily parti- cles. The discovery of the different refrangibility of the component rays of light suggested defects in the con- struction of telescopes, which were before uuthought of, and in the creative hand of a Newton led to some no less extraordinary improvements in them. Itis evident, that since the rays of light are of different refrangibilities, the more refrangible will converge to a focus much soon- er than the less refrangible, consequently that the whole beam cannot be brought to a focus in any one point; so that the focus of every object-glass will be a circular space of considerable diameter, namely, about one fifty-fifth of the aperture ofthe telescope. To reme- dy this, he adopted Gregory's idea of a reflector, with such improvements as have been the basis of all the pre- sent instruments of this kind. When a science has been carried to a certain degree of perfection, subsequent discoveries are too apt to be considered as of little importance. The real philosopher will not, however, regard the discoveries on light and co- lours, since the time of Newton, as unworthy his atten- tion. By a mere accident, a very extraordinary proper- ty in some bodies of imbibing light, and afterwards emitting it in the dark, was observed. A shoemaker of Bologna, being in quest of some chemical secret, calcin- ed, among other things, some stones of a particular kind, which he found at the bottom of Mount Peterus; and casually observed, that when these stones were carried into a dark place, after having been exposed to the light, they possessed a self ill umiiiatiiig power. Accident after- wards discovered the same properly in other substances. Baldwin, of Misnia, dissolving chalk in aquafortis, found that the residuum, after distillation, exactly resembled the Bologuian stone in retaining and emitting light, whence it now has the name ol Baldwin s phosphorus; and M Du Fav observed the same property in all sub- stances" that could be reduced to a calx by burningoiily, or after solution in nitrous acid. These facts seem to es- tablish the materiality of light. Some very accurate calculations were made about the year 1725 by Dr. Bradley, which afforded a more con- vincing proof of the velocity of light, and the motion of the earth in its orbit. Nor must we forget M. Bouguer's very curious and accurate experiments for ascertaining the quantity of light which was lost by reflection, the most decisive of which was by admitting into a darkened chamber two rays of light, one of which h- contrived should be reflected, and the other fall direct on the oppo- site wall; then by comparing the size of the apertures by wiiich the light was admitted (that through which the di- rect ray proceeded being much smaller than that through wiiich the reflected rays was suffered to pass, and tbe illumination on the wall being equal in both), he was en- abled to form an exact estimate of the quantity of light which was lost. To prove the same effect with candles, he placed himself in a room perfectly dark, with a book in his hand, and having a candle lighted in the next room, he had it brought nearer to him till he could just see the letters, which were then 24 feet from the candle. He then received the light of the candle reflected by a looking-glass upon the book, and he found the whole dis- tance ofthe book from the source of the light (including the distance from the book to the looking-glass) to be only 15 feet; whence he concluded, that the quantity of direct light is to that of reflected as 576 to 225; and si- milar methods were pursued by him for measuring the proportions of light in general. The speculations of Mr. Melville concerning the blue shadows which appear from opaque bodies in the morn- ing and evening, when the atmosphere is Serene, are far from uninteresting. These phenomena he attributes to the power which tlie atmosphere possesses of reflect- ing the fainter and more refrangible rays of light, the blue, violet, &c. and upon this principle he also explain- ed the blue colour of the sky, and some other phenomena. The same period produced Mr. Dolioud's great im- provement in the construction of telescopes. It consists in using three glasses of different refractive powers, crown and flint glass, which correct each other. The great dispersion ofthe rays which the flint-glass produ- ces, is the effect of the lead, and i.s in proportion to the quantity of that metal which is used iu its composition. Mr. Martin found the refractive powers of different glas- ses to be in proportion to their specific gravity. Several discoveries and improvements have been made since the time of New ton in that branch of optics which relates more immediately to vision. One of these is not only curious in itself, but led to the explanation of several circumstances relating to vision. M. Dc la Motte, a physician of Dantzick, was endeavouring to verily an experiment of Scheiner, in wiiich a distant object ap- peared multiplied when viewed through M-voial holes made with the point ofa pin in a card, not further dis- tant from one another than the diameter ofthe pupil of the eye; but notwithstanding all his labour, he was una- ble to succeed, till a friend happening t.> call upon him, he desired him to make tin: triri, and it answered per- fectly. This friend was short-sighted; and when he ap- plied a concave glass close to the card, the object, which seemed multiplied bdv;>> now appeared but one. OPTICS. The last, though not least, successful adventurer in this branch of science, is Mr. Delaval, who, in a paper read before the Philosophical Society of Manchester, in 1784, has endeavoured, with great ingenuity, to explain the permanent colours of opaque bodies. The majority of those philosophers, who have treated of light and co- lours, have, he observes, supposed that certain bodies or surfaces reflected only one kind of rays, and therefore exhibited the phenomena of colours; on the contrary, Mr. Delaval, by a variety of well-conducted experi- ments, evinced, that colours are exhibited, not by re- flected, but by transmitted light. This he proved by covering coloured glasses and other transparent colour- ed media, on the further surface, with some substance perfectly opaque, when he found they reflected no colour, but appeared perfectly black. He concludes, therefore, as the fibres or bases of all vegetable, mineral, and ani- mal substances, are found, when cleared of heterogene- ous matters, to be perfectly white; that the rays of light are in fact reflected from these white particles, through coloured media, with which they are covered; that these media serve to intercept and impede certain rays in their passage through thein, while, a free passage being left to others, they exhibit, according to these circumstances, different colours. This he illustrates by the fact remark- ed by Dr. Halley, who, in diving deep into the sea, found that the upper part of his hand, when extended in- to the water from the diving-bell, reflected a deep-red colour, while the under part appeared perfectly green. The conclusion is, that the more infrangible rays were intercepted and reflected by particles contained in the sea-water, and were consequently reflected back by the under part.of the hand; while the red rays, which were permitted to pass through the water, were in the same manner reflected Jiy the upper part of the hand, which therefore appeared of a red rose-colour. Those media, our author thinks, transmit coloured light with the great- est strength, which have the strongest refractive power. Ofthe nature of light. Numerous opinions have suc- cessively been adopted concerning this wonderful fluid. It has been sometimes considered as a distinct substance, sometimes as a quality, sometimes as a cause, frequent- ly as an effect; by some regarded as a compound, and by others as a simple substance. Descartes and other philosophers of high repute, have imagined that the sen- sation which we receive from light is to be attributed entirely to the vibrations of a subtile medium or fluid, which is diffused throughout the universe, and which is put into action by the impulse of the sun. In this view they consider light as analogous to sound, which is known to depend entirely on the pulsations of the air upon the auditory nerves; and in support of this opinion, it has been even lately urged, 1st, That some diamonds, on being rubbed or chafed, are luminous in the dark. 2. That an electric spark, not larger, but much brighter, than the flame of a candle, may be produced, and yet that no part of the electric fluid is known to escape, in such a case, to distant places, but the whole proceeds in the direction to which it is destined by the hand of the operator. Weaker or stronger sparks of this fluid are also known to differ in colour; the strongest are white, ami tfie weakest red^ kc. To this opinion, however, there are maYiy pressing, and, indeed, insurmountable objections. 1st, The veloci- ty of sound bears a very small proportion to that of light. Light travels, in the space of eight minutes, a distance in which sound could not be communicated in 17 years; and even our senses may convince us, if we attend to the explosion of gunpowder, &c. of the almost infinite velo- city of the one compared with that of the other. 2dly, If light depended altogether on the vibrations of a fluid, no solid reason can be assigned why this fluid should cease to vibrate in the night, since the sun must always affect some part of the circumambient fluid, and produce a per- petual day. Sdly, The artifice of candles, lamps, kc. would be wholly unnecessary upon this hypothesis, since, by a quick motion of the hand, or of a machine contriv- ed for this purpose, light might on all occasions be easi- ly produced. 4thly, Wonld not a ray of light, admitted through a small aperture, put in motion, according to this theory, the whole fluid contained in a chamber? In fact, we know that light is propagated only in right lines; whereas sound, which depends upon vibration, is propagated in every direction. 5thly, The separation or extension of the rays, by means of the prism, can never be accounted for by the theory of a vibrating medium. 6thly, The texture of many bodies is actually changed by exposure to the light. The juice of a certain shell- fish contracts, it is well known, a very fine purple colour, when permitted to imbibe the rays of the sun; and the stronger the light is, the more perfect the colour. Pieces of cloth wetted with this fluid become purple, even though inclosed in glass, if the solar light only is admit- ted; but the effect is totally prevented by the interven- tion of the thinnest plates of metal, which exclude the light. Some of the preparations of silver, as luna cornea, will remain white if covered from the light, but contract a dark-purple colour when exposed to it; and even the colour of plants is derived from the light, since a plant which vegetates in darkness will be perfectly white. As colour is imparted by light, so it is also destroyed by it. It must have fallen within the observation of every read- er, that silks and other stuffs of delicate colours, are greatly affected- by the action of light. Experiments have been made upon the same stuffs by exposing them to both heat and moisture in the dark, and also by ex- posing them to the light in the vacuum of an air-pump, and it was found by all these experiments, that the change of colour was to be ascribed to the action of light. 7thly, With respect to the emission of light by diamonds and other stones, it is easily accounted for upon other principles; and the arguments founded upon the electric spark not being sensibly diminished, will meet with a sa- tisfactory solution by considering the extreme rarity of light, and the minuteness of its particles. It is, therefore, almost universally agreed by the moderns, that light consists of a number of extremely minute particles, which are actually projected from the luminous body, and act by their projectile force upon the optic nerve. Concerning the nature of these particles, or rather of the matter of which they consist, there is less unanimity in tbe philosophical world. The first remarkable property of light is its amazing velocity. Iu tho short space of one second a particle of light traverses an extent of 170,000 miles, which., is OPTICS. so much swifter than the progress of a cannon-ball, that the light is enabled to pass a space in about eight min- utes which could not be passed with the ordinary veloci- ty of a cannon-ball in less tban 32 years. The velocity of light is also found to be uniform, whether it is origi- nal, as from the sun, or reflected only, as from the planets. The mode of calculating the velocity of light is a branch of astronomy. It will suffice, therefore, in this place to remark, that by mathematical observations made upon tbe transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769, the diameter of the earth's orbit was found to be about 163,636,800 geographical miles. When, therefore, the earth happens to be on that side of her orbit which is opposite to Jupiter, an eclipse of his satellites, or any other appearance in that planet, is observed to take place 15 or 16 minutes later than it would have done if the earth had been on that side of her orbit whicli is nearest to Jupiter. From the very accurate observations of Dr. Bradley, it appears, that the light ofthe sun pas- ses from that luminary to the earth in eight minutes and twelve seconds. The next property of light to which it is proper to ad- vert is, that it is detached from every luminous or visible body in all directions, and constantly moves in right lines. It is evident that the particles of light move contin- ually in right lines, since they will not pass through a bended tube; and since if a beam of light is in part inter- cepted by any intervening body, the shadow of that bo- dy will be bounded by right lines passing from the lumi- nous body, and meeting the lines which terminate the interceding body. This being granted, it is obvious, that the rays of light must be emitted from luminous bodies in every direction; since, whatever may be the distance at which a spectator is placed from any visible object, every point of the surface which is turned towards hiin is visible to him, which could not be upon any other principle. The rarity of light, and the minuteness of its particles, are not less remarkable than its velocity. If indeed the Creator had not formed its particles infinitely small, their excessive velocity would be destructive in the high- est degree. It was demonstrated, that light moves about two millions of times as fast as a cannon-ball. The force with which moving bodies strike, is in proportion to their masses multiplied by their velocities; and conse- quently, if the particles of light were equal in bulk to the two-millionth partxof a grain of sand, we should be no more able to endure their impulse than that of sand shot point-blank from the mouth of a cannon. The minuteness ofthe rays of light is also demonstrable from the fa- cility with wiiich they penetrate glass, chrystal, and other solid bodies, which have their pores in a rectilinear direction, and that without the smallest diminution of their velocity, as well as from the circumstance of their not being able to remove the smallest particle of micros- copic dust or matter which they encounter in their pro- gress. A further proof might be added, that if a candle is lighted, and there is no obstacle to obstruct its rays, it will fill the whole space within two miles around it al- most instantaneously, and before it has lost the least sen- sible pait of its substance. To the velocity with which the particles of light are known to move, may in a great measure be attributed the extreme rarity and tenuity of that iluid. It is a well- known fact, that the effect of light upon the eye is not in- stantaneous, but continues for a considerable" time. Now we can scarcely conceive a more minute division of time than the 150th part ofa second. If, therefore, one lucid point of tlie sun's surface emits 150 particles of light in one second, wc may conclude that tbis will be sufficient to afford light to the eye without any scemi;>g intermis- sion; and yet, such is the velocity with winch light pro- ceeds, that still these particles will be at least 1000 miles distant from each other. If it was not indeed for the ex- treme tenuity of the fluid, it would be impossible that the particles should pass, as we know they do, in all di rcctions without interfering with each other. In all probability the splendour of all visible objects may be in proportion to the greater or less number of particles which are emitted or reflected from their surface in agiv- en space of time; and if we even suppose 300 particles emitted successively from the sun's surface in a single second, still these particles will follow each other at the immense distance of above 500 miles. Ofthe reflection of light, or catoptrics. It has been alrea- dy intimated, that the rays of light wiiich proceed from any luminous body move always in straight, lines, unlesi this direction or motion is changed by certain circum- stances; and these are reflection, refraction, and inflec- tion. The great law of reflection, and whicli serves to e.N plain all its phenomena, is this, that the angle of reflec- tion is always equal to the angle of incidence. It has been already intimated, that by the angle of incidence is meant the angle made by a ray of light with a perpendi- cular to the reflecting surface at the point where the ray falls; and by the angle of reflection, the angle which the ray makes with the same perpendicular on the other side. A ray of light falling perpendicularly on a plane sur- face, is reflected back exactly in the same direction iu which it came to the reflecting surface: rays falling ob- liquely observe the general law of reflection, and their angle of reflection is exactly equal to the angle of inci- dence. In Plate XCVI. Optics, fig. l.fc is a ray of light falling perpendicularly on the plane surface ab, and it is reflected back exactly in the same direction;'cc is a ray- falling obliquely on the surface ate, and it is reflected in the direction cd, making the angle of reflection cd P exactly equal to the angle of incidence ceP, as may be seen by inspection of the figure. Parallel rays falling obliquely on a plane reflecting surface are reflected parallel, converging rays are re- flected with the same degree of convergence, and diverg- ing rays equally diverging. In other words, plane sur- faces or mirrors make no change in the previous dispo- sition of the rays of light. A mirror is a body, the surface of which is polished to such a degree as to reflect most copiously the rays of light. Figs. 1, 2, 3, arc plane mirrors: in fig. 2. the rays db and ca, which arc parallel, after having reached the surface ab are reflected, the one towards h and the other towards k, and in both instances the angle of reflection is evidently equal to the angle of incidence. The rays db and ca (fig. 3.) are convergent, and with- OPTICS. out the interposition of the mirror would unite in the point E; but being reflected, they unite in the opposite point F: the angle of reflection with respect to each be- ing still equal to the angle of incidence, as may be seen by drawing perpendiculars to the points a and 6. The rays db and ca (fig. 4.) are on the contrary diver- gent, and after reflection towards h and k, preserve ex- actly the same distance from each other as they would have had if they had proceeded without interruption to- wards F and E, the angle of reflection being with res- pect to each ray still exactly equal to the angle of inci- dence. Thus it is that plane surfaces reflect the rays of light; but the effects are materially different when the surfaces are convex or concave, though the same law still obtains with respect to these. From a convex surface, parallel rays, when reflected, are made to diverge; convergent rays are reflected less convergent, or are even made to diverge in proportion to the curvature of the surface compared with their degree of convergence; and diver- gent rays are rendered more divergent. Thus it is the nature of convex surfaces to scatter or disperse the rays of light, and in eiery instance to impede their conver- gence. From a concave surface, on the contrary, pa- rallel rays when reflected are made to converge; converg- ing rays arc rendered more convergent; and diverging rays arc made less divergent, or even in certain cases may be made to converge. To understand this part of the subject, it is necessary to be aware, that all curvilinear surfaces are composed of right lines infinitely short, or points; and the reader will recollect, that only those rays which fall perpendi- cularly on a reflecting surface are reflected back in the same direction. All curves, are arches or segments of circles: if therefore any curvilinear or spherical surface is presented to a number of parallel rays, it is evident that only that ray which strikes the spherical surface in such a direction that it would proceed in a right line to tbe centre of that circle, of which the reflecting surface is an arch or segment, can be said to fall perpendicularly up- on it, of which the reader may convince himself by draw- ing a straight line with a ruler at any point of a given circle or curve. All the rest of the parallel rays, there- fore, falling on the spherical surface, will fall obliquely upon it, and will consequently be subject to the general law of reflection, and the angle of their reflection will be equal to the angle of their incidence. Perhaps the subject will be rendered still plainer, if, pursuing the idea thrown out in the preceding paragraph, that all curves are formed of a number of straight lines infinitely short, and inclining to each other like the stones in the arch of a bridge, we present to the reader the figures 5, 6, 7; wiiich may • be imagined so many mirrors bent or inclined in the form which is represented in the plate. The rays ab and cd(bg. 5.), which are pa- rallel, are from their different points of incidence render- ed divergent in h and c; the angle of reflection with res- pect to each being equal to the angle of incidence. In fig. 6. the rays ab and cd arc convergent, and would, without the interposition of the reflecting surface bd, unite in m: but according to the same principle, they now jn-ocecd to unite in I, wiiich i.s more distant from the re- flecting surface than the point m; and it is evident, that if the curvature of the two branches of the reflecting sur- face b and d was greater, they might bereflected parallel, or even divergent. In the same manner, as in fig. 7., the rays ab and cd, which, without the interposition of the convex surface bd, would diverge but very little at m, become after reflection much more divergent at /; and the angles of reflection will be found in all these cases ex- actly equal to the angles of incidence, if measured from the reflecting surface produced or lengthened, as at fg and ik. Let now fig. 8 represent a concave mirror formed up- on the same principles as those whicli we have been ex- amining of the convex kind. The rays ab, cd, which were parallel before reflection, and which make their angles of reflection equal to then- angles of incidence (measured for convenience in this figure from the re- flecting surface produced), become evidently convergent at the point I; upon the same principles in fig. 9. the con- verging rays ab and cd, which would not have united be- fore they reached the point m, arc now after reflection united at /, which is much nearer the reflecting surface. In fine, the divergent rays ab and cd in fig. 10., which would have become more divergent at m, had they not been intercepted by the reflecting surface, become con- vergent after reflection, and arc found actually to unite at o. Mirrors are formed either of metal, or of glass plated behind with an amalgam of mercury and tin. The latter are most in common use; but they are improper for opti- cal instruments, such as telescopes, &c. because they commonly present two images of the same object, the oi;e vivid and the other faint, as may be perceived by plac- ing the flame of a wax-taper before a common looking- glass. The reason of this double image is, that a part of the rays are immediately reflected from the anterh.r surface of the glass, and thus form the faint image; while the greatest part of the rays penetrating the glass are reflected by the amalgam, and form the vivid image. From the principles laid down, most of the phenome- na of reflection may be explained. In plane mirrors, the image appears of its natural size, and at the same dis- tance behind the glass as the object is before it. To un- derstand perfectly the reason of this, it will be necessary to advert to the subject of vision, as formerly explained. It will be remembered, that by the spherical form ofthe eye, and particularly by means of the chrystallinc hu- mour which is placed in the middle of it, the rays of light are converged; and those from the extreme points ofthe object cross each other, so as to form an inverted image on that part of the optic nerve which is called the retina. The apparent magnitude of objects will conse- quently depend upon the size of the inverted image, or, in other words, upon the angle whicli the rays of light form, by entering the eye from the extremities of any object. As therefore the angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence, it will be evident on the inspec- tion of fig. 11. that the converging rays Km, Ln, pro- ceeding from the extremities of the object KL, and fall- ing on the mirror ab, are reflected to the eye at e with the same degree of convergence, and consequently will cause the image kl to be seen under an angle equal to that under which the object itself would have been seen OPTICS. from the point i without the interposition of the mirror. The image appears also at a distance behind the mirror equal to that at which the object stands before it. For it must be remembered, that objects are rendered visible to our eyes not by a .single ray proceeding from every point of an object, but that in fact pencils or aggregates of di- vergent rays proceed from every point of all visible ob- jects, which rays are again, by the mechanism of the eye, converged to as many points on all those parts of the retina where the image is depicted. The point from which the rays diverge is called the focus of divergent rays; and the point behind a reflecting surface from which they appear to diverge, is called the virtual focus. As therefore the angle of reflection is exactly equal to the angle of incidence, it is evident that the virtual fo- cus will be at the same distance behind the mirror as the real focus is at before it. Thus, in fig. 12., the diverg- ing rays ch will after reflection appear to diverge from the point g which is behind the mirror ab, and that point for the reasons assigned (viz. no alteration being made in the disposition of the rays but only in the direction) will be at an equal distance behind the mirror with the luminous point c before it. As every part of the image appears at a distance be- hind the mirror equal to that at which the object stands before it, and as the object KL (fig. ll.) is inclined or out ofthe vertical position, the image kl appears also in- clined. Hence it is evident, that, to exhibit objects as they are without any degree of distortion, looking-glasses should be always hung in a vertical position, that is, at ri^ht angles with the floor of the apartment. It is clear, however, from what has preceded, that the case must be very different with those mirrors, the surfaces of which are spherical, whether convex or roncave. Ofthe former it has been shown that their pro- perty is to scatter and disperse the rays of light, to ren- iliiMiiose divergent which were parallel, to diminish the convergence of converging rays, and to augment the di- vergence cd* those wiiich diverged before. Tbe first ob- vious effect of these mirrors, therefore, must be to ex- hibit the image of the object wiiich is opposed to them smaller than it is in reality. For the angle under whieh tlie rays strike the eye ofthe observer, must necessarily be smaller in proportion to the convexity of the mirror. Suppose, for instance, the object CD (fig. 13.) placed before the convex mirror ab; the two rays Cc and Dd, which proceed from the extremities of the object, and which, without the interposition of the min >r, would ronviTgo at/, are reflected less convergent, and unite at i, forming an angle much more acute tban they would otherwise have done. The consequence, therefore, of the visual angle being so much more acute, is. that the imae;.- gh is proportionally smaller than the object itseif. The second effect of this dispersion of tlie rays is, that the image appears at a Ies* distance, behind the glass than it would have done in a plane mirror. To un- derstand this effect, it is necessary ag.Mii to advert to a prin. iple of optics which has been just stated, viz that objects are rendered visible not by a single ray »1 light proceeding from everv point of the .object, but that 10m every minute point of the surface of every visule object pencils of divergent rays proceed, which are again con- verged on the retina of the spectator's eye. Suppose then G (fig. 14.) aluminous point of any visi- ble object, from which a pencil of divergent rays proceed, and fall upon the convex mirror ab: these rays, agreea- bly to the nature of these mirrors, are reflected more di- vergent, and have their fictitious point of re-union (or virtual focus) g much nearer to the eye and to the sur- face of the mirror, than they would otherwise have. Tbe image therefore, as may be seen in the figure, instead of being at a distance behind the mirror equal to the distance at wiiich the object stands before it (as would be the case in a plane mirror), will appear at a smaller distance, and this distance will always be diminished in proportion to the convexity of the mirror. For the same reasons an object of a certain size, plac- ed either perpendicularly or obliquely before a convex mirror, will necessarily appear curved or bent, because the different points of the object are not at equal distances from the surface ofthe mirror. AH these effects will be very apparent from inspecting one of those small glass globes, lined with the common amalgam for making look- ing-glasses, which are sometimes suspended in old-fash- ioned apartments. In these the company seated in the room or round the table, are represented by very minute images, which appear not at a certain distance behind as in plane looking glasses, but very near the surface of the mirror, and always in some degree curved or distort- ed. The effects and phenomena of concave mirrors will obviously, from what has been said, be the direct contra- ry to those of the convex kind. The surface of concave mirrors is generally spherical (or in the form of aglobe); though that is not always the most convenient form for optical purposes, but it is that wiiich is least difficult to the workmen. The general effect of concave mirrors is, we have al- ready seen, to render the rays more convergent. The point in which the converged rays unite is called the fo- cus of converging rays; but this focus cannot be the same for all the raj s incident on a concave surface. The paral- lel rays, ab, de (fig. 15.), are converged by the mirror at the point F, which is distant from the mirror one-fourth part ofthe diameter of that circle, of which the mirror is a part or section; and this is the point which is called the focus of parallel rays, and it is the real or principal focus of the mirror. The converging rays/,', hi, are re- flected upon the same principles more convergent, and unite at the point K, nearer t > the surface of the mirror than the principal focus. In fine, the divergent rays Rm and Ro, which proceed from the point It, beyond the principal focus, unite at the point P. But if the point of divergence was nearer the mirror than the principal fo- cus, as for instance at K, they would still be reflected divergent, and would proceed one towards/and the other towards h. Plane and convex mirrors exhibit, as has been already mentioned, the imag' behind the gl.i^s or mirror, and in a situation ronforui.ible to that of the ohjrel: but concave mirrors show the image behind when the object is pi.uvd between the principal focus and the mirr or, and then the image is hirg ■;■ than tiie object. Let \\i (fig. io.)be (he object placed before the concave mirror EF, and nearer OPTICS. to tbe mirror than its principal focus. The two pencils of rays Ae, Bf, which proceed from the extremities of the object, and which without the interposition of the mirror, would converge at d, are reflected more converg- ing, and unite at D; and making an angle greater or more obtuse than they would otherwise have done, the image ab is consequently greater than the object. This image too appears at a greater distance behind the mirror than the object is at before it. The reason of this will appear, if we suppose A (fig. 17.) a point of any object placed nearer to the mirror than the principal focus F, whence a pencil of divergent rays proceed, and falling on the mirror, are (according to the principles be- fore laid down) reflected less divergent, and consequently have their virtual or imaginary focus at a greater dis- tance, than if the object had been placed before a plane mirror. If, on the contrary, the object is placed farther from the mirror than the principal focus, as for instance at e, the rays eb, ed, being only moderately divergent when they come in contact with the mirror, are reflected convergent, and will represent at E an image of the object. If the eye, therefore, is withdrawn to a sufficient distance (to o for example) for the rays to cross each other, it will per- ceive the image suspended in the air at E between the mirror and itself. The reason of this depends upon what has been already stated. Every object is rendered visi- ble to us by pencils of divergent rays from every point of that object; it therefore ceases to be visible if these rays are converged to a point, and this happens when the object is not nearer to the mirror than the principal fo- cus. To render, therefore, an object thus situated visi- ble, it is necessary that the eye should recede so far be- yond the place ofthe image E, as to allow the rays to cross each other, and meet the eye in a state of divergence. The image is in this case always inverted. Such is the image b'a ofthe object AB (fig. 18.) From this pro- perty of the concave reflector to form the image of an object, in these cases, before the reflector, many decep- tions have been produced, to the great surprise ofthe ig- norant spectator. He is made to see a bottle half-full of water inverted in the air without losing a drop of its contents; as he advances into a room, he is tempted to exclaim witJi Macbeth, " Is this a dagger that I see be- fore me?" an 4 when he attempts to grasp it, it vanishes into the air. A variety of similar appearances may be represented, which are all produced by means of. a concave mirror, having an object before it strongly illuminated, care be- ing taken that onlv the rays of light reflected from the object shall fall upon the concave reflector, placed in such a manner that the image shall be in the middle ofthe ad- joining room; or, if in the same room with the object and reflector, a screen must be placed so as to prevent tbe spectator from discovering them. A hole is then made in the partition between the two rooms, or in the screen, through which the rays pass by which the image is form- ed. The spectator then, when he casts his eyes upon the partition of the screen, will, in certain situations, receive the rays coming through this small aperture. lie will see the' image formed in the air; he will have no idea, if not previously acquainted with optics, of the nature of the deception; and may either be amused, according to the inclination of his friends, with tempting fruit, or be terrified at the sight of a ghastly apparition. Since it is the property of a concave mirror to cause those rays which proceed in a parallel direction to its surface, to converge to a focus; and since the solar rays, from the immense distance of that body, may be consid- ered as parallel; concave mirrors prove very useful burn- ing glasses: and the focus of parallel rays, or principal focus, is their focus or burning-point. Cylindrical mirrors, such as that represented in fig. 19. are employed more for the purpose of amusement than of philosophy. They are called mixed mirrors, be- cause they produce at the same instant the effects of plain and of convex mirrors. Suppose, for instance, GF (fig. 20.) to be the height of such a mirror, and AE an object placed before or rather below it; all tlie rays which pro- ceed from the points A, B, C, D, E, falling on the sur- face GF of the mirror, and reflected to the eye at 0, will represent the images of these different points at a, b, c, d, e, as they would be represented in a plane mirror; and with respect to these, the dimensions of the object will not be altered in the corresponding image. But since the mirror is also curved, if we suppose the space q, t,y, (fig. 21.) to represent a part of its circumference, the rays Aq, Lr, Ms, NJ, Qx, Pz, Fy, being reflected to the eye at Z, will exhibit all these points A, L, M, N, kc. within the space af; which will in this direction diminish considerably the dimensions ofthe image, according to the principles already explained in treating of the convex mirror, viz. by diminishing the convergence of rays, and consequently reducing the size of the image iu propor- tion to the convexity. In the cylindrical mirror, it must be observed,that it is in the breadth only that this dimi- nution takes place. The same will take place with res- pect to all the points of the object which are visible with- in the lines BQG. CRH, DTI, ESK, concentric to the surface of the mirror. These parts must therefore be very much extended in the drawing or design, if a per- fect image is to be represented in the mirror. Distorted drawings of this kind are common in the shops of the op- ticians, which, on a cylindrical mirror being placed on the board or drawing, display perfect figures. The prin- ciple of these will, however, be very easily understood from what has been now stated. The conical mirror is represented in fig. 22, and this is also considered as a mixed mirror; for, as well as the cylindrical, it produces at once the effects of a convex and a plane mirror. Suppose, for instance, the angle C KF (fig. 23.) to represent this mirror, and the lines C K, FK, two ofthe right lines which compose it. These two lines would then answer to two plane mirrors incli- ned towards each other: and the rays proceeding from the points ABC, falling on the surface at g, h, i, and reflec- ted towards the eye at 0, would represent these points as if at the base of the mirror in the opposite order a, b, c; and the same observation will apply to the points D, E, F, which are represented at d, e.f, as well as all those which are in the circles AHD, B1E, CGF. But as there do not proceed from each point simple rays of light, but pencils of rays, they are modified in this mirror upon the same principles as in the convex mirror; and consequent- ly the image will appear smaller than the object, and nearer to the eye, than in tfie plane mirror. OPTICS. Hence it will be evident, that we may see in the centre the image of whatever is painted on the exterior circum- ference AHD, and the extremities of the image will be formed from the interior circle CGF; and as the curva- ture or convexity of the mirror is greater towards tbe apex or point of the cone, it follows, that that which is the most extended in the object will be the most compres- sed or concentrated in the image. Thus the dark part of the board (fig. 24.) is intended to represent in the mirror an ace of spades; and the points a, b, c, d, e,f,g, kc. which are nearest to the mirror, form the outer cir- cumference of the image; and the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, of the external circumference of the board, unite in the centre of the image at an almost imperceptible point. Ofthe refraction of light, or dioptrics. It has been pro- ved that light, like every known substance, is subject to the laws of attraction; it has been intimated too, that even its propensity to move in a direct line is, in certain cases, overcome by this superior influence; and that the direction of the rays of light is changed in passing from one medium to another. The space in which a ray of light moves is called a medium; whether pure space, air, water, glass, or any other transparent substance; and when a ray is bent out of its natural course in passing from one medium to another, it is said to be refracted or broken, probably from the broken appearance which a staff, kc exhibits when part of it is immersed in water. There are two circumstances essential to refraction: 1st, That the rays of light shall pass out of one medium into another ofa different density, or of a greater orless degree of resistance. 2dly, That they pass in an oblique direction. The denser the refracting medium, or that into which the ray passes, is, the greater will be its refracting pow- er; anil of the two refracting mediums of the same den- sity, that which is of an oily or inflammable nature will have a greater refracting power than the other. The angle of refraction depends on the obliquity of the ravs falling on the refracting surface being such always, thatthe sine of the incident angle is to the sine of the re- fracted angle in a given proportion. The incident angle is the angle made by a ray of light, and a line drawn perpendicular to the refracting surface, at the point where the light enters the surface; and the refracted angle is the angle made by the ray in the re- fracting medium with the same perpendicular produced. The sine of the angle is a line which serves to measure the angle, being drawn from a point in one leg perpen- dicular to the other. In passing from a rare into a dense medium, or from one dense medium into a denser medium, a ray of light is refracted towards the perpendicular, that is, so that the anffle of refraction shall be less than the angle of in- cidence; on the contrary, in passing from a dense medi- um into a rare medium, or from one rare medium in o a rarer, a ray of light is refracted from the perpendicular. Thus in passing from empty space into air, or any other medium whatever, the ray is bent towards the perpen- dicular- and in passing from any other medium into rn,ee%nace it is bent the contrary way, that is, Lm the perpendicular; the same effects will take place in passing from air into glass, and from glass into sUv &c. To render this perfectly clear, let us have recourse to fig. 25. If a ray of light pG passes from air to water, in the direction pG, perpendicular to the plane Dd, wnich separates the two mediums, it suffers no refraction, be- cause one of the essentials is wanting to that effect, viz. the obliquity of the incidence. But if a ray AG passes obliquely from air into water, instead of continuing its course in the direct line GB, it takes the direction Ga, and approaches the perpendicu- lar pP, in such a manner that the angle of refraction PGa is less than its angle of incidence pGA. If the ray came in a more oblique direction, the refrac- tion would be still greater; so that in all cases where tbe mediums are the same, the angle of refraction will al- ways be found to bear a regular and constant proportion to the angle of incidence; or, to speak in technical lan- guage, the sine of incidence is to the sine of refraction in a given ratio, and this ratio is discovered by experience. Thus, when a ray passes out of air into water, the ratio is as 4 to 3. out of water into air, as 3 to 4. air into glass, as 3 to 2. glass into air, as 2 to 3. air into diamond, as 5 to 2. diamond into air, as 2 to 5. The refraction of light is attributed by sir Isaac New- ton to the principle of attraction; and perhaps one ofthe most satisfactory proofs of this theory is the known fact, that the change in the direction of the ray commences, not when it comes in contact with the refracting medium, but a little before it reaches the surface, and the incur- vation augments in proportion as it approaches this me- dium. Indeed no principle will account for the pheno- menon of light passing more easily, that is, more direct- ly, through a dense than through a rare medium, but that of attraction; since it is found by universal expeii-, ence, that the attraction of all bodies is in proportion to their densities. / In passing from a dense into a rare medium, however, there is a certain degree of obliquity at which the refrac- tion is changed into reflection. In other words, a ray of light will not pass out of a dense into a rare medium, if the angle of incidence exceeds a certain limit, but will be refleeted back. Thus a ray of light will not pass out of glass into air, if the angle of incidence exceeds 40° 11'; or out. of glass into water, if the angle of incidence ex- ceeds 59° 20*. As the rays of light, in passing from a dense medium to a rarer, are refracted from the perpendicular, in fact are bent or inclined towards tbe eye of the spectator, who looks at an object in the denser medium while stand- ing at its side, the reason will be clear why the bottom ofa river appears to us nearer than it really is. If the spectator stands on a bank just about the level of the water, it is about one-third deeper than it appears; and why an oar, partly in and partly out of the water, seems broken. Let Qno (frg. 26.) represent an oar, the part ?iQ being out of, and the part ?io being in, the water; the rays diverging from o will appear to diverge from b near- er to the surface ofthe water, and every point in no will be found nearer to the surface than its real place, and the part no will appear to make an angle witU the part OPTICS. Qtt. On this account also, a fish in the water appears much nearer the surface than it actually is; and a skil- ful marksman, in shooting at it, will aim considerably below the place which it seems to occupy. On the same principle a common experiment is ex- plained. Put a shilling into a bason, and walk back from it till the shillingis just obscured by the side ofthe bason; then by pouring water into the bason, the shilling instantly appears; for by what has been said above, the object, being now in a denser medium, is made to ap- pear nearer to its surface. As the refraction must in all cases depend on the obli- quity of the ray, that part of any body which is most immersed will seem to be most materially altored by the refraction. When, however, the object extends to no great depth in the water, the figure is not materially distorted; but if the object is of a considerable size, or extends to a great depth, those rays which proceed from the more distant extremities come in a more oblique di- rection on their emergence into the air, and they con- sequently suffer a greater refraction than the rest. Thus a straight leaden pipe appears near the bottom ofa deep water to be curved, and a flat bason seems deeper in the middle than near the sides. To these laws of refraction is to be attributed the dif- ference between the real and the apparent rising of the sun, moon, and stars, above the horizon. The horizon- tal refraction is something more than half a degree, whence the sun and moon appear above the horizon when they are entirely below it. From the horizon the refraction continually decreases to the zenith. Refraction is increased by the density of the air, and consequently it is greater in cold countries than in hot; and it is also af- fected by the degree of cold or heat iu the same country. Parallel rays, if refracted, preserve their parallel di- rection both in entering and in passing out of a refrac- ting medium, provided the two surfaces ofthe refracting medium are parallel. The two rays, EA, EA, (fig. 27.) after refraction, while they approach the perpendiculars pp, continue parallel as before, the reason of which is evident on the principles already established; for the ray AC, (PI. XCVII. fig. 3.) on coming in contact with the surface of the refracting medium EF, does not continue its course in the straight line Cb, but being refracted at the point of contact C, it approaches the perpendicular Vp, and comes out at a. After coming out of the refracting medium, if we sup- pose the surface GH parallel to EF, it ought to proceed to B, having deviated from the perpendicular in the same degree in which it approached it on its first refraction; and thus it continues parallel to the line CB, which is that in which it would have proceeded if it had not been intercepted by the medium. This parallelism cannot subsist if the two surfaces Kl, HI, (fig. 4.) are inclined, as in the figure; because the ray entering at a, and emerging at 6, the object A will b > seen from the point B at e, which is out of its true place. Converging rays become less convergent in passing from a rare to a denser medium, as from air into water; and on the contrary, their convergence is augmented by passing from a dense to a rarer medium, as from water into air. (See fig. I.) In the same manner, diverging rays become less divergent in passing out of a rare me- dium into one which is denser, and their divergence is increased by passing out of a dense into a rarer medium. (Sec fig. 2.) This fact is a necessary consequence ofthe general law of refraction: but it will satisfactorily explain why an object under water appears larger to an eye above the surface than it r ally is, and why all objects appear magnified seen through a mist; for in all these cases, the converging rays, by which vye see tlie extreme points of the object, and which during their passage through the water, &c. were refracted towards the per- pendicular, on their emergence into the air are made more suddenly to converge, and consequently the visual angle is rendered more obtuse. It is evident, that when parallel rays fall upon a sphe- rical surface, that ray only which penetrates to the cen- tre, or axis will proceed in a direct course: for all the rest must necessarily make an angle more or less obtuse, in proportion to their distance from the centre; they are therefore rendered convergent or divergent accordingto the nature of the medium on which they are incident. If they fall on the convex surface ofa medium denser than that which they leave, as iu passing from air into glass, they will converge, as may be seen in PI. XCVII. fig. 5. where that phenomenon is represented; for the parallel rays, hi,fg, (fig. io.) falling in an oblique direction on the refracting medium terminated by the convex surface Eig, they will be refracted, and will each respectively approach the perpendiculars iC, or gC, and will conse- quently have a tendency to unite towards the axis AB. it is however proper to remark, that the point at which they join the axis AB will be distant from the sur- face of the refracting medium, in proportion as the point on which they fall on the convex surface is distant from that axis; because the more distant that point is, the more oblique is the incidence of the ray. Thus the ray hi joins the axis at k; but the ray fg does not join the axis till it arrives at D. Rajs already convergent, falling on the convex sur- face of a dense medium, will be acted upon differently according to circumstances. If their convergence is exactly proportioned to the convexity of the surface, they will not suffer any refrac- tion; (see fig. 6.) because in that case one ofthe essen- tials is wanting to refraction, viz. the obliquity of the incidence; and each ray proceeds in a direct line to the centre of that circle, of which the convex surface is an arch or segment. For instance, the rays e/and dh, (fig. 11.) which tend to unite at C, the centre of the convex surface, may be considered as perpendicular, being the radi ofthe circle. If the rays have a tendency to converge before they reach the centre ofthe convexity, they will then be ren- dered less convergent, for instead of converging to a point at b (fig. 7.), they will converge at B. The reason of this is evident; for the ray ih (fig. 11.) which, if not in- tercepted, would meet the axis at k, nearer the surface of tlie refracting medium than the centre of convexity C, being refracted towards the perpendicular or radius dC, meets the axis only at o. If, on the contrary, the rays have a tendency to con- verge beyond the centre of the convexity, they will then, by the law of refraction, be rendered still more convergent, OPTICS. as in fig. 8; where their point of union, if not intercepted, would be c; but where, by the influence ofthe refraction, will be increased, as in fig. 16. For the diverging rays lb and le (fig. 19.), which tend towards m and n, are re- tliey are found to converge-at C. For the"ray "gh,(fig! fracted towards the perpendi: ulars/C and gC, and be- ll.) the tendency of which is towards I, is refracted to- come more divergent than they would otherwise nav« been. When rays pass from a dense into a rarer medium, and the dense medium is terminated by a concave surface, then Parallel rays become divergent; for the parallel rays de, gi, (fig. 20.) when they reach the concave surface eDi, ... i lIP____J.'___?___4.1. n:„ ^....r.or> in Ilia llil»f»rt linP t«»- wards the perpendicular dC, and joins the axis at p. If diverging rays fall on the convex surface of a den- ser mediHin, they are always rendered less divergent, as in fig. 9.; and they may be rendered parallel, or even convergent, according to the degree of divergence com- pared with the convexity of the refracting surface, on the principles already explained. If rays pass from a dense to a rarer medium, the sur- face ofthe dense medium being convex, in this case pa- rallel rays become convergent; for the parallel rays de, gh (fig- l~0 wlien they reach the convex surface eDi, instead of continuing their direct course, are refracted from the perpendiculars aC, 6C, and converge at k. Converging rays are also rendered more convergent. Thus the rays le, ui, which without any change in the me- dium, would have proceeded in the direction in and o, in consequence ofthe refraction which they suffer, and which bends them from the perpendiculars aC, 6C, unite at p. Diverging rays, if they proceed from the point C, the centre of convexity, suffer no refraction; because, for the reasons already assigned, they may be considered as per- pendicular to the refracting surface, and consequently tliev are deficient in one of the causes of refraction, the obliquity of incidence. If they proceed from a point which is nearer to the surface than the centre of convexity, such as r, they will be refracted from the perpendiculars aC, bC, and will be rendered mure divergent towards x and y. If, on the contrary, the diverging rays come from a p-iint such as q, beyond the centre of convexity, they will be rendered less divergent; for instead of going towards «, tliey will be refracted from the perpendiculars aC, oC, towards/ and h. When rays pass from a rare into a dense medium, and the surface of the dense medium is concave, then paral- lel rays are rendered divergent, as in Plate XCVII. fig. 13.; fur the parallel rays ab. de, (fig. 17.) are refracted to- wards the perpendiculars/C and gC, and are consequent- ly divergent. * Converging rays falling on the same concave surface will be rendered less convergent, as in fig. 14. For the ravs ab, de, (tig. 18.) which would have converged atO if their progress had not been intercepted, will be refracted towards the perpendiculars /C and ^C, and will unite only at i. If the convergence was less, they might by the refraction be rendered parallel, or even di- vergent. Divereing rays proceeding from the centre of concavi- ty will not suffer any refraction., for the reasons already assigned. , „ ll" however, divcring rays proceed from any point nearer the refracting surface than the. centre of concavi- ty, thev will be rendered less divergent. « "ifig.15. For the two diverging rays kb and fca (fig. 19.), nstead of proceeding to d and h, are refracted towards the per- ^If on"^.t^whirb is the most general case the dirg ,g ,-ays proceed from a point more distant from thesu-ai than the centre of concavity, their divergence instead of continuing their course in the direct line to wards/and h, proceed towards m and p, being refrac- ted from the perpendiculars Ca, Cb, and are consequent- ly divergent. Converging rays, if their point of convergence is pre- cisely at C, the centre of the concavity eDi, will not suf- fer any refraction, because they are perpendiculars, as already explained, therefore have no obliquity of incidence. If, on tbe other hand, the rays tend to a point, such as n, nearer to the surface than the centre ofthe concavity C, then they are rendered more convergent; for the rays qe, ri, which naturally tend to that point, are refracted from the perpendiculars Ce, Ci,and converge at o, near- er the concave surface. Lastly, if the converging rays tend to a point I, which is beyond the centre C, they are rendered less conver- gent. For the rays se, ti, which would naturally unite at that point, are refracted from the perpendiculars Ce, Ci, and unite at k, which is more distant still. Diverging rays in the same circumstances are render- ed more divergent. For the rays Ee, Ei, diverging from the point E, instead of proceeding towards a and x, are refracted from the perpendiculars, and are directed to- wards y and %. From the property which all spherical convex surfa- ces have, of rendering parallel rays passing out of a ra- rer medium convergent, glasses made in this form are very commonly/used as burning-glasses; and as the sun's rays, proceeding from so vast a distance, may be consid- ered as parallel, the focus of parallel rays will of course be their burning-point. A lens is a transparent body of a different density from the surrounding medium, and terminated by two surfaces, either both spherical, or the one plane and the other spherical, whether convex or concave. They are therefore generally distinguished by their forms, and are called plano-convex or plano-concave, or double convex or double concave: a lens which has one side convex and the other concave, is called a meniscus, or concave-con- vex lens. See Plate XC V11, fig. 21. It is evident, that in lenses there may be almost an in- finite variety with respect to the degree of convexity or concavitv; for every convex surface i.s to be considered as the segment of a circle, the diameter and radius of which mav vary to almost an infinite extent, flence, when opticians speak of the length of the radius as ap- plied to a lens, as for instance, when they say its radius is 3 or 6 inches, they mean that the convex surface of the glass is the part of a circle, the radius of which, or half the diameter, is 3 or 6 inches. The axis of a lens is a straight line drawn through the centre of its spherical surface; and as the spherical sides of every lens are arches of circles, the axis oi the OPTICS. lens would pass exactly through the centre of that circle, of which its sides are arches or segments. From what has been already stated, it is obvious that the certain effect of a convex lens must be to render pa- rallel rays convergent; to augment the convergence of converging rays; to diminish in like manner the diver- gence of diverging rays, and in some cases to make them parallel or even convergent, according to the degree of divergence compared with the convexity of the lens. In what is called a double-convex lens, this effect will be in- creased in a duplicate proportion,since both surfaces will act in the same manner upon the rays; and since it has been proved, that parallel or convergent rays have their convergence equally augmented by being incident on the convex surface of a dense, or the concave surface of a rare medium. These glasses then must necessarily Jiavc the effect of magnifying glasses, since by the conver- gence ofthe rays the visual angle is rendered more obtuse, and consequently the image whicli is depicted op the re- tina must be proportionably larger. The focus of those rays which come in a parallel di- rection to the glass, is called the focus of parallel rays, or principal focus. In a plano-convex glass this focus is at the length of the diameter of that circle, of which the convex surface is a segment; and in a double-convex lens, or one which is convex on both sides, the focus is as the distance of the radius, or half the diameter, ofthe cir- cle of which the lens is a segment. This focus therefore is easily found upon mathematical principles. It may also be found, though not with equal exactness, by hold- ing a sheet of paper before the glass when exposed to the rays of the sun, and observing the distance of the pa- per from the glass when the luminous spot on the paper is very small, and when it begins to burn; or when the »focal length does not exceed three feet, the focus may be found by holding the lens at such a distance from the wall opposite a window-sash, that the image of the sash may appear distinct upon the wall. From this property in convex lenses, of rendering all rays in some degree convergent which fall upon their surfaces, it is evident that in all such cases there must be a point, which in general is at the focus, where pencils of rays proceeding from the extreme point of any object must first unite and then cross each other; and conse- quently an inverted image of the object will be exhibi- ted at any distance beyond that point. This may be elu- cidated by a very easy experiment, viz. by holding a common reading or magnifying glass between a candle and a sheet of paper suspended on the wall, at a proper distance, when the image of the candle will appear on the paper inverted: and the reason of this is extremely clear; for it is evident that the upper pencils after re- fraction, are those which proceeded from the under part of the luminous body, and the under rays are those which come from its top. The position is therefore only in- verted, and the images remain unimpaired. From the same property, convex lenses will cause ma- ny ravs to enter the eye whicli would otherwise have been scattered or dispersed, and therefore objects seen through them appear clearer and more splendid that when view- ed by the naked eye. If, however, the glass is very thick (as in high magnifiers), some of the rays which enter it will be reflected or sent back, and consequently the brilliancy of the image will suffer some diminution. A large object seen through a lens which is very con- vex will appear deformed; and this proceeds from the refraction not being equal at all points in such cases. The same cause operates also to render sonic parts of the image indistinct, while others are distinct and clear. Thus the extremities of the image seen through a lens of a very short focus are commonly confused and indis- tinct, because the refraction at the edges of the lens does not agree with that of the middle parts. The modes adopted for remedying these defects in optical glasses, will be hereafter explained. The effects of a concave lens are directly opposite to those of the convex lens. In other words, by such a glass, parallel rays are rendered divergent, converging rays havejtheir convergence diminished, and diverging rays have their divergence augmented, in proportion to the concavity of the lens. These glasses then exhibit objects smaller than they really are; for by causing the rays to diverge, or more properly by diminishing the con- vergence ofthe rays proceeding from the extreme points of the object, the visual angle is rendered more acute, and the image painted on the retina is smaller than it would have been had these rays not been intercepted in their natural progress; and by the divergence ofthe rays the object is represented with less clearness than it would otherwise have had, since from this cause a less quanti- ty of light enters the pupil of the eye. All concave len- ses have a negative or virtual focus, which is a point corresponding with the divergence of parallel rays inci- dent on the surface of the lens. Light is, however, not so simple a substance as may be sujiposed upon superficially considering its general effects; it is indeed found to consist of particles wiiich are differently refrangible, that is, some of them may be re- fracted more than others in passing through certain me- diums, whence they are supposed by philosophers to be different in size. The common optical intrument called a prism, is a triangular piece of glass, through which if a pencil or collection of rays is made to pass, it is found that the rays do not proceed parallel to each other on their emergence, but produce on an opposite wall, or any plane surface that receives them, an oblong spectrum, whicli is variously coloured, and it consequently follows that- some of the rays or particles are more refrangible than others. The spectrum thus formed is, perhaps, the most beau- tiful object which any ofthe experiments of philosophy presents to our view. The lower part, which consists of the least refrangible rays, is of a lively red; whicli, high- er up, by insensible gradations, becomes an orange; the orange, iu the same manner, is succeeded by a yellow; the yellow, by a green; the green, by a blue; after which follows a deep blue or indigo; and lastly, a faint violet. Of virion. There is not any part of the animal frame which displays in a more satisfactory manner to our rea- son, the wisdom and design of our Creator, than the eye. Its anatomical structure is however explained under the articles Anatomy and Physiology. It is only neces- sary at present to consider it as an optical instrument. Tiie external coat or case, which forms the globe ofthe eye, is at the back part strong and opake: the fore part OPTICS. is thin and transparent, so as to admit readily the rays of light; and it is therefore called the cornea, from its resemblance to polished horn. It incloses three pellucid matters called tbe humours, which are of different densi- ties. That in the anterior part, immediately under the cornea, is called the aqueous humour; that immediately behind is the crystalline humour, which is a double-con- vex lens of great refracting power, and the rest of the eye is filled with a jelly-like substance called the vitreous humour. The iris, which is the coloured part ofthe eye, is an opaque membrane whicli is perforated by a small hole, the pupil, through whicli the rays of light must pass to the crystalline humour. The optic nerve enters at the under part, and is spread all over the inferior sur- face, at the back of the eye, in the form ofa fine network, and therefore is called the retina. The student of optics will see from this, that the eye i.s altogether calculated to act as a convex lens of strong refractive powers. It has already been explained, that from every lumi- nous point of a visible object, cones or pencils of light arc emitted or reflected in every direction; but to pro- duce vision, it is necessary that they should be concen- trated or converged to such a point as to make a forci- ble impression on the retina. Thus from the luminous body A, Plate XCVII. fig. 22. the rays r, r, r, are sent in various directions. Those which fall upon the transpa- rent cornea CC, are there refracted in such a manner as to enter the pupil at /;, and in passing the chrystalline K us or humour they suffer a second refraction, and are converged to a point or focus at the point a on the retina. Now it is evident, that if the rays could have passed the humours of the eye in their natural direction, that is, in the direction of the cone or pyramid CAC, they would have made upon the retina a very extensive but feeble impression, such as we know by experience could not produce distinct vision; to obviate this it is appointed by the all-wise Author of our existence, that by the force of the refraction which they suffer in the eye, they should form another cone opposed to the first at its base, and the apex of which is at a, and thus an impression suffi- ciently forcible to produce distinct vision is made on the retina. In the preceding instance, the luminous body A was considered as a point; and what has been said of it will apply to every point of a visible object, which is capable of transmitting or reflecting to the eye a pencil or collec- tion of ravs. Thus we may easily suppose that from eve- ry part of the arrow O A B, (fig. 23.) cones or pencils of light may be transmitted; these, like all pencils or col- lections of rays, coming from a point, will diverge, and will fall upon the eye in some degree divergent, or in the form of cones or pyramids. The pencil of ravs OEIF will then paint the extremity 0 in the point I; the pencil BFME will also paint the extremity B in the point M: and since all the points be- tween 0* and B arc represented between I and M, of course IM will be the image of OB. Hence itis evident, that bv means of this refraction there are certain points at whli h the ravs of light, after passing the pupil, cross each other, and'ihe image which is formed on the retina is consequently inverted. . Artificial eyes are sold by the opticians, in winch al the humours are made of different kinds of glass, and VOL. II. 11j3 may be separated at pleasure. At the back part, where the retina is supposed in the natural eye to receive the converged rays, is placed a piece of ground glass, where the image from the opposed object is rendered in an in- verted position, as in a camera obscura. The same effect may be- produced with a natural eye, and the nature of vision may be thus experimentally demonstrated: if a bullock's eye is taken fresh, the posterior coats dexter- ously removed even to the vitreous humour, and if a piece of white paper is then placed at the part, the image of any bright object which is placed before the eye will be seen distinctly painted on the paper, but in an inverted position. If the humours ofthe eye, through age or weakness, have shrunk or decayed, the cornea will then be too flat; and the rays, not being sufliciently bent or refracted, ar- rive at the retina before they are united in a focus, and would meet, if not intercepted, in some place behind it, as in Plate XCVII. fig. 25. They therefore do not make an impression sufficiently correct and forcible, but form an indistinct picture on the bottom of the eye, and exhibit the object in a confused and imperfect manner. This de- fect of the eye is therefore remedied by a double-convex lens, such as the common spectacle glasses, which, by causing the rays to converge sooner than they other- wise would, afford that aid to this defect of nature wiiich the circumstances of the case may require; the convexi- ty of the glass being always proportioned, by one who is capable of directing in the choice of spectacles, to the de- ficiency in vision. If, on the contrary, the cornea is too convex, the pen- cils of rays will unite in their foci before their arrival at the retina, as in fig. 26, and the image will also be indis- tinct. This defect is to be remedied by concave glasses, which cause the rays to diverge; and consequently, by being properly adapted to the case, will enable the eye to form the image in its proper place. The rays of light being emitted or reflected from a vi- sible object in all directions, it must be plain that some of them from every part of it must reach the eye. Thus the object AB (Plate XCVII. fig. 28) is visible to an eye in any part where the rays Aa, Afc, Ac, Ad, Ae, Ba, lib, Be, Bd, Be, Ca, Cb, Cc, Cd, and Ce, can come. But though rays are reflected from every point of the object to every part of the circumambient space, yet it is evi- dent that only those rays which pass through the pupil of the eye can affect the sense; and those rays also give the ideas of colour, according to the properties of those bo- dies which transmit or reflect them. As the direction in which the extreme pencils of light cross each other in the eye, bears a i\m' proportion to the angle in which they are transmitted from the object to the eye, it is evident that the image formed upon the re- tina will be proportioned to the apparent magnitude; and thus we have our first ideas of the size and distance of bodies, which, however, in many cases "are correct--d by experience. The nearer any ol>j ct is to the eye, ti.e larger is the angle by which it will appear in the eye, and therefore the greater will be the seeming magnitude of that body. In Plate XCVII. fig. 24, let AB be an object viewed directly by the eve QK. From each extremity draw the lines AN and BM, intersecting each other in the crystalline humour at I. Then draw the line IK. in the OPTICS. % direction in which tbe eye is supposed to look at tbe ob- ject. The angle AIB is then the optical or visual angle; and the line IK is called tlie optical axis, because it is the axis of the lens or crystalline humour continued to the bbject. The apparent magnitude of objects, then, depending thus on tlie angle under which they are seen, will evi- dently vary according to their distances. Thus different objects, as AB, CD, EF, the real magnitudes of which fire very unequal, may be situated at such distances from the eye as to have their apparent magnitudes all equal; for if they are situated at such distances that the rays AN, BM, shall touch the extremities of each, they will then appear all under the same optical angle, and the diameter MN of each image on the retina will con- sequently be equal. In the same manner objects of equal magnitude, situ* ated a( unequal distances, will appear unequal. For let AB and GH, two objects of equal size, be placed before the eye at different distances, IK and IS; draw the lines GP and HO, crossing each other in I; then OP, the image formed by the object GH on the retina, is evidently of a greater diameter than the image MN, which represents tbe object AB; in other words, the object GH will ap- pear as large as an object of the diameter TV, situated at the same place as the object AB. To render the subject still clearer, suppose the object HK (see Plate XCVII. fig. 27) to be at a hundred yards distance, it will form an angle in the eye at A. At two hun- dred yards distance the angle it makes will be half as large in the eye at B. Thus to whatever moderate dis- tance the object is removed, the angle it forms in the eye will be proportionably less, and therefore the object will be diminished in the same proportion. Hence it follows, that objects situated at different dis- tances, whose apparent magnitudes are equal, are to each other as their distances from the eye; and by the same rule, equal objects situated directly before the eye, have their apparent magnitudes in a reciprocal propor- tion to their distances. This last proposition must, however, be received with some allowance; for it is only applicable to very distant, objects, and to those where the sense is not corrected by the judgment. For if the objects are near, we do not judge of their magnitude according to the visual angle. Thus, if a man of six feet high is seen at the distance of six feet under the very same angle as a dwarf of only two feet higbt at the distance of two feet, still the dwarf will not appear as large as the man, because the sense is cor- rected by the judgment. In most cases, however, where the distance is con- siderable, the rule will be found accurate; and as it has its foundation in nature, most of the phenomena of vision will be explained by having recourse to the principles here laid down. If the eye is placed above a horizontal plane, the different parts of this plane will appear elevat- ed in proportion to their distance, till at length they will appear upon a level with it. For in proportion as the dif- ferent parts are more distant, the rays which proceed from them form angles with the optical axis IK (Plate XCVII. fig. 24) more and more acute, and at length be- come almost parallel. This is the reason why, if we stand on the sea-shore, tbocp parts of the ocean which are at a great distance appear elevated: for the globular form of the earth is not perceptible to the eye; and if it was, the apparent elevation of the sea is far greater than the arch which a segment of the globe would form within any distance that our eyes are capable of reaching. For the same reason, if a number of objects are placed on the same plane and at the same height below the eye, the more distant will appear taller than tbe others; and if the same objects are placed on a similar plane above the eye, the more distant will appear the lowest. The distant parts of a long wall, for the same reason, appear to a person who stands near one end to curve, or incline towards him. In the same manner the high wall of a lofty tower seems, to a spectator, placed directly un- der it, to bend over him, and threaten him with instant destruction. If any person inclined to make the experi- ment will lie down on his. back in a situation of this de- scription, at the distance of five or six feet from the wall of which he contemplates the tremendous height, he will immediately be made sensible of the phenomenon. If the distance between two objects forms an insensi- ble angle, tbe objects, though in reality at some distance from each other, will appear contiguous. This is assigned by some astronomers as the reason why the ring or belt of Saturn appears as one mass of light, while they contend that it is formed from a number of little stars or satellites ranged within a certain distance of each other. If the eye is carried along, as in a boat, without being sensible of its own motion, the objects which are station- ary on each side will appear to move in a contrary direc- tion. Thus we attribute to the,sun and the other hea- venly bodies a diurnal motion, which only affects the earth which wc inhabit. If two or three objects at a considerable distance, and on which the eye of the spectator is fixed, move with equal velocity past a third object which is at rest, the mov- ing objects will appear to be actually at rest, and that which is really stationary will appear in motion. Thus the clouds which pass over the face of the moon appear at rest, while the moon itself appears to proceed rapidly along in an opposite direction. This happens, because the eye which is fixed upon the clouds follows their mo- tion mechanically, and therefore the moon appears to move and not the clouds; as in the boat we do not per- ceive its motion, but conceive the banks are retiring be- hind us. If the centre of the pupil, that is, the optic axis,.is di- rected along the surface of any slender object in a per- fectly right line* this line will appear only a point, be- cause, in fact, the extremities only are visible. An extended and distant arch, viewed by an eye which is exactly in the same line, will appear as a plane sur- face; because all the parts appearing equally distant, the curvature will not be perceived. If a circle is viewed obliquely it will appear an oval, because the diameter whicli is perpendicular to the eye is shortened; in other words, the rays which proceed from tbe extremities form an angle so much the more acute as the obliquity is greater; on the contrary, the diameter which is parallel to the eye is apparently extended. Such are the general principles upon whicli vision is performed; but the sense of sight is limited not only with respett to distant objects, but with respect to those which OPTICS. arc near. Every person will easily perceive that if a book, or any other object, is held too close to the eye, the letters or the object will appear very indistinct and confu- sed. This distance varies with respect to different eyes. Very near-sighted persons can see at the distance of one or two inches; but where the eye is in a sound state, the point of distinct vision varies from six to ten inches, or eight inches as a medium. To understand the reason of this, it is necessary to re- member that objects are made visible by cones of diverg- ing rays proceeding from every luminous point of an object; but to have the object clearly painted on the reti- na, the rays must not enter the pupil of the eye too diverg- ent. Indeed they ought to come in almost a parallel di- rection, more in the form of a cylinder than a cone, other- wise the humours ofthe eye will not make them converge at the proper points on the retina. Thus, let us suppose GD (Plate XC VIII. fig. 22) to be the diameter of the pupil ofthe eye; 0 is then aluminous point of any object situated at the distance of about six inches, and OC and OD are divergent rays proceeding from this point. Let AC and BD than be parallel rays. It will then be evident that the divergency of the rays OC and OD is so very small, that they are almost parallel when they arrive at the pu- pil; and consequently the eye will be able to converge them in such a degree as to produce distinct vision. If, on the contrary, the point O was nearer to the pu- pil, or if the pupil was larger, they would fall more diverg- ing upon the eye, and the image of the object would be formed at a point behind the retina, so as to be very im- perfect and confused. Hence we may easily perceive the use of a single lens of a short focus, or high magnifying power, such as is employed in the single miscroscope. It renders these divergent rays less divergent; and conse- quently assists the eye in making them converge to that point which is necessary to distinct vision. From the principles laid down it may easily be under- stood why very minute objects arc imperceptible to the naked eye. If those objects could, consistently with dis- tinct vision, be brought near to the eye, they would be per- ceived as well as by the aid of a microscope: hence some tery near-sighted persons may be said to have micros- copic eyes; but at six or eight inches (the limit of distinct vision) these objects subtend too small an angle to be per- ceptible. Opticians say that the eye is not capable of perceiving any object which subtends an angle of less than half a minute of a degree. The image on the retina is in this case less than the T-^ part of an inch, and the object itself at six inches distance less than the TT'V¥ part of an inch broad. All smaller objects are invisible. All very distant objects, upon the same principles, ap- pear indistinct; for their images on the retina are so ex- tremely small, that the distinction of parts is not percep- tible. Thus if a man, of six feet stature, is viewed at the distance of a mile; his image on the retina will not be more than the thousandth part of an inch in length. We cannot be surprised, therefore, if the eye can discern noth- ing of his features, or the minuter parts of his body. Distant objects, however, appear not only indistinct but obscure; and this last effect is frem a deficiency of lieht, very many of the rays being intercepted in their passage through the air. Hence the difference in the ap- pearance of such objects in a dark and cloudy day, when the air is impregnated with vapours, from that which they assume when the sun shines full and strong upon them. With a single glass the defects in sight, with respect to many objects, either too near, or at too great a distance, for the persons labouring under them, are remedied; but there are cases where the object is so far distant, or so minute, that, though its outline may reach the eye, its parts must still, even with the aid of a single lens, be in- distinctly perceived. The art of man has discovered a remedy, in a great degree, for this imperfection; and by means of a combination of glasses has opened a wide field for his researches into the wonders of nature: he can now trace the limbs of an insect invisible to the naked eye; or he can make the celestial objects appear to him as if their distance had been on a sudden diminished by many nm- lions of miles. Optical instruments.—From what has been stated con- cerning vision, the principle ofthe single microscope will be easily understood. Since the eye cannot have a dis- tinct perception of any object at a nearer distance than six or eight inches, and since there are many objects which at that distance must be wholly imperceptible, or at best appear as points, an instrument whicli can render them visible, is a very desirable attainment. It has been sufficiently explained that objects ajmear larger or smaller in proportion to the angle under which they are seen. Since therefore the rays by which small objects are rendered visible by the microscope, must come from tbe extreme points of that object, it is manifest that though the apparent magnitude is increased by the in- terposition of tbe lens, its real magnitude remains the same. The lens enables us to view it at a shorter distance; it will therefore appear exactly as much larger in din- meter through the lens, as its distance from the glass is less than the nearest distance of distinct vision with the naked eye. Let A (Plate XC VIII. fig. 1) be then a point or an object not visible to the eye at a less distance than AB, because the rays are too divergent for distinct vision. Now if the same object is placed in the focus C of the lens D,the rays which proceed from it will be rendered parallel by passing the lens; and therefore the object i.s rendered dis- tinctly visible to the eye at E. It will then of course ap- pear as much larger through the lens than to the naked eye, as CD is less than AB. If the object AH is in the one focus of the lens DE, and the eye in the other focus F (fig. 2), as much ofthe object will be visible as is equal to tbe diameter of the lens; for the rays AD and BE proceed through the ex- tremities of the Jens, and are united at the focus F, and render the extreme parts of the object visible. Hence a maxim in optics, *• that when an object is placed in on^ focus of a lens, and the eye in the other, the object ap- pears just twice as large as it would to the naked eve, whatever the size of the lens:'' for the lines FD and FE, if protracted to the distance of A and H, would form an image exactly twice as large. *» If, on the other hand, the eye is nearer to the lens than the focus,it will see the object still larger: and if it is farther than the focus it will not see it so large: and in all cases the visible part of the object will be to the lens, as the focal distance of the lens is to the distance of the eye. From what has beeii said, the reason will be very plain OPTICS. why the magnitude of objects seen through a uWble-con- vex lens, that is, a single microscope, will be in the pro- portion which the focus ofthe lens bears to the limits of distinct vision. Thus, suppose AB, fig. 1, to be that distance, or about six inches, so that the eye B can but just perceive the object A, and let the focal distance of the less D be one-half of an inch; then since CD is but one-twelfth of AB, the length ofthe object at C will ap- pear twelve times as large as at A, and its surface will appear magnified 144 times. The most powerful single microscopes are very small globules of glass, which any curious person may make for himself by melting the ends of fine threads of glass in the flame of a candle; or by taking a little fine pow- dered glass on the point of a very small needle, and melt- ing it into a globule in that way. It was with such mi- croscopes as these thatLewenhoeck made all his wonder- ful discoveries, most of which are deposited in the British Museum. The double or compound microscope differs from the preceding in this respect, that it consists of at least two lenses, by one of which an image is formed within the tube ofthe microscope; and this image is viewed through the eye-glass, instead of tlie object itself as in the single microscope. In this respect the principle is analogous to that of the telescope, only that, as the latter is intend- ed to view distant objects, the object-lens is of a long fo- cus, and consequently ofa moderate magnifying power, and the eye-glass of a short focus, which magnifies con- siderably the image made by the object lens. Whereas the microscope being intended only for minute objects, the object-lens is consequently of a short focus, and the eye-glass in this case is not of so high a magnifying power. A single figure will serve to explain the principles on wiiich all these instruments are constructed. N Suppose therefore LN ( Plate XC VIII. fig. 3) to be the object-lens, and FG to be the eye-glass. The object OB is placed a little beyond the piincipal focus of LN. The cones or pencils of rays then proceeding from the different points of the object, are by the lens made to converge to their respective foci, and form an inverted image of the ob- ject at PQ. This image is seen through the eye-glass FG, and the rays of each pencil will proceed in a parallel direction to the pupil of the eye. The compound microscope was thus originally con- structed of two glasses, but it was found that what is call- ed the field of view was too confined in instruments of this construction. For the pencil of rays which emanates from the point 0 of the object, and is converged by the lens to D, would proceed afterwards diverging towards II, and therefore would never arrive at the lens FG, nor enter the eye at E; but the pencils which proceed from o and b will be converged to the lens FG, and sent to the eye at E in a parallel direction. Hence.if the object is large, a very small part of it will be visible, because several pencils will fall without the eye-glass FG, and the field of view will consequently be very limited. To remedy this inconvenience, a broad lens DE is in- terposed, cither of a plano-convex, or of a double-convex, form. By this, it will be perceived, th^ pencils wiiich would have proceeded towards H and I, will be refract- ed to the eye-glass, aud the figure will he completely formed as in the plate. This glass is called by opticians the body-glass, because it is situated in the body of the microscope. Some artists now make these instruments with two eye-glasses, made ratine thin, which in some degree corrects what is called the aberration, or disper- sion of the rays. In all these microscopes the object is seen in an inverted position; but this is of little im- portance with regard to small insects and other minute bodies. The solar microscope is a kind of camera obscura, which, in a darkened chamber, throws the image on a wall or screen. It consists of two lenses fixed opposite a hole in a board or window-shutter; one, which con- denses the light of the sun upon the object (which is placed between them), and the other which forms the image. There is also a plain reflector placed without, moved by a wheel and pinion, which may be so re- gulated as to throw the sun's rays upon the outer lens. The reader may form some idea of this by in- specting the Plate XC VIII. fig. 12, of the camera obscura, only supposing the figures on the wall to be a microsco- pic object magnified by the lens. Mr. Adams's most in- genious invention, the lucernal microscope, is also to be considered as a kind of camera obscura; only the light in this latter case proceeds from a lamp, instead of from the sun, which renders it convenient to be used at all times. But for a description of this elegant and most amus- ing instrument, wc must refer to his Microscopical Essays. From what has been said on the nature of the com- pound microscope, the principle of the telescope may be easily understood. Telescopes are, however, of two kinds: the one depending on the principle of refraction, and called the dioptric telescope; the other on the prin- ciple of reflection, and therefore termed the reflecting telescope. The parts essential to a dioptric telescope are, the two lenses AD and EY (Plate XC VIII. fig. 4). As in the com- pound microscope, AD is the object-glass, and EY is the eye-glass; and these glasses are so combined in the tube, that the focus F of the one is exactly coincident with the focus of the other. Let OB then represent a very distant object, from every point of which pencils of rays will proceed so lit- tle diverging to the object-lens AD, that they may be considered as nearly parallel; IM will then be the image whicli would be formed on a screen by the action of the lens AD. For supposing OA and BD two pencils of rays proceeding from the extreme points of the object, they will unite in the focal point F, and intersect each other. But the point F is also the focus ofthe eye-glass EY; and therefore the pencil of rays, instead of going on to diverge, will pass through it in nearly a parallel direction, so as to cause distinct vision. It is then plain that, as in the compound microscope, it is the image which is here contemplated; and this will account for the common sensation when people say the object is brought nearer by a telescope. For the rays, which after crossing proceed in a divergent state, fall upon the lens EY. as if they proceeded from a real ob- ject situated at F. All that is effected by a telescope then is, to form such an image of a distant object, by means of the object-lens, and then to give the eye such OPTICS. assistance as is nceessary for viewing that image as near as possible; so that the angle it shall subtend at the eye shall be very large compared with the angle which the object itself would subtend in tbe same situation. This is effected by means ofthe eye-glass, which refracts the pencils of rays, so that they may be brought to their several foci by the humours of the eye, as has been des- cribed. To explain clearly, however, the reason why it ap- pears magnified, we must again have recourse to the figure. OB being at a great distance, the length of the telescope is inconsiderable with respect to it. Supposing, therefore, the eye viewed it from the centre of the object- glass C, it would see it under the angle OCB: let OC and BC then be produced to the focus ofthe glass, they will then limit the image IM formed in the focus. If then two parallel rays are supposed to proceed to the eye- glass EY, they will be converged to its focus H, and the eye will see the image under the angle EHY. The ap- parent magnitude of the object seen by the naked eye is, therefore, to that ofthe image which is seen through the telescope, as the magnitude ofthe angle OCB, or ICM, to that of EHY, or IGM. Now the angle 1GM is to ICM as CF to FG; that is, as the focal length of tlie object-glass to that of the eye-glass. The magnifying power of these glasses may be aug- mented to a considerable degree, because tbe focal length of the object-glass, with respect to that of the eye- glass, may be greatly increased. This however would require a tube of immense length; because an eye-glass of a very short focus would cause such a dispersion of the rays of light, particularly towards the edges of the glass, that the view would be intercepted by the prisma- tic colours. Another manifest defect in these telescopes is, thatthe image appears inverted: this, however, is of no conse- quence with respect to the heavenly bodies; and on this account it is still u.«cd as an astronomical telescope. One of almost a similar construction is also used on board of ships as a night-glass, to discover rocks in the ocean, or an enemy's fleet. Notwithstanding the incon- venience of exhibiting ihe objects inverted, more glasses than two cannot be employed from the paucity of light; and habit soon enables the persons who use them to dis- cern objects with tolerable distinctness. Galileo, who had heard of the invention of telescopes, but had not seen one, constructed a telescope upon the- oretical principles, and adopted a concave lens as an eye- glass, but whither with a view of obviating the disagree- able effect produced by the inversion ofthe image or u >t is uncertain. This effect is however produced by the Galilean telescope, the construction of which is as fol- lows: Let AB, fig. 5, be a very disrant object, from e\ery point of which pencils of rays proceed to the convex lens DE, and are refracted towards their foci at FSG. But a concave lens III, the virtual focus of which is at FG, being interposed, the rays are not suffered to converge to that point; but being made |css convergent, as is the effect of these glasses, enter the pupil almost parallel, and are converged by the humours of the eye to their proper foci on the retina at PQR: and the object will appear erect, because the pencils of rays cross each other only once, as in natural vision. Objects are seen very dis- tinct tiirough this telescope; but the field of view is so small, that its use is almost exclusively confined to tlie common opera-glasses. For if the focus of the eye-glass is short, the pencils of rays are rendered so divergent, that but a few of them can enter the pupil. It was necessary then, to render the dioptric telescope useful for terrestrial purposes, to cause the image to be seen in an erect position. This was effected by the ad- dition of two other convex lenses; of this Kepler sug- gested the idea, though it was not reduced to practice till thirty years after his time. The principle on which this telescope is constructed will be easily understood from what has been premised, and by inspecting the Plate, fig. 6. It will be seen there, that to the common astronomical telescope, there are added two other eye- glasses ofthe same fucus as the first, LM and Qli; and the first of these is placed at twice its focal distance from HI. After the rays therefore have passed the first eye- glass ill, instead of being received by the eye, as in the former case of the astronomical telescope, tliey pass on; tbe rays which constitute each pencil being rendered pa- rallel: and in this state the respective pencils cross each other in the common focus, and the rays are received in this parallel state by the second eye-glass LM. The rays then constituting the respective pencils converge to their foci at NO, where a second image is formed, but in- verted with respect to the former image EV. This then is the image which is viewed through the third eye-glass QR; and being in the same position as the object itself, is painted on tfie retina at XZY, and causes the object to be seen erect, as if no glasses had been interposed. The apparent magnitude of the object is not changed by these glasses; and depends, as before, on the focal lengths of the first object-glass and the lens nearest to it. The brilliancy ofthe object, however, will be di- minished, since several rays will be lost in their pas- sage through the two additional glasses. In placing the glasses in this telescope, care must be taken that the axes of the lenses coincide, or, as it is evident from our principles, indistinct vision only will be pro- duced. The brightness of the appearance through any of these telescopes or«nicroscopes, depends chiefly on the aper- ture of the object-glass. For if the whole of that glass was covered except a small aperture in the middle, the magnitude of the image would not be altered; but fewer rays of every pencil being admitted, the object would appear obscure. In few words, the apparent distinctness or confusion of any object, viewed through glasses, depends on the mutual inclination of the rajs in any one pencil to each other, when they fail on the eye; the apparent magnitude depends upon the inclination of the rays of different pen- cils to each other; the apparent situation depends upon the real situation of the extreme pencils; and the appa- rent brightness or obscurity depends on the quantity of rays in each pencil. As the magnifying power of all dioptric telescopes de- pends on the proportion which the focal length of the eye-glass bears to that of the object-glass; and as an eye- glass of very high magnifying powers could not be used on account of the aberration or dispersion of the rays, from the unequal thickness of the glass; various contri- OPTICS. vances were invented for tbe sake of employing object- classes of a very long focus. Wooden tubes of a very great length were found unmanageable. At length the famous Huygens invented a mode of dispensing with the tube. He attached the object-glass to a high pole, with a piece of mechanism which enabled him to raise or low- er it at pleasure; and he made the eye-glass correspond to it by a silk cord, which he held tight in his hand. This method is, wc believe, still in use on the continent for celestial objects, and distinguished by the name of the aerial telescope. These inventions were however all rendered nugatory by the discovery of the reflecting telescope. For a diop- tric or refracting telescope, even of one thousand feet focus, if it could be used, could not be made to magnify with distinctness above one thousand times; whereas a reflecting telescope of the length of eight or nine feet will magnify with distinctness 1200 times. The well-known property in concave speculums, of pausing the pencils of rays to converge to their foci, and there forming an image of any object that may be oppo- sed to them, gave rise to the reflecting telescope. In this the effect is precisely the same as that produced by the dioptric telescope; only that in the one case it is produc- ed by reflected, and in the other by refracted, light. Re- flecting telescopes are made in various forms; and those principally iu use in this country are distinguished by the names of their respective inventors, and are called the Newtonian, Gregorian, and Herschelian telescopes. The reflecting telescope on the Gregorian principle, which is the most common, as it is found to be the most convenient, is constructed in the following man- ner: At the bottom of the great tube (Plate XCVIU. fig. 7) TTTT, is placed a large concave mirror DUVF, whose principal focus is at in: and in the middle of this mirror is a round hole P, opposite to which is placed the small mirror L, concave towards tbe great one; and so fixed to a strong wire M, that it may be removed further from the great mirror, or nearer to it, by means of a longscrcw in the inside ofthe tube, keeping its axis still in the same line Finn with that of the great one. Now, since in viewing a very remote object, we can scarcely see a point of it but what is, at least, as broad as the great mirror, we may consider the rays of each pencil, which flow frem every point of the object, to be parallel to each other, and to cover the whole reflecting surface DUVF. But to avoid confusion in the figure, wc shall only draw two rays of a pencil flowing from each extremity of the object into the great tube; and trace their progress tlirough all their reflections and refractions to the eye / at the end of the small tube tt, whicli is joined to the •great one. Let us then suppose the object AB to be at such a distance, that the rays C may flow from its upper ex- tremity A, and the rays E from its lower extremity B; then the rays C falling parallel upon the great mirror at D, will be thence reflected converging in tlie direction DG; and by crossing at I in the principal focus in the mirror, they will form the lower extremity of the inver- ted image IK, similar to the upper extremity A of the object AB; and passing on to the. concave mirror L (whose focus is at n), they will fall upon it at g, and be thence reflected, converging in the direction gS, be- cause gm is longer than gn; and passing through the hole P in the large mirror, they would meet some- where about r, and form the upper extremity a of the erect image ab, similar to the upper extremity A of the object AB. But by passing tlirough the plano-convex glass It in their way, they form that extremity of the image at a. In the same manner the rays E, which come from the bottom ofthe object AB, and fall parallel upon the great mirror at F, arc thence reflected, con- verging to its focus; where they form the upper extre- mity I of the inverted image IK, similar to the lower extremity B of the object AB: and thence passing on to the small mirror L, and falling upon it at h, they are thence reflected in the converging state /iO; and going on through the hole P of the great mirror, they would meet somewhere about q, and form there the lower ex- tremity b of the erect image ab, similar to the lower ex- tremity B of the object AB; but by passing through the convex glass R in their way, they meet and cross sooner, as at 6, where that point of the erect image is formed. The like being understood of all those rays which flow from the intermediate points of the object between A and B, and enter the tube TT, all the in- termediate points of the image between a and b will be formed; and tbe rays passing on from the image througli the eye-glass S, and through a small hole e in the end of the lesser tube tt, they enter the eye/, wiiich sees the image ab (by means of the eye-glass) under the large angle ced, and magnified in length under that angle from c to d. In the best reflecting telescopes, the focus of the small mirror is cevcr coincident with the focus m of the great one, where the first image IK is formed, but a little beyond it (with respect to the eye) as at n; the conse- quence of which is, that the rays of tbe pencils will not be parallel after reflection from the small mirror, hut converge so as to meet in points about q, e, r; where they would form a larger upright image than ab, if the glass R was not in their way, and this image might be viewed by means of a single eye-glass pro- perly placed between the image and the eye: but then the field of view would be less, and consequently not so pleasant; for that reason the glass R is still retained, to enlarge the scope or area of the field. To find the magnifying power of this telescope, multi- ply the focal distance of the great mirror by the dis- tance ofthe small mirror from the image next the eye, and multiply the focal distance of the small mirror by the focal distance of the eye-glass: then divide the pro- duct of the former multiplication by that of the latter, and the quotient will express the magnifying power. The difference between the Newtonian and Gregorian telescope is, that in the former the spectator looks in at the side through an aperture upon a plane mirror, by which the rays reflected from tbe concave mirror are re- flected to the eye-glass; whereas in the latter the reader will see that he looks tlirough the common eye-glass, which is in general more convenient. The immensely powerful tolescopes of Dr. Herschel are of a still different construction. This assiduous astronomer has made several specula, wiiich are so perfect as to bear a magnifying power of more than OPTICS. six thousand times in diameter on a distant object. The object is reflected by a mirror as in the Gregorian tele- scope, and the rays are intercepted by a lens at a proper distance, so that the observer has his back to the object, andlooks through the lens at the mirror. The magnify- ing power will in this case be the same as in the Newtont- an telescope; but there not being a second reflector, the brightness of the object viewed in the Herschelian is greater than that in the Newtonian or Gregorian tele- scope. Iu conclusion, sir Isaac Newton's excellent max- im must not be omitted: « The art," says he, « of con- structing good microscopes and telescopes may be said to depend on the circumstance of making the last image as large and distinct and luminous as possible." There are some instruments of rather an amusing than a useful description, the effects of which depend on a proper combination of plane or convex glasses. Our lim- its will not admit the notice of more than two of this kind, namely, the magic lanthorn, and the camera obscu- ra. The former is a microscope upon the same principles as the solar microscope, and may be used with good effect for magnifying small transparent objects; but in general it is applied to the purpose of amusement, by casting the image of a small transparent painting wh glass upon a white wall or screen, at a proper distance from tbe in- strument. Let a candle or lamp C (fig. 8) be placed in the inside of a box, so that the light may pass through the plano- convex IcnsNN, and strongly illuminate the object OB; whicli is a transparent painting on glass, inverted and moveable before NN, by means of a sliding piece in which the glass is set or fixed. This illumination is still more increased bv the reflection of light from a concave mirror SS, placed at the other end oftlic box, which cau- ses the light to fall upon the lens NN, as represented in the figure. Lastly, a lens LL, fixed in a sliding tube, is brought to the requisite distance from the object OB, and a large erect image IM is formed upon the opposite wall. The camera obscura has the same relation to the tele- scope as the solar microscope has to the common double microscope, and is thus constructed: Let CD (fig. 12) represent a darkened chamber per- forated at L, where a convex lens is fixed, thecurvalure of whicli is such, that the focus of parallel rays falls upon the opposite wall. Then if AB is an object at such a dis- tance thatthe rays which proceed frem any given point of its surface to the lens Lmay be esteemed parallel, an inverted picture will be formed on the opposite wall; for the pencil which proceeds from A will converge to a, and the pencil which proceeds from B will converge to I, and the intermediate points ofthe object will be de- picted* between a and b. .For the use of painters these instruments are now con- structed in a very convenient mode. Ihe lens is made to slide in a small wooden box, so as o be easily adjusted to a proper focus; and the image falls upon a plane mir- ror, placed obliquely at the back part of the box, from H ? V^^rd^f K? fcXh ing objects give it animation; and the outline formed is 60 perfect that it may be easily traced, even by a person who is little skilled in drawing or perspective. Of the doctrine of colours, or chromatics.—In some of the preceding sections we hud occasion to use the word aberration, though we had not then an opportunity of explaining it; since in the optics of the mind, as well as in those of which we are treating, when too many ima- ges are presented at once, a certain degree of confusion must necessarily ensue. As there is no «« royal road to science," so philosophy gradually developes her secrets, and the possession of one fact prepares the mind for an- other. We have hitherto assumed as a principle, that a convex lens unites in one point, which we have called the focus, all the rays proceeding from any given point of an ob- ject. If this was exactly the case, the images, formeft by these glasses would be perfectly distinct and unconfus- ed. The principle, however, holds strictly true only with respect to those rays which pass nearly througli the centre of the lens; for those which pass near the ex- tremities or edges of the glass, meet in foci still more distant, and from this multiplication of images great in- distinctness results. To show the reason of this it is necessary to have re- course to a figure. Let PP then (Plate XCVIII. fig. 10.) be a convex lens; and Ee an object, the point E of which corresponds with the axis of the lens, and sends forth the rays EM, EN, E A, EM, and EN, all of whicli reach the surface of the glass, but in different parts. Now it is manifest, upon the principles already explained, that the ray EA, which passes through the middle of the glass, suffers no refraction; the rays EM, EM, also, which pass through near to E A, will be converged to a focus at F, which we have been accustomed to consider as the focus ofthe lens. But the rays EN, EN, which are near- er to the edge of the glass, will be differently refracted; and will meet about G, nearer to the lens, where they will form another image Gg. Hence it is evident that the first image Yf is formed only by the union of those rays which pass very near the centre of the lens; but, in truth, as the rays of light proceeding from every point of an object are very numerous, there is a succes- sion of images formed according to the parts of the lens where they penetrate, which necessarily produces great indistinctness and confusion; and this is what is meant by the word aberration. This confusion or dispersion of the rays is increased in proportion as the arcs PAP, PBP, are larger segments of their respective circles: hence in very thirk and con- vex lenses the aberration is such as to be intolerable. Even in the object-glasses of telescopes, though they are made thin, and are segments of large circles, and though from these reasons the dispersion of ^be rays may be insensible in itself, still the magnifying power multiplies it as often as the object itself. Hence the greater the magnifying power, the smaller should be the aperture of the object-glass; and when the dispersion of the rays is very great, the defect is in some degree remedied bv covering tbe edge ofthe lens with an opaque ring; but in this case, while distinctness is restored the brightness ofthe image is necessarily diminished. Opticians have therefore endeavoured to form such combinations of lenses, both coucave and convc\, vary ing in their respec- OPTICS. tive foci, as must unite all the rays in a single point, and thus present a distinct image. Calculations have been formed for these combinations, but the hand of the ar- tist has never been able to bring the speculations of theo- rists to entire perfection. The plan most generally adopted by practical opti- cians is, to combine two shallow lenses together in such a manner that they act as a single lens. They use often plano-convex, for that figure admits of less aberration than any other; but shallow lenses of a double-convex kind will answer. In this combination the lenses are set near together, so that the second lens acts only in bring- ing the rays which pass through the first to a nearer focus. Thus in Plate XCVIII. fig. 9, AB and CD are two lenses of this description; and the focus of AB would be at F, but, by the second lens, the rays are made to con- verge at a nearer focus/: thus they act together as a sin- gle lens of double their magnifying power, with this ad- vantage; that as the curvatures of both conjointly, are less than the curvature of a single lens of equal power, the aberration is greatly lessened. The aberration which we have been describing results from the spherical form of the glasses; but there is an- other kind of aberration, whicli depends immediately up- on the nature and properties of light itself. Each ray or beam of light, indeed, which gives us the sensation of white, is found to be compounded of seven other rays; and these component rays are each of them differently refrangible. Hence objects viewed through very convex glasses are often found to have their edges tinged with various colours. This effect was long felt, but it remain- ed for Newton to explain the cause. In the short history contained in the first part of this article, the discoveries on colours were briefly related; but it will perhaps be satisfactory to the reader to have the experiment described in the words of Newton him- self, whicli will at the same time afford an example of the style and manner of this first of philosophers. « In a very dark chamber, at a round hole F (Plate XCVIII. fig. 14), about one-third of an inch broad (says he), made in the shutter ofa window, I placed a glass prism ABC, whereby the beam of the sun's light, SF, which f#ame in at that hole, might be refracted upward*;, to- ward the opposite wall ofthe chamber, and there forma coloured image of the sun, represented at PT. The axis is ofthe prism (that is, the line passing through the middle ofthe prism, from one end of it to the other end, paraikl to the edge of the refracting angle) was in this and the following experiments perpendicular to the incident rays. About this axis I turned the prism slowly; and saw the refracted light on the wall, or coloured image ofthe sun, first to descend, and then to ascend. Between the descent and ascent, when the image seemed stationary, I stopped the prism, and fixed it in that posture. "Then I let the refracted light fall perpendicularly upon a sheet of white paper, MN, placed at the opposite wall of tbe chamber; and observed the figure and dimen- sions of the solar image PT, formed on the paper by that light. This image was oblong, and not oval, but termi- nated bv two rectilinear and parallel sides, and two se- micircular ends. On its sides it was bounded pretty dis- tinctly; but on its ends very confusedly and indistinctly, the light there decaying and vanishing by degrees. At the distance of 18| feet from the prism, the breadth of the image was about 2| inches, but its length was about 101 inches, and the length of its rectilinear sides about 8 inches; and ACB, the refracting angle of the prism, whereby so great a length was made, was 64°. With a less angle the length of the image was less, the breadth remaining the same. It is farther to be observed, that the rays went on in straight lines from the prism to tbe image; and therefore at their going out of the prism had all that inclination to one another from which the length ofthe image proceeded. This image PT was coloured, and the more eminent colours lay in this order from the bottom at T to the top at P; red. orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet, together with all their intermediate degrees, in a continual succession, perpetually varying. The philosopher continued his experiments, and by making the rays thus decompounded pass, as was for- merly related, through a second pris*m, he found that they did not admit of farther decomposition; and that ob- jects placeikjin the rays producing one colour always appeared to be of that colour. He then examined the ra- tio between the.sines of incidence and refraction of these decompounded rays: and found that each of the seven primary coloiff making rays, as they may be called, had certain limits within which they were confined. Thus, let the sine of incidence in glass be divided into fifty equal parts, the sine of refraction into air of the least and most refrangible rays will contain respectively 77 and 78 such parts. The sines of refraction of all the degrees of red will have the intermediate degrees of magnitude, from 77 io 77|; orange from 77} to 77-J; yellow from 77} to 77-J; green from 77} to 771; blue from 771 to 77|; indigo from 77§ to 77}; and violet from 771 to 78. According to the properties of bodies in reflecting or absorbing these rays, tlie colours which we see in them are formed. If every ray falling upon an object was re- flected to our eye it would appear white; if every ray was absorbed it would appear black; between these two appearances innumerable species of colours may be form- ed by reflection or transmission of the various combina- tions ofthe colour-making rays. If the rays also of light were not thus compounded, every object would appear of the same colour, and an irksome uniformity would prevail over the face of nature. To leave, however, for the present, the further prose- cution of this subject, and to return to that of the errors arising in optical glasses from the dispersion of the rays of light, it must be evident that, in proportion, as any part of aglass bears a resemblance to the form of a prism, the component rays must be necessarily separated. The edges of every convex lens approach to this form; and it is on this account that the extremities of objects view- ed'through them are found to be tinged with coloured rays. In reality, as all the different colour-making rays are differently refrangible, in such a glass these different rays will have different foci, and will form their respec- tive images at different distances from the glass. Thus imagine PP (Plate XCVIII. fig. 11) to be a double-con- vex Tens, and OO an object situated at some distance from it. If the object OO was red, the rays proceeding from it would form a red image at Rr; if it was violet, an im- age of that colour wouid be formed at Vv nearer tbe OPTICS. glass; and if the object Was white, or any other combina- tion of the colour-making rays, these rays would have their respective foci at different distances from the glass, aud form a succession of images, in the order of the pris- matic colours, between the space Rr and Vr. This dispersion depends on the focal length of the glass, the space whicli the coloured images occupy be- ing about the 28th part. Thus, if the glass is of 28 feet focus, the space between Rr and Yv will be about one foot, and so in proportion. Now when viewed through one eye-glass or more, this succession of images will seem to form but one image, but that very indistinct, and tinged with various colours; and as the red image Rr in the figure is largest, or seen under the greatest angle, the extreme parts of this confused image will be red, and a succession ofthe prismatic colours will be formed with this red fringe, as is frequently found in telescopes upon the old construction. This defect in telescopes was long regarded as with- out a remedy; but who shall set bounds to tbe inventive powers of the human mind? It was in the different re- fractive powers of various media that a remedy was sought for this property in glasses, so adverse to the hopes and wishes of philosophers. Sir Isaac Newton had hinted the practicability of this plan; but he was too deeply engaged in the vast discoveries which the use ofthe reflector opened to his view, to pursue practically the idea. As water is known to have very different re- fractive powers from glass, the great Euler, proceeding upon the hint of Newton, projected an object-glass of two lenses, with water between them. The memoir of Euler excited powerfully the attention of Mr. Dollond, a practical optician in London; and after trying the re- fractive power of water combined with glass in the form of a prism, he conceived that the refractive powers of different glasses might serve to correct each other. He applied himself therefore to examine the qualities of every kind of glass he could procure, and found that the two which differed most essentially in their refractive powers were the common crown or window glass, and the white flint glass. He then formed two prisms, one of the white flint of an angle of about 25 degrees, and another of flint of 29. They refracted very nearly alike, but their power of making the colours diverge was very different. He next ground several others of crown glass, till he. procured one which was equal as to the divergen- cy jf light with that of the flint glass. He placed them together, therefore, but in opposite directions, so as to counteract each other; and he found that the light whicli passed through them was perfectly white. This discove- ry, it was obvious, was immediately applicable to the object-glasses of telescopes. To make the glasses act as the two prisms, to refract the light in contrary direc- tions, it was plain that the one must be concave and the other convex; and as the rays are to converge to a real focus, the excess of refraction must be in thecanvex lens. As the convex lens is to refract most also, it appeared from his experiments that it must be of crown glass He therefore employed two convex lenses of crown glass, with a concave lens of flint glass; and these are the tide- scopes most in use at present, and we 1 known by tbe wuneof achromatic telescopes. Some opticians however, wc believe, now construct them with two lenses, one con vex and the other concave. In fig. 13, a and c show the two convex lenses, and 66 the concave one, of this telescope. They are all ground to spheres of different radii, accordingto the refractive powers ofthe different kinds of glass, and the intended focal distance of the object-glass of the telescope. Accor- ding to Boscovich, the focal distance ofthe parallel rays for the concave lens is one-half, and for the convex glass one-third, of the combined focus. When put together they refract the rays in the following manner: Leta6, ab (fig. 18), be two red rays ofthe sun's light falling parallel on the first convex lens c. Supposing there was no other lens present but that one, they would then be converged into the lines be, be, and at last meet in the focus q. Let the lines gh, gh, represent two violet rays falling on the surface of the lens. These are also refracted, and will meet in a focus; but as they have a greater degree of re- frangibility than the red rays, they must of consequence converge more by the same power of refraction in the glass, and meet sooner in a focus, suppose at r. Let now the.concave lens of flint glass dd be placed in such a man- ner as to intercept all the rays before they come to their focus. If this lens was made of the same materials, and ground to the same radius with the convex one, it would have the same power to cause the rays to diverge that the former had to make them converge. In this case, the red rays would become parallel, and move on in the line oo, oo: but the concave lens, being made of flint glass, and upon a shorter radius, has a greater refractive power, and therefore they diverge a little after they come out of it; and if no third lens was interposed, they would pro- ceed diverging in the lines opt, opt; but, by the interpo- sition of the third lens ovo, they are again made to con- verge, and meet in a focus somewhat more distant than the former, as at x. By the concave lens the violet rays are also refracted, and made to diverge: but, having a greater degree of refrangibility, the same power of re- fraction makes them diverge somewhat more than the red ones; and thus, if no third lens was interposed, they would proceed in such lines as Imn, Imn. As the differ- ently-coloured rays then fall upon the third lens with different degrees of divergence, it is plain that the same power of refraction in that lens will operate upon them in such a manner as to bring them all together to a focus very nearly at the same point. The red rays, it is true, require the greatest power of refraction to bring them to a focus; but they fall upon the lens with the least degree of divergence. The violet rays, though they require the least power of refraction, yet have the greatest degree of divergence; and thus all meet together at the point x, or very nearly so. It was afterwards demonstrated by M. Zeiker ofPetersburgb,thatit is the lead used in the com- position ofthe crown glass, which gives it this remarka- ble property of dispersing the extreme rays; and he found that this property was increased in proportion to the quantity of minium, or red lead, which was employ- ed in tbe manufacture ofthe glass. The more we investigate'thc works of nature, the greater reason have we to admire the wisdom of its au- thor, and that wonderful adaptation of our organs, in the minuter particulars, to the general laws which pervade the universe. The subject before us affords a strikin- in- OPTICS. stance to corroborate this remark. We have hitherto sup- posed the eye to be a lens capable only of enlarging and contracting, and consequently, from the description now given of the rays of light, it must be incapable of obviat- ing the confusion which must arise from their different degrees of rerrangibility. But here the use of that won- derful structure of parts, and the different fluids in the eye, is clearly seen. The eye is, in fact, a compound lens. Each fluid has its proper degree of refrangible power. The shape of the lenses is altered at will, accor- ding to the distance ofthe object; and the three substances having the proper powers of refrangibility, the effects of an achromatic glass are without difficulty produced by the eye, whose mechanical structure and exact ar- rangement of substances it is in vain for the art of man to imitate. From what has been stated, the principal phenomena of colours may, without much difficulty, be explained. If all the different-coloured rays which the prrsm af- fords are reunited in the focus ofa convex lens, the pro- duct will be white; yet these same rays, which, taken to- gether, form white, give, after the point of their reu- nion, that is, beyond the point wiiere they cross each oth- er, the same colours as those which departed from the prism, put in a reversed order, by the crossing of the rays: the reason of which is clear; for the ray being white before it was divided by the prism, must necessa- rily become so by the reunion of its parts, which the dif- ference of refrangibility had separated, and this reunion cannot in any manner tend to alter or destroy the nature of the colours; it follows then that they must appear a^ain beyond the point of crossing. A similar effect will be produced, if the dispersed rays are received from the prism upon a concave reflector. In the focus of the re- flector they will unite and form a white or colourless im- age of the sun. But it is curious to remark, that if any imenf the colours is stopped in its pi-ogress to the re- flector by the interposition of a wire, or any other slen- der opaque body, then the image in the focus will be an imperfect white, or a mixed colour. Beyond the focus the rays separate again, as in the case of their passing through a convex lens, and form the coloured spectrum, only the order of the colours from the crossing of the rays is inverted. In the same manner, if we mix a certain proportion of red colour with orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, a colour will be produced which resembles that which is made by mixing a little black with white, and which would be entirely white^f some of the rays were not lost or absorbed by the grossnessof the colouring matter. A colour nearly approaching to wiiite, is also formed by colouring a piece of round pasteboard with the differ- ent prismatic colours, and causing it to be turned round so i'd'ddly, that no particular colour can be perceived. If to a'single ray of the sun, divided by the prism, which will then form an oblong coloured spectrum, a thick glass deeply coloured with one of the primitive colours is applied, for example red, the light which pas- ses through will appear red only, and will form a round ima°*e. The component rays of light may be separated by oth- er means than by the prism. It is a common amusement of children to blow round bubbles of soap, dissolved in water, from the bowl of a tobacco-pipe; and these bubbles will, in the sunshine, commonly exhibit most of the pris- matic colours. Indeed the same thing may be at anv time observed in the bubbles made by agitating soap and water. As these bubbles arc thin vesicles of the matter dissolved in the fluid, they are commonly supposed to va- ry in their thickness, and to act, in this way in separating the rays. If two pieces of glass, also of an unequal sur- face, are gently pressed together, round the point of con- tact circles of different colours will be formed. Sir Isaac Newton employed for this experiment the object-glasses of two telescopes of a long focus, which it is well known are much less convex than the common spectacle-glas- ses. One was a plano-convex for a telescope of 14 feet, and the other a double-convex for one of 50 feet. Upon pressing the glasses close together, at the point of contact circles of coloured light appeared, and they increased in number and size as tlie pressure was increased. The or- der of the colours next to the point in contact, which was black, was blue, yellow, white, yellow, and red. With- out this circle another appeared, consisting of violet, blue, green, yellow, and red. A third succeeded of purple, blue, green, yellow, and red; and a fourth of green and red. The outer circles were paler, and more obscure, than those within. The appearance of these circles is delineated in fig. 15. wiiere a, b, c, d, e; f, g, h, i, k; I, in, n, o, p; q, r; s, t; u, x; y, x; denote the colours in order from the centre, namely, black, blue, green, yellow, red; purple, blue, green, yellow, red; green, red; greenish blue, red; green- ish blue; redish white. Various theories have been offered to account for this seperation of the rays, but none of tin m a-e quite satis- factory. Perhaps if Mr. DelevaPs experiments on trans- mitted and reflected light were carefully pursued, they might afford some illustration of the phenomenon. If two tliick glasses, the one red and the other green, are placed one upon another, they will produce a perfect opacity, though each of them, taken separately, is trans- parent; because the one permits the red rays only to pass through it, and the other only green ones; therefore when these two glasses are united, neither of those kind of rays can reach the eye; because the first permits only red rays to pass, and green ones are the only rays which the se- cond can transmit. If the rays of the sun are made to fall very obliquely upon the interior surface of a prism, the violet-coloured rays will be reflected, and the red, kc. will be transmit- ted; if the obliquity of incidence is augmented the blue will be also reflected, and the other transmitted; the rea- son of whicli is, that the rays whicli have the most refran- gibility are also those which are the easiest reflected. In whatever manner wc examine the colour of a single prismatic ray, we shall always find, that neither refrac- tion, reflection, nor any other means, can make it forego its natural hue; but if we examine the artificial colouring of bodies by a microscope, it will appear a rude heap of colours, unequally mixed. If we mix a blue and yellow to make a common green, it will appear moderately beautiful to the naked eye; but when we regard ii with mi- croscopic attention, it seems a confused mass of yellow and blue parts, each particle reflecting but one separate colour, OPTICS. Of the rainbow, and other remarkable phenomena of light.—Since the rays of light are found to be decompoun- ded by refracting surfaces, we can no longer be surpris- ed at the changes produced in.any object by the interven- tion of another. The vivid colours which gild the rising or the setting sun, must necessarily differ from those which adorn its noon-day splendour. There must be the greatest variety which the liveliest fancy can imagine. The clouds will assume the most fantastic forms, or will lour with the darkest hues, according to the different rays wiiich arc reflected to our eyes, or the quantity absorbed by the vapours in the air. The ignorant multitude will necessarily be alarmed by the sights in the heavens; by the appearance at one time of three, at another of five, suns; of circles of various magnitudes round the sun or moon; and thence conceive that some fatal changes must take place in the physical or the moral world, some fall of empires or tremendous earthquake: while the optician contemplates thein merely as the natural and beautiful effects produced by clouds or vapour in various masses upon the rays of light. One of the most beautiful and common of these appear- ances deserves particular investigation, as, when this subject is well understood, there will be little difficulty in accounting for others of a similar nature, dependant on the different refrangibility ofthe rays of light. Frequent- ly, when our backs are turned to the sun, and there is a shower either around us, or at some distance before us, a bow is seen in the air, adorned with all or some of the seven primary colours. The appearance of this bow, in poetical language called the iris, and in common language the rainbow, was an inexplicable mystery to the ancients; and,though now well understood, continues to be the sub- ject of admiration to the peasant and the philosopher. We are indebted to sir Isaac Newton for the explana- tion of this appearance; and by various easy experiments we may convince any man that his theory is founded on truth. If a glass globe is suspended in the strong light of the sun, it will be found to reflect the different pris- matic colours exactly in proportion to the position in wiiich it is placed: in other words, agreable to the angle which it forms with the spectator's eye and the incidence oftlic rays of light. The fact is, that innumerable pen- cils of light fall upon the surface of the globe, and each of these is separated as by a prism. To make this mat- ter still clearer, let us suppose the circle BAW (Plate XCVIII. fig. 16) to represent the globe, or a drop of rain, for each drop may be considered as a small globe of water. The red rays, it is well known, are least re- frangible, they will therefore be refracted, agreable to their angle of incidence, to a certain point A in the most distant part of tbe globe; the yellow, the green, the blue, and the purple rays, will each be refracted to another point. A part of the light, as refracted, will be trans- mitted, but a part will also be reflected; the red rays at the point A, and the others at certain other points, agrea- blv to their angle of refraction. It is very evident that if the spectator's eye is placed in the direction of MW, or the course ofthe red-making rays, he will only distinguish the red colour; if in another situation, he will see only by the yellow rays; in another by the blue, Ace: but as in a shower of rain there are drops at all heights and all distances, all those that are in a certain position with respect to the spectator will reflect the red rajs, all those in the next station the orange, those inthe next the green, &c. To avoid confusion let us, for the present, imagine only three drops of rain, and three degrees of colours in the section of a bow (Plate XCVIII,'fig. 20). It is evident that the angle CEP is less than the'angle BEP, and that the angle AEP is tbe greatest ofthe three. Tbis largest angle then is formed by the red rays, the middle one con- sists of the green, and the smallest is the purple. All the drops of rain, therefore, that happen to be in a certain position to the eye of the spectator, will reflect the red rays, and form a band or semicircle of red; those again iu a certain position will present a band of green, &c. If he alters his station, the spectator will still see a bovv„ though not the same bow as before: and if there are many spectators they will each see a different bow, though it appears to be the same. There are sometimes seen two bows, one formed as has been described, the other appearing externally to embrace the primary bow, and which is sometimes called a secon- dary or false bow, because it is fainter than the other; and what is most remarkable is, that in the false bow the order of the colours appears always reversed. In the true primary bow we have seen that the rays of light arrive at the spectator's eye after two refractions and one reflection; in the secondary bow the rays are sent to our eyes after two refractions and two reflections, and the order of the colours is reversed, because in this lat- ter case the light enters at the inferior part of the drop, and is transmitted through the superior. Thus (fig. 19) the ray of light which enters at B is refracted to A, whence it is reflected to P, and again reflected to W, where, suffering another refraction, it is sent to the eye ofthe spectator. The colours of this outer bow are fainter than those of the other, because, the drop being transpa- rent, a part of the light is transmitted, and consequently lost, at each reflection. The phenomenon assumes a semicircular appearance, because it is only at certain angles thatthe refracted rays are visible to our eyes. The least refrangible, or red rays, make an angle of 42 degrees two minutes, and the most refrangible or violet rays an angle of 40 degrees ^mi- nutes. Now if a line is drawn horizontally from tho spectator's eye, itis evident that angles formed with this line, of a certain dimension in every direction, will pro- duce a circle; as will be evident by only attaching a cord of a given length to a certain point, round which it may turn as round its axis, and in every point will describe an angle with the horizontal line of a certain and deter- minate extent. Let HO, for instance. (Plate XCVIII. fig. 19), repre- sent the horizon, BW a drop of rain at any altitude, SB a line drawn from tbe sun to the drop, which will be pa- rallel to a line SM drawn from the eye of the spectator to the sun. The course of part of the decompounded ray SB may be first by refraction from B to A, then by reflection from A to W, lastly by refraction from W to M. Now all drops, which are in such a situation that the in- cident and emergent rays SB, MW, produced through them make the same angle SNM, will be the means of ex- citing in the spectators the same idea of colour. Let the MW turn upon 110 as an axis, till W meets the horizon OPTICS. on both sides, and the point W will describe the arc of a circle: and all the drops placed in its circumference will have the property we have mentioned, of transmitting to the eye a particular colour. When the plane 1IMWA is perpendicular to the horizon, the line MW is directed to the vertex of the bow, and WK is its alitude. This altitude depends on two things, the angle between the incident and emergent rays, and the hight of the sun above the horizon; for since SMis parallel to SN, the an- gle SNM is equal to NMI: but SMH, the altitude ofthe sun, is equal to KMI; therefore the altitude of the bow WMK, w7hich is equal to the difference between WMI and KMI, is equal to the difference between the angles made by the incident and emergent rays and the altitude of the sun. The angle between the incident and emergent rays is different for the different colours, as was already intima- ted; for the red, or least refrangible, rays, it is equal to 42Q 2'; for the violet, or most refrangible, it is equal to 40° 17'; consequently when the sun is more than 42° 2' above the horizon, the red colour cannot be seen; when it is above 40° 17' the violet colour cannot be seen. The secondary bow is made in a similar manner; but the sun's rays suffer, in this case, two reflections within the drop. The ray SB (Plate XCVIII fig. 19) is de- compounded at B; and one partis refracted to A, thence reflected to P, and from P reflected to W, where it is re- fracted to M. The angle between the incident and emerg- ent rays SNM is equal as before to NMI; and NMK, the height of the bow, is equal to the difference between the angle made by the incident and emergent rays and the height ofthe sun. In this case the angle SNM, for the red rays, is equal to 50° 7', and for the violet rays it is equal to 54° 7'; consequently the upper part of the se- condary bow will not be seen when the sun is above 54° 7' above the horizon, and the lower part of the bow will not be seen when the sun is 50° 7' above the horizon. In the same manner the innumerable bows might be formed by a greater number of reflections within the drops; but as the secondary is so much fainter than the primary, that all the colours in it are seldom seen, for the same reason a bow made with three reflections would be fainter still, and in general altogether imperceptible. Since the rays of light, by various reflections and refrac- tions, are thus capable of forming, by means of drops of rain, the bows which we so frequently see in the heavens, it is evident that there will be not only solar and lunar bows, but that many striking appearances will be produ- ced by drops upon the ground, or air on the agitated sur- face of the water. Thus a lunar bovvw'ill oe formed by rays from the moon affected by drops of rain; but as its light is very faint in comparision with that of the sun, such a bow will very seldom be seen, and the colours of it, when seen, will be faint and dim. The marine or sea bow is a phenomenon sometimes ob- served in a much agitated sea; when the wind, sweeping part of the tops ofthe waves, carries them aloft, so that the sun's rays, falling upon them, are refracted, kc as in a common shower, and paint the colours of the bow. Rohault mentions coloured bows on the grass, formed by the refraction of the sun's rays in the morning dew. Dr. Langvvith, indeed, once saw a bow lying on the ground, the colours of which were almost as lively as those of the common rainbow. It was extended several hundred yards. It was not round, but oblong, being, as he co nceived, the portion of an hyperbola. The colours took up less space, and were much more lively, in those parts ofthe bow which were near him than in those which were at a distance. The drops of rain descend in a globular form, and thence wc can easily account for the effects produced by them on the rays of light; but in different states of the air, in- stead of drops of rain, vapour falls to the earth iu dif- ferent forms of sleet, snow, and hail. In the two latter states there cannot be a refraction of the rays of light; but in the former state, when a drop is partly in a con- gealed and partly in a fluid form, the rays of light will be differently affected, both from the form of the drop and its various refracting pow-ers. Hence we may expect a variety of curious appearances in the heavens; and to these drops, in different states, we may attribute the for- mation of halos, parhelia, and many other phenomena, detailed in thePhilosophicalTransactions, or in the his- tories of every country. The. halo, or corona, is a luminous circle surrounding the sun, the moon, a planet, or a fixed star. It is some- times quite white, and sometimes coloured like the rain- bow. Those, which have been observed round the moon or stars are but of a very small diameter ; those round the sun are of different magnitudes, and sometimes im- mensely great. When coloured, the colours are fainter than those of the rainbow, and appear in a different or- der, according to their size. In those which sir Isaac Newton observed in 1692, the order of the colours, from the inside next the sun, was in the innermost blue, white, red; inthe middle purple, blue, green, yellow, pale red; in the outermost pale blue, and pale red. Huygens ob- served one red next the sun, and pale blue at the extre- mity. Mr. Weidlcr has given an account of one yellow on the inside, and white on the outside. In France one was observed, in which the order of the colours was white, red, blue, green, and a bright red on the out- side. Artificial coronas may be made in cold weather, by placing a lighted candle in the midst of a cloud of steam; or if a glass window is breathed upon, and the flame ofa candle placed at some distance from the window, while the operator is also at the distance of some feet from ano- ther part of the window, the flame will be surrounded with a coloured halo. When M. Bouguer was at the top of mount Pichinea, in the Cordilleras, he and some gentlemen who accom- panied him, observed a most remarkable phenomenon. When the sun wras just rising behind them, and a white cloud was about thirty paces from thein, each of them observed his own shadow (and no other) projected upon it. All the parts of the shadow were distinct; and the head was adorned with a kind of glory, consisting of three or four concentric crowns, of a very lively co- lour, each exhibiting all the varieties of the primary rainbow, and having the circle red on the outside. Similar to this appearance was one which occurred to Dr. M'Fait, in Scotland. This gentleman observed a rainbow round his shadow in a mist, when he was situ- ated on an eminence above it. In this situation the whole country appeared to be immersed in a vast deluge, OPTICS. and nothing but the tops of hills appeared here and there above the flood; at Another time he observed a double range of colours round his shadow. Tlie parhelia, or mock suns are the most splendid ap- pearances of this kind. We find these appearances fre- quently adverted to by the ancients, who generally con- sidered thein as formidable omens. Four mock suns were seen at once by Scheiner at Rome, and by Muschen- brock at Utrecht; and seven were observed by Hevclius at Sedan, in 1661. The parhelia generally appear about the size of the true sun, not quite so bright, though they are said some- times to rival their parent luminary in splendour. When there are a number of them they are not equal to each other in brightness. Externally they are tinged with colours like the rainbow. They are not always round, and have sometimes a long fiery tail opposite the sun, but paler towards the extremity. Dr. Haller observed one with tails extending both ways. Mr. Weidler saw a parhelion with one tail pointing up and another down- ward, a little crooked; the limb which was farthest from the sun being of a purple colour, the other tinged with the colours of the rainbow. Coronas generally accompany parhelia: some colour- ed, and others white. There/is also, in general, a very large white circle, parallel to*the horizon, which passes through all the parhelia; and, if it was entire, would go through the centre of the sun: sometimes there are arches of smaller circles concentric to this, and touching the coloured circles which surround the sun; they arc also tinged with colours, and contain other par- helia. One ofthe most remarkable appearances of this kind was that which was observed at Rome by Scheiner, as intimated above; and this may serve as a sufficient in- stance of the parhelion. This celebrated phenomenon is represented in Plate XCVIII. fig. 17, in which A is the place of the obser- ver, B his zenith, C the true sun, and AB a plane pass- ing through the observer's eye, the true sun, and the ze- nith. About the sun C there appeared two concentric rings, not complete, but diversified with colours. The lesser of them, DEF, was fuller, and more perfect; and though it was open from D to F, yet those ends were perpetually endeavouring to unite, and sometimes they did so. The outer of these rings was much fainter, so as scarcely to be discernible. It had, however, a variety of colours, but was very inconstant. The third circle, K.LMX, was very large, and entirely white, passing through the middle of the sun, and every w here parallel to the horizon. At first this circle was entire; but to- wards the end of the phenomenon it was weak and ragged, so as hardly to be perceived from M towards N. In the intersection of this circle and the outward iris GKl, there broke out two parhelia, or mock suns, N and K, not quite perfect, K being rather weak, but N shone brighter and stronger. The brightness of the middle ol them was something like that ot the sun; but towards the edges they were tinged with colours like those of the rainbow, and they were uneven and ragged. The parhelion N was a little wavering; and sent out a spiked tail NP, ofa colour somewhat fiery, the length of which was continually changing. The parhelia at L and M, in the horizontal ring, were not so bright as the former, but were rounder, and white, like the circle in which they were placed. The parhelion N disappeared before K; and while M grew fainter, K grew brighter, and vanished the last of all. It is to be observed farther, that the order of the co- lours in the circles DEF, GKN, was the same as in the common halos, namely, red next the sun; and the dia- meter ofthe inner circle was also about 45°, which is the usual size of a halo. Parhelia have been seen for one, two, three, and four hours together; and in North America they are said to continue some Says, and to be visible from sun-rise to sun-set. When they disappear it sometimes rains, or snow falls in the form of oblong spiculse. Mr. Wales, says that at Churchill, in Hudson's-bay, the rising of the sun is always preceded by two long streams of red light. These rise as the sun rises; and, as they grow longer, begin to bend towards each other, till they meet directly over the sun, forming there a kind of parhelion, or mock sun. These two streams of light, he says, seem to have their source in two other parhelia, which rise with the true sun; and in the winter season, when the sun never rises above the haze or fog which he says is constantly found near the horizon, all these accompany him the whole day, and set with him in the same manner as they rise. Once or twice he saw a fourth parhelion under the true sun; but this, he adds, is not common. The cause of these is apparently the reflection of the sun's light and image from the thick and frozen clonds iu the northern atmosphere, accompanied also with some degree of refraction. To enter upon a mathematical an- alysis of these phenomena would be only tedious, and very foreign to our purpose. From what has been said upon this subject it is evident, that all the phenomena of colours depend upon two properties of light, the re- frangibility and reflexibility of its rays. Of the inflection of light.—The direction of the rays of light is changed, as we have seen, in their approach to certain bodies, by reflection and refraction; and conse- quently we must admit that there is some power in these bodies by which such effects are universally produced. If reflection was produced simply by the impinging of particles of light on hard or elastic bodies, or if they were in themselves clastic, the same effects would follow- as in the impulse of other clastic bodies; but the angle of incidence could not be equal to the angle of reflection. unless the particles of light were perfectly elastic, or the bodies on which they impinged were perfectly elastic. Now we know that the bodies on which these particles impinge are not perfectly elastic; and also that if the particles of light were perfectly elastic, the diffusion of light from the reflecting bodies would be very different from its present appearance: for as no body can be per- fectly polished, the particles of light, which are so incon- ceivably small, would be reflected back by the inequali- ties on the surface in every direction; consequently we arc led to this conclusion, that the reflecting bodies hav»: OPT 0 R C a power which acts at some little distance from their sur- faces. If this reasoning is allowed to be just, it necessarily follows, that if a ray of light, instead of impinging on a body, should pass so near to it as to be within the sphere of that power which the body possesses, it must necessa- rily suffer a change in its direction. Actual experiments confirm the truth of this position; and to the change in the direction ofa particle of light, owing to its nearness to a body, we give the name of inflection. From one of these experiments, made by sir Isaac Newton, the whole of this subject will be easily under- stood. At the distance of two or three feet from the window of a darkened room, in which was a hole three- fourths of an inch broad, to admit the light, he placed a black sheet of pasteboard, having in theSniddle a hole about a quarter of an inch squarejin^roeliiiid the hole the blade of a sharp knife, to intercept a small part of the light which would otherwise have passed through the hole. The planes of the pasteboard and blade were par- allel to each other; and when the pasteboard was re- moved at such a distance from the window, as that all the light coining into the room must pass through the hole in the pasteboard, he received what came through this hole on a piece of paper two or three feet beyond the knife, and perceived two streams of faint light shooting out both ways from the beam of light into the shadow. As the brightness of the direct rays obscured the fainter light, by making a hole in his paper he let them pass through, and had thus an opportunity of attending close- ly to the two streams, which were nearly equal in length, breadth, and quantity of light. That part which was nearest to the sun's direct light was pretty strong for the space of about a quarter of an inch, decreasing gra- dually till it became imperceptible; and at tbe edge of the knife it subtended an angle of about twelve, or at most, fourteen degrees. Another knife was then placed opposite to the former, and he observed, that when the distance of their edges was about the four-hundredth part of an inch, the stream divided in the middle, and left a shadow between the two parts, which was so dark, that all light passing be- tween the knives seemed to be bent aside to one knife or The other; as the knives were brought nearer to each other, this shadow grew broader, till upon the contact of the knives the whole light disappeared. Pursuing his observations upon this appearance, he perceived fringes, as they may be termed, of different- coloured light, three made on one side by the edge of one knife, and' three on the other side by the edge of the other; and thence concluded, that as in refraction the ravs of light are differently acted upon, so are they at a distance from bodies by inflection; and by many other experiments of the same kind he supported his posi- tion, which is confirmed by all subsequent experi- ments. We may naturally conclude, that from this property of inflection some curious changes will be produced in the appearances of external objects. If we take a piece of wire of a less diameter than the pupil of the eye, and place it between the eye and a distant object, the latter will appear magnified (Plate XCVIII. fig. 21). Let A be a church-steeple, B tbe eye, C the wire. The rays by which the steeple would have been otherwise seen are intercepted by the wire; and it is now seen by inflected rays, which make a greater angle than the direct rays, and consequently the steeple will be magnified. In nearly shutting the eyes, and looking at a candle, there appear rays of light extending from it in various directions, like comets' tails; for the light, in passing through the eye-lashes, is inflected; and consequently many separate beams will be formed, diverging from the luminous object. The power of bodies to inflect the rays of light passing near to thein will produce different effects, according to the nature of the rays acted upon; consequently a separation will take place in the differ- ently refrangible rays, and those fringes which were taken notice of by Sir Isaac Newton will appear in other objects which are seen by the means of inflected rays. From considering thus the action of bodies upon light, wc come to this general conclusion, for which we are in- debted to our great philosopher: that light, as well as all other matter, is acted upon at a distance; and that reflection, refraction, and inflection, arc owing to certain general laws in the particles of matter, wiiich are equally necessary for the preservation of the beautiful harmony in the object nearest to us, and to produce by their joint action that great law by which the greater bodies in their system are retained in their respective orbits. OPTION. Every bishop, whether created or trans- lated, is bound immediately after confirmation, to make a legal conveyance to the archbishop of the next avoid- ance of such dignity or benefice belonging to the see, as the said archbishop shall choose, which is therefore call- ed an option. OR, in heraldry, denotes yellow, or gold-colour. See Heraldry. ORANGE. See Citrus. ORBICULARIS. See Anatomy. ORBIT. See Astronomy. ORCHARD, a plantation of fruit-trees. In planting an orchard great care should be taken that the soil is suitable to the trees planted in it; and that they are pro- cured from a soil nearly of the same kind, or rather poorer than that laid out for an orchard. As to the sit- uation, an easy rising ground, open to the south-east, is to be preferred. Mr. Miller recommends planting tbe trees four-score feet asunder, but not in regular rows; and would have the ground between the trees plowed, and sown with wheat and other crops, iu the same man- ner as if it was clear from trees; by which means the trees will be more vigorous and healthy, will abide much longer, and produce better fruit. If tbe ground has been pasture, the green sward should be plowed in the spring before the trees are planted; and if it is suffered to lie a summer fallow, it will greatly mend it, provided it is stirred two or three times to rot the grass, and prevent the growing of weeds. At Michaelmas it should be plowed pretty deep, in order to make it loose for the roots of the trees, which if the soil is dry, should be planted in October; but if it is moist, the beginning of March will be a better season. If several sorts of fruit- trees are to be planted on the same spot, you should ob- serve to plant the largest-growing trees backwards, and so proceed to those of less growth, continuing the same 0 R C 0 R D method quite through the whole plantation; by which means the sun and air will more easily pass through the whole orchard. When you have, planted the trees, you should support them with stakes, to prevent their being blown out of the ground by the wind; and the follow ing spring, if the season should prove dry, cut a quantity of green turf, and lay it about the roots, with the grass downwards; by which means a great expense of wa- tering will be saved, and after the first year they will be out of danger. Whenever you plow the ground betwixt these trees, you must be careful not to go too deep amongst their roots, which would greatly damage the trees; but if you do it cautiously, your stirring the face of the ground will be of great service to them: though you should observe, never to sow too near the tree, nor to suffer any great rooting weeds to grow about them; be- cause this would starve them, by exhausting the goodness of the soil, which every two or three years should be mended with dung or other manure. These trees, after they are planted out, will require no other pruning be- sides cutting off their bad branches, or such as cross each other. - ORCHIS, fool-stones, a genus of the gynandria dian- dria cla.ss of plants, the corolla of which is of a cornicu- lated form; and its fruit is an oblong unilocular capsule, containing numerous scobiform seeds. The essential character is, nect. a horn or spur be- hind the flower. There are 50 species of this genus, whicli exceedingly resembles the ophrys. The most re- markable species are the following: 1. The mascula, or male fool-stones, has a root com- posed of two bulbs, crowned with oblong, broad, spotted leaves; upright stalks, a foot high, with one or two nar- row amplexicaulc leaves, and terminated by a long spike of reddish-purple flowers having the petals reflexed backward; a quadrilobed crenated lip to the nectarium, and an obtuse horn. The flower of this species possesses a very agreeable odour. 2. The morio, or female orchis, has a few amplexicaule leaves; and terminated by a short loose spike of flowers, having convenient petals, a quadrifid crenated lip to the nectarium, and an obtuse horn. 3. The militaris, or man-orchis, has erect flower- stalks, eight or ten inches high, terminated by a loose spike of ash-coloured and reddish flowers, having conflu- ent petals; a quinquefid, rough, spotted lip to the necta- rium, and an obtuse horn. The structure of the flowers exhibits the figure of a naked man; and is often of differ- ent colours in*the same flower, as ash-colour, red, brown, and dark-striped. All the orchises arc very hardy perennials, with bul- bous fleshy roots. The flowers appear in May, June, and July, but principally in June: their mode of flowering is universally in spikes, many flowers in each spike; and each flower is composed of five petals in two series, and a nectarium. The season for removing them is in sum- mer, after they have done flowering, when their leaves and stalks decay: plant them three inches deep, and let them remain undisturbed several years; for the less they arc removed the stronger they will grovv. This plant flourishes m various parts of Europe and Asia and crows in our country spontaneously, and in ^ai abuScc. It is assiduously cultivated in the East; and the root of it forms a considerable part of the diet ofthe inhabitants of Turkey, Persia, and Syria. From it is made the alimentary powder called salep; which, prepared from foreign roots, is sold at five or six shil- lings per pound, though it might be furnished by our- selves at a sixth part of that price, if we chose to pay- any attention to the culture of this plant. The ore hi*- mascula is the most valued for this purpose. A dry, and not very fertile soil, is best adapted to its growth." The properesttimc for gathering the roots is when the seed is formed, and the stalk is ready to fall; because the new bulb, of wiiich the salep is made, is then arrived to its full maturity, and may be distinguished from the old one, by a white bud rising from the top of it, which is the germ ofthe orchis ofthe succeeding year. ORDEAL, a form of trial, or of discovering inno- cence or guilt, formerly practised over almost all En rope, and which prevailed in England from the time of Edward the Confessor, till it was abolished by a decla ration of Henry III. It was called purgatio vulgaris, or judicium, in opposition to bellum, or combat, the other form of purgation. In England an offender, on being arnijmed, and pleading Not guilty, had it in his choice to put himself upon God and his country; that is, upon the verdict ofa jury; or upon God alone, on which account it was called the judgment of God, it being presumed that God would deliver the innocent. The more popular kinds of ordeal were those of red-hot iron and water: the first for free- men and people of fashion, and the last for peasants. Fire ordeal was performed either by taking up in the hand a piece of red-hot iron, of one, two, or three pounds weight; or else by walking barefoot and blindfold over nine red-hot ploughshares, laid at unequal distances; and if the party escaped unhurt, he w-as adjudged innocent, if not he was condemned as guilty. Water ordeal was per- formed either by plunging the bare arm up to the elbow in boiling water, and escaping unhurt thereby: or by casting the person suspected into a river or pond of wa- ter; and if he floated therein, without any action of swim- ming, it was deemed an evidence of guilt; but if he sunk he was acquitted. 4 Black. 340. ORDER. See Architecture. ORDERS, or Ordination. No person shall be ad- mitted to the holy order of deacon under 23 years of age; nor to the order of priest unless he is 24 complete; and none shall be ordained without a title, that is, a no- mination to some cure or benefice, and be shall have a testimonial of his good behaviour, for three years past, from three clergymen; and the bishop shall examine him, and if he sees cause may refuse him. And before he is ordained he shall take the oath of allegiance and supre- macy before the ordinary, and subscribe the thirty nice articles. ORDINARY, in common and canon law, is one who has ordinary or immediate jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes in such a place. In which sense archdeacons are ordinaries, though the appellation is more frequently given to the bishop of the diocese, who has the ordinary ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The arch bishop is the ordina- ry of the whole province, to visit and receive appeals from inferior judicatures. ORDINATES, or Ordinate ati'licates, in gee. O R D 0 R D metry, are parallel lines, MM, mm (PI. CXII. Miscel. fig. 178), terminating in a curve, and bisected by a dia- meter, as AD. The. half of these, as MP, mp, is pro- perly the semiordinate, though commonly called ordi- nate. ORDNANCE, a general name for all sorts of great guns used in war. See Gunnery. Ordnance, boring of. Guns are thus boared: the piece A (Plate XCV. Observatory, fig. 7.) is placed up- on two standards BB, by means of two journeys, turned round by a water-wheel; the breech D being introduced into the central line of the wheel, with the muzzle to- wards the sliding carriage E, which is pressed forwards by a ratch F and weights. Upon this sliding carriage is fixed truly horizontal and central to the gun, the drill- bar G, to the end of whicli is fixed a carp's tongue drill or cutter H; which, being pressed forward upon the piece whilst it is turning round, perforates the bore, which is afterwards finished with bars and cutters. The machinery for boring of ordnance is sometimes put in motion by a steam-engine: and in this way, from 18 to 24 great guns have been boring at the same time; the borer in each piece being brought up to its proper place in the gun, by a lever and weights. In this method of bringing up the borer the pressure may always be made equable, and the motion of the borer regular; but the disadvantage is, that without due attention the borer may work up too far towards the breech, and the piece he spoiled. In the royal arsenal at Woolwich, only one piece is bored at a time in the same mill: the gun to be bored lies with its axis parallel to the horizon, and in that position is turned round its axis by means of wheel-work, moved by one or more horses. The borer is laid, as above described, in the direction of the axis of the gun, and is incapable of motion in any direction ex- cept that of its length; anil in this direction it is con- stantly moved by means of a small rack-wheel, kept in proper motion by two men, who thus make the point of the borer so to bear against the part of the gun that is boring, as to pierce and cut it. The outside of the gun is smoothed at the same time by men with instruments fit for the purpose, whilst it turns round, so that the bore may be exactly in the centre of the metal. See Grego- ry's Mechanics. Ordnance, office of, an office kept within the Tower of London, which superintends and disposes of all the arms, instruments, and utensils of \\^ir, both by sea and land, in all the magazines, garrisons, and forts; in Great Britain. END OF VOL. II. Flatelu '■J**: 9 ^vrm.vL uisToin: PL.LVII •U J^C&ttjral. Ustohy. pl/lv FOlWDTlY.&c PL LIX £*jrw*U hr H. Hatitral history. Pl.lx. *'■! :- >oo '$£%. ^n/',. . Ift*>r Ash \ \ V'AUYAJISM, I'L.LM ng. 3. ry.5. Fig.ff. Fig. 7. ^ Hg.8. Fig. 13. r^.4. F*-A nolo. ng.ii. 899 0516 CtKO^TRTKY I'LATH L.YJJ. iVLY^rFArTrKJij of 61.^3 Plate. Lxni a \gb 72 B+B FI zt .r i. o n s. PL.I.JCIV. Partition Liner:. II ERAlvDl* Y Ct> t «> 111 I'l. .I..U Ua/uette. Vote Tbil KoiiikU'Is A.V. D J Ha>ml f/.il. Tbrttiiujr. Hurt. 4" Yilht. 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